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diff --git a/57304-0.txt b/57304-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8fcff0a --- /dev/null +++ b/57304-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8959 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57304 *** + + + + + + + + + + + + + The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 + + Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and + their peoples, their history and records of the catholic missions, + as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the + political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those + islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the + close of the nineteenth century, + + Volume LI, 1801-1840 + + + + Edited and annotated by Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson + with historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord + Bourne. + + + + The Arthur H. Clark Company + Cleveland, Ohio + MCMVII + + + + + + + + +CONTENTS OF VOLUME LI + + + Preface 11 + + Documents of 1801-1840 + + Events in Filipinas, 1801-1840. [Compiled from Montero + y Vidal's Historia de Filipinas.] 23 + Remarks on the Philippine Islands, 1819-22. + "An Englishman;" Calcutta, 1828 73 + Reforms needed in Filipinas. Manuel Bernaldez Pizarro; + Madrid, April 26, 1827 182 + + Bibliographical Data 275 + + Appendix + + Representation of Filipinas in Cortes. [Compiled from + various sources.] 279 + List of the archbishops of Manila, 1581-1898. [Compiled + from various sources.] 298 + + + + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Chart of China Sea and the Philippines, 1794, in The + complete East India pilot, printed for Laurie & Whittle + (London, 1800), ii, map 114; photographic facsimile from + copy in Library of Congress. Frontispiece + Plan of a portion of Manila, showing new works constructed + December 15, 1770-June 15, 1771, drawn by the engineer + Dionisio Kelly, 1771; photographic facsimile from MS. map + (in colors), in Archivo general de Indias, Sevilla 29 + Chart of the port of San Luis, in the Marianas Islands, + 1738; photographic facsimile from original manuscript by + Adjutant Domingo Garrido de Malavar, in Archivo general de + Indias, Sevilla 67 + Plan of the environs, and a portion of the coast and bay + adjacent to the city of Manila, 1779 (?); photographic + facsimile from original MS. map (in colors), in Archivo + general de Indias, Sevilla 161 + Plan showing outer works of Manila, drawn by the engineer + Tomás Sanz; photographic facsimile from original MS. map + (in colors), in Archivo general de Indias, Sevilla 193 + + + + + + + + +PREFACE + + +In the present volume, a brief outline of events in Filipinas during +the period 1801-40 serves as a background and setting for the following +surveys of political, social, and economic conditions in the islands +during that period. Of these, one is made by an English naval officer +who had visited the islands, another by a Spanish official of long +experience, and a third (presented in synopsis) by a merchant familiar +with the commerce of the Orient and the Americas. These different +accounts (written at nearly the same time) furnish most valuable +knowledge of the Philippines and their people, and their needs and +possibilities; and at the same time they reflect the more enlightened +and liberal ideas of policy and administration which had gained a +foothold in Spain, and which the recent loss of her other colonies +had made her more willing to put in practice in Filipinas. + +The leading events in Philippine history during the first four decades +of the nineteenth century are briefly epitomized from Montero y Vidal's +Historia de Filipinas. Governor Aguilar opposes the appointment of +native secular priests to the curacies, regarding them as unfit for +these posts. During his term, he introduces public street-lighting, +paved sidewalks, and vaccination in Manila, and various other +beneficial measures; he attempts, but with little success, to check +the piracies of the Moros, and is compelled to desist therefrom by +news of the war between England and Spain, and the consequent danger +to Manila. At his death (August 8, 1806) an officer named Folgueras +becomes governor ad interim; he strengthens the fortifications of +Manila, and quells a revolt in Ilocos. He is succeeded (March 4, +1810) by the new proprietary governor, González Aguilar, who promotes +cattle-raising in the provinces, quells another insurrection in Ilocos, +publishes the first newspaper in Filipinas, and proclaims the Spanish +constitution of 1812. In 1813 arrives his successor, José de Gardoqui, +whose rule is by no means easy; for he is opposed by corrupt royal +officials, and has to encounter revolts among the Indians caused by +the publication of the new Spanish constitution--disturbances which +are aggravated by the despotic acts of Fernando VII on regaining his +crown (1814). Gardoqui prohibits the introduction and use of opium +in the islands, strengthens the fortifications of Cavite, puts down +banditti and smugglers, and in many other ways benefits the colony; +he dies in December, 1816, and is succeeded by Folgueras. The latter +revives the Economic Society, and founds a nautical academy. In 1820 +occurs the first epidemic of cholera morbus, which is unfortunately +accompanied by a massacre of the foreigners in Manila, executed by +the credulous Indians who have been persuaded by malicious persons +that the pest was caused by the foreigners having poisoned the +waters. Martínez, who becomes governor on October 30, 1822, brings +over a number of Spanish officers for the Filipinas regiments; this +creates jealousy among the officers who had come from America, which +results in a mutiny among them and part of the troops in Manila (June, +1823); this is put down, and the leaders are shot. An expedition is +sent against the Moros (1824), which lays waste their shores. + +On October 14, 1825, Martínez is replaced by Mariano Ricafort as +governor; the latter is also made chief of the treasury. The parish +curacies are, by a royal decree in 1826, restored to the regular +orders. In 1827 the naval bureau is reëstablished at Manila, under +Pascual Enrile, who succeeds Ricafort as governor in 1830. (Both these +men were among the most illustrious rulers of Filipinas, on account of +their ability, uprightness, and zeal for the public welfare.) In 1828 +the insurgent mountaineers of Bohol are finally subdued, and reduced +to villages. Various royal decrees are obtained for the promotion +of agriculture, manufactures, and other industries; and for obliging +the Chinese to live in villages, like the Indians. Several important +reforms in the administration and the social conditions of the colony +are instituted by these two governors, and Enrile is especially active +in building highways and providing other means of communication to +bring the inland and the maritime provinces into communication with +each other. + +In 1836, Governor Salazar has to enforce the laws forbidding the +sale of firearms and powder to the enemies of Spain; he also makes +a treaty of commerce with the Joloans, which does not, however, +restrain them from piracy. In 1837, he urgently requests the +Spanish government to send more Spanish friars to the islands as +parish priests. The political disturbances in Spain at this time are +reflected in Filipinas, and a strong Carlist faction oppose Governor +Camba (who assumes that office in August, 1837), and finally procure +his recall to Spain, little more than a year afterward. Under his +successor, Lardizábal, the status of the Chinese in the islands is +determined, provision is made for the official censorship of books +brought to Filipinas, a school of commerce is established at Manila +and various important changes are made in financial and municipal +administration. In February, 1841, Lardizábal is succeeded by Marcelino +de Oráa. + +In 1828 was published at Calcutta an interesting book entitled, Remarks +on the Phillippine Islands, 1819 to 1822, "by an Englishman"--as +he states therein, a naval officer; this is here presented, with +additional annotations from various sources. It throws much light +on conditions in Manila at that time, and is of especial value as +coming from an enlightened foreigner, rather than a Spaniard. He +praises the natural resources and advantages of the islands, and makes +various comments on their climate (which "is remarkably temperate and +salubrious"), diseases, and population; he then classifies this last, +describing in succession the various races, white, colored, and mixed, +who inhabit the islands. He defends the natives from accusations which +have been made against them, and considers their defects as the natural +result of the oppression and injustice which they have suffered, +and the general insecurity of property in the islands. Robbery and +piracy prevail there, outside of the new Spanish towns; and even in +Manila there are numerous acts of pillage committed by the lawless +soldiery. Justice is neglected or corrupted; and the Church exacts +so many holidays, pilgrimages, etc., that the natives are obliged +to neglect their fields, and tend to become idle and dissipated; +they also are burdened by many church taxes and impositions. Our +writer proceeds to describe the government of the islands, general, +municipal, and provincial, and the abuses prevalent in the last-named; +then the ecclesiastical administration, the character of the clergy, +and their influence over the natives. The sources of the colonial +revenue are enumerated, with the chief branches of expense, the +main part of this being for the military and naval forces, both of +which are mismanaged, ill-disciplined, poorly paid, and of course +very inefficient. Agriculture is "yet in its infancy," as a result +partly of the oppression of the natives, partly of the expulsion of +the Jesuits--who did more than any others to civilize the Indians--and +partly of the restrictions on commerce, which now are less oppressive; +yet the country is almost incredibly fertile. The implements used +in tillage are described, with the methods of cultivating the +chief products, and that of refining the sugar produced there; +and the reasons are given why Europeans have been unable to engage +in agriculture with success. The mineral products of the islands +are enumerated. Commerce is, like agriculture, still undeveloped; +our author attributes this to the Acapulco trade, to the prohibitory +system pursued by Spain and to the monopoly allowed to the Philippine +Company, and criticises Spain's policy toward her colonies. He then +describes the condition of Philippine commerce, with statistics of +1818; and the difficulties under which it labors--especially the +insecurity of property and contracts, the fraudulent dealings of the +Chinese merchants; and the neglect of government to prevent smuggling +or to make suitable provision for reëxportation of goods--which have +prevented Manila from being one of the great centers of Oriental trade. + +The second part of these "Remarks" is devoted to Manila; a description +of the city, its fortifications (which our writer considers very +inefficient on the side next to Pasig River), streets, public +buildings, mode of constructing houses, and the public cemetery; and +social conditions there, which are unfavorable to morality and the +development of character. The author criticises the colonial policy +of Spain, and regards her tenure of rule over Filipinas as precarious, +especially as discontent and ideas of political freedom are spreading +among the Indians. + +Of unusual interest and value is a memorial written (April 26, 1827) by +Manuel Bernaldez Pizarro, on the "causes which antagonize the security +and progress of the Filipinas Islands," and which bring about their +backward condition, with the measures which he judges desirable for +their correction. As a high official in Filipinas during seventeen +years, his opinions are of much importance, especially as he was +evidently a clear-sighted and upright statesman, a keen observer, +and a logical thinker--albeit he was, like the majority of government +officials, still much under the sway of autocratic and regalistic +notions--and was fertile in ideas and projects for improving the +condition of Filipinas. The memorial is methodically arranged in +sections relating to military affairs, Moro piracies, land-titles, +Spanish vs. native clerics, the residence of foreigners in the islands, +character of government officials, administration of justice, taxes +and revenue, commerce, agriculture, manufactures, etc. + +On each of these subjects he presents a concise statement of present +conditions and tendencies, followed by his recommendations for change, +reform, or suppression. In the army, the principal difficulty lies in +the corps of officers, partly Peninsular and partly native or American, +with Indian subalterns; these classes have almost nothing in common, +and the latter are dangerously near to the Indians, or are spoiled by +the tendencies of the country. Provision should be made, therefore, for +sending officers from Spain to fill all posts of command. Instead of +enlarging the military force, a central location (afterward indicated +as Cavite) should be selected, and rendered impregnable to assault, +in which the government and the Spanish population of Manila might +be safe in any revolution or other dangerous emergency; Manila is +not sufficiently fortified for such a purpose. The piracies of the +Moros are ruining the islands; the only way to check them is to +conquer Joló and Mindanao with a powerful expedition, and colonize +them from the Visayas. The Indian villages are often much too large +to be properly directed in either spiritual or civil matters, and +should be made smaller, with stricter police patrol. Measures should +be taken to authenticate and confirm the titles to landed property, +which at present are confused and unreliable. Much harm is caused by +the ignorance, unfitness, and immorality of the Indian and mestizo +clerics; they not only neglect their priestly duties, but have +dangerous tendencies to revolution; as soon as this is practicable, +all such should be replaced by European friars. Bernaldez descants +upon their virtues and their ability to rule the Indians well, and +advises the government "to maintain as many religious as possible +in the islands, and give them as much political authority as is +consistent with their ministry." Foreigners are undesirable as +residents in Filipinas, especially exiles, idlers, and stowaways; +and even Spaniards from the Peninsula should be compelled to return +thither after a certain period. Strict residencias should be required +from the alcaldes-mayor, as many of them are unfit to hold that +office, and commit crimes which render them dangerous to the peace +of the provinces. Greater care should be exercised in the selection +of all government officials, in order to correct the laxity which +everywhere characterizes the administration of the islands. There +is pressing necessity for better means of communication with the +mother-country, which can best be promoted by encouraging her commerce +with Filipinas. The governors and intendants should be obliged to +furnish the reports and information about the country which the laws +require; and there should be more coöperation between the governor +and the Audiencia. Private persons of means should be encouraged and +aided to undertake the enterprises which the country needs. Various +specified abuses in the administration of justice should be corrected; +and the trading alcaldes-mayor should be replaced by corregidors, who +should be able and experienced lawyers. The tributes ought to be paid +in money, and not in kind; and this involves the need of a colonial +money for Filipinas. The revenue taxes, especially those on tobacco and +wine, should receive more attention, and these two should be extended +to all the provinces; and the manufacture and sale of brandy in the +islands should be restricted. The Chinese in the islands should be +carefully classified, more strictly supervised by the government, +and more heavily taxed. The rebate of duties granted on all foreign +imports at Manila is ruining the Filipinas manufacturers, whose +"infant industries" should be protected; and Bernaldez proposes a new +schedule, carefully classified. The inter-island trade is exclusively +in the hands of the alcaldes-mayor and the rich Chinese and mestizos, +who should therefore pay a moderate tax on that lucrative commerce. A +colonial currency is urgently needed. An account of the management +of the obras pías should be demanded by the government, and those +funds should be employed in promoting agriculture and industry in the +islands. The shipbuilding and mining carried on by the government ought +to be furnished by private persons under contract. Agriculture is the +most important industry of Filipinas, and a feeder to its commerce; +its backward condition should be remedied. He recommends direct +and unlimited commerce between Spain and the islands, government +encouragement to large agricultural enterprises, instruction of the +Indians in better methods of agriculture and the preparation of its +products, and rewards for industry and application on their part. The +production of opium for the Chinese market ought to be allowed in +Filipinas, and heavy duties collected on its exportation. Enormous sums +of money are yearly carried to India and China for fine cotton goods, +which could as well be manufactured by the Filipinos if they knew how +to dye these properly and had machinery for spinning the cotton thread; +the government should take active and prompt measures to secure this +desirable end. Closer relations should be established with Spain, +whose government and merchants are urged to work together in behalf +of this. Bernaldez concludes by showing "the necessity of forming a +special code of laws for Filipinas," and of "a periodical visitation +of that colony by officials from the Peninsula." As appendix to +his memorial, we present a summary of a similar document, written +at nearly the same time by a merchant of long and varied commercial +experience in the Orient and the Americas. Less official and formal, +but more shrewd, alert, and liberal, this writer presents his views, +with much clearness and force, on the decadence of the islands and +the means of making them more prosperous and wealthy; and a comparison +of these with the opinions of Bernaldez might well be helpful to the +present administration of Filipinas. + +In an appendix to this volume we present a brief account of the +three Spanish Cortes in which the Philippines had representation; all +these sessions occurred in the early part of the nineteenth century, +one of the most disturbed and critical periods of Spain's national +existence. The most important measures of these Cortes concerning the +Philippines were, the suppression of the Acapulco-Manila galleon and +the abolition of the privileges formerly granted to the Compañia de +Filipinas. In each of these assemblies efficient representation of the +islands was barred by their distance from Spain and the difficulty +of communication with that country, while, in general, political +development was very backward. The final ruling, in the Constitution +of 1837, by which special laws were devised for the government of +Ultramar, appears to have been the only possible solution of the +difficulty (at least for the Philippines). Finally, we furnish a list +of the archbishops of Manila during the Spanish régime. + + +The Editors. + +May, 1907. + + + + + + + + +DOCUMENTS OF 1801-1840 + + + Events in Filipinas, 1801-1840. [Compiled from Montero y Vidal.] + Remarks on the Phillippine Islands, 1819-22. "An Englishman;" 1828. + Reforms needed in Filipinas. Manuel Bernaldez Pizarro; April + 26, 1827. + + +Sources: The first document is compiled from Montero y Vidal's +Historia de Filipinas (tomo ii, pp. 360-573; iii, pp. 6-32); the +second is reprinted from the original publication, a copy of which +is in possession of Edward E. Ayer; the third is presented, partly +in synopsis, from original MSS. in the Ayer collection. + +Translations: The first and third are made by Emma Helen Blair. + + + + + + + + +EVENTS IN FILIPINAS, 1801-1840 + + +[At the beginning of VOLUME L may be found a brief summary of events +during the latter third of the eighteenth century, a record which +is here continued as above. As before, we epitomize from Montero y +Vidal's Hist. de Filipinas (tomo ii, pp. 360-573; iii, pp. 6-32), +using his own language wherever practicable, usually distinguished +by quotation marks.] + +Under Governor Aguilar the "Ordinances of good government," as +revised by Governor Raon in 1768 (for which see VOL. L, pp. 191-264), +were reprinted in the year 1801. "On September 8, 1804, Don Fray +Juan Antonio Zulaibar, a Dominican, and formerly a professor in +the university of Alcalá, took possession of the archbishopric of +Manila." In November following, the governor sent despatches to +the king explaining his action in appointing to certain curacies +regular instead of secular priests, saying that the latter were seldom +qualified for those charges. He said, in regard to this: "No one is +ignorant how different are the appearance and the degree of prosperity +of all the churches and settlements administered by religious from +those in the villages which are in charge of Indian clerics. Of the +latter, some are doubtless men of virtue and pious intentions; but +in general it is notorious that, on account of their origin, lack of +education, the very obscure condition in which they are reared, and the +little (if any) knowledge that they possess, they do not inspire in +their parishioners that respect and veneration with which the latter +regard the religious--who, on account of being Spaniards, possess the +art of dominating the minds of the Indians, in order to maintain them +in those conditions on which depends the preservation of these your +Majesty's dominions. The religious know how to guide the Indians, +without violence, to whatever ends are expedient for both religion +and the State, as the results of never becoming too familiar with the +natives. The Indian clerics not only follow the opposite course, but, +lacking the dignity that belongs to their character as priests, they +mingle familiarly with their parishioners not only in their sports, +but in feasting and other things which are entirely unfitting; and not +seldom they dress themselves in the same manner as do the natives, +abandoning the very garb of their priestly estate." He proceeded to +say that only deplorable consequences could result from the surrender +of the curacies entirely to the native priests; and that the religious +of the orders must be employed therein, unless they could be supplied +with properly qualified secular priests who were Spaniards. The same +ideas were expressed by the municipal council of Manila, who said of +the native priests: "The weak and yielding disposition which has been +for so long a time noticed in these islanders does not permit in them +that steadfastness which is so proper for the priestly character and +the difficult office of the care of souls." + +"In June, 1805, the Frenchman Félix Renouard de Sainte-Croix was +commissioned to examine the gold mines in Mambulao (in Camarines); +and in his report he explained that various gold mines existed there, +with very rich veins, but some were difficult to develop and others +had been abandoned. By royal order of July 5, 1805, was decreed +the total independence of the Manila custom-house, ordaining that +its manager should be under the immediate orders of the [treasury] +superintendent." [1] On December 20, 1806, Aguilar created a Bureau of +Vaccination at Manila, of which he was president; and regulations were +made for public vaccination, which had a marked effect in diminishing +the ravages of the smallpox. This governor gave much attention to +the construction of public works, one of the more important of these +being the highway from Manila to Cavite. He caused the streets of the +capital to be lighted at public expense, and paved sidewalks to be +built, and made the police system more efficient; he also did much +to promote domestic industries. + +Aguilar endeavored, throughout his term of office, to check the +incursions of the Moros. The pirates attacked even the coasts of Luzón +in 1793, and an expedition sent out against them in December of that +year accomplished almost nothing, being too late and ineffective. In +the following year the governor called a council of the leading +military officers and other persons experienced in Moro wars and the +affairs of the southern islands, where it was shown that the Moros made +captive some 500 persons a year, whom they rendered slaves--excepting +the old, who "were sold to the inhabitants of Sandakan, who sacrificed +these captives to the shades of their deceased relatives or of +prominent personages, [2] preserving the skull of the victim as +a proof that they had complied with so barbarous a usage." It was +shown at this council that during the time from the establishment +of the vintas in 1778 until the end of 1793 the colony had spent +the sum of 1,519,209 pesos fuertes for vessels, expeditions, wages, +etc., in the warfare with the Moros, to say nothing of the losses and +destruction caused by the pirate raids. The council resolved to abolish +the present equipment of vintas and pancos, replacing these by lanchas +carrying cannon, in six divisions of six lanchas and one panco each, +with extra pay and honors to the crews; and to repair and strengthen +all the forts on the coasts liable to attack. Aguilar attempted to open +negotiations for peace with the Moro sultans; but these had no effect, +the piracies still continuing. In the summer of 1794, a Portuguese +trader of Manila who had carried goods to Joló was treacherously +attacked on his return, when near Iloilo, by the same Moros with +whom he had traded at Joló; but he defended his vessel bravely, and +one of the leading dattos of Joló was killed in the fray. In August, +1795, two vessels of the Spanish royal navy arrived at Manila, with +tidings that the English, again at war with Spain, were planning to +occupy the Filipinas Islands; this compelled Aguilar to desist from +further proceedings against the Moros, for the time. It was hoped +that Álava and his powerful squadron (who remained at Manila during +1797-1802) might chastise the Moros, but nothing was accomplished in +this direction--either through fear of another English invasion, or +because of the disagreements between Aguilar and Álava. [3] On January +21, 1798, two English ships attacked the Spanish post at Zamboanga, +but were bravely repulsed with much damage to the invaders. In that +year a strong force of Moros attacked the village of Baler and others +inland from the eastern coast of Luzón [where now is the province of +Principe], constituting the oldtime missions of Ituy; they devastated +these towns, and seized four hundred and fifty captives, among them +three parish curas, one of whom was sold by them for 2,500 pesos. These +pirates were established in Burías Island for four years, from which +center they harried the neighboring coasts. In 1799, the authorities +decided that it was more expedient that the warfare with the Moros +be carried on by the provincial authorities, with the direction and +aid of the central government; and instructions to this effect were +sent to all the alcaldes-mayor. In 1800 Aguilar established friendly +and commercial relations with Bandajar, sultan of Borneo; and on +November 4, 1805, his governor at Zamboanga, Francisco Bayot, made +a treaty of peace with Mahamad Ali Mudin, sultan of Joló, in which +the latter agreed to forbid any foreigners to reside in his dominions +without the consent of the Spanish government, and in case of war to +close his ports to enemies of Spain. In 1804-05 English cruisers were +frequently seen off the coasts of Filipinas, and they even attempted +to capture several villages on the Mindanao coast, but were repulsed. + +On Aguilar's death (August 8, 1806), the rule of the islands was +assumed by the king's lieutenant at Manila, Mariano Fernández de +Folgueras; and his first measures were for the defense of Manila, as +there were rumors of another attack by the English. In the summer +of 1807, there arose a rebellion in the mountains of Ilocos Norte, +begun by certain Spanish deserters from Vigan in conjunction with +some vagabond Indians; afterward it spread to many of the Ilocans, +who resented the government monopoly of wine and prohibition of native +manufacture of basi (a liquor produced by the fermentation of the juice +of sugar cane). This revolt was put down without much difficulty, +and the leaders were hanged at Manila; much was accomplished by the +Augustinian fathers of Ilocos in restoring peace. In February, 1809, +the news arrived at Manila of the French invasion of Spain, and the +captivity of Fernando VII; the Manila authorities promptly declared +their loyalty to that monarch. Somewhat later a French schooner of war +was captured off the coast of Batangas, and the French authorities at +Isle de France endeavored to persuade those at Manila that England, +not France, was the enemy of Spain, and that the people of Filipinas +ought to support the French interests. Folgueras answered, refusing +to accept any such propositions, and would do no more than to return +the French prisoners from the captured vessel. + +On March 4, 1810, the new proprietary governor Manuel González Aguilar, +assumed his office. On February 14 preceding, a decree had been issued +by the Spanish government granting to all the colonies in America +and to Filipinas representation in the Spanish Cortes by deputies +chosen by the various capital cities. The sessions of this Cortes +began on September 24, 1810, and Filipinas was represented therein by +acting deputies; afterward, one was duly chosen (Ventura de los Reyes) +by the municipality of Manila, according to the forms required. [4] +"In the jurisdiction of each village in the Philippine archipelago, +there are extensive communal lands, in which the natives can keep, +almost without cost and easily guarded, their herds of cattle and +horses. In regard to these lands (which in that country are called +estancias ["ranches"]), the new governor framed a useful ordinance, +which remained in force, with good results, during a long period. (It +has now fallen into disuse, and many of the communal lands have become +the property, illegally acquired, of private persons.) Important +service was rendered [to the country] by these ranches, on account +of the increase of live-stock and its great cheapness; and a positive +source of wealth for the provinces was initiated with the exportation +of their cattle." In the sessions of Cortes in 1811, a decree was +issued (January 26) that trade in quicksilver should be free in all +the Spanish dominions of Indias and Filipinas. In the summer of 1811, +a new rebellion broke out among the natives of Ilocos Norte, some of +whose chiefs attempted to found a new religion, in behalf of a deity +whom they called Lungao; [5] they endeavored to persuade the heathen +mountain-dwellers of Cagayan to join them, but the insurrection was +quelled promptly by the Spaniards, and the ringleaders put to death. It +was in González Aguilar's time that the Indians were allowed to render +the services required from them for public works on those in their +neighborhood. In order to relieve the public anxiety and impatience +caused by the dearth of news from the mother-country, the authorities +of the colony undertook to publish a sort of gazette containing such +information as was available from Europe--mostly received through +English publications that came from Bengal. Accordingly, "the first +newspaper in Filipinas made its appearance on August 8, 1811," [6] +the second number appearing three days later; it was published during +the rest of 1811 and part of 1812, and must have ceased for lack of +material. [7] "On account of the war which España was sustaining +against the French invaders, the religious corporations agreed to +contribute with their donations toward the expenses of so great an +undertaking; the Order of Dominicans gave with that object, in August, +1812, the sum of 36,000 pesos. On March 19 the Constitution of 1812 +was promulgated at Cádiz, and orders were issued that allegiance to +it should be sworn in all the towns of the monarchy. The deputies +signed it on the eighteenth, and among the signatures appears that of +Don Ventura de los Reyes." The Constitution was solemnly proclaimed +in Manila on April 17, 1813, and the oath of allegiance was taken on +the following day. A decree in Cortes (July 3, 1813) extended to the +veteran troops of the over-seas colonies the same scale of rewards +as had been recently granted to the soldiers of the Peninsula. In +that same year a special effort was made by the Spanish government +to add to its revenues by pushing in the colonies the sale of bulls +of the Crusade. [8] + +A new governor arrived at Manila assuming command on September 4, +1813; this was José de Gardoqui Jaraveitia, who also had appointment as +chief of the naval station. This exasperated the treasury officials, +for thus the entire naval force was under one head, that sent against +the pirates [which Aguilar had stubbornly kept separate from the +naval bureau--see "Events in Filipinas," VOL. L, pp. 23-74] being +now taken from their control, with all its opportunities for their +personal profit; and they opposed Gardoqui in whatever he proposed or +undertook. [9] On February 1, 1814, a fearful eruption occurred in the +volcano Mayón, which partially or wholly destroyed many villages in +Albay and Camarines; hot stones, sand, and ashes were poured forth from +the crater, and villages were thus set on fire, and their inhabitants +killed. The slain numbered 12,000, besides many more seriously injured; +and those who escaped lost all their possessions. The most fertile and +beautiful districts of Camarines were converted into a desert of sand. + +"The introduction into Filipinas of the political reforms established +at the metropolis [of Madrid] were the occasion, in certain localities +of the archipelago, of lamentable disturbances of public order. The +Indians understood that the proclamation of the political creed of +1812, solemnly made known to the country, signified exemption from +tributes and public services; and this absurd belief spread to such +an extent that the governor of the islands found himself obliged to +publish an edict on February 8, 1814, explaining the extent of the +benefits conferred [by the Constitution], and the necessity which +exists in every nation for paying contributions for supporting +the expenses of the State. These explanations did not satisfy the +Indians, and uprisings occurred in various places, principally in +Ilocos Norte; the people claimed that they ought to be relieved, +as were the notables, from polos and services, or the obligation of +laboring on public works, as bridges, highways, churches, convents, +school-houses, etc.,--an exaction which, according to them, did not go +with the equality which was established among all by the Constitution; +and it cost the alcalde-mayor of the province his utmost efforts to +restrain the Ilocanos from violence." Still worse were the effects +of the renewal of absolutism in Spain, on the return of Fernando VII +from his captivity in France; for on May 4, 1814, he issued a decree +abolishing the Cortes, and nullifying its acts, and immediately began +a course of persecution and condemnation, even to death, of all the +prominent Liberals in the country. He also reëstablished in Spain the +Inquisition [10] (which had been abolished by the Cortes on February +22, 1813), and the Society of Jesus. When the royal decrees were +received in Filipinas, the Indians believed that they were false, +and concocted in Manila; one thousand five hundred Ilocanos seized +their arms, and began plundering, killing, and destroying throughout +the province. This was mainly, however, a rebellion of the common +people (Tagal, cailianes) against the ruling class, the principalía +or notables; and the latter finally took arms against the rebels, +aiding the Spaniards to suppress the insurrection. On July 20, 1814, +a treaty of peace was made between Spain and France. "Gardoqui, by an +edict of December 1, 1814, prohibited the introduction of opium into +Filipinas, imposing on those who should violate this law six years +of confinement in a presidio and the confiscation of the opium; and +to those who were found smoking the drug a fortnight's imprisonment +for the first offense, thirty days for the second, and four years +in presidio for the third. A term of eight days was allowed in order +that persons who might possess unsold stocks of the said drug could +deposit them in the custom-house for reshipment to China. In the said +year of 1814, there was built in the environs of the town of Laoag +(Ilocos Norte) a leper hospital, at the expense of the charitable +parish priest there, Fray Vicente Febras, an Augustinian; and this +act is worthy of note, since this was the first establishment of the +kind in the provinces of the Archipelago." A royal decree of August +22, 1815, reëstablished the Jesuit order in the Indias and Filipinas; +and another, dated December 11, commanded the seizure in the colonies +of various political books and pamphlets, with penalties for their +use in schools. After the death of Governor Aguilar, the Moro pirates +were comparatively quiet for a time, but in 1813 they renewed their +attacks on the Spanish territories, and during several years they +harassed the latter, taking many captives, and even seizing several +vessels, both Spanish and English, on the seas. Governor Raffles, +of Java, after the restoration of that island by England to Holland, +proposed to Gardoqui that they coöperate in occupying Joló and +Mindanao; but the Spaniard declined this, protesting against any +operations by the English in Spanish territory. "Gardoqui, during his +term of office, caused the fortifications of Cavite to be repaired, +making them very strong; he issued orders regulating weights and +measures; he created the general administration for the revenues +from wine; and he occupied himself greatly with the improvement and +development of the tobacco plantations. The bandits, smugglers, and +gamblers had been increasing at an alarming rate; and, in order that +they might be promptly punished the governor appointed a military +commission, headed by a lieutenant-colonel. Thanks to their energetic +proceedings, the desired object was attained." Gardoqui's last days +were embittered, and his end hastened, by the treacherous act of one +of his secretaries, who, by substituting a false report for the one +which Gardoqui had dictated in favor of retaining the naval bureau, +procured the governor's unwitting signature to the former and thus +made him appear to report adversely to the bureau; as a result, +the bureau was suppressed by a royal decree of March 23, 1815. His +disappointment and wounded honor so grieved him that his death soon +resulted (December 9, 1816). + +The command ad interim was again assumed by Folgueras, who held it +during nearly six years. On December 17, 1819, he reëstablished the +"Royal Economic Society of Filipinas," as a result of royal orders +to that effect issued in 1811 and 1813; and five days later its +first session was held, the governor presiding, only two members +of the original society being still alive. [11] A month later, it +met again, with sixty new members, and Manuel Bernáldez was chosen +director of the association; and its new ordinances were approved by +the governor on July 24 following. Folgueras, learning that certain +immunities and advantages had been granted to Cuba and Puerto Rico for +the encouragement of agriculture, requested from the home government +similar help for Filipinas; the crown decreed an investigation of the +subject, but the fulfilment of this was delayed from time to time, +so that not until 1848 was even a definite statement and proposal +for action in this direction made. [12] (This was done by Rafael +Díaz Arenas, one of the four members of the Economic Society--to +which the investigation had been referred--who had been appointed +to prepare the data for a report to the crown; "but we do not know +whether the Society accepted his proposal, or whether it reached any +definite conclusion on the subject.") In October of the year 1820, +Manila was ravaged by a terrible epidemic of smallpox, which was +especially fatal in the villages along the Pasig River; the corregidor +of Tondo therefore issued an edict prohibiting the use of the river +water. A public relief committee was organized to give the sick +medical treatment and to furnish food to the poor; and the friars +and the private citizens vied with the authorities in ministering +to the victims of the pest. The medical men belonging to the ships +anchored in the bay came to the city, and did all in their power to +aid these benevolent efforts; but all these things only confirmed in +the ignorant natives the fatal idea, already spread among them, that +the disease was caused by the foreigners having poisoned the waters +and used to this end the specimens of insects and other creatures +which they had collected for scientific purposes. A crowd of armed +Indians therefore gathered in the square of Binondo on October 9, +attacked the houses of the foreigners, and murdered twenty-seven +persons--among whom was not one Spaniard; nor did they, in plundering +the houses, rob any Spaniard. The governor sent out some troops, +but they accomplished nothing in checking the riot, which ended only +at nightfall; and he did nothing to prevent further crimes of this +sort, so that the mob renewed their acts of violence the next day, +[13] plundering and killing many Chinese of the suburbs. This aroused +Folgueras to activity, and he sent out a large force of soldiers to +pursue the assassins; but the latter at once dispersed. A council +of the authorities was called, but there were discordant opinions +among them, and they seem to have taken no definite action. The +municipal council of Manila called upon the governor for the proper +legal proceedings in regard to this scandalous and lawless uprising; +and for this purpose he appointed a commission. [14] + +In October, 1820, was created the office of general intendant of +army and treasury, separate from the superior government; and it was +conferred upon Colonel Luis Urréjola, with a salary of 5,000 pesos. In +May, 1821, the Constitution of 1812 was again proclaimed in Filipinas, +only to be again abrogated in 1824, as a result of Fernando VII's +triumph (with French aid) over the Liberal party in Spain. "Folgueras +gave great impulse to the Economic Society of Friends of the Country; +and he attempted to found in Manila a school of medicine, surgery, and +pharmacy, commencing for this purpose the indispensable documentary +evidence [expediente], but he did not succeed in carrying out this +plan--a failure much to be regretted, because nearly all of the +towns [in the islands] had neither physician nor drug-store. As a +compensation, the creation of the nautical academy was an excellent +idea, for its practical results are of great value." "In 1821 appeared +the second periodical which was published in the country, entitled El +Noticiero Filipino; [15] [i.e., "The Philippine Intelligencer"]; and +in the same year were published two others, El Ramillete Patriótico +["The Patriotic Bouquet"] and La Filantropía ["Philanthropy"]. The +life of all was of short duration." + +Folgueras was replaced by a proprietary governor, Juan Antonio +Martinez, who began to exercise that office on October 30, 1822. He +brought with him many military officers from the Peninsula, "a measure +counseled by Folgueras, in view of the deficiency of officers in the +regiments of Filipinas, and the little confidence which they inspired; +and this was the cause or pretext which he advanced to the court to +exculpate himself for not having adopted more energetic measures when +the melancholy assassinations were committed by the Indians among the +foreigners in 1820. The body of officers in the army of Filipinas was +almost entirely composed of American Spaniards. These were greatly +displeased at the increase of Peninsular officers, partly because they +supposed that thus their own promotions would be stopped, and partly on +account of race antagonisms." They talked so much against the newcomers +that the governor became distrustful, and finally discovered that the +American officers were plotting and conspiring against authority; +he consequently arrested the persons suspected of this intrigue, +and sent them to Spain (February 18, 1823)--among them being Luis +Rodríguez Varela, styled El Conde Filipino ["The Filipino Count"]; [16] +and the factor of the Company of Filipinas, José Ortega. Nevertheless, +the plots continued, and the authorities sent him who appeared to be +the leader in these, Captain Andrés Novales, to fight the pirates in +northern Mindanao; he embarked (June 1, 1823), but was driven back +by a storm, and immediately he and his accomplices determined to +"declare themselves openly against the authority of España," and set +up a government of their own. The insurgents (some eight hundred in +number) seized the cabildo house, and incarcerated therein the leading +military chiefs and some magistrates; then they murdered Folgueras, +and took from his pockets the keys of the city; and they fortified +themselves in the royal palace, and attempted to seize the artillery +quarters. Here they were resisted bravely by a few loyal officers +and men, and word was conveyed to the governor, who collected the +troops available and sent these against the palace. The insurgents +there were soon overcome, and many abandoned their posts and fled; +Novales was made a prisoner, taken before a court-martial--to whom +he declared that he had no accomplices, and was alone guilty of +seducing the troops--and with the sergeant Mateo (who had commanded +the insurgent force in the palace) was shot that afternoon, as +also was Lieutenant Ruiz, who had assassinated Folgueras. Amnesty +was extended to all the remaining prisoners, except six officers, +who were shot soon afterward. On October 26, 1824, great damage was +done in Manila by a severe earthquake, which destroyed the barracks, +several churches, and many houses; and this was followed (November +1) by a fearful hurricane, which ruined many buildings and wrecked a +multitude of sailing vessels. In this same year the Economic Society +founded a monthly periodical entitled Registro Mercantil [17] ["The +Mercantile Register"]. + +The ravages of the Moro pirates continuing, and becoming each year more +menacing, [18] Martínez sent out an expedition against them (February +29, 1824), which laid waste the shores of Joló and southern Mindanao, +and killing a considerable number of Moros, among whom were three of +their fiercest and most treacherous dattos. Martínez advocated such +operations as this, as the only means of stopping the piracies of the +Moros. During the period of 1823-29, the Augustinian missionary Fray +Bernardo Lago succeeded in reducing to village life and converting +more than eight thousand Tinguianes and Igorrots in the province of +Abra, forming the mission of Pidigan. In 1825 Martínez was replaced +by Mariano Ricafort Palacín y Abarca, and departed for Spain; a few +days after leaving Manila he died, and was buried in Cochinchina. + +Ricafort assumed office on October 14, 1825, and by royal orders also +took possession of the intendancy of exchequer, although Urréjola +was continued in its charge; but in the following January Ricafort +concluded that "this dual command was impossible," and restricted the +intendant to certain routine functions, at the same time asking the +approval of the home government for this proceeding. He had brought +with him a portrait of Fernando VII, presented by the king to his +colony of Filipinas; the municipal council of Manila decided to pay +this portrait the same honors as if the king himself had visited the +islands, and during the week of December 19-25 festivities of every +kind were conducted, with the utmost display and magnificence. (Five +years later, orders from the Spanish government were received at +Manila, censuring the extravagant expenditures on that occasion, said, +to amount to some 16,000 pesos, as an unwarranted and blamable use of +municipal funds, and regulating, for the future, expenditures of this +sort.) A royal decree of June 8, 1826, ordained that the secularization +of parish curacies should cease, and that those ministries should +be restored to the religious orders, which was accordingly done. On +September 15 of that year Fray Hilarión Diez, an Augustinian, took +possession of the archbishopric of Manila, replacing Zulaibar, +who had died on March 4, 1824. In June a circular letter was sent +by Ricafort to the provincial governors, reminding them of the law +(art. 26 of the "Ordinances of good government") which forbade them +to hinder in any way the trade in the products of the provinces, +whether by Spaniards, natives, or mestizos, and whether in kind or +with money, ordering them to permit trade freely everywhere, without +any delays or exactions against those doing business. In 1827 Ricafort +sent an expedition against Joló, which was kept off by the valor of +the Joloans; but the Spaniards burned and ravaged the settlements +on the shores of Illana Bay, doing the Moros much damage. In that +same year the Spanish government reëstablished the naval bureau at +Manila, independent of the captain-general, and Pascual Enrile was +appointed as its chief; he proceeded to reorganize all branches of +the service, including that intended to serve against the pirates, +whom he was able to restrain to a great extent; and he constructed +several cruisers and other vessels, one of which remained in active +service for forty years. He established the jurisdiction of the bureau +throughout the archipelago, creating port-captains for Iloilo, Capiz, +Cebú, and Pangasinán. Ever since the insurrection of 1744 in Bohol, +caused by the imprudence of the Jesuit Morales, the insurgents had +(under their chief Dagohoy) maintained hostilities, not only against +the Spaniards, but even harassing their own countrymen who occupied +the coastal villages of that island. The Recollects, in charge of +the missions of Bohol after the expulsion of the Jesuits, tried +to persuade the rebels to submit to Spanish authority, and secured +from Governor Raon a general amnesty for them; but it resulted only +in their defying further the authority of the government, which was +long unable to take any measures for subduing them. Finally, in 1827, +the danger to the loyal villages of Bohol was so menacing that the +authorities were compelled to protect them and reduce the insurgents; +and to this end Ricafort sent powerful expeditions (May, 1827, and +April, 1828), which after strenuous efforts compelled the rebels to +submit. [19] That governor accomplished much during his term of office +for the promotion of agriculture. He ordained (1825 and 1826) that the +native gobernadorcillos should furnish to agriculturists the idle and +unoccupied Indians within their jurisdictions, to work on the estates, +these laborers being paid their daily wages; and on October 30, 1827, +that all complaints in civil cases relating to farm laborers should +be settled by the magistrates as promptly and simply as possible, +"observing the contracts and usages of the Indians, when these +are not unjust," and that no Indian laborer should be imprisoned +for a purely civil debt (save those to the royal exchequer), nor +should his animals, tools, lands, or house be seized therefor. The +Spanish minister of the exchequer, Luis López Ballesteros, also took +a paternal interest in the islands, and secured royal decrees for +the benefit of their industries. One of these (dated April 6, 1828) +encouraged the importation into Filipinas of all machinery suitable for +spinning and weaving cotton, offered public aid to private enterprises +for improvement in weaving and dyeing, and promised protection and +encouragement to all projects for promoting native manufactures of +cloth; and made the exportation of raw cotton from the islands free, +in order to promote the cultivation of that plant. Another decree +(of the same date) permitted the free importation of all kinds of +agricultural machinery and implements into Filipinas; and authorized +premiums and rewards from the public funds to Filipino farmers who +should first make large plantations of coffee, cacao, cinnamon, +and cloves, as also to those who should make most progress in the +plantations of Chinese cinnamon [canelón], tea, and mulberry-trees, +and in raising silk, etc. Those who kept in cultivation a certain +area of land, and day-laborers who continued to work for a certain +number of years, were exempted from paying tributes; and the native +farmers were allowed to keep cockpits in operation daily and without +tax, on the estates which they cultivated. "In spite of so many +privileges, not many of them were inclined to the cultivation of +their fields." Another royal order (April 6, 1828) made important +regulations regarding the Chinese residing in the islands; they +were to be gathered into villages, as were the Indians; their heads +of barangay were to collect the tributes, as in the Indian villages, +being allowed three per cent of the collections for their trouble; they +were classified into three groups--those who were engaged in foreign +or wholesale trade, those in domestic or retail trade, and artisans +of all classes--who were obliged to pay a monthly tax of ten, four, +and two pesos respectively; those who had settled in the islands, +but were not married, must return to China within six months; and +any Chinaman who failed to pay his tax for three months was to be +sent to compulsory labor on some estate, at a specified wage, from +which should be deducted two pesos a month until his tax dues should +be paid. [20] Still another royal order of the same date gave free +permission to any person of sufficient means to cultivate the opium +poppy in Filipinas and export its product therefrom; and ordered that +its culture should begin on lands close to Manila. Another decree +ordained the establishment of a mint at Manila; but this desirable +measure was not carried out until many years afterward, and the islands +meanwhile had to suffer from the wretched clipped and debased currency +which had so long prevailed there. On October 13, 1828, Ricafort +published an edict that all money which came to the islands coined by +the revolted Spanish colonies of America should be recoined at Manila, +taxing it one per cent for this recoinage. On November 9 following, +a long but not destructive earthquake occurred. In that same year a +conspiracy was set on foot by some civil officials; it was discovered, +and its promoters sent to Spain. As a result, the authorities created +a public vigilance commission, and demanded more troops from Spain; +a regiment was accordingly sent to Manila in 1830. By royal decree +of October 27, 1829, it was provided that the post of superintendent +of the exchequer should be filled by the intendant of the army and +treasury; accordingly this charge was assumed (September 9, 1830) by +Francisco Enriquez, who for two years had been intendant succeeding +Urréjola. In January, 1829, an officer named Guillermo Galvey (whose +duty it was to follow up smugglers in Pangasinán and Ilocos) conducted +an expedition into the district of Benguet; an interesting account of +this is found in the diary left by him. By royal decree of April 5, +1820 Spanish vessels were permitted to enter British ports just as +British vessels were admitted to Spanish ports. Ricafort, having +finished his government of Filipinas, sailed for Spain at the end +of 1830. He was a governor of good judgment and much energy, and did +much to improve the condition of Manila and of the country. He issued +edicts imposing penalties on those who should sing obscene songs, +and on blasphemers, gamblers, beggars, and parents who brought up +their children in evil ways; and he "made provision for a general +domiciliary visitation of Manila and the formation of a list of its +citizens, which measure resulted in many persons of bad antecedents +abandoning the capital. He also decreed standards for weights and +measures, which unfortunately soon fell into disuse; and he created a +military commission with power to execute evildoers, which fulfilled +the object of its creation." + +Ricafort was succeeded (December 23, 1830) by Pascual Enrile y Alcedo, +a most zealous and able governor. He personally visited the northern +provinces of Luzón, accompanied by his relative and adjutant, José +María Peñaranda (afterward the governor of Albay), a military engineer, +who afterward made journeys and surveys in a large part of the rest +of that island; this resulted in carefully prepared itineraries, +plans, and maps, which were utilized in the construction of highways +and bridges, and the establishment of postal routes, which opened up +communication between regions before destitute of such facilities, +and sometimes in places heretofore deemed impassable. The navigable +rivers and bayous of Pangasinán were explored and mapped; a highway +was made in Pampanga which should be safe from the overflow of Lake +Canarem; and explorations were made from east to west in Luzón for +the sake of bringing the shores of the island into communication +with the fertile plains of the interior. On May 14, 1834, Peñaranda +was made corregidor or governor of the province of Albay, "which +experienced a complete transformation during his just and beneficent +rule. To him it owed its most important roads, bridges, and public +edifices, and the promotion of its agriculture, on which account his +name is venerated by the inhabitants of Albay; they perpetuated the +memory of this illustrious but modest patriot by erecting, some years +after his death, a monument to him in the plaza of the capital of the +province." The Economic Society of Friends of the Country contributed +to the development of agriculture, in the time of Enrile, by its +reports, memoirs, and material support. We read with surprise, however, +that in 1833 this Society, in an opinion requested from it by the home +government, opposed the establishment of a mint at Manila, and informed +Enrile that such institution was at that time unnecessary. In March, +1831, Galvey made an expedition into the country of the Igorrots; +and in the following December, to the district of Bacún. A decree +of May 9, 1831, established a custom-house in Zamboanga, "in order +to prevent the frauds committed by foreigners in the port of Joló, +and to facilitate and promote expeditions to that point." A royal +decree of April 24, 1832, substituted the garrote for the gallows in +capital punishments. Another, dated February 16, 1833, provided for +the adjustment and management of the funds belonging to the obras +pías, which charge was entrusted later to a committee composed +of the governor of the islands, some of the treasury officials, +and the archbishop. [21] The treasury officials, by a decree of +July 3, 1833, accepted the proposal of certain persons to establish +"a lottery, at their own account and risk, offering to pay to the +treasury forty per cent [of the receipts?], besides twenty-five per +cent of the value of the tickets which composed each drawing, after +furnishing adequate security as a guarantee for the fulfilment of +their promise." The exclusive privilege of this lottery was granted +to these persons for a period of five years. Enrile created the +Guía de forasteros ["Guide for Strangers"] of Filipinas; it first +appeared in 1834. Our author reproduces (t. ii, pp. 539, 540) the +table of contents of this annual. Fernando VII died on September 29, +1833, and was succeeded by his daughter Isabel II, to be until her +majority under the regency of her mother, Maria Cristina; this was +quickly followed by the Carlist insurrection, the reactionary party +being headed by the young prince Carlos, who was proclaimed king +as Carlos V, and civil war ensued, which for seven years stained +the soil of Spain with the blood of her own sons. By royal order of +August 10, 1834, the Chinese traders were restricted to the Parián, +and those Chinese who were allowed to reside in the provinces +must devote themselves to agricultural pursuits. Enrile issued an +edict on October 1, 1834, removing the special duties imposed on the +Chinese champans, and placing them under the same regulations as the +vessels of other foreign nations. On February 2, 1835, the official +despatches arrived from Spain which decreed the restoration of the +constitutional regime and the convocation of the Cortes. Enrile +strengthened the naval forces sent against the pirates [la marina +sutil, composed of light-draught vessels], and was able to drive them +away from the coasts of Visayas. He also increased the area planted +in tobacco, enforced just weights and measures, endeavored to correct +the evils resulting from the debased money of the islands, and caused +a light-house to be erected on Corregidor Island. Our writer commends +this governor as being "one of the most intelligent and industrious +who have ever ruled Filipinas." "To him the country owes material +improvements of the utmost value, of so much importance as the great +highways of Luzón, which have facilitated the intercourse between +the provinces, bringing them into postal communication, one after +another, by means of the mail-routes established by him; and the +administration of the colony is indebted to him for regulations and +procedures that are scientific and orderly, in all the branches that +have contributed to the development of the general welfare, making +considerable increase in the public wealth. Agriculture, commerce, +and navigation likewise experienced the beneficial results of this +illustrious governor's judicious management; and his term of office was +the source of the rapid progress which has been made from that time by +these most important factors of the general welfare--in great part, +thanks to the impulse received from the measures, dictated by him, +which conduced to the natural development of those industries." Enrile +resigned his post, and returned to Spain early in 1835. + +He was succeeded ad interim (March 1, 1835) by Gabriel de Torres, at +the time the commander of the army [segundo cabo] under Enrile; as a +military officer, he immediately proposed plans for the improvement +of the military service; but these were checked by his premature +death, [22] less than two months after entering on his office. In +his place, the command was assumed (April 23) by the officer next +him in rank, Juan Crámer; but he surrendered this office on September +9 following to the new segundo cabo, Pedro Antonio Salazar Castillo +y Varona. The latter, on April 25, 1836, issued an edict that "the +plain [sencillas] pesetas coined in the Peninsula should be accepted +[in the islands] at their lawful value of four reals vellón instead +of five, as if they were pillar coins [columnarias]; [23] accordingly +they began to circulate, having been recently introduced into the +islands." On June 11, 1836, the superintendency of treasury affairs +was assumed by Urréjola in place of Enríquez. [24] On July 28, +Salazar found it necessary to issue an edict for the enforcement +of the laws which prohibited carrying gunpowder and firearms to +the Indias, and selling them in countries hostile to Spain; this +referred especially to Moroland, where evidently the pirates had +been thus aided by unscrupulous traders to make their raids against +the northern islands. Salazar thought that he could restrain those +piracies by carrying on commerce with the Moros, and therefore made a +treaty with the sultan of Joló, Mahamad Diamalud Quiram (September 22, +1836), which stipulated "that every three-masted ship which made port +at Joló with Chinese passengers from Manila should pay 2,000 pesos +fuertes, and smaller vessels in proportion to their size;" but "the +most important cargo which went from Manila to Joló never exceeded +2,500 pesos. The Joloan barks which should go to Zamboanga were to +pay a duty of one per cent, and those which entered at Manila two +per cent; but no Joloan bark was accustomed to go to Manila." The +governor of Zamboanga also made a treaty with another Moro ruler; +but it resulted only in increasing the insolence of the pirates, +who paid no attention to their treaties. At the beginning of 1836, +Salazar sent an expedition under Galvey to occupy the Igorrot country; +but it was, despite Galvey's remonstrances, sent in too great haste, +and without adequate preparations, and too near the beginning of the +rainy season; they reached that region, and built some forts, but so +many of the soldiers were attacked by sickness that the expedition +was forced to give up the undertaking and retire, "without any other +result than the expenditure of several thousand dollars." [25] +In that same year, Peñaranda conducted with brilliant success an +expedition to dislodge the pirates from Masbate Island, where they +had fortified themselves. "Afterward, he established a system of +signals in the provinces of the south, to watch the movements of those +pirates." On January 26, 1837, Salazar sent an urgent request to the +Spanish government for the despatch of Spanish regulars to supply the +parish curacies throughout the archipelago, as (for the same reasons +advanced by former governors) he considered the Indian clerics unfit +for that purpose. In view of the secularization of the orders that +had been decreed in Spain, [26] he desired that some two hundred of +the friars there should be sent to Filipinas, which, added to those +already in the islands, would be sufficient for the parishes. The +political disturbances