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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57304 ***
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+                   The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898
+
+   Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and
+   their peoples, their history and records of the catholic missions,
+    as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the
+   political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those
+   islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the
+                    close of the nineteenth century,
+
+                          Volume LI, 1801-1840
+
+
+
+ Edited and annotated by Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson
+  with historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord
+                                Bourne.
+
+
+
+                      The Arthur H. Clark Company
+                            Cleveland, Ohio
+                                 MCMVII
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF VOLUME LI
+
+
+    Preface                                                          11
+
+    Documents of 1801-1840
+
+        Events in Filipinas, 1801-1840. [Compiled from Montero
+        y Vidal's Historia de Filipinas.]                            23
+        Remarks on the Philippine Islands, 1819-22.
+        "An Englishman;" Calcutta, 1828                              73
+        Reforms needed in Filipinas. Manuel Bernaldez Pizarro;
+        Madrid, April 26, 1827                                      182
+
+    Bibliographical Data                                            275
+
+    Appendix
+
+        Representation of Filipinas in Cortes. [Compiled from
+        various sources.]                                           279
+        List of the archbishops of Manila, 1581-1898. [Compiled
+        from various sources.]                                      298
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    Chart of China Sea and the Philippines, 1794, in The
+    complete East India pilot, printed for Laurie & Whittle
+    (London, 1800), ii, map 114; photographic facsimile from
+    copy in Library of Congress.                           Frontispiece
+    Plan of a portion of Manila, showing new works constructed
+    December 15, 1770-June 15, 1771, drawn by the engineer
+    Dionisio Kelly, 1771; photographic facsimile from MS. map
+    (in colors), in Archivo general de Indias, Sevilla               29
+    Chart of the port of San Luis, in the Marianas Islands,
+    1738; photographic facsimile from original manuscript by
+    Adjutant Domingo Garrido de Malavar, in Archivo general de
+    Indias, Sevilla                                                  67
+    Plan of the environs, and a portion of the coast and bay
+    adjacent to the city of Manila, 1779 (?); photographic
+    facsimile from original MS. map (in colors), in Archivo
+    general de Indias, Sevilla                                      161
+    Plan showing outer works of Manila, drawn by the engineer
+    Tomás Sanz; photographic facsimile from original MS. map
+    (in colors), in Archivo general de Indias, Sevilla              193
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In the present volume, a brief outline of events in Filipinas during
+the period 1801-40 serves as a background and setting for the following
+surveys of political, social, and economic conditions in the islands
+during that period. Of these, one is made by an English naval officer
+who had visited the islands, another by a Spanish official of long
+experience, and a third (presented in synopsis) by a merchant familiar
+with the commerce of the Orient and the Americas. These different
+accounts (written at nearly the same time) furnish most valuable
+knowledge of the Philippines and their people, and their needs and
+possibilities; and at the same time they reflect the more enlightened
+and liberal ideas of policy and administration which had gained a
+foothold in Spain, and which the recent loss of her other colonies
+had made her more willing to put in practice in Filipinas.
+
+The leading events in Philippine history during the first four decades
+of the nineteenth century are briefly epitomized from Montero y Vidal's
+Historia de Filipinas. Governor Aguilar opposes the appointment of
+native secular priests to the curacies, regarding them as unfit for
+these posts. During his term, he introduces public street-lighting,
+paved sidewalks, and vaccination in Manila, and various other
+beneficial measures; he attempts, but with little success, to check
+the piracies of the Moros, and is compelled to desist therefrom by
+news of the war between England and Spain, and the consequent danger
+to Manila. At his death (August 8, 1806) an officer named Folgueras
+becomes governor ad interim; he strengthens the fortifications of
+Manila, and quells a revolt in Ilocos. He is succeeded (March 4,
+1810) by the new proprietary governor, González Aguilar, who promotes
+cattle-raising in the provinces, quells another insurrection in Ilocos,
+publishes the first newspaper in Filipinas, and proclaims the Spanish
+constitution of 1812. In 1813 arrives his successor, José de Gardoqui,
+whose rule is by no means easy; for he is opposed by corrupt royal
+officials, and has to encounter revolts among the Indians caused by
+the publication of the new Spanish constitution--disturbances which
+are aggravated by the despotic acts of Fernando VII on regaining his
+crown (1814). Gardoqui prohibits the introduction and use of opium
+in the islands, strengthens the fortifications of Cavite, puts down
+banditti and smugglers, and in many other ways benefits the colony;
+he dies in December, 1816, and is succeeded by Folgueras. The latter
+revives the Economic Society, and founds a nautical academy. In 1820
+occurs the first epidemic of cholera morbus, which is unfortunately
+accompanied by a massacre of the foreigners in Manila, executed by
+the credulous Indians who have been persuaded by malicious persons
+that the pest was caused by the foreigners having poisoned the
+waters. Martínez, who becomes governor on October 30, 1822, brings
+over a number of Spanish officers for the Filipinas regiments; this
+creates jealousy among the officers who had come from America, which
+results in a mutiny among them and part of the troops in Manila (June,
+1823); this is put down, and the leaders are shot. An expedition is
+sent against the Moros (1824), which lays waste their shores.
+
+On October 14, 1825, Martínez is replaced by Mariano Ricafort as
+governor; the latter is also made chief of the treasury. The parish
+curacies are, by a royal decree in 1826, restored to the regular
+orders. In 1827 the naval bureau is reëstablished at Manila, under
+Pascual Enrile, who succeeds Ricafort as governor in 1830. (Both these
+men were among the most illustrious rulers of Filipinas, on account of
+their ability, uprightness, and zeal for the public welfare.) In 1828
+the insurgent mountaineers of Bohol are finally subdued, and reduced
+to villages. Various royal decrees are obtained for the promotion
+of agriculture, manufactures, and other industries; and for obliging
+the Chinese to live in villages, like the Indians. Several important
+reforms in the administration and the social conditions of the colony
+are instituted by these two governors, and Enrile is especially active
+in building highways and providing other means of communication to
+bring the inland and the maritime provinces into communication with
+each other.
+
+In 1836, Governor Salazar has to enforce the laws forbidding the
+sale of firearms and powder to the enemies of Spain; he also makes
+a treaty of commerce with the Joloans, which does not, however,
+restrain them from piracy. In 1837, he urgently requests the
+Spanish government to send more Spanish friars to the islands as
+parish priests. The political disturbances in Spain at this time are
+reflected in Filipinas, and a strong Carlist faction oppose Governor
+Camba (who assumes that office in August, 1837), and finally procure
+his recall to Spain, little more than a year afterward. Under his
+successor, Lardizábal, the status of the Chinese in the islands is
+determined, provision is made for the official censorship of books
+brought to Filipinas, a school of commerce is established at Manila
+and various important changes are made in financial and municipal
+administration. In February, 1841, Lardizábal is succeeded by Marcelino
+de Oráa.
+
+In 1828 was published at Calcutta an interesting book entitled, Remarks
+on the Phillippine Islands, 1819 to 1822, "by an Englishman"--as
+he states therein, a naval officer; this is here presented, with
+additional annotations from various sources. It throws much light
+on conditions in Manila at that time, and is of especial value as
+coming from an enlightened foreigner, rather than a Spaniard. He
+praises the natural resources and advantages of the islands, and makes
+various comments on their climate (which "is remarkably temperate and
+salubrious"), diseases, and population; he then classifies this last,
+describing in succession the various races, white, colored, and mixed,
+who inhabit the islands. He defends the natives from accusations which
+have been made against them, and considers their defects as the natural
+result of the oppression and injustice which they have suffered,
+and the general insecurity of property in the islands. Robbery and
+piracy prevail there, outside of the new Spanish towns; and even in
+Manila there are numerous acts of pillage committed by the lawless
+soldiery. Justice is neglected or corrupted; and the Church exacts
+so many holidays, pilgrimages, etc., that the natives are obliged
+to neglect their fields, and tend to become idle and dissipated;
+they also are burdened by many church taxes and impositions. Our
+writer proceeds to describe the government of the islands, general,
+municipal, and provincial, and the abuses prevalent in the last-named;
+then the ecclesiastical administration, the character of the clergy,
+and their influence over the natives. The sources of the colonial
+revenue are enumerated, with the chief branches of expense, the
+main part of this being for the military and naval forces, both of
+which are mismanaged, ill-disciplined, poorly paid, and of course
+very inefficient. Agriculture is "yet in its infancy," as a result
+partly of the oppression of the natives, partly of the expulsion of
+the Jesuits--who did more than any others to civilize the Indians--and
+partly of the restrictions on commerce, which now are less oppressive;
+yet the country is almost incredibly fertile. The implements used
+in tillage are described, with the methods of cultivating the
+chief products, and that of refining the sugar produced there;
+and the reasons are given why Europeans have been unable to engage
+in agriculture with success. The mineral products of the islands
+are enumerated. Commerce is, like agriculture, still undeveloped;
+our author attributes this to the Acapulco trade, to the prohibitory
+system pursued by Spain and to the monopoly allowed to the Philippine
+Company, and criticises Spain's policy toward her colonies. He then
+describes the condition of Philippine commerce, with statistics of
+1818; and the difficulties under which it labors--especially the
+insecurity of property and contracts, the fraudulent dealings of the
+Chinese merchants; and the neglect of government to prevent smuggling
+or to make suitable provision for reëxportation of goods--which have
+prevented Manila from being one of the great centers of Oriental trade.
+
+The second part of these "Remarks" is devoted to Manila; a description
+of the city, its fortifications (which our writer considers very
+inefficient on the side next to Pasig River), streets, public
+buildings, mode of constructing houses, and the public cemetery; and
+social conditions there, which are unfavorable to morality and the
+development of character. The author criticises the colonial policy
+of Spain, and regards her tenure of rule over Filipinas as precarious,
+especially as discontent and ideas of political freedom are spreading
+among the Indians.
+
+Of unusual interest and value is a memorial written (April 26, 1827) by
+Manuel Bernaldez Pizarro, on the "causes which antagonize the security
+and progress of the Filipinas Islands," and which bring about their
+backward condition, with the measures which he judges desirable for
+their correction. As a high official in Filipinas during seventeen
+years, his opinions are of much importance, especially as he was
+evidently a clear-sighted and upright statesman, a keen observer,
+and a logical thinker--albeit he was, like the majority of government
+officials, still much under the sway of autocratic and regalistic
+notions--and was fertile in ideas and projects for improving the
+condition of Filipinas. The memorial is methodically arranged in
+sections relating to military affairs, Moro piracies, land-titles,
+Spanish vs. native clerics, the residence of foreigners in the islands,
+character of government officials, administration of justice, taxes
+and revenue, commerce, agriculture, manufactures, etc.
+
+On each of these subjects he presents a concise statement of present
+conditions and tendencies, followed by his recommendations for change,
+reform, or suppression. In the army, the principal difficulty lies in
+the corps of officers, partly Peninsular and partly native or American,
+with Indian subalterns; these classes have almost nothing in common,
+and the latter are dangerously near to the Indians, or are spoiled by
+the tendencies of the country. Provision should be made, therefore, for
+sending officers from Spain to fill all posts of command. Instead of
+enlarging the military force, a central location (afterward indicated
+as Cavite) should be selected, and rendered impregnable to assault,
+in which the government and the Spanish population of Manila might
+be safe in any revolution or other dangerous emergency; Manila is
+not sufficiently fortified for such a purpose. The piracies of the
+Moros are ruining the islands; the only way to check them is to
+conquer Joló and Mindanao with a powerful expedition, and colonize
+them from the Visayas. The Indian villages are often much too large
+to be properly directed in either spiritual or civil matters, and
+should be made smaller, with stricter police patrol. Measures should
+be taken to authenticate and confirm the titles to landed property,
+which at present are confused and unreliable. Much harm is caused by
+the ignorance, unfitness, and immorality of the Indian and mestizo
+clerics; they not only neglect their priestly duties, but have
+dangerous tendencies to revolution; as soon as this is practicable,
+all such should be replaced by European friars. Bernaldez descants
+upon their virtues and their ability to rule the Indians well, and
+advises the government "to maintain as many religious as possible
+in the islands, and give them as much political authority as is
+consistent with their ministry." Foreigners are undesirable as
+residents in Filipinas, especially exiles, idlers, and stowaways;
+and even Spaniards from the Peninsula should be compelled to return
+thither after a certain period. Strict residencias should be required
+from the alcaldes-mayor, as many of them are unfit to hold that
+office, and commit crimes which render them dangerous to the peace
+of the provinces. Greater care should be exercised in the selection
+of all government officials, in order to correct the laxity which
+everywhere characterizes the administration of the islands. There
+is pressing necessity for better means of communication with the
+mother-country, which can best be promoted by encouraging her commerce
+with Filipinas. The governors and intendants should be obliged to
+furnish the reports and information about the country which the laws
+require; and there should be more coöperation between the governor
+and the Audiencia. Private persons of means should be encouraged and
+aided to undertake the enterprises which the country needs. Various
+specified abuses in the administration of justice should be corrected;
+and the trading alcaldes-mayor should be replaced by corregidors, who
+should be able and experienced lawyers. The tributes ought to be paid
+in money, and not in kind; and this involves the need of a colonial
+money for Filipinas. The revenue taxes, especially those on tobacco and
+wine, should receive more attention, and these two should be extended
+to all the provinces; and the manufacture and sale of brandy in the
+islands should be restricted. The Chinese in the islands should be
+carefully classified, more strictly supervised by the government,
+and more heavily taxed. The rebate of duties granted on all foreign
+imports at Manila is ruining the Filipinas manufacturers, whose
+"infant industries" should be protected; and Bernaldez proposes a new
+schedule, carefully classified. The inter-island trade is exclusively
+in the hands of the alcaldes-mayor and the rich Chinese and mestizos,
+who should therefore pay a moderate tax on that lucrative commerce. A
+colonial currency is urgently needed. An account of the management
+of the obras pías should be demanded by the government, and those
+funds should be employed in promoting agriculture and industry in the
+islands. The shipbuilding and mining carried on by the government ought
+to be furnished by private persons under contract. Agriculture is the
+most important industry of Filipinas, and a feeder to its commerce;
+its backward condition should be remedied. He recommends direct
+and unlimited commerce between Spain and the islands, government
+encouragement to large agricultural enterprises, instruction of the
+Indians in better methods of agriculture and the preparation of its
+products, and rewards for industry and application on their part. The
+production of opium for the Chinese market ought to be allowed in
+Filipinas, and heavy duties collected on its exportation. Enormous sums
+of money are yearly carried to India and China for fine cotton goods,
+which could as well be manufactured by the Filipinos if they knew how
+to dye these properly and had machinery for spinning the cotton thread;
+the government should take active and prompt measures to secure this
+desirable end. Closer relations should be established with Spain,
+whose government and merchants are urged to work together in behalf
+of this. Bernaldez concludes by showing "the necessity of forming a
+special code of laws for Filipinas," and of "a periodical visitation
+of that colony by officials from the Peninsula." As appendix to
+his memorial, we present a summary of a similar document, written
+at nearly the same time by a merchant of long and varied commercial
+experience in the Orient and the Americas. Less official and formal,
+but more shrewd, alert, and liberal, this writer presents his views,
+with much clearness and force, on the decadence of the islands and
+the means of making them more prosperous and wealthy; and a comparison
+of these with the opinions of Bernaldez might well be helpful to the
+present administration of Filipinas.
+
+In an appendix to this volume we present a brief account of the
+three Spanish Cortes in which the Philippines had representation; all
+these sessions occurred in the early part of the nineteenth century,
+one of the most disturbed and critical periods of Spain's national
+existence. The most important measures of these Cortes concerning the
+Philippines were, the suppression of the Acapulco-Manila galleon and
+the abolition of the privileges formerly granted to the Compañia de
+Filipinas. In each of these assemblies efficient representation of the
+islands was barred by their distance from Spain and the difficulty
+of communication with that country, while, in general, political
+development was very backward. The final ruling, in the Constitution
+of 1837, by which special laws were devised for the government of
+Ultramar, appears to have been the only possible solution of the
+difficulty (at least for the Philippines). Finally, we furnish a list
+of the archbishops of Manila during the Spanish régime.
+
+
+The Editors.
+
+May, 1907.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+DOCUMENTS OF 1801-1840
+
+
+    Events in Filipinas, 1801-1840. [Compiled from Montero y Vidal.]
+    Remarks on the Phillippine Islands, 1819-22. "An Englishman;" 1828.
+    Reforms needed in Filipinas. Manuel Bernaldez Pizarro; April
+    26, 1827.
+
+
+Sources: The first document is compiled from Montero y Vidal's
+Historia de Filipinas (tomo ii, pp. 360-573; iii, pp. 6-32); the
+second is reprinted from the original publication, a copy of which
+is in possession of Edward E. Ayer; the third is presented, partly
+in synopsis, from original MSS. in the Ayer collection.
+
+Translations: The first and third are made by Emma Helen Blair.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+EVENTS IN FILIPINAS, 1801-1840
+
+
+[At the beginning of VOLUME L may be found a brief summary of events
+during the latter third of the eighteenth century, a record which
+is here continued as above. As before, we epitomize from Montero y
+Vidal's Hist. de Filipinas (tomo ii, pp. 360-573; iii, pp. 6-32),
+using his own language wherever practicable, usually distinguished
+by quotation marks.]
+
+Under Governor Aguilar the "Ordinances of good government," as
+revised by Governor Raon in 1768 (for which see VOL. L, pp. 191-264),
+were reprinted in the year 1801. "On September 8, 1804, Don Fray
+Juan Antonio Zulaibar, a Dominican, and formerly a professor in
+the university of Alcalá, took possession of the archbishopric of
+Manila." In November following, the governor sent despatches to
+the king explaining his action in appointing to certain curacies
+regular instead of secular priests, saying that the latter were seldom
+qualified for those charges. He said, in regard to this: "No one is
+ignorant how different are the appearance and the degree of prosperity
+of all the churches and settlements administered by religious from
+those in the villages which are in charge of Indian clerics. Of the
+latter, some are doubtless men of virtue and pious intentions; but
+in general it is notorious that, on account of their origin, lack of
+education, the very obscure condition in which they are reared, and the
+little (if any) knowledge that they possess, they do not inspire in
+their parishioners that respect and veneration with which the latter
+regard the religious--who, on account of being Spaniards, possess the
+art of dominating the minds of the Indians, in order to maintain them
+in those conditions on which depends the preservation of these your
+Majesty's dominions. The religious know how to guide the Indians,
+without violence, to whatever ends are expedient for both religion
+and the State, as the results of never becoming too familiar with the
+natives. The Indian clerics not only follow the opposite course, but,
+lacking the dignity that belongs to their character as priests, they
+mingle familiarly with their parishioners not only in their sports,
+but in feasting and other things which are entirely unfitting; and not
+seldom they dress themselves in the same manner as do the natives,
+abandoning the very garb of their priestly estate." He proceeded to
+say that only deplorable consequences could result from the surrender
+of the curacies entirely to the native priests; and that the religious
+of the orders must be employed therein, unless they could be supplied
+with properly qualified secular priests who were Spaniards. The same
+ideas were expressed by the municipal council of Manila, who said of
+the native priests: "The weak and yielding disposition which has been
+for so long a time noticed in these islanders does not permit in them
+that steadfastness which is so proper for the priestly character and
+the difficult office of the care of souls."