in Spain found some reflection in the distant +colonies; and in February, 1837, there was danger of a tumult arising, +"some insisting that the Constitution should be proclaimed, in order +that they might utilize the change to their own advantage;" among these +were several officers of high rank. Absurd reports were circulated +throughout Manila: that the governor was opposed to the proclamation, +and was intending to banish certain persons from the country, and that +he was a Carlist, etc. Violent measures were proposed by some of the +radicals, but these were resisted by some of the cooler heads; and +many citizens opposed the proclamation of the Constitution, fearing +that serious disturbances would result. Salazar, being informed of +these things, promised that when the royal despatches arrived he +would open them in the presence of all, and fulfil whatever orders he +should receive from the home government. This occurred on August 26 +of that year, and the royal orders decreed that no change in political +affairs should be made in Filipinas until the Cortes should decide the +matter; this and Salazar's tact reconciled the contending factions. At +the same time he received a decree reducing in all departments the +military forces of the islands; the authorities resolved to suspend +the execution of this order, and sent an envoy to remonstrate with +the government on this subject--for this purpose choosing one of the +officers who had been most prominent in the recent controversy, and +thus removing from Manila a person whose presence there was regarded +as dangerous. By royal order of February 1, 1836 (published in the +islands on March 31, 1837), order was given that there should be +compiled and published in Manila every year tables of the values of +the moneys from the new provinces of America, in order that their +value might, in their circulation in Manila, be properly adjusted +to the Spanish peso; consequently, the recoinage of American money +was stopped. A later edict ordered that from June 1, 1837, "the coin +called cuarto should circulate at the rate of twenty to the real, +[27] instead of seventeen as hitherto, on account of the greater +size and weight of the new coins; and to this new subdivision were +adjusted the prices of the measures of tobacco established therefor, +and the revenues from wine. Also the circulation of cigars [tabacos] +in place of money was forbidden; the Indians had introduced this on +account of the scarcity of copper coin, and because the greater part +of that then current was counterfeit, on which account a multitude of +disputes had arisen. The governor decided, moreover, that the Spanish +peseta should be accepted at thirty-two cuartos, five [pesetas], +therefore, corresponding to the peso fuerte." A royal order of May +31, 1837, declared certain jurisdictions--Caraga, Samar, Iloilo, +Antique, Capis, Albay, Camarines Sur, and Tayabas--to be those of +governors, at once military and political, who should be military +officers appointed by the War Department; all the rest (excepting +Cavite, Zamboanga, and the Marianas, which also were filled like +the foregoing) were classed as alcaldeships, and appointments thereto +should be made from the attorney-general's office [Ministerio de Gracia +y Justicia]. The Constitution of 1837 was decreed and sanctioned by +the Cortes on June 8 of that year; and it was ordained by that body +that the provinces of Ultramar should be governed by special laws, +a provision reiterated by succeeding constitutions. "From that time +Filipinas lost its representation in the Cortes." + +On August 4, 1837, arrived at Manila the new governor of the islands, +Andrés García Camba, a knight of the Order of Santiago. He had already +spent ten years in Filipinas (April, 1825, to March, 1835), and had +gone to Spain as the deputy of Manila to the Cortes, an honor twice +again conferred upon him. He was received with the utmost enthusiasm, +although the Liberals at Manila were irritated by the action of the +Cortes in depriving the islands of representation therein; but Camba +himself had liberal views, as well as a generous and kindly nature, +and gained the good-will of that party. This made trouble for him, +however, in another direction. The civil war in Spain aroused there +great partisan bitterness, which spread to the colonies; and in +Filipinas was a Carlist and reactionary faction, who opposed Camba +in every way. "The regular clergy, as a body, were partisans of the +Pretender, and not only gave him their sympathy but aided him, as well +as the Carlist publications, with their money. The court of Madrid +was aware of this attitude of the friars, and had already sharply +censured Salazar for his indulgence and lenity toward them. Several +Carlist partisans had been banished from Spain to the Marianas, +but had gone to Manila instead, and were not only unmolested there, +but visited and entertained by many of the most prominent people of +the city, and especially by the ecclesiastical element. Camba found +that Carlist reunions were being held in the convents of San Juan +de Dios and Santo Domingo, and that even the archbishop, [Fray José +Segui] was an avowed adherent of the Pretender; the governor tried +to conciliate the disaffected, but with little success, since the +clergy, the Audiencia, and many influential persons, both citizens and +officials, were jealous and hostile toward him." [28] He was obliged to +compel the archbishop to deposit certain funds, belonging to the Cavite +hospital, in the royal treasury, instead of the Dominican convent; also +to arrest a Dominican friar for conducting treasonable correspondence +with Carlists, and to send to Spain a military officer concerned +therein. Notwithstanding Camba's ability, integrity, and devotion to +the interests of the islands, and his patience with his opponents, +they exerted so much influence and carried on so many intrigues against +him, not only in Manila but at Madrid, that they procured his recall to +Spain; [29] and on December 29, 1838, he surrendered the governorship +to his successor, Luis Lardizábal y Montoya. Notwithstanding the +obstacles and difficulties which Camba continually encountered, he +accomplished some important improvements in the administration, [30] +the chief of these being the reorganization of the postal service, +which from 1838 was conducted under one bureau and on modern lines; +he improved the means of communication between the provinces, and +pushed forward the reduction of the heathen tribes. He informed the +Spanish government that the attempts to make treaties and alliances +with the sultans of Joló were of no use in bringing any permanent or +substantial advantage to Spanish navigation and commerce. In 1837 was +published the Flora de Filipinas of the Augustinian Fray Manuel Blanco, +the first attempt to form a compendium of Philippine botany. [31] +A royal decree of October 24, 1838, "created in Spain a consulting +committee for the administration of colonial affairs, as members of +the same being appointed, among others, the ex-governors of Filipinas +Ricafort and Enrile." + +A royal order of November 16, 1838, had prohibited the holding of +provincial chapter-sessions in Filipinas; the Recollect procurator at +Madrid remonstrated with the government against this, and the matter +was referred to the governor and archbishop of Manila. Lardizábal +decided that the chapters should meet, and that the senior auditor +of the Audiencia should attend those sessions, as the representative +of the vice-regal patron. By a decree of August 31, the governor +regulated the status of the Chinese in the islands. They were +"classified as transients, those spending the winter [in the islands], +and permanent residents. They were allowed to choose the occupation +which best suited them, without any restriction. The resident +Chinese who should be arrested [as being] without official permit +[cédula] or passport were condemned to labor on the public works; +and deportation to Zamboanga, Misamis, Paragua, and Calamianes was +decreed for all those who were serving a prison term for failure to +pay their capitation-tax, in both Manila and Cavite, with the object +of securing by this means a larger population for those places." On +July 6, 1839, a weekly publication was begun in Manila entitled, +Precios corrientes de Manila [i.e., "Prices current at Manila"], [32] +in the Spanish and English languages. A royal decree of October 4, +1839, provided for the introduction and circulation of books in the +islands; the fiscal must designate those that merited examination, +and then they must be passed upon by two censors, appointed by +the governor and the archbishop respectively, whose opinion must +be submitted to the fiscal; and if "there shall appear sufficient +ground for prohibiting the circulation of any work, because it may +contain principles, opinions, or doctrines opposed to the rights of +the legitimate government or to the religion of the State, it shall be +not only seized but reshipped." [33] On July 15, 1840, was opened the +School of Commerce, established at the request of the Board [Junta] +of Commerce. "On November 11 Lardizábal repeated Ricafort's edict of +1828, prohibiting foreigners from selling merchandise at retail and +entering the provinces to trade." At the end of this year important +changes were made in the administration of financial affairs, all +the revenues arising from government monopolies being united under +one bureau; and another bureau was likewise created for the general +administration of the tributes and some other branches of revenue, as +those from cockpits, tithes, etc.; while in all the general offices of +supervision was introduced the system of bookkeeping by double entry, +which had been established in the royal accountancy of the exchequer +in 1839. The governor also issued instructions for more careful and +accurate accounting being made of municipal property and local imposts, +in order to prevent abuses and waste of funds. Lardizábal was soon +weary of his command, although faithful to his duties while governor, +and so earnestly entreated the home government to allow him to return +to Spain that finally he gained this permission; and he departed on +that voyage (February, 1841), only to die a few days after leaving +Manila; he was buried on an islet near Java. He was succeeded by +Marcelino de Oráa Lecumberri. + + + + + + + + +REMARKS ON THE PHILLIPPINE ISLANDS AND ON THEIR CAPITAL MANILA, + +1819 to 1822 + + +ADVERTISEMENT + +The following remarks are drawn up by one but little accustomed +to writing, and offered with much diffidence. In them the Spanish +character will be found perhaps severely treated; but it is necessary +to remark, that not only these observations are, from their very +nature, general; but farther, that they have no reference to the +genuine or European Spanish character--a character of which the writer +has but little knowledge, and one as essentially different from that +which falls under consideration in the following pages, as the society +of all convict colonies is from that of the mother country. [34] + + + + + +PART I + +THE PHILLIPPINES + +Of the numerous groupes of islands which constitute the maritime +division of Asia, the Phillippines, in situation, riches, fertility, +and salubrity, are equal or superior to any. Nature has here revelled +in all that poets or painters have thought or dreamt of unbounded +luxuriance of Asiatic scenery. The lofty chains of mountains--the rich +and extensive slopes which form their bases--the ever-varying change +of forest and savannah--of rivers and lakes--the yet blazing volcanoes +in the midst of forests, coeval perhaps with their first eruption--all +stamp her work with the mighty emblems of her creative and destroying +powers. Java alone can compete with them in fertility; but in riches, +extent, situation, and political importance, it is far inferior. + +Their position, whether in a political or commercial point of view, +is strikingly advantageous. With India and the Malay Archipelago on +the west and south, the islands of the fertile Pacific and the rising +empires of the new world on the east, the vast market of China at +their doors, their insular position and numerous rivers affording +a facility of communication and defence to every part of them, an +active and industrious population, climates of almost all varieties, +a soil so fertile in vegetable and mineral productions as almost to +exceed credibility; the Phillippine Islands alone, in the hands of +an industrious and commercial nation, and with a free and enlightened +government, would have become a mighty empire:--they are--a waste! + +This archipelago presents, in common with all the islands which form +the southern and eastern barrier of Asia, those striking features +which mark a recent or an approaching convulsion of nature: they are +separated by narrow, but deep, and frequently unfathomable channels; +their steep and often tremendous capes and headlands, though clothed +with verdure to the very brink, appear to rise almost perpendicularly +from the ocean; they have but few reefs or shoals, and those of +small extent; and in the interior of the islands, numerous volcanoes, +in activity or very recently so, boiling springs and mineral waters +of all descriptions, minerals of all kinds on the very surface of +the earth, and frequent shocks of earthquakes, all point to this +conclusion, and offer a rich and unexplored field to the geologist +[35] and mineralogist, as do their plants and animals to the botanist +and zoologist; [36] the few attempts that have hitherto been made to +examine them, having from various causes failed, or only extended to +a short distance round the capital. [37] + +The climate of these islands is remarkably temperate and +salubrious. The thermometer in Manila is sometimes as low as 70°, +and rarely exceeds 90° in the house during the N. E. monsoon. In +the interior it is sometimes as low as 68° in the mornings, which +are remarkably cool, so much so as to require at time$ woolen +clothing. None of the mountains are within the limits of perpetual +congelation; but I think some cannot be far from it, as I have seen +something much resembling snow on the Pico de Mindoro, and there may +be higher ones in the interior of Magindanao. [38] + +Both natives and Spaniards live to a tolerable age, in spite of +the indolent habits of the latter, and the debauches of both. The +Spaniards are most commonly carried off by chronic dysentery, which is +called by them "la enfermedád del pays" (the illness of the country): +from its very frequent occurrence, at least 7 out of 10 of those who +exceed the age of 40, fall victims to this disorder. [39] Acute liver +complaints are very rare, as is also the chronic affection of that +organ, unless as connected with the preceding disorder. + +Fevers are not common amongst Europeans, in Manila. Amongst the +natives, the intermittent is of common occurrence, particularly +after the rains (in September and October), and in woody or +marshy situations. [40] This appears to be owing as much to the +thinness and want of clothing, together with their habits of bathing +indiscriminately at all hours, as to miasmata; and, as their fevers +are generally neglected, they often superinduce other and more fatal +disorders, as obstructions, &c. Tetanos in cases of wounds is of +common occurrence, and generally fatal. + +Their population, by a census taken in 1817-18, amounted to 2,236,000 +souls, and is increasing rapidly. In one province, that of Pampanga, +from 1817 to 1818, there was an increase of 6,737 souls, the whole +population being in 1817, 22,500; but I suspect some inaccuracy +in this. The total increase from 1797 to 1817, 25 [sic] years, is +by this statement 835,500, or 3,360 per annum! In this census are +included only those subject to Spanish laws. About three quarters +of a million more may be added for the various independent tribes, +[41] which may be said to possess the whole of the interior of the +islands, on some of which, as the large one of Mindanao (called by +the natives Magindanao) there are only a few contemptible [Spanish] +posts, the interior and a great part of the coast being still subject +to the Malay sultans, originally of Arab race. + +The population of the Marianas and Calamianes Islands, with that of +Palawan, which are all included in "The Kingdom of the Phillippines," +are comprised in this number, but the whole of these does not exceed +19,000. + +Of this number about 600 only are European Spaniards, with some few +foreigners: the remainder are divided into various classes, of which +the principal are, 1st, The Negroes, or aborigines; 2d, the Malays +(or Indians, as they are called by the Spaniards); and the Mestizos +and Creoles, who are about as 1 to 5 of the Indian population. + +The Negroes [i.e., Negritos] [42] are in all probability the original +inhabitants of these islands, as they appear at some remote epoch +to have been of almost all the eastern archipelago. The tide of +Malay emigration, from whatever cause and part it proceeded, has on +some islands entirely destroyed them. Others, as New Guinea, it has +not yet reached, a circumstance which seems to point to the west as +the original cradle of the Malay race. In the Phillippines, it has +driven them from the coast to the mountains, which by augmenting the +difficulty of procuring subsistence, may have much diminished their +numbers. Still, however, they form a distinct, and perhaps a more +numerous class of men than is generally suspected. They have in the +present day undisturbed possession of nearly 2/3ds of the island of +Luzon, and of others a still larger proportion. + +These people are small in stature, some of them almost dwarfish, +woolly-headed, and thick-lipped, like the negroes of Africa, to +whom indeed they bear a striking resemblance, though the different +tribes vary much in their stature and general appearance. They subsist +entirely on the chase, or on fruits, herbs, roots, or fish when they +can approach the coast. They are nearly, and often quite naked, and +live in huts formed of the boughs of trees, grass &c., or in the trees +themselves, when on an excursion or migration. Their mode of life is +wandering and unsettled, seldom remaining long enough in one place +to form a village. They sometimes sow a little maize or rice, and +wait its ripening, but not longer. These are the habits of the tribes +which border on the Spanish settlements. Farther within the mountains +they are more settled, and even form villages of considerable size, in +the deep vallies by which the chains of mountains are intersected. The +entrances to these they fortify with plantations of the thorny bamboo, +pickets of the same, set strongly in the earth and sharpened by fire, +ditches and pit-falls; in short all the means of defence in their +power are employed to render these places inaccessible. Here they +cultivate corn, rice, and tobacco; the last they sell to Indians, +who smuggle it into the towns. This being a contraband article, as +it is monopolized by government, the defences are used against the +Spanish revenue officers and troops, who on this account never fail +to destroy their establishments when they can do so, though many are +impregnable to any force they can bring against them, from the nature +of the passes, and from the activity of the negroes, who use their +bows with wonderful expertness. There are indeed instances of their +repulsing bodies of one or two hundred native troops, but affairs of +this magnitude are very rare. + +To this predatory kind of warfare, as well as to the defective +qualities, and often very reprehensible conduct of the missionaries, +generally Indian priests (Clerigos), are perhaps to be in some +measure attributed their unsettled habits. Those nearest the Spanish +settlements carry on a little commerce, receiving wrought iron, +cloth, and tobacco, but oftener dollars, in exchange for gold-dust, +&c., or for wax, honey, and other products of their mountains. The +circumstance of their receiving dollars, which they rarely use in +their purchases, is a curious one; but it is a fact, and very large +quantities of money are supposed to be thus buried; from what motive, +except a superstitious one, cannot be imagined. [43] + +Of their manners or customs little or nothing is known. Like all +savage nations, they are abundantly tinctured with superstitions, +fickle, and hasty. One of their customs best known is, that upon the +death of a chief, they plant themselves in ambush on some frequented +track, and with their arrows assassinate the first unfortunate +traveller who passes, and not unfrequently two or three; the bodies +are carried off as sacrifices to the manes of the deceased. [44] The +communications between the Spanish settlements are often interrupted +by this circumstance, as no Indian will venture out when the negroes +are known to be "de luto" (in mourning): they are also said to have a +"throwing of spears," similar to those of New Holland, at the death +of any eminent person. In fact, upon this, as upon all other points +unconnected with masses and sermons, there exists a degree of ignorance +which is almost incredible. The early missionaries, in their rage for +nominal conversion, appear to have neglected entirely the history or +origin of their neophytes; and, as in America, where the monuments of +ages were crumbled to the dust to plant the cross, all that related +to the history of their converts was considered as unprofitable, +if not as impious, the devil [45] being compendiously supposed to +preside over their political as well as religious institutions in +all cases. In this belief, and in its consequent effects, the modern +missionaries, who are mostly Indian priests, are worthy successors +of their Spanish predecessors. + +The government have many missions established for the purpose of +converting them, but with little success. Like most savages, their +mode of life has to them charms superior to civilization, or rather to +Christianity (for here the terms are not synonimous); and they rarely +remain, should they even consent to be baptized, but on the first +caprice, or exaction of tribute, which immediately takes place, and +sometimes even precedes this ceremony, return again to their mountains. + +Exposed to all inclemencies of the weather, and with an unwholesome +and precarious diet, they perhaps rarely attain more than forty +years of age. Their numbers are supposed rather to diminish than +increase; and in a few years this race of men, with their language, +will probably be extinct. It is indeed a curious subject of enquiry, +whether the language of those of the eastern islands has any, and +what resemblance to those of Africa, or the southern parts of New +Holland and Van Dieman's Land? [46] + +They are not represented as very mischievous; but if strangers +venture too far into their woods, they consider it an aggression, +and repel it accordingly with their arrows. Those who frequent the +Spanish settlements are rather of a mild character; and there are +instances of Spanish vessels being wrecked on the coast, whose people, +particularly the Europeans, have been treated by them in the kindest +manner, and carefully conducted to the nearest settlement. + +The character of the different tribes appears, however, to vary in +this particular: some are described as treacherous and cruel, and +those which inhabit the north western coasts of the Bay of Manila are +accused of having frequently attacked the boats of ships, when these +were not sufficiently guarded in their intercourse with them. The +natives of the town in the Bay of Mariveles, at the entrance of that +of Manila, assured the writer of these pages, that it would be madness +to attempt accompanying them into the woods, even in disguise; and +in this they persisted, though money was offered them to allow him +to proceed with them. + +The Indians are the descendants of the various Malay tribes which +appear to have emigrated to this country at different times, and +from different parts of Borneo and Celebes. Their languages, though +all derived from one stock (the Malay), has a number of dialects +differing very materially; so much so, that those from different +provinces frequently do not understand each other. + +They differ too in their character, and slightly in their manners +and customs. The most numerous class of them are the Bisayas, [47] +(a Spanish name, from their anciently painting their bodies, and using +defensive armour). These inhabit the largest part of the southern +islands. Luzon contains several tribes, of which the most remarkable +are the Ylocos, Cagayanes, Zambales, Pangasinanes, Pampangos, and +Tagalos. These still retain their national distinctions and characters +to such a degree, that they often occasion quarrels amongst each +other. Of their general character as a nation we are now to speak. + +The Indian of the Phillippine Islands has been strangely +misrepresented. He is not the being that oppression, bigotry, +and indolence, have for 300 years endeavoured to make him, or he +is so only when he has no other resource. Necessity, and the force +of example have made those of Manila, what the whole are generally +characterized as--traitors, idlers, and thieves. + +How, under such a system as will be afterwards described, should +they be otherwise? Say rather, that all considered, it is surprising +to find them what they are; for they are in general (I speak of the +Indian of the provinces), mild, industrious, as far as they dare to +be so, hospitable, kind, and ingenuous. The Pampango is brave, [48] +faithful, and active; the fidelity of the Cagayan is proverbial; the +Yloco and the Pangasinanon are most industrious; the Bisayan is brave +and enterprising almost to fool-hardiness:--they are all a spirited, a +proudly-spirited race of men; and such materials, in other hands, would +form the foundation of all that is great and excellent in human nature. + +But for 300 years they have been ground to the earth with +oppression. They have been crushed by tyranny; their spirit has +been tortured by abuse and contempt, and brutalized by ignorance; +in a word, there is no injustice that has not been inflicted on them, +short of depriving them of their liberty; and in a work published at +Madrid in 1819 (Estado de las Yslas Filipinas, par [sic; for por] Don +Tomas Comyn), whose author was a factor of the Phillippine company, a +whole chapter (the 4th) is devoted to the mild and humane project "of +establishing Spanish agriculturists throughout the islands," who are, +"to require a certain number of Indians from the governors of towns +and provinces, who are to be driven to the plantations, where they +are to be obliged to work a certain time, the price of their labour +being fixed, and then to be relieved by a fresh drove!" [49] + +Such a system, incredible as it may appear, has been proposed to a +Spanish cortes; and still more wonderful, plans like these excited +no reprobation in Manila. Such were Spanish ideas of governing +Indians! Justice would almost tempt us to wish that this scheme had +been carried into execution, and that the Indian had risen and dashed +his chains on the heads of the authors of such an infernal project. And +yet the Indian is marked out as little better than a brute; so many +of them are, but to the system of government, and not to the Indian, +is the fault to be ascribed. + +It is not here meant to accuse the Spanish laws; many of them are +excellent, and would appear to have been dictated by the very spirit +of philanthropy. But these are rarely enforced, or if they are, +delay vitiates their effect. That this colony, the most favoured +perhaps under heaven by nature, should have remained till the present +day almost a forest, is a circumstance which has generally excited +surprise in those who are acquainted with it, and has as generally +been accounted for by attributing it to the laziness of the Spaniards +and Indians. This is but a superficial view of the subject; one of +those general remarks which being relatively a little flattering to +ourselves, pass current as facts, and then "we wonder how any one can +doubt of what is so generally received."--The cause lies deeper, man is +not naturally indolent. When he has supplied his necessities, he seeks +for superfluities--if he can enjoy them in security and peace;--if +not--if the iron gripe of despotism (no matter in what shape, or +through what form it is felt), is ready to snatch his earnings from +him, without affording him any equivalent--then indeed he becomes +indolent, that is, he merely provides for the wants of to-day. This +apathy is perpetuated through numerous generations till it becomes +national habit, and then we falsely call it nature. It cannot be +too often repeated, that from the poles to the equator, man is the +creature of his civil institutions, and is active in proportion to +the freedom he enjoys. Who that has perused the History of Java by +Sir S. Raffles, [50] and seen the effects of government planned by +the talents of Minto in the spirit of the British constitution in +that country, will now accuse the Javanese of unwillingness to work, +if the fruits of his labour are secured to him? And yet we remember +when a Javanese was another name for every thing that is detestable. It +is ever thus--we blame the race, because that flatters our pride--we +should first look to their institutions. I return to the Phillippines. + +The cause, then, of their little progress is "because there is no +security for property;" or in other words, the smallness of the +salaries of the officers of justice, as well as of other members +of government, and the profligacy inseparable from all despotic +governments, have laid the inhabitants under that curse of all +societies, venal courts of justice. Does an unfortunate Indian scrape +together a few dollars to buy a buffalo, in which consists their +whole riches? Woe to him if it is known; and if his house is in a +lonely situation--he is infallibly robbed. Does he complain, and is +the robber caught? In three months he is let loose again (perhaps +with some trifling punishment), to take vengeance on his accuser, +and renew his depredations. + +Hundreds of Indian families are yearly ruined in this manner. Deprived +of their cattle, on which they depend for subsistence, they grow +desperate and careless of future exertion, which can but lead to the +same results, and thus either drag on a miserable existence from day +to day, or join with the robbers [51] to pursue the same mode of life, +and to exonerate themselves from paying tributes and taxes, in return +for which no protection is granted. In many provinces this has been +carried to such an extent, that whole districts are rendered impassable +by the robbers, [52] who even lay villages under contribution! + +This is the state of the inland towns. On the coasts, and while a +flotilla of gun-boats is maintained at an expense of upwards of half +a million of dollars annually, there is no part safe from the attacks +of the Malay pirates from Borneo, Sooloo, and Mindanao. These make +regular cruises to procure slaves, and have even not unfrequently +carried them off, not only from the bay of Manila, [53] but even from +within gun-shot of its ramparts! The very soldiers and sailors sent +for their protection plunder them. An Indian in whose neighbourhood +troops are posted, or who sees the gun-boats approaching, can no +longer consider his property safe; and in the very vicinity of Manila, +soldiers ramble about with their loaded muskets, and pilfer all they +lay hands upon at midday! [54] + +Does the Indian, in spite of all this, escape, and by patient industry +make a little way in the world? he is vexed with offices; he is chosen +Alguazil, Lieutenant, and Captain of his town; to these offices no +pay is attached, they always occasion expenses and create him enemies; +he is pinched or cheated by the Mestizos, a forestalling, avaricious, +and tyrannical race. Does he suffer in silence? it is a signal for +new oppressions: does he complain? a law suit. The Mestizos are all +connected, they are rich, and the Indian is poor. + +The imperfect mode of trial, both in civil and criminal cases (by +written declarations and the decisions of judges alone), lays them open +to a thousand frauds; for if the magistrate be supposed incorruptible, +his notaries or writers (escribanos and escribientes) are not so; +and from their knavery, declarations are often falsified, or one paper +is exchanged for another whilst in the act of or before signing them. + +To such a degree does this exist, that few Indians, even of those +who can read Spanish tolerably, will sign a declaration made before a +magistrate without threats, or without having some one on whom they +can depend, to assure them they may safely do so. Nor is this to be +wondered at, when it is known that declarations on which the life +or fortune of an individual may depend are left, often for days, +in the power of writers or notaries, any of whom may be bought for +a doubloon; and some of them are even the menial servants of the +magistrate! This applies to Luzon. In the other islands, this miserable +system is yet worse: they have seldom but one communication a year +with the capital, to which all causes of any magnitude are sent for +decision or confirmation; and, as the papers are often (purposely) +drawn up with some informality, the cause, after suffering all the +first ordeal of chicane and knavery, experiences a year's delay +before it is even allowed a chance of being exposed to that which +awaits it at Manila. Or should the cause be at length carried to the +Audiencia, or Supreme Court, and there, as is sometimes the case, be +judged impartially, the delay of the decision renders it useless--the +sentence is evaded--or treated with contempt! This may appear almost +incredible, but known to any person who has resided in Manila. + +While the civil power is thus shamefully corrupt or negligent of +its duties, the church has not forgotten that she too has claims +on the Indian. She has marked out, exclusive of Sundays, above 40 +days in the year on which no labour can be performed throughout the +islands. Exclusive of these are the numerous local feasts in honor +of the patron saints of towns and churches. [55] The influence of +these extends often through a groupe of many islands, always to many +leagues round their different sanctuaries; and often lasting three +or four days, sometimes a week, according to his or her reputation +for sanctity; so that including Sundays, the average cannot be less +than 110 or 120 days lost to the community in a year. This alone is +a heavy tax on the agricultural classes, by whom it is most severely +felt; but its consequences are more so, from the habits of idleness +and dissipation which it engenders and perpetuates. These feasts +are invariably, after the procession is over, scenes of gambling, +drinking, and debauchery of every description. + + + "And mony jobs that day begun, + Will end in houghmagandie." [56] + + +Thus they unsettle and disturb the course of their labours by calling +off their attention from their domestic cares; and by continually +offering occasions of dissipation destroy what little spirit of economy +or foresight may exist amongst so rude and ignorant a people. Nor is +this all; they are subject to numerous other vexations and impositions +under the title of church-services; such are, in some towns, five or +six men attendant daily in rotation to bring the sick to the church +to confess, or to carry the "Padre" with the host to their houses, +and many others; all of which, though in themselves trifles, are more +harassing, from their unsettling tendency, than pecuniary imposts. An +encouragement to celibacy and its consequent evils is also to be found +in the (to them) heavy expenses attendant on all the domestic offices +of religion, as matrimony, baptism, &c., as well as in the increase +of the poll-tax on married persons, for the whole of which the husband +is responsible. The ecclesiastical expenses of a marriage between the +poorer classes are about five dollars: the others, as christenings, +buryings, &c., in proportion. These appear trifles; but if to these +are added the confessions, bulas, [i.e., of the Crusade] and other +exactions, it will be seen that these constitute no trifling part of +the oppressive and ill managed system which has so much contributed +to debase their real character. + +I say nothing here of the natural effect of the Roman Catholic +religion on an ignorant people, who imagine, that verbal confession +and pecuniary atonements (rarely to the injured person) are a salvo +for crimes of all magnitudes: that such is the case, is notorious to +every one who has visited Catholic countries. + +Let us for a moment retrace this picture. To whom after this is it +attributable that the Indian is often a vicious and degraded being, +particularly in the neighborhood of Manila? + +If he sees all around him thieving and enjoying their plunder +with impunity, what wonder is it that he should thieve also? If +his tribunals of all descriptions afford him no redress, +or place that redress beyond his reach, what resource has he +but private revenge? [57] If he cannot enjoy the fruits of +his labour in peace, why should he work? If he is ignorant, +why has he not been instructed? There exist scarcely any +schools to teach him his duties: the few that do exist teach him +Latin! prayers! theology! jurisprudence! and some little reading and +writing; [58] but he is only taught to read the lives of the saints, +and the legends of the church, whose gloomy, fanatical doctrines and +sanguinary histories have not a little contributed to make him at +times revengeful and intolerant. Does he prevaricate and flatter? It +is because he dare not speak the truth, and because a long system of +oppression has broken his spirit. + +Does he endeavour to advance himself a few steps in civilization? his +attempts are treated with ridicule and contempt; [59] hence he +becomes apathetic, careless of advancement, and often insensible to +reproach. The best epithets he hears from Spaniards (often as ignorant +as himself) are "Indio!" The God of nature made him so. "Bruto!" He +has been and is brutalized by his masters. "Barbaro!" He is often +so by force, example, or even by precept. "Ignorante!" He has no +means of learning; the will is not wanting. In a word, the spirit +of the followers of Cortes and Pizarro, appears to have left its +last vestiges here, and perhaps the Indian has been saved from its +persecutions only by the weakness of the Spaniard. + +Such are some of the causes which have marked the character of +the Indian, which is not naturally bad, with some of its prominent +blemishes. I am far from holding up the Indian of the Phillippines as +a faultless being; he is not so; the Indian of Manila [60] has all the +vices attributed to him; but I assert, that the Phillippine islander +owes the greater part of his vices to example, to oppression, and above +all to misgovernment; and that his character has traits, which under +a different system, would have produced a widely different result. + +To sum up his character:--He is brave, tolerably faithful, extremely +sensible to kind treatment, and feelingly alive to injustice or +contempt; proud of ancestry, which some of them carry to a remote +epoch; fond of dress and show, hunting, riding, and other field +exercises; but prone to gambling and dissipation. He is active, +industrious, and remarkably ingenious. He possesses an acute ear, +and a good taste for music and painting, but little inclination for +abstruse studies. He has from nature excellent talents, but these +are useless for want of instruction. The little he has received, has +rendered him fanatical in religious opinions; and long contempt and +hopeless misery has mingled with his character a degree of apathy, +which nothing but an entire change of system and long perseverance +will efface from it. [61] + +The Mestizos are the next class of men who inhabit these islands: under +this name are not only included the descendants of Spaniards by Indian +women and their progeny, but also those of the Chinese, who are in +general whiter than either parent, and carefully distinguish themselves +from the Indians. The Mestizos are, as the name denotes, a mixed class, +and, with the creoles of the country, like those of all colonies, +when uncorrected by an European education, inherit the vices of both +progenitors, with but few of the virtues of either. Their character has +but few marked traits; the principal ones are their vanity, industry, +and trading ingenuity: as to the rest, money is their god; to obtain +it they take all shapes, promise and betray, submit to everything, +trample and are trampled on; all is alike to them, if they get money; +and this, when obtained, they dissipate in lawsuits, firing cannon, +fireworks, illuminations, processions on feast days and rejoicings, in +gifts to the churches, or in gambling. This anomaly of actions is the +business of their lives. Too proud to consider themselves as Indians, +and not sufficiently pure in blood to be acknowledged as Spaniards, +they affect the manners of the last, with the dress of the first, +and despising, are despised by both. [62] They however, cautiously +mark on all occasions the lines which separate them from the Indians, +and have their own processions, ceremonies, inferior officers of +justice, &c., &c. The Indian repays them with a keen contempt, not +unmixed with hatred. And these feuds, while they contribute to the +safety of a government too imbecile and corrupt to unite the good +wishes of all classes, have not unfrequently given rise to affrays +which have polluted even the churches and their altars with blood. + +Such are the three great classes of men which may be considered +as natives of the Phillippine Islands. The Creole [63] Spaniards, +or those whose blood is but little mingled with the Indian ancestry, +pass as Spaniards. Many of them are respectable merchants and men of +large property; while others, from causes which will be seen hereafter, +are sunk in all the vices of the Indian and Mestizo. + +The government of the Phillippine Islands is composed of a governor, +who has the title of Captain General, with very extensive powers; +a Teniente Rey, or Lieutenant Governor; the Audiencia or Supreme +Court, who are also the Council. This tribunal is composed of three +judges, the chief of whom has the title of Regent, and two Fiscals or +Attorney Generals, the one on the part of the king, the other on that +of the natives, and this last has the specious title of "Defensor +de los Indios." The financial affairs are under the direction of +an Intendant, who may be called a financial governor. He has the +entire control and administration of all matters relative to the +revenue, the civil and military auditors and accountants being under +him. Commercial affairs are decided by the Consulado, or chamber of +commerce, composed of all the principal, and, in Manila, some of the +inferior merchants. From this is an appeal to a tribunal "de Alzada" +[i.e., of appeal] composed of one judge and two merchants, and from +this to the Audiencia, without whose approbation no sentence is valid. + +The civic administration is confided to the Ayuntamiento (Courts of +Aldermen or Municipality). This body, composed of the two Alcaldes, +twelve Regidors (or Aldermen) and a Syndic, enjoy very extensive +privileges, approaching those of Houses of Assembly; their powers, +however, appear more confined to remonstrances and protests, +representations against what they conceive arbitrary or erroneous +in government, or recommendations of measures suggested either +by themselves or others. They have, in general, well answered the +object of their institution as a barrier against the encroachments +of government, and as a permanent body for reference in cases where +local knowledge was necessary, which last deficiency they well supply. + +The civil power and police are lodged in the hands of a Corregidor and +two Alcaldes: the decision of these is final in cases of civil suits, +where the value in question is small, 100 dollars being about the +maximum. [64] Their criminal jurisdiction extends only to slight fines +and corporal punishments, and imprisonment preparatory to trial. The +police is confided to the care of the Corregidor, who has more +extensive powers, and also the inspection and control of the prisons. + +To him are also subject the Indian Captains and Officers of towns, who +are annually elected by the natives. These settle small differences, +answer for disturbances in their villages, execute police orders, +impose small contributions of money or labour for local objects, such +as repairs of roads, &c. &c. They also have the power of inflicting +slight punishments on the refractory. To them is also confided the +collection of the capitation or poll-tax, which is done by dividing the +population of the town or village into tens, each of which has a Cabeça +(or head), who is exempt from tribute himself, but answerable for the +amount of the ten under him. This tax is then paid to the Alcalde or +Corregidor, and from him to the treasury. The Mestizos and Chinese +have also their captains and heads, who are equally answerable for +the poll-tax. + +The different districts and islands, which are called provinces, +and are 29 in number, are governed by Alcaldes. The more troublesome +ones, or those requiring a military form of government, by military +officers, who are also Corregidors. Samboangan on the south west +coast of Mindanao, and the Marianas, have governors named from Manila, +and these are continued from three to five years in office. + +These Alcaldeships are a fertile source of abuses and oppression: their +pay is mean to the last degree, not exceeding 350 dollars per annum, +and a trifling per centage on the poll-tax. They are in general held +by Spaniards of the lower classes, who finding no possible resource +in Manila, solicit an Alcadeship. This is easily obtained, on giving +the securities required by government for admission to these offices, +which consist in two sureties [65] to an amount proportionable to +the value of the taxes of the province, which all pass through the +Alcalde's hands. + +Of the nature and amount of these abuses an idea will be better +formed from the following abridged quotations, which are translated +from the work of Comyn before quoted (p. 16). [66] + +"It is indeed common enough to see the barber or lacquey of a governor, +or a common sailor, transformed at once into the Alcalde in chief of +a populous province, without any other guide or council than his own +boisterous passions. + +"Without examining the inconvenience which may arise from their +ignorance, it is yet more lamentable to observe the consequences +of their rapacious avarice, which government tacitly allows them to +indulge, under the specious title of permissions to trade (indultos). + +----"and these are such that it may be asserted, that the evil which +the Indian feels most severely is derived from the very source which +was originally intended for his assistance and protection, that is, +from the Alcaldes of the provinces, who, generally speaking, are the +determined enemies and the real oppressors of their industry. + +"It is a well known fact, that far from promoting the felicity of the +provinces to which he is appointed, the Alcalde is exclusively occupied +with advancing his private fortune, without being very scrupulous +as to the means he employs to do so: hardly is he in office than he +declares himself the principal consumer, buyer, and exporter of every +production of the province. In all his enterprises he requires the +forced assistance of his subjects, and if he condescends to pay them, +it is at least only at the price paid for the royal works. These +miserable beings carry their produce and manufactures to him, who +directly or indirectly has fixed an arbitrary price for them. To offer +that price is to prohibit any other from being offered--to insinuate is +to command--the Indian dares not hesitate--he must please the Alcalde, +or submit to his persecution: and thus, free from all rivalry in his +trade, being the only Spaniard in the province, the Alcalde gives +the law without fear or even risk, that a denunciation of his tyranny +should reach the seat of government. + +"To enable us to form a more correct idea of these iniquitous +proceedings, let us lift a little of the veil with which they are +covered, and examine a little their method of collecting the 'tributo' +(poll-tax). + +"The government, desirous of conciliating the interests of the natives +with that of the revenue, has in many instances commuted the payment +of the poll-tax into a contribution in produce or manufactures: +a year of scarcity arrives, and this contribution, being then of +much higher value than the amount of the tax, and consequently the +payment in produce a loss, and even occasioning a serious want in +their families, they implore the Alcalde to make a representation +to government that they may be allowed to pay the tribute for that +year in money. This is exactly one of those opportunities, when, +founding his profits on the misery of his people, the Alcalde can in +the most unjust manner abuse the power confided to him. He pays no +attention to their representations. He is the zealous collector of +the royal revenues;--he issues proclamations and edicts, and these are +followed by his armed satellites, who seize on the harvests, exacting +inexorably the tribute, until nothing more is to be obtained. Having +thus made himself master of the miserable subsistence of his subjects, +he changes his tone on a sudden--he is the humble suppliant to +government in behalf of the unfortunate Indians, whose wants he +describes in the most pathetic terms, urging the impossibility of +their paying the tribute in produce--no difficulty is experienced in +procuring permission for it to be paid in money--to save appearance, +a small portion of it is collected in cash, and the whole amount paid +by him into the treasury, while he resells at an enormous profit, +the whole of the produce (generally rice) which has been before +collected!" Comyn, p. 134 to 138. + +This extract, though long, is introduced as an evidence from a Spaniard +(not of the lower order, or a disappointed adventurer, but a man of +high respectability), of the shameless abuses which are daily practiced +in this unfortunate country, and of which the Indian is invariably +the victim: and it is far from being an overcharged one. Hundreds +of other instances might be cited, [67] but this one will perhaps +suffice to exonerate the writer of these remarks from suspicion of +exaggeration, in pointing out some of the most prominent of them. + +While treating of the government of the Phillippines, we must not +forget the ministers of their religion, and the share which they have +in preserving these islands as dominions to the crown of Spain. This +influence dates from the earliest epoch of their discovery. The +followers of Cortes and Pizarro, with their successors, were employed +in enriching themselves in the new world; and the spirit of conquest +and discovery having found wherewith to satiate the brutal avarice by +which it was directed, abandoned these islands to the pious efforts of +the missionaries by whom, rather than by force of arms, they were in a +great measure subdued; and even in the present day, they still preserve +so great an influence, that the Phillippines may be almost said to +exist under a theocracy approaching to that of the Jesuits in Paraguay. + +The ecclesiastical administration is composed of an Archbishop +(of Manila), who has three suffragans, Ylocos, Camarines, and Zebu; +the first two on Luzon, the last on the island of the same name. The +revenue of the Archbishop is 4000, and that of the bishops 3000 dollars +annually. The regular Spanish clergy of all orders are about 250, +the major part of which are distributed in various convents in the +different islands, though their principal seats are in that of Luzon; +and many of them, from age or infirmity, are confined to their convents +in Manila. + +The degree of respect in which "the Padre" is held by the Indian, +is truly astonishing. It approaches to adoration, and must be +seen to be credited. In the most distant provinces, with no other +safeguard than the respect with which he has inspired the Indians, +he exercises the most unlimited authority, and administers the whole +of the civil and ecclesiastical government, not only of a parish, +but often of a whole province. His word is law--his advice is taken +on all subjects. No order from the Alcalde, or even the government +[68] is executed without his counsel and approbation, rendered too +in many cases the more indispensable from his being the only person +who understands Spanish in the village. [69] To their high honour +be it spoken, the conduct of these reverend fathers in general fully +justifies and entitles them to this confidence. The "Padre" is the only +bar to the oppressions of the Alcalde: he protects, advises, comforts, +remonstrates, and pleads for his flock; and not unfrequently has he +been seen, though bending beneath the weight of years and infirmity, +to leave his province, and undertake a long and often perilous voyage +to Manila, to stand forward as the advocate of his Indians; and these +gratefully repay this kind regard for their happiness by every means +in their power. + +Their hospitality is equally praiseworthy. The stranger who is +travelling through the country, no matter what be his nation or his +religion, [70] finds at every town the gates of the convent open to +him, and nothing is spared that can contribute to his comfort and +entertainment. They too are the architects and mechanists: many of +them are the physicians and schoolmasters of the country, and the +little that has been done towards the amelioration of the condition +of the Indian, has generally been done by the Spanish clergy. + +It is painful, however, to remark, that much that might have been +done, has been left undone. The exclusive spirit of the Roman church, +which confines its knowledge to its priests, is but too visible +even here: they appear to be more anxious to make Christians, than +citizens, and by neglecting this last part of their duty, have but +very indifferently fulfilled the first,--the too common error of +proselytists of all denominations, which has probably its source in +that vanity of human nature, which is as insatiable beneath the cowl +as under any garb it has yet assumed. + +Some of them too have furnished a striking but melancholy proof of +the eloquent moral, + + + "It is not good for man to be alone." + + +Let us draw a veil over these infirmities. He who has lived amidst +the busy hum of crowds, amidst the wild whirl of human passions and +interests, can have but little conception of the state of that mind, +which perhaps feeling alive to the blessings of social intercourse, +is cut off for years from civilized men; and thus buried mentally, +is constrained to seek all its resources within itself. [71] That +heart is one of powerful fibre which does not sometimes show itself +to be human.... + +There are instances indeed of some of them forgetting in a great +measure their language! and of others who have become almost idiots +while yet in the vigour of life! [72] + +The next and lowest order of ecclesiastics are the Indian clergy +(clerigos); they are in number from 800 to 1000, and though from the +want of Spaniards, the administration of many large districts and +towns is confided to them, they are as a body far from being worthy +of such an important charge. The majority of them are ignorant to the +last degree, proud, debauched, and indolent: in a word, they unite +the vices of the priesthood to those of the Indian, and form a class +of men who may almost be said to be distinguished by their vices only. + +This arises from various causes, of which the principal appears to be +that of their being entirely excluded from the higher ecclesiastical +situations. This alone, by depriving them of the most powerful stimulus +to correct conduct, together with the very confined education they +receive, and the impassable line drawn between them and the Spanish +clergy, whom they are never allowed to approach, and who treat them +with much contempt, are sufficient to account, in a great measure, +for their apparent demerit. The fact, however, is such, whatever be +its cause; and seldom a week passes, or at most a month, but some of +them are brought before the ecclesiastical tribunals, under accusations +but little creditable to their cloth. + +Their ordinary resort at Manila is the cockpit or the gaming table, +where they shew an avidity and keenness which are disgraceful and +shameless to the last degree. Yet to the guidance of beings like +these is the unfortunate Indian in a great measure abandoned, even +in his last moments: for from the very great proportion of these +to the Spanish priests, and from the recluse lives of the latter, +nearly nine-tenths of all the clerical duties are performed by the +Indian clerigos, such as I have described them. The few who do form an +exception, are men whose conduct is highly creditable to themselves, +and more striking from its unfrequent occurrence. + +A keen and deadly jealousy subsists between these and the Spanish +ecclesiastics, or rather a hatred on the one side, and a contempt on +the other. The Indian clergy accuse these last of a neglect of their +ecclesiastical duties, of vast accumulations of property in lands, +&c., which, say they, "belong to us the Indians." The Spaniards in +return treat them with silent contempt, continuing to enjoy the best +benefices, and living at their ease in the convents. From what has been +said, it will be easily seen, "that much may be said on both sides;" +but these recriminations have the bad effect of debasing both parties +in the eyes of the natives, and are the germs of a discord which +may one day involve these countries in all the horrors of religious +dissentions. [73] + +Such are the civil and ecclesiastical government of the +Phillippines. We turn now to the Revenue and Expenditure, Military +establishments, &c. + +Until very lately these rich islands have been a constant burden to +the crown of Spain, money having been annually sent from Mexico to +supply their expenses. The establishment of the monopoly of tobacco has +principally contributed to supply this deficiency. It was established +by an active and intelligent governor (Vasco) about 1745 [sc., 1785] +and still continues to be the principal revenue of the country; +and large sums have been from time to time sent home to Spain, +as a balance against those received from Mexico. The sales of this +article amount more or less to a million of dollars per annum. The +extensive establishment which is kept up to prevent smuggling, and the +expenses of purchase and manufacture, reduce its net produce to 500,000 +dollars per annum. The plant is cultivated in the districts of Gapan +in Pampanga, in a part of the province of Cagayan, and in the island +Marinduque to the south of Luzon. It is delivered in by the cultivators +at fixed prices, and sent to Manila, where it is manufactured in a +large range of buildings dedicated to that purpose, and retailed to the +public at about 18 to 19 1/2 dollars per arroba of 25 lbs. (Spanish), +the prices varying a little according to the harvests. + +The administration, inspection, and manufacture of this article, +employ several thousand persons of both sexes (the manufacturing +process being almost wholly carried on by women). This is not only +the most productive, but the best conducted branch of the revenue; +while it is at the same time the least vexatious in its operations, +though not exempt from those objections which are common to all +government monopolies. + +Another of these monopolies is that of Coco wine, as it is called +(vino de Coco y nipa). This is a weak spirit produced from the juice +of the Toddy tree (Borassus gomutus), [74] and from the nipa (Cocos +nypa): of this, large quantities are used by the natives. The expense +of collection is about 80,000 dollars, the net revenue to government +varying from 2 to 300,000. + +The poll-tax (tributo) is the other great branch of the revenue; +the manner of collecting it is described in p. 29. Its amount to +each individual is, with some exceptions and variations in different +provinces, 14 rials, or 1 3/4 dollars for every married Indian, from +the age of 24 to 60. The Mestizos pay 24 rials or 3 dollars, and the +Chinese 6 dollars each: this last branch is generally farmed. The +amount of Indian and Mestizo tribute may be stated in round numbers at +800,000 dollars: the expense of collecting it diminishes it to about +640,000. The exemptions from it are disbanded soldiers, who pay less +than others, men above 60 years of age, and the cultivators of tobacco, +or makers of wine for the royal monopolies. + +The collection of this tax is always attended with much trouble, and +it is detested by the Indians to the last degree. The exaction of it +from the newly converted tribes, [75] and the extensive frauds which, +as already detailed, are practised by means of it, render it the most +oppressive of all impositions. The natives consider it (perhaps with +some justice), as giving money to no purpose; and infallibly evade +it by every means in their power. + +The customs produce from 1 to 300,000 dollars per annum. The remaining +part of the revenue is derived from various minor sources: such are +the cockpits, which are farmed, and produce a net revenue of 25 to +40,000 dollars;--the Chinese poll-tax, 30,000 dollars;--"Bulas," +[76] (the sale of which is farmed, and produces from 10 to 12,000 +dollars);--cards, powder (a monopoly), stamps, and other articles of +minor importance; amongst which was formerly the monopoly of betel nut, +which is now abolished. + +The expenses of administration are as follows. The civil and +ecclesiastical officers of government, 250,000 dollars. The military, +including all classes, about 600,000; and the marine, about 550,000. + +The excess of revenue over the expenditure is stated by Comyn to have +been in 1809 about 450,000 dollars, but in this is included 250,000 +received from Mexico. + +In 1817, by an account published by order of the Ayuntamiento of +Manila, the amount of the revenue was-- + + + Receipts + + Dollars + + Poll Tax 638,976 + Rentas (monopolies, farms, &c.) 810,784 + ========= + Total 1,449,760 [77] + + +of which a surplus would remain when all the expenses were +liquidated. In preceding years, some surplus has been remitted +to Spain. + +The military establishment consists of three regiments of infantry, +one of dragoons, a squadron of hussars, and a battalion of artillery, +in all about 4500 regulars. The militia are numerous, but only one +regiment is under arms: the total of men may be estimated at 5000, +but on an emergency, large bodies of irregulars can be called into +activity. In 1804, the governor, Don J. M. de Anguilar, [i.e., +Aguilar] is said to have had upwards of 20,000 men under arms, being +in expectation of an attack from the English. + +These troops (which are all natives) are in general badly disciplined +and officered, mostly by country-born officers, without the advantage +of an European education, ignorant of their military duties to the +last degree, many of them (more especially in the Mestizo regiments) +connected with the soldiers by relationship, or at least by the tie +of mutual indulgence, the soldier performing every menial office for +the officer, who in return winks at the excesses of the soldier. This +is carried to such an extent, that, not to mention such trifles as +a garden wall or gate, a bathing house, or a stable, or at times a +little smuggling; there are instances on record, where the commanding +officer of a regiment has built himself a country house! the whole +of the masonry and carpentry being performed by soldiers of his +regiment! Another is of a captain collecting his debts by means of +a piquet of infantry; taking possession of his debtor's house until +payment was made! + +It will be easily conceived, that where these things are permitted, +the soldiers are made subservient to other purposes; accordingly +they have been employed to punish the paramours of their officers' +wives--to eject a troublesome tenant--or at times to take vengeance +for affronts, in cases where it might not be safe for the injured +person to do so. [78] + +These remarks apply more particularly to the Mestizo officers. The +Spaniards, and some of the creoles, who are but very few in number, +form a respectable class of military men, of whom some few may be cited +as models of spirit and discipline: but they are not sufficiently +numerous for their example to influence the despicable beings with +whom they are unavoidably associated; and the wealth and influence +being generally on the side of the native-born officers, these abuses +are permitted, and the complaints of others disregarded. + +It is but just, however, to remark, that their pay is excessively +mean; it is a bare, and miserable subsistence; and due weight should +be given to this circumstance in extenuation. A captain of regulars +has not more than 80 dollars per month! and so on in proportion, and +when we reflect, that from the low value of the circulating medium, +a dollar will barely command more than a rupee in any part of India, +much must be allowed for men so situated. + +Hence, though the men, arms, and accoutrements are not bad, the troops +are, from abuses, embezzlement, and neglect, miserably deficient in +a military point of view, and but poorly calculated to answer any +efficient purpose. To this description, the regiment of artillery and +Pampango militia are exceptions: the style of equipment and discipline +of the first are a high testimony of the activity and military talents +of their colonel. The queen's regiment is by far the most respectable +of the infantry. + +Their cavalry are badly mounted, the horses being very small, and by no +means good. The men too are clumsily equipped, with swords manufactured +apparently in the 14th century, being straight, disproportionably long, +and furnished with a steel poignet or basket, above which is a cross, +resembling the rapiers of that time. + +Their marine is still more miserably deficient in the requisite +qualities for essential service, and suffers more from the +mal-administration of its various branches. All work done in the royal +arsenal is computed to cost at least 40 per cent. more than that by +individuals! The marine consists of a flotilla of 40 or 50 gun-boats, +and as many feluccas, [79] of which about one half, or fewer, may be +in constant activity; with what effect has been already remarked. + +Like the army, the navy is almost entirely officered by creoles +and Mestizos, whose pay is but a subsistence, and consequently no +prospect is offered to young men of family and enterprise who may +have other resources. + +The arsenal at Cavite, about 10 miles from Manila, is well provided +with officers and workmen, but has no docks. Vessels, however, +may heave down with great safety; and the work, though expensive, +is remarkably well executed. + +The agriculture of this very fertile country is yet in its +infancy. Oppressed with so many enemies to his advancement, and +placed in a climate where the slightest exertion insures subsistence, +the Indian has, like the majority of his Malay brethren, been content +with supplying his actual wants, without seeking for luxuries. Hence, +and from the expulsion of the Jesuits, they have made no advances +beyond the common attainments of the surrounding islanders. + +This spirited and indefatigable order of men, who, both by precept +and example, encouraged agriculture, not only as the source of +national greatness, but as preparatory to, and inseparable from, +conversion to Christianity, which they well knew did not consist +alone in ceremonies, but in fulfilling the duties of citizens and men, +and who, whatever were their political sins, certainly possessed more +than any other the talent of converting men from savage to civilized +life, have left in the Phillippines some striking monuments of their +wide-spreading and well-directed influence. Extensive convents (the +ground stories of which were magazines), in the centre of fertile +districts formerly in the highest state of cultivation, but now more +than half abandoned,--tunnels,--canals,--reservoirs and dams, by which +extensive tracts were irrigated for the purposes of cultivation, +attest the spirit with which they encouraged this science; and if +their expulsion was a political necessity, it certainly appears to +have been in this country a moral evil. + +The restraints imposed on commerce were another insuperable +bar to their prosperity, as depriving them of a market for their +produce. Since foreigners have been allowed free intercourse with them, +their agriculture has in some degree improved by the increased demand +of produce; but under the present system, but little can be expected +from it. [80] + +The soil is in general a rich red mould, with a great proportion of +iron, and in some districts volcanic matters; it is easily worked +and very productive: that in the immediate vicinity of Manila, and +for four or five miles round it, extending to that distance from the +coast of the Bay, is an alluvial soil, formed by the confluence of +the numerous rivers with the ocean; it is stiff, and in all respects +very inferior to the other. In some parts are extensive tracts, the +reservoirs of the waters from the mountains in the rainy season, +which first yield an amazing supply of fish, [81] and then a good +crop of rice or pasture for the buffaloes. + +The frequent rains, and the numerous rivers and streams with which +the country is every-where intersected, adds to its extraordinary +fertility: it is seldom, if ever, afflicted with droughts, but is +at times devastated by locusts (perhaps once in 10 or 15 years), and +these make dreadful havoc amongst the canes. Their attacks, however, +are partial, and generally take place after the rice is harvested, +in December, disappearing before the rains. In 1818, nearly the whole +of the canes were destroyed by them, and the Ayuntamiento of Manila +expended from 60 to 80,000 dollars in purchasing large quantities of +them, which were thrown into the sea. [82] + +The buffalo is universally used in all field labours, for which, +however, he is but poorly calculated: the slowness of his pace, +and his great suffering from heat, which obliges the labourer to +bathe him frequently, occasion a very considerable loss of time, +which is scarcely compensated by his great strength and little +expense in keeping. Indeed, the bullock should perhaps be on all +occasions substituted for him, excepting only in the cultivation of +rice fields. In a few districts, this is the case; but it is with +reluctance that the native uses him in preference to the buffalo. + +Their breed of horses is small, but very hardy: they are never used +for agricultural purposes, though but few of the peasants are without +one for riding, and many of them have two or three. In the province +of Pampanga (the finest tribe of Indians in the Phillippines), they +risk considerable sums on races! of which they are very fond. + +Their plough is of Chinese origin: it has but one handle, and no +coulter or mould-board, the upper part of the share, which is flat, +and turned to one side, performing this part of the work. The common +harrow is composed of five or six pieces of the stems of the thorny +bamboos, which at the lower part are almost solid; these are united +by a long peg of the same, passing through all the pieces: to these +the hard branches of thorns are left appending, and being cut off at +a short distance from the stem, form the teeth of the instrument, +which, rude as it is, performs its work well, and usefully, and is +seldom out of order. + +For cleaning and finally pulverizing the ground, they have another +harrow of Chinese origin, (or an invention of the Jesuits?) It is +of wrought iron, and for simplicity and utility it is, I think, +unequalled. By means of it they can extirpate the Lallang grass +(Andropogon caricosum), called by them Cogon, [83] and which no other +instrument will perform so well, that I am acquainted with. + +A hoe, like that of the West Indies, answers the purposes of a +spade; and (with the basket) of a shovel. A large knife (the Malay +Parang), called "Bolo," completes the list of their agricultural +instruments. Machinery they cannot be said to possess, except a rude +mill of two cylinders for cane, and another for grinding their rice, +can be called such. The greater part of the rice is beaten from the +husk in wooden mortars, and by hand. + +The rainy season commences with the S. W. monsoon, and ends in +October. The rice (the aquatic sorts) is planted by hand in July and +August, and reaped in December. The upland rice, of which they have two +varieties, is planted earlier, and comes sooner to maturity. The cane +is planted in the manner called "en canon" by the French, that is, +the plant piece is stuck diagonally into the ground; and thus, from +the roots being often on the surface, the plant suffers frequently +from drought, and they have seldom two crops from a piece of cane: +their sugar, though clumsily manufactured, is of excellent grain, +and highly esteemed by the refiners of Europe. + +The indigo plant is very fine; and though, as in all countries, a +precarious crop, yet it is far from being so much so as in India: it +has been manufactured equal to Guatemala, but in the present day is of +a very inferior quality: this arises from various causes, of which the +principal are ignorance in the manufacture of it, a want of capital, +and spirit of enterprise. They have no tanks of masonry, the whole +process being carried on in two wooden vats of a very moderate size, +from which the fecula is taken once a week. It is needless to remark, +that the quality of the indigo is materially injured by this alone: +it is also subject to many adulterations in the hands of the Mestizos, +before being brought to market. + +The coffee plant was almost entirely unknown about 40 years ago, a few +plants only existing in the gardens about Manila. It was gradually +transported from thence to the towns in the neighbourhood of the +lake, where it has been since multiplied to an amazing degree by an +extraordinary method. A species of civet cat with which the woods +abound, swallows the berries, [84] and these passing through the +animal entire, take root, and thus the forests are filled with wild +plants. This fact may be depended upon, and the major part of all the +coffee exported from Manila is produced from the wild plants, and is +equal or superior in flavour to that of Bourbon. The government, in +1795 or 96, made an attempt to force its cultivation in the province of +Bulacan, but forgot, as one of their own officers naivement observes, +"Que no habia compradores ni consumidores"--that there were neither +consumers or customers for it! It of course fell to the ground, and in +the next passage of the same work, the Indian is partly blamed for it! + +The cultivation of cotton is as yet but very partial. It is of the +herbaceous species, of a very fine quality, almost equalling the +Bourbon, but excessively adherent to the grain: so much so indeed, +that none of the attempts to separate it from the seed by machinery +have hitherto succeeded; the grains passing through the rollers, +and staining the cotton. It is cleared by the natives by means of a +hand-mill, very clumsy in its construction, and performing so little +work, that the cleaning costs six dollars per pekul. + +The principal part of the cotton comes from the province of Ylocos, +where large quantities of stuffs are manufactured. The brown cotton, +for which a prize was offered in 1818 by the Society of Arts, grows +in great quantities, and is manufactured into durable cloths and +blankets. The prices of agricultural labour vary from 1 rial [85] per +day near Manila to 3/4 and 1/2 rial in the provinces--a plough with two +buffaloes and a man, 2 1/2 rials. The workmen, like day labourers in +all countries, are often "looking for sunset;" but when allowed task +work, are willing and industrious. A plough will go over rather more +than a loan [86] of ground in a day--about a quinion in three months. + +Of the produce of any given cultivation, it is difficult to speak with +any degree of correctness: calculations of this kind are difficult +to make amongst a people labouring each for himself, and all for the +wants of the day: for, unaccustomed to generalize, each gives his own +as the average, and hence the discrepancy which every person must have +remarked who has had occasion to make inquiries of this description +in half civilized countries, where a main point, the value of the +labourer's time, and of that of his animals, is invariably left out, as +is also the difference of work for himself and for a master. The tables +given at the conclusion of Comyn's work are, as far as regards the +vicinity of the capital, very erroneous. They are also very deficient +in many points. [87] The following is a much nearer approximation. + +A quinion of land requires four ploughings and three harrowings, +say six ploughings in all. + + + Ds. Rs. + +Now as 1 Quinion will occupy a hired labourer about 90 days +at 2 1/2 Rials = 28 Dollars 1 Rial, which for six times is 168 6 +Fencing, 12 Ds.; Grubbing, &c., 15; Cane Slips, 25; +Planting, 18; Weeding and Hoeing, 30; Carriage, 18; +Manufacture, 45; Pilones, &c., 12 175 0 +Cost 343 6 +Produce at low average, 150 Pilones, [88] salable at 3 1/2 +Ds. 487 4 + ======= + Profit 143 6 + + +This supposes the proprietor of the cane to be possessed of a mill, +buffaloes, &c. for the wear of which no estimate is made. + +The 150 pilones of sugar, each weighing about 150 lbs. gross, will +produce the refiner who has purchased them about 100 piculs of sugar, +of which + + + S. Ds. + + 80 1st sort, worth 6 1/4 Dollars 500 0 + 20 2d ditto, and Molasses, &c. 3 3/4 75 0 + ======= + 575 0 + + They have cost him about 487 4 + Refiner's allowance on 100 Pilones, S. Ds. 47 8 + + +The profits of the refiner would appear high; and they have been so; +but are far from what this statement appears to give, from various +reasons, of which the chief are, the heavy capital sunk in buildings, +interest on advances, &c. and from a want of knowledge, the enormous +waste of labour in the process. A glance at this may give an idea of +what trade is at these antipodes of commercial knowledge. + +I have termed the process "refining;" it should rather be called +claying and sorting--and it is as clumsily managed as the ingenuity +of man could well devise. The trade is principally in the hands of +three or four capitalists; advances are made by these to brokers, +the provincial merchants, who annually bring their produce to the +capital in small vessels, [89] and to the masters of coasting traders, +in which the sugar merchants have shares. These are made to a large +amount, 80 to 100,000 dollars; and as the interest of this must at +least run for six months at 9 per cent. it forms a heavy item. Losses +and defaulters form another, say 1/2 per cent. in all 5 per cent. + +The pilones are delivered from November to May and June, and are +received into extensive warehouses, which are provided with large +court-yards and terraced roofs. Here the upper part of the pilone +is cut off, and a quantity of manufactured sugar being pressed +down on the top of it, a thin layer of the river mud is put on it; +this is watered from time to time and changed once or twice, the +pilone standing on a small foot, with the small hole at its apex +left open, through which the molasses slowly drains, leaving the +upper and broader part of the pilone of a fine white, gradually +decreasing in goodness to the bottom, where it is little more than +molasses--the pilone is then cut in two; the darker part is put by +as second quality (or reboiled), and the whiter portion as firsts, +of the sugar, the care taken in the process, the kind of mud used, +&c. About two piculs of sugar from three pilones is a fair average, +when these are of a good size. That from the province of Pampanga is +by far the best; it is produced from a small red cane [90] about four +feet high, and of the thickness of a good walking stick. + +The sugar being thus clayed, is now to be mixed, pounded, and +dried. The last process is performed by laying it on small mats in +the sun, on the terraces and pavements of the court-yards. On the +slightest appearance of rain, it must be hurried under cover, and +brought out again when this is past. So that in a manufacture of +any size, when from 3 to 400 Chinese are employed at 4 1/2 dollars +per month, fully 1/3d of their labour is expended on this operation +alone. The management of the rest requires no comment. + +The cost of production of any of the other articles cannot be +estimated to any degree of correctness, from the very small scale on +which they are cultivated, and the limited knowledge of the writer +of these remarks. Those of Comyn are erroneous. + +The Indians are the principal and almost the only cultivators of +the soil, very few Mestizos or Chinese [91] being engaged in it. The +few Spaniards and other Europeans who have attempted it, have been +obliged to abandon their attempts to form plantations. These failures, +or rather determination to abandon their speculations (even when in a +promising state), have arisen from various causes; but the general one +may be stated to be the very little security for life and property, +in a country such as has been described. This is with the major part +an insuperable objection; for from the moment they are established, +and known to possess money for the payment of their workmen, they must +be in expectation of an attack, and prepared to defend themselves; +nor can they lie down at night free from the apprehension of seeing +their establishments in flames before morning! either from robbers, +or from malice of any individual who may think himself aggrieved:--the +impossibility of obtaining justice so generally experienced by the +Indians, and the many chances of escaping punishment, being strong +inducements to the ill-disposed to adopt these modes of revenge. To +this it may be added, that even were the foreigner to kill the most +determined robber in the country, the circumstance of having done so +in defence of his life and property, would by no means exonerate him +from a fleecing by the inferior officers of justice, and from a long +and tiresome process of depositions, declarations, &c. during which +his affairs must be entirely neglected. [92] + +In addition to this he must lay his account with another obstacle, +and this none of the smallest--the chance of bad faith on the part +of those with whom he is connected; a chance which by no means will +diminish in proportion to his success; for, let no foreigner deceive +himself on this head in Manila; if he cannot flatter as low, or bribe +as high as his adversary, his cause is lost by some means or other. + +The Phillippines also produce cacao of an excellent quality, though +not sufficient for their consumption, a large quantity being imported +from New Spain. + +Pepper is also an article of exportation, but in very limited +quantities, the utmost the Phillippine Company have been able to +procure being about 60,000 lbs. in favourable years. + +To these may be added the Abaca (Musa textilis), a species of plantain, +from which the beautiful fibres are procured known by that name. This +is becoming a very considerable article of exportation, both raw, and +manufactured into cordage. The natives also consume large quantities +of it in cordage, and as shirting cloth, into which a large portion +of the interior and finer fibres are manufactured. Some of it is +equal to the coarser sort of China grass cloth. [93] + +In Gogo, [94] a gigantic climbing plant, whose trunk attains the +size of a man's body, is another remarkable production of these +islands. Its branches being cut out into lengths, are coarsely pounded +and dried in the sun: they are used as soap by all classes of people, +the saponaceous fluid which is extracted from them being remarkably +cleansing, and the fibres answering the purpose of a brush. + +It is also used in large quantities in washing the earth of rivers +and streams, to separate the gold from them. It is not cultivated, +but exists in great abundance in the forests, in which are also the +sapan-wood (called Sibacao), the sandal, ebony, and vanilla. They +abound in gums and resins, large portions of which are washed down +by the torrents; but these are for the most part useless, either from +the ignorance of the natives, or from the impossibility of venturing +far in the interior. + +Their timber is excellent, and in a country so covered with forests, +of course plentiful; but the want of roads and other conveniences of +transport, renders it, in Manila, rather an expensive article. + +The principal timber woods are, the "Mulave" [i.e., Molave], a +compact, heavy, yellowish wood, and almost incorruptible, perhaps +from the very great portion of tannin it contains. Tindalo, [95] a +hard wood, much resembling the iron-wood of the Brasils, and like it +used for screws, &c., &c. when great hardness is required. "Betis," +an excellent timber tree, which grows to a very great size, and for +its durability is generally used for the main beams of churches, +convents, and other large buildings. The "Narra," of which there are +two kinds, the white and red: this last is almost equal to mahogany in +polish and durability. Banaba, a red wood resembling cedar; and many +others of equal goodness. Of these the Banaba and Mulave are most +used in shipbuilding, the first for planking, and the last for the +framework. For masts, the Manga-chapuy and Palo-maria are generally +used: the last is equal or superior to pine, both in strength and +lightness. + +Their forests are not infested with those ferocious animals which are +the terror of those of other Asiatic countries. The tiger, elephant, +and rhinoceros are unknown: the wild buffalo and hog are the only ones +of which the native has any dread. These attain an enormous size, +but are not mischievous, unless provoked. The dried flesh and hides +of these animals, as well as of deer and wild cattle, which are in +immense numbers, form a considerable article of trade amongst the +natives, the "tappa" or dried flesh being used for food, and the +hides for exportation. + +Their serpents, however, attain an enormous size: the largest are those +of the Boa species (Constrictor), and will devour a horse or a cow at a +meal. [96] Of this genus there is one variety very beautifully marked, +which frequents the houses, and is called by the Spaniards (Culebra +casera), the house snake, [97] and by the Indians "Sawa." These are +often seen from 10 to 12 feet in length, but are very harmless. Few +houses are without one or more of them in the cellars, stables, &c. but +they are seldom disturbed, as they are said to devour rats and other +noxious animals; though, when these fail them, they attack fowls, or +even goats. They form a favourite article of food with the Chinese, +who keep them in jars to fatten, and the Indians may be often seen +carrying them through the streets for sale. + +Of other varieties they have great numbers; some of which, as the +"dahun palay," or leaf of rice, of a deep green and yellow, which +frequents the rice fields, and the "mandadalag," or whip-snake, are +excessively venomous: accidents from these animals are not, however, +very frequent; from whence it may be concluded, that the superstition +of the natives has greatly exaggerated the number of venomous ones: and +this may be the more readily inferred, not only from their excessively +superstitious character, and the common custom of all nations in this +particular; but also from the thousand ridiculous fables told by them +of the cameleon, which is very common in the woods, and perfectly +harmless. The Indian name for it is "Ynyano." + +Of minerals they have an inexhaustible supply: gold is found in almost +all the streams, and even in the sands of the shores of the Bay after +blowing weather: no mines of it have as yet been wrought, though they +are known to exist. The quantity obtained by the rude efforts of the +natives merely washing the sands of the torrents, is very great, and +certainly does not fall short of 4 to 500,000 dollars worth annually, +as great quantities are expended in gilding for the churches, &c. &c. + +Silver is also found, but in small quantities. Virgin copper is +another produce of their mountains: pieces of it are frequently +met with in the torrents, and on the shores of some of the islands +(Masbate, Burias, and Ambil). The negroes have also been seen with +rude ornaments, and even with utensils made from it. + +Of iron they have whole mountains in the very vicinity of +Manila! (provinces of Pampanga and Bulacan), some of the ores +yielding 75 per cent. of metal, and of an excellent quality, this +having been ascertained by some Biscayan iron-masters sent out for +that purpose. It contains great numbers of magnets. There are some +miserable establishments for working and smelting these ores, but +on a very small scale; they have only produced cast iron articles, +and those of an inferior quality. They have no forging machinery. [98] + +Cinnabar, lead, and tin are supposed to exist; but of these last +there is no certainty. + +Sulphur is found in the neighbourhood of the volcanoes in considerable +quantities, and is an article of export to Bengal and other places: +the principal part of it is collected on the island of Leyté, which is +next to Samar on the south side of the strait of St. Bernardino. It +is collected on the edges of numerous small apertures, which emit +at times flames and smoke. These are situated in an extensive plain +near the sea-coast in the vicinity of the village of Dulag, on the +eastern side of the island. With these natural advantages, and those +are not few that still remain to be enumerated, the commerce of this +country, like its agriculture, is still in its infancy: and this has +been principally owing to two great causes--the trade to Acapulco, +and the prohibitory system invariably pursued by Spain in regulating +the intercourse with her colonies, and which here has been burdened +with an additional weight, the monopoly of the Phillippine Company. + +It were a task far exceeding the intention and ability of the writer +of these remarks to point out the causes and effects of these extensive +evils:--a few observations only will be made to elucidate such remarks +as may follow on the commerce of Manila. + +Of the prohibitory system pursued by Spain towards her colonies, it +may perhaps be said, with as much justice as of her wars, that it was, +"en faire un desert pour s'en assurer l'empire;" [99] for few systems +could have been better calculated to assure the first object; the +last has miserably disappointed its advocates, and left a striking +lesson to the world, at which humanity has cause to rejoice. + +With jealousy of foreigners exceeding even the bounds of credibility, +she invariably refused them admittance, [100] whether for scientific +or commercial purposes; [101] or when from accident or influence +this was obtained, the people following, and often exceeding the +lessons of their rulers, by civil and religious persecutions, and +contempt, contrived to render their existence almost a burden. It would +appear to have become an axiom amongst them, remarkable only for its +illiberality, that "a dollar gained by foreigners was one taken from +the pocket of a Spaniard;" [102] and that in all cases where the +interests of the merchants of the mother country and those of the +colonies were opposed, the latter were to be sacrificed. [103] Her +own subjects were, from the same miserable narrow policy, embarrassed +with restrictions and conditions--permissions from the Consejo de +las Yndias, &c. &c. that it became by no means a trifling affair to +be able to embark for the Phillippines, unless at the risk of being +sent home from there by the local authorities. + +Unable herself, from the want of manufactures and energy, to profit +by her colonies, she obstinately refused to allow others to do so, +and in this she invariably persisted. The fruits of such a system +were such as might have been expected; the colonies submitted--(while +they were obliged by force to do so), smuggled to a large amount, +remonstrated, resisted, and declared themselves independent; and thus +has Spain forever lost those advantages which a more liberal policy +might have secured to her through a long course of time. [104] + +In the Philippines, this system, though followed for a long time, +has been of late years successively relaxed, and the good effects +of this modification are visible to the most indifferent observer: +it has however left deep traces of its operations, and much is still +wanting: the foreign merchant or adventurer, how much soever he may +be smiled upon and caressed, has still to contend against a rooted +and long cherished jealousy of all that is not Spanish. + +The Acapulco trade is another and a principal cause of the very +confined state of the commerce of this valuable colony. A few remarks +will be sufficient to justify the apparent paradox. + +The merchant of Manila (says Comyn), is "entirely different from +the merchant of other parts of the world; he has no extensive +correspondence, no books, or intricate accounts; his operations are +confined to a shipment of bales to Acapulco, and to receiving the +silver in return: and in 40 years, only one or two instances have +occurred wherein bankrupts have been able to produce a correct set of +books to the Consulado (or Chamber of Commerce)!" This description +was doubtless correct at the time when it was written (1809); but +it is just to observe that they are now much improved, and though +not excessively enterprising, are better acquainted with the true +principles of commerce. Such were the merchants: let us examine a +little the trade. + +The basis of it was, and is, the funds called "Obras Pias" [105] +(Pious Works). These are funds under various denominations, whose +origin was the piety of well-meaning Spaniards, who dying rich have +bequeathed large sums for the purpose of lending to deserving traders +to commence or continue their career with. The administration of +these is confided to various religious and charitable institutions, +or to civil associations--the trustees forming a board, at which +the sums to be lent, &c. are determined. Their statutes differ in +many unessential points; [106] but their general tenour is the same, +viz. that sums not exceeding two thirds of the fund shall be lent on +respondentia at certain rates of interest, which are fixed according +to the risk of the voyages; and these, when repaid, shall be added, +principal and interest, to the original fund. The interests are 25 per +cent. to Acapulco, 15 to Bengal, and so in proportion. The total of +the capitals of these establishments (there are 12 or 14 of them), +amounted to about three millions and a half of dollars in 1820, +of which about two millions are due to the funds on various risks, +principally those of New Spain: of this the major part is considered +as lost by those best qualified to judge of the subject. + +The principal employ of these funds has been in the commerce to +Acapulco; and from the facility with which capital was procured, +the excessive gambling spirit which this introduced, as well as the +system of mutual accommodations from the trustees of different funds, +and the utter absence of the wholesome restraint of public examinations +of their accounts, it has resulted that more harm than good has been +done by these establishments. The original intentions are entirely +perverted, a few small sums being lent to young adventurers (when they +have powerful friends), but far the greatest part is employed by the +trustees themselves under the name of a relation or friend. [107] + +When, without risking any capital of his own, the merchant might +thus share the enormous profits of this trade, with no more exertion +than signing the invoices and letters (they were written by Indian +clerks), and receiving the treasure on the return of the vessel, +it is not surprising that for nearly two centuries they neglected +all the other commercial advantages which surrounded them, or that +such a commerce produced such merchants: the history of it and of +them for that period may be confined to a few words:--they were the +agents of the merchants of Madras and Bengal, receiving and shipping +their goods, and returning their proceeds, while their profits were +confined to a large commission on them. [108] + +This trade was anciently confined to a single ship annually, the +famous Galleon. She was fitted out, manned and armed, at the king's +expense, and commanded by a king's officer. This was reimbursed by +a duty of 33 1/3 per cent. on the registered cargo, the merchants +contributing to her provisionment, and to the payment of 20,000 +dollars as a bounty to her commander. She was calculated to carry +3,000 bales of a certain size, and the privilege of shipping these +was confined to the holders of 1,000 tickets called "boletas," which +were divided amongst different public bodies, charitable and religious +institutions, the widows of the officers, &c., these tickets being +saleable to others: [109] and of the enormous profit on this trade, +some idea may be formed, when it is known, that with the very heavy +expenses attendant on every stage of it, 500 dollars have been paid +for a ticket entitling the holder to ship three bales! + +By regulation, the invoice was not to exceed 500,000 dollars; but this +was always evaded. The vessels were crammed with goods, and generally +netted 100 per cent. or even 150 on every thing taken out. [110] +By applications from private merchants, the permissions have of late +years been extended to their ships, and even brigs; but they still +were encumbered with many useless restrictions and conditions, which +of course were evaded by every means that could be devised. + +By the adoption of the new constitution, and the late declaration +of the independence of Mexico, [111] which began in the seizure of a +convoy of nearly a million of dollars belonging to the merchants of +Manila, this trade is now almost annihilated. + +As has been remarked, their intercourse with the other countries is +very limited. The Phillippine Company, who were in possession of the +exclusive trade of Europe, have for many years taken no advantage of +their privilege (the last ship which arrived from Spain was in 1817); +[112] but private merchants were still debarred from doing so, till +the promulgation of the constitution. [113] Foreigners have been, +however, gradually admitted since 1800; and they have supplied the +wants of the country by introducing European articles, and carrying +off the surplus produce, when a sufficient quantity could be procured +to employ their capital, which rarely happens without much delay. So +rapid has been the augmentation of this trade, that though in 1813 +only 15,000 pekuls of sugar were exported, it had increased in 1818 +to 200,000, at from 6 1/2 to 9 dollars per pekul. The other exports +of the same year were as follows:-- + +Coffee, about 400 pekuls, at 28 dollars; Cotton, 1,000, at 20 to 25 +dollars; Indigo, 1,000 quintals, at 90 to 110 dollars per quintal; +wax, 600 pekuls at 40 to 50 dollars; red wood, &c. &c. in large +quantities. In a printed account, the number of foreign vessels for +that year (1818) are stated to be, English, 18; American, 10; French, +4; Portuguese, 2; Chinese Junks, 10, and 8 Spanish vessels. The value +of imports as follows: + + + Goods, 2,296,272 dollars + Cash, 758,239 + ========== + $3,054,511 + + +The exports, 1,205,649 dollars; but this last is any thing but correct, +not only from the very imperfect nature of the custom-house valuations, +but from the smuggling, which is carried on to an immense amount. It +will be nearer the truth to estimate the imports at about 3,8, or +3,900,000, and the exports at 3 1/4 or 3,500,000. [114] + +The imports consist of piece-goods for the Acapulco market, and for +home consumption from Bengal; cambrics and handkerchiefs of plaided +patterns from Madras; woollens, wines, spirits, silks, printed cottons, +hosiery, hardware, &c. from Europe (principally from France); bird's +nests, tortoise and mother-of-pearl shell, bich-de-mar [i.e., balate], +wax, dried fish, &c. from Soolo, Borneo, and other islands of the +Archipelago; toys, silks, nankeens, teas, and dollars from China; +dollars from the United States; and from South America, silver, +cochineal, and cacao. Of these articles the specie and cochineal +are mostly exported to Bengal and Madras, and the produce of the +Soolos and Borneo to China; the other exports have been noticed in +a preceding page. + +An active coasting trade [115] is carried on by the natives amongst +the islands, though they suffer dreadfully from the pirates; but +such is their enterprising turn, that with these in sight, they will +often cross from one island to another, when they have a fair start; +and frequently set out on a long trip in a small prow [i.e., prau], +armed only with their spears and "campilans," [116] though knowing +the pirates to be in the neighbourhood of their track. They are well +known in the piratical states, where a Manila slave always commands +a higher price than any other. They have been much stigmatized in +British country-ships, as the leaders of mutinies, &c.; but though no +doubt can exist that they have often assisted in cutting off vessels, +yet I question much whether the fault was not in a great measure to +be attributed to a want of discrimination between the high spirit +of the Philippine islander, and the meek sufferance of the patient +Lascar--a fatal mistake, when both are trampled on, as it is to be +feared they but too often are. + +This trade is carried on in pontines, [117] galeras, feluccas, and +prows or boats of all sizes. The pontines are stout-built vessels +of European models, from 80 to 150 tons, with two long mat sails, +like a Chinese junk. The "galeras" are smaller, and carry a lateen +sail, like those of the Mediterranean. The feluccas have been already +described, and their prows and boats resemble nearly those of their +Malay brethren. Large property is often embarked in these vessels, +and they are conducted entirely by natives. + +They have but a few manufactures: the principal one is that of coarse +gauzes, and rope from the Abaca plant, the first of which has a very +extensive consumption and is universally worn by all classes of the +natives. It is principally carried on in the province of Camarines, +at the S. E. angle of the island. + +Considerable quantities of coarse canvas and striped cloths are +manufactured from cotton in the province of Ylocos; and in those +in the more immediate vicinity of the capital, the striped cloths +called "tapis" are universally worn by the native women over their +petticoat. None of these articles except the Abaca rope are exported, +and probably the whole of the cloths might be imported at a cheaper +rate than they are made. The Phillippine Company, by a mistaken policy, +expended large sums in endeavoring to render these manufactures +articles of export to Spain and the Americas; but after heavy and +repeated losses, the attempt was at length abandoned. + +I am not certain whether there was not a clause in their charter, +obliging them to attempt this; and from the interfering spirit +of Spanish legislature throughout the last two centuries, it is +more than probable it was so. For the Company must have seen the +impropriety of endeavoring to establish manufactures in a country +so thinly populated, and where the little security for property or +power of enforcing contracts, must have exposed them to a thousand +losses unknown in Europe. + +This last circumstance is one which is at all times a severe check on +the prosperity of any undertaking in this country. The most shameless +frauds are daily committed, particularly by the Chinese and Chinese +Mestizos, and for these there is no resource; complaint is unavailing, +for the trouble of obtaining redress is greater than the injury, and +it is a matter of common conversation--how so and so has been cheated +in his contracts. They appear to mistake indolence for compassion, +and allow themselves to be robbed with impunity, rather than pursue the +offender, or, should they do so, the magistrate to whom they apply is +but too apt, if the affair is intricate, to mistake procrastination +for deliberation, and thus the culprit escapes unpunished. The +losses of private merchants and the individuals in this way, would, +if enumerated, exceed belief. Another and a most serious drawback to +the commercial prosperity of the Phillippines, has been the negligence +or ignorance, or both which have prevented the establishment of bonded +warehouses, or a system of drawback duties on re-exportations. A glance +at their position, and the consideration of the monsoons, will convince +any one, that this was of all things that for which ample provision +should have been made; and it would be no exaggeration to say, that +this commerce would in a few years have increased tenfold with China +alone, had this plan been adopted. The enormous duties and vexatious +spirit of the Chinese government, together with, what must doubtless +be often the case, the fleecing combinations of the Hong merchants; +[118] would long ago have driven every vessel from their ports, could +another have been found near enough to insure a supply of goods, +which, from the enterprising spirit of the Chinese, could not have +failed. Manila is this port. From Amoy and Nankin, the granaries and +workshops of the eastern provinces, the most fertile and commercial +part of the empire, it is but a short run to Manila; and thus, when +the Chinese could freely trade in their favourite article, opium, +[119] and find too an assortment of European and Malay goods, while +the European could complete his investment of funds with the valuable +produce of China, [120] without the expense of the measurement duties, +and while the Malay could trade with both, an emporium might have +risen, inferior only perhaps to Batavia or Calcutta. + +An attempt was made in 1817, by a Spanish merchant, to commence +something of this sort. He purchased a quantity of Turkey opium from +an American, with an understanding that it was to be reshipped, on +payment of a small additional duty. It was so, but a quantity of the +opium was plundered from the custom-house godowns, and the proprietor +was told "that the king was not responsible for losses." + +It would be foreign to the object of a cursory sketch like the present +to enter farther into the details of this subject. Enough has been +said to bear out an assertion, which those who are acquainted with the +trade will not think exaggerated, that had this system been fairly and +equitably established, one half of the trade to China would before this +have centered at Manila; and it is only at Manila that the advantages +of such a transit could have been unknown or neglected in the 19th +century. I proceed to make some observations on the capital and its +inhabitants. [121] + + + + + +PART II + +MANILA + + +Manila, [122] the capital of the "kingdom of the Phillippines," [123] +in lat. 14° 26' N. and long. 121° 3' East of Greenwich, is situated +on the eastern side of an extensive bay in the western coast of the +island Luzon, or Luconia, as it is sometimes called. It is a captain +general-ship (not a viceroyalty), and archbishopric, and the seat of +the Audiencia, or Supreme Tribunal. + +The city forms nearly a sector of a circle, of which the center is a +point formed by the coast and the influence of a small but rapid river, +the Passig, which flowing to the westward, and passing to the north of +the city, discharges the waters of an extensive lake about 30 miles +distant from the town. This river is navigable for vessels of 250 +tons for a small distance from its entrance, which is formed by two +fine moles, built by the municipality of the city. On the southern +of these is a small semicircular battery for four guns, and on the +other a light-house. The southern or outer mole is much out of repair. + +The constant and rapid current of the river forms a bar at its +entrance, over which there is 10, and at times 11 feet water at spring +tides, in a narrow channel close to the battery. + +The city is well fortified on the sea and land faces, but on that +towards the river very indifferently, being only defended by a +long curtain with a few ill-constructed bastions, which from their +diminutive size are rather playthings than bastions. The curtain is +narrow, and confined on the inside, and unfit for guns of calibre; +the buildings within the city overlooking, and even joining the wall +in some places. On the other side of the river, within 200 yards of +this curtain, are a number of stone houses, along the whole length +of its bank; and the bases of these being walls of eight and ten feet +thick of solid masonry, would afford an immediate cover for an enemy, +who might breach the curtain in ten minutes at so short a distance, +and with perfect safety, the fire from some of these taking the whole +of the works on the N. Eastern side in reverse. Indeed its only defence +on this side is the river, [124] the current of which is always rapid. + +Over it is a neat but narrow stone bridge of ten arches, which joins +the city at its northern angle to the suburbs. On the city side of +the bridge is a square tower, with an archway pierced through it, +and with embrasures on the top. This is intended as a "tête de pont;" +but it is too small for any effective purpose, and, like the bastions +on this face, resembles a military plaything; and this defect is the +more striking, as the fortifications, from this angle on the land +and sea faces, are remarkably handsome and well proportioned. + +At the north-western point of the city, which joins the mole, +is the citadel of Santiago, a clumsy old-fashioned fortification, +separated from the rest of the city by a narrow ditch with a stone +bridge, but joined by the curtains of the bastions. It is incapable +of any respectable defence, except from a semicircular bastion, +which forms the point, and commands the moles and entrance to the +river. It is now used as a state prison and magazine. The convicts +employed in the public works are also lodged in it. This was the +refuge of the unfortunate foreigners who escaped from the massacre +on the 9th of October 1820; and to the honour of the commandant +(Col. Don A. Parreno), and his lady be it recorded, they found there +another home. + +The length of the city within the walls is 1,300 yards Spanish, from +N. W. to S. E.; its width 744, and circumference 4,166. The side +towards the river, it has already been remarked, is, from the want +of bastions, and from the encumbered state of the approaches to it, +in a very defective state. The sea and land faces are exactly the +reverse of this, being remarkably clear and strong. + +The land face has a double ditch, and an esplanade of five or six +hundred yards in breadth, which towards the river is marshy and +swampy, and utterly unfit for military operations. Towards the sea, +and for some miles along the coast, is an epaulement, [125] thrown +up when in expectation of an attack from the English in 1804. On +this esplanade formerly stood a church, from the tower of which +the English under Sir W. Draper fired into the heart of the city: +[126] it is now razed. There is also a small battery called Charles +the Fourth's, on an elevated spot in the marshy ground; it is about +350 yards from the fortifications and is mostly used as an exercising +battery. Another redoubt of stone stands at the southern point of the +outer ditch, and flanks the sea shore to a considerable distance to +the southward: it also serves to cover the head of the outer ditch, +which is not carried round the sea face, apparently for want of room, +as its crest would nearly approach high water mark in this part. + +There are six gates to the city, two on each face: those on the +land side have neat stone bridges over the outer ditch, which are +not mined, and, being of solid masonry, would be found cumbersome +in case of an attack. The inner ones, and those on the sea side, +are of wood or stone pillars with drawbridges. The ditches are wide +and deep, but much encumbered with mud and weeds, from which last +the fortifications also have suffered. The bastions on the sea and +land sides are in many places without embrasures, the guns being +"en barbette." [127] The shore is not very flat, and will perhaps +allow a frigate to lay within gunshot of the ramparts. + +Within the walls of the city is the cathedral, the inside of which is +very handsome, though the exterior is destitute of all symmetry, and +seems to have been intended as a contrast to the majestic architecture +of the interior. + +The governor's palace resembles a decent barn or warehouse, both +externally and internally. It is large, dirty, and ill distributed, +the basement being used as a prison. + +The Cabildo, or Town House, is a handsome building, and the only +one in the country which has any pretensions to symmetry, of which +the architects of the Phillippines take every opportunity of shewing +a sovereign contempt:--so much so, that it is rare to find even the +doors and windows, or the angles of a room, correctly placed and laid +out! These three buildings form three sides of a small square, the +only one in the city, of about 100 yards on each side, the fourth side +being occupied by private houses. In the centre is a handsome pedestal +of reddish marble, on which no statue has yet been placed. [128] + +The streets of the city are narrow and dirty; and the middle being +a hollow, in rainy weather forms a continued puddle. They are paved +at the sides with granite from China, the stone in the immediate +neighbourhood of Manila being too soft. The pavement is not in good +repair, and in some streets only occupies one side; the other, which +is generally occupied by a large house, or the wall of a convent, +being heaped up with dirt, rendered solid by long accumulation, +and forming a hill against the wall, the receptacle of.... This is +not confined to bye-lanes, but is most common in the great square +(Plaza Constitucional) in front of the cathedral! [129] + +The city and suburbs are well lighted, and the European quarters of +the last are cleaner than the city. + +The convents, which occupy nearly one third of the whole area of the +city! are more distinguished for their size and massy architecture, +than for their beauty. The church and convent of St. Augustine, +and that of the Jesuits (now fast falling to decay), are, however, +neat and well built. That of San Domingo is the most extensive. + +The hospital of St. John of God, a military order of Knights +Hospitallers, is extensive, but for want of funds, is but indifferently +entertained. [130] There is also a university (St. Thomas), two +colleges for the instruction of Indians and mestizos, and three +convents of nuns, who receive girls to educate. There are also two +schools for girls, both endowed by the piety of single individuals; +the first of these being a Spanish lady, who came out from Spain for +the express purpose of devoting herself to the education of Indian +and mestizo girls! The other is that of a mestizo woman of the village +of Binondo, a suburb of Manila. + +There are some large houses, but they are generally ill-built and +inconvenient, the rooms being often excessively large, and always +badly laid out. The ground floor is used for warehouses, stables, +&c. and always includes a large court-yard. The first floor only +is inhabited. The architecture of the lower part is very massive, +being often walls of solid masonry of eight or ten feet thick, with +large arches from side to side, and connected with massy beams. At +the height of the floor, these walls are discontinued, and on them are +raised at distances clumsy pillars of brickwork, or at times of wood +(which is seldom straight). These pillars are connected at the top by +large joists in all directions, having wooden forelocks driven through +them close to the pillars; and on this framework are laid the rafters +for the tiled roof; the interstices of the pillars, and divisions of +the rooms, being filled up with brick and plaster. The ends of the +floor timbers being allowed to project over the walls, form a gallery +of eight or ten feet in width along the front of the house, and round +it when insulated: this gallery is boarded for about four feet in +height in front, and then filled up with sliding windows, the small +panes of which are filled with plates of thin mother-of-pearl shell, +[131] forming one continued window, like the front of a hot-house. The +communication to this gallery is by wide folding doors from the rooms, +a large one having four or five, which thus admit light and air into +the apartments; but the shell windows, when closed against the sun, +transmit an intolerable heat, and the houses are not in general cool +ones. The galleries are often used as dressing, and even as bathing +rooms; and as they overhang the streets, the passenger is often +sprinkled from them, in consequence of this dirty practice. + +The exterior of these galleries being painted a curious mixture of +tawdry colours, such as black, grey, blue, yellow, and red, in panels, +flowers, ovals, &c. on white or grey grounds, with their shell windows +above, and the grated ones of the godowns below, gives a tawdry and +unsociable appearance to the houses. The better sort, and those newly +built, have venetians, which greatly improves both their appearance +and comfort. + +All the houses have a cross, and some two or three, on the roof or +gables, as a preservative against evil spirits, [132] and lightning; +and though few years pass without many accidents from the latter, the +crosses are still preserved in preference to conductors, even in the +magazines, not one of which is provided with this useful preservative, +though that of the citadel contains many thousand pounds of powder. + +The suburbs of the city are extensive, and contain many stone houses, +in which some of the principal inhabitants reside, and generally all +the foreigners, the vicinity of the river, and its many branches, +rendering it more convenient for business. + +The custom-house is a plain octagonal building of considerable +extent, and contains a fine courtyard surrounded with an arcade, +and extensive magazines for warehousing goods. These, from neglect +and the ravages of the white ants, are fast falling to decay, and +in a few years the building will be a ruin; it is now very dirty +and ill-arranged, the entrance not being convenient to the river, +and wanting quays and a crane. The officers of this establishment +are in general attentive, civil, and indulgent to foreigners, though +the length of their siestas does not contribute to the dispatch of +business. There is no interpreter attached to this establishment, +nor is the king responsible for goods or money deposited in it, +this being solely at the merchant's risk. + +The "Calzada," or public drive, is a broad neat carriage road, +leading round the outer face of the outer ditch, from the bridge, +round the land and sea faces of the fortifications to the river. It +is planted with trees, and forms a good drive, having roads leading +from it into the country, whose rich and cultivated appearance gives +the stranger a high opinion of its fertility. The roads are however +much in want of waterings in dry weather, the dust of the principal +one being at these times insufferable. + +On the road leading to the village of Santa Anna is the cemetery, +[133] a building well worth the attention of strangers both as a +novelty in itself, and as in some measure redeeming the character of +the architecture of this country from its general want of interest +and symmetry. + +It consists of two concentric circular walls, about ten feet apart +and fourteen in height, both surmounted with a balustrade. The inner +wall forms the periphery of a circle of about 250 feet in diameter, +and is pierced with three rows of small semicircular arches, which +form the entrances to as many arched, oven-like receptacles, formed +in the space betwixt the walls, and of a size just calculated to +receive a coffin, to which purpose they are appropriated. + +There are from two to three hundred of those receptacles; and when +occupied, the entrances are walled up. The plot of ground in the centre +is crossed by two broad stone walks, the borders of which are planted +with flowers and shrubs; the remaining space is used for interments. + +On the further side from the gate, and joined to the wall, is a +handsome chapel of an oval shape, the roof being a dome. The interior +of this chapel is remarkably neat; and the altar, which is white, and +gold, is particularly so, from its elegant simplicity and chasteness +of ornament: on each side of it are repositories for the remains of +governors and bishops. + +Without are flights of steps leading to the terrace joining the walls, +and two passages leading to a smaller building at the back of the +chapel, and in the same style as the large one. This is called +the "Angelorio" and a recess in it the "Ossario." The first is +appropriated to the remains of infants and children, and the last to +the bones which may in time accumulate. This purpose suggests the only +objection which is apt to arise in viewing the building, which is, +that, as in the course of time the receptacles must be filled up, +those which have been first occupied must be opened, and the bones +displaced to make room for others. To many this is a most revolting +objection, and would appear to indicate a dulness of feeling and +want of sentiment, which, though far from being uncommon at Manila, +by no means accords with the spirit and style in which the building +is executed, or with the reflections it is apt to excite. + +There are no other buildings in the neighbourhood of Manila worthy +the attention of the stranger. The appearance of the surrounding +country is rich, and in some parts highly cultivated; but an air +of neglect and dilapidation is visible throughout, which strikingly +marks the apathetic character of both classes of its inhabitants. It +is remarkable, too, that the neatness of the native villages, and +the apparent comfort of the people, increase in direct proportion +to their distance from the capital, as the influence of government +is less felt, and the Indian, knowing no other authority than the +"Padre," retains more of his original character. + +The vices of Spanish colonies have been often the theme of those +who have visited them; and when speaking of Manila, they have seldom +exaggerated. [134] It has been observed, and with some justice, that +"to know the education of the children, is to know the character +of a people." If this be true, but little can be said for Manila, +where this highly important duty is more neglected than perhaps in +any civilized part of the globe. + +The majority of the young are abandoned entirely to the Indian +servants, who soon familiarize them with all that is vicious. They +know but little of their parents more than as the master and mistress +of the house, whose hand they must kiss, kneeling, every morning and +evening. By five years of age they smoke cigars, ride out at night by +moonlight, abuse the Indians, and not unfrequently their parents. At 12 +they are debauched. At 18 or 20 they marry, and then form the citizens +for which such an education has prepared them. They are seldom or +ever taught any useful employment or profession. This the majority of +them would look upon with the utmost contempt: "Soy gracias a Dios, +de sangre noble," [135] is their reply to any advice of this kind; +and this is a passport to a cadetship in the army or colonial marine; +which, though attained at the age of 12 or 13, seldom finds them with +any vice unlearnt. The girls are educated nearly in the same manner, +as far as to the acquirement of any useful knowledge. They are sent +to the nunneries till 12 or 14 years, and from thence married. Of +household duties they know little or nothing, and of any thing else, +still less. + +The manner of living is nearly as follows: The gentlemen rise about +six or seven, and take chocolate. They then lounge about in their +shirts and trowsers (the former often outside of the latter) till +nine, when they dress, and dictate a letter or two to their writers +(they rarely write for themselves); at 10 they breakfast, after which +they go out in their carriages to transact any business they may have +in town. At 12 or 1 they dine, and from table retire to sleep the +siesta, till 4--at 4 chocolate [136]--at 5 drive on the esplanade, +or into the country, till 6 or 7, when visits are received or made +till 10 or 11; supper is served hot at this hour, and at midnight they +retire to sleep. Some of these evening parties (tertulias) are lively +and pleasant, but at most of them gambling is carried on with great +avidity. Both ladies and gentlemen smoke at these, as well as at balls +and other assemblies. They drink but little wine or strong liquors, +their ordinary beverage being water, which is handed round in large +glasses with sweetmeats, which are always eaten before drinking water. + +Society in Manila is at a very low standard: in a community, +the majority of which are men of inferior classes, no very select +assemblies can be expected; and those whose character and education +might have given another tone to it, are here, from necessity, +amalgamated with the crowd. There are in fact only a few houses where +a respectable society can be met with; at others the stranger is +disgusted with a coarseness of manners, and with unfeeling or often +excessively indelicate conversation, and an ignorance of the most +common branches of knowledge that must be heard to be credited. + +Hence, exclusive of some of the civil and military officers of +government, the agents of the Company, and a few respectable +merchants and priests, the remainder are but little qualified +for select society, and there exists amongst them a want of moral +discrimination, a toleration of publicly known vicious characters of +both sexes, that is not a little embarrassing to the stranger. This +is more particularly the case with the female part of society, +with many of whom "era tentada la pobrecita por el demonio!" [i.e., +"The poor woman was tempted by the devil"] appears to be a salvo, +both at confession and in society, for failings which in Europe +inevitably and justly entail expulsion from it. + +Such is the society of Manila, and such its manners: from them the +general character of those who compose it may be easily imagined; they +are polite in offering every thing--but do but little or nothing:--they +affect great decency of manners and a religious deportment in all their +actions; but any thing but this is to be found in the conduct of the +generality; and a common remark amongst themselves, "Esta no es tierra +para un hombre de bien," [137] is worth a chapter on the subject. + +This may be thought an exaggerated, or at least a highly coloured +picture, and it is natural that it should be so. A recital of +a well-known custom may add an evidence to these assertions, +premising that it is not the only, though the most prominent one +that attracts the notice of the stranger: I allude to that of +promiscuous bathing. This shamefully indecent custom could exist +in no country where the common decencies of life were held in due +consideration. Imagine the members of a large family, the father, +mother, children, young and old, any visitors who may be in the house +and often part of another family, all assembled in a large bath, built +out on the river with bamboos, the women with only a petticoat and +a gauze chemise, and the men with a thin pair of drawers, and this +continuing for one or two hours. This is a Manila bath, to which it is +no uncommon thing for an acquaintance to be asked, and in which 4/5ths +of all the families in Manila indulge. It may be said in extenuation, +that from its frequency no evil arises from it: this may be the case, +but it is not the less indecent on that account. + +The policy of Spain towards the Phillippines appears to have been +to preserve them--no matter how, as it afforded occasion to remark, +"that the sun never set in the dominions of his Catholic majesty." Its +neglect of so rich a colony can only be supposed to arise from +ignorance, or from a mistaken determination to sacrifice it to the +Americans: from which, this is not the place to enquire. It will +suffice to observe, that in Spain it has been at all times considered +as the "ne plus ultra" of expatriation: a natural consequence of this +was the state of society which has been shewn to exist. [138] Nor is +this idea confined to Spain alone: Mr. Whitbread, when addressing the +House on the tyranny of Ferdinand to the liberal party, concluded in +the following manner: "Some have perished on the scaffold--others in +the dungeons of Ceuta--and others, still more horrible to relate, +have been sent to linger out their days amidst the savages of the +Phillippine islands!" + +The islands have suffered too from another cause, the adoption of the +Spanish language as that of the courts of justice, &c. &c. and the +consequent neglect of that of the natives amongst the higher classes +of Europeans. Hence they are ignorant of the feelings and prejudices +of the people they govern, and who look to them for example, or at +least for precept; and not a little of the extensive influence of the +priesthood may be owing to their intimate knowledge of the language, +and the mutual confidence which results from this. The Indian, +meanwhile, has not neglected the language of his masters; and as +from the Indian writers, who transact all business, every thing is +known, it follows, while both mistakenly consider their interests +as separate, the natives and creoles have much the advantage. Both +despise and detest the Spaniards, the majority of whom, divided into +factions of Andaluces, Montaneses, Serviles, and Liberales, [139] +abuse each other cordially; while the few who know and feel that +there are other and higher duties owing from them to the Indian, must +look on with regret, or complain to be disregarded or insulted. The +disaffected, and those who have nothing to fear and every thing to +hope from a popular commotion, do not lose sight of these advantages; +and are rapidly spreading doctrines gleaned from the works of Voltaire, +Rousseau, Tom Paine; &c. and stimulating them with songs of liberty and +equality; as unfit for them as they were for the creoles and slaves +of St. Domingo, to whose fate the Phillippines are fast verging, and +from which nothing but some extraordinary event can save them. [140] + +The 9th of October, 1820, has given a fatal blow to the power of Spain +in this country; for much as has been written and said on the subject, +it is questionable whether there exists any country of black men, +where the white is not looked upon as an intruder; and "the country +belongs to the Indians," "La tierra es de los Yndios," is a common +remark, even amongst the lower orders. Moral or political injustice +seldom fails to recoil on the head of the oppressor; and when the +government of Manila allowed an indiscriminate massacre and pillage +of European foreigners by the mob, and by their shameful lenity gave +a tacit sanction to it, they taught the Indian, that he might with +equal impunity attack them. The plunder then obtained is a premium +to future violence; and perhaps the day is not far distant, when they +may bitterly repent the hour in which they allowed the Indian to feel +his physical superiority. + +This he is now hourly taught, and the doctrine of "El Pueblo Soberano" +[i.e., "the