+
+"In June, 1805, the Frenchman Félix Renouard de Sainte-Croix was
+commissioned to examine the gold mines in Mambulao (in Camarines);
+and in his report he explained that various gold mines existed there,
+with very rich veins, but some were difficult to develop and others
+had been abandoned. By royal order of July 5, 1805, was decreed
+the total independence of the Manila custom-house, ordaining that
+its manager should be under the immediate orders of the [treasury]
+superintendent." [1] On December 20, 1806, Aguilar created a Bureau of
+Vaccination at Manila, of which he was president; and regulations were
+made for public vaccination, which had a marked effect in diminishing
+the ravages of the smallpox. This governor gave much attention to
+the construction of public works, one of the more important of these
+being the highway from Manila to Cavite. He caused the streets of the
+capital to be lighted at public expense, and paved sidewalks to be
+built, and made the police system more efficient; he also did much
+to promote domestic industries.
+
+Aguilar endeavored, throughout his term of office, to check the
+incursions of the Moros. The pirates attacked even the coasts of Luzón
+in 1793, and an expedition sent out against them in December of that
+year accomplished almost nothing, being too late and ineffective. In
+the following year the governor called a council of the leading
+military officers and other persons experienced in Moro wars and the
+affairs of the southern islands, where it was shown that the Moros made
+captive some 500 persons a year, whom they rendered slaves--excepting
+the old, who "were sold to the inhabitants of Sandakan, who sacrificed
+these captives to the shades of their deceased relatives or of
+prominent personages, [2] preserving the skull of the victim as
+a proof that they had complied with so barbarous a usage." It was
+shown at this council that during the time from the establishment
+of the vintas in 1778 until the end of 1793 the colony had spent
+the sum of 1,519,209 pesos fuertes for vessels, expeditions, wages,
+etc., in the warfare with the Moros, to say nothing of the losses and
+destruction caused by the pirate raids. The council resolved to abolish
+the present equipment of vintas and pancos, replacing these by lanchas
+carrying cannon, in six divisions of six lanchas and one panco each,
+with extra pay and honors to the crews; and to repair and strengthen
+all the forts on the coasts liable to attack. Aguilar attempted to open
+negotiations for peace with the Moro sultans; but these had no effect,
+the piracies still continuing. In the summer of 1794, a Portuguese
+trader of Manila who had carried goods to Joló was treacherously
+attacked on his return, when near Iloilo, by the same Moros with
+whom he had traded at Joló; but he defended his vessel bravely, and
+one of the leading dattos of Joló was killed in the fray. In August,
+1795, two vessels of the Spanish royal navy arrived at Manila, with
+tidings that the English, again at war with Spain, were planning to
+occupy the Filipinas Islands; this compelled Aguilar to desist from
+further proceedings against the Moros, for the time. It was hoped
+that Álava and his powerful squadron (who remained at Manila during
+1797-1802) might chastise the Moros, but nothing was accomplished in
+this direction--either through fear of another English invasion, or
+because of the disagreements between Aguilar and Álava. [3] On January
+21, 1798, two English ships attacked the Spanish post at Zamboanga,
+but were bravely repulsed with much damage to the invaders. In that
+year a strong force of Moros attacked the village of Baler and others
+inland from the eastern coast of Luzón [where now is the province of
+Principe], constituting the oldtime missions of Ituy; they devastated
+these towns, and seized four hundred and fifty captives, among them
+three parish curas, one of whom was sold by them for 2,500 pesos. These
+pirates were established in Burías Island for four years, from which
+center they harried the neighboring coasts. In 1799, the authorities
+decided that it was more expedient that the warfare with the Moros
+be carried on by the provincial authorities, with the direction and
+aid of the central government; and instructions to this effect were
+sent to all the alcaldes-mayor. In 1800 Aguilar established friendly
+and commercial relations with Bandajar, sultan of Borneo; and on
+November 4, 1805, his governor at Zamboanga, Francisco Bayot, made
+a treaty of peace with Mahamad Ali Mudin, sultan of Joló, in which
+the latter agreed to forbid any foreigners to reside in his dominions
+without the consent of the Spanish government, and in case of war to
+close his ports to enemies of Spain. In 1804-05 English cruisers were
+frequently seen off the coasts of Filipinas, and they even attempted
+to capture several villages on the Mindanao coast, but were repulsed.
+
+On Aguilar's death (August 8, 1806), the rule of the islands was
+assumed by the king's lieutenant at Manila, Mariano Fernández de
+Folgueras; and his first measures were for the defense of Manila, as
+there were rumors of another attack by the English. In the summer
+of 1807, there arose a rebellion in the mountains of Ilocos Norte,
+begun by certain Spanish deserters from Vigan in conjunction with
+some vagabond Indians; afterward it spread to many of the Ilocans,
+who resented the government monopoly of wine and prohibition of native
+manufacture of basi (a liquor produced by the fermentation of the juice
+of sugar cane). This revolt was put down without much difficulty,
+and the leaders were hanged at Manila; much was accomplished by the
+Augustinian fathers of Ilocos in restoring peace. In February, 1809,
+the news arrived at Manila of the French invasion of Spain, and the
+captivity of Fernando VII; the Manila authorities promptly declared
+their loyalty to that monarch. Somewhat later a French schooner of war
+was captured off the coast of Batangas, and the French authorities at
+Isle de France endeavored to persuade those at Manila that England,
+not France, was the enemy of Spain, and that the people of Filipinas
+ought to support the French interests. Folgueras answered, refusing
+to accept any such propositions, and would do no more than to return
+the French prisoners from the captured vessel.
+
+On March 4, 1810, the new proprietary governor Manuel González Aguilar,
+assumed his office. On February 14 preceding, a decree had been issued
+by the Spanish government granting to all the colonies in America
+and to Filipinas representation in the Spanish Cortes by deputies
+chosen by the various capital cities. The sessions of this Cortes
+began on September 24, 1810, and Filipinas was represented therein by
+acting deputies; afterward, one was duly chosen (Ventura de los Reyes)
+by the municipality of Manila, according to the forms required. [4]
+"In the jurisdiction of each village in the Philippine archipelago,
+there are extensive communal lands, in which the natives can keep,
+almost without cost and easily guarded, their herds of cattle and
+horses. In regard to these lands (which in that country are called
+estancias ["ranches"]), the new governor framed a useful ordinance,
+which remained in force, with good results, during a long period. (It
+has now fallen into disuse, and many of the communal lands have become
+the property, illegally acquired, of private persons.) Important
+service was rendered [to the country] by these ranches, on account
+of the increase of live-stock and its great cheapness; and a positive
+source of wealth for the provinces was initiated with the exportation
+of their cattle." In the sessions of Cortes in 1811, a decree was
+issued (January 26) that trade in quicksilver should be free in all
+the Spanish dominions of Indias and Filipinas. In the summer of 1811,
+a new rebellion broke out among the natives of Ilocos Norte, some of
+whose chiefs attempted to found a new religion, in behalf of a deity
+whom they called Lungao; [5] they endeavored to persuade the heathen
+mountain-dwellers of Cagayan to join them, but the insurrection was
+quelled promptly by the Spaniards, and the ringleaders put to death. It
+was in González Aguilar's time that the Indians were allowed to render
+the services required from them for public works on those in their
+neighborhood. In order to relieve the public anxiety and impatience
+caused by the dearth of news from the mother-country, the authorities
+of the colony undertook to publish a sort of gazette containing such
+information as was available from Europe--mostly received through
+English publications that came from Bengal. Accordingly, "the first
+newspaper in Filipinas made its appearance on August 8, 1811," [6]
+the second number appearing three days later; it was published during
+the rest of 1811 and part of 1812, and must have ceased for lack of
+material. [7] "On account of the war which España was sustaining
+against the French invaders, the religious corporations agreed to
+contribute with their donations toward the expenses of so great an
+undertaking; the Order of Dominicans gave with that object, in August,
+1812, the sum of 36,000 pesos. On March 19 the Constitution of 1812
+was promulgated at Cádiz, and orders were issued that allegiance to
+it should be sworn in all the towns of the monarchy. The deputies
+signed it on the eighteenth, and among the signatures appears that of
+Don Ventura de los Reyes." The Constitution was solemnly proclaimed
+in Manila on April 17, 1813, and the oath of allegiance was taken on
+the following day. A decree in Cortes (July 3, 1813) extended to the
+veteran troops of the over-seas colonies the same scale of rewards
+as had been recently granted to the soldiers of the Peninsula. In
+that same year a special effort was made by the Spanish government
+to add to its revenues by pushing in the colonies the sale of bulls
+of the Crusade. [8]
+
+A new governor arrived at Manila assuming command on September 4,
+1813; this was José de Gardoqui Jaraveitia, who also had appointment as
+chief of the naval station. This exasperated the treasury officials,
+for thus the entire naval force was under one head, that sent against
+the pirates [which Aguilar had stubbornly kept separate from the
+naval bureau--see "Events in Filipinas," VOL. L, pp. 23-74] being
+now taken from their control, with all its opportunities for their
+personal profit; and they opposed Gardoqui in whatever he proposed or
+undertook. [9] On February 1, 1814, a fearful eruption occurred in the
+volcano Mayón, which partially or wholly destroyed many villages in
+Albay and Camarines; hot stones, sand, and ashes were poured forth from
+the crater, and villages were thus set on fire, and their inhabitants
+killed. The slain numbered 12,000, besides many more seriously injured;
+and those who escaped lost all their possessions. The most fertile and
+beautiful districts of Camarines were converted into a desert of sand.
+
+"The introduction into Filipinas of the political reforms established
+at the metropolis [of Madrid] were the occasion, in certain localities
+of the archipelago, of lamentable disturbances of public order. The
+Indians understood that the proclamation of the political creed of
+1812, solemnly made known to the country, signified exemption from
+tributes and public services; and this absurd belief spread to such
+an extent that the governor of the islands found himself obliged to
+publish an edict on February 8, 1814, explaining the extent of the
+benefits conferred [by the Constitution], and the necessity which
+exists in every nation for paying contributions for supporting
+the expenses of the State. These explanations did not satisfy the
+Indians, and uprisings occurred in various places, principally in
+Ilocos Norte; the people claimed that they ought to be relieved,
+as were the notables, from polos and services, or the obligation of
+laboring on public works, as bridges, highways, churches, convents,
+school-houses, etc.,--an exaction which, according to them, did not go
+with the equality which was established among all by the Constitution;
+and it cost the alcalde-mayor of the province his utmost efforts to
+restrain the Ilocanos from violence." Still worse were the effects
+of the renewal of absolutism in Spain, on the return of Fernando VII
+from his captivity in France; for on May 4, 1814, he issued a decree
+abolishing the Cortes, and nullifying its acts, and immediately began
+a course of persecution and condemnation, even to death, of all the
+prominent Liberals in the country. He also reëstablished in Spain the
+Inquisition [10] (which had been abolished by the Cortes on February
+22, 1813), and the Society of Jesus. When the royal decrees were
+received in Filipinas, the Indians believed that they were false,
+and concocted in Manila; one thousand five hundred Ilocanos seized
+their arms, and began plundering, killing, and destroying throughout
+the province. This was mainly, however, a rebellion of the common
+people (Tagal, cailianes) against the ruling class, the principalía
+or notables; and the latter finally took arms against the rebels,
+aiding the Spaniards to suppress the insurrection. On July 20, 1814,
+a treaty of peace was made between Spain and France. "Gardoqui, by an
+edict of December 1, 1814, prohibited the introduction of opium into
+Filipinas, imposing on those who should violate this law six years
+of confinement in a presidio and the confiscation of the opium; and
+to those who were found smoking the drug a fortnight's imprisonment
+for the first offense, thirty days for the second, and four years
+in presidio for the third. A term of eight days was allowed in order
+that persons who might possess unsold stocks of the said drug could
+deposit them in the custom-house for reshipment to China. In the said
+year of 1814, there was built in the environs of the town of Laoag
+(Ilocos Norte) a leper hospital, at the expense of the charitable
+parish priest there, Fray Vicente Febras, an Augustinian; and this
+act is worthy of note, since this was the first establishment of the
+kind in the provinces of the Archipelago." A royal decree of August
+22, 1815, reëstablished the Jesuit order in the Indias and Filipinas;
+and another, dated December 11, commanded the seizure in the colonies
+of various political books and pamphlets, with penalties for their
+use in schools. After the death of Governor Aguilar, the Moro pirates
+were comparatively quiet for a time, but in 1813 they renewed their
+attacks on the Spanish territories, and during several years they
+harassed the latter, taking many captives, and even seizing several
+vessels, both Spanish and English, on the seas. Governor Raffles,
+of Java, after the restoration of that island by England to Holland,
+proposed to Gardoqui that they coöperate in occupying Joló and
+Mindanao; but the Spaniard declined this, protesting against any
+operations by the English in Spanish territory. "Gardoqui, during his
+term of office, caused the fortifications of Cavite to be repaired,
+making them very strong; he issued orders regulating weights and
+measures; he created the general administration for the revenues
+from wine; and he occupied himself greatly with the improvement and
+development of the tobacco plantations. The bandits, smugglers, and
+gamblers had been increasing at an alarming rate; and, in order that
+they might be promptly punished the governor appointed a military
+commission, headed by a lieutenant-colonel. Thanks to their energetic
+proceedings, the desired object was attained." Gardoqui's last days
+were embittered, and his end hastened, by the treacherous act of one
+of his secretaries, who, by substituting a false report for the one
+which Gardoqui had dictated in favor of retaining the naval bureau,
+procured the governor's unwitting signature to the former and thus
+made him appear to report adversely to the bureau; as a result,
+the bureau was suppressed by a royal decree of March 23, 1815. His
+disappointment and wounded honor so grieved him that his death soon
+resulted (December 9, 1816).
+
+The command ad interim was again assumed by Folgueras, who held it
+during nearly six years. On December 17, 1819, he reëstablished the
+"Royal Economic Society of Filipinas," as a result of royal orders
+to that effect issued in 1811 and 1813; and five days later its
+first session was held, the governor presiding, only two members
+of the original society being still alive. [11] A month later, it
+met again, with sixty new members, and Manuel Bernáldez was chosen
+director of the association; and its new ordinances were approved by
+the governor on July 24 following. Folgueras, learning that certain
+immunities and advantages had been granted to Cuba and Puerto Rico for
+the encouragement of agriculture, requested from the home government
+similar help for Filipinas; the crown decreed an investigation of the
+subject, but the fulfilment of this was delayed from time to time,
+so that not until 1848 was even a definite statement and proposal
+for action in this direction made. [12] (This was done by Rafael
+Díaz Arenas, one of the four members of the Economic Society--to
+which the investigation had been referred--who had been appointed
+to prepare the data for a report to the crown; "but we do not know
+whether the Society accepted his proposal, or whether it reached any
+definite conclusion on the subject.") In October of the year 1820,
+Manila was ravaged by a terrible epidemic of smallpox, which was
+especially fatal in the villages along the Pasig River; the corregidor
+of Tondo therefore issued an edict prohibiting the use of the river
+water. A public relief committee was organized to give the sick
+medical treatment and to furnish food to the poor; and the friars
+and the private citizens vied with the authorities in ministering
+to the victims of the pest. The medical men belonging to the ships
+anchored in the bay came to the city, and did all in their power to
+aid these benevolent efforts; but all these things only confirmed in
+the ignorant natives the fatal idea, already spread among them, that
+the disease was caused by the foreigners having poisoned the waters
+and used to this end the specimens of insects and other creatures
+which they had collected for scientific purposes. A crowd of armed
+Indians therefore gathered in the square of Binondo on October 9,
+attacked the houses of the foreigners, and murdered twenty-seven
+persons--among whom was not one Spaniard; nor did they, in plundering
+the houses, rob any Spaniard. The governor sent out some troops,
+but they accomplished nothing in checking the riot, which ended only
+at nightfall; and he did nothing to prevent further crimes of this
+sort, so that the mob renewed their acts of violence the next day,
+[13] plundering and killing many Chinese of the suburbs. This aroused
+Folgueras to activity, and he sent out a large force of soldiers to
+pursue the assassins; but the latter at once dispersed. A council
+of the authorities was called, but there were discordant opinions
+among them, and they seem to have taken no definite action. The
+municipal council of Manila called upon the governor for the proper
+legal proceedings in regard to this scandalous and lawless uprising;
+and for this purpose he appointed a commission. [14]
+
+In October, 1820, was created the office of general intendant of
+army and treasury, separate from the superior government; and it was
+conferred upon Colonel Luis Urréjola, with a salary of 5,000 pesos. In
+May, 1821, the Constitution of 1812 was again proclaimed in Filipinas,
+only to be again abrogated in 1824, as a result of Fernando VII's
+triumph (with French aid) over the Liberal party in Spain. "Folgueras
+gave great impulse to the Economic Society of Friends of the Country;
+and he attempted to found in Manila a school of medicine, surgery, and
+pharmacy, commencing for this purpose the indispensable documentary
+evidence [expediente], but he did not succeed in carrying out this
+plan--a failure much to be regretted, because nearly all of the
+towns [in the islands] had neither physician nor drug-store. As a
+compensation, the creation of the nautical academy was an excellent
+idea, for its practical results are of great value." "In 1821 appeared
+the second periodical which was published in the country, entitled El
+Noticiero Filipino; [15] [i.e., "The Philippine Intelligencer"]; and
+in the same year were published two others, El Ramillete Patriótico
+["The Patriotic Bouquet"] and La Filantropía ["Philanthropy"]. The
+life of all was of short duration."