sovereign people"] is hourly echoed in his ears by +those who are least capable of managing him when once aroused. "La +Constitucion" is made the pretext for every thing subversive of good +order and due restraint; the convulsed state of Spain, the imbecile +indecision of the present government, and the recent revolution of +Mexico (another example to the many already before them), will not +a little tend to accelerate the crisis to which, it is to be feared, +they are fast approaching; a crisis to which every political body must +be subject, who would govern an ignorant people by laws made for an +enlightened one, and who forget in their speculations, that though +the civil institutions of a people may be changed in a few hours, +their moral character cannot; and on it and its influence throughout +the circle of social intercourse depends the portion of real freedom +which a people can enjoy. + + + + +CONCLUSION + +Such was the outline of the state of these islands in 1822. Severe +and frequent as the censures are which are passed in the foregoing +pages, the writer is not conscious that they are in any instance +unjust or exaggerated, or that praise has been withheld wherever it +might be due. The unprejudiced, honourable, and well-informed, will, +he hopes, think so, the opinion of others is indifferent to him: +they will perhaps too believe, that his object has neither been to +flatter nor to wound, but, if a sketch like this had originally any +object, a hope that when their true state was better known these +islands might be better appreciated--perhaps better governed; that +a cruelly-abused class of men (the natives) might one day find their +condition ameliorated; and lastly, that when this fair and rich portion +of the earth shall be visited by men of science, a few general remarks +on their state at any given period, however ill drawn up, might be of +some use. Who indeed can but reflect with pain, that while the torch +of science has blazed in the western hemisphere, from Greenland to the +Antarctic, bearing with it light, and life, and hope, and blessings, +few are even aware how very much it has yet to illumine in the East! + + + Finis + + + + + + + + +REFORMS NEEDED IN FILIPINAS + + + Opinion regarding the causes which antagonize the security and + progress of the Filipinas Islands + + +Most Excellent Sir: + +The Filipinas Islands, on account of their great extent, their +advantageous location in the center of the commercial world of Asia, +their considerable population, and the fertility of their soil--which +is capable of yielding all the products which are grown between the two +tropics--require from his Majesty's paternal government a carefully +planned system of measures which shall strengthen their peace and +internal security, and at the same time advance their agriculture, +industry, and commerce to that high degree to which they have been +destined by Providence. + +As I am charged by order of the king our sovereign to furnish +information regarding the measures which can contribute to objects +so important, it will be my plan to point out (but with that +circumspection which is so necessary in matters of colonial policy +and administration) the causes which today are antagonizing both the +internal and external security of those islands and their successful +administration--civil, economic, and commercial--proposing in regard +to each one of these the correctives which have been impressed upon me +by my experience as consulting attorney [asesor] and judge in all the +public affairs of justice, army and navy, the government, revenues, +and commerce; and my own observations under popular revolutions, +changes in the system of government, and other vicissitudes and +critical positions in which that colony has been seen during the long +period of my residence therein. + + + + +OF THE CAUSES WHICH ANTAGONIZE THE INTERNAL SECURITY OF THE FILIPINAS +ISLANDS, AND OF CORRECTIVES FOR THEM + + +Of the present composition of the divisions of the army + +The army of the Filipinas Islands, in view of the class of men of +whom it now consists, offers very little (if any) moral confidence +for their resisting the force of the revolutions which may be formed +in the very bosom of the islands. It is officered, in great part, +by Spaniards of the country, and by some Americans and mestizos; and +the disposition, tendencies, and education of the latter class are +(with very rare exceptions) absolutely different from those of the +other and European officers; consequently, there exists between the two +classes, from the outset, a certain insuperable disunion of feeling, +between not only individuals but the two classes. The officer who +is a native of the country has all the lax characteristics which the +climate induces. He lives in exclusive intercourse with his neighbors, +and separated from the Europeans. He likes the military career solely +for the conveniences connected with his office; he is incapable of +a noble emulation, and limits himself in the service to the outside +and very inexact fulfilment of the necessary obligations of his +position; and when the cause of the legitimate government exacts on +his part sacrifices incompatible with his own interests or those of +his neighbors, he disowns and absolutely abandons his duties. For +these reasons the officers born in that country have never come to +merit the confidence of their chiefs; and if from the rank of cadets +they have been promoted to that of captain, it has been more from the +peremptory necessity of completing the military corps and protecting +the service than on account of their fitness, military spirit, or +appreciation of the confidence and honor which the king bestows on +them. Such sentiments they can never possess until they undergo a +rigid training moral and political, in the colleges of España. This +mental divergence, and the natural contrariety of their temperaments, +so mischievous in the ordinary service of military bodies, are much +more lamentable in the crisis of a revolution. The officers of the +country, being nearer to the Indian soldiers in their customs and +language, make common cause with the latter, and seduce and lead +them into their own faction, with a marvelous readiness; this I have +repeatedly seen in the mutinies of military bodies which have occurred +in the Americas, and especially in that of the troops in the kingdom +of Guadalajara in the year '21, and in that at Manila in the year '23. + +The army of Filipinas also contains a considerable number of Indian +sergeants and corporals, and this is another of the causes from +which have already arisen, and always will arise, seditions in the +corps. Whoever has observed the natural disposition of the Filipino +Indian will recognize two things: First, that he always imitates +and obeys only that which is directly commanded, explained, and +taught to him; and, second, that while he is kept in his simple +condition of laborer, artisan, or soldier he is entirely void of +ambition. The Indian soldier serves very contentedly during the eight +years of his term, and returns to his own land without aspiring to +anything; but when he is placed in command, of any degree whatever, +he is filled with pride, and vehemently desires to be at the head +[serlo todo], without changing, for all that, his station as an +Indian. [The writer states that even these non-commissioned officers +were formerly always Spaniards; [141]] the appointment of Indians to +these posts has been only in these last years, in which a system of +commerce which entirely separated those islands from their center of +government has rendered impossible the despatch of reënforcements, +so necessary to those islands. From that very time may be noted much +laxity in the military service and discipline; and I have witnessed the +insurrections and disorders which never were known in former days. In +the popular uprisings in the suburbs of Manila, at the end of 1820, +[142] the detachments commanded by Indian corporals who were sent +out to pacify the villages took such part in the lawlessness that +they even attacked houses, and it was by their gunshots that many +foreigners were butchered. In the military insurrection of June 3, +1823, parties of troops commanded by only one officer (a Philippine +Spaniard), without any previous plan or any combination, and simply +by appearing before the barracks of their regiment and offering +to make captains of the Indian sergeants, immediately persuaded +them to revolt; and, directing the soldiers at their own pleasure, +they committed the lamentable and horrible acts of that day, which +ought to be kept well in mind. [This should be a warning against +allowing the Indians any place of command, especially as they have +more influence with the common soldiers than do the superior officers; +and all military posts of command should be filled with competent and +trained Spaniards. The writer urges the following measures of reform: +(1) that a sufficient number of Spanish officers to fill all the posts +of sergeant and corporal, and a surplus number to fill vacancies +as they occur, shall be sent to Filipinas annually; (2) the class +of cadets should be suppressed, who "have always been (with a few +exceptions) very unsatisfactory officers; for, belonging to very poor +and obscure families, and receiving no kind of education, in a country +which so depraves and corrupts a youth, they demoralize the soldiers, +and cause the military career to be held there in slight esteem;" (3) +in future, no other officers except the heads of corps should be sent +there from the Peninsula, so as to make room for promoting the lower +officers, and to avoid demoralizing the young Spaniards; (4) that +the Indian and mestizo sergeants or corporals who, after fulfilling +their twelve years of all service, have to be replaced by Spaniards, +shall be given places in the custom-house or revenue service, or in the +monopoly shops, so as to recompense them for losing their posts.] In +this manner the Indian soldier--who is docile, and always imitates +the desires and opinions of his immediate superiors--will receive more +disinterested treatment than he has hitherto had; he will make common +cause with his leaders, in critical cases of popular revolutions; +and the army will remain loyal and incorrupt in its opinions, always +ready for its duty, and united in action and interests. + + + +Of the enlargement of the army of the islands + +The colonies are governed and maintained more by opinion, justice and +example than by force of arms. When opinion in them becomes corrupted +up to the point of forming great conspiracies, the offensive action +of the army produces no other effect than to hasten the ruin of the +legitimate government. [In the Filipinas Islands, the persuasions +and example of the ministers of religion, and the measures taken by +the civil authorities, have been usually sufficient to put down an +uprising; but it is not well to rely too much on military force in +such cases, since such action causes rankling resentment and unites +the discontented in the common effort to throw off the yoke. It is +impossible, in such a climate, to employ only Spaniards in the army, +since they cannot endure it, and the expense of such an army would also +be too great a burden on the royal treasury.] The army of Filipinas, +then, ought not to have a greater force than is sufficient to defend +and maintain, in any event, a post or locality that is impregnable, +which can serve as a protection and defense to the government, its +interests and employees, and the families of Spanish blood. A center +of strength, ordered and disciplined, of this sort (the locality of +which I will mention later), will be inaccessible not only to three +millions of inhabitants who now people the islands, but to thirty +millions who might inhabit them; and this idea alone in the mind +of the Filipino Indian is the most efficacious for disconcerting, +in its origin or progress, any plan for conspiring or taking by +surprise. [In such a point of vantage, the government can use measures +of policy,] which in revolutions are more effective than arms for +reëstablishing order, without leaving in the minds of the people, +as war does, deep feelings of resentment at being repressed; and the +partial revolutions in the provinces will be always broken--as thus +far have been those of Ilocos, Cebú, Bataan, and others--by the zeal +and sagacity of the European religious and coöperation of the civil +employees of the king. In such a crisis, the principle is, to disunite +sagaciously the opinions and feelings of the people; and repression by +force only unites them. [If the military forces, the forts, and the +navy be augmented, the only results will be to demoralize the army, +make unnecessary display of the government's power, teach the Indians +the art of war (which as few of them as possible ought to know), and +impose unendurable burdens on the treasury. Plans of this sort ought +to be postponed until the country can bear such burdens. The present +permanent veteran force of the islands seems to Bernaldez sufficient +for the above purpose;] it consists of four battalions of infantry, +each containing approximately one thousand men; of a cavalry corps, +recently increased to three squadrons; and a brigade of artillery, +with a force of four hundred forty-four men, including a light-armed +company. The following may also be regarded as permanent troops: a +company, called the Pampanga, annexed to the service of the engineer +corps; and three brigades called the "pirate marines" [marina +corsaria], who have been in service twenty years. [The system of +rewards is costly and useless. The soldier receives enough pay to live +comfortably, in a country where living is so cheap; "it is equivalent +for an Indian, and even for a Spaniard, to three times the same amount +in Europa." The rewards given to the soldiers ought to be reduced in +such measure as the circumstances of the colony demand, "taking for +a basis the fact that with four hard dollars a month any inferior +employee can maintain himself and all his family comfortably in the +provinces, and that all beyond that is extravagance." The Pampanga +company has no organization; it ought to be placed on a military +basis, with European officers, and ranked as a company of pioneers, +when it would be very useful in the service. The militia troops of the +islands have been neglected, although they are (especially the pirate +marines) so important in checking the Moro pirates. The commanders +are "men of no force, arbitrarily chosen by the governor there, from +the class of merchants and private citizens of Manila, who possess +only honorary titles, without any military instruction or love for +the military career." The militia forces do not cost the government +much, but they are of very little use. Bernaldez thinks that the +pirate marines ought to be regarded as a part of the regular army, +with the same pay, and with European officers. The cavalry corps of +Luzon is untrained, and would be of little use in an invasion of the +country; it ought to be replaced by light and irregular cavalry, and +supplemented by a small body of veterans. Two squadrons in the corps +of dragoons of Luzon would be sufficient to preserve order in Manila, +and the third ought to be abolished as unnecessary.] + + + +Of the artillery and its dependent branches + +[The artillery corps is in better condition than any other part of +the military force of the islands; it is under better discipline, +and has always been under European officers. The Indians are in great +terror of the cannon. When in the tumult of 1820 Folgueras ordered +three pieces to be planted at various points outside the walls, +the natives implored him to take the cannon away, as the inhabitants +were so terrified that they did not dare to cross the streets; and +in the disturbances of 1809 in Ilocos, "only one four-libra cannon, +fired by a revenue-clerk, the ball from which hit a church-tower, was +sufficient to curb and disconcert more than 10,000 insurgents." To +this corps might be added (but as footmen) the company which should +be disbanded in the cavalry, since in so rough and broken a country +as Luzon horsemen are of little use. The artillery in Manila is of +wretched quality: almost all of it was cast there, at various periods, +and by unskilled founders; not only the guns but their carriages +are irregular, clumsy, unreliable, and are difficult to manage; +and for these very reasons the foundry there has been abolished, but +since that time no cannon save a small siege battery has been sent +thither from Europe. The artillery cast in Manila is sufficiently +good to provide for the defense of the provinces against the Moros; +but measures should be taken to provide for the better defense of +that city. The working of iron and the making of artillery are almost +entirely in the hands of the Chinese of Manila, [143] and the Indians +therefore are unskilled in this industry; some skilled masters should +be sent over from Spain to teach them and oversee the manufacture +of iron. The country abounds in rich mines of iron, but these have +been barely scratched and then abandoned; only some common utensils +are made there, and other iron articles are sold to the people at +high prices by foreigners, who carry great sums of money out of +the country. "The iron of Manila has been examined in the artillery +workshops, and has been found to be very soft and fibrous." Attempts +have been made by the Spanish government to utilize the mines +and introduce machinery into their operation; but the officials +entrusted with these enterprises have been ineffective, caring only +to draw their salaries. Bernaldez urges the encouragement of private +capital to undertake these works, with concessions, privileges, and +protection which shall be adequate to enlist their energies; this +would lead to the development of the natural riches of the islands, +the population would be increased by skilled artisans and mechanics, +and the great increase thus obtained in wealth of the country would +likewise bring incalculable benefits to the royal treasury--not only +in revenues from the increased commerce and manufactures, but in the +great saving in the expenses of furnishing the army with weapons, +made in the country at so much less cost than before. In the arsenal +reform is needed; all its workmen except the gunsmiths should be +replaced gradually by Indians, who are so skilful and work for less +wages than the Spaniards; and the gunsmiths should have a regular +military organization. Better provision should also be made for a +supply of gunpowder. At the beginning of the century, a powder factory +was erected, which cost eighty thousand hard dollars, although it was +made of only bamboo and nipa; with this a large supply of powder was +made, but its quality was poor, on account of the impurities in the +saltpetre, which they had to obtain from India. There has been talk of +building another factory (the former one being apparently no longer in +existence); it is likely to be as costly an enterprise, because the +lack of a strong current in the rivers "has rendered impracticable +the installation of hydraulic machinery." The Spanish government +ought to take measures to provide the large amount of powder needed +for the use of the forts, army, navy, and revenue service. Bernaldez +advises that this be done by making contracts (with either Spaniards or +foreigners), by which they can secure powder of better quality and at +lower prices; and besides this they ought to send immediately to the +islands a scientist (whose salary ought to be paid from the funds of +the Economic Society and the consulate of commerce)--"whose mission +shall be not only to establish in the capital a chair of mineralogy +(which is so necessary for exploring the hitherto unknown interior +of the islands), but himself to make researches in the provinces of +the archipelago for places where the saltpetre can be found--which he +will find, without fail." Then gunpowder can be made in the islands, +and they will be independent in the means for their defense.] + + + +Of the forts of Manila and Cavite + +No location like that of Manila could have been selected by the +conquistadors of the island of Luzon for fortifying themselves +and founding the capital of an infant colony. [Its position is +described, with mention of its earlier fortifications; but these +were only suitable for the defense of its inhabitants against +piratical attacks. Its present condition is a dangerous one, for its +fortifications are unable to withstand a siege by European troops; +it has no bomb-proof magazine, and hostile batteries across the Pasig +River could easily reduce the city to ashes. Manila is not suitable for +a military center, and the efforts of the government ought to be bent +toward the fortification of Cavite, which would render that place a +first-class fortress; its advantages for this are enumerated in detail, +and the measures which should be taken to render it impregnable.] The +feeble fortifications of Manila and its citadel may be preserved for +the present, in order to shelter the government and the property of +the Spaniards from a sedition; but in case of war and the landing of +an enemy let them be abandoned and destroyed, in order to proceed +for safety to the impregnable point of Cavite. In this manner will +be laid the foundation for the perpetual security of the [Spanish] +government in those islands, and for their preservation against all +enemies, whether within or without. + + + +Of the piracies of the Moros + +Longer tolerance of the piratical raids by the Moros is another cause +which in time must compromise our secure possession of the islands, +through the plundering of their maritime villages and the captivity of +their inhabitants, and the stoppage of the commerce and the coasting +trade. Much more is this true because some ports of the islands, +which are in the possession of those pirates, are already frequented +by foreign vessels, which provide the pirates with military supplies +and firearms; and it is to be feared that later the foreigners will +furnish them with plans, vessels, leaders, and other aids, like those +which they have furnished to the disaffected peoples in the Americas, +to wage steady war on the Spanish government. [The Spanish colony has +carried on defensive warfare with the Moros ever since the conquest, +but has gained no permanent advantage therein, while the enemy have +increased in numbers and strength, inflicting ravages on the southern +provinces that are "continually greater and more scandalous." The +Spaniards have spent enormous sums in forts, vessels, and other +defenses; but with little effect, on account of the immense extent of +the coasts of Filipinas and the great number of uninhabited places +where the pirates can hide themselves from pursuit.] Their vessels, +called pancos, are of extraordinary swiftness. The Moros make these +of planks lashed together with rattans, without nails or any [other] +ligature. Their masts are three bamboos, their rigging a few pieces +of rattan or the bark of trees, their sails are certain petates, +or mats, which they call saguran; and their provisions are reduced +to the flour made from a tree, called yoro [i.e., sago] and dried +shellfish. Nearly all their pancos have two banks of oars, and two men +for each oar. And with this slight though warlike equipment, with their +harpoons, javelins, campilans, and arrows (in handling which weapons +they are very dextrous), and with their swarming crews--composed of +their slaves, who row under the lash; and of a multitude of pirates, +who thus make their living, and traffic in their booty--they attack, +among many, with the odds on their side, surround, and jump aboard, +any Christian vessel which cannot defend itself on account of a small +crew or the inaccurate firing of its cannon. [If they are caught +in some bay by the Spanish who pursue them, they abandon their +pancos, hide in the mountains, where they find enough to live on, +and, as soon as the Spaniards depart, the pirates easily construct +new boats and resume their raids. The pirate marine with the forts, +troops, and cannon supported by the Spaniards make a heavy burden of +expense on the treasury and on the people; and the amount thus spent +in half a dozen years is enough to equip a strong naval expedition +which could humble the insolence of the pirates. In view of this, +and of the importance of Joló--which is the headquarters of the +Moro pirates and of their government, and the general market for +the Christian slaves and property which they carry away--Bernaldez +advocates the immediate conquest of that island, and its repopulation +from the more thickly settled parts of the northern islands. This can +easily be done. Thousands of families whose members have been enslaved, +especially in Bohol, are ready to join such an expedition, if leaders +and provisions are supplied to them; and there are a multitude of +skilled inter-island pilots--mestizos who are efficient and rich--who +would act as leaders for the sake of their own profit and reward in +such an enterprise. For ships they could use the government armed +vessels, and the multitude of boats which ply among the islands; +and sufficient rewards could be furnished to the soldiers in the +distribution of the conquered lands and of the plunder which they +would obtain. By this plan, the Moro piracies could be suppressed, +and the islands thus gain peace from those fierce enemies.] + + + +Of the large Indian villages + +Although the laws of the Indias endeavor to establish firmly the peace +and good government, both temporal and spiritual, of the villages by +placing limits to their extent and the number of their residents, +the inattention of the governors of Filipinas in regard to this so +important subject, on the one hand, and on the other the interested +motives of the parish curas and the ministers of the doctrinas, +have given rise to the abuse of the villages of excessive size which +are now found established in Filipinas. These, as they cannot be +properly governed by their respective local authorities, maintain +within themselves a source of internal civil discord, and from time +to time they have broken out in disturbances which have placed the +islands in a very critical situation. + +If the reports of their population be examined, it will be found +that in a great number of villages it does not fall below 10,000, +11,000, or 12,000 souls; and it is impossible that so many can be +well directed spiritually by the one parish cura alone which each +village has, or in secular matters by only one gobernadorcillo or +alcalde. In this class of towns the most notable are the following: +Tondo, with 13,424 souls; Binondoc, 22,570; Tambobo, 21,378; Pasig, +14,465; Malolos, 19,655; Vigan, 17,320; Pavay, 14,840; Lavag [Laoag], +25,242; Bacarra, 13,064; Balayan, 18,631; Taal, 23,526; Banan, 17,438; +Batangas, 19,566; Cabatuan, 17,359; Xaro, 14,911. In these populations +which do not conform to the rule there has always been recognized more +or less instability, for the class of the plebeians, or caylianes, +is immense, and out of proportion to that of the timauas, or nobles; +and likewise because the unarmed authority of a gobernadorcillo must +necessarily be vacillating, at the mercy of that great mass of people, +who are easily set in motion by a seditious person, a few drunkards, +or the superstitious tale of some old man. + +The successive revolts of various towns in the province of Ilocos +in the years 1810, 1812, and 1816 had no other source. The cause +of this last uprising was decided by me, in my official character +as fiscal of the royal Audiencia of Manila. In my reply I explained +the origin of those repeated insurrections, analyzed the degree of +perverseness which progressively in each of them had been revealed +in the purpose of the conspirators, and deduced the necessity of +dividing the province of Ilocos into two, to the end that its large +towns should each have a ruler closer at hand who might keep them +in check. The Audiencia made a report, with my opinion as fiscal +thereon to the king our sovereign; and, his Majesty having deigned +to command that immediately the said province should be divided into +two, it has been maintained on that footing, up to the present time, +in the greatest order and tranquillity. + +[Even more surprising is the neglect of the governors to enforce +the law that no houses shall be erected close to the castles +and fortresses.] Within cannon-shot of the walls of Manila, and +even no farther away than the breadth of the river, one hundred +thousand souls--Indians, mestizos, and Chinese--have been allowed +to establish themselves; a people of foreign origin, in great part, +without passports, classification, settled occupation, or any other +requisite of a well-ordered social condition, and whose formidable +number is threatening Manila with an inevitable blow. The sudden +movements of that great mob of people, ignorant and swayed by blind +passion, reached the point of approaching close to the defenses of +the city, in the year of 1820, even before this was known to the +government and the military council (which for this object had been +called together, and of which I was a member)--notwithstanding that +the object of their revenge was in the outer suburbs, and that their +aim was not, at least for the time, directed against the city. [These +facts ought to make the authorities of the colony realize that no +other considerations ought to interfere with their prime obligation, +which is to preserve peace and order in the towns and maintain the +military posts in security. Bernaldez recommends that new regulations +be formed regarding the settlements of the islands; that no town be +allowed to contain over five thousand souls and one thousand houses +(except the capitals of the provinces, which might have ten thousand +souls and two thousand houses); that the large towns be divided +into villages on the above basis, which should be kept separate from +one another; and that in the suburbs of Manila there should be more +rigorous police control of the people. The Indians there should be +classified by occupations, to each being appointed a chief or leader +who should be responsible for the conduct of those in his class; the +use of all dangerous weapons should be forbidden; passports should be +required for all persons coming from the provinces; and vigilant watch +should be kept over the occupations and mode of life of every family.] + + + +Of the titles to landed property belonging to the Indians and the +villages + +The lack of clear and exact laws for properly authenticating the +documents regarding the ownership of the lands of the Indians, and +the uncertain and unlimited possession which the villages have of +lands under the pretext, of their being communal, have been and always +will be in Filipinas the origin of a multitude of ruinous lawsuits and +contentions--sometimes those of Indians and villages among themselves, +sometimes between these and the Spanish and mestizo proprietors. The +Indians, as a rule, have no title of ownership in the lands which they +possess, and if any one has such it is a private document, signed +by other Indians--who with the greatest readiness deny, change, +and forge their signatures--or it will be simply a writing signed +by the alcalde-mayor, a copy of which, if it remains in the court, +will disappear or be mutilated, with equal readiness, by the Indian +clerks of the alcalde, in whose charge the archives are--if indeed +these are not entirely destroyed in the frequent fires which occur in +the villages. The most common method which the Indians of the villages +have for proving their territorial property is by tradition, and the +depositions of witnesses; and with that powerful weapon they undertake +and maintain the most contentious lawsuits, aided by the fiscals of +the Audiencia--who often forget that their office of defenders of the +Indians is bona fide, and for the sake and protection of the natives +in the tribunals to which the laws commend them. But any person who may +have exercised the duties of magistrate for any time in Filipinas will +know that in the decisions of judges there is nothing more discredited +than the evidence presented by Indian and mestizo witnesses, who +are not restrained from perjury by either an intimate acquaintance +with the obligations of religion or by sentiments of conscience, +honor, and reputation. It is very common to see, in court cases, +that witnesses of that sort will swear, and then contradict their +own testimony, according as the witnesses [are affected by] either +their own interests or the influence of the litigant who presents them. + +These causes, besides rendering the lawsuits of this kind eternal, have +very frequently produced scandalous disobedience of the villagers to +the enactments of the Audiencia of the islands, and uprisings of armed +men in order to prevent effectually even the judicial possession of +the crown lands which had been sold, with all the formalities of the +laws, by the government there; and, finally, they withhold the Spanish +families and persons of wealth from purchasing rural establishments in +order to undertake on a large scale the cultivation of the products +of the country, which is perhaps the only means of promoting the +agriculture of the islands. + +It is therefore expedient, in order to cut short these noisy +controversies, which have so mischievous consequences for the internal +peace of the communities in the islands, that his Majesty be pleased +to command that the government there shall oblige all the villages +and private land-owners in them to have authenticated before the +respective alcaldes-mayor of the provinces the documents for their +ownership, both private and communal. Strict obligation should be +imposed on them to surround their lands with trees--achiote, [144] +mulberry, cotton, cinnamon, cacao--under penalty of losing their title +to the land. The documents should be registered in the tribunals of +the respective alcaldes, who at the end of every year should send to +the capital the original books of record, in order that these may +be kept there securely in the archives, for which provision shall +be made by the government, not admitting in the courts or declaring +lawful any other titles of ownership to lands than those which are +supported by those necessary conditions. + + + +Of the ecclesiastical orders which are conferred on Indians and +mestizos + +The irregular procedure of the reverend archbishops and bishops of the +islands in conferring ecclesiastical orders on the Indians and mestizos +there, will be in that colony, as it has already been in America, +one of the causes which most incite revolutions. The Indians receive +through the priesthood a standing which they cannot worthily sustain, +because they never lay aside the affections, passions, and usages of +Indians. Educated by the religious, they afterward come to be their +decided enemies; they divide with the religious the opinions of the +villagers, who finally, even though they know the deficient morals +of the native priests, always respect the sacred functions which +these exercise. The least political evil which the latter occasion +is [through] their neglect of their obligations as parish priests, +the irregularity of their mode of life, and their carelessness in +everything pertaining to divine worship. The inhabitants of the +villages administered by Indian curas are very different from those +of the religious from Europa, whose people are distinguished by their +simplicity, docility, and religious training. He who knows the active +and leading part played by this class of persons in accomplishing +the independence of America will not be surprised that in the +establishment of the constitution in Filipinas Indian curas have +almost all been the directors of the elections in their villages, +the electors, and the deputies in Cortes and for the province--in +all these functions distinguishing themselves by their officiousness, +and their pretensions against the legitimate government of the islands. + +This class of persons, dominating the consciences of the ignorant +and unfortunate, can easily drag them into error. As simple farmers +and artisans, they would have been useful to their families and to +the government; but mistakenly raised to the dignity of priests, +other interests now move them, and they form a commonwealth apart in +the safe retreat of the provinces. A consideration of justice wrongly +understood by the prelates of the islands, and a vehement desire in the +Indian or mestizo heads of families to ennoble these by placing their +sons in the priesthood, have caused there an excessive ordination +of Indians--which I cannot avoid characterizing as such, since, +besides the many clerics who are actually administering villages, +there is a considerable surplus of others who are scattered through +the provinces. These evils were foreseen in the laws of the Indias +(ley iv, tit. vii, lib. i), which cautions and exhorts the reverend +prelates of the Indias not to ordain so many clerics as they were +doing; but this has not sufficed, and it is necessary that the +government, recognizing the unfortunate experience that it has already +had with this abuse, should take the most efficacious measures for +the purpose of limiting the authority of the prelates in Filipinas, +in conferring ecclesiastical orders on Indians and mestizos, strictly +to the number of clerics which the religious orders of those islands +agree upon and propose as necessary to have for their coadjutors, +and for Indian villages not now occupied, or which in the future the +religious shall fail to occupy--ordering the governor of Filipinas +to secure, by mild and discreet means, that the vacant curacies of +clerics be conferred on European religious. + + + +Of the European religious in Filipinas + +The lack of European religious in the Filipinas Islands for filling +at least four-fifths of their curacies is incompatible with the +permanent preservation of that colony. It can be safely asserted that +the government of his Majesty has in this class of ministers the most +powerful force for maintaining that possession in attachment to his +sovereignty. Their virtuous and unworldly mode of life; their absolute +disinterestedness in regard to temporal matters, which is a marvelous +contrast to the greed and ambition of the European trader, the mestizo, +and the Chinese; their extraordinary sacrifices in living apart from +the society of their equals for nineteen, twenty, and [even] thirty +years in those almost uninhabited islands, which are unprovided with +the sort of nourishment suitable to their estate; their discretion and +patience in correcting and teaching the Indians; their resignation in +all kinds of adversity: everything, in short, contributes to make the +inhabitants of that land regard them as supernatural beings, and in +the light of this conception the fathers exercise over the Indians +a moral force more powerful than even that of the government. The +Indians live in entire moral separation from the Spaniards; they +have their own laws of tradition, their own opinions and customs, +entirely unknown to any one who is ignorant of their language or +has not continual intercourse with them. The European religious are +the only persons in the confidence of the government who by favor of +these circumstances, and with a practical and intimate knowledge of +the nature and inclinations of the natives there, can find a way into +their hearts, incline their wills to what is right, enlighten them, +and keep them peaceful and submissive; and without this larger armies +would be of no avail. + +[The religious are the only persons who understand the condition +of their respective villages, and the alcaldes-mayor are usually +indolent and inefficient, relying on native interpreters, and caring +little for aught save their own profit; they depend on the religious +in all cases of difficulty, and the higher authorities are jealous of +this superiority of the religious. The government ought to maintain +as many religious as possible in the islands, and give them as much +political authority as is consistent with their ministry; five hundred +of them should be sent there, and the alcaldes-mayor should be obliged +to consult every month with their respective curas on the best means +of promoting the interests of the people, and the central government +can then act on reports of these conferences.] + + + +On the settlement of banished and vagabond foreigners in the islands + +[The entrance of these persons causes trouble among the people of the +islands: the Indians are easily influenced by white men, especially +those who teach them to live in more freedom and insubordination to +authority; foreigners of this sort are almost always of lax morals +and dangerous political opinions, which are even more dangerous to +"the Spaniards of the country, who, although more enlightened than the +Indians, are more susceptible to such corruption." The foreigner thus +residing in the islands, "usually from the dregs of other nations," +makes light of all the institutions there, and tries to set the people +against the mother country; and three times recently has occurred] +the scandal, unheard-of in that colony, of foreigners who, abusing +the innocence of the country, have, being already married in their +own country, again married Philippine Spanish girls, leaving them +abandoned and dishonored. Others, who feigned to be learned physicians +and agriculturists, have deceived and defrauded proprietors in the +islands. Others have clandestinely introduced impious, revolutionary, +and obscene books printed in the Spanish language, but pirated in +France, with which they have caused atrocious injury in the morals of +families there. In fine, the settlement of foreigners in the islands +would not be expedient, even for the sake of the advantages which +their industry and arts would produce there; for works carried on +always with foreign capital, on the account of foreigners, and by +the agency of foreigners, would leave to the country very little +benefit as compared to that from labor employed there by Spanish +capital, and on the account and for the benefit of Spaniards. If we +desire to preserve intact in Filipinas the religious ideas and the +pure morals of our ancestors, and due submission to the government +of his Majesty, it is necessary to keep the people away from every +point of contact with foreigners. In China, Japan, and other nations, +the revolutionary spirit has not been able to penetrate, because the +laws of those kingdoms keep the gates closed to all strangers. In +a colony still in its infancy in customs and enlightenment--which, +like a school of education, needs to have for models men of sound +morals--it has been very absurd to allow to remain and become citizens +therein men who have served a term of exile, and polisones [145] +or vagabonds, sometimes followed by officers of justice from the +Peninsula; and that the Indian people should see (as so many times I +have seen) that this sort of men succeeded in obtaining positions as +corporals, revenue officials, and even militia captains, solely from +the circumstance of their being white men. It is necessary always +to remove from the colonies this sort of people, who on account of +their principles and their inclinations must be enemies of order and +of government, permitting therein the settlement only of respectable +Spanish artisans and merchants, whose upright conduct may serve as +an example to that neophyte people, while at the same time they make +fortunes for themselves. But even this point needs careful study, +and in regard to it I will present the following reflections. + + + +Of the residence of European Spaniards in Filipinas + +By a necessary and inevitable effect of certain causes, physical and +moral, which would take too long to explain here, the Spanish race in +the colonies--or the descendants of Europeans, and mestizos of these, +born and reared there--have from their birth political sentiments +which are entirely opposite to those of their ancestors and other +Europeans. They regard the Indian as an entirely passive being, the +European as a foreigner, and the land as exclusively their own. The +educational institutions which thus far have been founded in the +colonies, with the object of uniting their inhabitants, by means of +enlightening them, under the same principles of religion, morals, +and politics, have not been able to uproot those ideas; on the other +hand, recent events in the Americas have proved that the men who had +most education and acquaintance with the sciences were the party +leaders [corifeos] of revolution and independence. It ought to be +regarded as an incontestable truth that as soon as the Spanish race +in Filipinas reaches a greater number than that of the Europeans, +and with this increase acquires a certain degree of moral force, +a war for independence will be declared; and according to this idea +the educational institutions, when there is not sincerity in the +minds of the persons and in the laws that aim at encouraging this +class of population in the colonies, have a tendency hostile to the +preservation of the royal government in them. This class of Spanish +families is, for another reason, very unfortunate in Filipinas, and may +be regarded as condemned to perpetual slothfulness and misery. They +cannot devote themselves to agriculture, because in that burning +climate only the Indian resists labor so hard; nor to handicrafts, +because the wages which the Indian and the Sangley mestizo alike earn, +which is sufficient to meet their simple needs, is insufficient to +pay for another sort of food and clothing for the Spaniards. For these +same reasons, they cannot occupy themselves in the coasting trade; nor, +finally, in the commerce of the islands on a large scale, for lack of +sufficient capital, since by inheritance is divided among all the sons +the wealth which their European parents left to them; and the practice +of law is there a career to which resort is very unfortunate. All these +causes, added to the lassitude which the climate inspires, maintain +that class of people in such a condition of idleness and poverty, +especially the women, that it has been necessary to establish in +the capital alone six seminaries and beaterios in which to shelter +and educate Spanish girls; and that in the ordinance regarding the +Acapulco galleon his Majesty should grant to the Spanish widows of +merchants the special favor of a pension or widow's usufruct on the +boletas of that vessel, their only means of making a living. + +[Bernaldez declares that these European Spaniards, "there abandoned, +as it were, to the mercy of charity, or to vices," are not only +useless but dangerous to the country; that among them revolutions +are born; that it is for the best interests of España to retain +her population at home, and, while furnishing means for Spaniards +to enrich themselves in the colonies or their trade, to attract to +the mother country all possible wealth and capital, not allowing her +children to remain abroad after acquiring wealth; and, finally, "to +remove from the colonies all cause of insurrection, than which there is +none greater and more terrible than the propagation [therein] of the +Spanish race." Moreover, the Europeans settled in the colonies "have +too much influence, through their exclusive wealth and connections, +for weakening governmental action there; and care nothing for any +political changes except as they can find therein opportunity for +speculations" (on which he instances the action of European Spaniards +in Mexico in Iturbide's short reign, and in other events of the +revolution there). "The Filipinas Islands need, to maintain them in +tranquillity, nothing more than a stable system of administration, +civil and spiritual, by means of religious, and an army trained and +commanded by competent European leaders, officers, sergeants, and +corporals, with the necessary number of civil officials." The creole +inhabitants should be diminished as much as possible, all Spaniards +being required to return with their families to their own country; +and "aid given to destitute widows and orphans of Spaniards who die +in Filipinas would be better employed in paying for their removal +to Europa." This matter should be considered in the residencia of +every governor. Convicts and exiles should no longer be sent to +the islands. No foreigner should be allowed to marry there except on +condition of leaving the country with his wife. No European adventurer +or idler should be allowed to remain in the islands unless he proffer +sufficient security for his good conduct and occupation; he may then +remain not longer than ten years; otherwise, he should be at once sent +back whence he came. Every ship should carry back to España as many +Spaniards as it brought to the islands; and European Spaniards should +not be allowed to remain in Filipinas more than ten years, after which +they should be compelled to return with their families to España.] + + + +Of the residencias + +[It is highly desirable that public officials should undergo +strict residencia, and that regulations be made for these, which +are adapted to the special needs of Filipinas. This is especially +true of the alcaldes-mayor, who, as they have permission to trade, +are more tempted to evade or infringe the laws; and many persons are +appointed to that office who "lack all the qualifications necessary +for obtaining any public office whatever." Unfortunately, since the +royal decree of August 24, 1799, no alcalde has been or can be subject +to residencia, and they consequently enjoy absolute impunity in their +transgressions; for that decree does not allow a sufficient time for +complaints to be made in a country like Filipinas, where intercourse +between the provinces and the capital is so uncertain, interrupted, +and difficult, on account of the vicissitudes of weather and climate, +the lack of roads and postal facilities, and the great distance of +many provinces from Manila. "This impunity has most serious results, +very detrimental to the peace and quiet of the islands; for such has +been the class of persons whom necessity has compelled to appoint +as alcaldes-mayor that not only have they used their authority to +possess themselves of the property of the Indians--seizing the boats of +traders, which injured the natives in their traffic--and defrauded the +Indians with unjust exactions; but they have humiliated the religious, +stolen moneys from the king, outraged young girls, burned houses, and, +in short, have thrown the provinces into a condition of effervescence +and of conspiracy against the government which sent to the natives +such a ruler." Bernaldez urges the government to take such measures +that the residencia of the alcaldes may be made effective and just.] + + + +Of the selection of all classes of employees for the Filipinas Islands + +[On this point, the writer urges greater care and more sense of +responsibility. All government officials, of every grade, should +be of good morals, old enough to have stability of character, +sufficiently competent and experienced to understand their duties, +and such as will set a good example to the natives.] The imprudence +of one man alone has often been sufficient to incite a sedition in +the minds of various parties or castes in those islands; and in any +case it is very dangerous to entrust positions of command to persons +who are not endowed with well-proved ability and discretion. I +cannot attribute the laxity which in recent times is evident in +all branches of the administration and government of those islands +to any other cause than the injudicious selection of many of their +employees. The military corps, whose former captains and subalterns +had been mainly sergeants sent from the Peninsula, were kept in the +best order and discipline until, in the year '23, those officers were +added to them who accompanied General Martinez--of some of whom, +according to the documents which were executed for my court, their +appointment to the Indias, with their scandalous conduct, looks +like a proof that in España there was neither religion, morality, +nor subordination. [Bernaldez urges that certain qualifications be +required for office in Filipinas; the governors should be members of +learned bodies, and excel in discretion and ability, and in the art +of governing, and of promoting the welfare of a country, rather than +in the military art. The intendants should be "enlightened economists, +capable of creating and promoting the great wealth of which that virgin +country is capable." The officials of the Audiencia should be at least +thirty-five years old, with ten years of service, and experienced in +legal practice; and other employees should be trustworthy, experienced, +and not mere youths. "The Filipinas Islands, like every colony, are +the country of the corruption of youth, and where it is necessary to +work with men whose characters are already formed."] + + + +Of the use of weapons in Filipinas + +[The writer protests against the carelessness which, contrary to +the laws of the Indias, has allowed the natives to possess and carry +weapons--even including campilans and sabers, pistols and guns. These +arms have, through culpable negligence of the government officials, +been imported in the foreign ships and sold publicly; and, possessing +them, the natives are a constant source of danger to the whites. He +recommends that the governor of Filipinas be commanded to disarm the +natives, using mild and politic methods, and allow them no implements +or tools save those required in their labor; to stop the importation +of arms into the islands; to compel all coasting vessels to deposit +with the authorities, during their stay in the harbor, the arms which +they carry for defense against the pirates; to see that no weapons +be allowed in the villages save those needed by the local guards; +and to stop all clandestine manufacture and sale of gunpowder.] + + + +Of the despatch of assistance to the Filipinas Islands + +[This section is devoted to the evils resulting from the remoteness +of the islands, and the neglect of providing them with facilities +for communication with España; it is necessary, if the government +desires to keep the islands; to remedy this deficiency at once, +for their material prosperity, the administration of justice, their +safety from enemies, their loyalty to the crown--all are at great +risk under present conditions. "The establishment of postal service +in vessels of the royal armada would be a most burdensome expense +to the treasury of España and to that of Filipinas. Unfortunately, +previous to the royal decree of 1820 in regard to the commerce of +Filipinas, in the long period of forty years only twenty trading +ships have gone to those islands, leaving them without assistance or +communication during the long space of three, four, five, or [even] +seven years." However, this can be remedied, and without expense, by +suitable measures for the promotion of commerce between the islands +and España, "an attempt at which has been made in these last six +years, during which time more expeditions direct to Filipinas have +been effected than in the preceding forty years--that is, sixteen +from Cadiz, three from Santander, Coruña, and San Sebastian, and five +whose return is now expected."] + + + + + +OF THE CAUSES WHICH OPERATE IN THE BACKWARD CONDITION OF THE +ADMINISTRATION, BOTH CIVIL AND ECONOMIC, OF THE FILIPINAS ISLANDS; +AND THEIR CORRECTIVE + + +[Of the failure of governors and intendants to make reports] + +[Exact and circumstantial information is of course, necessary for +the guidance of the home government in all measures relating to the +resources, needs, development, and administration of the islands, and +annual reports on all these matters are demanded from governors and +intendants by the laws of the Indias. Essential as this requirement +is, it has always been neglected.] What those officials sometimes +write, when questioned about these matters, are but generalities; +their reports and information are reduced to how much has been +produced and how much spent, in the résumé of the royal exchequer +accounts. Thus it is not known with what necessity and justice certain +extraordinary expenses have been incurred, what number of employees the +king has in that colony, what causes have occasioned the increase or +decrease in the product of the revenues, and, finally, how the means +and resources of the people who contribute to the royal income can be +augmented so that the latter can likewise be increased, all which the +government ought to know. [It is true that the governors are laden with +multifarious routine duties, which often prevent them from attending +to these important matters, and from examining conditions personally, +for which they have to depend upon the reports of their subordinates; +and these are apt to be actuated by self-interest and they do not like +reforms, so their statements are not very reliable. The reports made by +the municipalities, commercial consulate, and other bodies are of the +same sort, as being always from the standpoint of their corporation; +and neither authorities nor corporations have the same stimulus to +thoroughness, accuracy, and energy as has the private person who +undertakes an enterprise. It is through the latter class that great +projects and advances are made, but such persons hesitate to present +plans for these to the authorities there, because the authorities +do not examine them personally, "but by means of a contentious, +voluminous, and annoying expediente," and likewise have no authority to +adopt these plans until they are referred to Madrid--where, too, they +are not encouraged to bring such projects before the royal government, +and these, moreover, would have to be sent to Manila first (apparently +to contend there with the aforesaid expediente). Bernaldez continues:] +In order, then, to awaken this interest of enterprising private +persons in the agriculture, manufactures, and commerce of Filipinas, +it is necessary to have there a body expressly devoted to this object, +and authorized to adopt provisionally any plan for improvement and +progress which may be proposed to it and examined by it with the aid +of its special knowledge of the country; and this body ought to be +the superior council of the royal exchequer of the islands.... This +council, as such, has very little occupation; its ministers, like +all who are employed in Filipinas, attend to their official duties +only in the forenoons, remaining free during all the afternoons and +evenings for employment in a service of so great importance as this. + +I am, then, of opinion that his Majesty should deign to establish +the following: That the superior council of the royal exchequer +in Filipinas constitute a similar council for the improvement and +prosperity of the country, with the object of stimulating in every way +the Indians to work, and capitalists to undertake enterprises. That +its members hold weekly meetings for this purpose, at such hours as +the president shall designate. That it also call in the proprietors of +lands, agriculturists, manufacturers, and merchants of the country, +listen to their views, and encourage them to propose reforms and +plans for promoting the useful arts. That it be authorized to decide +upon the execution of projects, provisionally, until the approbation +of his Majesty is secured, in all matters which do not occasion loss +to the country or injure the interests of the treasury. That it can +draw upon the treasury of the community for a moderate amount of +necessary expenses for the encouragement and reward of enterprises, +for anything which can bring a positive and general benefit to the +Indians and the government. + + + +Of the royal court + +[Our writer notes the requirement of the laws of the Indias that the +governors and audiencias should consult and act together in matters +of government, and the excellent results of this procedure. [146]] But +unfortunately such has not been the case in the recent governments of +Filipinas. The governor-presidents have entirely separated themselves +from their audiencias, and have governed alone--sometimes in military +fashion, not heeding the opinions and customs of the country, but +depending on force of arms; and sometimes only by the advice of the +lawyer who assists the governor, who has the title of government +counselor [asesor], and who, although he ought to limit himself to +giving opinion on points and cases regarding statutes, is counselor in +all the arduous matters of administration. From this it has resulted +that the fate of the colonies may be left in the hands of this class +of counselors, and that their subordinates have had so much power +and importance. [Moreover, this course leads to dissensions and +hostilities between the governor and the Audiencia, which is a bad +example to furnish to the people and lowers their respect for the +authorities.] It must be borne in mind that the Indians of Filipinas +are not so sunken in ignorance that they do not of themselves, +and likewise through their attorneys and confessors, recognize that +they have a sovereign who rules them, and who to this end has given +them laws; consequently, all lack of concord among the authorities, +and every change introduced in the method of governing the villages, +must produce fatal consequences. [It is therefore recommended that +the governor consult the Audiencia in all matters of the internal +government of the islands, and any failure in this should be made a +charge in his residencia.] + + + +Of the administration of justice in general + +The consideration and respect which the Audiencia of Manila merits +among the Indians proceeds also from those times in which its +members made official visits to the provinces, and in these visits +did so much good to the villages. The visiting auditors were, in +reality, friendly mediators in the disputes between the Indians; +and they made agreements, placed limits to the villages, furnished +a sort of municipal ordinance, and protected the natives against the +oppressions of the alcaldes-mayor. Notwithstanding my high opinion of +that tribunal, I regard as very proper the provisions of law xxxiv, +título ii, book ii of the laws of the Indias in regard to the removal +and promotion of its ministers, basing my opinion on the same arguments +as did the law--that is, that it is very desirable not only to reward +them, but to uproot them from the friendships which they contract +in places where they remain a long time. These friendships, whose +influence is always detrimental to the equitable administration of +justice, are in Manila an almost necessary result of the small Spanish +population, of the lack of all public amusement or diversion, and of +the fact that with the enervating effect of the climate the rectitude +and vigor of European morals is lost after some years of residence +in the country. [The Audiencia has been unable to attend to the +administration of justice in the islands as it has desired, for it has +always been hindered by the many obstacles which arise from the storms, +the lack of roads and mail service, the attraction of all the lawyers +in the islands to the capital, the ignorance of the gobernadorcillo and +the alcalde of each other's language and of judicial procedures, the +dilatory mode of carrying on these between the provinces and Manila, +etc. "Thus it is very common that these lawsuits, besides being always +full of defects, last three, four, or six years; and that in that +long period either the delinquents take to flight, or the documents +are lost." Even in the Audiencia itself there are many obstacles to +its action. Its subordinate officials are Indian or mestizo lawyers, +who often are neither competent nor qualified for their positions;] +and that which most contributes to retard the despatch of business, +and to maintain the offices of the court without any organization, +is the unfitness of those who occupy the class or purchasable and +renunciable offices. The court clerk, the special commissioners, +and the attorneys know nothing else than how to obtain the greatest +possible advantage from the purchase of their offices. Without any +instruction in the obligations of those positions, because they cannot +acquire it in that country, and incapable of carrying out even what the +ministers themselves have the patience to teach them, those men are, +notwithstanding, the only ones whom the ministers can choose for those +offices, because they are likewise the only ones who can outbid others +in the sale of them. These positions are also of little advantage, +because in the immense extension of the military jurisdiction, among +the wealthy persons of Filipinas, the tribunal of the War Department +has drawn to itself all the civil causes of importance in the islands; +and the Audiencia has been reduced to criminal causes, and the minor +controversies over land among the Indians, for which reason it is +impossible to have educated Europeans who will purchase those posts +and serve in them. The consequence of this is that the offices of +the Audiencia are in the utmost disorder; that they do not contain +even the books of entry which the laws provide for, or registers, +citations, or reports of cases; that in order to record a decree or an +official report it is necessary for a minister to take upon himself the +task of doing that; and, finally, that the administration of justice +must necessarily be slow. [Bernaldez therefore recommends that the +ministers of the Audiencia be promoted at least every ten years to +other appointments; that the minor offices be no longer purchasable +or renunciable, but filled directly by royal appointment, and given +to suitable persons, with good salaries (which are specified); and +that the government of the islands provide some expedient for raising +money to pay the salary of an attorney-general in each province.] + + + +Of the