+
+Folgueras was replaced by a proprietary governor, Juan Antonio
+Martinez, who began to exercise that office on October 30, 1822. He
+brought with him many military officers from the Peninsula, "a measure
+counseled by Folgueras, in view of the deficiency of officers in the
+regiments of Filipinas, and the little confidence which they inspired;
+and this was the cause or pretext which he advanced to the court to
+exculpate himself for not having adopted more energetic measures when
+the melancholy assassinations were committed by the Indians among the
+foreigners in 1820. The body of officers in the army of Filipinas was
+almost entirely composed of American Spaniards. These were greatly
+displeased at the increase of Peninsular officers, partly because they
+supposed that thus their own promotions would be stopped, and partly on
+account of race antagonisms." They talked so much against the newcomers
+that the governor became distrustful, and finally discovered that the
+American officers were plotting and conspiring against authority;
+he consequently arrested the persons suspected of this intrigue,
+and sent them to Spain (February 18, 1823)--among them being Luis
+Rodríguez Varela, styled El Conde Filipino ["The Filipino Count"]; [16]
+and the factor of the Company of Filipinas, José Ortega. Nevertheless,
+the plots continued, and the authorities sent him who appeared to be
+the leader in these, Captain Andrés Novales, to fight the pirates in
+northern Mindanao; he embarked (June 1, 1823), but was driven back
+by a storm, and immediately he and his accomplices determined to
+"declare themselves openly against the authority of España," and set
+up a government of their own. The insurgents (some eight hundred in
+number) seized the cabildo house, and incarcerated therein the leading
+military chiefs and some magistrates; then they murdered Folgueras,
+and took from his pockets the keys of the city; and they fortified
+themselves in the royal palace, and attempted to seize the artillery
+quarters. Here they were resisted bravely by a few loyal officers
+and men, and word was conveyed to the governor, who collected the
+troops available and sent these against the palace. The insurgents
+there were soon overcome, and many abandoned their posts and fled;
+Novales was made a prisoner, taken before a court-martial--to whom
+he declared that he had no accomplices, and was alone guilty of
+seducing the troops--and with the sergeant Mateo (who had commanded
+the insurgent force in the palace) was shot that afternoon, as
+also was Lieutenant Ruiz, who had assassinated Folgueras. Amnesty
+was extended to all the remaining prisoners, except six officers,
+who were shot soon afterward. On October 26, 1824, great damage was
+done in Manila by a severe earthquake, which destroyed the barracks,
+several churches, and many houses; and this was followed (November
+1) by a fearful hurricane, which ruined many buildings and wrecked a
+multitude of sailing vessels. In this same year the Economic Society
+founded a monthly periodical entitled Registro Mercantil [17] ["The
+Mercantile Register"].
+
+The ravages of the Moro pirates continuing, and becoming each year more
+menacing, [18] Martínez sent out an expedition against them (February
+29, 1824), which laid waste the shores of Joló and southern Mindanao,
+and killing a considerable number of Moros, among whom were three of
+their fiercest and most treacherous dattos. Martínez advocated such
+operations as this, as the only means of stopping the piracies of the
+Moros. During the period of 1823-29, the Augustinian missionary Fray
+Bernardo Lago succeeded in reducing to village life and converting
+more than eight thousand Tinguianes and Igorrots in the province of
+Abra, forming the mission of Pidigan. In 1825 Martínez was replaced
+by Mariano Ricafort Palacín y Abarca, and departed for Spain; a few
+days after leaving Manila he died, and was buried in Cochinchina.
+
+Ricafort assumed office on October 14, 1825, and by royal orders also
+took possession of the intendancy of exchequer, although Urréjola
+was continued in its charge; but in the following January Ricafort
+concluded that "this dual command was impossible," and restricted the
+intendant to certain routine functions, at the same time asking the
+approval of the home government for this proceeding. He had brought
+with him a portrait of Fernando VII, presented by the king to his
+colony of Filipinas; the municipal council of Manila decided to pay
+this portrait the same honors as if the king himself had visited the
+islands, and during the week of December 19-25 festivities of every
+kind were conducted, with the utmost display and magnificence. (Five
+years later, orders from the Spanish government were received at
+Manila, censuring the extravagant expenditures on that occasion, said,
+to amount to some 16,000 pesos, as an unwarranted and blamable use of
+municipal funds, and regulating, for the future, expenditures of this
+sort.) A royal decree of June 8, 1826, ordained that the secularization
+of parish curacies should cease, and that those ministries should
+be restored to the religious orders, which was accordingly done. On
+September 15 of that year Fray Hilarión Diez, an Augustinian, took
+possession of the archbishopric of Manila, replacing Zulaibar,
+who had died on March 4, 1824. In June a circular letter was sent
+by Ricafort to the provincial governors, reminding them of the law
+(art. 26 of the "Ordinances of good government") which forbade them
+to hinder in any way the trade in the products of the provinces,
+whether by Spaniards, natives, or mestizos, and whether in kind or
+with money, ordering them to permit trade freely everywhere, without
+any delays or exactions against those doing business. In 1827 Ricafort
+sent an expedition against Joló, which was kept off by the valor of
+the Joloans; but the Spaniards burned and ravaged the settlements
+on the shores of Illana Bay, doing the Moros much damage. In that
+same year the Spanish government reëstablished the naval bureau at
+Manila, independent of the captain-general, and Pascual Enrile was
+appointed as its chief; he proceeded to reorganize all branches of
+the service, including that intended to serve against the pirates,
+whom he was able to restrain to a great extent; and he constructed
+several cruisers and other vessels, one of which remained in active
+service for forty years. He established the jurisdiction of the bureau
+throughout the archipelago, creating port-captains for Iloilo, Capiz,
+Cebú, and Pangasinán. Ever since the insurrection of 1744 in Bohol,
+caused by the imprudence of the Jesuit Morales, the insurgents had
+(under their chief Dagohoy) maintained hostilities, not only against
+the Spaniards, but even harassing their own countrymen who occupied
+the coastal villages of that island. The Recollects, in charge of
+the missions of Bohol after the expulsion of the Jesuits, tried
+to persuade the rebels to submit to Spanish authority, and secured
+from Governor Raon a general amnesty for them; but it resulted only
+in their defying further the authority of the government, which was
+long unable to take any measures for subduing them. Finally, in 1827,
+the danger to the loyal villages of Bohol was so menacing that the
+authorities were compelled to protect them and reduce the insurgents;
+and to this end Ricafort sent powerful expeditions (May, 1827, and
+April, 1828), which after strenuous efforts compelled the rebels to
+submit. [19] That governor accomplished much during his term of office
+for the promotion of agriculture. He ordained (1825 and 1826) that the
+native gobernadorcillos should furnish to agriculturists the idle and
+unoccupied Indians within their jurisdictions, to work on the estates,
+these laborers being paid their daily wages; and on October 30, 1827,
+that all complaints in civil cases relating to farm laborers should
+be settled by the magistrates as promptly and simply as possible,
+"observing the contracts and usages of the Indians, when these
+are not unjust," and that no Indian laborer should be imprisoned
+for a purely civil debt (save those to the royal exchequer), nor
+should his animals, tools, lands, or house be seized therefor. The
+Spanish minister of the exchequer, Luis López Ballesteros, also took
+a paternal interest in the islands, and secured royal decrees for
+the benefit of their industries. One of these (dated April 6, 1828)
+encouraged the importation into Filipinas of all machinery suitable for
+spinning and weaving cotton, offered public aid to private enterprises
+for improvement in weaving and dyeing, and promised protection and
+encouragement to all projects for promoting native manufactures of
+cloth; and made the exportation of raw cotton from the islands free,
+in order to promote the cultivation of that plant. Another decree
+(of the same date) permitted the free importation of all kinds of
+agricultural machinery and implements into Filipinas; and authorized
+premiums and rewards from the public funds to Filipino farmers who
+should first make large plantations of coffee, cacao, cinnamon,
+and cloves, as also to those who should make most progress in the
+plantations of Chinese cinnamon [canelón], tea, and mulberry-trees,
+and in raising silk, etc. Those who kept in cultivation a certain
+area of land, and day-laborers who continued to work for a certain
+number of years, were exempted from paying tributes; and the native
+farmers were allowed to keep cockpits in operation daily and without
+tax, on the estates which they cultivated. "In spite of so many
+privileges, not many of them were inclined to the cultivation of
+their fields." Another royal order (April 6, 1828) made important
+regulations regarding the Chinese residing in the islands; they
+were to be gathered into villages, as were the Indians; their heads
+of barangay were to collect the tributes, as in the Indian villages,
+being allowed three per cent of the collections for their trouble; they
+were classified into three groups--those who were engaged in foreign
+or wholesale trade, those in domestic or retail trade, and artisans
+of all classes--who were obliged to pay a monthly tax of ten, four,
+and two pesos respectively; those who had settled in the islands,
+but were not married, must return to China within six months; and
+any Chinaman who failed to pay his tax for three months was to be
+sent to compulsory labor on some estate, at a specified wage, from
+which should be deducted two pesos a month until his tax dues should
+be paid. [20] Still another royal order of the same date gave free
+permission to any person of sufficient means to cultivate the opium
+poppy in Filipinas and export its product therefrom; and ordered that
+its culture should begin on lands close to Manila. Another decree
+ordained the establishment of a mint at Manila; but this desirable
+measure was not carried out until many years afterward, and the islands
+meanwhile had to suffer from the wretched clipped and debased currency
+which had so long prevailed there. On October 13, 1828, Ricafort
+published an edict that all money which came to the islands coined by
+the revolted Spanish colonies of America should be recoined at Manila,
+taxing it one per cent for this recoinage. On November 9 following,
+a long but not destructive earthquake occurred. In that same year a
+conspiracy was set on foot by some civil officials; it was discovered,
+and its promoters sent to Spain. As a result, the authorities created
+a public vigilance commission, and demanded more troops from Spain;
+a regiment was accordingly sent to Manila in 1830. By royal decree
+of October 27, 1829, it was provided that the post of superintendent
+of the exchequer should be filled by the intendant of the army and
+treasury; accordingly this charge was assumed (September 9, 1830) by
+Francisco Enriquez, who for two years had been intendant succeeding
+Urréjola. In January, 1829, an officer named Guillermo Galvey (whose
+duty it was to follow up smugglers in Pangasinán and Ilocos) conducted
+an expedition into the district of Benguet; an interesting account of
+this is found in the diary left by him. By royal decree of April 5,
+1820 Spanish vessels were permitted to enter British ports just as
+British vessels were admitted to Spanish ports. Ricafort, having
+finished his government of Filipinas, sailed for Spain at the end
+of 1830. He was a governor of good judgment and much energy, and did
+much to improve the condition of Manila and of the country. He issued
+edicts imposing penalties on those who should sing obscene songs,
+and on blasphemers, gamblers, beggars, and parents who brought up
+their children in evil ways; and he "made provision for a general
+domiciliary visitation of Manila and the formation of a list of its
+citizens, which measure resulted in many persons of bad antecedents
+abandoning the capital. He also decreed standards for weights and
+measures, which unfortunately soon fell into disuse; and he created a
+military commission with power to execute evildoers, which fulfilled
+the object of its creation."
+
+Ricafort was succeeded (December 23, 1830) by Pascual Enrile y Alcedo,
+a most zealous and able governor. He personally visited the northern
+provinces of Luzón, accompanied by his relative and adjutant, José
+María Peñaranda (afterward the governor of Albay), a military engineer,
+who afterward made journeys and surveys in a large part of the rest
+of that island; this resulted in carefully prepared itineraries,
+plans, and maps, which were utilized in the construction of highways
+and bridges, and the establishment of postal routes, which opened up
+communication between regions before destitute of such facilities,
+and sometimes in places heretofore deemed impassable. The navigable
+rivers and bayous of Pangasinán were explored and mapped; a highway
+was made in Pampanga which should be safe from the overflow of Lake
+Canarem; and explorations were made from east to west in Luzón for
+the sake of bringing the shores of the island into communication
+with the fertile plains of the interior. On May 14, 1834, Peñaranda
+was made corregidor or governor of the province of Albay, "which
+experienced a complete transformation during his just and beneficent
+rule. To him it owed its most important roads, bridges, and public
+edifices, and the promotion of its agriculture, on which account his
+name is venerated by the inhabitants of Albay; they perpetuated the
+memory of this illustrious but modest patriot by erecting, some years
+after his death, a monument to him in the plaza of the capital of the
+province." The Economic Society of Friends of the Country contributed
+to the development of agriculture, in the time of Enrile, by its
+reports, memoirs, and material support. We read with surprise, however,
+that in 1833 this Society, in an opinion requested from it by the home
+government, opposed the establishment of a mint at Manila, and informed
+Enrile that such institution was at that time unnecessary. In March,
+1831, Galvey made an expedition into the country of the Igorrots;
+and in the following December, to the district of Bacún. A decree
+of May 9, 1831, established a custom-house in Zamboanga, "in order
+to prevent the frauds committed by foreigners in the port of Joló,
+and to facilitate and promote expeditions to that point." A royal
+decree of April 24, 1832, substituted the garrote for the gallows in
+capital punishments. Another, dated February 16, 1833, provided for
+the adjustment and management of the funds belonging to the obras
+pías, which charge was entrusted later to a committee composed
+of the governor of the islands, some of the treasury officials,
+and the archbishop. [21] The treasury officials, by a decree of
+July 3, 1833, accepted the proposal of certain persons to establish
+"a lottery, at their own account and risk, offering to pay to the
+treasury forty per cent [of the receipts?], besides twenty-five per
+cent of the value of the tickets which composed each drawing, after
+furnishing adequate security as a guarantee for the fulfilment of
+their promise." The exclusive privilege of this lottery was granted
+to these persons for a period of five years. Enrile created the
+Guía de forasteros ["Guide for Strangers"] of Filipinas; it first
+appeared in 1834. Our author reproduces (t. ii, pp. 539, 540) the
+table of contents of this annual. Fernando VII died on September 29,
+1833, and was succeeded by his daughter Isabel II, to be until her
+majority under the regency of her mother, Maria Cristina; this was
+quickly followed by the Carlist insurrection, the reactionary party
+being headed by the young prince Carlos, who was proclaimed king
+as Carlos V, and civil war ensued, which for seven years stained
+the soil of Spain with the blood of her own sons. By royal order of
+August 10, 1834, the Chinese traders were restricted to the Parián,
+and those Chinese who were allowed to reside in the provinces
+must devote themselves to agricultural pursuits. Enrile issued an
+edict on October 1, 1834, removing the special duties imposed on the
+Chinese champans, and placing them under the same regulations as the
+vessels of other foreign nations. On February 2, 1835, the official
+despatches arrived from Spain which decreed the restoration of the
+constitutional regime and the convocation of the Cortes. Enrile
+strengthened the naval forces sent against the pirates [la marina
+sutil, composed of light-draught vessels], and was able to drive them
+away from the coasts of Visayas. He also increased the area planted
+in tobacco, enforced just weights and measures, endeavored to correct
+the evils resulting from the debased money of the islands, and caused
+a light-house to be erected on Corregidor Island. Our writer commends
+this governor as being "one of the most intelligent and industrious
+who have ever ruled Filipinas." "To him the country owes material
+improvements of the utmost value, of so much importance as the great
+highways of Luzón, which have facilitated the intercourse between
+the provinces, bringing them into postal communication, one after
+another, by means of the mail-routes established by him; and the
+administration of the colony is indebted to him for regulations and
+procedures that are scientific and orderly, in all the branches that
+have contributed to the development of the general welfare, making
+considerable increase in the public wealth. Agriculture, commerce,
+and navigation likewise experienced the beneficial results of this
+illustrious governor's judicious management; and his term of office was
+the source of the rapid progress which has been made from that time by
+these most important factors of the general welfare--in great part,
+thanks to the impulse received from the measures, dictated by him,
+which conduced to the natural development of those industries." Enrile
+resigned his post, and returned to Spain early in 1835.
+
+He was succeeded ad interim (March 1, 1835) by Gabriel de Torres, at
+the time the commander of the army [segundo cabo] under Enrile; as a
+military officer, he immediately proposed plans for the improvement
+of the military service; but these were checked by his premature
+death, [22] less than two months after entering on his office. In
+his place, the command was assumed (April 23) by the officer next
+him in rank, Juan Crámer; but he surrendered this office on September
+9 following to the new segundo cabo, Pedro Antonio Salazar Castillo
+y Varona. The latter, on April 25, 1836, issued an edict that "the
+plain [sencillas] pesetas coined in the Peninsula should be accepted
+[in the islands] at their lawful value of four reals vellón instead
+of five, as if they were pillar coins [columnarias]; [23] accordingly
+they began to circulate, having been recently introduced into the
+islands." On June 11, 1836, the superintendency of treasury affairs
+was assumed by Urréjola in place of Enríquez. [24] On July 28,
+Salazar found it necessary to issue an edict for the enforcement
+of the laws which prohibited carrying gunpowder and firearms to
+the Indias, and selling them in countries hostile to Spain; this
+referred especially to Moroland, where evidently the pirates had
+been thus aided by unscrupulous traders to make their raids against
+the northern islands. Salazar thought that he could restrain those
+piracies by carrying on commerce with the Moros, and therefore made a
+treaty with the sultan of Joló, Mahamad Diamalud Quiram (September 22,
+1836), which stipulated "that every three-masted ship which made port
+at Joló with Chinese passengers from Manila should pay 2,000 pesos
+fuertes, and smaller vessels in proportion to their size;" but "the
+most important cargo which went from Manila to Joló never exceeded
+2,500 pesos. The Joloan barks which should go to Zamboanga were to
+pay a duty of one per cent, and those which entered at Manila two
+per cent; but no Joloan bark was accustomed to go to Manila." The
+governor of Zamboanga also made a treaty with another Moro ruler;
+but it resulted only in increasing the insolence of the pirates,
+who paid no attention to their treaties. At the beginning of 1836,
+Salazar sent an expedition under Galvey to occupy the Igorrot country;
+but it was, despite Galvey's remonstrances, sent in too great haste,
+and without adequate preparations, and too near the beginning of the
+rainy season; they reached that region, and built some forts, but so
+many of the soldiers were attacked by sickness that the expedition
+was forced to give up the undertaking and retire, "without any other
+result than the expenditure of several thousand dollars." [25]
+In that same year, Peñaranda conducted with brilliant success an
+expedition to dislodge the pirates from Masbate Island, where they
+had fortified themselves. "Afterward, he established a system of
+signals in the provinces of the south, to watch the movements of those
+pirates." On January 26, 1837, Salazar sent an urgent request to the
+Spanish government for the despatch of Spanish regulars to supply the
+parish curacies throughout the archipelago, as (for the same reasons
+advanced by former governors) he considered the Indian clerics unfit
+for that purpose. In view of the secularization of the orders that
+had been decreed in Spain, [26] he desired that some two hundred of
+the friars there should be sent to Filipinas, which, added to those
+already in the islands, would be sufficient for the parishes. The
+political disturbances in Spain found some reflection in the distant
+colonies; and in February, 1837, there was danger of a tumult arising,
+"some insisting that the Constitution should be proclaimed, in order
+that they might utilize the change to their own advantage;" among these
+were several officers of high rank. Absurd reports were circulated
+throughout Manila: that the governor was opposed to the proclamation,
+and was intending to banish certain persons from the country, and that
+he was a Carlist, etc. Violent measures were proposed by some of the
+radicals, but these were resisted by some of the cooler heads; and
+many citizens opposed the proclamation of the Constitution, fearing
+that serious disturbances would result. Salazar, being informed of
+these things, promised that when the royal despatches arrived he
+would open them in the presence of all, and fulfil whatever orders he
+should receive from the home government. This occurred on August 26
+of that year, and the royal orders decreed that no change in political
+affairs should be made in Filipinas until the Cortes should decide the
+matter; this and Salazar's tact reconciled the contending factions. At
+the same time he received a decree reducing in all departments the
+military forces of the islands; the authorities resolved to suspend
+the execution of this order, and sent an envoy to remonstrate with
+the government on this subject--for this purpose choosing one of the
+officers who had been most prominent in the recent controversy, and
+thus removing from Manila a person whose presence there was regarded
+as dangerous. By royal order of February 1, 1836 (published in the
+islands on March 31, 1837), order was given that there should be
+compiled and published in Manila every year tables of the values of
+the moneys from the new provinces of America, in order that their
+value might, in their circulation in Manila, be properly adjusted
+to the Spanish peso; consequently, the recoinage of American money
+was stopped. A later edict ordered that from June 1, 1837, "the coin
+called cuarto should circulate at the rate of twenty to the real,
+[27] instead of seventeen as hitherto, on account of the greater
+size and weight of the new coins; and to this new subdivision were
+adjusted the prices of the measures of tobacco established therefor,
+and the revenues from wine. Also the circulation of cigars [tabacos]
+in place of money was forbidden; the Indians had introduced this on
+account of the scarcity of copper coin, and because the greater part
+of that then current was counterfeit, on which account a multitude of
+disputes had arisen. The governor decided, moreover, that the Spanish
+peseta should be accepted at thirty-two cuartos, five [pesetas],
+therefore, corresponding to the peso fuerte." A royal order of May
+31, 1837, declared certain jurisdictions--Caraga, Samar, Iloilo,
+Antique, Capis, Albay, Camarines Sur, and Tayabas--to be those of
+governors, at once military and political, who should be military
+officers appointed by the War Department; all the rest (excepting
+Cavite, Zamboanga, and the Marianas, which also were filled like
+the foregoing) were classed as alcaldeships, and appointments thereto
+should be made from the attorney-general's office [Ministerio de Gracia
+y Justicia]. The Constitution of 1837 was decreed and sanctioned by
+the Cortes on June 8 of that year; and it was ordained by that body
+that the provinces of Ultramar should be governed by special laws,
+a provision reiterated by succeeding constitutions. "From that time
+Filipinas lost its representation in the Cortes."
+
+On August 4, 1837, arrived at Manila the new governor of the islands,
+Andrés García Camba, a knight of the Order of Santiago. He had already
+spent ten years in Filipinas (April, 1825, to March, 1835), and had
+gone to Spain as the deputy of Manila to the Cortes, an honor twice
+again conferred upon him. He was received with the utmost enthusiasm,
+although the Liberals at Manila were irritated by the action of the
+Cortes in depriving the islands of representation therein; but Camba
+himself had liberal views, as well as a generous and kindly nature,
+and gained the good-will of that party. This made trouble for him,
+however, in another direction. The civil war in Spain aroused there
+great partisan bitterness, which spread to the colonies; and in
+Filipinas was a Carlist and reactionary faction, who opposed Camba
+in every way. "The regular clergy, as a body, were partisans of the
+Pretender, and not only gave him their sympathy but aided him, as well
+as the Carlist publications, with their money. The court of Madrid
+was aware of this attitude of the friars, and had already sharply
+censured Salazar for his indulgence and lenity toward them. Several
+Carlist partisans had been banished from Spain to the Marianas,
+but had gone to Manila instead, and were not only unmolested there,
+but visited and entertained by many of the most prominent people of
+the city, and especially by the ecclesiastical element. Camba found
+that Carlist reunions were being held in the convents of San Juan
+de Dios and Santo Domingo, and that even the archbishop, [Fray José
+Segui] was an avowed adherent of the Pretender; the governor tried
+to conciliate the disaffected, but with little success, since the
+clergy, the Audiencia, and many influential persons, both citizens and
+officials, were jealous and hostile toward him." [28] He was obliged to
+compel the archbishop to deposit certain funds, belonging to the Cavite
+hospital, in the royal treasury, instead of the Dominican convent; also
+to arrest a Dominican friar for conducting treasonable correspondence
+with Carlists, and to send to Spain a military officer concerned
+therein. Notwithstanding Camba's ability, integrity, and devotion to
+the interests of the islands, and his patience with his opponents,
+they exerted so much influence and carried on so many intrigues against
+him, not only in Manila but at Madrid, that they procured his recall to
+Spain; [29] and on December 29, 1838, he surrendered the governorship
+to his successor, Luis Lardizábal y Montoya. Notwithstanding the
+obstacles and difficulties which Camba continually encountered, he
+accomplished some important improvements in the administration, [30]
+the chief of these being the reorganization of the postal service,
+which from 1838 was conducted under one bureau and on modern lines;
+he improved the means of communication between the provinces, and
+pushed forward the reduction of the heathen tribes. He informed the
+Spanish government that the attempts to make treaties and alliances
+with the sultans of Joló were of no use in bringing any permanent or
+substantial advantage to Spanish navigation and commerce. In 1837 was
+published the Flora de Filipinas of the Augustinian Fray Manuel Blanco,
+the first attempt to form a compendium of Philippine botany. [31]
+A royal decree of October 24, 1838, "created in Spain a consulting
+committee for the administration of colonial affairs, as members of
+the same being appointed, among others, the ex-governors of Filipinas
+Ricafort and Enrile."
+
+A royal order of November 16, 1838, had prohibited the holding of
+provincial chapter-sessions in Filipinas; the Recollect procurator at
+Madrid remonstrated with the government against this, and the matter
+was referred to the governor and archbishop of Manila. Lardizábal
+decided that the chapters should meet, and that the senior auditor
+of the Audiencia should attend those sessions, as the representative
+of the vice-regal patron. By a decree of August 31, the governor
+regulated the status of the Chinese in the islands. They were
+"classified as transients, those spending the winter [in the islands],
+and permanent residents. They were allowed to choose the occupation
+which best suited them, without any restriction. The resident
+Chinese who should be arrested [as being] without official permit
+[cédula] or passport were condemned to labor on the public works;
+and deportation to Zamboanga, Misamis, Paragua, and Calamianes was
+decreed for all those who were serving a prison term for failure to
+pay their capitation-tax, in both Manila and Cavite, with the object
+of securing by this means a larger population for those places." On
+July 6, 1839, a weekly publication was begun in Manila entitled,
+Precios corrientes de Manila [i.e., "Prices current at Manila"], [32]
+in the Spanish and English languages. A royal decree of October 4,
+1839, provided for the introduction and circulation of books in the
+islands; the fiscal must designate those that merited examination,
+and then they must be passed upon by two censors, appointed by
+the governor and the archbishop respectively, whose opinion must
+be submitted to the fiscal; and if "there shall appear sufficient
+ground for prohibiting the circulation of any work, because it may
+contain principles, opinions, or doctrines opposed to the rights of
+the legitimate government or to the religion of the State, it shall be
+not only seized but reshipped." [33] On July 15, 1840, was opened the
+School of Commerce, established at the request of the Board [Junta]
+of Commerce. "On November 11 Lardizábal repeated Ricafort's edict of
+1828, prohibiting foreigners from selling merchandise at retail and
+entering the provinces to trade." At the end of this year important
+changes were made in the administration of financial affairs, all
+the revenues arising from government monopolies being united under
+one bureau; and another bureau was likewise created for the general
+administration of the tributes and some other branches of revenue, as
+those from cockpits, tithes, etc.; while in all the general offices of
+supervision was introduced the system of bookkeeping by double entry,
+which had been established in the royal accountancy of the exchequer
+in 1839. The governor also issued instructions for more careful and
+accurate accounting being made of municipal property and local imposts,
+in order to prevent abuses and waste of funds. Lardizábal was soon
+weary of his command, although faithful to his duties while governor,
+and so earnestly entreated the home government to allow him to return
+to Spain that finally he gained this permission; and he departed on
+that voyage (February, 1841), only to die a few days after leaving
+Manila; he was buried on an islet near Java. He was succeeded by
+Marcelino de Oráa Lecumberri.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+REMARKS ON THE PHILLIPPINE ISLANDS AND ON THEIR CAPITAL MANILA,
+
+1819 to 1822
+
+
+ADVERTISEMENT
+
+The following remarks are drawn up by one but little accustomed
+to writing, and offered with much diffidence. In them the Spanish
+character will be found perhaps severely treated; but it is necessary
+to remark, that not only these observations are, from their very
+nature, general; but farther, that they have no reference to the
+genuine or European Spanish character--a character of which the writer
+has but little knowledge, and one as essentially different from that
+which falls under consideration in the following pages, as the society
+of all convict colonies is from that of the mother country. [34]
+
+
+
+
+
+PART I
+
+THE PHILLIPPINES
+
+Of the numerous groupes of islands which constitute the maritime
+division of Asia, the Phillippines, in situation, riches, fertility,
+and salubrity, are equal or superior to any. Nature has here revelled
+in all that poets or painters have thought or dreamt of unbounded
+luxuriance of Asiatic scenery. The lofty chains of mountains--the rich
+and extensive slopes which form their bases--the ever-varying change
+of forest and savannah--of rivers and lakes--the yet blazing volcanoes
+in the midst of forests, coeval perhaps with their first eruption--all
+stamp her work with the mighty emblems of her creative and destroying
+powers. Java alone can compete with them in fertility; but in riches,
+extent, situation, and political importance, it is far inferior.
+
+Their position, whether in a political or commercial point of view,
+is strikingly advantageous. With India and the Malay Archipelago on
+the west and south, the islands of the fertile Pacific and the rising
+empires of the new world on the east, the vast market of China at
+their doors, their insular position and numerous rivers affording
+a facility of communication and defence to every part of them, an
+active and industrious population, climates of almost all varieties,
+a soil so fertile in vegetable and mineral productions as almost to
+exceed credibility; the Phillippine Islands alone, in the hands of
+an industrious and commercial nation, and with a free and enlightened
+government, would have become a mighty empire:--they are--a waste!
+
+This archipelago presents, in common with all the islands which form
+the southern and eastern barrier of Asia, those striking features
+which mark a recent or an approaching convulsion of nature: they are
+separated by narrow, but deep, and frequently unfathomable channels;
+their steep and often tremendous capes and headlands, though clothed
+with verdure to the very brink, appear to rise almost perpendicularly
+from the ocean; they have but few reefs or shoals, and those of
+small extent; and in the interior of the islands, numerous volcanoes,
+in activity or very recently so, boiling springs and mineral waters
+of all descriptions, minerals of all kinds on the very surface of
+the earth, and frequent shocks of earthquakes, all point to this
+conclusion, and offer a rich and unexplored field to the geologist
+[35] and mineralogist, as do their plants and animals to the botanist
+and zoologist; [36] the few attempts that have hitherto been made to
+examine them, having from various causes failed, or only extended to
+a short distance round the capital. [37]
+
+The climate of these islands is remarkably temperate and
+salubrious. The thermometer in Manila is sometimes as low as 70°,
+and rarely exceeds 90° in the house during the N. E. monsoon. In
+the interior it is sometimes as low as 68° in the mornings, which
+are remarkably cool, so much so as to require at time$ woolen
+clothing. None of the mountains are within the limits of perpetual
+congelation; but I think some cannot be far from it, as I have seen
+something much resembling snow on the Pico de Mindoro, and there may
+be higher ones in the interior of Magindanao. [38]
+
+Both natives and Spaniards live to a tolerable age, in spite of
+the indolent habits of the latter, and the debauches of both. The
+Spaniards are most commonly carried off by chronic dysentery, which is
+called by them "la enfermedád del pays" (the illness of the country):
+from its very frequent occurrence, at least 7 out of 10 of those who
+exceed the age of 40, fall victims to this disorder. [39] Acute liver
+complaints are very rare, as is also the chronic affection of that
+organ, unless as connected with the preceding disorder.
+
+Fevers are not common amongst Europeans, in Manila. Amongst the
+natives, the intermittent is of common occurrence, particularly
+after the rains (in September and October), and in woody or
+marshy situations. [40] This appears to be owing as much to the
+thinness and want of clothing, together with their habits of bathing
+indiscriminately at all hours, as to miasmata; and, as their fevers
+are generally neglected, they often superinduce other and more fatal
+disorders, as obstructions, &c. Tetanos in cases of wounds is of
+common occurrence, and generally fatal.
+
+Their population, by a census taken in 1817-18, amounted to 2,236,000
+souls, and is increasing rapidly. In one province, that of Pampanga,
+from 1817 to 1818, there was an increase of 6,737 souls, the whole
+population being in 1817, 22,500; but I suspect some inaccuracy
+in this. The total increase from 1797 to 1817, 25 [sic] years, is
+by this statement 835,500, or 3,360 per annum! In this census are
+included only those subject to Spanish laws. About three quarters
+of a million more may be added for the various independent tribes,
+[41] which may be said to possess the whole of the interior of the
+islands, on some of which, as the large one of Mindanao (called by
+the natives Magindanao) there are only a few contemptible [Spanish]
+posts, the interior and a great part of the coast being still subject
+to the Malay sultans, originally of Arab race.
+
+The population of the Marianas and Calamianes Islands, with that of
+Palawan, which are all included in "The Kingdom of the Phillippines,"
+are comprised in this number, but the whole of these does not exceed
+19,000.
+
+Of this number about 600 only are European Spaniards, with some few
+foreigners: the remainder are divided into various classes, of which
+the principal are, 1st, The Negroes, or aborigines; 2d, the Malays
+(or Indians, as they are called by the Spaniards); and the Mestizos
+and Creoles, who are about as 1 to 5 of the Indian population.
+
+The Negroes [i.e., Negritos] [42] are in all probability the original
+inhabitants of these islands, as they appear at some remote epoch
+to have been of almost all the eastern archipelago. The tide of
+Malay emigration, from whatever cause and part it proceeded, has on
+some islands entirely destroyed them. Others, as New Guinea, it has
+not yet reached, a circumstance which seems to point to the west as
+the original cradle of the Malay race. In the Phillippines, it has
+driven them from the coast to the mountains, which by augmenting the
+difficulty of procuring subsistence, may have much diminished their
+numbers. Still, however, they form a distinct, and perhaps a more
+numerous class of men than is generally suspected. They have in the
+present day undisturbed possession of nearly 2/3ds of the island of
+Luzon, and of others a still larger proportion.
+
+These people are small in stature, some of them almost dwarfish,
+woolly-headed, and thick-lipped, like the negroes of Africa, to
+whom indeed they bear a striking resemblance, though the different
+tribes vary much in their stature and general appearance. They subsist
+entirely on the chase, or on fruits, herbs, roots, or fish when they
+can approach the coast. They are nearly, and often quite naked, and
+live in huts formed of the boughs of trees, grass &c., or in the trees
+themselves, when on an excursion or migration. Their mode of life is
+wandering and unsettled, seldom remaining long enough in one place
+to form a village. They sometimes sow a little maize or rice, and
+wait its ripening, but not longer. These are the habits of the tribes
+which border on the Spanish settlements. Farther within the mountains
+they are more settled, and even form villages of considerable size, in
+the deep vallies by which the chains of mountains are intersected. The
+entrances to these they fortify with plantations of the thorny bamboo,
+pickets of the same, set strongly in the earth and sharpened by fire,
+ditches and pit-falls; in short all the means of defence in their
+power are employed to render these places inaccessible. Here they
+cultivate corn, rice, and tobacco; the last they sell to Indians,
+who smuggle it into the towns. This being a contraband article, as
+it is monopolized by government, the defences are used against the
+Spanish revenue officers and troops, who on this account never fail
+to destroy their establishments when they can do so, though many are
+impregnable to any force they can bring against them, from the nature
+of the passes, and from the activity of the negroes, who use their
+bows with wonderful expertness. There are indeed instances of their
+repulsing bodies of one or two hundred native troops, but affairs of
+this magnitude are very rare.
+
+To this predatory kind of warfare, as well as to the defective
+qualities, and often very reprehensible conduct of the missionaries,
+generally Indian priests (Clerigos), are perhaps to be in some
+measure attributed their unsettled habits. Those nearest the Spanish
+settlements carry on a little commerce, receiving wrought iron,
+cloth, and tobacco, but oftener dollars, in exchange for gold-dust,
+&c., or for wax, honey, and other products of their mountains. The
+circumstance of their receiving dollars, which they rarely use in
+their purchases, is a curious one; but it is a fact, and very large
+quantities of money are supposed to be thus buried; from what motive,
+except a superstitious one, cannot be imagined. [43]
+
+Of their manners or customs little or nothing is known. Like all
+savage nations, they are abundantly tinctured with superstitions,
+fickle, and hasty. One of their customs best known is, that upon the
+death of a chief, they plant themselves in ambush on some frequented
+track, and with their arrows assassinate the first unfortunate
+traveller who passes, and not unfrequently two or three; the bodies
+are carried off as sacrifices to the manes of the deceased. [44] The
+communications between the Spanish settlements are often interrupted
+by this circumstance, as no Indian will venture out when the negroes
+are known to be "de luto" (in mourning): they are also said to have a
+"throwing of spears," similar to those of New Holland, at the death
+of any eminent person. In fact, upon this, as upon all other points
+unconnected with masses and sermons, there exists a degree of ignorance
+which is almost incredible. The early missionaries, in their rage for
+nominal conversion, appear to have neglected entirely the history or
+origin of their neophytes; and, as in America, where the monuments of
+ages were crumbled to the dust to plant the cross, all that related
+to the history of their converts was considered as unprofitable,
+if not as impious, the devil [45] being compendiously supposed to
+preside over their political as well as religious institutions in
+all cases. In this belief, and in its consequent effects, the modern
+missionaries, who are mostly Indian priests, are worthy successors
+of their Spanish predecessors.
+
+The government have many missions established for the purpose of
+converting them, but with little success. Like most savages, their
+mode of life has to them charms superior to civilization, or rather to
+Christianity (for here the terms are not synonimous); and they rarely
+remain, should they even consent to be baptized, but on the first
+caprice, or exaction of tribute, which immediately takes place, and
+sometimes even precedes this ceremony, return again to their mountains.
+
+Exposed to all inclemencies of the weather, and with an unwholesome
+and precarious diet, they perhaps rarely attain more than forty
+years of age. Their numbers are supposed rather to diminish than
+increase; and in a few years this race of men, with their language,
+will probably be extinct. It is indeed a curious subject of enquiry,
+whether the language of those of the eastern islands has any, and
+what resemblance to those of Africa, or the southern parts of New
+Holland and Van Dieman's Land? [46]
+
+They are not represented as very mischievous; but if strangers
+venture too far into their woods, they consider it an aggression,
+and repel it accordingly with their arrows. Those who frequent the
+Spanish settlements are rather of a mild character; and there are
+instances of Spanish vessels being wrecked on the coast, whose people,
+particularly the Europeans, have been treated by them in the kindest
+manner, and carefully conducted to the nearest settlement.