alcaldes-mayor and military governors of the provinces + +[The office of alcalde-mayor and provincial governor involves the +civil government and defense of the province, the administration of +justice, and the collection of the taxes; but those who are appointed +to it are usually only traders, in reality, and care more for the +profits yielded by the trade that is permitted to them than for the +obligations of their office. They are paid twenty-five hard dollars +a month for salary, "and they pay to the treasury the same sum for +the indulto [i.e., privilege], as it is called there, of trading," to +which pursuit they devote all their time and energies during the term +of their office.] A system of alcaldeships so anomalous and irregular +nevertheless produced at the outset some benefits to the islands, +because, by reason of the great lack of capitalists there, many +products of the agriculture and industries of the provinces would have +received no encouragement if the alcalde had not speculated in them +for the sake of his own trade. It is also necessary to note that there +are provinces with which, on account of their remoteness and the little +advantage which they have for the coasting trade, there was hardly any +other means of communication than the barks of the alcalde. But now, +when the coasting trade has become so general, it is a necessity to +abolish, in most of the provinces of the islands, that absurd system of +trading alcaldes; and to appoint in their places corregidors, lawyers +educated in España, with only a salary, and the charge of making +collections for the royal revenue, with the right to the offices in +the Audiencia there. This increase in expenditure should be covered +by the duties which ought to be imposed on the coasting trade, which +by this means remains free from all impediment. [Bernaldez urges that +the provincial magistrates be carefully selected, for their knowledge, +experience, discretion, and executive ability; and that they be men +who will devote themselves to the proper administration of justice, +the study of those regions hitherto unknown, plans of reform, and the +encouragement of industry and commerce among the people--not forgetting +to preserve friendly relations with the parish priests. He recommends +that seventeen of the provinces in the islands of Luzon, Panay, and +Cebú be divided into corregidorships, eight into those of the first +class, and nine into those of the second, with specified salaries +to each; that appointments to these posts be made for six years; +and that corregidors of the first class be proposed by the Audiencia.] + + + +Of the taxes + +[At present, the tribute paid by the Indians should not be increased +because so many of them would be distressed by any heavier tax; but +this might be done later, when the class of large proprietors may have +increased in numbers. The payment of this tax in kind is a source +of loss, not only in the quantity and quality of the products paid +in, but in the damage caused by transportation and storage; and in +selling the products thus received by the government there is loss, +because its agents are poor managers of such business, not having +the shrewdness or the knowledge of the markets which enable private +merchants to make their profits. The commutation of the payment from +money to kind was only partly due to the influence of the alcaldes, +who preferred it for the benefit of their own trading;] the cause which +has rendered that commutation almost necessary and which operates +directly to the prejudice of the Indian, is the lack of a colonial +money peculiar to the Filipinas Islands, like that which the other +possessions in Asia have (of the necessity of which I will speak in +another chapter), in order to revive internal commerce and promote +and facilitate the payment of taxes. + +The indirect taxes by means of government monopolies in Filipinas +are, in my opinion, those most suitable to the native disposition of +inhabitants who, furnished most abundantly by the soil with all the +income necessary for their support, convert the superfluous enjoyments +of life into objects of prime necessity. It should be a firm principle +of good government to protect and rectify the administration of these +indirect taxes, especially those on tobacco and wine--not only because +these will be sufficient to cover abundantly all the expenses of army +and navy, but because in case of a war and the absolute cessation of +trade the government will have this firm support for its existence; and +therefore no hearing should be given to the suggestions and proposals +of those persons who are craftily working to free the islands from +those monopolies. But so long as these taxes are not made general +through all the provinces of the archipelago, so that the fire of the +contraband trade (which always finds lodgment in the exempt provinces) +may be extinguished, and until certain reforms are adopted in their +administration and protection, the produce [of these taxes] in favor +of the royal exchequer must be very disproportionate to the amounts +consumed by that large population. + + + +Of the revenue from tobacco + +The revenue which supports the Filipinas Islands, which cannot be +replaced by any other, and which if it were properly established +and administered would yield incalculable advantages, is that from +tobacco. Three millions of inhabitants, all without exception of sex +or age consumers of that article--and for each one of them, on the +average, and at a very low estimate, can be set down a consumption of +four pesos [worth] a year--would produce an addition to the revenue +of twelve million pesos, which they would obtain from the land and +from their industries, in order to give at the same time a great +impulse to commerce. This is not a paradox, for the use of tobacco +is of so prime necessity for the Indians that the same calculation +can be made for that object that would be made for the use of bread +in España. [Bernaldez considers the injurious effects of enforcing +this monopoly in only a part of the islands--"although more than half +the population is today subject to the monopoly, its income is only +one-tenth of what, at a reasonable estimate, it ought to be"--and +those of its careless and negligent administration. He makes the +following suggestions:] That the collection of the tributes from +the Indians of Filipinas be made compulsory in money, as soon as the +colonial money can be placed in circulation in their provinces. That +the monopoly of tobacco in Filipinas be extended to all the [now] +exempt provinces, without exception; and the government there will +succeed much better in establishing it therein by sagacity than +by authority or force. That the examination and appraisal of the +leaf tobacco which the monopoly purchases from the growers be made +before a board which the government there shall appoint annually, +composed of officials from the capital who are most trustworthy and +intelligent in that branch of administration, such tobacco as proves +to be unfit for use being burned in their presence. That all the +tobacco which can be collected in Filipinas be conveyed to España, by +means of contracts with private persons for the freighting of ships; +and with it the amount which can be remitted from the [different] +branches of the royal exchequer, and the annual surplus of their funds. + + + +Of the revenue from wine + +The product of the revenue from wine cannot in Filipinas be considered +so important as that from tobacco, because the Indians are very +moderate in their drinking. The wines made from the cocoanut and +nipa (the only ones subject to the monopoly) are wholesome for the +Indians; and as the monopoly has regulated the supply for each village, +greatly improving the process of making the liquor and diminishing its +strength, the Indians prefer the monopoly to the free privilege of this +article. The failure of this revenue to increase depends on two causes: +first, that the monopoly is not extended, as it ought to be, to all the +provinces of the islands, not only thus to place all the natives on the +same footing, and so suppress the contraband trade, but to prevent by +this method the manufacture by the Indians of other beverages which +are more injurious to their health, and which, without giving them +pleasure, intoxicate them as has been the case with the brandy and rum +from sugar-cane juice or molasses; second, the great amount of the two +last-named liquors which is clandestinely furnished to the public, as +a result of the permission, very negligently guarded, which was given +to manufacture them freely to export abroad, or to sell them under a +certain tax in order that they should not injure the consumption of +the article placed under monopoly control. [Bernaldez admits that the +manufacture of the above-mentioned brandy and rum ought to be allowed, +"because otherwise the country would lose the enormous quantity of +molasses which results from the sugar-making, which has a considerable +value, but cannot be employed for other uses;" but the government +ought to maintain the value of the monopolized beverages, and at +the same time facilitate the exportation of rum and brandy. [147] +He recommends, besides the extension of the wine monopoly:] That, +as a consequence, every other kind of beverage made in the country +be prohibited in the islands for the common use of the Indians. That +the manufacture of brandy and rum from sugar-cane be allowed only +for the export trade. That each manufacturer be likewise allowed to +have a retail warehouse, under the imposts which they now pay. That +the manufacturers be compelled to establish their factories in the +immediate vicinity of Manila, where they can and must be watched, +at their own expense, by the revenue clerks. That all the brandy and +rum which is made from sugar be immediately deposited in warehouses, +the keys of which the custom-house shall take charge of, the government +levying on it moderate duties for deposit as well as for export. [148] + + + +Of the head-money, or personal tax, from the Chinese + +[The Chinese were at first allowed in Filipinas only to cultivate +the soil and work in handicrafts; but they have drawn into their +possession the control of trade and commerce, "winning the good-will +of the government and the tolerance of the inhabitants of Manila +with a thousand intrigues unknown in the country. They have done in +Filipinas what the Europeans ought to have done, that is, to acquire +wealth and send it, or themselves go with it, to their own country to +establish commercial houses;" and thus they have added a marvelous +amount to the wealth of China. Their method of doing business is +explained--practically the same as is done in the United States at +the present time; united capital and effort, division of the gains +accordingly, quick sales and small profits, etc. They have obtained the +exclusive retail trade in Manila, and a great part of the wholesale +trade, "and thereby have aroused the hostility of corporations and +private persons, notwithstanding that they are a class of peaceable and +industrious people in the country." Bernaldez thinks that their tax of +six pesos a year is much too small, considering the advantages which +they enjoy and the large fortunes which they acquire in the islands; +in Batavia the Chinese pay the government as much as thirty pesos a +month for merely the permission to trade. The tax on them at Manila is +farmed out to a Chinaman, and does not yield as much as it should. The +following recommendations are made:] That measures be immediately taken +to correct and render accurate the registration of the Chinese settled +in Filipinas. That the individuals of that nation be divided into three +classes: first, wholesale merchants, understanding by that term all +those who embark for China and receive thence goods on commission or +for their own account; second, retail merchants, or shopkeepers; third, +artisans of every class. That these be distributed by groups under +head-men [por cabecerias], which shall not exceed sixty individuals to +each one. That every Chinaman, as soon as he is registered, shall be +joined to one of these groups, the head-man becoming responsible for +him. That these Chinese heads of barangay must give security for the +tribute from those under them, and collect the tax and deliver it to +the alcalde-mayor of their respective province, being responsible in +every case for the residence and occupation of their tribute-payers; +and for this commission collecting the three per cent. That in future +the tax on the Chinese already settled and those who shall settle +in Filipinas shall be as follows: the wholesale merchant, ten pesos +fuertes a month; the retail merchant, four pesos ditto; the artisan of +every class, two pesos ditto. That every Chinaman settled there shall +be free to return to his own country, provided he is not married, +the limit of six months being allowed for this. That the Chinaman, +of whatever class, who shall not pay his respective tax within one +year shall be sent and delivered up to one of the ranch-owners for +compulsory labor [por repartimiento], in order that there he may work +at the day-wages agreed upon, which must not fall below two reals a +day and food-rations of rice; and that the ranchman shall with these +wages pay the tax [due], at the rate of two pesos a month. + +[Among the advantages derived from this arrangement will be that +of sending out of the islands the many poor and useless Chinese who +have been gradually multiplying there, and have been infecting the +natives with their vices. It will even benefit the Chinese themselves, +"who with two reals a day, which make 7 1/2 dollars a month clear" +(thus showing that Sunday labor was exacted), "can pay two pesos of +tax and be exceedingly prosperous."] [149] + + + +Of the custom-house duties + +The royal decree of August 25, 1818, by which it was decided that +the exaction of import and export duties should be made in the Manila +custom-house from the owners of the vessels, without considering the +ownership of their lading, and that if the vessel were Spanish it +should pay three per cent, and if foreign six per cent, has been a +special favor or privilege granted to half a dozen Spanish ship-owners +(for those who conduct the commerce with China and Bengala cannot be +more than that number), with serious loss to the exchequer. This is, +of course, annually deprived of the considerable income of the three +per cent rebate on all foreign goods imported into Manila, which is +a direct benefit to the foreigners who own nearly all the commerce +in those goods. The manufacturers of Filipinas, especially those of +cotton fabrics--which are able to compete with, and even exceed in +cheapness, those of China, since the cotton of which these are made +is of their own raising--are being ruined, because that rebate of +duties brings the prices of the Chinese goods so near to those of +their infant industry that the former ought always to be preferred; +and, finally, the above arrangement has also given opportunity for +various frauds proceeding from the pretended sale of foreign vessels +to Spaniards, solely for the purpose of availing themselves of the +rebate of duties on their cargoes, and to the possession (under +assumed names) by Chinese settled in Manila of Spanish vessels. + +[Bernaldez states the considerations which should regulate these +duties, and the following recommendations for the payment of duties on +various classes of merchandise, this amount to cover in each case the +entire exaction: On national goods in transit, carried to Manila--on a +Spanish vessel, three per cent; on a foreign ship, six per cent. The +same goods for consumption in the country shall pay nine and ten per +cent respectively. On foreign goods from India and China, for domestic +consumption, ten and fifteen per cent respectively; from this class +should be excepted the wines, brandies, pig iron, small articles of +cast iron, dry beans, and foreign paper, which should pay twenty and +twenty-five per cent respectively. Goods, whether national or foreign, +not declared as in transit at leaving Manila shall pay two and four per +cent respectively; but those registered on a Spanish ship from India, +China, and all Asia for España, ten per cent. Coined silver and gold, +and silver bullion, shall pay no entrance duty at Manila, but on +leaving that port shall pay three and six per cent respectively; +and foreign gold in bullion shall pay eight per cent at entering +Manila (whether on Spanish or foreign vessels). National products, +and those of the industries of Filipinas, shall pay when exported +eight per cent on a foreign vessel, but nothing on a Spanish ship. The +duty of the merchant's peso [peso marchante] which the municipality +of Manila collects should be abolished as obstructive to commerce; +for the legal origin of this imposition is unknown, and it is very +unsuitable for a municipality which is rich through its rents, +revenues, and imposts. Bernaldez believes that this tariff would +promote agriculture, industry, and navigation, and benefit the royal +treasury. More coin would be brought into the islands, the plan of +exempting it from duties having been adopted for that purpose by +all the other governments of Asia. The burden of these duties will +fall mainly on the rich class, and not on the Indians. The "infant +industries" [fabricas nacientes] will be protected, and the Spanish +merchant marine will be given the advantage over the foreigners.] + + + +Of the inter-island trade + +The inter-island trade of the Filipinas Islands is at present quite +active, as is shown by the latest reports received. Its importance is +well worth consideration, since the commodities which are traded in +this way constitute the greater part of the cargoes of the export +commerce. Tortoise-shell, gold, birds'-nests, balate, wax, cacao, +and other products form cargoes of great value which come from +the provinces. The exclusive proprietors of this commerce are the +alcaldes-mayor of the provinces, and the rich mestizos and Chinese, who +in this traffic have made exorbitant profits, for it is these alone who +exclusively avail themselves of the rise in prices which is produced in +Manila by the arrival there of foreign vessels together. This causes +those posts of alcalde there to be very eagerly sought, since in only +three years of holding them they allow [the making of] a fortune; +and also that the class of mestizos and Chinese is the only one that +is sure of becoming rich in Filipinas.... The result is, that with +the exception of the great fortunes which in other times were made in +the privileged commerce of Nueva España, it is this [coasting trade] +from which have proceeded the fortunes of Manila. [This branch of trade +is exempt from all duties, a privilege which does not benefit either +the agriculture or the other industries of the Indians, since they +always sell at the same price, and have no share in the profits of +the trade. Nor is this commerce promoted by the freedom from duties, +for it will always continue and always yield great profits to those +who carry it on--who can well afford to pay a moderate tax on their +lucrative trade, especially as it is partly for their benefit that +the government incurs so great expense for curbing the piracies of +the Moros. It is recommended:] That all commodities, whether natural +products or those of industry, which arrive at the port of Manila by +sea from the provinces shall pay one per cent on the prices current +in that city; and from this tax shall be exempted only rice (whether +in the hull or cleaned), cocoanut oil, and fresh fruits, as being +articles of prime necessity for the Indians. That no duty shall +be collected for those same products when they are transported by +land, or by the rivers and bayous of the island of Luzon. And that, +from the time when this law shall go into effect, the power which +the municipality of Manila has to tax the value of the provisions +which come from the provinces shall be suppressed. The exemption from +duties will tend, in regard to the provinces of Luzon, to encourage in +that island preëminently, as is desirable, agriculture and industry, +and at the same time will save to the custom-house the new expenses +which it would [otherwise] have to incur for establishing posts and +men to guard against smuggling. + + + +Of money + +The Spanish peso is the universal money in the commerce among all the +nations of Asia; and, as therefore the exterior commerce is constantly +drawing it into circulation, the governments of all the colonies +in that part of the world have found themselves obliged to create +a colonial money, which on account of its provisional value cannot +be taken out of the country, and, being directed into the internal +commerce of the province, feeds and multiplies exchanges. In Filipinas +there was no need of adopting that measure while its commerce with +Nueva España lasted, because then those islands were receiving annually +a million of Mexican pesos, and the situado of two hundred and fifty +thousand; and, besides this, the business that was carried on during +that period in the natural and industrial products of the country +was almost insignificant. And if in Filipinas at this present time +enough money circulates to support the outside traffic, that results +from the fact that the profits which the colony has gained from the +commerce with all the nations of Europa (the balance of which is in +favor of Filipinas) are greater than the losses of money which it +experiences in its commerce with India and China. [This is of course +a very precarious situation; for the contingencies of war, diversion +of commerce from the islands, or poor crops may at any time compel +Filipinas to send out all its money to India or China for the supply of +its needed commodities; and this would ruin even the internal commerce, +"on account of the serious difficulties which the establishment of a +system of public credit there presents."] Besides that, considering now +the matter of giving a strong impulse to the agriculture and industry +of those islands, there would be needed for the former project many +millions of pesos in constant circulation in the provinces, and there +must be a great reversion of the capital employed in commerce to the +interior of the islands; and this cannot be practiced in a country in +which hardly enough money circulates to support the government and +the demands from without, and which had undertaken to promote its +interests by commerce before placing its agriculture and industry +on a sound basis. In almost all the provinces of the islands very +little money circulates, and in some of them there is not even what +is necessary in order that the natives can pay the government taxes; +and from this has proceeded the necessity of commuting the tribute +from money to kind. The Spanish pesos go from and return to the +provinces rapidly; and it can be said that the produce of the taxes +which has to be sent annually to the capital, and the importations of +the alcaldes and the mestizos, are equal. Most of the Indians trade +among themselves by means of simple barter, and the mestizos make +them pay dearly with their products for the money that they need for +clothing themselves and paying their taxes. + +There is, then, nothing to hope for--either advance in agriculture +and the useful arts, or the great extension and progress of which +the consumption of monopolized articles is susceptible--without the +creation of a colonial money which will remain within the colony to +which it belongs, which will liberate it from the precarious dependence +on foreign commerce, which will afford to the Indian the just profits +from his labor, which by remaining with him in the provinces will +encourage him to obtain possession of it as an easy means of providing +him with the necessities of life at the time [when he needs them,] +and which likewise may be an allurement to his children--which up to a +certain point it is of great importance to encourage in the Indians, +as a powerful incentive to make them labor. [Lastly, this colonial +money would check the exportation of silver coin by the Chinese, +[150] who would then prefer to export from Filipinas its nature +products in return for their commodities. In China all the Spanish +pesos are, in order to keep them within the empire, disfigured with +so many marks that they cannot be used in foreign commerce.] We +have no knowledge thus far of there being silver mines in Filipinas; +but it is a positive fact that gold abounds there, of so low grade +and so mingled with silver that it has little more value than that +metal. This circumstance, aided by the introduction of some silver +bars from America, carried thither by foreigners, the recoinage of +the half-dollars, and of the silver two-real, one-real, and half-real +pieces which circulate in the islands, and the use of the great amount +of old silver in household articles--which is there sold at very low +prices, on account of being alloyed and manufactured in China--would +supply the government with easy means for the creation of a colonial +currency without need for expense, or for forestalling [the income +from] any fund, only by accepting from the persons interested their +respective materials in gold or silver, under assay, and returning to +them the value of the metal in the coined money which it would yield, +after deducting the necessary expenses. Likewise the government could +accept, in payment of all taxes, the gold which is obtained from +the placers, at the same prices at which the Chinese carry it away, +and after it was assayed at its mint--where the learned professors +who for this purpose would be sent from Europe would dictate the +necessary measures for carrying into effect an undertaking which is +the basis for all progress in the islands. I am therefore of opinion +that his Majesty should deign to issue the following orders: That a +colonial currency be immediately created for internal circulation in +the Filipinas Islands. That for this purpose a mint be established +there. That the standard for this money be the same as those of the +moneys of the same kind which have been adopted in the other colonies +of Asia. That the subdivisions of its value be made according to the +needs of internal trade. That all the gold and silver, in various +forms, which private persons offer for coinage be accepted at the +mint, returning it to them in the standard coin which it yields after +the expenses are deducted. That the government there be authorized +to accept in payment of taxes the gold from the mines of Filipinas, +after it is assayed. That regulations be drawn up by competent persons, +in which precautions are taken against any fraud in this matter. + + + +Of the charitable funds established in Filipinas + +[The obras pías merit full attention from the government,] on account +of the advantages which the agriculture and industry of the islands +may gain from them. If the limited and privileged dealings of Manila +with Nueva España had not been reduced to a merely passive commerce +of transfer or transportation, those foundations would, at the same +time while they have become wealthy, have given real opulence to that +commerce. Of the enormous profit of two hundred and three hundred +per cent which the transactions of the galleon yielded at Acapulco, +the greater part was for the foreign dealers of India and China, +whose wares supplied almost all the lading of the galleons, and for +the obras pías; a greatly reduced profit remained for the Manila +merchants, which could be shown by a calculation which might be made +of the many millions imported from Nueva España by the galleons, and +of the comparatively small value, in money or assistance, which has +remained [therefrom] in the islands. [The returns from these funds are +now greatly diminished, since the cessation of the Acapulco trade, +for on that depended the commerce with India and China, which also +has practically ended, save for the commodities from those countries +which are consumed in Filipinas. This could not have been foreseen +by the founders of those funds, many of which, moreover, are impeded +by various restrictions and conditions; and the government should +interpose its authority not only to secure the fulfilment of the +founders' wishes, but to commute the investment of the funds in such a +way that they may be used to promote the agriculture and industry of +the country. These funds ought also to be preserved as a most useful +resource in case of war or revolution, when the usual revenues of the +government would cease. Bernaldez therefore recommends:] That the +government of Manila furnish special protection to the charitable +foundations of the islands, and keep close watch over their honest +administration. That it stimulate the managers to obtain immediately +from the competent authority the commutation of the allotments of these +funds so as to benefit the agriculture and manufactures of the country, +giving reports of what shall be effected in a matter so important for +the welfare of the islands. That the funds in the communal treasuries +of the Indians and the Chinese, those of the secular revenues, +[151] and any others which are not subject to private foundations and +regulations, and which hitherto have followed in their investments the +rules of the obras pías, shall be by preference set aside for rewards +bestowed for enterprises in agriculture, industry, and inter-island +trade. Thus will be remedied the injury arising from the failure of +those great funds to be in circulation; and the abuse of employing +them in favor of foreigners and their commerce, under assumed names, +will be corrected. + + + +Of the arsenal of Cavite + +[Bernaldez declares that the works of naval construction, etc., for the +government can be accomplished for half the cost by means of private +contracts awarded to the lowest bidder, which is proved by the history +of all the enterprises which have been undertaken by the government +in those islands, whether in agriculture, mining, or metal-working; +"for, however great the disinterestedness and economy which can +be ascribed to the officials who conduct the enterprise, in this +direction nothing can take the place of the contractor's activity and +vigilance." In the cutting and gathering of timber there is abundant +cheating and graft, as that work is directed by Indian overseers, +or by mestizos and Chinese; the latter have abandoned the system of +day wages ("which the natural slothfulness of the Indian renders +very costly"), and instead pay the natives so much for a certain +amount of work (which they call paqueao). "In this way the Indians, +who always are cheated in these calculations, have to redouble their +efforts to gain the amount bargained for, thus allowing to the mestizo +the benefit of at least one-third of the usual daily wages." After +the timber is cut, its transportation, storage, and seasoning cost +more when done by the government than by the mestizo contractor, and +occasion much loss and damage. Ships of war could be built at Manila +to great advantage, so far as the abundance and cheapness and location +of the timber is concerned; but the lack of iron and copper there is +a serious hindrance to such plans. There are mines of both metals in +the islands, but they are not worked for lack of enterprising persons +and suitable machinery. Bernaldez recommends: That the crown offer +large rewards for the successful operation of the iron and copper +mines in the islands, the supply therefrom of metal sufficient for the +construction of ships and cannon, and the introduction of machinery +for mining and iron-working. That arrangements be made for building +war-ships each year, by contracts for the supply of timber and the +manual labor. That competent engineers and constructors be sent from +España, at good salaries; that necessary supplies and materials be +secured by contracts, bid for in public; and that funds from the royal +exchequer be set aside for this purpose to the amount of one hundred +thousand to one hundred and fifty thousand pesos annually. That all the +construction and repairing of war-ships for Filipinas be done through +contracts, at public bidding; and that the arsenal of Cavite be reduced +to a simple depository for the articles required for arming the ships, +with such officials as may be necessary for the custody of these.] + + + +Of the agriculture of the Filipinas Islands, in general, and of their +principal productions + +The Filipinas Islands, on account of the fertility of their land, +their abundant rains, and the great number of animals for labor, +constitute an agricultural colony; and to the readiness with which the +country supplies the principal articles for human support has been +due the rapid increase of its population. And although the Indians, +as a general thing, only devote themselves to the cultivation of +what they actually need for subsistence, the annual production so +far exceeds the necessities of the people that very seldom has the +failure or scarcity of provisions been experienced. The abundance of +its arable lands and the excellence of its products have also rendered +this colony capable of a considerable commerce with the other nations, +at a much greater advantage over the other colonies, inasmuch as +the land is tilled by free labor, which costs only the value of its +food and clothing; and not by slaves, who, besides those expenses, +occasion that of the premium or interest on the money invested in +their purchase, which causes a difference of at least a third more +in the cost of the manual labor employed in agriculture. + +The neglected condition in which agriculture is in Filipinas, +considered under this last aspect, and the backwardness in knowledge of +the manipulations required in the preparation of its raw products for +their consumption in trade, proceed from the following causes: (1) The +lack of a stable and regular system of commerce which can assure to the +inhabitants of the islands the annual exportation of the produce of an +extensive agriculture. The foreign vessels resort to the ports there, +some years in excessive number and others very infrequently; and this +irregularity always produces an effect opposed to the interests of the +colony. The extraordinary rise in prices--which during the last three +years has reached a value double that from which the ability to sell at +all times would enable the colony to gain a profit--and the consequent +lack of commodities for supplying all the vessels, prevent them from +returning in the following years; while the decline of prices below +what is fair, caused by the non-arrival of ships, discourages large +production in agriculture. The Indians are absolutely without capital +and storehouses which would enable them to hold back their produce for +another market. They are induced to cultivate the soil solely by their +present advantage; they always sell, but they suffer from the stern +law of trade which, although it flatters them in years of scarcity, +equally tyrannizes over them in years of abundance--for they are +always deceived regarding the actual prices of the general market, +of which they are ignorant; and one year only of unsuccessful sales, +whether from lack of foreign ships, or through the loss of their crops, +will be a warning to them for a long time. In short, the agriculture of +Filipinas at this time depends on the irregular and transient stimulus +which is furnished to it by the peripatetic capital of the mestizo, +who buys only in the years when he calculates that he must in view of +the condition of the crops and the market, make a profit; while the +Indian farmer always sows his seed heedless of results, and without +the guidance of that elementary principle in affairs of commerce that +the estimate of what he acquires ought to be based on a calculation of +the market for it. For the corrective of this evil, and assuming that, +for reasons that are rightful and conformable to sound policy (as I +have set forth), the residence of foreigners in the islands ought not +to be permitted, I find no other means than this, that the government +encourage, by judicious measures, the direct and unlimited commerce of +España with that colony--of which I shall speak in another chapter, +[presenting] the rough sketch of a plan which ought to produce the +following effects: (a) The definite and reliable annual exportation +from those islands, not only of the great quantity of sugar, indigo, +coffee, and other native products which are needed in the ordinary +consumption of España, but of that which Spanish commerce can dispose +of in the other nations and free ports of Europa. (b) The establishment +of Spanish trading posts [factorias] in the interior of the provinces +of Filipinas, which the Spanish mercantile interests will carry on +for the sake of acquiring the agricultural produce at first hand, +freeing the Indians from the oppressive rule of the mestizo trader, +and forming contracts with them, at prices agreed upon, for a certain +number of years. + +[The backward condition of agriculture proceeds] (2) from the lack +of great agricultural establishments. One of the causes for this is +the fact that the capital of the islands, which ought to be employed +for that object, has been diverted by the commerce of India, China, +and Nueva España, which offers greater and quicker profits. The +religious orders administer their estates as in mortmain, or by +ecclesiastical rules. The Indians cultivate, not from inclination +but through necessity, the little plots of ground on which they have +fixed their abodes. They lack the buildings and appliances necessary +for the preparation of the little sugar and indigo that they collect; +and from that results the wretched and unreliable quality of those +articles which so discredits them in the trade. They lack also the +capital to incur the expenses of a regular plantation, and these +enterprises require costly outlays at the start. But this cause of +backwardness would be remedied by the impulse which would be given to +commerce by the exportation of native products, which would attract +to agriculture the capital which it has hitherto lacked, and by the +special protection which the government can grant to large capitalists +who may devote themselves to agriculture. + +(3) From the ignorance of the Indians, not only of the various methods +of making plantations, but of the means of preparing the raw materials +for their employment in the trade--a cause which is so universal +and so mischievous that the agricultural products of Filipinas, +which ought to be, on account of their excellent character and the +extent of territory of the islands, commodities which should supply +all the markets of Europe and hold the first rank in quality, are +the most scarce in general commerce, and moreover lowest in price, +as I am going to prove by some instances. The sugar of Filipinas +is today the most important commodity for exportation which the +commerce there includes. The cultivation of the sugar-cane cannot +be improved; but the manufacture of the sugar is so defective that, +in spite of the superior quality of the cane, the sugar which is +produced from it is inferior to that which is called terciado [i.e., +brown] at Habana. Although in the market of Cadiz the white sugar from +Habana is worth thirty-two to twenty-five silver reals, and the brown +sugar twenty-six to twenty-eight, the white sugar of Manila is worth +twenty-four to twenty-five [152]--that is, nine silver reals less +than the former, and two or three reals less than the latter on each +arroba. Consequently, the temporary privilege granted by his Majesty +in exempting the products of Filipinas from duties is the only support +of the expeditions which have come [thence] to the Peninsula; and it +is unquestionable that when that privilege ceases that commerce will +likewise come to a complete stop. For if from the twenty-four silver +reals, the highest price at which an arroba of the Manila sugar +can be sold, be deducted for duties eight reals and twenty-seven +maravedís, the trader will receive a price of only nineteen silver +reals, five cuartos; subtracting from this the fourteen and one-half +reals of the prime cost at Manila (according to the latest information +received), and the only profit left to him would be four reals, three +maravedís--with which it is absolutely impossible for him to pay either +the heavy freight charges on that commodity, or the interest on money +and the insurance premiums, on a voyage three times as long as that +from Habana. The low price [of sugar] in the market has no other cause +than the lack of skill at Manila for manufacturing the sugar; this art +is there found entirely in its infancy, and without any other method +than that which, since very ancient times, the Chinese have taught +them. [The sugar-makers have not proper machinery or appliances, +or the knowledge, for any of the stages of the process; and their +product is inferior, when it might be as good as that of Habana--or +even better, if the same skill and care were used in making it as are +used there. The above profit of nine reals on the arroba, if equally +divided among the grower, the manufacturer, and the government (for +duties which in that case should be imposed on the sugar), would +yield each of them $300,000 annually, on the estimated production +of 1,000,000 arrobas which would be practicable for Filipinas--to +say nothing of the increased benefits to the laboring class--with +improved methods of manufacture. To secure this, the government must +be energetic in promoting large establishments there, and introducing +machinery and skilled laborers. "The funds in the communal treasury +of the Indians, which at the present time must reach about $300,000, +and whose object is the benefit of those same Indians," might aid +the government in meeting the expenses of such measures; the skilled +artisans could instruct the Indian farmers in the new improved methods, +and the industry would be almost perfected in two years' time, at very +little expense. Bernaldez describes in similar manner the deficiencies, +possibilities, and needs of the indigo, coffee, and cacao industries, +and urges the government to extend like care to these; what has been +done thus far by the colonial government has been quite ineffective, +because it has been in the form of proclamations and enactments which +merely required small plantations to be made by all the inhabitants, +but these failed because they disregarded the principles of political +economy and made no provision for the individual interest of the +cultivator.] There are, then, two means which ought to be adopted +for the promotion of large plantations in Filipinas, incentive +and instruction; and for this it is necessary to grant pecuniary +rewards to the agriculturists, and furnish them with teachers from +the near-by islands of Java or even Bourbon, where not only coffee +but cacao is cultivated. + +(4) And, finally, the cause which likewise exerts a powerful influence +in [causing] the neglected and backward condition of agriculture is +the slothfulness of the Indians and their absolute indifference to +acquiring and keeping property. [This sloth is caused by the climate, +the abundant supply of the necessities of life with little labor, +and the hospitality which prevails among the natives;] and if it +were not that in the capital and its adjacent provinces there has +now been introduced a certain degree of decency and [even] luxury in +some families of that class, it would be difficult to find any one to +render service or to practice the useful arts that are necessary in +villages. [With a people like this, it would be hazardous to attempt +to compel them to work; but "even if they are naturally slothful, +they have their likes and dislikes; and a wise government ought to +avail itself of these two powerful resources to urge them to work." The +Indians dislike to pay direct taxes, and hate the collector of these; +also they are passionately fond of cockfighting and spectacles of +all sorts, and of office-holding; and if these characteristics are +considered in the policy of the government much can be done to make +them industrious. Bernaldez recommends: That a system of direct, +unlimited, and regular commerce be established between España and +Filipinas, for the purpose of maintaining a reliable and definite +annual exportation of the latter's products. That agricultural +establishments be protected by the government, being allowed +(although at their own expense) the assistance of a band of irregular +soldiers. That machines, tools, and other aids to agricultural +production be admitted free of duties. That skilled workmen be taken +to the islands as instructors in the manufacture of sugar and indigo, +and cultivators of coffee, etc., with their machinery and tools; +their salaries for three years and their transportation to Manila +being paid from the communal funds of the Indians. That large rewards +be paid to the farmers who shall make large plantations of coffee and +other useful trees or establish the silk industry. That the owners of +these large plantations shall be allowed to keep on their lands each +a cockpit for his laborers, free of expense. That groups of Indians, +Chinese, and mestizos, limited to twenty families each, who shall +maintain an indigo or sugar plantation of a certain extent in good +condition, shall be relieved from paying the tribute so long as the +plantation is kept up. That every Indian who works for wages during +five consecutive years, to the satisfaction of his employer, shall be +perpetually exempted from tribute, the employer paying the laborer's +tax for twenty years. That the Indians and mestizos who cultivate +large plantations on their own account shall have the preference +for the offices in their respective villages. That the government +of Filipinas take measures to avoid frauds in connection with these +proposed changes.] + + + +Of the anfion, or opium + +[Bernaldez describes the efforts made by the English East India Company +to import opium into China, although against the will of the Chinese +government, and states that a certain amount is smuggled into Manila +to supply the Chinese settled in Filipinas; he supposes that the +prohibition of this trade in the islands arose from the fear of the +governors that the Indians would become habitual users of this drug and +thus be injured; but in his experience of seventeen years in various +judicial positions in Filipinas he has never seen a scandalous case of +opium inebriacy among the Chinese of Luzon, nor any Indian brought into +court for using the drug; and "the Indians without exception regard +the use of opium with the utmost indifference and contempt." He thinks +that it should not be prohibited in Filipinas, since its use appears +not to injure the Chinese there, or to be necessary for the Indians; +while the islands] ought not to be deprived of a revenue that is +exceedingly lucrative for agriculture, commerce, and the treasury; +of an article which in the order of nature ought to be exclusively +for the trade and benefit of the islands; and a means by which the +Manila commerce would draw great wealth from China, turning in its +favor, and with large sales, the balance of trade with that empire, +which is now and always has been against Manila. A chest of opium, +weighing one pico of Filipinas or 100 cates of China (each of 22 +onzas), would probably cost the Manila grower for all expenses at +most 100 pesos; and its value in China is usually 1,400 to 1,600 +pesos. Add to this advantage that of the large and secure market which +Filipinas has close at hand, since there would be annually consumed +in China more than eight millions pesos' worth of this article from +the islands; this would permit all the extension which they choose +to give to the cultivation of this article. And if 8,000 chests of +opium produced in Filipinas would yield in China 12,000,000 dollars, +the royal exchequer, which ought to secure its proportion of the great +advantages to agriculture and commerce, could without any difficulty +load that product with a duty so considerable that it would produce +four to six millions of pesos a year. [Bernaldez therefore recommends: +That the government, without abrogating the present prohibition of the +importation and use of opium in the islands, give free permission to +capitalists to cultivate the poppy and export opium from Filipinas; +that the poppy-fields be close to the capital and enclosed; that the +harvest be superintended by trustworthy persons from the revenue +service, as is that of tobacco; and that the entire product be +deposited in the magazines of the custom-house. That at the time of +its exportation a duty of 25 per cent be collected on the value of +the opium, at the prices current in China. That the concession of +raising opium should be granted by preference to the planters who +already are maintaining large plantations of sugar, indigo, coffee, +and other useful products.] + + + +Of the cotton manufactures + +The Madrast commerce annually carries into Filipinas fabrics of cotton, +called cambayas, to the value of $300,000 to $350,000, a sum which +the traders carry back to their own country in cash, without taking +away any natural or industrial product of Filipinas. Likewise the +Chinese carry into the islands annually, by means of their champans, +cotton fabrics with the names of manta Hipo, Chuapo, and others, +to the value of $300,000, nearly all of which sum they carry back to +their own country in cash. The Armenians of India and the Chinese had +likewise the control, from the time of the conquest of the islands, +of importing into them annually the enormous quantity of small cotton +articles [pañuelos] and ordinary cambayas which the natives of the +country consume, until intercourse with those coasts was interrupted +in the late war with Inglaterra. Then necessity and the high price +of those goods induced the natives of Filipinas to manufacture them, +and in such abundance that the ships which arrived at Manila, after the +peace, with those commodities suffered great loss; and from that time +the importation of those fabrics ceased, and the natives continued to +manufacture them in the country. This has not been the case, however, +with the fine cambayas and kerchiefs from Madrast, nor with the cotton +fabrics from China; for the former are dyed with the beautiful and +permanent Indian colors, furnished by certain plants which are to this +day unknown in Filipinas, and the latter [are desired] on account of +the very low prices at which the Chinese sell them. Thus, although +various manufacturers of Manila have attempted to weave and dye that +class of goods, they have not obtained favorable results, and have +abandoned to the Armenians and Chinese the exclusive provision of +Filipinas with those commodities. It seems impossible that a colony +in which is produced cotton of a quality superior to that of all the +other colonies in Asia, whose natives are industrious, and where the +general consumption of the country offers a large and sure market +for cotton fabrics, must be dependent for its supply on foreign +manufacturers, and carry on with them a commerce which is one-sided +[pasivo] and ruinous. Nevertheless, the causes of this incongruity +lie in the great population of India and China as compared with that +of Filipinas, which causes the wages paid for the spinning of the +thread (and it is this item which increases or diminishes the cost +of the woven goods) to be very low; in the enormous crops of cotton +which those countries produce as compared with that of Filipinas, +which abundance causes a diminution in the price of the raw material +there; and, finally, in the superiority of the dyes of India, which +no colony has been able thus far to imitate. + +In order to compensate for the cheapness of hand labor in the great +populations of India and China, it is necessary that in Filipinas +cotton-spinning machinery should be introduced, and that this project +be encouraged by all means; that instructors in weaving and dyeing +cambayas and kerchiefs be taken thither from Madrast, who shall at +the same time introduce into Filipinas a knowledge of the plants from +which the Oriental dyes are obtained, with the methods of planting +and cultivating these--meeting this expense from the communal funds +of the Indians. [These measures, and the promotion already urged for +large plantations of cotton, would furnish employment to many natives +of Filipinas, and "place in circulation within the country itself the +$650,000 which annually are carried out of it in hard money to foreign +lands for the value of the cambayas and other fabrics imported into +it." Moreover, a new and important line of goods would be added to +the exports of Filipinas in these fine cotton fabrics, which would +be equal to those of India and even cheaper; while the islands can +always supply their own coarse cottons much more cheaply than these +can be manufactured in España, an industry which should therefore be +fostered in Filipinas. These coarse commodities could thus be supplied +also to España, more cheaply than they can be manufactured there; +thus Spanish commerce would be liberated from its present dependence +upon foreign countries for them, and the money paid for them would +instead go into the hands of Spaniards, in Spanish possessions. To +secure these ends, the government of Filipinas should be cautious in +imposing import duties on the fine foreign goods, gradually increasing +them according to the ability of Philippine manufacturers to displace +foreign goods by native products. Bernaldez therefore recommends: +That encouragement and rewards be conferred on those who introduce +cotton-spinning machinery; that instructors in weaving and dyeing be +brought from India, as above mentioned; that the manufacture of coarse +cotton fabrics in the islands be promoted; that duties on the fine +goods should be gradually increased; that raw cotton be permitted +free exportation from the islands; and that the authorities of the +exchequer there confer on these matters with the local manufacturers +and merchants.] + + + +Of the means for establishing regular communication and frequent +and permanent mercantile relations between España and the Filipinas +Islands. + +[The writer urges the necessity of more interest and care for the needs +of the islands, and action by the Spanish government in their behalf, +if they are to be retained as a Spanish possession. For this purpose a +regular commerce with the islands should be maintained, sufficient to +keep twelve ships in constant employment, six sailing for the islands +every year; and thus could be kept in efficient condition the large +force (more than one thousand two hundred) of government employees +in all the departments of the island service. He warns the ministry +against plans which may be proposed by selfish interests and intrigues, +for leaving the islands in their present poverty and isolation from +the mother country. The commercial interests of the latter should +unite to carry on this work, partly for their own profit, partly as a +matter of patriotism. "The Filipinas Islands ought to be the center of +the Spanish government's power in Asia, the great market for Spanish +commerce," and the source of enormous revenues to the Spanish treasury; +they should be to España what India is to England, and are even more +capable, by their natural endowments, of being a source of power +and opulence to the mother country. Spanish commerce is being greatly +injured by the restrictions laid upon trade with the countries of Asia, +and the treasury should adjust the duties it exacts to those of other +countries; this would put an end to the smuggling which wastes more +than half of its revenues under the present system, cheapen prices, +increase the consumption of goods, and augment the revenues of the +crown. Bernaldez compares the restrictive Spanish policy with that +pursued by the Dutch and English in Asia, the latter being "based on +the principle of maintaining and protecting their principal possessions +in those regions;" and illustrates this by allusion to their leading +colonies, while he censures Spain's negligence and folly in regard +to Filipinas, and her apathy in allowing foreign nations to seize +her commerce. The royal decree of January 10, 1820, although aiding +Philippine commerce only as a temporary measure, has already done much +for the islands; their commerce with España has placed in circulation +considerable quantities of capital, and has increased the products of +agriculture and the exportation of these from Manila to such a degree +that their value has risen to almost double what it was before. This +has been mutually beneficial to both countries; but the colony "will +become the victim of this very prosperity" unless the home government +shall grant certain exemptions and privileges to render it permanent +and solid. The present restrictions on Spanish commerce prevent the +exportation of silver to Filipinas, and enable the foreigners to +monopolize the trade of the islands in iron, wine, brandy, paper, +and other wares which, being Spanish products, ought to be furnished +by Spanish merchants--who, in this fettered condition, are "unable +to find any way of placing funds in Manila for the purchase of their +cargoes." Moreover, "the premiums on insurance have been considerably +increased for [vessels bearing] the Spanish flag, on account of the +risk from the insurgent corsairs; and these same risks compel the +merchants to increase, for their part, the expenses for the armament +and crews of their ships." The merchants of Manila have only two +commodities to offer to Spanish trade, sugar and indigo, and the +latter of these is not practicable for the sole lading of a vessel; +while if the sugar crop should fail, those merchants are left without +other resource, to say nothing of the uncertainty in prices caused by +that in the number of foreign customers who will arrive at Manila. The +Spanish government, therefore, "should open to the commerce of España +with Filipinas a wider range of objects in all the productions of India +and China, both natural and industrial, in which commerce can engage +in speculation and with which it can furnish cargoes for its ships;" +for the trade in sugar alone is far too inadequate and uncertain +to support the ships needed for the maintenance and protection of +Filipinas. Bernaldez urges forcibly such action by the government, +and makes these recommendations: That Spanish ships be allowed to +trade with Filipinas, without any restrictions or duties, save that +on foreign goods carried by them a duty of ten per cent be paid, +and five per cent on arrival at Manila. That returns from these +consignments which consist in products of Filipinas shall be free +from any duties or imposts whatsoever, at either end of the voyage +or on their circulation in España. That ships may complete their +cargoes at Manila, if they wish, with any products of India, China, +and other Asiatic countries, to the extent of 30 toneladas of lading +for every 100 toneladas of Philippine products carried in the vessel; +these foreign goods shall pay ten per cent duty at Manila, and ten per +cent on reaching the Spanish ports, reckoned on the cost of the goods +at Manila as shown by the official registers. Any ship-owner who shall +have carried only Spanish goods to Filipinas and Philippine products +on the return trip shall be given the right to make another voyage +to the ports of India or China, carrying the goods most suitable +for those markets and returning to España with white cotton stuffs +and other goods at their pleasure. In these latter voyages, Spanish +products carried to Asia shall be exempt from all duties; and foreign +products carried thither shall pay a duty of ten per cent on the values +in the general tariffs; and Asiatic goods brought back to España shall +pay the same rate on the first cost in Asia, as shown by the original +invoices. That silver may be freely exported from España for all these +trading expeditions, by paying two per cent. And that the shipments +of moneys due from the colonial revenues to the Spanish government +be made through the Spanish ships which shall be at Manila at the +beginning of the monsoon, in proportion to their respective tonnage.] + + + +Of the necessity of forming a special code of laws for the Filipinas +Islands; and of ordaining that a periodical visitation of that colony +be made by officials from the Peninsula. + +[Such visitation should be made] every five years, by officials +despatched from the Peninsula for the purpose of inspecting the +manner in which the laws are fulfilled, and the conduct of government +employees of all classes; to examine the progress made in all the +branches of administration, and matters that are worthy of reform; to +make provisional arrangements for these, according to the instructions +that shall be entrusted to them; and to furnish information to his +Majesty's government, from their positive knowledge and examination of +the facts. The climate of Filipinas, and the disposition, passions, +and customs of its inhabitants, are very different from those of the +two Americas, by whose code the islands are governed. Although they +form a naturally agricultural colony, they lack agrarian laws suited to +the nature and resources of the country. The administration of justice +demands many modifications of the general laws; and the institutions +of the municipality and the [commercial] consulate, similar to those +of the Peninsula, have not corresponded to the beneficial ends which +the sovereign intended in them, on account of the character of the +persons who in Manila compose that class of corporations, and of +their clashing interests and relations. The chairs of theology, +laws, and philosophy should, I am forced to say, be abolished, on +account of the abuse which is made of the knowledge gained in those +branches of learning; and in their places be substituted chairs of +agriculture, botany, mineralogy, arts, and commerce--throwing open +the colleges and universities of España to the natives of Filipinas +who desire to cultivate the former branches. In the laws which +regulate law-suits, in the tariffs, in the penalties--in short, in +all which has been adopted from other countries and another condition +of human life--there is a certain discord with the character, usages, +and customs of the inhabitants of Filipinas which it is necessary to +correct. A periodical visitation by officials experienced in affairs, +would set everything in motion in that colony, fill the natives with +hope, correct the arbitrary use of power (which usually increased +in proportion to the distances from the center of government), and +furnish to this government accurate and impartial data for making its +decisions. It is a great mistake, in my judgment, to seek for light on +affairs of government in the colonies from the information furnished by +their authorities and corporations; they are always prone to support +their own jurisdictions or interests, and, in whatever matter these +may cross, it is impossible to expect impartiality. The laxity which +the climate inspires, the pleasures, the relations of friendship, +kindred, and interest in a small population of Spaniards - all these +things cause the neglect of affairs of government, and the domination +of private interests. Points of mere etiquette, questions of little +importance to the [royal] service, and discords (which furnish a bad +example) between married persons - it has been mainly these things +which for many years have filled the official correspondence of the +colonies and kept their authorities occupied. Many of the subjects +which are touched upon in this writing are either absolutely unknown +to the government, or have not been discussed with the specifications +and explanations which their importance deserves. + +I have explained to your Excellency impartially the causes which +antagonize the security and progress of the Filipinas Islands; and +your Excellency will recognize, by the irrefutable facts which I +have here set down, that in that colony there exist the elements +necessary for it to render itself prosperous, and to distribute +its wealth throughout España, increasing the glory and power of her +sovereign. Your Excellency desires radical measures of reform, and +solidly-grounded plans for prosperity, because you recognize that +this is the great art of government and of political economy. I have +endeavored not to embarrass myself with the examination of one-sided +and isolated questions, but rather to rise to the comprehension of +the axioms and general principles which would give perpetual strength +to the tranquillity of the Filipinas Islands and lay the foundations +for their advancing prosperity. + +It has already been made evident by melancholy experience that the +governmental measures adopted since the conquest of the colonies have +not been suited to their object. It is therefore necessary either +to leave existing in Filipinas the same causes which have brought +other colonies to their ruin, or to change the system without loss +of time. This great reform will assuredly be the work of the present +enlightened government of his Majesty, and the future prosperity of the +Filipinas Islands will be the grandest monument to his glory. Madrid, +April 26, 1827. + + +Most excellent Sir, + +MANUEL BERNALDEZ PIZARRO + + + + +[Here follows a "résumé of the measures proposed in this memorial," +which we have already presented by sections, at the end of each subject +treated. At the end is a list of the items of estimated increase in +the public revenues of the islands provided the reforms advocated by +Bernaldez are adopted.] + +[Another MS. in the possession of Edward E. Ayer, dated Madrid, +July 15, 1827, is of similar scope to this; it is signed with the +initials "P. de S. M.," and is addressed to the Spanish minister +Ballesteros. The writer states, in the prefatory note, that his +paper is the