+
+The character of the different tribes appears, however, to vary in
+this particular: some are described as treacherous and cruel, and
+those which inhabit the north western coasts of the Bay of Manila are
+accused of having frequently attacked the boats of ships, when these
+were not sufficiently guarded in their intercourse with them. The
+natives of the town in the Bay of Mariveles, at the entrance of that
+of Manila, assured the writer of these pages, that it would be madness
+to attempt accompanying them into the woods, even in disguise; and
+in this they persisted, though money was offered them to allow him
+to proceed with them.
+
+The Indians are the descendants of the various Malay tribes which
+appear to have emigrated to this country at different times, and
+from different parts of Borneo and Celebes. Their languages, though
+all derived from one stock (the Malay), has a number of dialects
+differing very materially; so much so, that those from different
+provinces frequently do not understand each other.
+
+They differ too in their character, and slightly in their manners
+and customs. The most numerous class of them are the Bisayas, [47]
+(a Spanish name, from their anciently painting their bodies, and using
+defensive armour). These inhabit the largest part of the southern
+islands. Luzon contains several tribes, of which the most remarkable
+are the Ylocos, Cagayanes, Zambales, Pangasinanes, Pampangos, and
+Tagalos. These still retain their national distinctions and characters
+to such a degree, that they often occasion quarrels amongst each
+other. Of their general character as a nation we are now to speak.
+
+The Indian of the Phillippine Islands has been strangely
+misrepresented. He is not the being that oppression, bigotry,
+and indolence, have for 300 years endeavoured to make him, or he
+is so only when he has no other resource. Necessity, and the force
+of example have made those of Manila, what the whole are generally
+characterized as--traitors, idlers, and thieves.
+
+How, under such a system as will be afterwards described, should
+they be otherwise? Say rather, that all considered, it is surprising
+to find them what they are; for they are in general (I speak of the
+Indian of the provinces), mild, industrious, as far as they dare to
+be so, hospitable, kind, and ingenuous. The Pampango is brave, [48]
+faithful, and active; the fidelity of the Cagayan is proverbial; the
+Yloco and the Pangasinanon are most industrious; the Bisayan is brave
+and enterprising almost to fool-hardiness:--they are all a spirited, a
+proudly-spirited race of men; and such materials, in other hands, would
+form the foundation of all that is great and excellent in human nature.
+
+But for 300 years they have been ground to the earth with
+oppression. They have been crushed by tyranny; their spirit has
+been tortured by abuse and contempt, and brutalized by ignorance;
+in a word, there is no injustice that has not been inflicted on them,
+short of depriving them of their liberty; and in a work published at
+Madrid in 1819 (Estado de las Yslas Filipinas, par [sic; for por] Don
+Tomas Comyn), whose author was a factor of the Phillippine company, a
+whole chapter (the 4th) is devoted to the mild and humane project "of
+establishing Spanish agriculturists throughout the islands," who are,
+"to require a certain number of Indians from the governors of towns
+and provinces, who are to be driven to the plantations, where they
+are to be obliged to work a certain time, the price of their labour
+being fixed, and then to be relieved by a fresh drove!" [49]
+
+Such a system, incredible as it may appear, has been proposed to a
+Spanish cortes; and still more wonderful, plans like these excited
+no reprobation in Manila. Such were Spanish ideas of governing
+Indians! Justice would almost tempt us to wish that this scheme had
+been carried into execution, and that the Indian had risen and dashed
+his chains on the heads of the authors of such an infernal project. And
+yet the Indian is marked out as little better than a brute; so many
+of them are, but to the system of government, and not to the Indian,
+is the fault to be ascribed.
+
+It is not here meant to accuse the Spanish laws; many of them are
+excellent, and would appear to have been dictated by the very spirit
+of philanthropy. But these are rarely enforced, or if they are,
+delay vitiates their effect. That this colony, the most favoured
+perhaps under heaven by nature, should have remained till the present
+day almost a forest, is a circumstance which has generally excited
+surprise in those who are acquainted with it, and has as generally
+been accounted for by attributing it to the laziness of the Spaniards
+and Indians. This is but a superficial view of the subject; one of
+those general remarks which being relatively a little flattering to
+ourselves, pass current as facts, and then "we wonder how any one can
+doubt of what is so generally received."--The cause lies deeper, man is
+not naturally indolent. When he has supplied his necessities, he seeks
+for superfluities--if he can enjoy them in security and peace;--if
+not--if the iron gripe of despotism (no matter in what shape, or
+through what form it is felt), is ready to snatch his earnings from
+him, without affording him any equivalent--then indeed he becomes
+indolent, that is, he merely provides for the wants of to-day. This
+apathy is perpetuated through numerous generations till it becomes
+national habit, and then we falsely call it nature. It cannot be
+too often repeated, that from the poles to the equator, man is the
+creature of his civil institutions, and is active in proportion to
+the freedom he enjoys. Who that has perused the History of Java by
+Sir S. Raffles, [50] and seen the effects of government planned by
+the talents of Minto in the spirit of the British constitution in
+that country, will now accuse the Javanese of unwillingness to work,
+if the fruits of his labour are secured to him? And yet we remember
+when a Javanese was another name for every thing that is detestable. It
+is ever thus--we blame the race, because that flatters our pride--we
+should first look to their institutions. I return to the Phillippines.
+
+The cause, then, of their little progress is "because there is no
+security for property;" or in other words, the smallness of the
+salaries of the officers of justice, as well as of other members
+of government, and the profligacy inseparable from all despotic
+governments, have laid the inhabitants under that curse of all
+societies, venal courts of justice. Does an unfortunate Indian scrape
+together a few dollars to buy a buffalo, in which consists their
+whole riches? Woe to him if it is known; and if his house is in a
+lonely situation--he is infallibly robbed. Does he complain, and is
+the robber caught? In three months he is let loose again (perhaps
+with some trifling punishment), to take vengeance on his accuser,
+and renew his depredations.
+
+Hundreds of Indian families are yearly ruined in this manner. Deprived
+of their cattle, on which they depend for subsistence, they grow
+desperate and careless of future exertion, which can but lead to the
+same results, and thus either drag on a miserable existence from day
+to day, or join with the robbers [51] to pursue the same mode of life,
+and to exonerate themselves from paying tributes and taxes, in return
+for which no protection is granted. In many provinces this has been
+carried to such an extent, that whole districts are rendered impassable
+by the robbers, [52] who even lay villages under contribution!
+
+This is the state of the inland towns. On the coasts, and while a
+flotilla of gun-boats is maintained at an expense of upwards of half
+a million of dollars annually, there is no part safe from the attacks
+of the Malay pirates from Borneo, Sooloo, and Mindanao. These make
+regular cruises to procure slaves, and have even not unfrequently
+carried them off, not only from the bay of Manila, [53] but even from
+within gun-shot of its ramparts! The very soldiers and sailors sent
+for their protection plunder them. An Indian in whose neighbourhood
+troops are posted, or who sees the gun-boats approaching, can no
+longer consider his property safe; and in the very vicinity of Manila,
+soldiers ramble about with their loaded muskets, and pilfer all they
+lay hands upon at midday! [54]
+
+Does the Indian, in spite of all this, escape, and by patient industry
+make a little way in the world? he is vexed with offices; he is chosen
+Alguazil, Lieutenant, and Captain of his town; to these offices no
+pay is attached, they always occasion expenses and create him enemies;
+he is pinched or cheated by the Mestizos, a forestalling, avaricious,
+and tyrannical race. Does he suffer in silence? it is a signal for
+new oppressions: does he complain? a law suit. The Mestizos are all
+connected, they are rich, and the Indian is poor.
+
+The imperfect mode of trial, both in civil and criminal cases (by
+written declarations and the decisions of judges alone), lays them open
+to a thousand frauds; for if the magistrate be supposed incorruptible,
+his notaries or writers (escribanos and escribientes) are not so;
+and from their knavery, declarations are often falsified, or one paper
+is exchanged for another whilst in the act of or before signing them.
+
+To such a degree does this exist, that few Indians, even of those
+who can read Spanish tolerably, will sign a declaration made before a
+magistrate without threats, or without having some one on whom they
+can depend, to assure them they may safely do so. Nor is this to be
+wondered at, when it is known that declarations on which the life
+or fortune of an individual may depend are left, often for days,
+in the power of writers or notaries, any of whom may be bought for
+a doubloon; and some of them are even the menial servants of the
+magistrate! This applies to Luzon. In the other islands, this miserable
+system is yet worse: they have seldom but one communication a year
+with the capital, to which all causes of any magnitude are sent for
+decision or confirmation; and, as the papers are often (purposely)
+drawn up with some informality, the cause, after suffering all the
+first ordeal of chicane and knavery, experiences a year's delay
+before it is even allowed a chance of being exposed to that which
+awaits it at Manila. Or should the cause be at length carried to the
+Audiencia, or Supreme Court, and there, as is sometimes the case, be
+judged impartially, the delay of the decision renders it useless--the
+sentence is evaded--or treated with contempt! This may appear almost
+incredible, but known to any person who has resided in Manila.
+
+While the civil power is thus shamefully corrupt or negligent of
+its duties, the church has not forgotten that she too has claims
+on the Indian. She has marked out, exclusive of Sundays, above 40
+days in the year on which no labour can be performed throughout the
+islands. Exclusive of these are the numerous local feasts in honor
+of the patron saints of towns and churches. [55] The influence of
+these extends often through a groupe of many islands, always to many
+leagues round their different sanctuaries; and often lasting three
+or four days, sometimes a week, according to his or her reputation
+for sanctity; so that including Sundays, the average cannot be less
+than 110 or 120 days lost to the community in a year. This alone is
+a heavy tax on the agricultural classes, by whom it is most severely
+felt; but its consequences are more so, from the habits of idleness
+and dissipation which it engenders and perpetuates. These feasts
+are invariably, after the procession is over, scenes of gambling,
+drinking, and debauchery of every description.
+
+
+               "And mony jobs that day begun,
+                Will end in houghmagandie." [56]
+
+
+Thus they unsettle and disturb the course of their labours by calling
+off their attention from their domestic cares; and by continually
+offering occasions of dissipation destroy what little spirit of economy
+or foresight may exist amongst so rude and ignorant a people. Nor is
+this all; they are subject to numerous other vexations and impositions
+under the title of church-services; such are, in some towns, five or
+six men attendant daily in rotation to bring the sick to the church
+to confess, or to carry the "Padre" with the host to their houses,
+and many others; all of which, though in themselves trifles, are more
+harassing, from their unsettling tendency, than pecuniary imposts. An
+encouragement to celibacy and its consequent evils is also to be found
+in the (to them) heavy expenses attendant on all the domestic offices
+of religion, as matrimony, baptism, &c., as well as in the increase
+of the poll-tax on married persons, for the whole of which the husband
+is responsible. The ecclesiastical expenses of a marriage between the
+poorer classes are about five dollars: the others, as christenings,
+buryings, &c., in proportion. These appear trifles; but if to these
+are added the confessions, bulas, [i.e., of the Crusade] and other
+exactions, it will be seen that these constitute no trifling part of
+the oppressive and ill managed system which has so much contributed
+to debase their real character.
+
+I say nothing here of the natural effect of the Roman Catholic
+religion on an ignorant people, who imagine, that verbal confession
+and pecuniary atonements (rarely to the injured person) are a salvo
+for crimes of all magnitudes: that such is the case, is notorious to
+every one who has visited Catholic countries.
+
+Let us for a moment retrace this picture. To whom after this is it
+attributable that the Indian is often a vicious and degraded being,
+particularly in the neighborhood of Manila?
+
+If he sees all around him thieving and enjoying their plunder
+with impunity, what wonder is it that he should thieve also? If
+his tribunals of all descriptions afford him no redress,
+or place that redress beyond his reach, what resource has he
+but private revenge? [57] If he cannot enjoy the fruits of
+his labour in peace, why should he work? If he is ignorant,
+why has he not been instructed? There exist scarcely any
+schools to teach him his duties: the few that do exist teach him
+Latin! prayers! theology! jurisprudence! and some little reading and
+writing; [58] but he is only taught to read the lives of the saints,
+and the legends of the church, whose gloomy, fanatical doctrines and
+sanguinary histories have not a little contributed to make him at
+times revengeful and intolerant. Does he prevaricate and flatter? It
+is because he dare not speak the truth, and because a long system of
+oppression has broken his spirit.
+
+Does he endeavour to advance himself a few steps in civilization? his
+attempts are treated with ridicule and contempt; [59] hence he
+becomes apathetic, careless of advancement, and often insensible to
+reproach. The best epithets he hears from Spaniards (often as ignorant
+as himself) are "Indio!" The God of nature made him so. "Bruto!" He
+has been and is brutalized by his masters. "Barbaro!" He is often
+so by force, example, or even by precept. "Ignorante!" He has no
+means of learning; the will is not wanting. In a word, the spirit
+of the followers of Cortes and Pizarro, appears to have left its
+last vestiges here, and perhaps the Indian has been saved from its
+persecutions only by the weakness of the Spaniard.
+
+Such are some of the causes which have marked the character of
+the Indian, which is not naturally bad, with some of its prominent
+blemishes. I am far from holding up the Indian of the Phillippines as
+a faultless being; he is not so; the Indian of Manila [60] has all the
+vices attributed to him; but I assert, that the Phillippine islander
+owes the greater part of his vices to example, to oppression, and above
+all to misgovernment; and that his character has traits, which under
+a different system, would have produced a widely different result.
+
+To sum up his character:--He is brave, tolerably faithful, extremely
+sensible to kind treatment, and feelingly alive to injustice or
+contempt; proud of ancestry, which some of them carry to a remote
+epoch; fond of dress and show, hunting, riding, and other field
+exercises; but prone to gambling and dissipation. He is active,
+industrious, and remarkably ingenious. He possesses an acute ear,
+and a good taste for music and painting, but little inclination for
+abstruse studies. He has from nature excellent talents, but these
+are useless for want of instruction. The little he has received, has
+rendered him fanatical in religious opinions; and long contempt and
+hopeless misery has mingled with his character a degree of apathy,
+which nothing but an entire change of system and long perseverance
+will efface from it. [61]
+
+The Mestizos are the next class of men who inhabit these islands: under
+this name are not only included the descendants of Spaniards by Indian
+women and their progeny, but also those of the Chinese, who are in
+general whiter than either parent, and carefully distinguish themselves
+from the Indians. The Mestizos are, as the name denotes, a mixed class,
+and, with the creoles of the country, like those of all colonies,
+when uncorrected by an European education, inherit the vices of both
+progenitors, with but few of the virtues of either. Their character has
+but few marked traits; the principal ones are their vanity, industry,
+and trading ingenuity: as to the rest, money is their god; to obtain
+it they take all shapes, promise and betray, submit to everything,
+trample and are trampled on; all is alike to them, if they get money;
+and this, when obtained, they dissipate in lawsuits, firing cannon,
+fireworks, illuminations, processions on feast days and rejoicings, in
+gifts to the churches, or in gambling. This anomaly of actions is the
+business of their lives. Too proud to consider themselves as Indians,
+and not sufficiently pure in blood to be acknowledged as Spaniards,
+they affect the manners of the last, with the dress of the first,
+and despising, are despised by both. [62] They however, cautiously
+mark on all occasions the lines which separate them from the Indians,
+and have their own processions, ceremonies, inferior officers of
+justice, &c., &c. The Indian repays them with a keen contempt, not
+unmixed with hatred. And these feuds, while they contribute to the
+safety of a government too imbecile and corrupt to unite the good
+wishes of all classes, have not unfrequently given rise to affrays
+which have polluted even the churches and their altars with blood.
+
+Such are the three great classes of men which may be considered
+as natives of the Phillippine Islands. The Creole [63] Spaniards,
+or those whose blood is but little mingled with the Indian ancestry,
+pass as Spaniards. Many of them are respectable merchants and men of
+large property; while others, from causes which will be seen hereafter,
+are sunk in all the vices of the Indian and Mestizo.
+
+The government of the Phillippine Islands is composed of a governor,
+who has the title of Captain General, with very extensive powers;
+a Teniente Rey, or Lieutenant Governor; the Audiencia or Supreme
+Court, who are also the Council. This tribunal is composed of three
+judges, the chief of whom has the title of Regent, and two Fiscals or
+Attorney Generals, the one on the part of the king, the other on that
+of the natives, and this last has the specious title of "Defensor
+de los Indios." The financial affairs are under the direction of
+an Intendant, who may be called a financial governor. He has the
+entire control and administration of all matters relative to the
+revenue, the civil and military auditors and accountants being under
+him. Commercial affairs are decided by the Consulado, or chamber of
+commerce, composed of all the principal, and, in Manila, some of the
+inferior merchants. From this is an appeal to a tribunal "de Alzada"
+[i.e., of appeal] composed of one judge and two merchants, and from
+this to the Audiencia, without whose approbation no sentence is valid.
+
+The civic administration is confided to the Ayuntamiento (Courts of
+Aldermen or Municipality). This body, composed of the two Alcaldes,
+twelve Regidors (or Aldermen) and a Syndic, enjoy very extensive
+privileges, approaching those of Houses of Assembly; their powers,
+however, appear more confined to remonstrances and protests,
+representations against what they conceive arbitrary or erroneous
+in government, or recommendations of measures suggested either
+by themselves or others. They have, in general, well answered the
+object of their institution as a barrier against the encroachments
+of government, and as a permanent body for reference in cases where
+local knowledge was necessary, which last deficiency they well supply.
+
+The civil power and police are lodged in the hands of a Corregidor and
+two Alcaldes: the decision of these is final in cases of civil suits,
+where the value in question is small, 100 dollars being about the
+maximum. [64] Their criminal jurisdiction extends only to slight fines
+and corporal punishments, and imprisonment preparatory to trial. The
+police is confided to the care of the Corregidor, who has more
+extensive powers, and also the inspection and control of the prisons.
+
+To him are also subject the Indian Captains and Officers of towns, who
+are annually elected by the natives. These settle small differences,
+answer for disturbances in their villages, execute police orders,
+impose small contributions of money or labour for local objects, such
+as repairs of roads, &c. &c. They also have the power of inflicting
+slight punishments on the refractory. To them is also confided the
+collection of the capitation or poll-tax, which is done by dividing the
+population of the town or village into tens, each of which has a Cabeça
+(or head), who is exempt from tribute himself, but answerable for the
+amount of the ten under him. This tax is then paid to the Alcalde or
+Corregidor, and from him to the treasury. The Mestizos and Chinese
+have also their captains and heads, who are equally answerable for
+the poll-tax.
+
+The different districts and islands, which are called provinces,
+and are 29 in number, are governed by Alcaldes. The more troublesome
+ones, or those requiring a military form of government, by military
+officers, who are also Corregidors. Samboangan on the south west
+coast of Mindanao, and the Marianas, have governors named from Manila,
+and these are continued from three to five years in office.
+
+These Alcaldeships are a fertile source of abuses and oppression: their
+pay is mean to the last degree, not exceeding 350 dollars per annum,
+and a trifling per centage on the poll-tax. They are in general held
+by Spaniards of the lower classes, who finding no possible resource
+in Manila, solicit an Alcadeship. This is easily obtained, on giving
+the securities required by government for admission to these offices,
+which consist in two sureties [65] to an amount proportionable to
+the value of the taxes of the province, which all pass through the
+Alcalde's hands.
+
+Of the nature and amount of these abuses an idea will be better
+formed from the following abridged quotations, which are translated
+from the work of Comyn before quoted (p. 16). [66]
+
+"It is indeed common enough to see the barber or lacquey of a governor,
+or a common sailor, transformed at once into the Alcalde in chief of
+a populous province, without any other guide or council than his own
+boisterous passions.
+
+"Without examining the inconvenience which may arise from their
+ignorance, it is yet more lamentable to observe the consequences
+of their rapacious avarice, which government tacitly allows them to
+indulge, under the specious title of permissions to trade (indultos).
+
+----"and these are such that it may be asserted, that the evil which
+the Indian feels most severely is derived from the very source which
+was originally intended for his assistance and protection, that is,
+from the Alcaldes of the provinces, who, generally speaking, are the
+determined enemies and the real oppressors of their industry.
+
+"It is a well known fact, that far from promoting the felicity of the
+provinces to which he is appointed, the Alcalde is exclusively occupied
+with advancing his private fortune, without being very scrupulous
+as to the means he employs to do so: hardly is he in office than he
+declares himself the principal consumer, buyer, and exporter of every
+production of the province. In all his enterprises he requires the
+forced assistance of his subjects, and if he condescends to pay them,
+it is at least only at the price paid for the royal works. These
+miserable beings carry their produce and manufactures to him, who
+directly or indirectly has fixed an arbitrary price for them. To offer
+that price is to prohibit any other from being offered--to insinuate is
+to command--the Indian dares not hesitate--he must please the Alcalde,
+or submit to his persecution: and thus, free from all rivalry in his
+trade, being the only Spaniard in the province, the Alcalde gives
+the law without fear or even risk, that a denunciation of his tyranny
+should reach the seat of government.
+
+"To enable us to form a more correct idea of these iniquitous
+proceedings, let us lift a little of the veil with which they are
+covered, and examine a little their method of collecting the 'tributo'
+(poll-tax).
+
+"The government, desirous of conciliating the interests of the natives
+with that of the revenue, has in many instances commuted the payment
+of the poll-tax into a contribution in produce or manufactures:
+a year of scarcity arrives, and this contribution, being then of
+much higher value than the amount of the tax, and consequently the
+payment in produce a loss, and even occasioning a serious want in
+their families, they implore the Alcalde to make a representation
+to government that they may be allowed to pay the tribute for that
+year in money. This is exactly one of those opportunities, when,
+founding his profits on the misery of his people, the Alcalde can in
+the most unjust manner abuse the power confided to him. He pays no
+attention to their representations. He is the zealous collector of
+the royal revenues;--he issues proclamations and edicts, and these are
+followed by his armed satellites, who seize on the harvests, exacting
+inexorably the tribute, until nothing more is to be obtained. Having
+thus made himself master of the miserable subsistence of his subjects,
+he changes his tone on a sudden--he is the humble suppliant to
+government in behalf of the unfortunate Indians, whose wants he
+describes in the most pathetic terms, urging the impossibility of
+their paying the tribute in produce--no difficulty is experienced in
+procuring permission for it to be paid in money--to save appearance,
+a small portion of it is collected in cash, and the whole amount paid
+by him into the treasury, while he resells at an enormous profit,
+the whole of the produce (generally rice) which has been before
+collected!" Comyn, p. 134 to 138.
+
+This extract, though long, is introduced as an evidence from a Spaniard
+(not of the lower order, or a disappointed adventurer, but a man of
+high respectability), of the shameless abuses which are daily practiced
+in this unfortunate country, and of which the Indian is invariably
+the victim: and it is far from being an overcharged one. Hundreds
+of other instances might be cited, [67] but this one will perhaps
+suffice to exonerate the writer of these remarks from suspicion of
+exaggeration, in pointing out some of the most prominent of them.
+
+While treating of the government of the Phillippines, we must not
+forget the ministers of their religion, and the share which they have
+in preserving these islands as dominions to the crown of Spain. This
+influence dates from the earliest epoch of their discovery. The
+followers of Cortes and Pizarro, with their successors, were employed
+in enriching themselves in the new world; and the spirit of conquest
+and discovery having found wherewith to satiate the brutal avarice by
+which it was directed, abandoned these islands to the pious efforts of
+the missionaries by whom, rather than by force of arms, they were in a
+great measure subdued; and even in the present day, they still preserve
+so great an influence, that the Phillippines may be almost said to
+exist under a theocracy approaching to that of the Jesuits in Paraguay.
+
+The ecclesiastical administration is composed of an Archbishop
+(of Manila), who has three suffragans, Ylocos, Camarines, and Zebu;
+the first two on Luzon, the last on the island of the same name. The
+revenue of the Archbishop is 4000, and that of the bishops 3000 dollars
+annually. The regular Spanish clergy of all orders are about 250,
+the major part of which are distributed in various convents in the
+different islands, though their principal seats are in that of Luzon;
+and many of them, from age or infirmity, are confined to their convents
+in Manila.
+
+The degree of respect in which "the Padre" is held by the Indian,
+is truly astonishing. It approaches to adoration, and must be
+seen to be credited. In the most distant provinces, with no other
+safeguard than the respect with which he has inspired the Indians,
+he exercises the most unlimited authority, and administers the whole
+of the civil and ecclesiastical government, not only of a parish,
+but often of a whole province. His word is law--his advice is taken
+on all subjects. No order from the Alcalde, or even the government
+[68] is executed without his counsel and approbation, rendered too
+in many cases the more indispensable from his being the only person
+who understands Spanish in the village. [69] To their high honour
+be it spoken, the conduct of these reverend fathers in general fully
+justifies and entitles them to this confidence. The "Padre" is the only
+bar to the oppressions of the Alcalde: he protects, advises, comforts,
+remonstrates, and pleads for his flock; and not unfrequently has he
+been seen, though bending beneath the weight of years and infirmity,
+to leave his province, and undertake a long and often perilous voyage
+to Manila, to stand forward as the advocate of his Indians; and these
+gratefully repay this kind regard for their happiness by every means
+in their power.
+
+Their hospitality is equally praiseworthy. The stranger who is
+travelling through the country, no matter what be his nation or his
+religion, [70] finds at every town the gates of the convent open to
+him, and nothing is spared that can contribute to his comfort and
+entertainment. They too are the architects and mechanists: many of
+them are the physicians and schoolmasters of the country, and the
+little that has been done towards the amelioration of the condition
+of the Indian, has generally been done by the Spanish clergy.
+
+It is painful, however, to remark, that much that might have been
+done, has been left undone. The exclusive spirit of the Roman church,
+which confines its knowledge to its priests, is but too visible
+even here: they appear to be more anxious to make Christians, than
+citizens, and by neglecting this last part of their duty, have but
+very indifferently fulfilled the first,--the too common error of
+proselytists of all denominations, which has probably its source in
+that vanity of human nature, which is as insatiable beneath the cowl
+as under any garb it has yet assumed.
+
+Some of them too have furnished a striking but melancholy proof of
+the eloquent moral,
+
+
+            "It is not good for man to be alone."
+
+
+Let us draw a veil over these infirmities. He who has lived amidst
+the busy hum of crowds, amidst the wild whirl of human passions and
+interests, can have but little conception of the state of that mind,
+which perhaps feeling alive to the blessings of social intercourse,
+is cut off for years from civilized men; and thus buried mentally,
+is constrained to seek all its resources within itself. [71] That
+heart is one of powerful fibre which does not sometimes show itself
+to be human....
+
+There are instances indeed of some of them forgetting in a great
+measure their language! and of others who have become almost idiots
+while yet in the vigour of life! [72]
+
+The next and lowest order of ecclesiastics are the Indian clergy
+(clerigos); they are in number from 800 to 1000, and though from the
+want of Spaniards, the administration of many large districts and
+towns is confided to them, they are as a body far from being worthy
+of such an important charge. The majority of them are ignorant to the
+last degree, proud, debauched, and indolent: in a word, they unite
+the vices of the priesthood to those of the Indian, and form a class
+of men who may almost be said to be distinguished by their vices only.
+
+This arises from various causes, of which the principal appears to be
+that of their being entirely excluded from the higher ecclesiastical
+situations. This alone, by depriving them of the most powerful stimulus
+to correct conduct, together with the very confined education they
+receive, and the impassable line drawn between them and the Spanish
+clergy, whom they are never allowed to approach, and who treat them
+with much contempt, are sufficient to account, in a great measure,
+for their apparent demerit. The fact, however, is such, whatever be
+its cause; and seldom a week passes, or at most a month, but some of
+them are brought before the ecclesiastical tribunals, under accusations
+but little creditable to their cloth.
+
+Their ordinary resort at Manila is the cockpit or the gaming table,
+where they shew an avidity and keenness which are disgraceful and
+shameless to the last degree. Yet to the guidance of beings like
+these is the unfortunate Indian in a great measure abandoned, even
+in his last moments: for from the very great proportion of these
+to the Spanish priests, and from the recluse lives of the latter,
+nearly nine-tenths of all the clerical duties are performed by the
+Indian clerigos, such as I have described them. The few who do form an
+exception, are men whose conduct is highly creditable to themselves,
+and more striking from its unfrequent occurrence.
+
+A keen and deadly jealousy subsists between these and the Spanish
+ecclesiastics, or rather a hatred on the one side, and a contempt on
+the other. The Indian clergy accuse these last of a neglect of their
+ecclesiastical duties, of vast accumulations of property in lands,
+&c., which, say they, "belong to us the Indians." The Spaniards in
+return treat them with silent contempt, continuing to enjoy the best
+benefices, and living at their ease in the convents. From what has been
+said, it will be easily seen, "that much may be said on both sides;"
+but these recriminations have the bad effect of debasing both parties
+in the eyes of the natives, and are the germs of a discord which
+may one day involve these countries in all the horrors of religious
+dissentions. [73]
+
+Such are the civil and ecclesiastical government of the
+Phillippines. We turn now to the Revenue and Expenditure, Military
+establishments, &c.
+
+Until very lately these rich islands have been a constant burden to
+the crown of Spain, money having been annually sent from Mexico to
+supply their expenses. The establishment of the monopoly of tobacco has
+principally contributed to supply this deficiency. It was established
+by an active and intelligent governor (Vasco) about 1745 [sc., 1785]
+and still continues to be the principal revenue of the country;
+and large sums have been from time to time sent home to Spain,
+as a balance against those received from Mexico. The sales of this
+article amount more or less to a million of dollars per annum. The
+extensive establishment which is kept up to prevent smuggling, and the
+expenses of purchase and manufacture, reduce its net produce to 500,000
+dollars per annum. The plant is cultivated in the districts of Gapan
+in Pampanga, in a part of the province of Cagayan, and in the island
+Marinduque to the south of Luzon. It is delivered in by the cultivators
+at fixed prices, and sent to Manila, where it is manufactured in a
+large range of buildings dedicated to that purpose, and retailed to the
+public at about 18 to 19 1/2 dollars per arroba of 25 lbs. (Spanish),
+the prices varying a little according to the harvests.
+
+The administration, inspection, and manufacture of this article,
+employ several thousand persons of both sexes (the manufacturing
+process being almost wholly carried on by women). This is not only
+the most productive, but the best conducted branch of the revenue;
+while it is at the same time the least vexatious in its operations,
+though not exempt from those objections which are common to all
+government monopolies.
+
+Another of these monopolies is that of Coco wine, as it is called
+(vino de Coco y nipa). This is a weak spirit produced from the juice
+of the Toddy tree (Borassus gomutus), [74] and from the nipa (Cocos
+nypa): of this, large quantities are used by the natives. The expense
+of collection is about 80,000 dollars, the net revenue to government
+varying from 2 to 300,000.
+
+The poll-tax (tributo) is the other great branch of the revenue;
+the manner of collecting it is described in p. 29. Its amount to
+each individual is, with some exceptions and variations in different
+provinces, 14 rials, or 1 3/4 dollars for every married Indian, from
+the age of 24 to 60. The Mestizos pay 24 rials or 3 dollars, and the
+Chinese 6 dollars each: this last branch is generally farmed. The
+amount of Indian and Mestizo tribute may be stated in round numbers at
+800,000 dollars: the expense of collecting it diminishes it to about
+640,000. The exemptions from it are disbanded soldiers, who pay less
+than others, men above 60 years of age, and the cultivators of tobacco,
+or makers of wine for the royal monopolies.
+
+The collection of this tax is always attended with much trouble, and
+it is detested by the Indians to the last degree. The exaction of it
+from the newly converted tribes, [75] and the extensive frauds which,
+as already detailed, are practised by means of it, render it the most
+oppressive of all impositions. The natives consider it (perhaps with
+some justice), as giving money to no purpose; and infallibly evade
+it by every means in their power.
+
+The customs produce from 1 to 300,000 dollars per annum. The remaining
+part of the revenue is derived from various minor sources: such are
+the cockpits, which are farmed, and produce a net revenue of 25 to
+40,000 dollars;--the Chinese poll-tax, 30,000 dollars;--"Bulas,"
+[76] (the sale of which is farmed, and produces from 10 to 12,000
+dollars);--cards, powder (a monopoly), stamps, and other articles of
+minor importance; amongst which was formerly the monopoly of betel nut,
+which is now abolished.
+
+The expenses of administration are as follows. The civil and
+ecclesiastical officers of government, 250,000 dollars. The military,
+including all classes, about 600,000; and the marine, about 550,000.
+
+The excess of revenue over the expenditure is stated by Comyn to have
+been in 1809 about 450,000 dollars, but in this is included 250,000
+received from Mexico.
+
+In 1817, by an account published by order of the Ayuntamiento of
+Manila, the amount of the revenue was--
+
+
+                                Receipts
+
+                                              Dollars
+
+            Poll Tax                                 638,976
+            Rentas (monopolies, farms, &c.)          810,784
+                                                   =========
+                Total                              1,449,760 [77]
+
+
+of which a surplus would remain when all the expenses were
+liquidated. In preceding years, some surplus has been remitted
+to Spain.
+
+The military establishment consists of three regiments of infantry,
+one of dragoons, a squadron of hussars, and a battalion of artillery,
+in all about 4500 regulars. The militia are numerous, but only one
+regiment is under arms: the total of men may be estimated at 5000,
+but on an emergency, large bodies of irregulars can be called into
+activity. In 1804, the governor, Don J. M. de Anguilar, [i.e.,
+Aguilar] is said to have had upwards of 20,000 men under arms, being
+in expectation of an attack from the English.
+
+These troops (which are all natives) are in general badly disciplined
+and officered, mostly by country-born officers, without the advantage
+of an European education, ignorant of their military duties to the
+last degree, many of them (more especially in the Mestizo regiments)
+connected with the soldiers by relationship, or at least by the tie
+of mutual indulgence, the soldier performing every menial office for
+the officer, who in return winks at the excesses of the soldier. This
+is carried to such an extent, that, not to mention such trifles as
+a garden wall or gate, a bathing house, or a stable, or at times a
+little smuggling; there are instances on record, where the commanding
+officer of a regiment has built himself a country house! the whole
+of the masonry and carpentry being performed by soldiers of his
+regiment! Another is of a captain collecting his debts by means of
+a piquet of infantry; taking possession of his debtor's house until
+payment was made!
+
+It will be easily conceived, that where these things are permitted,
+the soldiers are made subservient to other purposes; accordingly
+they have been employed to punish the paramours of their officers'
+wives--to eject a troublesome tenant--or at times to take vengeance
+for affronts, in cases where it might not be safe for the injured
+person to do so. [78]
+
+These remarks apply more particularly to the Mestizo officers. The
+Spaniards, and some of the creoles, who are but very few in number,
+form a respectable class of military men, of whom some few may be cited
+as models of spirit and discipline: but they are not sufficiently
+numerous for their example to influence the despicable beings with
+whom they are unavoidably associated; and the wealth and influence
+being generally on the side of the native-born officers, these abuses
+are permitted, and the complaints of others disregarded.
+
+It is but just, however, to remark, that their pay is excessively
+mean; it is a bare, and miserable subsistence; and due weight should
+be given to this circumstance in extenuation. A captain of regulars
+has not more than 80 dollars per month! and so on in proportion, and
+when we reflect, that from the low value of the circulating medium,
+a dollar will barely command more than a rupee in any part of India,
+much must be allowed for men so situated.
+
+Hence, though the men, arms, and accoutrements are not bad, the troops
+are, from abuses, embezzlement, and neglect, miserably deficient in
+a military point of view, and but poorly calculated to answer any
+efficient purpose. To this description, the regiment of artillery and
+Pampango militia are exceptions: the style of equipment and discipline
+of the first are a high testimony of the activity and military talents
+of their colonel. The queen's regiment is by far the most respectable
+of the infantry.
+
+Their cavalry are badly mounted, the horses being very small, and by no
+means good. The men too are clumsily equipped, with swords manufactured
+apparently in the 14th century, being straight, disproportionably long,
+and furnished with a steel poignet or basket, above which is a cross,
+resembling the rapiers of that time.
+
+Their marine is still more miserably deficient in the requisite
+qualities for essential service, and suffers more from the
+mal-administration of its various branches. All work done in the royal
+arsenal is computed to cost at least 40 per cent. more than that by
+individuals! The marine consists of a flotilla of 40 or 50 gun-boats,
+and as many feluccas, [79] of which about one half, or fewer, may be
+in constant activity; with what effect has been already remarked.
+
+Like the army, the navy is almost entirely officered by creoles
+and Mestizos, whose pay is but a subsistence, and consequently no
+prospect is offered to young men of family and enterprise who may
+have other resources.
+
+The arsenal at Cavite, about 10 miles from Manila, is well provided
+with officers and workmen, but has no docks. Vessels, however,
+may heave down with great safety; and the work, though expensive,
+is remarkably well executed.
+
+The agriculture of this very fertile country is yet in its
+infancy. Oppressed with so many enemies to his advancement, and
+placed in a climate where the slightest exertion insures subsistence,
+the Indian has, like the majority of his Malay brethren, been content
+with supplying his actual wants, without seeking for luxuries. Hence,
+and from the expulsion of the Jesuits, they have made no advances
+beyond the common attainments of the surrounding islanders.