fruit of his many years of practical experience and +observation, being actively engaged in commerce from Manila throughout +the Philippine archipelago, in China, in all the foreign colonies +of India, and on the Pacific coasts of America; and that he has +written this paper "in the short time since he knew the charge given +to Señor Bernaldez." He sends it to the minister to be laid before +"the junta extraordinaria (or special committee) which at that time +was considering the judicious informatory report of the auditor Señor +Bernaldez Folgueras in regard to the protection and preservation of +the Filipinas Islands;" and he offers to appear before the committee +in person, to give any further information or explanation which may +be desired. He states that, like Ballesteros, he is a Galician; and +he displays much enthusiasm for the advancement and prosperity of +Filipinas. This MS. is headed, "Impartial reflections of a Spaniard, +who is enrolled among the citizens of Manila, upon the causes of +the decadence of the Filipinas Islands, and the means which he deems +most suitable for making them productive to the central government, +and for restoring them to the state which, by their advantageous +location, they are capable of occupying." It begins by deploring the +injury and loss caused to the islands by the piracies of the Moros, +and recommending that the Spanish government remedy the abuses and +negligence displayed in the administration of the colony, and the +enormous and extravagant expenditure of funds in the wars against +those pirates. This latter could be ended by effecting the conquest +of Joló, Mindanao, and other centers of piracy, and establishing +therein military and agricultural colonies of Visayans; this, +and the development of the natural resources of those islands, +would stop piracy and add much to the colonial revenues. Following +the example of the English colonies in America, and of the Jesuit +missionaries in Paraguay and California, agriculture should be +fostered in every way in Filipinas--where much greater success can +be obtained because the native population is large and robust, and +needs not to be supplemented by slave labor, which fortunately has +been kept out of the islands. This and other industries there can be +promoted at the same time, by proper measures. The preservation of +the colony cannot be left to the Indians, and six thousand men from +España, selected carefully, should be sent to Filipinas as soldiers +and colonists, lands being bestowed on them; and with them should +come commissioners of high standing and integrity to reform abuses +in the colony and take measures for its benefit. Banks should be +established, currency provided for, and facilities given to all the +people for securing credit when needed--under the care, protection, +and partly the management of the government. Commerce should be +made entirely free to the world, in all kinds of products, whether +native or foreign, save for the payment of moderate customs duties. A +lottery should be established; fire and marine insurance companies +should be protected; all artisans, of every class, nationality, +and religion, should be free to settle in the islands (those who +oppose this show puerile fears and absurd and impolitic notions); +the ownership of land should be made secure and legal; waste lands +should be brought under cultivation, under penalty of losing title to +them; such lands should be freely granted to all, whether natives or +foreigners, who will cultivate them; and intending colonists be aided +in all practicable ways, even from the public funds. The convents and +cabildos which have the administration of funds deposited with them +for the promotion of agriculture should be obliged to render their +accounts of these, and to distribute them so as to carry out the +intentions of the founders; and the funds which were to be invested +in the Acapulco trade should, as that has now ceased, be applied to +the benefit of agriculture. Foreign nations should be allowed to send +consuls to Manila, which would be a benefit not only to foreigners +residing in the islands, but reciprocally to Spaniards who navigate +the seas controlled by foreign nations. A printing-office should be +established there, and provision be made for the publication of a daily +paper devoted to commerce and industry, and having correspondents in +the other Oriental colonies to furnish information of their progress +and achievements in all the useful arts. A mint should be erected at +Manila; and the government establishments there for making cannon and +gun-powder, which now are almost useless, should be put on an effective +footing, and those articles should be supplied for the defense of +the merchant and coasting vessels. A probate court has been formed, +for the proper care of intestate property and that left to minors; +and its administration should be regulated carefully, and the funds +in its charge be administered for the benefit of its owners and of +the country. Manila and its environs should be sufficiently policed, +and lawlessness curbed; vagabonds should be kept under control, and +all who employ Indian servants should be made responsible for their +conduct; and such servants should not be employed by any one, whether +Spaniard or foreigner, nor allowed to enter colleges as students, +without producing certificates from the police department. A college +should be established in which the youth should receive instruction in +belles lettres, medicine, chemistry, botany, experimental physics, and +mathematics; and a botanical garden should be made near Manila. Martins +should be introduced into Luzon, for the extermination of the locust +plague. The intendancy of the royal exchequer should be separated +from the office of captain-general, so that the intendant shall have +authority to direct the affairs of the former independently.] + +[The writer proceeds to describe the character of the Tagalog natives, +which he paints in gloomy colors.] It is impossible to define either +the character of these Tagálos, or their morality--although it can be +said that they have none; for, although in outward appearance they +profess the Catholic religion, inwardly and in their actions they +manifest that they follow no religion. The zeal with which the first +conquistadors undertook to instruct them in the true belief has been +useless; and the watchful care of the missionaries whom the piety +of our kings has not ceased to send to those regions has been of no +avail, except to make of their neophytes, instead of true Catholics +and useful members of society, a new species of men, who unite the +slothfulness of the savages to the vices of civilized peoples. Thus +it is that the Tagálos are fickle, vagabonds, full of superstitions, +assassins, liars, licentious but without love, adroit thieves; and, +in one word, they do not respect even the most sacred of the laws, +divine or human. They lose no opportunity to make mischief among the +authorities, and between the latter and Spaniards of all classes; +and they have the cunning to throw the blame on these last, as being +more timid. Moreover, they perjure themselves without the least +scruple; their telling the truth depends on their being more or less +carefully instructed by the parties to the suit; and unfortunate is +he who summons them as his witnesses. They do not understand love, +and their sensuality is carried to the extreme; consequently they are +cruel fathers and worse husbands, and they have not the least respect +or consideration for their wives. Paternal love is a strange thing +for them, and therefore when they punish their children they do so +barbarously, and if they begin it in the morning they do not finish +until night. The same cruel disposition is seen among the schoolmasters +who are paid by the government to teach the youth in their villages. + +The code of laws for the Indias, considering these Indians as +neophytes like those of the Antillas and the Americas, has made them +participants in the privileges and liberties granted to those natives; +and it exempts them from the penalties of which they render themselves +worthy by the atrocious crimes which they continually commit. Incest, +for example, is a common vice among them, for which opportunity is +given by the little privacy in which the families live; for the +mother, daughters, and sisters all sleep in one bed [hacen cama +redonda], without any other separation from the men than merely a +blanket. It is difficult to prove this crime among them, and only the +cura or missionary could rebuke them and apply the proper correction, +in their wrongly-understood condition of neophytes, if in confession +they should reveal their sin; but, as lying is their dominant vice, +they are silent or else deny it, and the cura cannot, even when he +knows of it, obtain any satisfaction from them. The capital and its +environs are the refuge of the more perverse, who migrate from the +provinces and from their villages, in order not to work and to relieve +themselves from paying the tribute. There they devote themselves to +studies in the colleges of Santo Tomas, San José, and San Juan de +Letran, making progress in a short time, and deceiving the professors +with their apparent ingenuousness; at the same time they are occupied +as servants to the Spaniards and foreigners, but only nominally, since +they do not go to their master's house except for eating, sleeping, and +stealing from him (which they do with astonishing dexterity). After a +little time, having abused the master's patience, and having violated +his wife, daughters, and other relatives, if he has such (without +respecting even those who have not reached the age of puberty), they +end by departing with the utmost coolness; and in order to avoid +recognition, and so that they cannot be caught if they happen to be +pursued, they employ the trick of shaving the head, and, while naked, +anointing the entire body with oil, and then take to flight, with no +other covering than a mere breech-clout. The poor Spaniard, although +he finds that he has been robbed, does not think of resorting to the +magistrates to make complaint, for he knows that instead of doing him +justice they would, after making him spend much money, sentence him +to pay the costs and exculpate the Indian, regarding the latter as a +neophyte. Still less does he say a word about the rape, in order not to +make public his own dishonor. Let it not be supposed that this occurs +only among private persons; for there have been persons in authority +who have experienced in their own houses similar acts of insolence +from these vicious and immoral neophytes. After these evil deeds, +they disappear, as I have said; and in a very short time they are +seen returning from Ilocos, Camarines, and Cebú, ordained as clerics, +with what sort of character may be understood--now cleansed from all +their crimes, and absolved from guilt and penalty, to continue their +studies in the colleges. Thus they graduate as bachelors and doctors, +and secure curacies, in which they commit the acts of folly which +may easily be inferred, and which it would be tedious to explain +here; and with their corrupt behavior they set an example to their +parishioners of dissoluteness, impiety, and slothfulness. + +[The writer then enumerates the good qualities of this people, +so far as they go. They are inclined to the arts and sciences, and +learn quickly, and their deficiencies therein are due only to their +lack of books for their instruction, and tools with which to finish +off their work; this is mainly due to their improvidence, "for an +Indian, even though he is a doctor and a cura, is unable to save one +cuarto for purchasing those things, no matter how cheap they may be; +on the other hand, he will, if he needs money for his vices, pledge +his breviary or sell his missal." "Nevertheless, they exercise all +the occupations except those of silversmith, tailor, and watch-maker, +for no one would trust them [in these];" but lack of tools prevents +them from doing as good work as Europeans. They have taste in the +fine arts, and almost all the buildings are planned by them. They +are excellent artillerists, and a French naval commander (in 1798) +thought them better than his own; and are useful in naval fights, on +account of their courage and agility. An Indian will in a few days' +practice understand as much of seamanship as a European would gain +in twenty years; and many of them have migrated from the islands as +seamen on the ships. But they resent being called "negroes," and in +several cases where they have been thus affronted they have mutinied, +killed the Europeans, and fled with the ship and cargo. So great +has been this migration that in the other colonies of Asia rigorous +measures have been taken to stop it, and "in all the ports of India, +the entrances and roads are full of gibbets on which men from Manila +are hanged, for a warning; but, seeing that this had no effect, +all the owners and captains of merchant ships have been compelled by +law not to receive on their vessels more than four or six of these +Indians." The Tagálos are free with their money, and readily lend to +any European whatever they may possess. They take great care of their +fighting cocks ("who are for them actual idols"), are very temperate +in eating and drinking, and are never seen intoxicated. They are often +devoted to agricultural labor, and will do well in it when they are +supplied with better methods and appliances.] + +[Some account is given of the Negritos and other wild tribes of Luzón; +and it is stated that any colonist who wishes to settle among them +will be able to succeed in any agricultural or other enterprise which +he may undertake, if he will obtain the consent of the chiefs, pay +the savages whom he may employ exactly what he has agreed to give, +and not annoy them with matters of religion. As for the civilized +Tagálos, their women are entirely different from the men; they are +kind, hospitable, and industrious, and, although coquettish, are +very modest and decorous in behavior. They sow the rice, and gather +all the crops; roll cigars, and weave beautiful fabrics of cotton +and abacá; and embroider beautifully, besides making hats, mats, and +many other articles. In fine, "if it were possible to put an end to +all the men and leave only the women, or rather unite them to other +men who would possess their good qualities and think as they do, +Filipinas would come to be the most wealthy and fortunate country +in the universe." It is certain that agriculture would be the best +mode of life for the Indians, and they ought to be urged to engage +in it, after the examples furnished by the Jesuits in Paraguay, +the Quakers in America, and other successful colonists. The writer +suggests various means to stimulate the Indians to greater industry +(especially as the Spaniards cannot undertake work in the fields), +and for the formation and management of agricultural enterprises; he +would have them well treated, promptly and justly paid, and supplied +with house, land, and suitable amusements. It has been a great mistake +to prohibit the alcaldes-mayor and other provincial officials from +owning estates there, while permitting them to engage in trade; this +policy ought to be reversed, and they be obliged to cultivate the land, +and prevented from harassing the Indians as they have done. In forming +large estates, provision should be made for the homes of the laborers +being comfortable, arranged in regular streets, protected as far as +possible from the danger of fire, and shaded by trees of useful sorts; +and from these should be well isolated the proprietor's dwelling, +sheds, machinery, and other property. Gardens, orchards, fishponds, +etc., should be formed; and all appliances should be furnished which +are desirable for improving the quantity and quality of the products +of the estate, and for providing a safe and abundant supply of food, +and of the luxuries which are dear to the heart of the Indian. Careful +directions are given for the selection of land, the supply of water, +cattle-raising, making of plantations, protection against storms, +etc. An interesting account is given of the Chinese in Filipinas, +their trade, relations with the Spaniards, the abuses in these, +the hatred felt toward them by the Tagálos (resulting mainly from +the illicit relations of the Chinese with the Indian women), their +mode of life, etc.; they should be compelled to devote themselves +only to agriculture and the useful arts, and to abandon commerce and +business entirely. They have been very injurious to the interests of +the islands, and ought to be expelled from Filipinas, save as they are +engaged in handicrafts or the tillage of the soil. The Spaniards ought +thus to follow the example of the Dutch in Java and other islands, +where the Chinese have made excellent agriculturists and manufacturers +of agricultural products, and have enriched both themselves and the +Dutch; if they had been thus treated in Filipinas, that country would +now be as prosperous and wealthy as are the Dutch colonies, and its +trade would be as rich and extensive as that of the Dutch. As it is, +enormous sums of money have been carried to Filipinas from España, and +spent in the islands, with hardly any return to the mother country; +and the greater part of this wealth has been absorbed by the trade +with China, and has been stored away in that country.] + +[A note at the end of this MS. outlines the author's plan for the +establishment of a banking system at Manila.] + + + + + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DATA + + +The documents in this volume are obtained from the following sources: + +1. Events in Filipinas.--Compiled from Montero y Vidal's Historia de +Filipinas, tomo ii, pp. 360-573; iii, pp. 6-32. + +2. Remarks on the Phillippine Islands, 1819-22.--Reprinted from the +original publication (Calcutta, 1828), from a copy in the possession +of Edward E. Ayer, Chicago. + +3. Reforms needed in Filipinas.--From two original MSS. in the +collection of Edward E. Ayer. + +4. Representation of Filipinas in Cortes.--Compiled from various +sources, as indicated in preliminary note. + +5. List of archbishops.--Compiled from various sources, as indicated +in first paragraph. + + + + + + + + +APPENDIX + + + Representation of Filipinas in Cortes. [Compiled from various + sources.] + List of the archbishops of Manila, 1581-1898. [Compiled from + various sources.] + + +Sources: These appendices are obtained from various sources, as +indicated therein; they are compiled by James Alexander Robertson. + + + + + + + + +REPRESENTATION OF FILIPINAS IN THE SPANISH CORTES + + +Preliminary Note: The account of the first two Cortes is drawn largely +from notes made by James A. LeRoy from Diario de las sessiones de las +Cortes generales y extraordinarias, and other sources, and kindly +sent by him to the Editors. For the first Cortes see also Montero +y Vidal, Historia general, ii, pp. 388-390, 392, 396-398, 400-409, +411-413,422-435, and Guia oficial de España, 1813, pp. 21, 22, where +the Philippine deputies are named. For the second Cortes, see also +Montero y Vidal, ut supra, ii, pp. 444-452, 457-462, 476-481. For +the third Cortes, see Montero y Vidal, ut supra, ii, pp. 544, 545, +552-560, 563-573; and Filipinas y su representacion en Cortes (Madrid, +February 8, 1836), which although published anonymously is by Camba. + + + +The Cortes of 1810-1813 + +Three times in their history have the Philippines had representation in +the Spanish national Cortes, [153] namely, for the years 1810-1813, +1820-1823, and 1834-1837. In the first two periods is emphasized +the backwardness of the Philippines politically as compared with the +Spanish-American colonies. In all three periods, one cannot point to +any single great measure that was enacted solely at the initiative of +the Philippine representatives (unless with the possible exception +of the suppression of the Acapulco galleon), and indeed, not to a +great many in which they took part. [154] + +With Fernando virtually a prisoner in France (where he remained +for five years), the nationalists in Spain being without a ruler, +since they refused to consider Joseph Bonaparte as king, organized +a provisional government known as the central governing assembly +(Junta central), with headquarters in the south. This Junta, taking +the necessary steps for the reorganization of government, and the +calling of a Cortes, proceeded, on June 25, 1809, to rehabilitate the +old Consejo de España, and on January 29, 1810, to constitute the +supreme Consejo de Regencia. The delegates to the first session of +the Cortes, for which final orders were issued by decree of June 18, +1810, and in which, by a decree of January 22, 1829, all the Spanish +domain was to have equality of representation, assembled on the island +of León during the month of August, 1810. On account of the distance +of the American countries and the Philippines and the impossibility of +regularly-appointed delegates reaching Spain in time for the opening of +the session, substitutes were chosen from residents of those countries +then in the Peninsula. Consequently, at the opening of the Cortes, +September 24, 1810, the Philippines were represented by Pedro Pérez +de Tagle, an officer in the corps of the Spanish Royal Guards, and +Dr. José Manuel Couto, prebend of La Puebla. The election at Manila +(held by order of the Regency, February 14, 1810), resulted in the +choice of Ventura de los Reyes, a wealthy merchant of Manila, and on +the whole an active representative, who, despite his seventy years, +set out immediately for Cádiz. The two substitutes above mentioned +took but little part in affairs. [155] + +Several general measures enacted by the Cortes touch the Philippines +incidentally. [156] The first matter, however, specifically connected +with the Philippines was the receipt by the Cortes (March 16, 1811) +of the report of the governor of the Philippines (dated August 8, 1809) +in regard to the French vessel "Mosca," which had been captured by the +parish priest of Batangas (Fray Melchor Fernandez), and the despatches +carried on that vessel. The reading on April 26, 1812, of the proposed +decree prescribing the manner of holding elections in the regular +Cortes to be convened in 1813, aroused lengthy discussion. [157] +On May 6, Reyes moved that a special form of election be granted for +the Philippines because of their distance and the character of their +inhabitants. The islands had neither the funds nor the men to send by +which equality of representation would be justified, and he requested +that it only be declared that they must not send less than two. An +amendment offered by the committee on the Constitution proposed that +to the instructions regarding the elections in Ultramar be added a +clause to meet Reyes's wishes, but the matter was hotly contested +by the American representatives who feared that such a clause might +sometime lead to the cutting down of their own representation, and +as a consequence the proposal of the committee was not voted on. [158] + +In January, 1813, after recommendation by the committee on Ultramar, +it was resolved to grant the petition of the board (mesa) of +the Misericordia of Manila (which had been hanging fire in the +Cortes since September 25, 1812), asking for certain reforms, +among them that the number of persons voting for the electors of +the board itself be reduced. [159] On January 6, 1813, the proposed +ordinances for the hospice for the poor at Manila (the establishment +of which was provided for by royal order of December 27, 1806), +were declared unconstitutional by the committee on Ultramar, [160] +and that committee's report was adopted. A minute in the records of +March 11, 1813, shows that the suppression of the brandy monopoly had +been decreed by the governor of the Philippines and that it could +be manufactured freely in the provinces of Tondo, Cavite, Bulacan, +and Pampanga. + +By far the most important measure affecting the Philippines, however, +was the suppression of the Acapulco galleon. [161] The discussion +on the matter was lengthy and bitter, and arose over one of twelve +propositions submitted by Reyes on February 11, 1813, to the effect +that the determined suppression of the Acapulco galleon be published, +and in its place those engaged in that commerce be allowed to fit up +private vessels at their own cost to continue the trade with Nueva +España, through the ports of Acapulco, San Blas, or any other, under +the old terms of 500,000 pesos for the outgoing voyage and 1,000,000 +for the return, and a lowering of the duties by one-half. The matter +was debated in the presence of the secretaries of the Peninsula and +Ultramar, and after full discussion, in which many of the delegates +took part, and in which the American delegates generally favored +a liberal policy for the Philippines, the decree suppressing the +galleon was finally issued on September 14, 1813. [162] + +The special session of the Cortes closed on the date of the decree +above, and the regular session opened at Cádiz, either in the latter +part of September or the first part of October. On October 4, the +last meeting was held in Cádiz and opened again in the island of León +because of yellow fever in the former place. On the eighth of that +month, Reyes presented three plans for the benefit of the agriculture, +industry, commerce, and navigation of the Philippines. On the +twenty-ninth of October meetings at the island of León were suspended, +and resumed again in Madrid, on January 15, 1814. Fernando VII, +released by order of Napoleon, after the disastrous campaign conducted +by Joseph in Spain, abolished the Cortes by his decree of May 4, 1814, +and on the publication of this decree in Madrid, on the thirteenth +many of the members of the Cortes were arrested, all the acts of the +constitutional government were declared null and void, the Inquisition +reëstablished, and absolutism was again proclaimed in Spain. On the +publication of the decree in the Philippines, the Ilocans, deeming it +only a ruse of the governor, revolted, sacked churches and convents, +and destroyed public records. Their insurrection was directed chiefly +against their own principales and their wives. [163] + + + +The Cortes of 1820-1823 + +After vainly endeavoring to rule as an absolute monarch, Fernando +VII was compelled to convoke the Cortes by his decree of March 6, +1820. [164] On the twenty-second the regular session of the Cortes +for 1820-1821 was formally summoned, the colonies being allowed to be +represented by substitutes pending the arrival of regularly-elected +representatives. At the first preliminary meeting of June 26, the two +Philippine substitutes, [165] Jose María Arnedo and Manuel Felix Camus +y Herrera, presented their credentials. The Cortes were declared open +on July 9. Matters of trade and commerce, involving the question of +duties, [166] were of paramount interest, so far as the Philippines +are concerned, although the matters of elections, revenues, and +ecclesiastical affairs were debated at some length. From July 18 to +October 19, were considered at intervals the privileges and monopolies +of the Compañía de Filipinas, which were abolished by a decree of +the latter date. [167] Several decrees and orders of November 9 (on +which date the first session of the Cortes ended), affecting trade +and looking toward the development of the colonies, were issued. [168] + +At the opening of the new session of the Cortes, the Philippine +substitutes of the previous session held over. [169] An order [170] +of March 22 decided that the vice-royalties, captaincies-general, etc., +were not to be filled for stated periods, but incumbents were to hold +them at the will of the king. Of great importance was the approval +on June 30, of a petition presented by Arnedo on June 16 asking for +direct mails between Spain and the Philippines under charge of the +navy department. On that same date the report of the committee on +Hacienda on the estimated budget for the Ministry of Ultramar for 1822 +(over 330,000 reals more than that of 1821), aroused considerable +discussion, especially among the American delegates. [171] A decree +of June 29 provided for public schools and provincial universities, +of which Manila was to have one. This decree provided for schools and +courses much ahead of anything in the islands, but it remained a dead +letter because of the speedy suppression of the constitution. [172] +This session of the Cortes closed on June 30. + +The preliminary meeting of a special session was held on September +22, 1821, at which the above two Philippine substitutes were +approved. [173] Camus y Herrera was one of a committee chosen on the +twenty-third, to inform the king that the Cortes was ready to open +the session, which accordingly was opened next day. On November 4, +the Philippine government and governor were arraigned by representative +Lallave of Veracruz for electing only four instead of the twenty-five +representatives to whom they were entitled. Discussion of this +matter resulted in the Cortes directing the Minister of Ultramar +(February 11, 1822), that the Philippines, notwithstanding claims of +distance and poverty, were to elect their whole quota to Cortes. At +the secret session of February 12, 1822, it was decided to allow +Arnedo and Camus y Herrera (in view of a petition presented by them +on the eighth, and because of their pressing need), to draw a sum +sufficient to meet their needs and the debts that they had been +obliged to contract in the performance of their duties, from the +money sent by the provincial deputation of Manila (24,500 pesos) +for the regularly-elected Philippine representatives of the next +session. This special session closed February 14. + +The first preliminary meeting of the regular session was held February +15, at which Vicente Posada, a former magistrate of the Manila +Audiencia, presented himself as a regularly-elected representative +from the Philippines. He was not, however, allowed to take his seat +in this session, which opened formally on March 7, and closed on July +30, as it was claimed that his resignation had not been confirmed and +that he was consequently still a government employe. [174] During this +session, a clause of a decree of June 28 ordered the encouragement +of visits to Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines by naturalists +for the purpose of study. + +At the first preliminary meeting of the special session, held +October 1, 1822, Francisco Bringas y Taranco, ex-alcalde-mayor of +Ilocos, the deputy elect for Nueva Segovia, Manuel Sáenz de Vizmanos, +senior accountant of the Tribunal de Cuentas of the Philippines, and +Posada, presented their credentials, which were approved on October 3, +although Posada was again contested. At the preliminary meeting held +on the fourth complaint was made that the Philippines had elected but +four deputies instead of twenty-five. [175] The session which opened +on October 7 closed on February 19, 1823, without any action having +been taken by the Philippine representatives. + +The regular session opened on March 1, 1823, at Madrid, but the +absolutists gaining control through the invasion of the French, +nothing was done in this session, and the Cortes, which had been +compelled to flee first to Sevilla and then to Cádiz, were finally +dissolved by Fernando on October 1, who declared all their acts from +March 7, 1820, to that time null and void. Posada was one of those +condemned by Fernando after his entrance into Madrid, for his liberal +tendencies. By decree of December 25, 1823, Fernando communicated +to America and the Philippines the reëstablishment of absolutism, +the suppression of the Constitution of 1812, and the abolition of +all the organisms inaugurated during the constitutional régime. [176] + + + +The Cortes of 1834-1837 + +The third Cortes of 1834-37 were called after the death of Fernando +VII, which occurred September 29, 1833, when the liberals again +demanded concessions and a constitutional government. [177] The ship +"Santa Ana" sailing from Cádiz, August 28, 1834, reached Manila with +official orders and the summons to the Cortes; [178] which having +been called for July 24, 1834 (by decree of May 10), had already +convened. The election for the Philippine representatives (March 1, +1835) [179] resulted in the choice of Brigadier Andrés García Camba, +[180] and Licentiate Juan Francisco Lecaros (or Lecaroz) [181]--the +first a resident of Manila (formerly a resident in Nueva España), +and the second the Madrid agent for the Manila Ayuntamiento. Camba +sailed for Cádiz on the "Santa Ana" on March 21, and arrived in +Spain August 20, 1835, after the end of the first session of the +Cortes. That session imposed a special tax on certain classes of +financial documents, which affected all the Spanish domains; and +which was sanctioned by the regent, May, 1835, and communicated to +the Philippines on June 2. + +The new session was set in a meeting of the Consejo de Ministros +(September 28, 1835) for November 16, 1835. The first preliminary +meeting was held on November 12, at which the Philippine +representatives presented their credentials, being duly confirmed on +the meeting of the fourteenth, although Camba was contested by one +Manuel Cacho of Manila. The formal opening of the session occurred on +the sixteenth, and on the twenty-fourth, Camba and Lecaros took the +oath, the former being placed on the committee on Etiquette. On the +occasion of the vote of confidence in the government, the Philippine +representatives spoke on the rumors of the transfer of the Philippines +to a foreign government, stating that such rumors had already been +reported in foreign newspapers, as well as the power to whom the +transfer was to be made and the sum to be paid. Such a sale they +could not believe would be the reward of so many years of loyalty +to the Spanish government. In the discussion of the election law +for the Cortes, the government and the Cortes came to a deadlock, +and the Cortes were dissolved by the government. Hence nothing was +accomplished during this session. [182] + +A royal decree of the date when the Cortes were dissolved, ordered +the new Cortes to assemble at Madrid, March 22, article 5 of the +decree specifying that elections should be held in the provinces of +Ultramar on receipt of the decree. Consequently, at this session, +which lasted from March 22 until May 23, when it was again dissolved, +the Philippines had no representation. + +A decree of May 24 ordered a new session for August 20, at which the +Philippines were to have four representatives, the officials evidently +not taking into account the distance of the Philippines from Spain, +for it would be manifestly impossible for any representative to arrive +from the Philippines for that session or even for the one of March, +1837. The election at Manila held in 1836 resulted in the reelection +of Camba and Lecaros. On August 13, a royal decree (in consequence of +the mutiny of La Granja) ordered the publication of the Constitution of +1812 until the Cortes clearly manifested their will or drew up a new +constitution. Another decree of August 21 called the general Cortes +for October 24, in accordance with the rules of the Constitution of +1812; and one of September 28 suppressed the Real Consejo de España +é Indias. At the secret session of the Cortes on January 16, 1837, a +proposition for special laws to govern Ultramar was made, being passed +to the proper committee. On February 10 the committee having in charge +the drafting of a new constitution, presented a plan for the provinces +to be ruled by special laws, in accordance with which their delegates +were not to sit in the Cortes. On March 9, 1837, the elections at +Manila resulted in Camba and Luis Prudencio Alvarez y Tejero, [183] +formerly of the Manila Audiencia, and a resident of Manila for thirteen +years, being elected. The latter arrived in Spain after the passing +of the law excluding the Philippine representation from the Cortes. A +royal order of May 31, 1837, presented the method to be observed +in the provision of alcaldes-mayor for the Philippines. On June 18, +the new constitution was promulgated in Madrid, article 2 of which +decreed that Ultramar should be governed by special laws. [184] Since +that time the Philippines have had no representation in Cortes. [185] + + + + + + + + +LIST OF ARCHBISHOPS OF MANILA + + +The authorities used in the following chronological list of the +archbishops of Manila are as follows: San Antonio, Chronicas; Zúñiga, +Historia general; Delgado, Historia; Buzeta y Bravo, Diccionario; +Ferrando y Fonseca, Historia de los padres dominicos; Montero y Vidal, +Historia general; various copies of the Guia; the Reports of the +Philippine Commission; and some minor works. + +SALAZAR, DOMINGO DE, O.P.--Born at Rioja, in 1512; takes Dominican +habit at convent of San Esteban, Salamanca; becomes master in theology; +missionary in Nueva España for 40 years; goes to Spain as procurator +general for his province, and preaches before Felipe II, in favor of +the Indians; proposed as first bishop of the Philippines in 1578 and +consecrated at Madrid, 1579; arrives at Manila in March, 1581, with +two Jesuits, two coadjutors, eight Franciscans, and one Dominican; +erects cathedral of Manila, Dec. 21, 1581, by virtue of bull of Gregory +XIII, as suffragan to the see of Mexico; celebrates provincial synod +(1582-86), with attendance of 90 ecclesiastics and 6 seculars (to +discuss both ecclesiastical and secular matters); tries to enforce +episcopal visit on the regulars, thus raising the question in the +Philippines that was so often to convulse those islands both in +ecclesiastical and secular circles; royal Audiencia founded partly +on account of his petition; defends natives against encomenderos; +aids greatly in the building of the cathedral and in the church of the +Dominicans, as well as the hospital for the natives, and the college +of Santa Potenciana; quarrels with Gomez Perez Dasmariñas, by whom +the Audiencia had been suppressed in obedience to royal commands; +goes to Spain in 1591 (leaving his companion Salvatierra in charge), +to seek royal redress, and secures reëstablishment of Audiencia, +and complete royal favor, although opposed by the governor and the +Augustinians; procures elevation of Manila into a metropolitan see, +with three suffragan churches; designated as first archbishop by +king, but dies Dec. 4, 1594, at college of Santo Tomás at Madrid, +before the papal bulls arrive, aged 82; hot-headed and impetuous, +and apt to meddle too freely in secular affairs, but a worker. See +the many documents in our series by Salazar, and those containing +matter in regard to him. + +SANTIBAÑEZ, IGNACIO, O.S.F.--Native of Búrgos; guardian of the province +of Búrgos, and later provincial; preacher to Felipe II; presented as +first archbishop, June 17, 1595; consecrated in Nueva España in 1596; +delays going to the Philippines until 1598 because the bulls of the +pallium are not correct in all details; takes possession of his see, +May 28, 1598; immediately erects the cathedral into a metropolitan +church, with three suffragan sees (Cebú, with Pedro de Agurto, O.S.A., +as bishop; Nueva Cáceres, with Miguel Benavides, O.P., as bishop; +and Nueva Segovia, with Francisco Ortega, O.S.A., as bishop), by +virtue of the bull of Clement VII, dated Aug. 14, 1595; Audiencia +reëstablished during his time; dies from dysentery, Aug. 14, 1598, +after term of 2 months and 17 days; buried in cathedral; funeral +sermon preached by Pedro de Agurto, O.S.A., bishop of Cebú. + +VACANT SEE. + +BENAVIDES, MIGUEL, O.P.--Native of Carrion de los Condes, where he was +born of illustrious parents; takes the Dominican habit in San Pablo at +Valladolid, where he also becomes a collegiate at the college of San +Gregorio; reader of theology; goes to Manila with the first Dominican +mission in 1587; spends a short time in the Chinese missions, whence +he is exiled; helps promote building of Chinese hospital in Manila; +elected procurator general for his order and accompanies Salazar to +Spain; there gains three missions, and an increase in the commerce; +elected first bishop of Nueva Segovia; consecrated in Nueva España, +in 1597; arrives at Manila, 1598; takes possession of bishopric, 1599; +presented as archbishop, 1601; takes possession of Manila see, 1603, +the king defraying the cost of the bulls, on account of Benavides's +poverty; by decree of Sept. 9, 1603, gives administration of the +Japanese in Manila to the Franciscans; partly responsible for the +Chinese massacre of 1603 (see the various documents in our series); in +response to a royal decree ordering all natives to take a new oath of +allegiance to Spain, takes possession of all the natives in the name +of the crown of Castilla and Leon; dies on St. Anne's day, July 26, +1605; buried in Dominican church; leaves bequest for foundation of +Dominican college (San Tomás); a generous alms-giver. See documents +on the foundation of San Tomás. + +VACANT SEE. + +VAZQUEZ DE MERCADO, DR. DIEGO--Native of Arévalo, in Castilla la Vieja; +related to the family of the Ronquillos; obtains degree licentiate +in canons in university of Mexico; becomes secular priest, goes to +Philippines with Salazar, where he becomes his lawyer and acts as dean +of Manila cathedral for sixteen years; in 1597 goes to Nueva España, +to assume the curacy of Acapulco; in Nueva España given the degree +of Doctor of canon law from the university of Mexico; resigns his +office as dean of Manila during the sojourn of Santibañez in Nueva +España; in 1600, presented as bishop of Mechoacán, where he serves +three years; Oct. 22, 1603, presented as first bishop of Yucatan, +and receives necessary bulls in Campeche; consecrated in Mexico, +Jan. 13, 1604, and governs his bishopric for three years; in 1608, +presented as archbishop of Manila; takes possession of see, on eve +of Corpus Christi, 1610; completes building of cathedral by means +of his own funds and contributions of the inhabitants of Manila; +builds a chapel in the collateral nave on epistle side of cathedral, +for his own burial and that of the prebendaries of the cathedral; +enacts various acts for the good government of the cathedral; dies +June 12, 1616; buried in chapel. + +VACANT SEE.--The archbishopric is governed by Pedro de Arce, O.S.A., by +virtue of a brief of Paul V, which is delivered to the ecclesiastical +cabildo by the Audiencia; governs for a period of more than four years. + +GARCIA SERRANO, MIGUEL, O.S.A.--Native of Madrid or of Chinchilla; +goes to the Philippines in one of the early missions; becomes prior +of Manila and provincial of his province, and is elected procurator +to Spain; there presented as bishop of Nueva Segovia; consecrated in +Nueva España in 1616; goes to the Philippines the same year and governs +his bishopric for two and one-half years, presented as archbishop, +in 1618; takes possession of his see, Aug. 24, 1619, having received +the pallium at the church of Nuestra Señora de Guia, Aug. 1 of that +year; during his term, the nuns of St. Clare arrive at Manila, whom +he aids greatly; obtains brief (1625) from Urban VIII, allowing the +feast of Corpus Christi to be celebrated at a more opportune season, +but this brief was never carried out; tries to enforce episcopal visit +of regular parish priests, but opposed vigorously by regulars who +threaten to resign curacies, and question is finally submitted to king +and pope for decision; holy sacrament stolen from cathedral in 1628, +[186] and due partly to his grief over this calamity, Garcia Serrano +dies on Corpus Christi day, June 14 (Montero y Vidal says June 6), +1629, at age of 60. + +VACANT SEE.--On the death of Garcia Serrano, the ecclesiastical +cabildo and the bishop of Nueva Segovia, Hernando Guerrero, O.S.A., +go to law in regard to the government ad interim of the archbishopric, +the latter claiming it by virtue of the brief of Paul V, since Pedro +de Arce, O.S.A., has resigned his right. The litigation lasts until +Jan. 29, 1630, when Arce assumes the government by decree of the +royal Audiencia, and although he has continual suits he maintains +his office. The vacancy lasts 6 years and 9 days. + +GUERRERO, HERNANDO, O.S.A.--Native of Madrid or Alcaraz; professes in +the Augustinian convent at Madrid; after going to the Philippines, +holds many posts in the order, and is finally sent to Spain as +procurator; on arrival at Mexico, finds decree appointing him bishop +of Nueva Segovia; proceeds to Spain, where he obtains a mission, +and his bulls confirming his appointment; returns to the Philippines +in 1627; consecrated at Cebú, in 1628; governs his bishopric for 7 +years; tries to obtain the government of the archbishopric of Manila +in vacant see (see above); presented as archbishop, Jan. 16, 1632; +takes possession of see, June 23, 1635; during his term quarrels with +the governor, Hurtado de Corcuera, the Audiencia, and the Jesuits +(see the numerous documents in our series concerning this); refuses +to authorize or recognize the Collado faction among the Dominicans; +exiled, in 1636, to Marivelez; returns from exile, June 6, 1636, his +exile having lasted 26 days; visits diocese personally, and nearly +captured by Camucones in consequence; dies July 1, 1641, at age of +75; buried in Augustinian church; zealous, but obstinate, hot-headed, +and too unbending. + +VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo governs because Arce renounces +his right to do so. + +MONTERO DE ESPINOSA, DR. FERNANDO.--Native of Búrgos; becomes secular +priest; doctor of theology in Salamanca University, and holds other +offices; first palace cura of Felipe IV, when royal chapel was erected +into a parish church; a noted preacher; administrator of the hospital +outside of Toledo; presented as bishop of Nueva Segovia in 1642; +consecrated in Mexico in 1643; May 20, 1644, while on way to islands, +receives presentation as archbishop; embarks at Acapulco, in March, +1645; arrives at the port of Lampon, at the end of July of that year; +sets out for Manila, but dies at Pila, in Laguna de Bay, of fever; +funeral celebrated on day he was to have made his public entrance +into Manila; 45 years old; buried beside Benavides, but his remains +afterward removed to the sagrario of the curas by Archbishop Poblete. + +VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo governs; although it is agreed +that the different members of the cabildo shall govern by months, the +dean obtains the upper hand through connivance with the governor's +favorite Venegas, and a vicar general is elected. In this period +occurs the Jesuit-Dominican contest as to priority of colleges; the +Franciscans are disturbed by interior dissensions; while the cabildo +itself is racked by internal dissensions; the royal decree ordering +St. Michael the Archangel to be published as patron of the islands +is put into force. + +POBLETE, DR. MIGUEL DE.--Secular priest; born in Mexico, in 1603; a +professor in the university; occupies some of the best ecclesiastical +posts in Nueva España; resigns the bishopric of Nicaragua in 1644; +the decree of his presentation as archbishop of Manila, dated May, +1648; keeps decree hid for more than a month before showing it; +consecrated at the archiepiscopal palace at Mexico, Sept. 9, 1650; +reaches Cavite, July. 22, 1653, with Governor Manrique de Lara; +latter requests him to go ashore first and bless the country, on +account of the troubles of the former archbishop; makes solemn entry, +July 24; at Lent of 1654 the brief of Innocent X (Aug. 7, 1649), +giving benediction and absolution to the land placed in force; tries +to enforce episcopal visit of regulars, who oppose him strongly, and +resign their curacies, compelling the archbishop to restore them for +want of seculars to put in their place; quarrels with Governor Salcedo, +who refuses to pay the ecclesiastical stipends, whereupon the cabildo +is suspended for the time being, and Poblete tries to borrow 2,000 +pesos with which to satisfy the most pressing needs of the cabildo; +trouble over the appointment to the office of dean of the cabildo, +which falls vacant; rebuilds cathedral, laying the first stone, April +20, 1654; begs alms for cathedral, and applies to it 22,000 pesos, +which has been contributed to it by the inhabitants of Manila; dies on +the day of the Conception, Dec. 8, 1667; orders body not embalmed, but +his orders disregarded; buried (governor participating in obsequies), +Dec. 11, in the sagrario of the curas in the cathedral; funeral +services met by alms of private persons; memorial honors celebrated, +Jan. 30, 1668; 64 years old at time of death; much regretted. + +VACANT SEE.--The ecclesiastical cabildo governs the archbishopric. + +LOPEZ, JUAN, O.P.--Born in Martin Muñoz in Castilla la Vieja; professes +in Dominican convent of San Esteban of Salamanca; collegiate at +college of San Gregorio at Valladolid; goes to Philippines in 1643 +as missionary; lectures on theology in the college of Santo Tomás; +in 1658, goes to Nueva España to recover health; following year sent +title as definitor and procurator general; goes to Spain by way of +France, in 1662, and thence to Rome; general of order gives him the +degree of master of theology; at Rome receives decree of Felipe IV +(Dec., 1662) presenting him as bishop of Cebú; receives confirmation +from pope, Apr. 23, 1663; gathers a band of 40 missionaries, and on +reaching Nueva España is consecrated at Mechoacán, Jan. 4, 1665; takes +possession of bishopric, Aug. 31, 1665; has troubles in bishopric, +and proceeds to excommunications, unjustifiably, so that it becomes +necessary for the royal Audiencia to intervene; during term as bishop, +visits Manila twice, once when the commissary of the Holy Inquisition +arrested Governor Salcedo, and the second time at Poblete's death, +under summons from the governor, who requested him to rule the +archbishopric ad interim; presented for archbishopric in 1671; takes +possession, Aug. 21, 1672; quarrels with ecclesiastical officials and +with governor, the latter depriving him of the ecclesiastical stipends; +obtains royal permission to have stipends sent from Mexico, in order +that this might be avoided in the future (although the decree does not +arrive until after his death); dies, Feb. 12, 1674, after a fever of +5 months, at age of 61; heart and entrails buried in sagrario of the +curas, and body in the Dominican church; honors celebrated, Mar. 1, +1674; no bishop in islands at time of his death as all had died in +1671; harsh and impetuous by nature, and hence carried by his zeal +into constant trouble. + +VACANT SEE.--Dean and cabildo rule the archbishopric. + +PARDO, FELIPE, O.P.--Born in Valladolid of noble parents; takes +habit in convent of San Pablo at Valladolid; there becomes master of +students; goes as missionary to Philippines in 1648; lector and rector +in university of Santo Tomás in Manila; holds many posts in his order, +his first term as provincial ending in 1665; and his second in 1677; +twice commissary of Inquisition; presented as archbishop, by royal +decree of May 30, 1676; takes possession of archbishopric, at age of +68, Nov 11, 1677, without being consecrated, by special order of the +king; requisite bulls reach him only in 1681; consecrated, Oct. 28, +1681, in Manila cathedral; makes public entry, Nov. 1; during his +term, the first governor of the Marianas arrives; arrival of auxiliary +bishop de partibus Gines de Barrientos, O.P., with title of bishop +of Troya; takes missions in Luzón from Recollects, which he gives +to the Dominicans, giving to the Recollects the missions of Mindoro +in exchange (see the documents in our series referring to this); +has conflicts with the governor, other orders, and ecclesiastical +cabildo; orders all Spaniards to pay all fees to the parish priests +of each district instead of to the parish priest of Bagumbayan, and +since almost all the Spaniards lived in Binondo, this benefited his +order especially; exiled to Lingayen, in Pangasinan, Mar. 31, 1683; +secretly appoints Barrientos to govern the archbishopric; brought +back from exile by Governor Curuzalaegui, and takes vengeance on the +ex-governor, Vargas, and others; dies, Dec. 31, 1689, at age of 80, +without the aids of religion; buried in church of the Dominicans; +harsh, obstinate, revengeful, partial to the Dominicans; under the +influence of the Dominican Verart, who was his counselor, and a man +quarrelsome by nature. See the documents of the Pardo controversy in +our series. + +VACANT SEE.--The ecclesiastical cabildo yields the government of the +archbishopric to the bishop of Troya, Gines de Barrientos, but the +latter finally resigns the post, and the cabildo rules. Barrientos +makes so extreme use of his power while in command, that two members +of the cabildo retire to the Augustinian convent in order to be immune +from arrest, and ask aid of the governor ad interim. + +CAMACHO Y AVILA, DR. DIEGO.--Secular priest; native of Badajoz; +collegiate-mayor in the Insigne de Cuenca of Salamanca; canon of the +church of Badajoz; presented as archbishop, Aug. 19, 1696; consecrated +at La Puebla in Nueva España; takes possession of his see, Sept. 13, +1697; the papal legate Tournon comes to the islands during his term, +and Camacho's connection with him leads to complications with the +Spanish government; a strong champion of the episcopal visit of +the regular parish priests, and hence opposed by all the regulars; +his attempts to place seculars in control of the parish churches +end because there are not enough seculars to supply the places left +vacant by the regulars; makes many improvements in the cathedral, and +spends on it more than 40,000 pesos; founds seminary of San Clemente, +which is thrown open to foreigners; because of this and his connection +with Tournon, as well as indirectly because of his opposition to the +regulars, transferred by royal order to the bishopric of Guadalajara, +in Nueva España; takes possession of this, Mar. 25, 1706; visits +bishopric several times; dies, in 1712; in will orders honors to be +celebrated for him in Manila cathedral; these celebrated, Oct. 26, +1713, by Diego de Gorospe Yrala bishop of Nueva Segovia. See the +various documents regarding the Camacho controversy in our series. + +VACANT SEE--Cabildo governs until the arrival of the following. + +CUESTA, FRANCISCO DE LA, Ordr of San Gerónimo.--Native of Colmenar, +near Madrid; master in theology; preacher to the king; presented as +archbishop in 1706; consecrated in Mexico, Aug. 12, 1707; Clement +XI decides in favor of episcopal visit of regular parish priests, +and Cuesta attempts to carry the visits into effect, but regulars +induce him to wait until representations can be made to the pope; +imprisoned by Governor Bustamante; Governor Bustamante assassinated +Oct. 11, 1719, and Cuesta freed and becomes governor ad interim, +as all the auditors refuse the post; governs islands until July 24, +1721; all three bishoprics vacant during part of his term; transferred +to the bishopric of Mechoacán, in Nueva España, because of the death +of Bustamante; arrives at Acapulco, Jan. 11, 1724; takes charge of +diocese, April 18; dies May 30 (Buzeta and Bravo say, May 31), 1724, +at age of 63; buried in his church. + +VACANT SEE.--Archbishopric governed by ecclesiastical cabildo; house +for girls built. + +BERMUDEZ GONZALEZ DE CASTRO, DR. CARLOS.--Secular; native of Puebla de +los Angeles, Nueva España; licentiate and doctor of laws; professor +in canons in the university of Mexico; holds office in Inquisition +of Mexico, and other high offices in that archbishopric; presented as +archbishop of Manila; in 1722; consecrated, June 17, 1725; compelled to +remain in Nueva España three years longer for lack of a vessel sailing +to the Philippines; leaves Mexico City, Mar. 5, 1728, and embarks +at Acapulco, Mar. 27; goes ashore at Marianas, where he baptizes an +infant; received privately in Manila, July 29, 1728; receives pallium, +Aug. 22, from the bishop of Cagayan, at parish church of Quiapo; +takes possession, Aug. 25; has trouble with the governor in regard +to the college of San Felipe; establishes formal rites; falls ill, +Oct. 5, 1729, and dies, Nov. 13, at the age of almost 62; bequeaths +heart to convent of San Lorenzo in Mexico; corpse buried, Nov. 18. + +VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo governs the archbishopric. + +ANGEL RODRIGUEZ, JUAN, Trinitarian.--Born in Medina del Campo; +master in sacred theology; fills various posts in Spanish cathedrals; +professor in Salamanca and Alcalá universities; appointed confessor of +Diego Morcillo Rubio de Auñon, archbishop of Lima; arrives at Lima, +April 17, 1731; presented as archbishop of Manila, May 18, 1731; +obtains bulls, Dec. 17, and council decrees, dated Feb. 29, 1732, +on May 25, 1732; compelled to remain in Lima until Jan. 2, 1736, +as no ship is allowed to sail to Acapulco; embarks at Acapulco, +Apr. 17, 1736; lands at Samar, Aug. 30; reaches Nueva Cáceres, +Oct. 4; consecrated there by bishop Dr. Felipe de Molina, Nov. 23; +receives pallium, Nov. 26; takes possession of see through Dean Luis +Rico, Jan. 23, 1737, and makes public entry on the twenty-fourth; +gives form to the cathedral choir, and introduces the Gregorian +chant; prohibits night processions, and reforms several feasts; +takes up the cause of the fiscal who has become embroiled with the +governor and taken refuge in the Recollect convent, and persuades him +to present himself in fuerza, hoping that the governor would treat +him compassionately; matters turning out differently than he hopes, +the archbishop, believing himself to be the cause of the evils that +come upon the fiscal, is attacked by severe melancholy which causes +immediate death; peaceful by disposition, lovable, and virtuous. + +VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo governs the archbishopric. + +SANTISIMA TRINIDAD MARTINEZ DE ARRIZALA, PEDRO DE, O.S.F.--Native of +Madrid; auditor of Quito; counselor of the Indies; becomes Franciscan; +consecrated as archbishop of Manila in Spain; makes public entry +into Manila, Aug. 27, 1747; in Spain obtains decree ordering the +expulsion of the Chinese settled in the islands, but does not present +it, because of the representations of the bishop of Nueva Segovia, +Arrechedera, then governor ad interim, and whose order, the Dominican, +has charge of the Chinese; on the arrival of the new governor, Obando, +presents the decree, but it has no effect because of various disputes +between the governor and archbishop; demands that Arrechedera hand over +the government of the islands to him and even appeals to the court; +quarrels with Obando's successor, Governor Arandía, over questions +of etiquette; dies, May 28, 1755 (Zúñiga says May 29). + +VACANT SEE.--Dean and ecclesiastical cabildo in charge of the +archbishopric. + +ROJO DEL RIO Y VIEYRA, MANUEL ANTONIO.--Native of Tula, Nueva España; +canon and provisor of Mexico; consecrated as archbishop of Manila +in Nueva España, in 1758; takes possession of his see, July 22, +1759; demands charge of government of islands from Bishop Lino +de Espeleta, governor ad interim, but latter holds command until +arrival of decree from Spain transferring the command to Rojo; +immediately settles Villacorta matter and quashes case against the +Spanish mestizo Orendaín; British besiege and capture Manila, 1762; +Rojo made virtually a prisoner; has disputes with Anda; dies, Jan. 30, +1764, and given military burial by English; see VOL. XLIX. + +VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo assumes control of the +archbishopric. + +SANTA JUSTA Y SANCHO DE RUFINA, BASILIO.--An Aragonese; a member of +the Escuelas pias; preacher to the king; procurator for the province +of Aragon; appointed archbishop, in 1767; consecrated in Spain, +and arrives at Manila in 1767 via Cape of Good Hope; immediately +establishes mission and preaches rigorously against all the vices for +nine days; adorns cathedral; presides over council by which bishop of +Nueva Cáceres exiled to his bishopric; makes most vigorous attempts +to enforce episcopal visit of regular parish priests of any archbishop +in history of the Philippines; bases his action on the bull Firmandis +of Benedict XIV, dated Nov. 6, 1744, and the bull of Feb. 24, 1745, +which were confirmed at the instance of the king by the bull Nunc +nuper, of Nov. 8, 1751; in 1768, visits all the curacies held by the +Dominicans; all the other orders resist; although the governor commands +the orders to submit to the visit, and strives to uphold the royal +patronage, the orders disregard him; many parishes provided with native +secular priests by the archbishop in 1768, especially the parishes +of the Parián, Binondo and the Province of Bataán, which had been +administered by the Dominicans (which regulars claim was an irreparable +injury); regulars complain to king, and archbishop directs energetic +representation against them, May 10, 1768; Jesuit expulsion occurs +during his term; Raón is finally gained by the orders and yields; when +his successor Anda arrives, the archbishop appeals to him for aid, +and although the latter is unwilling to go as far as Santa Justa y +Rufina, he aids him; provincial council called at Manila for May 19, +1771, to which the three suffragan bishops summoned; six meetings held +but nothing lasting done; trouble over visit of the beaterio of Santa +Catalina; Anda suspends cedula of Nov. 9, 1774, ordering the curacies +secularized as they fall vacant; secularization ordered suspended by +royal decree of Dec. 11, 1776; archbishop dies at Manila, Dec. 15, +1787; strong character, vigorous mind, impetuous; regular historians +assert that he was influenced by the French encyclopedists and by the +ministers of Cárlos III. See Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca filipina +(Washington, 1903), for various writings of Santa Justa y Rufina; +and our series for some account of his time. + +VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo takes charge of the archbishopric. + +ORBIGO Y GALLEGO, ANTONIO DE, O.S.F.--Born at Orbigo in León, in 1729; +takes Franciscan habit at Priego; goes to Philippines as preacher and +confessor, in 1759; elected bishop of Nueva Cáceres while procurator +for his order in Spain, in 1779; takes possession of his see, in 1780; +chosen archbishop of Manila, in 1789, and takes possession of his +see Oct. 15 through the procurator, capitular vicar, and archdeacon, +Francisco Durana, and makes public entry next day; visits his see, +and once narrowly escapes capture by the Moros near Manila; dies +May 15 (Buzeta and Bravo say May 16), 1790, at Santa Ana; buried in +Franciscan church at Manila, on following day, as he had requested +that his corpse be not embalmed; of pacific character, learned, +simple in his tastes, and without enemies. + +VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo assumes control of the +archbishopric. + +SALAMANCA, IGNACIO.--Native of Manila; dean of Manila cathedral; +becomes bishop of Cebú, Sept. 28, 1789; consecrated in Manila, +and goes to bishopric in 1794; presented as archbishop of Manila, +but dies at Cebú, Feb. 1802, before having received the despatches +of his new dignity. + +VACANT SEE.--The ecclesiastical cabildo rules the archbishopric +continuously from the death of Orbigo y Gallego to the coming of +Zulaibar, as Salamanca does not actually hold the office. + +ZULAIBAR, JUAN ANTONIO, O.P.--Born in Vizcaya in 1753; takes habit +at age of 16 in convent of San Pablo at Búrgos; receives degree of +doctor at university of Ávila; professor of theology at university +of Alcalá for 7 years; presented as archbishop of Manila, Aug. 1803; +arrives at Manila, Sept. 2, 1804; consecrated at Manila, by Domingo +Collantes, bishop of Nueva Cáceres, July 14, 1805 (Ferrando; Buzeta +and Bravo say Sept. 8, 1804); voting member of vaccination board +formed at Manila, Dec. 20, 1806, by royal order of Sept. 1, 1803; +endows seminary of his diocese; dies Mar. 4, 1824. + +VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo assumes control of the +archbishopric. + +DIEZ, HILARION, O.S.A.--Born at Valladolid, 1761; takes habit at an +early age in the same city; in the Philippines serves as parish priest +in several Tagálog villages, and becomes proficient in the Tagálog +language; is twice prior of the Manila convent, and provincial of his +order; his appointment as archbishop meets general approval; assumes +charge of his see, Sept. 15, 1826; consecrated in the Augustinian +church, Oct. 21, 1827; dies, May 7, 1829. + +VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo governs the archbishopric. + +SEGUI, JOSE, O.S.A.--Born at Camprodon, in bishopric of Gerona, +Oct. 3, 1773; takes habit at Seo de Urgel; goes to Philippines in 1795; +missionary for 20 years in China; after his return to the Philippines, +serves as definitor and procurator general for 12 years; auxiliary +to his predecessor and made bishop in partibus of Hierocesaréa, July +27, 1829; elevated to the metropolitan see by Pius VIII, July 5, +1830; consecrated at the Manila Augustinian church, Oct. 28, 1830; +receives pallium, Sept. 14, 1831, from the bishop of Ilocos whither +he goes for that purpose; enters Manila publicly, Sept. 29, 1831; +sends several circulars to his clergy, and invites them to spiritual +exercises annually; receives the great cross of Isabel the Catholic; +dies, July 4, 1845. + +VACANT SEE.--Governed by ecclesiastical cabildo. + +ARANGUREN, JOSE.--Recollect; born at Barasoain, diocese of Pamplona, +Feb. 16, 1801; studies philosophy at Pamplona, and law at Zaragoza; +takes habit at Alfaro, at the college of the Recollects (since +removed to Monteagudo), in 1816; arrives at Manila, in 1830; serves in +Pampanga; acts as provincial secretary; cura at Masinlos in Zambales; +definitor in the chapter of 1840; elected provincial in 1843; appointed +archbishop by king, Nov. 12, 1845; begins to govern, Mar. 19, 1846; +consecrated, Jan. 31, 1847; receives pallium, Feb. 2, 1847, and makes +public entrance into Manila, Feb. 7; receives great cross of Isabel +the Catholic; dies, Apr. 18, 1862; laborious, prudent, and economical. + +VACANT SEE.