+
+This spirited and indefatigable order of men, who, both by precept
+and example, encouraged agriculture, not only as the source of
+national greatness, but as preparatory to, and inseparable from,
+conversion to Christianity, which they well knew did not consist
+alone in ceremonies, but in fulfilling the duties of citizens and men,
+and who, whatever were their political sins, certainly possessed more
+than any other the talent of converting men from savage to civilized
+life, have left in the Phillippines some striking monuments of their
+wide-spreading and well-directed influence. Extensive convents (the
+ground stories of which were magazines), in the centre of fertile
+districts formerly in the highest state of cultivation, but now more
+than half abandoned,--tunnels,--canals,--reservoirs and dams, by which
+extensive tracts were irrigated for the purposes of cultivation,
+attest the spirit with which they encouraged this science; and if
+their expulsion was a political necessity, it certainly appears to
+have been in this country a moral evil.
+
+The restraints imposed on commerce were another insuperable
+bar to their prosperity, as depriving them of a market for their
+produce. Since foreigners have been allowed free intercourse with them,
+their agriculture has in some degree improved by the increased demand
+of produce; but under the present system, but little can be expected
+from it. [80]
+
+The soil is in general a rich red mould, with a great proportion of
+iron, and in some districts volcanic matters; it is easily worked
+and very productive: that in the immediate vicinity of Manila, and
+for four or five miles round it, extending to that distance from the
+coast of the Bay, is an alluvial soil, formed by the confluence of
+the numerous rivers with the ocean; it is stiff, and in all respects
+very inferior to the other. In some parts are extensive tracts, the
+reservoirs of the waters from the mountains in the rainy season,
+which first yield an amazing supply of fish, [81] and then a good
+crop of rice or pasture for the buffaloes.
+
+The frequent rains, and the numerous rivers and streams with which
+the country is every-where intersected, adds to its extraordinary
+fertility: it is seldom, if ever, afflicted with droughts, but is
+at times devastated by locusts (perhaps once in 10 or 15 years), and
+these make dreadful havoc amongst the canes. Their attacks, however,
+are partial, and generally take place after the rice is harvested,
+in December, disappearing before the rains. In 1818, nearly the whole
+of the canes were destroyed by them, and the Ayuntamiento of Manila
+expended from 60 to 80,000 dollars in purchasing large quantities of
+them, which were thrown into the sea. [82]
+
+The buffalo is universally used in all field labours, for which,
+however, he is but poorly calculated: the slowness of his pace,
+and his great suffering from heat, which obliges the labourer to
+bathe him frequently, occasion a very considerable loss of time,
+which is scarcely compensated by his great strength and little
+expense in keeping. Indeed, the bullock should perhaps be on all
+occasions substituted for him, excepting only in the cultivation of
+rice fields. In a few districts, this is the case; but it is with
+reluctance that the native uses him in preference to the buffalo.
+
+Their breed of horses is small, but very hardy: they are never used
+for agricultural purposes, though but few of the peasants are without
+one for riding, and many of them have two or three. In the province
+of Pampanga (the finest tribe of Indians in the Phillippines), they
+risk considerable sums on races! of which they are very fond.
+
+Their plough is of Chinese origin: it has but one handle, and no
+coulter or mould-board, the upper part of the share, which is flat,
+and turned to one side, performing this part of the work. The common
+harrow is composed of five or six pieces of the stems of the thorny
+bamboos, which at the lower part are almost solid; these are united
+by a long peg of the same, passing through all the pieces: to these
+the hard branches of thorns are left appending, and being cut off at
+a short distance from the stem, form the teeth of the instrument,
+which, rude as it is, performs its work well, and usefully, and is
+seldom out of order.
+
+For cleaning and finally pulverizing the ground, they have another
+harrow of Chinese origin, (or an invention of the Jesuits?) It is
+of wrought iron, and for simplicity and utility it is, I think,
+unequalled. By means of it they can extirpate the Lallang grass
+(Andropogon caricosum), called by them Cogon, [83] and which no other
+instrument will perform so well, that I am acquainted with.
+
+A hoe, like that of the West Indies, answers the purposes of a
+spade; and (with the basket) of a shovel. A large knife (the Malay
+Parang), called "Bolo," completes the list of their agricultural
+instruments. Machinery they cannot be said to possess, except a rude
+mill of two cylinders for cane, and another for grinding their rice,
+can be called such. The greater part of the rice is beaten from the
+husk in wooden mortars, and by hand.
+
+The rainy season commences with the S. W. monsoon, and ends in
+October. The rice (the aquatic sorts) is planted by hand in July and
+August, and reaped in December. The upland rice, of which they have two
+varieties, is planted earlier, and comes sooner to maturity. The cane
+is planted in the manner called "en canon" by the French, that is,
+the plant piece is stuck diagonally into the ground; and thus, from
+the roots being often on the surface, the plant suffers frequently
+from drought, and they have seldom two crops from a piece of cane:
+their sugar, though clumsily manufactured, is of excellent grain,
+and highly esteemed by the refiners of Europe.
+
+The indigo plant is very fine; and though, as in all countries, a
+precarious crop, yet it is far from being so much so as in India: it
+has been manufactured equal to Guatemala, but in the present day is of
+a very inferior quality: this arises from various causes, of which the
+principal are ignorance in the manufacture of it, a want of capital,
+and spirit of enterprise. They have no tanks of masonry, the whole
+process being carried on in two wooden vats of a very moderate size,
+from which the fecula is taken once a week. It is needless to remark,
+that the quality of the indigo is materially injured by this alone:
+it is also subject to many adulterations in the hands of the Mestizos,
+before being brought to market.
+
+The coffee plant was almost entirely unknown about 40 years ago, a few
+plants only existing in the gardens about Manila. It was gradually
+transported from thence to the towns in the neighbourhood of the
+lake, where it has been since multiplied to an amazing degree by an
+extraordinary method. A species of civet cat with which the woods
+abound, swallows the berries, [84] and these passing through the
+animal entire, take root, and thus the forests are filled with wild
+plants. This fact may be depended upon, and the major part of all the
+coffee exported from Manila is produced from the wild plants, and is
+equal or superior in flavour to that of Bourbon. The government, in
+1795 or 96, made an attempt to force its cultivation in the province of
+Bulacan, but forgot, as one of their own officers naivement observes,
+"Que no habia compradores ni consumidores"--that there were neither
+consumers or customers for it! It of course fell to the ground, and in
+the next passage of the same work, the Indian is partly blamed for it!
+
+The cultivation of cotton is as yet but very partial. It is of the
+herbaceous species, of a very fine quality, almost equalling the
+Bourbon, but excessively adherent to the grain: so much so indeed,
+that none of the attempts to separate it from the seed by machinery
+have hitherto succeeded; the grains passing through the rollers,
+and staining the cotton. It is cleared by the natives by means of a
+hand-mill, very clumsy in its construction, and performing so little
+work, that the cleaning costs six dollars per pekul.
+
+The principal part of the cotton comes from the province of Ylocos,
+where large quantities of stuffs are manufactured. The brown cotton,
+for which a prize was offered in 1818 by the Society of Arts, grows
+in great quantities, and is manufactured into durable cloths and
+blankets. The prices of agricultural labour vary from 1 rial [85] per
+day near Manila to 3/4 and 1/2 rial in the provinces--a plough with two
+buffaloes and a man, 2 1/2 rials. The workmen, like day labourers in
+all countries, are often "looking for sunset;" but when allowed task
+work, are willing and industrious. A plough will go over rather more
+than a loan [86] of ground in a day--about a quinion in three months.
+
+Of the produce of any given cultivation, it is difficult to speak with
+any degree of correctness: calculations of this kind are difficult
+to make amongst a people labouring each for himself, and all for the
+wants of the day: for, unaccustomed to generalize, each gives his own
+as the average, and hence the discrepancy which every person must have
+remarked who has had occasion to make inquiries of this description
+in half civilized countries, where a main point, the value of the
+labourer's time, and of that of his animals, is invariably left out, as
+is also the difference of work for himself and for a master. The tables
+given at the conclusion of Comyn's work are, as far as regards the
+vicinity of the capital, very erroneous. They are also very deficient
+in many points. [87] The following is a much nearer approximation.
+
+A quinion of land requires four ploughings and three harrowings,
+say six ploughings in all.
+
+
+                                                              Ds. Rs.
+
+Now as 1 Quinion will occupy a hired labourer about 90 days
+at 2 1/2 Rials = 28 Dollars 1 Rial, which for six times is    168   6
+Fencing, 12 Ds.; Grubbing, &c., 15; Cane Slips, 25;
+Planting, 18; Weeding and Hoeing, 30; Carriage, 18;
+Manufacture, 45; Pilones, &c., 12                             175   0
+Cost                                                          343   6
+Produce at low average, 150 Pilones, [88] salable at 3 1/2
+Ds.                                                           487   4
+                                                              =======
+    Profit                                                    143   6
+
+
+This supposes the proprietor of the cane to be possessed of a mill,
+buffaloes, &c. for the wear of which no estimate is made.
+
+The 150 pilones of sugar, each weighing about 150 lbs. gross, will
+produce the refiner who has purchased them about 100 piculs of sugar,
+of which
+
+
+                                                      S.  Ds.
+
+         80 1st sort, worth 6 1/4 Dollars             500   0
+         20 2d ditto, and Molasses, &c. 3 3/4          75   0
+                                                      =======
+                                                      575   0
+
+         They have cost him about                     487   4
+         Refiner's allowance on 100 Pilones, S. Ds.    47   8
+
+
+The profits of the refiner would appear high; and they have been so;
+but are far from what this statement appears to give, from various
+reasons, of which the chief are, the heavy capital sunk in buildings,
+interest on advances, &c. and from a want of knowledge, the enormous
+waste of labour in the process. A glance at this may give an idea of
+what trade is at these antipodes of commercial knowledge.
+
+I have termed the process "refining;" it should rather be called
+claying and sorting--and it is as clumsily managed as the ingenuity
+of man could well devise. The trade is principally in the hands of
+three or four capitalists; advances are made by these to brokers,
+the provincial merchants, who annually bring their produce to the
+capital in small vessels, [89] and to the masters of coasting traders,
+in which the sugar merchants have shares. These are made to a large
+amount, 80 to 100,000 dollars; and as the interest of this must at
+least run for six months at 9 per cent. it forms a heavy item. Losses
+and defaulters form another, say 1/2 per cent. in all 5 per cent.
+
+The pilones are delivered from November to May and June, and are
+received into extensive warehouses, which are provided with large
+court-yards and terraced roofs. Here the upper part of the pilone
+is cut off, and a quantity of manufactured sugar being pressed
+down on the top of it, a thin layer of the river mud is put on it;
+this is watered from time to time and changed once or twice, the
+pilone standing on a small foot, with the small hole at its apex
+left open, through which the molasses slowly drains, leaving the
+upper and broader part of the pilone of a fine white, gradually
+decreasing in goodness to the bottom, where it is little more than
+molasses--the pilone is then cut in two; the darker part is put by
+as second quality (or reboiled), and the whiter portion as firsts,
+of the sugar, the care taken in the process, the kind of mud used,
+&c. About two piculs of sugar from three pilones is a fair average,
+when these are of a good size. That from the province of Pampanga is
+by far the best; it is produced from a small red cane [90] about four
+feet high, and of the thickness of a good walking stick.
+
+The sugar being thus clayed, is now to be mixed, pounded, and
+dried. The last process is performed by laying it on small mats in
+the sun, on the terraces and pavements of the court-yards. On the
+slightest appearance of rain, it must be hurried under cover, and
+brought out again when this is past. So that in a manufacture of
+any size, when from 3 to 400 Chinese are employed at 4 1/2 dollars
+per month, fully 1/3d of their labour is expended on this operation
+alone. The management of the rest requires no comment.
+
+The cost of production of any of the other articles cannot be
+estimated to any degree of correctness, from the very small scale on
+which they are cultivated, and the limited knowledge of the writer
+of these remarks. Those of Comyn are erroneous.
+
+The Indians are the principal and almost the only cultivators of
+the soil, very few Mestizos or Chinese [91] being engaged in it. The
+few Spaniards and other Europeans who have attempted it, have been
+obliged to abandon their attempts to form plantations. These failures,
+or rather determination to abandon their speculations (even when in a
+promising state), have arisen from various causes; but the general one
+may be stated to be the very little security for life and property,
+in a country such as has been described. This is with the major part
+an insuperable objection; for from the moment they are established,
+and known to possess money for the payment of their workmen, they must
+be in expectation of an attack, and prepared to defend themselves;
+nor can they lie down at night free from the apprehension of seeing
+their establishments in flames before morning! either from robbers,
+or from malice of any individual who may think himself aggrieved:--the
+impossibility of obtaining justice so generally experienced by the
+Indians, and the many chances of escaping punishment, being strong
+inducements to the ill-disposed to adopt these modes of revenge. To
+this it may be added, that even were the foreigner to kill the most
+determined robber in the country, the circumstance of having done so
+in defence of his life and property, would by no means exonerate him
+from a fleecing by the inferior officers of justice, and from a long
+and tiresome process of depositions, declarations, &c. during which
+his affairs must be entirely neglected. [92]
+
+In addition to this he must lay his account with another obstacle,
+and this none of the smallest--the chance of bad faith on the part
+of those with whom he is connected; a chance which by no means will
+diminish in proportion to his success; for, let no foreigner deceive
+himself on this head in Manila; if he cannot flatter as low, or bribe
+as high as his adversary, his cause is lost by some means or other.
+
+The Phillippines also produce cacao of an excellent quality, though
+not sufficient for their consumption, a large quantity being imported
+from New Spain.
+
+Pepper is also an article of exportation, but in very limited
+quantities, the utmost the Phillippine Company have been able to
+procure being about 60,000 lbs. in favourable years.
+
+To these may be added the Abaca (Musa textilis), a species of plantain,
+from which the beautiful fibres are procured known by that name. This
+is becoming a very considerable article of exportation, both raw, and
+manufactured into cordage. The natives also consume large quantities
+of it in cordage, and as shirting cloth, into which a large portion
+of the interior and finer fibres are manufactured. Some of it is
+equal to the coarser sort of China grass cloth. [93]
+
+In Gogo, [94] a gigantic climbing plant, whose trunk attains the
+size of a man's body, is another remarkable production of these
+islands. Its branches being cut out into lengths, are coarsely pounded
+and dried in the sun: they are used as soap by all classes of people,
+the saponaceous fluid which is extracted from them being remarkably
+cleansing, and the fibres answering the purpose of a brush.
+
+It is also used in large quantities in washing the earth of rivers
+and streams, to separate the gold from them. It is not cultivated,
+but exists in great abundance in the forests, in which are also the
+sapan-wood (called Sibacao), the sandal, ebony, and vanilla. They
+abound in gums and resins, large portions of which are washed down
+by the torrents; but these are for the most part useless, either from
+the ignorance of the natives, or from the impossibility of venturing
+far in the interior.
+
+Their timber is excellent, and in a country so covered with forests,
+of course plentiful; but the want of roads and other conveniences of
+transport, renders it, in Manila, rather an expensive article.
+
+The principal timber woods are, the "Mulave" [i.e., Molave], a
+compact, heavy, yellowish wood, and almost incorruptible, perhaps
+from the very great portion of tannin it contains. Tindalo, [95] a
+hard wood, much resembling the iron-wood of the Brasils, and like it
+used for screws, &c., &c. when great hardness is required. "Betis,"
+an excellent timber tree, which grows to a very great size, and for
+its durability is generally used for the main beams of churches,
+convents, and other large buildings. The "Narra," of which there are
+two kinds, the white and red: this last is almost equal to mahogany in
+polish and durability. Banaba, a red wood resembling cedar; and many
+others of equal goodness. Of these the Banaba and Mulave are most
+used in shipbuilding, the first for planking, and the last for the
+framework. For masts, the Manga-chapuy and Palo-maria are generally
+used: the last is equal or superior to pine, both in strength and
+lightness.
+
+Their forests are not infested with those ferocious animals which are
+the terror of those of other Asiatic countries. The tiger, elephant,
+and rhinoceros are unknown: the wild buffalo and hog are the only ones
+of which the native has any dread. These attain an enormous size,
+but are not mischievous, unless provoked. The dried flesh and hides
+of these animals, as well as of deer and wild cattle, which are in
+immense numbers, form a considerable article of trade amongst the
+natives, the "tappa" or dried flesh being used for food, and the
+hides for exportation.
+
+Their serpents, however, attain an enormous size: the largest are those
+of the Boa species (Constrictor), and will devour a horse or a cow at a
+meal. [96] Of this genus there is one variety very beautifully marked,
+which frequents the houses, and is called by the Spaniards (Culebra
+casera), the house snake, [97] and by the Indians "Sawa." These are
+often seen from 10 to 12 feet in length, but are very harmless. Few
+houses are without one or more of them in the cellars, stables, &c. but
+they are seldom disturbed, as they are said to devour rats and other
+noxious animals; though, when these fail them, they attack fowls, or
+even goats. They form a favourite article of food with the Chinese,
+who keep them in jars to fatten, and the Indians may be often seen
+carrying them through the streets for sale.
+
+Of other varieties they have great numbers; some of which, as the
+"dahun palay," or leaf of rice, of a deep green and yellow, which
+frequents the rice fields, and the "mandadalag," or whip-snake, are
+excessively venomous: accidents from these animals are not, however,
+very frequent; from whence it may be concluded, that the superstition
+of the natives has greatly exaggerated the number of venomous ones: and
+this may be the more readily inferred, not only from their excessively
+superstitious character, and the common custom of all nations in this
+particular; but also from the thousand ridiculous fables told by them
+of the cameleon, which is very common in the woods, and perfectly
+harmless. The Indian name for it is "Ynyano."
+
+Of minerals they have an inexhaustible supply: gold is found in almost
+all the streams, and even in the sands of the shores of the Bay after
+blowing weather: no mines of it have as yet been wrought, though they
+are known to exist. The quantity obtained by the rude efforts of the
+natives merely washing the sands of the torrents, is very great, and
+certainly does not fall short of 4 to 500,000 dollars worth annually,
+as great quantities are expended in gilding for the churches, &c. &c.
+
+Silver is also found, but in small quantities. Virgin copper is
+another produce of their mountains: pieces of it are frequently
+met with in the torrents, and on the shores of some of the islands
+(Masbate, Burias, and Ambil). The negroes have also been seen with
+rude ornaments, and even with utensils made from it.
+
+Of iron they have whole mountains in the very vicinity of
+Manila! (provinces of Pampanga and Bulacan), some of the ores
+yielding 75 per cent. of metal, and of an excellent quality, this
+having been ascertained by some Biscayan iron-masters sent out for
+that purpose. It contains great numbers of magnets. There are some
+miserable establishments for working and smelting these ores, but
+on a very small scale; they have only produced cast iron articles,
+and those of an inferior quality. They have no forging machinery. [98]
+
+Cinnabar, lead, and tin are supposed to exist; but of these last
+there is no certainty.