--The archbishopric is governed by Dr. Pedro Peláez, +a Filipino secular priest, who is elected by the ecclesiastical +cabildo as capitular vicar. + +MELITON MARTINEZ DE SANTA CRUZ, DR. GREGORIO.--Secular; born in +1815, in Prado-Luengo, in the diocese of Búrgos; studies theology in +seminary of San Jerónimo in Búrgos, and afterwards occupies a chair +in the same seminary; receives degree of bachelor at the university +of Valladolid, and studies in the university of Madrid, where he also +receives degrees; acts as provisor in Palencia, for 12 years, where +he receives the doctorate by competition; holds various posts in the +Pamplona ecclesiastical cabildo; appointed archbishop of Manila by +the sovereign, July 31, 1861; consecrated in Madrid, Mar. 23, 1862; +takes possession of see, May 27, 1862; receives degree of doctor in +jurisprudence from the University of the Philippines, Aug. 24, 1862; +a member of the Vatican Council until its suspension in 1871; has +dissensions with the Recollects over vacancies occurring in the Manila +diocese; together with the secular bishops of Cebú and Nueva Cáceres, +sends exposition to queen, Feb. 15, 1863, urging the right of episcopal +visitation of the regular parish priests; asks that briefs and laws +declaring removable ad nutum the regular curas, be left in force; +with provincials of orders protests to governor against the Moret +decrees, May 16, 1869; Feb. 19, 1872, publishes long pastoral letter in +Spanish and Tagálog lamenting and condemning Cavite insurrection, and +especially the part taken in it by the Filipino clergy; resigns, 1875. + +VACANT SEE.--1875-1876. + +PAYO, PEDRO, O.P.--Takes charge of see, 1876; adorns and improves +cathedral; dies, 1889. + +VACANT SEE.--1889-1890. + +NOZALEDA, BERNARDINO, O.P.--Native of Asturías, of rustic parentage; +originally a professor in Manila; takes possession of his diocese, +Oct. 29, 1890; Apr. 28, and May 8, 1898, issues circulars to the +Filipinos urging them to repel the American invaders; resides about 26 +years in Philippines; relinquishes archbishopric, June, 1903; returns +to Spain after the transfer of the Philippines to the United States; +there nominated archbishop of Valencia, [187] but the citizens refuse +to receive him, because of evil reports about him. [188] + + + + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] "Originally, when the port of the capital of Filipinas was visited +only by vessels from the Asiatic nations and a few Spanish ships, the +exaction of duties was in the hands of the royal officials, according +to the laws of the Indias. In 1779 Basco y Vargas ordained that +those functionaries should attend only to collecting duties from the +ships which navigated to the coasts of Coromandel, Malabar, Bengala, +Java, Cantón, Acapulco, and Cádiz; and that the duties proper to the +entrance or outgo of products and commodities in the inter-island +commerce should be in charge of the director of alcabala. From this +originated the foundation of the custom-house, it being completed +by royal decrees of 1786 and 1788, from which time it was provided +with the necessary force of men for collecting the import and export +duties." (Note by Montero y Vidal.) + +[2] Cf. Forrest, Voyage to New Guinea, p. 368: "They believe the deity +pleased with human victims. An Idaan or Maroot [a tribe in northern +Borneo] must, for once at least, in his life, have imbued his hands in +a fellow creature's blood; the rich are said to do it often, adorning +their houses with sculls and teeth, to show how much they have honored +their author, and laboured to avert his chastisement. Several in low +circumstances will club to buy a Bisayan Christian slave, or any one +that is to be sold cheap; that all may partake the benefit of the +execution. So at Kalagan, on Mindano, as Rajah Moodo informed me, +when the god of the mountain gives no brimstone, they sacrifice some +old slave, to appease the wrath of the deity. Some also believe, +those they kill in this world, are to serve them in the next, as +Mr. Dalrymple observes." He also says (p. 271), that they pay "perhaps +five or six Kangans" for an old slave, and that the above mountain +is "in the district of Kalagan [i.e., Caraga], a little way west of +Pandagitan, which emits at times smoke, fire, and brimstone." This +evidently alludes to Mt. Butulan, a volcano (now apparently extinct), +in the extreme southern point of Davao province, Mindanao. + +[3] See account of this at end of "Events in Filipinas," the first +document in VOL. L. + +[4] See post, near the end of this volume, the document on the +representation of Filipinas in the Spanish Cortes. + +[5] "A fanatic, who, styling himself a new Christ, appeared to the +fishermen and announced to them their true redemption--freedom from +monopolies and tributes, and whatever could allure the unwary. This +fanatic and more than seventy of his following, called 'apostles,' were +seized, with their gowns, litters, flags, and other articles with which +'the new god,' as was reported, must make himself manifest." (Official +despatch, cited by Montero y Vidal.) + +[6] It may be noted that in 1809 Folgueras had, "in order to quiet the +public anxiety" to know what was going on, published on two occasions +a sort of gazette (called Aviso al público) of news regarding his +encounter and correspondence with the French in that summer. (Montero +y Vidal, ii, pp. 390, 391.) + +[7] See Retana's Periodismo filipino (Madrid, 1895), appendix i +(pp. 533-559), in which a detailed account of this gazette, with lists +of the articles in most of the numbers, is given by J. T. Medina. He +concludes that it had fifteen numbers, irregularly issued, the last +of which was dated February 7, 1812. + +[8] According to Jagor (Reisen, pp. 108, 109), "the receipts from +the sale of the bulls of the Crusade in 1819 were $15,930, in 1839, +$36,390, and in 1860, $58,954. In the two years 1844-45 they rose +to $292,115, because the families and the heads of barangay were +forcibly obliged to accept the certificates of indulgences, 'with the +assistance and supervision of the curas and subordinate officials' +(who for this received 8 and 5 per cent respectively), and thus they +were distributed in the houses--certainly one of the most shameless +applications of the repartimiento system." + +[9] A note by Montero y Vidal cites José R. Trujillo, a Philippine +official, as stating (1887) that the chief opponent and plotter against +Gardoqui was Joaquin Cirilo de la Cajigas, the chief accountant of the +treasury board and head of the naval bureau; he left a great fortune +to his descendants, "who even now figure as rich men in the country, +while the naval chiefs and officers who served here at that epoch +did not bequeath to their descendants more than poverty and honor, +although some of them had risen to high positions in the naval forces." + +[10] "The Holy Office was, however, again abolished by the Cortes, +in its session of 1820. + +[11] "In 1797, when on account of the decadence of the Society and +the opposition of Aguilar it practically ceased its functions, its +president at that time, the auditor Don Francisco Javier Moreno, placed +on deposit in the Consulate [of commerce] 6,000 pesos, which at that +period constituted all its funds. At the time of its reëstablishment, +the capital of the Society consisted of 34,224 pesos, two reals, +one grano in ready cash; a debt owed by the convent of San Juan de +Dios, of 7,525 pesos--the remainder of the sum of 15,890 pesos, four +reals, one grano, which by decree of the government dated April 1, +1805, were ordered to be paid for the rebuilding of that convent's +edifice; and twelve gold medals and 241 of silver. It was agreed +to invest these funds in commerce by sea or land, according to +circumstances." (Pamphlet cited by Montero y Vidal.) + +[12] For a brief account of this Society's work, see note on +"Agriculture" at end of VOL. LII. + +[13] An interesting account of this event is furnished in a letter +by Peter Dobell, then Russian consul in the Philippines, which is +preserved in the New York Public Library; it is printed in the Bulletin +of that institution for June, 1903, at pp. 198-200. Dobell went to +Macao for medical treatment in July, 1820, and this letter was written +from that city, on November 28 of that year. He thus writes: "I arrived +with my wife and daughter at Manilla last March, was received with +great apparent attention, politeness & hospitality. After living there +a couple of months, however, I perceived that there existed a vast deal +of jealousy and envy, against all strangers, and particularly those +who resided or intended to form establishments in the country. Those +ignorant people could not divest themselves of this feeling, even +toward those, whose capitals, talents and industry, were directed +to the most laudable pursuits, and promised to produce great public +as well as private advantages to the colony. At this crisis several +french ships were in the port, one or two Americans and a English ship +from Bengal. In the French ships, had arrived a naturalist sent out +by the government to make collections, and some persons, who intended +to remain in the Philippines to cultivate sugar, cotton &c. &c. In the +month of July last, I discovered that I had in my travels, contracted +a disease, called by the Doctr Hydrocele and becoming very troublesome +to me, I determined as there are no good surgeons in Manilla to pay +a short visit to Macao with my family & return to my post, as soon +as circumstances would permit, after the operation. This I found, +I could do the more conveniently, as my Nephew, a fine young Man of +23 years, had joined me at my arrival and I left him, in full charge +of my office &c and departed. This envious disposition, on the part +of the Spaniards, increased daily, against the Strangers, until an +opportunity presented itself of gratifying their malignant hatred, in +the most cruel & bloody manner & without themselves appearing to have +any thing to do in the business. It is necessary first to tell you, +that the new constitution, had been received during the prevalence +of this feeling, giving extensive privileges & liberal encouragement +to foreigners, who might think proper to settle in the Philippines & +rendering the natives as free & equal, in rights, etc. as their former +masters. This certainly made them a little unruly, but, if not secretly +instigated, it would never have induced them to commit a crime, that +makes humanity shudder. The ship from Bengal, was the Merope Captain +Nichols and it was supposed she had brot into the colony the epidemic, +that has ravaged all India, this year, under the name of the 'Cholera +Morbus.' It made its appearance, in the beginning of October last, +carrying off great numbers of the Indians every day. The humane French +& other Strangers, who beheld these miserable wretches, dying around +them without any medical aid, freely administered what medicines they +had, and were actively & daily employed, in endeavoring to alleviate; +the distress & cure the complaints of all those, who lived within the +sphere of their exertions. This also became, a cause of jealousy and +hatred and the villains, began immediately to exasperate the Indians +by saying, 'this poisonous disease, was introduced by the French & +the other strangers, they have poisoned even the waters, and they +administer poison to the sick, purposely to exterpate the whole +race of Tagalians.' The ferocious Indians wanted nothing farther +to excite them to deeds of blood & plunder. On the 9th of October +about 10 or 11 in the morning they collected, to the number of +about 3,000 Men armed with pikes knives and bludgeons and proceeded +coolly and deliberately to plunder and Massacre all the Strangers +on whom they could lay their hands! I have not time to give you the +details of this shocking business, but you will certainly read them +in the gazettes as I have sent both to England and Russia very full +accounts for publication. Suffice it now to say that the Governor & +the authorities were vainly implored for assistance. They came, it is +true, with the troops, but it was only to behold with sang froid the +horrid spectacle. Not a musket was fired to save the lives of those +unfortunate and defenceless strangers, who to the number of 39 were +plundered & cruelly massacred; some of them were so cut up & mangled +it was impossible to recognize them. As the most of them were Roman +Catholics, they were all collected and thrown into a hole together +without the shadow of a ceremony or a stone to mark their graves! What +is worse, the last accts from there down to the 9th of November +mention that not a spanish life was lost, nor has a single native as +yet suffered punishment for this most atrocious & horrible deed. My +house was attacked & pillaged, my Nephew & a Mr Prince of Boston, +who lived with him, made prisonners, and, after being near two days +in the hands of the Indians, suffering the most abominable treatment, +they luckily escaped Death. Eighty five Chinese & 11 English seamen +were also plundered & assassinated. I have been obliged to represent +this affair in its full suit of Black to my Government and have at the +same time declared my intention of going back to Siberia, next April, +where I shall await the orders of His Imperial Majesty.... I leave +the place & those miscreants to themselves, from the conviction, +that its commerce is ruined forever. In the first place they held +their productions too high & paid too low for European commodities, so +that, when the allowance of the half duties granted to the importers +of sugars shall cease, no french ships will visit the Philippines +to pay from 7 to 9 Dollars a pecul for Sugars. The Cadmus, you say +will make money. If she does, she will I fancy be the only American +ship that profits by its trade to Manilla. All those, who came out +last year lost money on the sales of their cargoes, &, from what we +hear of prices in America, and on the Continent, they must lose by +the returns. But what will give the death blow to the prosperity of +the Philippines, is the late horrible massacre. All those french and +other foreigners, who were anxious to have established themselves +in commerce or on estates in the country, are now frightened off +and certainly no one will find himself, confident enough to trust +to a Government, which could permit such a massacre to take place, +immediately under its eyes, when it had 5,000 men in arms, ready at a +minutes notice to disperse the Mob. Thus situated, Manilla offers no +chance of profit or Speculation; and I confess, however my hopes and +wishes may have been disappointed, I turn from them with disgust & +horror, better pleased to be ordered to live, in some remote corner +of Siberia, on black bread & salt, than roll in wealth, amidst such an +inhuman, illiberal and unchristianlike race of Men.... I must close my +letter by informing you that the Captain General has refused all the +applications for indemnification, from those who have been plundered; +so that as yet, neither the punishment due to the assassins has been +inflicted, nor redress made to the unfortunate people who were robbed." + +By the kindness of James A. LeRoy, the Editors have in their hands +a copy (furnished by Dr. Pardo de Tavera from the original in +his possession) of a decree issued by Governor Folgueras (dated at +Manila, October 20, 1820), addressed "to the natives of the Filipinas +Islands, and especially to those of the district of Tondo," in which +he rebukes them severely for thus violating the law of nations, +under the influence of "a general frenzy," and "led astray and +infuriated by certain malicious persons." He characterizes their +belief that the strangers had poisoned the waters as a foolish and +absurd notion, which "the mountain Negritos or the Moros of Joló and +Mindanao would be ashamed to entertain;" and reminds them that the +strangers whom they have plundered and slain were not only friends +and brethren, but the very persons on whom the prosperity of the +islands must depend, since they supplied a market for the produce +of the country. He then presents the report which has been made by +an official whom the governor had specially appointed (October 13) +to investigate this idea of the foreigners' crime, which is to the +following effect: "As the evidence of guilt [cuerpo de delito, the +same as the Latin corpus delicti] in the poisoning which is charged, +the Indians have brought to us, among the spoils which they plundered +from the houses of the Frenchmen, various animals of different forms, +and among them a serpent, of quite the usual size, one of those which +they call 'house-snakes,' in a dissected state; others, with some +little shellfish, preserved in spirits of wine, in a crystal flask; +in another, two granos of muriatic baryte; a quantity of Peruvian +bark, which in my opinion would weigh about an arroba and a half; +and a box of sheet-tin about a vara long, one-fourth as wide, and six +dedos thick, in which also was found a mass of insects, but already +decaying; and finally, in the house of a woman who had been accused +of being an agent of the French for the alleged poisoning, a little +package of some black powders in China paper [i.e., rice paper]." The +official states that these animal specimens have evidently "no other +object than to enrich cabinets of natural history," and could not +in any way have been used for injuring human beings. The muriatic +baryte was for use in analyzing mineral waters, and was, moreover, +useful in various diseases. The Peruvian bark was, as all might +know, a useful medicine and had often been helpful in checking the +cholera itself. The black powders, it was also decided, were also of +medicinal value; and the entire story is characterized as a fiction +and delusion. The official regrets that it was believed by so many +persons who should have known better than to accept so gross an error; +"but it is certain that they did, and, among them, many of the clergy; +and with this the delusion attained such power that it has caused +the very scandalous deeds which all good persons lament; for it is +certain that there is no better way of propagating an error than for +persons of authority to adopt it. There is no doubt, it appears, that +this foolish idea of poisoning had its origin in the ignorance of the +Indians; but there is as little doubt that malicious persons, imposing +upon this folly and lack of knowledge in the Indians, incited them to +perpetrate the assassinations and robberies of the disastrous days, +October 9 and 10." He adds that one of the books brought to him by the +Indians, which they had taken from the house of the French naturalist, +was filled with sketches of fishes, mollusks, and birds peculiar to +the country, which plainly showed that he was only making zoological +observations. In view of all these things, Folgueras calls upon the +natives to repent of their sin, to surrender to the authorities the +instigators of the tumult, to restore to the plundered foreigners +what had been stolen from them, and to denounce the authors of the +murders, that justice might be done to these evil persons. These +exhortations are especially addressed to the inhabitants of Binondo, +"which has been the theatre of the most horrible tragedy, and has +covered itself with blood and ignominy." This decree is published +by Dr. Pardo de Tavera, from the original printed edition, in his +Biblioteca filipina, pp. 45-47. + +[14] In his scarce third volume of the Informe, Mas says that the +governor, either wittingly or unwittingly, did well in not sending +out the soldiers, who were natives, until the fury of the people had +spent itself; as otherwise all discipline might easily have been lost, +and the soldiers have joined with their kindred in the massacre. + +[15] Our author gives the name of this periodical incorrectly; it +should be El Noticioso Filipino--see Retana's Periodismo filipino, +appendix ii (pp. 561, 563). It was apparently begun on July 29, 1821; +it was issued on Sundays. Its publication ceased before November 1 of +that year. This information was furnished to Retana by Pardo de Tavera; +he also supplied accurate data for La Filantropia (pp. 561-563), which +began on September 1, 1821; it seems to have ceased publication in +1822. El Ramillete Patriótico is known only by an allusion in one of +the numbers of Filantropia, which speaks of the former as having been +"silenced" (presumably by the authorities). Pedro Torres y Lanzas +gives (p. 565) a description of Nos. 27-37 (March 16-May 25, 1822) +of Filantropia. + +[16] Regarding this man and his works, see Retana's El precursor +de la político redentorista (Madrid, 1894); it is specially devoted +to Varela's Parnaso filipino (Sampaloc, 1814). Retana says of him: +"It is unquestionable that his writings in prose and verse encouraged +among the Indians the wrong interpretation which was given to the +Constitution of 1812, from which resulted the series of insurrections, +fortunately isolated, which took place in Filipinas." + +[17] This publication was begun in January, 1824, and continued until +May, 1833; at first two hundred and fifty copies were printed. It +was finally obliged to suspend publication, for lack of funds. See +Retana's Periodismo filipino, pp. 10-14, and 566; at the latter place, +Torres y Lanzas describes a file of Nos. 49-109 (lacking two numbers) +of this publication, which is presumably preserved in the Archivo +general at Sevilla. + +[18] In 1823 the pirates captured the provincial of the Recollects, +with one of his friars; and that order had to furnish 10,000 pesos +for their ransom. (Montero y Vidal, Hist. de Filipinas, ii, p. 482.) + +[19] General Ricafort published a relation of this enterprise, dated +at Manila, December 30, 1829; he describes the island, presents an +historical sketch of the insurrection in Bohol since 1744 and the +efforts to quell it, and at the end furnishes a tabulated statement of +the expeditions sent by his orders, with number of men, expenditures, +etc., and of their results--a statement signed by Captain Manuel Sanz, +the leader of the expedition, and dated at Talibon, August 31, 1829; +to this is added the signed statement by the parish curas of Bohol that +the numbers of insurgents who have been conquered or have submitted to +the Spanish rule agree with their respective registers. According to +this account, the number of insurgents reduced or submitted was 19,420; +to this must be added 98 "banished for their rebellious dispositions," +and 395 "obstinate persons who died at the hands of the troops," and +an unknown ("for lack of information") number of those killed in the +year 1827 and on March 28 of 1828, and more than 3,000 souls who have +fled to other provinces. Some of the troops were Spaniards from Manila, +but the main part of the force was composed of Indians from Bohol and +Cebú, to the number of 5,970 and 54 respectively; 294 of the former +and 32 of the latter deserted the ranks, and 4,977 Boholans and 22 +Cebuans were at the end disbanded, as being on the sick list; and +very few were either killed or wounded in the campaign. The reduced +insurgents were formed into the following new villages: Catigbian, +with 1,967 souls; Batuanan, with 6,266 souls; Cabulao, with 790; +Balilijan, with 2,100; and Vilar, with 930. In other villages were +distributed the remaining insurgents. + +[20] "The Chinese refused to accept their reduction into villages; more +than eight hundred elected to return to their own country; four hundred +odd were assigned to labor on the public works, as being insolvent; +and about a thousand fled to the mountains in order to elude payment +and punishment. The intendant, in view of the difficulty in collecting +[their] taxes, explained to the government the expediency of modifying +the enactment; and this was done in 1834." (Note by Montero y Vidal.) + +[21] These funds were chiefly the obras pías which had been +administered by the Jesuit order in Filipinas up to their expulsion +from the islands; at that time, nearly half of these foundations +were extinguished by the authorities, and such moneys as remained in +them were covered into the royal treasury. Forty-five of the Jesuit +obras pías were thus left, which were administered by the government +in the following manner: The capital was divided (as had long been +the custom of all the orders in Filipinas in administering obras +pías) into three parts; one of these was invested in the commerce +of Acapulco, another in that of the Coromandel Coast and China, +and the other third remained on deposit as a reserve to make good +any losses in the amounts invested. Much light is thrown on the +management of these funds by the Jesuits, in the official report made +(June 23, 1797), in pursuit of a command from the Spanish government, +by Angel de la Fuente, the chief of the Bureau of Secular Revenues +[Contaduría de Temporalidades] at Manila; the original MS. of this +is in the possession of Edward K. Ayer, Chicago. Fuente examined the +account-books which the Jesuits had kept of these funds, and found them +full of confusion, discrepancies, and omissions; but after comparing +and verifying them so far as he could, he made a list of them, with +statement of their origin, amount, and application. He found that in +seventeen of these funds there was no evidence that the money had been +applied as directed by the donors, and only partial indications of this +in fifteen others. He reported that many of these obras pías had been +contributed for the advantage and benefit of the Jesuits themselves, +and therefore, since that order had been suppressed, the funds might +now justly be applied to any desirable pious purpose. To this end, +he recommended that nineteen of the funds be placed in charge of +the diocesan authorities, and twelve others used by the government +for specified purposes, and that the rest be covered into the royal +treasury. + +[22] "In order to give aid to the widow of Torres, and pay the +expenses of her voyage to España, a subscription was raised which +produced 12,000 pesos; but we note that the promoter of this married +the widow, and they returned to the Peninsula together." (Note by +Montero y Vidal.) + +[23] The "pillar dollar" was so called from the pillars on the +reverse of the coin, which represent the pillars of Hercules, or +the Straits of Gibraltar; this device was characteristic of the +Spanish-American coinage. This dollar was the peso duro (or "hard +dollar"), of eight reals; and its half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth, +and thirty-second parts were represented by smaller coins. The +greater part of the supply of pillar dollars were made in Mexico; +but this coinage ceased in 1822. In the Peninsula, the coins were the +dollar--formerly of ten reals, but now of twenty reals vellón--the +half, the peseta or pistareen (which is one-fifth of the dollar, +or four reals vellón), and the half and the quarter pistareen. After +the Peninsular revolution of 1821, pillar dollars were struck for a +short time at Madrid, but these are easily distinguishable from the +true pillar dollar. In 1810-16, silver coins were used in Brazil, +which were only the Spanish dollar, softened by annealing, and then +restamped; the pillars may be distinguished underneath this surface, +by close inspection. See Eckfeldt and DuBois, Manual of Gold and +Silver Coins (Philadelphia, 1842), pp. 33, 77, 119, 122, See also +chapter on Spanish coinage, especially that called "vellón," in +Lea's Inquisition in Spain (New York, 1906-07), i, pp. 560 et seq.; +this latter, although debased, was the standard of value until 1871, +when it was replaced by the decimal system. + +[24] "According to a memorial published by Don Francisco Enríquez +on leaving his office, there were at that time in the funds [of his +department] a surplus of 1,000,000 pesos, and in the storehouses over +275,000 bales of tobacco, the value of which exceeded 4,000,000 hard +dollars." (Note by Montero y Vidal.) + +[25] Hangers-on of the palace at Manila tried to throw on Galvey the +blame for this failure; but Montero y Vidal cites Galvey's diary, to +show that he had to contend with overwhelming difficulties, inadequate +supplies and lack of proper facilities, and the insalubrity of the +country. He stated therein that he had made "forty-five expeditions +into the hill-country, and had received therein four wounds, two of +which were mortal." He died in 1839. + +[26] Royal decrees of 1835 and 1836 suppressed the Jesuit order +throughout the Spanish empire; all the religious communities and +colleges of men (excepting the colleges of missionaries for Asia, +the clergy of the Escuelas Pías and the hospital convents of St. John +of God), and the houses of the military orders; and all the beaterios +whose inmates were not devoted to educational or hospital labors. + +[27] "In Filipinas the peseta is worth only 32 cuartos." (Vidal y +Soler, Viajes por Jagor, p. 227; published in 1874.) + +[28] Soon after his return to Spain he published a book (Cádiz, 1839) +relating his experiences as governor of Filipinas. + +[29] Camba's wife died, three months after their arrival at Manila; +and at her funeral certain military honors were paid her, as provided +in the regulations of affairs in the Indias, and these were promptly +approved by the home government. Camba's enemies, however, accused +him at Madrid of having had the same honors paid to his wife as were +customary with royal persons; and, at the time, the artillery officials +demanded from him pay for the powder used on that occasion. (Note by +Montero y Vidal.) + +[30] In conjunction with the Audiencia, he commissioned a magistrate, +Francisco Otín y Duazo, to draw up new "Ordinances of good government," +in 1838. (Montero y Vidal, ii, p. 360.) + +[31] Montero y Vidal says (iii, p. 21): "On March 21, 1840, the +Economic Society of Friends of the Country made a grant of 500 pesos +to Father Blanco for the expenses of printing and publishing the Flora +which bears his name." In 1845 a second edition appeared, corrected +and enlarged by the author himself; and a third edition was issued +(1877-80) at the cost of the Augustinian order. This last was in four +volumes, a limited edition, with an atlas (in two volumes) containing +478 colored plates; it also included a previously unpublished MS. on +Philippine botany, written late in the sixteenth century, and an +appendix prepared by the editors of Blanco (Fathers Andrés Naves and +Celestino Fernández-Villar) in which they endeavored to coördinate +Blanco's species with those of other authors and to enumerate all the +species of Philippine plants then known. See an account of Blanco's +work and that of his later editors, with estimate of the scientific +value of both, in Review of the Identifications of Species Described +in Blanco's "Flora" (Manila, 1905), by Elmer D. Merrill, botanist of +the Bureau of Government Laboratories at Manila. + +[32] In Retana's Periodismo filipino (pp. 566, 567) Torres y Lanzas +describes some copies of this periodical, dated October 5-November 9, +1839, and January 23-February 6, 1841; he cites a letter by Urréjola +to show that Precios corrientes was published weekly, beginning July 6, +1839, by private enterprise. + +[33] By a later royal decree, the fiscal was to settle any case of +disagreement between the two censors, and any books seized by the +authorities should be only sent back to the shipper, and not kept by +them--the archbishop having demanded that confiscated books should +be surrendered to him. (Note by Montero y Vidal.) + +[34] The full title of this book is as follows: Remarks on the +Phillippine Islands, and on their capital Manila. 1819 to 1822. By +an Englishman. "When a traveller returneth home, let him not leave +the countries where he hath travelled altogether behind him." Lord +Bacon--Essays. Calcutta: Printed at the Baptist mission Press, +Circular Road; and sold by Messrs. W. Thacker and Co. St. Andrew's +Library. 1828. + +Opposite the title-page is a folding map, entitled "Map of the province +of Tondo." It is Spanish, dated 1819; and shows as well portions of +the adjacent provinces. The book is dedicated "To Holt Mackenzie, +Esq. This Work is respectfully inscribed, by his obedient humble +servant, The Author. Calcutta, March, 1828." + +Notes signed "Eds." are supplied by the Editors; the rest are those +of the author himself. The original text is reproduced as exactly +as possible. + +[35] Besides the references already given, see J. Roth's sketch +of the geology of the Philippines, in appendix to Jagor's Reisen, +pp. 333-354.--Eds. + +[36] The Bureau of Government Laboratories at Manila published, during +1902-05, a valuable series of bulletins on various topics in botany, +ornithology, biology, diseases of man and beast, etc., and another +series was published by the Mining Bureau; the former bureau is now +replaced by the Bureau of Science.--Eds. + +[37] In the environs of Manila, a monument is erected to the memory +of ..., [37-A] a Spanish naturalist of unwearied industry, and it is +said, great talents, sent out by government to examine the Phillippine +Islands. After seven years' incessant labour, he died of a fever, and +at his death his manuscripts, which are all written in cyphers, were +taken possession of by the government; they are said yet to remain +buried in the archives of 'la Secretaria,' having never been sent +to Europe! + +[37-A] Apparently referring to Antonio Pineda (VOL. L, p. 61); but he +died only three years after leaving Spain. In the expedition to +which he was attached, he was director of the department of natural +sciences; he was accompanied by Louis Née, a Frenchman naturalized +in Spain. They visited Uruguay, Patagonia, Chile, Peru, and Nueva +España; and in Chile were joined by the Hungarian naturalist, Tadeo +Haenke (who, reaching Cádiz after their vessel sailed, was obliged +to sail to South America to meet them). From Acapulco they went to +Marianas and Filipinas; and journeyed (1791) through Luzón from +Sorsogón to Manila. Pineda labored diligently in Luzón, and made large +collections; but died at Badoc, in Ilocos, in 1792; his brother Arcadio +Pineda, who was first lieutenant of the ship, was charged to put in +order the materials collected by Antonio, but many of these were lost +on the return journey. Returning to South America, at Callao Haenke and +Née parted company; the former again traveled in America, but in the +vicissitudes of these journeys much of the material collected by him +was lost or spoiled. The residue was classified and described, after +his death, by the leading botanists of Europe, and this matter was +published in a work entitled Reliquiæ Haenkeane, seu descriptiones et +icones plantarum quæ in America meridionali et boreali in insulis +Philippinis et Marianis collegit Thaddeus Haenke, Philosophiæ Doctor, +Phytographus Regis Hispaniæ (Pragæ, 1825-35). Née went from Concepción, +Chile, overland to Montevideo, and thence to Spain; and in September, +1794, he reached Cádiz, with a herbarium of 10,000 plants, of which +4,000 were new ones. These were preserved in the Botanical Gardens at +Madrid, with more than 300 drawings. See Ramón Jordana y Morera's +Bosquejo geográfico é historico-natural del archipiélago filipino +(Madrid, 1885), pp. 356-358, 361; and José Gogorza y González's Datos +para la fauna filipina (Madrid, 1888), p. 2.--Eds. + +[38] The loftiest peak in Mindoro is Mount Halcón, said to be 8,800 +feet in height. The most prominent volcano in the archipelago is Mayón, +7,916 feet high, in Albay, Luzon; in Negros is another volcano, called +Canlaón, 8,192 feet high. In Panay the highest peak is Madiaás, 7,264 +feet; and in Mindanao is the loftiest peak in the entire archipelago, +the almost extinct volcano of Apo, which rises to 10,312 feet. See +the chapter on "Mountains and rivers," in Census of Philippines, i, +pp. 00-73.--Eds. + +[39] Le Gentil says (Voyage, ii, p. 29): "This animal [the hog] is so +common there that they even use its fat for sauces, ragouts, and fried +articles; for butter is not known in Manila, and there is very little +use of milk there. The Manilans doubtless find less difficulty (for in +that climate people are very fond of repose) in using pork fat in their +food than in rearing and keeping cattle and making butter. This sort +of food, joined to the heat and the great humidity of that country, +occasions serious dysentery in many persons." He adds (p. 123): +"The venereal disease (or 'French disease,' as they call it, I know +not why), is very common there [in Manila]; but they do not die from +it; the great heat and copious perspiration enable people to live at +Manila with this malady, they marry without being frightened at it, +and the evil passes by inheritance to their children; it is a sort of +heritage with which but few European families are not stained."--Eds. + +[40] Le Gentil thus speaks of the placer-mining practiced by the +Indians in Luzon (Voyage, ii, p. 32): "It is true that this sort +of life shortens the days of these wretched people; as they are +perpetually in the water, they swell, and soon die. Besides that, +the friars say that it is their experience that the Indians who lead +that sort of life have no inclination to follow the Christian life, +and that they give much trouble to the ministers of God who instruct +them. Despite that, it is to the friars and to the alcaldes that +these Indians sell their gold."--Eds. + +[41] In his "Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon," Worcester calls +attention to the various indefinite modes of using the word "tribe," +among ethnological writers, and proposes (p. 803) the following +definition as a means of securing clearness and accuracy therein: +"A division of a race composed of an aggregate of individuals of +a kind and of a common origin, agreeing among themselves in, and +distinguished from their congeners by, physical characteristics, +dress, and ornaments; the nature of the communities which they form; +peculiarities of house architecture; methods of hunting, fishing, and +carrying on agriculture; character and importance of manufactures; +practices relative to war and the taking of heads of enemies; arms +used in warfare; music and dancing, and marriage and burial customs; +but not constituting a political unit subject to the control of any +single individual nor necessarily speaking the same dialect." He adds: +"Where different dialects prevail among the members of a single +tribe it should be subdivided into dialect groups." He also says +(p. 798): "It was the usage of the Spaniards to designate as a tribe +each group of people which had a dialect, more or less peculiar, of +its own. Furthermore, the custom which is widespread among the hill +people of northern Luzon of shouting out the name of a settlement +when they desire to call for one or more persons belonging to it, +seems in many instances to have led the Spaniards to adopt settlement +names as tribal ones, even when there were no differences of dialect +between the peoples thus designated."--Eds. + +[42] The fullest and most authoritative account of the Negritos is, +of course, the monograph by W. A. Reed, The Negritos of Zambales, +published by the Philippine Ethnological Survey. See also Worcester's +account of them in his "Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon," +in Philippine Journal of Science, October, 1906, pp. 805 et seq.--Eds. + +[43] See Le Gentil, Voyage aux Indes. + +[44] Is not this, or something resembling it, a custom of the natives +of Australasia? + +[45] See Herrera and Ant. de Solis, Hist. of Mexico. + +[46] The negro of the east appears to have amalgamated with some other +family. On the south coasts of Australasia, they resemble in many +points the people just described. This continues to be the case as far +as Cape Capricorn. To the northward of this, as far as Murray's Islands +in Torres Straits, they are a stout, tall, athletic race of men, [46-A] +and as hairy on the face and body as Europeans, with long hair, and +without the negro cast of countenance. This race may be traced by +intervals to Ternate, Gilolo, &c., where they are called Harraforas; +[46-B] but none are found in the Phillippines (unless the Ylocos have +some relationship to them). Is not the native of New Ireland and Queen +Charlotte's Islands too of this race? [46-C] The difference between +them is most striking. The one are dwarfish negroes, the others almost +black Europeans. Both are essentially different from the Malay family, +and not only so, but from each other (the native of Amboyna, I think, +forms the link between them) and this difference is apparently +anatomical, in the shape of the skull, facial angles, &c. + +We are as yet in the infancy of our knowledge of the origin of these +various families of the human race: like that of languages, it will +in all probability remain one more of conjecture than of fact; but it +is still a subject of deep interest. I have heard from respectable +authority, that the language of Cagayan, the most northern province +but one of the island of Luzon, the men of which are tail, stout, +olive-coloured, almost beardless, and proverbial for their mildness, +peaceable behaviour, and fidelity, so much resembles that of the +Sandwich islanders, that some of these at Manila found no difficulty +in making the Cagayan servants understand them! The province of Ylocos +is the next to this to the north, and forms the north coast of the +island. The Ylocos are black, short-bearded men, and noted for their +insubordination and dissipated character. + +[46-A] The writer of this memoir has, on the coast of New Holland, +between Cape Capricorn and Endeavour Straits, had occasion to know this +fact. A party of these savages attacked the captain and supercargo of +a vessel in which he was an officer, and they were repulsed only by +firearms. The account of them given by the supercargo, and indeed by +all the party attacked, uniformly agreed in describing them as the +finest made and strongest looking men possible. Their bodies were +also very hairy. + +[46-B] The term "Haraforas" is applied to the Subanos of Mindanao by +Captain Forrest; from his Voyage, pp. 266, 268, 271, 273, 278-282, we +obtain the following interesting and first-hand information about +that people: + +"The vassals of the Sultan, and of others, who possess great estates, +are called Kanakan. Those vassals are sometimes Mahometans, though +mostly Haraforas ["who are also called Subanos, or Oran Manubo," +p. 186]. The latter only may be sold with the lands, but cannot be sold +off the lands. The Haraforas are more opprest than the former. The +Mahometan vassals are bound to accompany their lords, on any sudden +expedition; but the Haraforas being in a great measure excused from +such attendance, pay yearly certain taxes, which are not expected from +the Mahometan vassals. They pay a boiss, or land tax. A Harafora family +pays ten battels of paly (rough rice) forty lb. each; three of rice, +about sixty lb.; one fowl, one bunch of plantains, thirty roots, +called clody, or St. Helena yam, and fifty heads of Indian corn. I +give this as one instance of the utmost that is ever paid. Then +they must sell fifty battels of paly, equal to two thousand pound +weight, for one kangan. So at Dory, or New Guinea, one prong, value +half a dollar, or one kangan, given to a Harafora, lays a perpetual +tax on him. Those vassals at Magindano have what land they please; +and the Mahometans on the sea coast, whether free or kanakan, live +mostly by trading with the Haraforas, while their own gardens produce +them betel nuts, coco nuts, and greens. They seldom grow any rice, +and they discourage as far as they can, the Haraforas from going to +Mindano, to sell the produce of their plantations. On the banks of +the Pelangy and Tamantakka, the Mahometans grow much rice. The boiss +is not always collected in fruits of the earth only. A tax-gatherer, +who arrived at Coto Intang, when I was there, gave me the following +list of what he had brought from some of Rajah Moodo's crown lands, +being levied on perhaps five hundred families. 2870 battels of paly, +of forty lb. each; 490 Spanish dollars; 160 kangans; 6 tayls of gold, +equal to 30 l [sterling]; 160 Malons: a cloth made of the plantain +tree, three yards long, and one broad. This last mentioned cloth is +the usual wear of the country women, made in the form of a Bengal +lungy, or Buggess [i.e., Bugis] cloth, being a wide sack without a +bottom; and is often used as a currency in the market. The currency +in most parts of the country, is the Chinese kangan, coarse cloth, +thinly woven, nineteen inches broad, and six yards long; the value at +Sooloo is ten dollars for a bundle of twenty-five sealed up; and at +Magindano much the same; but at Magindano dollars are scarce. These +bundles are called gandangs, rolled up in a cylindrical form. They +have also, as a currency, kousongs, a kind of nankeen, dyed black; +and kompow, a strong white Chinese linen, made of flax; of which +more particularly hereafter. The kangans generally come from Sooloo; +so they are got at second hand: for the Spaniards have long hindered +Chinese junks, bound from Amoy to Magindano, to pass Samboangan. This +is the cause of so little trade at Magindano, no vessels sailing +from Indostan thither; and the little trade is confined to a few +country Chinese, called Oran Sangly, and a few Soolooans who come +hither to buy rice and paly, bringing with them Chinese articles: for +the crop of rice at Sooloo can never be depended on. In the bazar, +or market, the immediate currency is paly. Ten gantangs of about +four pounds each, make a battel; and three battels (a cylindrical +measure, thirteen inches and five-tenths high; the same in diameter) +about one hundred and twenty pounds of paly, are commonly sold for +a kangan. Talking of the value of things here, and at Sooloo, they +say, such a house or prow, &c., is worth so many slaves; the old +valuation being one slave for thirty kangans. They also specify in +their bargains, whether is meant matto (eye) kangan, real kangan, +or nominal kangan. The dealing in the nominal, or imaginary kangan, +is an ideal barter. When one deals for the real kangans, they must +be examined; and the gandangs, or bundles of twenty-five pieces, are +not to be trusted, as the dealers will often forge a seal, having +first packed up damaged kangans. In this the Chinese here, and at +Sooloo, are very expert. The China cash at Magindano, named pousin, +have holes as in China. I found them scarce; their price is from one +hundred and sixty to one hundred and eighty for a kangan. At Sooloo +is coined a cash of base copper, called petis, of which two hundred, +down to one hundred and seventy, go for a kangan." + +"On Sooloo are no Haraforas. The Haraforas on Magindano make a strong +cloth, not of cotton, but of a kind of flax, very like what the Batta +people wear on the coast of Sumatra." "One day near Tubuan, a Harafora +brought down some paddy from the country: I wanted to purchase it; +but the head man of the village, a Magindanoer, would not permit him +to sell it me. I did not dispute the point; but found afterwards, the +poor Harafora had sold about three hundred pounds of paly for a prong, +or chopping knife." "They all seem to be slaves to the Magindano +people: for these take what they please, fowls or anything in the +house they like best; and if the owners seem angry, threaten to tie +them up, and flog them." "The inhabitants of this country [of the +Illanos] have generally their name from the lake [i.e., Lake Lanao] +on which they reside. The inlanders dwell chiefly towards the East, +where are said to be thirty thousand men, intermixed in many places +with the Haraforas, who seem to be the primitives of the island. On +the north coast of Magindano, the Spaniards have had great success, +in converting to Christianity those Haraforas. Their agreeing in one +essential point, the eating of hog's flesh, may, in a great measure, +have paved the way." + +"The Magindano people sell to the Haraforas iron chopping knives, +called prongs, cloth, salt, &c., for their rice and other fruits +of the earth. For the Haraforas dread going to sea, else they could +carry the produce of their lands to a better market. They are much +imposed on, and kept under by their Mahometan lords; and are all +tributary to the Sultan, or to some Rajah Rajah (noblemen) under +him. Their system proves thus the feudal." "The Haraforas are thinly +scattered; and, being all tributary, many together seldom stay long +at one place. This cannot be for want of water, pasture, or fertile +ground; as with the Tartars on the continent of Asia. On this island, +almost every spot is covered either with timber, brushwood, reeds, +or grass; and streams are found every where in abundance. Nor can it +be to avoid wild beasts; there are none on the island: a good cause +why deer, wild horses and other wild cattle are found in so many +parts of it. I suspect that the Haraforas are often so opprest that +some have wisely got inland, beyond the tax-gatherer's ken." + +Evidently Forrest and the writer of the Remarks had in mind two +different peoples, to whom they applied the term Haraforas. Crawfurd +explains this name (Dictionary Ind. Islands, p. 10) as a corruption of +Alforas; it is "not a native word at all, nor is it the generic name +of any people whatsoever. It is a word of the Portuguese language, +apparently derived from the Arabic article al, and the preposition +fora, 'without.' The Indian Portuguese applied it to all people +beyond their own authority, or who were not subdued by them, and +consequently to the wild races of the interior. It would seem to be +equivalent to the 'Indios bravos' of the Spaniards, as applied to the +wild and unconquered tribes of America and the Philippines."--Eds. + +[46-C] And that groupe to which Quiros, Mendana, or Torres gave the +name of "Yslas de Gente Hermosa"? [Still thus named on modern charts; +see Voyages of Quiros (Hakluyt Society's publications, London, 1904), +pp. xxiv, 217, 424, 431.--Eds. + +[47] Our author here confuses the Spanish name "Pintados" (literally, +"painted," referring to their tattooed bodies) with the native name, +"Bisayas," both being indifferently applied to the islands south +of Luzon.--Eds. + +[48] See Sir William Draper's dispatches at the siege of Manila. + +[49] Was it not by this system (the mita) that the mines and +plantations of Mexico were wrought? and Mexico,--that Mexico which +the Spaniards of Cortes in the 15th century called New Spain,--became +nearly a desert? + +[50] A higher and purer praise is due to this gentleman than having +written the work alluded to: it is that he acted on its spirit, and +first taught the "red man" to know himself as man, and (a far more +arduous undertaking), he taught the white man that his prosperity +was essentially connected with that of the native. The country +in which the foundations of our power were laid on such a basis, +should not have been given away like a ministerial snuff-box. [50-A] + +[50-A] Java was conquered by England in 1811, but was restored to +Holland five years later. During that time the island was governed +by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781-1826), who published a History +of Java (London, 1817); he was afterward governor of the English +settlements in Sumatra (1818-24), in both these posts ruling with +great ability and vigor and an enlightened and liberal mind. Gilbert +Elliot, Baron Minto, a noted English statesman, was governor-general +of India during 1807-13, and went with Raffles to Java to organize +its government.--Eds. + +[51] See Descripcion Geografica y Topografica de la Ysla de Luzon, +Por Don Yldefonso de Arragon, Parte IV. Prov. de la Pampanga, p. 3, +5, &c. The author is a colonel of engineers. [In 1818-20, he was +chief of the topographical bureau at Manila.--Eds.] + +[52] Ibid. + +[53] "Estos (Pueblos) aunque immediatos a las orillas de la mar, +estén libres de las invasiones de los Moros; la espesura de las +Manglares occulta y hace dificil la entrada, &c." + +"These (towns), though close to the sea shore, are free from the +invasions of the Moors (pirates); the thickness of the mangroves +conceal and render the entrances difficult." The writer is speaking of +towns, of which none are more than 20 miles from Manila!-- Descripcion +Geog. y Topograf. + +[54] The writer was once obliged to arm all his servants against 16 +soldiers with their muskets from a neighboring military post. The two +parties remained some minutes with their arms levelled at each other, +when a parley was begun, which ended the affair without bloodshed. The +origin of the quarrel was a dispute at cockfighting between his +servants and the soldiers. + +[55] Such are, for example, Nuestra Señora de Antipolo, about 20 miles +east of Manila, and the Santo Niño (Holy Child) of Zebû: to both of +these it is reckoned almost indispensable to make a pilgrimage: the +natives of Luzon to the first, which is about 25 miles from Manila; +and those of all the Bisayas or Southern Islands to the other. From +Antipolo [55-A] alone have been sent in a single year 180,000 dollars +as the produce of the masses! And the writer has conversed with +pilgrims from the province of Ylocos! In all cases of peril and +difficulty, a vow is made to one of these saints, which is seldom +left unfulfilled. The crew of a small vessel of men offered 54 dollars +for masses at the convent of St. Augustin (I think), on the day of the +feast del Santo Niño. + +[55-A] For detailed account of the shrine at Antipolo, its worship, +miracles, etc., see Murillo Velarde's Hist. de Philipinas, fol. +210v-229v; and in the engraved frontispiece to that work may be seen +a representation of the statue of the Virgin of Antipolo (see our +VOL. XLIV, opposite titlepage).--Eds. + +[56] This word is defined by the Standard Dictionary (New York, 1895) +as a Scottish slang word meaning "unlawful sexual intercourse." It is +apparently allied to the obsolete Northumbrian word "houghen-moughen," +meaning "greedy, ravenous"--see Wright's English Dialect Dictionary, +iii (London, 1902), p. 247.--Eds. + +[57] Nothing has stamped the character of the Manila Indian with +greater atrocity in the eyes of Englishmen, than their frequent +appeals to assassination (the knife) in cases of supposed or actual +wrongs. How long is it since dirks were laid aside, because useless, +in Scotland? When men cannot appeal immediately to a magistrate, +they appeal to themselves. Duels too are another kind of appeals of +the same sort. + +[58] "At Manila, therefore, a doctor [of law] is a species of +phenomenon, and many years pass without one of them being seen; in +two universities there is no doctor, while in 1767 there was but one +competitor for the doctoral of the cathedral. Yet it must be noted +that this competitor was a Mexican, and was not born in Manila. Of +what use, therefore, are two universities in this city? Would not a +single one be more than enough? One who knows Latin is greatly esteemed +in Manila, because that language is not common there, in spite of the +two universities which I have just mentioned; what is learned in those +institutions is very poor, and is only imperfectly understood. When +I arrived there, a great many persons asked me if I knew Latin, and +when I answered that I knew a little of it they apparently had after +that more respect for me. All the ancient prejudices of the schools +seem to have abandoned us of Europe only to take refuge at Manila, +where certainly they have long remained, for the ancient doctrine is +there in too good hands to give place to sound ideas of physics. Don +Feliciano Marqués often honestly confessed to me that in Spain they +were a hundred years behind France, in the sciences; and that at +Manila they were a hundred years behind Spain. One can judge, by +that, of the present state of physics at Manila, in the midst of +two universities. In that city electricity is known only by name, +and the Holy Office of the Inquisition has prohibited experiments +in that line. I knew there a Frenchman, a surgeon by profession, +a man of parts and of inquiring mind, who was threatened with the +Inquisition for having tried to make such experiments; but I think +that what really drew upon him this ill-fortune was the experiment +of the "little friar." [This simple experiment in physics was made +with a little figure resembling a friar; it had never before been +seen in Manila, and everybody ran to look at it and laugh.] "This +experiment of the surgeon, who made his little friar dance, and +sometimes sink to the bottom of the vial by way of correcting him, +drew upon him the displeasure of the entire body of religious with +whom Manila swarms; there was talk of the Holy Office, and it was said +that the surgeon's experiment was a case for the Inquisition. The +surgeon, therefore--whose only intention in the experiment was to +vex the friars who had prevented him from making his experiments in +electricity--was compelled to cease his pleasantry, and Manila had to +express its detestation of the pleasure that it had taken in seeing the +experiment." [The author was visited by many people at his observatory, +who desired to see the sun and the planets through his telescope;] +"the women were even more curious than the men about the rare things +which I showed them, and which I took pleasure in explaining to them; +but not a single religious came to visit my observatory." (Le Gentil, +Voyage, ii, pp. 96, 97.)--Eds. + +[59] See El Yndio Agraciado (The aggrieved Indian), a +pamphlet published at Manila in 1821, but suppressed by order of +government. [59-A] + +[59-A] Pardo de Tavera says of this pamphlet, in his Biblioteca +Filipina, p. 146: "It attacks one Don M. G., a Philippine Spaniard, +who was allowed to propose a plan of studies which was not much +to the liking of the Filipino Indians. As appears by the title of +this pamphlet, there existed in Manila at that time a publication +(probably weekly) called El noticioso Filipino. [See also Tavera's +account of this sheet, at foot of the same page, which he regards +as the first periodical which appeared in Manila]. Doubtless the +former was the doing of some friar, who took the name of 'Indian' +in order to express himself more freely."--Eds. + +[60] This distinction should never be lost sight of. The Indian of +Manila, from whom strangers generally form their estimate of this +people, is so mixed, that a genuine Indian (Malay) family is scarcely +to be met with; they are a mixture of Indian, Chinese, Japanese, +Mexican (from the troops), seamen of different nations, and Spaniards +besides, "Toutes les Capitales se ressemblent, et çe n'est pas d'eux +qu'il faut juger les moeurs d'un peuple quelconque." [60-A] --Rousseau. +Let it never be forgotten, too, that while the Indians of Manila, on +the 9th of October, 1820, were assassinating every foreigner within +their reach, the Indians of the country were saving those in their +power at the hazard of their lives! + +[60-A] That is, "All capital cities are alike, and it is not by them +that the morals of any people should be judged."--Eds. + +[61] The following statements regarding the native character +are made by Ramon Reyes Lala (The Philippine Islands, New York, +1899, pp. 80-87), himself a Filipino: "The first thing that +in the native character impresses the traveler is his impassive +demeanor and imperturbable bearing. He is a born stoic, a fatalist +by nature. This accounts for his coolness in moments of danger, +and his intrepid bearing against overwhelming odds. This feature +of the Malay character has often been displayed in the conflicts +of the race with the Europeans in the East Indies. Under competent +leadership the native, though strongly averse to discipline, can be +made a splendid soldier. As sailors, too, I do not believe they can +be equaled." "As a result of the stoicism of the native character, +he never bewails a misfortune, and has no fear of death." "Europeans +often seem to notice in them what they deem a lack of sympathy for +the misfortunes of others; but it is not this so much as resignation +to the inevitable." "The educated native, however, impregnated with +the bitter philosophy of the civilized world, is by no means so +imperturbable. While more keenly alive to the sufferings of others, +he is also more sensitive to his own sorrows." "Incomprehensible +inconsistencies obtain in nearly every native. Students of character +may, therefore, study the Filipinos for years, and yet, at last, have +no definite impression of their mental or moral status. Of course, +those living in the cities are less baffling to the physiognomist +and the ethnologist; for endemic peculiarities have been so rubbed +off or modified that the racial traits are not obvious. But observe +the natives, in their primitive abodes, where civilizing forces +have not penetrated! You will then be amazed at the extraordinary +mingling and clashing of antithetical characteristics in one and +the same person; uncertain as to whether the good or the bad may +be manifested. Like the wind, the mood comes and goes, and no one +can tell why. I myself, with all the inherited feelings, tastes, and +tendencies of my countrymen--modified and transmuted [by his education +and long residence in Europe and America], happily--have stood +aghast or amused at some hitherto unknown characteristic manifesting +itself in an intimate acquaintance; and after I had been for years, +too, wholly ignorant of his being so possessed or obsessed. And +after that, the same mental or moral squint would be displayed at +irregular intervals." "His indolence is the result of generations of +tropical ancestors. Besides, deprived by the Spaniards from all active +participation in affairs of the Government, and robbed of the fruits of +industry, all incentive to advancement and progress was taken away. He +therefore yields with composure to the crushing conditions of his +environment, preferring the lazy joys of indolence rather than labor +for the benefit of his oppressors. Naturally. Recent events, however, +show that, given the stimulant of hope, even the 'indolent natives' of +the Philippines can achieve and nobly dare. Some Spaniards also have +asserted that the Filipinos are naturally disloyal and treacherous, +and that their word is not to be depended on. Now, the whole world +knows that they have every reason to be disloyal to the Spaniard, +who has for centuries so cruelly oppressed them. The devotion to +the cause of freedom, however, which has recently made Rizal and +hundreds of others martyrs to Spanish cruelty, shows that they also +have the stuff that heroes are made of, and that they ran be loyal to +an animating principle." "Though calm, the native is not secretive, +but often loquacious. He is naturally curious and inquisitive, but +always polite, and respectful withal--especially to his superiors. He +is passionate, and, in common with all half-civilized races, is +cruel to his foes. The quality of mercy, like the sentiment--as +distinguished from the passion--of love, is perhaps more the product +of the philosophy of civilization than a natural attribute of the +human heart." "All travelers unite in attributing to the natives +extreme family affection. They are very fond of their children; who, +as a rule, are respectful and well-behaved. The noisy little hoodlums +of European and American cities are utterly unknown. The old are +tenderly cared for, and venerated; while in almost every well-to-do +household are one or two poor relatives who, while mere hangers-on, +are nevertheless made welcome to the table of their host. Indeed, the +hospitality of the Filipinos is proverbial. A guest is always welcome, +and welcome to the best. As a rule, the people are superstitious and +very credulous; but how could they be otherwise? For three hundred +years they have been denied even the liberty of investigation; when no +light, save the dim glimmer of priestcraft pierced the utter darkness +of their lot. Those that have been educated, however, have proved +apt converts--only too apt, say the priests and the Spaniards--to the +conclusions of science and of modern research. The native is rarely +humorous, and seldom witty. He is not easily moved to anger, and when +angry does not often show it. When he does, like the Malay of Java, +he is prone to lose all control of himself, and, with destructive +energy, slays all in his path. This is infrequent, however, but is a +contingency that may occur at any time. If a native has been unjustly +punished, he will never forget it, and will treasure the memory of his +wrong until a good opportunity for revenge presents itself. Like all +courageous people, he despises cowardice and pusillanimity. He has, +therefore, but little regard for the meek and humble Chinaman, who +will pocket an insult rather than avenge himself. He greatly esteems +the European, who is possessed of the qualities which he admires, +and will follow him into the very jaws of death. He is easily awed +by a demonstration of superior force, and is ruled best by mild but +firm coercion, based upon justice. He is not often ambitious, save +socially, and to make some display, being fond of ceremony and of the +pomp and glitter of a procession. He is sober, patient, and always +clean. This can be said of few peoples. He easily adjusts himself to +new conditions, and will soon make the best of their surroundings. As +servants they are honest, obedient, and will do as they are told. It +must be said that they enjoy litigation more than is good for them or +for the best interests of the colony. There must be some psychological +reason for this. It doubtless gives some play to the subtlety of the +Oriental mind. It is said that he lacks the sense of initiative, and +to some extent this may be true. The recent conduct of Aguinaldo--a +full-blooded native--proves, notwithstanding, that he is not wholly +deficient in aggressiveness nor in organizing power." + +Lala adds (pp. 157, 158): "I have talked with many rude, untutored +natives that, frankly, astonished me with the unwitting revelation +of latent poetry, love of imagery, and spiritual longings in their +nature."--Eds. + +[62] Such is, although in somewhat varying degree, the condition of +half-caste classes everywhere. A vivid picture of their condition +in India, which may illustrate that of the mestizos in Filipinas, +is found in a book entitled That Eurasian (Chicago, 1905), by "Aleph +Bey," the pseudonym of an American writer who had spent many years in +India; he depicts, in terms both vigorous and pathetic, the origin, +difficulties, and degraded condition of the Eurasians (or half-castes) +there, and the oppression and cruel treatment which they encounter +from the dominant white class.--Eds. + +[63] "To be born in Spain was enough to secure one marked tokens of +respect; but this advantage was not transmitted. The children who first +saw the light in that other world no longer bear the name of chapetons, +which honored their fathers; they become simply creóles." (Raynal, +Etablissemens et commerce des Européens, ii, p. 290.)--Eds. + +[64] I am perhaps not quite correct here. [Mas states (Informe, ii, +"Administration of Justice," p. 1), that the limit for civil suits +was 100 pesos fuertes.--Eds.] + +[65] It will be understood that these sureties have their share in +the advantages, that is plunder, which the Alcalde derives from the +government. This often amounts to 20, 30, or even 50,000 dollars +in three or four years--though at the time of their leaving Manila, +they are in debt to a large amount. It is but just to observe, that +there are some few honorable exceptions. + +[66] This is a typographical error; the reference to Comyn work is +on p. 13 of Remarks.--Eds. + +[67] Even from Spanish writers: see Zuniga's History, Morillo [i.e., +Murillo Velarde], and others. Le Gentil (who names his informants, +men of the first respectability), La Peyrouse, &c. Many public papers +of the government bear witness to these abuses. + +"El Alcalde de aqui Señor! (said an old Indian to the writer at +Zebú), le quitará los dientes de la boca a S. Md." "The Alcaldé here, +Sir!--He'll take the teeth out of your worship's mouth." This was +not too strong an expression. + +[68] They are well aware of the extent of their influence, and even at +times speak of it. "Si aqui manda su tropa el Rey, se vayan los Indios +al monte, pero si yo cerro las puertas de la Iglesia los tengo todos +a mis pies en veinte quatro horas." "If the king sends troops here, +the Indians will retire to the mountains and forests. But if I shut +the church doors, I shall have them all at my feet in twenty-four +hours," was the remark of an intelligent "frayle" to the writer. + +[69] Le Gentil says (Voyage, ii, p. 2): "Every order of religious has, +then, taken possession of these provinces, which they have, so to say, +shared among themselves. In some sort, they command therein, and they +are more kings than the king himself. They have been so shrewd as to +learn the dialects of the various peoples among whom they reside, and +not to teach the Castilian language to them; thus the religious are +absolute masters over the minds of the Indians in these islands."--Eds. + +[70] Those who can see only inquisitors in Catholic bishops will be +a little incredulous of one of them checking an attempt to convert +a Protestant! This happened to the writer, who found himself one +evening seated between an Indian clerigo and the bishop of Zebû, +an aged and most worthy prelate. The Indian father, to show his +zeal for the faith, attacked me on the subject of religion with +the usual arguments of ignorant friars, till I was on the point of +quitting the room to avoid answering. "My son," said the old prelate +to the Indian--"we are here to convert the Indians, not to annoy the +strangers who may visit us. I will send this gentleman some books, +and I doubt not they will duly prepare his mind to see the errors of +the Protestant church, and then we may hope for success with him!" + +[71] "Yo hé llorado de ansias de ver à un Europeo!" "How often has the +desire of seeing an European made me weep!" was the pathetic remark +of a most worthy minister to the writer of these remarks.--This man +had been 27 years on one small island! + +[72] "Insanity is the fashionable disease [at Manila], and a great +many persons are attacked by it; but it prevails more generally among +the women and the religious--the latter most of all, and they are very +subject to it. The life which they lead contributes greatly to this: +to be always shut up, in a climate so hot, eating scanty and poor food, +and much given to study; perhaps also there is some grief at finding +themselves banished and shut in so far away [from Spain]. All these +causes make the brain grow hot, and madness follows. Nearly all the +religious who go to the Philippines arrive there while young.... As for +the women, their natural infirmity may, at a certain age, conduce to +insanity, with which a great many are stricken." (Le Gentil, Voyage, +ii, pp. 130, 131.)--Eds. + +[73] They have already conducted them to scenes of the last indecency +and even bloodshed. See Martini's Hist. + +The Inquisition has been but little felt in the Philippines of late +years. A tribunal existed, but it was merely nominal, and held only +"in terrorem." It was not wanted as a political engine; and as a +religious one, there was little use for it amongst a people who will +believe any thing and every thing. The Grand Inquisitor, during the +last 25 years, is a man universally beloved!--the Padre Coro. + +[74] This is, according to Montero y Vidal (Archipiélago filipino, +p. 72), the name applied by Linnæus to the Caryota onusta of Blanco, +generally called cabonegro by the Spaniards (see VOL. XVIII, p. 177); +but the list of fiber plants in Official Handbook of Philippines +applies to that tree (p. 332) the name Caryota urens L. The natives +also make various sorts of wine and brandy from the sap of the +cocoanut palm (Cocos nucifera); see Delgado's Historia general, +pp. 645-648, 664.--Eds. + +[75] There is an instance (I think in the province of Pampanga) of +a negro tribe, who annually pay their tribute--but upon the express +condition that no missionaries are to be sent! + +[76] "Bulas." Surely this most absurd of all impositions on the +credulity of a people, should be abolished, or at least imposed in +a less objectionable manner. The "Bula de Cruzada" (originally a +contribution to the wars against the Infidels), for which is granted +permission to eat meat and eggs in Lent, or benefits to the souls +in purgatory ("Bula de Difuntos"), from the Pope is an article of +revenue to the king of Spain. His Most Catholic Majesty farms it to +one of his subjects, who rather than lose a rial of his bargain, will +sell them to Chinese, Turks, or Hindoos, if they are fools enough to +buy them, as the Chinese have been known to do for the souls of their +ancestors!--Quere: What has become of the original intention of these +precious documents? of which a modern Spanish author has remarked, +"Que es el papel mas caro y mas malo que se vende." It is the worst +and dearest paper that is sold, (Gallardo Dicc. Critico Burlesco). It +is, however, an indispensable condition to the performance of many +of the offices of religion to have the last published bull. See +Manila Almanack. + +[77] In 1810, the total of receipts was 1,466,610 dollars. + +[78] Such assertions demand some evidence in support of them. A very +recent case has occurred, wherein the colonel of a militia regiment +(of Chinese descent), having some dispute with a French gentleman, +and high words taking place, called up the guard stationed at his door, +it is supposed to flog him! The French gentleman having procured some +weapon, kept the whole guard at bay, together with their gallant +colonel. Muskets were levelled at him, and he probably would have +been assassinated, but for the interference of some of the family, +and his own firmness! Complaint was made of this, but no notice was +taken of it, nor was the gallant colonel's conduct thought at all +incorrect. On the contrary it was very generally applauded! + +[79] Large boats undecked, pulling from 20 to 30 oars; they carry a +four or six pounder and five or six swivels; they are fine boats and +sail fast. The gun-boats carry a long 24 or 32 pounder, and six or +eight swivels; and including marines, carry from 80 to 100 men. + +[80] For recent information on this subject, see chapter on agriculture +(revised by Frank Lamson-Scribner, chief of Bureau of Agriculture), +in Official Handbook of Philippines, pp. 99-126; and Census of +Philippines, iv, pp. 11-394, with full description of chief products +of the islands, methods of cultivation, lists of fruits, vegetables, +and fiber plants, and detailed statistics of production, lands, etc., +as well as of domestic animals of all kinds.--Eds. + +[81] The fish principally caught is one called Dalag (Blennius?) [81-A] +This fish, common I believe to many parts of India, presents some +phenomena well worth the attention of naturalists. In these extensive +plains, only a few pools remain in the dry season; and after the rains, +such multitudes of them are found, that they are caught with baskets +only. They weigh from one to two pounds, and are from one to two feet +in length; they are found in the rice fields, when these have been +overflowed a few weeks, and strange to relate, in the graves and vaults +of churches when in damp situations, but with little or no water near +them; this fact is related on respectable authority. The fish, though +not delicate, is good, and forms a valuable article of food for the +poor. + +[81-A] Montero y Vidal mentions this fish (Archipiélago filipino, +p. 107), as belonging to the genus Ophicephalus; it is "abundant +in the rivers, lakes, and pools." See also Official Handbook of +Philippines, pp. 151, 152.--Eds. + +[82] They, very unaccountably, neglected any steps to procure the +martin from Bengal or Cochin China. [82-A] This might, however, have +arisen from an idea that, as in the Isle of France, the martins might +have become as great a nuisance as the locusts; but surely the +introduction of some species of hawk would have obviated this. + +[82-A] Montero y Vidal says (Archipiélago filipino, p. 113) that the +family of Orthoptera, "leaf-eaters in their adult stage, are the most +fearful scourge for agriculture," perhaps the worst of these plagues +being the locust (Oedipoda manilensis; Spanish, langosta); "the +Indians use great nets to catch them, because not only the government +pays a bounty for a certain quantity of these destructive insects +which the natives may present, but they preserve the insects and use +them for food." He also states (p. 96) that a species of grackle +(Gracula) was imported from China (in the Hist. de Filipinas, ii, +p. 294, he mentions in the same connection martins [pájaros martines]) +to exterminate this pest; but does not mention the time or the result +of this experiment.--Eds. + +[83] See VOL. XLVIII, p. 96, note 37.--Eds. + +[84] This is the Viverra Musanga. [84-A] See Horsfield's Zoology of +Java. + +[84-A] Montero y Vidal states (Archipiélago filipino, pp. 86, 87) that +two species of carnivores, Paradoxurus philippinensis and P. musanga, +are dreaded by the coffee-planters; these creatures "spend the day in +holes dug in the ground, and go out at night to hunt their game." He +mentions, besides these, two species of civets, both of the genus +Viverra. Delgado says (p. 875) that he has never seen the miró +(Paradoxurus) except in the island of Leyte.--Eds. + +[85] Eight rials are a Spanish dollar. + +[86] The following are the common land measures in use at Manila: + +La Brasa de tierra is 8 feet 1.6-10 English, (from a new government +measure); 10,000 of these, or a square of 100 each way, is a Quinion. + + 10 Balitans is a Quinion + 10 Loanes is a Balitan + +Hence the Quinion contains 661511 16-144ths sq. ft. or 73501 2-9ths +sq. yds., [86-A] which, taking the Bengal bigha at 14400 sq. ft., +gives about 46 bigahs, or 15 acres English. + +[86-A] The quiñón = 2.79495 hectares = 6.89 acres. (Official Handbook +of Philippines, p. 294; Jagor's Reisen, p. xv.) Jagor has balístas +for balitans, and Mallat has baletas.--Eds. + +Their dry measure is as follows: + +8 Chupas, 1 Ganta.--25 Gantas, 1 Caban. + +I could not procure a sight of the standard. A mean measurement +of several new Gantas and Cabans (for they are all clumsily made, +though sold at a government office) gave as follows: + +The Caban, 4633 cubic inches English. + +The Ganta, 186,878 ditto. + +The mean of these two (for the first would give 185.72 to the Ganta) +is thus about 186 cub. inches to a Ganta, and 4650 to the Caban, +or 2 bushels and 1-6th Winchester measure. [86-A] + +[86-A] Since January 1, 1862, the caban of Manila (established +January 1, 1860) is regarded as the standard measure for all the +provinces. It measures exactly 75 liters, or, in cubical form, +422 mm., inside measure, or 5,990.96 Spanish cubic inches. (The +caban of 1859 contained 80.00919 liters.) A caban of rice weighs +128 to 137 Spanish pounds = 59 to 63 kilograms." (Jagor's +Reisen, p. xv.)--Eds. + +[87] The table here referred to is as follows: + +"Estimate of the cost and annual product of one cabalita of land +planted with sugar-cane in the province of Pampanga; to wit: + + + p. r. gr. + +For plowing the said land 6 times 1 4 +For breaking the clumps with the balsa 3 times 6 +For the surrounding fence and rattan 3 p. 5 r., and +three days' work 3 r. 9 gr. 4 9 +For 4,000 cane-shoots for planting, 1 p.; tracing the +lines and making the holes, 5 r.; two days' work at +planting, 2 r. 6 gr. 1 7 6 +For fencing twice more, and cutting out the grass 6 +For 14 moulds, at 1 1/2 r. 2 5 +For 1 1/2 tareas [= amount of mill's capacity at one +time], each of 14 loaves [pilones] of sugar, the amount +usually obtained, at 8 p. a tarea 12 + --------- + Total cost 23 5 3 + +Selling price of a loaf of sugar, averaging those of 2 6 6 +the three grades +Deduct cost of each loaf, at the rate of 1 6 1 + ========= + Net product, equivalent to 90 per cent profit 1 3 2" + + +Comyn gives similar tables for the production of indigo and +rice, estimating the net profit thereon at 57 and 60 per cent +respectively. He adds, on the margin of the sheet: "In favorable years +the profit of the grower is wont to increase in an extraordinary +manner. The 4,000 shoots of sugar-cane, for instance, yield him 3 +tareas, or 28 loaves of sugar, in place of the 14 loaves which were +figured in the comparative estimate preceding; the cavan of seed +yields 80 and even 100 cavans of rice in the hull, in place of the +35 computed; and he obtains a quintal of indigo from 15, or even +from 10, balsadas, instead of 25 being necessary for furnishing +the said product. And if the grower is fairly well-to-do, so that +he can send his produce to the general market, and sell it to the +foreign merchants or ship-captains who come for these products, he +can obtain incomparably more for them than by delivering them upon +the ground to the middlemen. At Manila I have seen indigo from La +Laguna sold at the rate of 130 pesos a quintal for extra fine grade, +and at 100 pesos for the usual quality; sugar, at 4p. 5r. a loaf; +and palay (or rice in the hull) at 3 pesos; but I have preferred to +limit myself to a low rate in the selling price which I have assigned +to the aforesaid products in the preceding estimates, in order to +demonstrate more thoroughly the advantages which agriculture offers +in Filipinas, and at the same time to conform to practical experience +in the formation of estimates of this sort." Cf. similar estimates +by Mallat (Philippines, ii, pp. 256-281.--Eds. + +[88] Pilones are large bell-shaped moulds, from 2 to 2 1/2 feet high, +and 1 1/2 broad. + +[89] Some of their voyages are most curious. One or more of the +principal men in a village, sometimes 15 or 20 of them, join to build +a small "parao." On this they embark with their harvest in sugar, +cacao, wax, &c., sell it at Manila, and return to their village; +there the accounts are settled, and the return cargo distributed; +after which a feast is held, and the Santo duly thanked for the good +markets of this year, and asked for better next. All parties then +visit the vessel, which they pull to pieces! every man carrying a +piece home with him--to take care of till next season, when they are +all sewed together for another trip. + +[90] At the present time there are six varieties of sugar-cane in +Filipinas; of these, the purple is considered the best, and is more +generally cultivated in the Visayas; the white and the green are +almost exclusively restricted to some provinces of Luzon and the +rural districts near Manila; the other kinds are cultivated sparingly +and in few places. The sugar manufactured in the islands is "made in +pilones (which includes nearly all from Luzon), and the granulated, +which is the kind that has been adopted in the Visayan islands and in +some Luzon plantations." The pilon weighs a quintal; the granulated +is put up in sacks (known as bayones, containing two and a half +arrobas of sugar. (José R. de Luzuriaga, in Census of Philippines, +iv, pp. 26, 27).--Eds. + +[91] These last, by a royal Cedula (ordonnance), are only admitted +into the island as cultivators. This, like almost every ordonnance +of His Catholic Majesty, relative to this country, is disregarded; +and the Chinese are almost all shopkeepers, or petty merchants. Were +an impartial account of the administration of these islands to be +presented to the king of Spain, it might begin thus: "Sire,--Not +one of your Majesty's orders are executed in your kingdom of the +Philippines." [91-A] + +[91-A] Cf. similar statements by Viana (letter to Carlos III) +and Anda (Memorial), in VOL. L.--Eds. + +[92] This case actually occurred to one of the most respectable +military officers in the Spanish service, now a captain in the Queen's +Regiment, whose name is Don M---- de O----. This gentleman, a man +of high spirit, and one of the few Spaniards in Manila who are an +ornament to their profession, bearing the king's commission, and in +pursuit of the robbers, suddenly fell in with a noted chief of them, +when accompanied only by a piquet of infantry. The robber knew him, +and with a gallantry worthy of a better cause, defied him to single +combat! With true chivalric spirit, the challenge was instantly +accepted; and orders given to the piquet not to interfere on pain +of their lives. A desperate conflict ensued, in which the gallant +Spaniard was at length victorious, and the robber's head was sent +through the country in triumph. Shall the sequel be told? When he +returned to Manila, with the blessing of every honest native for +having cleared that part of the country of robbers, a subject of +prosecution was found in this service by those numerous enemies which +every honest man has in a country like this, and on some frivolous +pretext of having (unavoidably) fired into a cottage, and killed or +wounded some innocent persons. He could not stoop to flatter or bribe; +and it was with the utmost difficulty, and rather by the exertions +of his friends than by his own, that after suffering a long series +of vexations, he was saved from ruin! + +[93] Manufactured, I think, from the Urtica nevea of Linn. [93-A] + +[93-A] See our VOL. XXII, p. 279. In regard to cultivation and +preparation of abacá, see Jagor's Reisen, pp. 245-256; Mallat, +Philippines, pp. 279, 280; Census of Phil., iv, pp. 14-24.--Eds. + +[94] Mimosa saponaria? [94-A] + +[94-A] This plant (variously known to the natives as gogong, gogo, +bayogo, and balogo) is a leguminous climbing plant, Entada scandens +(Official Handbook of Philippines, pp. 367, 384). Blanco (Flora, +pp. 247, 248) praises its detergent qualities, especially for bathing +purposes, as even superior to the soap of Europe; and says that it is +also used medicinally for asthma, and as a purgative, and that the +Indians place dry pieces of its wood in their jars of cacao-beans to +keep away worms. He states that it is also named Mimosa scandens by +some writers.--Eds. + +[95] Tíndalo is the native name of the Afzelia (or Eperua) +rhomboidea, a leguminous tree highly valued for its durable and +beautiful timber. Mangachapuy, Vatica (or Dipterocarpus) mangachapoi, +furnishes a timber especially used for shipbuilding and other work +which must resist sun and rain. (Official Handbook, pp. 352, 357; +Blanco, Flora, pp. 260, 261, 281, 313.)--Eds. + +[96] It is said by the Indians. + +[97] Perhaps Boa hortulana? [97-A] + +[97-A] See our VOL. XII, p. 259; and XXIX, p. 301. Dahon-palay is +Dryimus nasutus (Montero y Vidal, Archipiélago filipino, pp. 103, +104). See also Official Handbook, p. 149; and Worcester's Philippine +Islands, p. 514.--Eds. + +[98] Many years ago, a complete set of forging machinery was sent out +on speculation; it was sold as old iron, for no one of course would +speculate in mines, when they could with so much more ease obtain +100 per cent. for their capital in the trade to Acapulco. + +[99] That is, "to reduce them to a desert, in order to assure her +empire over them."--Eds. + +[100] "By a royal decree of February 2, 1800, the residence of +foreigners in Filipinas was forbidden. This mandate was renewed by +royal decrees of September 3, 1807, and July 31, 1816." (Montero y +Vidal, Hist. de Filipinas, ii, p. 360.)--Eds. + +[101] Perhaps much of this may be traced to the avaricious spirit of +the early adventurers, and to the cruelties of the Buccaneers; and +thus what might have been only a local, became from habit a national +principle; though "soy Cristiano viejo" [i.e., "I am an old-time +Christian"], was always the surest passport amongst an intolerant +people, with whom "filosofo" is yet an epithet of reproach. + +[102] Something of this is more or less visible in the colonial policy +of almost all countries; but that those have been the most flourishing +who have acted on the broad and liberal principle of "Ubi dives, ibi +patria" [i.e., "where wealth is, there is my country"] (a humiliating +but correct estimate, not only of the bulk of colonial adventurers, +but of mankind in general), will scarcely be questioned. The Havannah +is a splendid example. In 1780, strangers were rigorously prohibited, +or at least loaded with restrictions; an enormous smuggling trade +was carried on, and the island did not pay its own expenses. In +1820, when the prohibitory system had been long annihilated, and +strangers allowed free intercourse and establishment, its trade had +increased a hundred-fold; and not only did it suffice for its own, +much more expensive establishments; but, both directly and indirectly, +contributed large sums to the mother country, though at the first +epoch, the profits on colonial capital were at least 30 per cent. more +than at the last. + +[103] "We have been told, that we must not sit under the shade of +our own vines and olives! that we must not pluck the fruits from the +trees which our fathers have planted!--and why--lest the merchants +of Cadiz should be deprived of their profits in supplying us with +wine and oil."--From a Chilian manifesto, published soon after the +declaration of independence. + +[104] A valuable study of "The Spanish colonial system" is furnished +by the chapter under that heading in Wilhelm Roscher's Kolonien, +Kolonial-politik und Auswanderung (Leipzig, 1885), an English +translation of which is published by Prof. E. G. Bourne (New York, +1904), with some additional annotations. See also "The colonial kingdom +of Spain," in Helmolt's History of the World (New York, 1902), which +is praised by Bourne as an excellent and scholarly study by Konrad +Häbler; but unfortunately the American edition of that work does not +name the author of the above section. Bourne also treats this subject +in a chapter of his Spain in America (New York, 1904), pp. 220-242, +and at pp. 355, 356, gives a helpful list of authorities thereon.--Eds. + +[105] "Ecclesiastical foundations and obras pías were, it may be +said, innumerable. From the richest city to the smallest village, +from one extreme of the Peninsula to the other, and even to the +farthest boundaries which the monarchy reached in the period of its +greatest grandeur, the acts of Christian piety are seen in various +foundations. These include not only hermitages, confraternities, +memorials, charitable foundations, and chaplaincies,--which by +themselves alone made a total of enormous wealth--but more pretentious +establishments, as convents, cathedrals, parish churches, and colleges; +and any person will be surprised at those which were supported by some +towns which in their present condition are reduced in population and +poor. Larruga in his memoirs states that Toledo had 25 parish churches +and its cathedral, 39 convents, 14 hospitals, and four colleges, +in all, 83 foundations. Salamanca had more; Cuenca had 31, Avila 31, +Almagro 17, and so with the other cities of Castilla." Among these +pious gifts were "the exchanges of Barcelona, Sevilla, and Valencia, +the colleges of Salamanca, that of Santa Cruz of Valladolid," and many +cathedrals and convents. (Arias y Miranda, Examen crítico-histórico, +p. 139.)--Eds. + +[106] At one of them (I believe that of Santa Clara), the sculls of the +seven founders are placed on the table at which the trustees meet!--but +this, it is said, does not exempt the funds from being misapplied. + +[107] It was not uncommon for a person worth ten thousand dollars +to borrow 40 more from the public funds. Of these about 25 or 30,000 +were shipped, and the remainder kept at home. If the ship was lost, +the accounts were settled; and if she came back, the interest was +always repaid,--which of course entitled them to borrow again, till a +fortunate loss made them independent. And where every body did this, +no one thought it incorrect. + +[108] It is not here meant to controvert the principle of this kind of +commerce being at times the most lucrative that can be carried on; but +to remark, that had it not been for the strange system of trading just +described, the restrictive system, and the monopoly of the Phillippine +Company, the activity and ingenuity of private traders would have +discovered other branches of commerce, and with them, that their +own produce might suffice to pay for the piece goods of Bengal. As +an instance, the English and every other nation of Europe have for +a century carried betel-nut to China, but from the Phillippines not +a nut was exported--it was a royal monopoly! and the merchants and +growers were thus deprived of about half a million of dollars annually, +that the king might pocket 30,000. Many other instances might be cited. + +[109] The boletas "long did duty as paper money, passing from hand +to hand." (Lala, Philippine Islands, p. 177.)--Eds. + +[110] "Aunque a Mexico llevan diablos cornudos siempre ganan dinero" +(Though they should carry horned devils to Mexico, they would make +money by them), was the gruff observation of an old soldier to the +writer. The trade could not have been better characterized; for the +very topmen and cabin servants crammed their departments full of goods +of all kinds; and it was a very common thing to heave to, to clear +the decks in the Bay of Manila. The "Timoneles" (quarter-masters) +had always servants! + +[111] The revolt of Mexico from Spain began in 1810, but independence +was not accomplished until 1821. The first constitution of the republic +of Mexico was proclaimed on October 4, 1824.--Eds. + +[112] A ship was dispatched from Manila in 1821, and another freighted: +this last as an English ship; both were on account of the Company. + +[113] The first constitution of Spain was promulgated on March 19, +1812, during the Napoleonic invasion of that country. Fernando VII +had been displaced on the throne by Joseph Bonaparte for a time, but +the latter fled from Madrid, at Wellington's approach with an English +army, and Fernando (who had been imprisoned in France since 1808) +was restored to Spain as its king, returning in March, 1814. After +long-continued struggles with the Liberal party, Fernando restored +absolutism in that country in 1823, with the aid of a French army; +and the Constitution was overthrown until after Fernando's death +in 1833.--Eds. + +[114] To account for the enormous difference, it will be sufficient +to observe, that the Acapulco ships alone smuggle from 1-4th to 1-3d +of their cargo (treasure) on shore--that opium which is prohibited, +is smuggled to a considerable amount, as is also treasure, particularly +gold, to avoid paying the import duties. With respect to the exports, +the Chinese alone smuggle nearly a million annually, and no notice +is taken in the account of treasure exported to Bengal in bars. + +[115] Comyn briefly sketches this domestic commerce (pp. 43-45), +but in vague and indefinite terms, save for the following paragraph: +"Besides the traffic founded on the ordinary consumption, and the +necessity of being furnished with goods both domestic and foreign in +order to supply the fairs known by the name of tianguis, which are +held weekly in almost all the villages, there is also a species of +traffic peculiar to the rich Indians and Sangley mestizos (who are an +industrious class, and own the greater part of the ready money). This +consists in buying up beforehand the harvests of indigo, sugar, rice, +etc., with the aim of afterward dictating the prices when they resell +those products to him who buys at second hand."--Eds. + +[116] Large, heavy swords, which some of them wield with great +dexterity. + +[117] They have some few brigs and schooners, but the number of these +is not much more than 20. + +[118] "The Hong merchants (Chinese) were twelve in number, licensed by +government as intermediate agents in trade, between foreign merchants +and the Chinese people, becoming responsible for the good conduct +of the former, and, at the same time, securing to the Emperor the +payment of all maritime duties." (Allen, Opium Trade, p. 45.)--Eds. + +[119] Dr. Nathan Allen, in a pamphlet entitled The Opium Trade (Lowell, +Mass., 1853), presents a history of this traffic, describes its results +in both China and India, and protests against its continuance. He +states that opium, originally a native of Persia, spread thence into +Turkey and India, being cultivated more extensively in the latter +country than anywhere else in the world. In 1767 the British East India +Company formed the plan of sending opium from Bengal to China, where +but little of this drug had previously been sold; but they had little +success in this until 1794, when they began a traffic which lasted +some twenty-five years at the ports of Whampoa and Macao. In 1821, +the opium merchants abandoned these places, on account of difficulties +encountered in their trade, and centered it at Lintin Island, in the +bay at the entrance to Canton River, where it rapidly increased. "Here +might be seen large armed vessels reposing, throughout the year, at +anchor, constituting a floating depot of storehouses, for receiving +the opium in large quantities from the ships bringing it from India, +and dealing it out in chests and cases to the Chinese junks, to be +retailed at various points on shore. The Merope, Capt. Parkyns, in +1821, was the first ship that commenced the system of delivering opium +at different cities along the coast of China, and from that time, +the trade increased with wonderful rapidity. Eligible places also +on the east and north-east coast of China were selected to station +receiving vessels, to which the Chinese might easily have access, and +become participators in the trade." Allen cites many contemporary and +high authorities. Among these, James Holman says, in 1830 (Travels in +China, p. 162), that the opium boats "are but seldom interfered with, +nor are they likely to be, so long as the Free Traders can afford to +pay the mandarins so much better for not fighting, than the government +will for doing their duty. The use of opium has become so universal +among the people of China, that the laws which render it penal, and +the proclamations which send forth their daily fulminations against +its continuance, have not the slightest effect in checking the +prevalence of so general a habit. Smoking houses abound in Canton; +and the inhabitants of every class who can furnish themselves with +the means to obtain the pipe, are seldom without this article of +general luxury. It is a propensity that has seized upon all ranks and +classes, and is generally on the increase." From the year 1800, the +Chinese government tried to stop this traffic, strictly prohibiting +the importation of opium; but foreign merchants paid no attention to +this, and forced the trade on the Chinese people. In 1839, a Chinese +official destroyed, by command of the emperor, over 20,000 chests +(worth $12,000,000) of the drug at Canton; this led to a war with +England, commonly known as "the Opium War." The resulting treaty +of peace compelled the Chinese to open five ports to British trade +and residence, to cede the island of Hong-kong to Great Britain--at +which place the opium trade then centered; and in 1845 the British +authorities licensed twenty shops to sell opium at retail--and to pay +heavy indemnities not only to the English government and the merchants, +but for the opium destroyed, which had been legally confiscated by +the emperor as contraband goods. The Chinese commissioners objected, +but were threatened with renewed hostilities if they persisted, +and they had to yield. During the past year negotiations looking +to a cessation of the opium traffic have been carried on between +Great Britain and China. The following also shows the recent growth +of the drug in China. "As for the gums from the Indias, the Chinese +physicians and surgeons make hardly any use of them. I do not think +that in an entire year there is used in Pekin a half-livre of opium +(which they call Yapien); its place is supplied by using the white +poppy." (Father Parennin, in a letter dated September 20, 1740; +Lettres édifiantes, ed. 1811, t. xxii, p. 274.)--Eds. + +[120] One of the great drawbacks on the profits of the voyages from +Europe since 1814 has been, that no light goods of value were to +be obtained. An American, in 1816, remained 16 months to obtain two +crops of indigo, and bought all to be got in the market. She made an +excellent voyage, even with this heavy expense. + +[121] At this point in the book (namely, facing p. 82) is a plan +of Manila entitled "Plano de la ciudad de Manila, capital de las +Yslas Filipinas," which shows the city and its suburbs; and a +second illustration showing, first, "View of Manila from the plain +of Bagumbayan," and second, "View of Manila from the sea." The plan +of Manila is from a Spanish source.--Eds. + +[122] Generally, but incorrectly written, "Manilla." + +[123] Under this title is included not only the Phillippines from the +Bashees and Babuyanes to Mindanao, but also from Palawan on the west +to the Carolinas on the east. + +[124] It has no ditch on this side. + +[125] A covert from an enemy's fire, but not intended for defense +with guns; composed of gabions or bags filled with earth, or of earth +heaped up.--Eds. + +[126] Le Gentil states (Voyage, ii, pp. 103, 104) that Arandía was +hated by the friars because he desired to demolish two churches outside +the walls of Manila; these were so solid, and equipped with towers, +and so near the walls, that they were a source of great danger to +the city if they should fall into an enemy's hands. "I have been +assured that the friars raised the cry of heresy against M. Arandía, +and that they talked of nothing less than excommunicating him; but his +death stopped all that. This zealous governor actually died in 1760, +before he had effected his project; but his death was not regarded as +natural." When the English appeared before Manila, Arandía's loss was +regretted, when it was too late. The English demolished the aforesaid +churches and their towers, for their own safety.--Eds. + +[127] That is, elevated so as to fire over the top of a parapet.--Eds. + +[128] This place was afterward occupied (1824?) by "a statue of Carlos +IV, in bronze, a true work of art, cast in Manila. It was erected in +recognition of his having ordered the conveyance [to the islands] +of vaccine virus, transmitted from arm to arm, for which purpose +exclusively he arranged for the departure of a ship from Méjico, which +reached Manila on April 15, 1805." (Montero y Vidal, Archipiélago +filipino, p. 301.) The same writer says (Hist. de Filipinas, ii, +p. 388): "The benefits produced by vaccination among the natives, +always so harassed by that pest [of smallpox], were evident," and +Folgueras made strenuous efforts to secure its propagation throughout +the country. He also gave orders that the dead should not be interred +within the churches, a measure which drew upon him hostilities and +annoyances from the religious." The Plaza Mayor, where the above +statue stands, is now called Plaza McKinley.--Eds. + +[129] And yet the ignorant natives ascribed the pest of cholera, +which caused such ravages in Manila in 1820, to the poisoning of their +wells by foreigners. A French physician, Dr. Charles L. Benoit, who +arrived at Manila at that time, and spent four years there, states, +in his Observacións sobre el cólera morbo espasmodico (Madrid, 1832) +that in this belief the Indians, usually so humble and religious, +then committed innumerable crimes. See account of their massacre of +foreigners, pp. 39-45, ante.--Eds. + +[130] The brethren devote themselves to the care of the sick, and +perform their duties most honourably and zealously; so much so, that +the refectory is often supplied with little but rice for their own +dinners. The other orders are richly endowed, and fare sumptuously--but +they are more a-la-mode. + +[131] These plates are obtained from the shell of the Placuna placenta, +a mollusk; they are generally used in place of window-glass, and by +their partial opacity modify the effects of the sun's heat.--Eds. + +[132] This would appear a vulgar interpretation of a popular custom; +but from this charge the writer will be exonerated, when it is known, +that should a person yawn, he devoutly makes the sign of the cross +before his mouth, while it continues open, to--keep the devil from +him! Ex pede elephantem [i.e., "By the foot-print, one recognizes +the elephant"]. + +[133] "When the terrible epidemic which Manila had suffered came to an +end, the municipal council caused a fine cemetery to be constructed in +the village of San Fernando de Dilao, commonly called Paco." (Montero +y Vidal, Historia de Filipinas, ii, p. 457.)--Eds. + +[134] La Peyrouse, when speaking of the public flagellants in the +Passion week, did not, I believe, do so; but though superstitious +enough, this practice is no longer continued in the present day. + +[135] "Thank God! I am of a noble family!"--And if they are told, +"Well, but if you have nothing to eat?" "Me hago frayle," "Well, +I can be a friar," is the answer. + +[136] Le Gentil says (Voyage, ii, pp. 116, 117) that the Jesuits +decided that the use of chocolate was admissible on fast days, +consequently these were no mortification to most of the people.--Eds. + +[137] "This is no country for an honest man"--a remark quoted, too, +I think, by Le Gentil. + +[138] Cervantes, whose keen but justly merited satire on many of the +failings of his countrymen, is only equalled by his beautiful eulogies +on many of their excellencies, has aptly described the composition +of their colonies in his day. + +"To the Indies--the refuge and resource of despairing Spaniards--asylum +of rebels--protector of homicides--receptacle of gamblers (called by +some knowing ones)--common decoy for women of loose characters--the +deceiver of many, and remedy of few."--Novela del Zeloso Estnemeno +[i.e., "The jealous Estremaduran"]. + +[139] Andaluces: natives of Andalusia province. Montañeses: +appellation of the dwellers in the hill-country of Santander province, +Spain. Serviles (literally "those who are servile or fawning"): a +political epithet applied to the Monarchists or Absolutists. Liberales: +the Liberals in politics, much as that term is used at the present +time. Le Gentil describes (Voyage, ii, p. 109) the clannishness and +provincialism of the Spaniards in Manila.--Eds. + +[140] This is not an isolated opinion; and in corroboration, it will +be sufficient to mention, that upwards of 3/4ths of all the disposable +Spanish property in the country has been sent out of it. This fact is +a volume in itself. Since this was written, two serious commotions +have taken place, in the latter of which the conspirators obtained +possession of the city, which was regained by storming. [140-A] + +[140-A] Reference is here made to the rebellion incited by Novales in +1823; see account of it on pp. 47-48, ante.--Eds. + +[141] The great length of this document obliges us to summarize +passages of lesser importance; but as much of the author's exact +language has been retained as possible. + +[142] Bernaldez refers to the massacre of foreigners in 1820, and +the mutiny under Novales in 1823, both of which are related in the +first document of this volume. + +[143] In the Archivo general de Indias at Sevilla is a MS. map, drawn +(June 20, 1773) by the government engineer at Manila, Miguel A. Gomez, +showing "portion of the site on the river of Tanay, indicating the plan +of the iron-works for casting anchors and artillery, and the shop for +casting the small iron articles which are called in the Philippine +archipelago cauas--which are equivalent to kettles, boilers, and +frying-pans, and which the Chinese or Sangleys manufacture with so +great skill and dexterity." Gomez estimated that this establishment +would cost "at least 175,000 pesos, without reckoning the cost of +the dwelling-houses" for officials, artisans, and laborers. + +[144] The native name for the annotto (Bixa orellana), the seeds of +which produce a yellow substance used for coloring cheese, butter, etc. + +[145] Polizon: "a person who embarks by stealth and without a passport, +in the ships which sail to America." (Dominguez.) + +[146] "The association of the Audiencia with the governor began +in 1527, with Cortes, as the court recognized the impossibility +of controlling so great a hero by means of a single, and perhaps +insignificant, man. (Roscher, Spanish Colonial system, Bourne's ed., +p. 24, note 5.) + +[147] The writer here adds: "This exportation is of very little +importance in the markets of Asia, where the more usual and cheaper +beverage for the people is Rak [English, "arrack"], or wine made +from rice." + +[148] In 1853 a pamphlet was published at Madrid, written by Sinibaldo +de Mas, entitled, Articulo sobre las rentas de Filipinas y los medios +de aumentarlas," written for the Boletin Oficial of the Treasury +Department." (Vindel, Catálogo biblioteca filipina, no. 1558.) + +[149] "Only since 1843 have the Chinese shops been opened on the same +terms as those of other foreigners. But there is no doubt that the +Chinese have been a great boon to the colony. They have had, in the +main, a civilizing influence on the natives, and have taught them +many important things: as the working of iron and the manufacture +of sugar from the juice of the sugar-cane. They have also ever been +the leaders in commerce and the chief middlemen of the colony; and +for this reason mainly they have been deemed an unwelcome necessity, +for, without them, trade would almost be brought to a standstill, and, +in consequence, labor would suffer and living be rendered dearer to +every class. By their superior shrewdness and unscrupulous cunning +they have, on the other hand, excited the hatred of the natives, +who despise them for their cowardice. Thus, from time to time, +the feeling against them is very bitter. Another objection against +the Celestial is that he underbids all competitors, working for +what others refuse. Furthermore, he spends little, and all that +he saves he carries to his own country. Their expulsion, however, +would be as unwise as it is impracticable, and the only remedy that +meets the case is a proper State-control. The employment of coolie +labor, notwithstanding, is at present impossible, on account of the +hatred that the lower-class natives feel toward them. In Manila there +are at present no less than 40,000 Chinese, while the whole colony +contains about 100,000. They have their own courts, their guilds, +and secret societies, which are necessary for their self-protection; +and they choose representative deputations to represent them in the +Government." (Lala, Philippine Islands, pp. 104-106.) + +Le Gentil says (Voyage, ii, p. 101) of the banishment of the Chinese +from Manila in 1767 (at which time he was residing there): "I did not +know any Spaniard in Manila who did not sincerely regret the departure +of the Chinese, and who did not frankly admit that the Philippines +would suffer for it, because the Indians are not capable of replacing +the Chinese.... The Parian was a sort of market, where could be found +provision of everything necessary for living; and it is not without +reason that the Spaniards regretted the loss of this laborious people." + +[150] "This spirit of greed compelled the Chinese to abandon in +their internal commerce the gold and silver coins which were in +general use. The number of those who made counterfeit money, which +was continually increasing, permitted no other line of conduct; +and money was no longer coined save in copper. This metal, however, +having become scarce, in consequence of events which history does not +record, the shells so well known under the name of 'cauris' [English, +'cowries'] were mingled with the copper coins; but the government, +having observed that the people were dissatisfied with so frail +an article, ordered that the copper utensils throughout the entire +empire should be given up to the mints. As this ill-judged expedient +did not furnish resources adequate to the public needs, the government +caused about four hundred temples of Foé to be demolished, the idols +in which were melted down. Finally the court paid the magistrates +and the army partly in copper and partly in paper; but the people +rebelled against so dangerous innovation, and it became necessary +to give it up. Since that time, which was three centuries ago, the +coinage of copper is the only legal one." (Raynal, Établissemens et +commerce des Européens, i, pp. 641, 642). + +[151] Spanish, temporalidades: referring to the bureau in charge of +the property formerly belonging to the Jesuits. + +[152] Thus in text, but evidently a clerical error by Bernaldez's +amanuensis. A similar discrepancy is seen in the estimate of the +trader's profits, below. + +[153] The Cortes, as first known by the Spaniards, contained three +divisions, the three estates; the ones called in the three periods +above-mentioned had but one chamber; the present Cortes contains +two houses, the senate and the congress or house of deputies or +representatives. The senate consists of three divisions: senators in +their own right (the heir presumptive, the grandees, archbishops, etc.; +life senators appointed by the crown; and those elected by the people, +half of whom are removable every five years. Members to the lower +house are elected for five years by electors chosen by the people. No +Cortes was held from 1713-1789, and from the latter year until 1810. + +[154] For a good account of this period in Spain, which was one of +great confusion, see E. W. Latimer's Spain in the nineteenth century +(Chicago, 1898, 3d ed.) The machinations of Napoleon and the other +events leading up to the establishment of the Cortes of 1810-1813 +are well and concisely narrated. See also Hume, Modern Spain (New +York, 1900). + +[155] The latter, indeed, was granted permission (January 4, 1811) +to go to Veracruz for his health; and on July 22, 1811, permission +was given to the former to go to the Philippines on private business, +although he was later forbidden to leave until the return of his +colleague, as his absence before that time would leave the Philippines +without representation. The request was renewed on the arrival of +Reyes (December 6, 1811), and on the latter's assumption of his seat +(December 9), Perez de Tagle was allowed to leave. On September +19, 1813, a discourse was pronounced at Manila by José de Vergara, +"deputy-elect for the province of Manila to the general Cortes," +and published in that year at Sampaloc. The election of deputies in +that year was regulated by a junta composed of Governor Gardoqui, +Archbishop Juan de Zúñiga, Manuel Díaz Condé, and three others; +one of their decisions exempted the very poor in the community from +contributing to the fund raised for paying the traveling and other +expenses of the deputies to the Cortes. (Vindel, Catálogo biblioteca +filipina, nos. 1874, 1875.) + +[156] Such were the decree of October 5, 1810, confirming the essential +unity and equality of all parts of the Spanish domain; the abolition of +the quicksilver monopoly, January 26, 1811; the provisional creation of +a Consejo de Estado to consist of twenty members (six from Ultramar), +on January 21, 1812, although the constitution (adopted March 18, 1812) +called for one with forty members (twelve from Ultramar): the creation +of the Secretaría del Despacho de la Gobernación de Ultramar (April +2, 1812), and the establishment of the Tribunal Supremo de Justicia, +and the suppression of the Consejos de Castilla, Indias, and Hacienda +(all of them provided for in the constitution); and the suppression +of the Inquisition (February 22, 1813). The law of November 9, 1813, +abolishing personal services for Indians and regulating public works, +seems to have been intended only for America. + +[157] February 20, 1812, was the last meeting on the island of León, +the Cortes assembling on the twenty-fourth at the church of San Felipe +Neri, at Cádiz. + +[158] The method of election for the Cortes of 1813 (decree of May +23, 1812) provided for a preliminary election board for each colonial +province consisting of the provincial head, the archbishop, bishop, +or acting archbishop, the intendant (if there were one), the senior +alcalde, the senior regidor, the syndic procurator-general, and two +commoners (these last to be chosen by the others). One representative +was to be chosen for each 60,000 people. (See the essential clauses of +this decree in Montero y Vidal, Historia general, ii, pp. 406, 407.) On +the same day was also decreed the creation of provincial deputations, +of which one was specified for Manila. In this session of Cortes also, +the reorganization of the audiencias was decreed, but the Philippine +representative seems to have taken no part in the debate. + +[159] Trouble had arisen over the administration by the board of the +obras pias which it was usual to loan out to those interested in the +galleon trade. + +[160] These ordinances were unconstitutional because control of the +hospice was vested in a board headed by the captain-general, while +by the constitution such organizations were now to be controlled by +the ayuntamientos and provincial deputations. The despatch regarding +this matter was sent to the Cortes by the secretary of Ultramar, +November 27, 1812. + +[161] On July 7, 1810, the governor of the Philippines proposed +the suppression of the galleon, and requested permission for the +inhabitants of the Philippines to ship goods in Spanish bottoms not +in excess of 1,000,000 pesos. The suppression was resolved upon by +the Cortes by article 3 of the decree of October 8, 1811, regarding +commerce. + +[162] This decree (which is given by Montero y Vidal, Historia general, +li, pp. 412, 413) states that the inhabitants of the Philippines may +trade in Chinese and other Asiatic goods in private Spanish bottoms +with the ports of Acapulco and San Blas in Nueva España, under the +old terms of 500,000 pesos for the outgoing, and 1,000,000 pesos +for the return voyage. If the port of Acapulco be closed, they may +trade at Sonsonate. For four years the lower rates of duties granted +by Cárlos IV by decree of October, 1806, are continued. Boletas, +or tickets granting lading space, are to be furnished no longer. + +[163] In accordance with a royal order of June 17, commanding the +representatives of the colonies to report the petitions pending, or +which had not been moved, that had for their object the welfare of the +colonies, Reyes petitioned the suppression of the Acapulco galleon; +permission of 1,000,000 pesos for the outgoing, and 2,000,000 pesos for +the return voyage; unlimited extension of the lower duties conceded +October 4, 1806; one or two Peruvian ports open to the commerce of +the islands; that natives of the islands be allowed to export goods in +Spanish bottoms to any point of the Spanish monarchy free of export and +import duties; trade on the northwest coast of America with Spaniards; +and that the permission be conceded to bring back all unsold goods +(in addition to the amount of imports allowed), on payment to the +treasury of a 6 per cent duty. The answers to these requests were +as follows: the Acapulco ship was suppressed by order of April 23, +1815; permission of export to the value of 750,000 pesos; the ports of +Callao and Guayaquil thrown open to Philippine trade; traffic with the +Spaniards on the northwest coast of America; permission to bring back +unsold goods to the extent of one-third the amount of imports allowed, +paying ten per cent duty for such excess; and free trade for Philippine +products at any port of the monarchy in Spanish bottoms for ten years. + +[164] On the seventh he took the oath to observe the Constitution +of 1812; and on the tenth, by a decree ordered the reëstablishment +of the Secretaría del Despachó de la Gobernación[, the first acts +of which were the promulgation of the Constitution of 1812, and +the reëstablishment of all the organisms created by the Cortes of +1810-1813. + +[165] Apparently appointed by the Secretary of Ultramar. Their +credentials were approved at the third preliminary meeting of July +5 or 6. + +[166] A general decree of October 5, 1820, ordered a uniform and +general schedule of duties for the Peninsula and Ultramar; but this +law was modified by another law of December 20, 1821, recognizing the +impracticability of uniformity of duties for Spain and the colonies, +and providing that the schedule be uniform except for the differences +rendered necessary in the provinces of Ultramar. + +[167] The secretary of Hacienda considered the privileges of the +company for the importation of cotton goods as unconstitutional and +contrary to the prosperity of national manufactures. At the meeting +of August 18, it developed that the company had transferred its +monopoly to a foreign merchant of Cádiz. The company was allowed to +present its argument, but the report of the committees on Commerce +and Hacienda was adopted. Later the company presented a petition +requesting the liquidation of the government's indebtedness to it, +the privilege of selling its stock of cotton goods, and various other +concessions incident to the closing up of its affairs. This petition, +sent to the Cortes by the secretary of Hacienda, was referred to the +committee on Commerce on November 2. On the fifth, a petition was +presented by the Philippine representatives and Gregorio Gonzales +Azaolo, of Sevilla, asking that the prohibition of the importation +of cotton goods should not affect the Philippines until the industry +was developed or established in those islands. This petition having +been referred to the committees on Commerce and Hacienda, their +report on November 8 recommended the opening of the Oriental trade +to all Spaniards trading in Spanish bottoms. This recommendation was +embodied in article 3 of the decree of November 9, specifying the +kinds of goods which Spanish ships trading by the Cape of Good Hope +could introduce into Spain or Spanish America. + +[168] The decrees of the Diarios de las Cortes show no decree of this +date confirming a previous decree of March 7, 1820, granting exemption +of duties for ten years on natural and industrial products of the +Philippines, when imported in Spanish bottoms into the Peninsula, +as declared by Montero y Vidal. The decree of December 21, 1820, +providing for the abolition of the monopoly on tobacco and salt +after March 1, 1821, and providing customs and consumption duties, +seems not to have affected the Philippines. + +[169] In October, 1820, the preliminary board for the election +of representatives was organized in Manila, but inasmuch as the +elections were not held until after the Constitution had been +sworn to in Manila in May, 1821 (and later in the provinces), no +regularly-elected representatives were present at the second session. + +[170] Wrongly called a decree by Montero y Vidal. This order was +addressed to the Secretary of War in answer to a question raised by +the Council of War. + +[171] The special discussion arose over the item of 50,000 reals for +missions and a note in the report reflecting on the native clergy in +the Philippines. Some of the Americans, who were quite fully imbued +with the free thought of the French philosophical school, declared +for the suppression of the missionaries (meaning friars), inasmuch as +they were useless and even harmful. The committee answered this by +asserting that the missionaries in the Philippines were used by the +government as civil and political agents, and that they did do much +good work in their own legitimate line. The passage concerning the +incapacity of the native clergy was meant to apply to the Philippines +alone, but if desired it could be removed as it was not essential to +the report. An American representative moved that the 50,000 reals +be used in the establishment of normal schools in Ultramar. The +Philippine representatives seem to have taken no part in the debate +except that Camus y Herrera moved that the obnoxious clause concerning +the Filipino clergy be stricken out. The report was accepted as read. + +[172] Each university was to have a public library, a drawing school, +a chemical laboratory, cabinets of physics, natural history, and +industrial products, another of models of machines, a botanical garden, +and an experiment farm. The university to be established in Manila was +to have theological and law courses for the doctorate. Manila was also +to have a medical school, a school for veterinary medicine, a school +of fine arts, and commercial and nautical schools. Professorships were +to be filled by competition, and those for the Philippines were to +be examined by persons designated by the Subdirection of Studies in +Mexico. Girls were to be taught to read, write, and cipher; while the +older female students were to be taught the work suitable to their +sex. This matter of education for girls was left to the provincial +deputations. + +[173] On the twenty-third there was a discussion as to the legality +of the substitutes for the representatives of Ultramar being allowed +to hold over; and it was finally declared that only those for the +Philippines and Peru could sit during this session. + +[174] This exclusion was in accordance with a decision of the committee +on Credentials handed in February 11, 1822, to the effect that +government employes did not cease, to be such until their resignations +were accepted by the government. Posada did not present his credentials +at the meeting of February 15, declaring that they had been robbed +with his baggage en route from Cádiz to Madrid. He did present them, +however, at the next meeting of February 20. At the third and fourth +preliminary meetings (February 22 and 24) the matter was debated, +and he was excluded on the grounds of being still a government employe. + +[175] Foreman states wrongly (p. 362, ed. of 1906) that seventeen +deputies were elected and sat during the Cortes of 1820-23, and he +names eight of them. He may have confused the names of electors with +those of representatives. The four elected (of whom only three are +known) were perhaps elected for the districts of the archiepiscopal +see and the three suffragan sees of the Philippines; although Montero +y Vidal says that both Sáenz de Vizmanos and Posada were elected from +Nueva Cáceres. + +[176] Although a provincial deputation had been organized in Manila +in 1822, almost its only act was to petition (April 12, 1823) for +more missionaries. + +[177] Fernando's infant daughter, Isabel II, ascended the throne +under the regency of her mother María Cristina. Through the efforts +of the liberals, six important decrees were passed March 24, 1834: +suppression of the Consejo de Estado, during the minority of the queen; +suppression of the Consejos de Castilla and de Indias, in whose place +was established a Tribunal Superior de España é Indias; suppression of +the Consejo Supremo de Guerra, and in its place the establishment of +the Tribunal Supremo de Guerra y Marina y de Extranjería; suppression +of the Consejo Supremo de Hacienda, replacing it by a Tribunal Supremo +de Hacienda; an order to the Secretary of the Despacho de Gracia y +Justicia to propose the new organization of the Consejo Real de las +Ordenes; and the institution of a Consejo Real de España é Indias to +have general supervision of American and Philippine matters. + +[178] The first news of reform and the fact that the new Cortes were +to be summoned was received unofficially at Manila by a United States +ship sailing from Cádiz in June, 1834, and reaching Manila toward +the end of the same year. + +[179] No provision was made in the third Cortes for substitute +representation for Ultramar (except in the decree of August 21, 1836, +calling a Cortes for October 24 under the rules of the Constitution of +1812), which is in point with the ignorance manifested throughout this +period by the officials at Madrid with regard to the Philippines. This +accounts for the islands having no representation for some of the +sessions of the Cortes. + +[180] Andrés García Camba resided in Manila during 1825-35, and became +so popular that he was elected a deputy to the Spanish Cortes; he was +afterward (August, 1837-December, 1838) governor of the Philippines, +and wrote a book (published at Cádiz, 1839) regarding his experiences +while holding that office. Himself liberally inclined, he was +constantly opposed by reactionary influences. Although his name does +not appear in the pamphlet Filipinas y su representación en Cortes, +he is generally considered as its author; and he alludes to it in the +memoir above mentioned. (Vindel, Cat. bib. filip., nos. 1881, 1886.) + +[181] Foreman says that Lecaros was a mestizo; and Montero y Vidal +that he was a Filipino lawyer. The board of electors was mainly +composed of peninsulars. + +[182] Camba proposed (Filipinas y su representación en Cortes, +1836) a special mode of election to Cortes for the Philippines, +which was to be by the Manila Ayuntamiento, as that was the only +political organization in the islands worth mentioning, and was in +direct contact with affairs. The law to be adopted for Ultramar, +Camba argued, must take into account the condition of the country and +the inhabitants. During this session, the Philippine representatives +presented two petitions to the Secretario, del Despacho de Hacienda, +asking in one for a moderation of the excessive duties on the +introduction of Spanish brandy into the Philippines, and in the other +the sending of few pensioners and subaltern employes to the islands, +as this was a prejudice to the native Philippine Spaniards. Lecaros +presented a plan to Mendizábal, the provisional president of the +Consejo de Ministros, for the suppression of the monopoly on tobacco +in the Philippines, but Mendizábal took measures to make the monopoly +more remunerative to the state. See Montero y Vidal, Historia general, +ii. pp. 554, 555, note. + +[183] He wrote Memoria sobre las Islas Filipinas (Valencia, 1842). + +[184] July 31, 1837, the new commercial treaty made September 22, +1836, between the governor of the Philippines and the sultan of Joló +was referred to the committees on State and Commerce, was reported on +favorably on October 4, and was accordingly approved on the twelfth +of October. This treaty stipulated that every three-masted schooner +porting at Joló with Chinese passengers from Manila was to pay 2,000 +pesos fuertes, and lesser boats in proportion to their size. As the +most important cargo ever sent to Joló from Manila never exceeded +2,500 pesos in value, it is hard to see the value of this treaty so +greatly lauded in Madrid. No Joloan vessels went to Manila. In this +matter the officials showed a woful ignorance of the Philippines, +the minister of the navy stating that all vessels stopped at Joló on +their way to the Philippines. This treaty, as well as the one made +by the governor of Zamboanga with the chief of Maluso near Basilan, +only made the Moros bolder in their piracy. See Montero y Vidal, +Historia general, ii, pp. 557-560. + +[185] On May 25, 1869, an amendment was presented by Julián Pellón +y Rodriguez in the Spanish Cortes demanding that parliamentary +representation be granted to Filipinas. Among the signers to this +amendment were Victor Balaguer and Francisco Javier Moya. (Vindel, +Cat. bib. filip., no. 1883.) + +[186] The host was stolen at least three other times in the history +of the Philippines: once in Camarines; once in Malate; and in 1730 +from the Franciscan convent and church at Maycavayan. See San Antonio, +Chronicas, i, p. 181. + +[187] In 1808, the Manila diocese comprehended the provinces +and districts of Manila, Bulacan, Batangas, Cavite, La Infanta, +Laguna, Mindoro, Morong, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Principe, Tarlac and +Zambales. It had 219 parishes, 24 parish missions, 16 active missions, +259 parish priests, or missionaries, and 198 native secular priests +who acted as assistants to the parish priests (who were mainly +regulars). See the Rept. of the Phil. Com., for 1900, i, p. 132, +and iv, p. 107. + +[188] Foreman, Philippine Islands (N. Y., 1906 ed.), p. 597, note 2. + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, +Volume 51, 1801-1840, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57304 *** |