+
+Sulphur is found in the neighbourhood of the volcanoes in considerable
+quantities, and is an article of export to Bengal and other places:
+the principal part of it is collected on the island of Leyté, which is
+next to Samar on the south side of the strait of St. Bernardino. It
+is collected on the edges of numerous small apertures, which emit
+at times flames and smoke. These are situated in an extensive plain
+near the sea-coast in the vicinity of the village of Dulag, on the
+eastern side of the island. With these natural advantages, and those
+are not few that still remain to be enumerated, the commerce of this
+country, like its agriculture, is still in its infancy: and this has
+been principally owing to two great causes--the trade to Acapulco,
+and the prohibitory system invariably pursued by Spain in regulating
+the intercourse with her colonies, and which here has been burdened
+with an additional weight, the monopoly of the Phillippine Company.
+
+It were a task far exceeding the intention and ability of the writer
+of these remarks to point out the causes and effects of these extensive
+evils:--a few observations only will be made to elucidate such remarks
+as may follow on the commerce of Manila.
+
+Of the prohibitory system pursued by Spain towards her colonies, it
+may perhaps be said, with as much justice as of her wars, that it was,
+"en faire un desert pour s'en assurer l'empire;" [99] for few systems
+could have been better calculated to assure the first object; the
+last has miserably disappointed its advocates, and left a striking
+lesson to the world, at which humanity has cause to rejoice.
+
+With jealousy of foreigners exceeding even the bounds of credibility,
+she invariably refused them admittance, [100] whether for scientific
+or commercial purposes; [101] or when from accident or influence
+this was obtained, the people following, and often exceeding the
+lessons of their rulers, by civil and religious persecutions, and
+contempt, contrived to render their existence almost a burden. It would
+appear to have become an axiom amongst them, remarkable only for its
+illiberality, that "a dollar gained by foreigners was one taken from
+the pocket of a Spaniard;" [102] and that in all cases where the
+interests of the merchants of the mother country and those of the
+colonies were opposed, the latter were to be sacrificed. [103] Her
+own subjects were, from the same miserable narrow policy, embarrassed
+with restrictions and conditions--permissions from the Consejo de
+las Yndias, &c. &c. that it became by no means a trifling affair to
+be able to embark for the Phillippines, unless at the risk of being
+sent home from there by the local authorities.
+
+Unable herself, from the want of manufactures and energy, to profit
+by her colonies, she obstinately refused to allow others to do so,
+and in this she invariably persisted. The fruits of such a system
+were such as might have been expected; the colonies submitted--(while
+they were obliged by force to do so), smuggled to a large amount,
+remonstrated, resisted, and declared themselves independent; and thus
+has Spain forever lost those advantages which a more liberal policy
+might have secured to her through a long course of time. [104]
+
+In the Philippines, this system, though followed for a long time,
+has been of late years successively relaxed, and the good effects
+of this modification are visible to the most indifferent observer:
+it has however left deep traces of its operations, and much is still
+wanting: the foreign merchant or adventurer, how much soever he may
+be smiled upon and caressed, has still to contend against a rooted
+and long cherished jealousy of all that is not Spanish.
+
+The Acapulco trade is another and a principal cause of the very
+confined state of the commerce of this valuable colony. A few remarks
+will be sufficient to justify the apparent paradox.
+
+The merchant of Manila (says Comyn), is "entirely different from
+the merchant of other parts of the world; he has no extensive
+correspondence, no books, or intricate accounts; his operations are
+confined to a shipment of bales to Acapulco, and to receiving the
+silver in return: and in 40 years, only one or two instances have
+occurred wherein bankrupts have been able to produce a correct set of
+books to the Consulado (or Chamber of Commerce)!" This description
+was doubtless correct at the time when it was written (1809); but
+it is just to observe that they are now much improved, and though
+not excessively enterprising, are better acquainted with the true
+principles of commerce. Such were the merchants: let us examine a
+little the trade.
+
+The basis of it was, and is, the funds called "Obras Pias" [105]
+(Pious Works). These are funds under various denominations, whose
+origin was the piety of well-meaning Spaniards, who dying rich have
+bequeathed large sums for the purpose of lending to deserving traders
+to commence or continue their career with. The administration of
+these is confided to various religious and charitable institutions,
+or to civil associations--the trustees forming a board, at which
+the sums to be lent, &c. are determined. Their statutes differ in
+many unessential points; [106] but their general tenour is the same,
+viz. that sums not exceeding two thirds of the fund shall be lent on
+respondentia at certain rates of interest, which are fixed according
+to the risk of the voyages; and these, when repaid, shall be added,
+principal and interest, to the original fund. The interests are 25 per
+cent. to Acapulco, 15 to Bengal, and so in proportion. The total of
+the capitals of these establishments (there are 12 or 14 of them),
+amounted to about three millions and a half of dollars in 1820,
+of which about two millions are due to the funds on various risks,
+principally those of New Spain: of this the major part is considered
+as lost by those best qualified to judge of the subject.
+
+The principal employ of these funds has been in the commerce to
+Acapulco; and from the facility with which capital was procured,
+the excessive gambling spirit which this introduced, as well as the
+system of mutual accommodations from the trustees of different funds,
+and the utter absence of the wholesome restraint of public examinations
+of their accounts, it has resulted that more harm than good has been
+done by these establishments. The original intentions are entirely
+perverted, a few small sums being lent to young adventurers (when they
+have powerful friends), but far the greatest part is employed by the
+trustees themselves under the name of a relation or friend. [107]
+
+When, without risking any capital of his own, the merchant might
+thus share the enormous profits of this trade, with no more exertion
+than signing the invoices and letters (they were written by Indian
+clerks), and receiving the treasure on the return of the vessel,
+it is not surprising that for nearly two centuries they neglected
+all the other commercial advantages which surrounded them, or that
+such a commerce produced such merchants: the history of it and of
+them for that period may be confined to a few words:--they were the
+agents of the merchants of Madras and Bengal, receiving and shipping
+their goods, and returning their proceeds, while their profits were
+confined to a large commission on them. [108]
+
+This trade was anciently confined to a single ship annually, the
+famous Galleon. She was fitted out, manned and armed, at the king's
+expense, and commanded by a king's officer. This was reimbursed by
+a duty of 33 1/3 per cent. on the registered cargo, the merchants
+contributing to her provisionment, and to the payment of 20,000
+dollars as a bounty to her commander. She was calculated to carry
+3,000 bales of a certain size, and the privilege of shipping these
+was confined to the holders of 1,000 tickets called "boletas," which
+were divided amongst different public bodies, charitable and religious
+institutions, the widows of the officers, &c., these tickets being
+saleable to others: [109] and of the enormous profit on this trade,
+some idea may be formed, when it is known, that with the very heavy
+expenses attendant on every stage of it, 500 dollars have been paid
+for a ticket entitling the holder to ship three bales!
+
+By regulation, the invoice was not to exceed 500,000 dollars; but this
+was always evaded. The vessels were crammed with goods, and generally
+netted 100 per cent. or even 150 on every thing taken out. [110]
+By applications from private merchants, the permissions have of late
+years been extended to their ships, and even brigs; but they still
+were encumbered with many useless restrictions and conditions, which
+of course were evaded by every means that could be devised.
+
+By the adoption of the new constitution, and the late declaration
+of the independence of Mexico, [111] which began in the seizure of a
+convoy of nearly a million of dollars belonging to the merchants of
+Manila, this trade is now almost annihilated.
+
+As has been remarked, their intercourse with the other countries is
+very limited. The Phillippine Company, who were in possession of the
+exclusive trade of Europe, have for many years taken no advantage of
+their privilege (the last ship which arrived from Spain was in 1817);
+[112] but private merchants were still debarred from doing so, till
+the promulgation of the constitution. [113] Foreigners have been,
+however, gradually admitted since 1800; and they have supplied the
+wants of the country by introducing European articles, and carrying
+off the surplus produce, when a sufficient quantity could be procured
+to employ their capital, which rarely happens without much delay. So
+rapid has been the augmentation of this trade, that though in 1813
+only 15,000 pekuls of sugar were exported, it had increased in 1818
+to 200,000, at from 6 1/2 to 9 dollars per pekul. The other exports
+of the same year were as follows:--
+
+Coffee, about 400 pekuls, at 28 dollars; Cotton, 1,000, at 20 to 25
+dollars; Indigo, 1,000 quintals, at 90 to 110 dollars per quintal;
+wax, 600 pekuls at 40 to 50 dollars; red wood, &c. &c. in large
+quantities. In a printed account, the number of foreign vessels for
+that year (1818) are stated to be, English, 18; American, 10; French,
+4; Portuguese, 2; Chinese Junks, 10, and 8 Spanish vessels. The value
+of imports as follows:
+
+
+                     Goods,    2,296,272 dollars
+                     Cash,       758,239
+                              ==========
+                              $3,054,511
+
+
+The exports, 1,205,649 dollars; but this last is any thing but correct,
+not only from the very imperfect nature of the custom-house valuations,
+but from the smuggling, which is carried on to an immense amount. It
+will be nearer the truth to estimate the imports at about 3,8, or
+3,900,000, and the exports at 3 1/4 or 3,500,000. [114]
+
+The imports consist of piece-goods for the Acapulco market, and for
+home consumption from Bengal; cambrics and handkerchiefs of plaided
+patterns from Madras; woollens, wines, spirits, silks, printed cottons,
+hosiery, hardware, &c. from Europe (principally from France); bird's
+nests, tortoise and mother-of-pearl shell, bich-de-mar [i.e., balate],
+wax, dried fish, &c. from Soolo, Borneo, and other islands of the
+Archipelago; toys, silks, nankeens, teas, and dollars from China;
+dollars from the United States; and from South America, silver,
+cochineal, and cacao. Of these articles the specie and cochineal
+are mostly exported to Bengal and Madras, and the produce of the
+Soolos and Borneo to China; the other exports have been noticed in
+a preceding page.
+
+An active coasting trade [115] is carried on by the natives amongst
+the islands, though they suffer dreadfully from the pirates; but
+such is their enterprising turn, that with these in sight, they will
+often cross from one island to another, when they have a fair start;
+and frequently set out on a long trip in a small prow [i.e., prau],
+armed only with their spears and "campilans," [116] though knowing
+the pirates to be in the neighbourhood of their track. They are well
+known in the piratical states, where a Manila slave always commands
+a higher price than any other. They have been much stigmatized in
+British country-ships, as the leaders of mutinies, &c.; but though no
+doubt can exist that they have often assisted in cutting off vessels,
+yet I question much whether the fault was not in a great measure to
+be attributed to a want of discrimination between the high spirit
+of the Philippine islander, and the meek sufferance of the patient
+Lascar--a fatal mistake, when both are trampled on, as it is to be
+feared they but too often are.
+
+This trade is carried on in pontines, [117] galeras, feluccas, and
+prows or boats of all sizes. The pontines are stout-built vessels
+of European models, from 80 to 150 tons, with two long mat sails,
+like a Chinese junk. The "galeras" are smaller, and carry a lateen
+sail, like those of the Mediterranean. The feluccas have been already
+described, and their prows and boats resemble nearly those of their
+Malay brethren. Large property is often embarked in these vessels,
+and they are conducted entirely by natives.
+
+They have but a few manufactures: the principal one is that of coarse
+gauzes, and rope from the Abaca plant, the first of which has a very
+extensive consumption and is universally worn by all classes of the
+natives. It is principally carried on in the province of Camarines,
+at the S. E. angle of the island.
+
+Considerable quantities of coarse canvas and striped cloths are
+manufactured from cotton in the province of Ylocos; and in those
+in the more immediate vicinity of the capital, the striped cloths
+called "tapis" are universally worn by the native women over their
+petticoat. None of these articles except the Abaca rope are exported,
+and probably the whole of the cloths might be imported at a cheaper
+rate than they are made. The Phillippine Company, by a mistaken policy,
+expended large sums in endeavoring to render these manufactures
+articles of export to Spain and the Americas; but after heavy and
+repeated losses, the attempt was at length abandoned.
+
+I am not certain whether there was not a clause in their charter,
+obliging them to attempt this; and from the interfering spirit
+of Spanish legislature throughout the last two centuries, it is
+more than probable it was so. For the Company must have seen the
+impropriety of endeavoring to establish manufactures in a country
+so thinly populated, and where the little security for property or
+power of enforcing contracts, must have exposed them to a thousand
+losses unknown in Europe.
+
+This last circumstance is one which is at all times a severe check on
+the prosperity of any undertaking in this country. The most shameless
+frauds are daily committed, particularly by the Chinese and Chinese
+Mestizos, and for these there is no resource; complaint is unavailing,
+for the trouble of obtaining redress is greater than the injury, and
+it is a matter of common conversation--how so and so has been cheated
+in his contracts. They appear to mistake indolence for compassion,
+and allow themselves to be robbed with impunity, rather than pursue the
+offender, or, should they do so, the magistrate to whom they apply is
+but too apt, if the affair is intricate, to mistake procrastination
+for deliberation, and thus the culprit escapes unpunished. The
+losses of private merchants and the individuals in this way, would,
+if enumerated, exceed belief. Another and a most serious drawback to
+the commercial prosperity of the Phillippines, has been the negligence
+or ignorance, or both which have prevented the establishment of bonded
+warehouses, or a system of drawback duties on re-exportations. A glance
+at their position, and the consideration of the monsoons, will convince
+any one, that this was of all things that for which ample provision
+should have been made; and it would be no exaggeration to say, that
+this commerce would in a few years have increased tenfold with China
+alone, had this plan been adopted. The enormous duties and vexatious
+spirit of the Chinese government, together with, what must doubtless
+be often the case, the fleecing combinations of the Hong merchants;
+[118] would long ago have driven every vessel from their ports, could
+another have been found near enough to insure a supply of goods,
+which, from the enterprising spirit of the Chinese, could not have
+failed. Manila is this port. From Amoy and Nankin, the granaries and
+workshops of the eastern provinces, the most fertile and commercial
+part of the empire, it is but a short run to Manila; and thus, when
+the Chinese could freely trade in their favourite article, opium,
+[119] and find too an assortment of European and Malay goods, while
+the European could complete his investment of funds with the valuable
+produce of China, [120] without the expense of the measurement duties,
+and while the Malay could trade with both, an emporium might have
+risen, inferior only perhaps to Batavia or Calcutta.
+
+An attempt was made in 1817, by a Spanish merchant, to commence
+something of this sort. He purchased a quantity of Turkey opium from
+an American, with an understanding that it was to be reshipped, on
+payment of a small additional duty. It was so, but a quantity of the
+opium was plundered from the custom-house godowns, and the proprietor
+was told "that the king was not responsible for losses."
+
+It would be foreign to the object of a cursory sketch like the present
+to enter farther into the details of this subject. Enough has been
+said to bear out an assertion, which those who are acquainted with the
+trade will not think exaggerated, that had this system been fairly and
+equitably established, one half of the trade to China would before this
+have centered at Manila; and it is only at Manila that the advantages
+of such a transit could have been unknown or neglected in the 19th
+century. I proceed to make some observations on the capital and its
+inhabitants. [121]
+
+
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+MANILA
+
+
+Manila, [122] the capital of the "kingdom of the Phillippines," [123]
+in lat. 14° 26' N. and long. 121° 3' East of Greenwich, is situated
+on the eastern side of an extensive bay in the western coast of the
+island Luzon, or Luconia, as it is sometimes called. It is a captain
+general-ship (not a viceroyalty), and archbishopric, and the seat of
+the Audiencia, or Supreme Tribunal.
+
+The city forms nearly a sector of a circle, of which the center is a
+point formed by the coast and the influence of a small but rapid river,
+the Passig, which flowing to the westward, and passing to the north of
+the city, discharges the waters of an extensive lake about 30 miles
+distant from the town. This river is navigable for vessels of 250
+tons for a small distance from its entrance, which is formed by two
+fine moles, built by the municipality of the city. On the southern
+of these is a small semicircular battery for four guns, and on the
+other a light-house. The southern or outer mole is much out of repair.
+
+The constant and rapid current of the river forms a bar at its
+entrance, over which there is 10, and at times 11 feet water at spring
+tides, in a narrow channel close to the battery.
+
+The city is well fortified on the sea and land faces, but on that
+towards the river very indifferently, being only defended by a
+long curtain with a few ill-constructed bastions, which from their
+diminutive size are rather playthings than bastions. The curtain is
+narrow, and confined on the inside, and unfit for guns of calibre;
+the buildings within the city overlooking, and even joining the wall
+in some places. On the other side of the river, within 200 yards of
+this curtain, are a number of stone houses, along the whole length
+of its bank; and the bases of these being walls of eight and ten feet
+thick of solid masonry, would afford an immediate cover for an enemy,
+who might breach the curtain in ten minutes at so short a distance,
+and with perfect safety, the fire from some of these taking the whole
+of the works on the N. Eastern side in reverse. Indeed its only defence
+on this side is the river, [124] the current of which is always rapid.
+
+Over it is a neat but narrow stone bridge of ten arches, which joins
+the city at its northern angle to the suburbs. On the city side of
+the bridge is a square tower, with an archway pierced through it,
+and with embrasures on the top. This is intended as a "tête de pont;"
+but it is too small for any effective purpose, and, like the bastions
+on this face, resembles a military plaything; and this defect is the
+more striking, as the fortifications, from this angle on the land
+and sea faces, are remarkably handsome and well proportioned.
+
+At the north-western point of the city, which joins the mole,
+is the citadel of Santiago, a clumsy old-fashioned fortification,
+separated from the rest of the city by a narrow ditch with a stone
+bridge, but joined by the curtains of the bastions. It is incapable
+of any respectable defence, except from a semicircular bastion,
+which forms the point, and commands the moles and entrance to the
+river. It is now used as a state prison and magazine. The convicts
+employed in the public works are also lodged in it. This was the
+refuge of the unfortunate foreigners who escaped from the massacre
+on the 9th of October 1820; and to the honour of the commandant
+(Col. Don A. Parreno), and his lady be it recorded, they found there
+another home.
+
+The length of the city within the walls is 1,300 yards Spanish, from
+N. W. to S. E.; its width 744, and circumference 4,166. The side
+towards the river, it has already been remarked, is, from the want
+of bastions, and from the encumbered state of the approaches to it,
+in a very defective state. The sea and land faces are exactly the
+reverse of this, being remarkably clear and strong.
+
+The land face has a double ditch, and an esplanade of five or six
+hundred yards in breadth, which towards the river is marshy and
+swampy, and utterly unfit for military operations. Towards the sea,
+and for some miles along the coast, is an epaulement, [125] thrown
+up when in expectation of an attack from the English in 1804. On
+this esplanade formerly stood a church, from the tower of which
+the English under Sir W. Draper fired into the heart of the city:
+[126] it is now razed. There is also a small battery called Charles
+the Fourth's, on an elevated spot in the marshy ground; it is about
+350 yards from the fortifications and is mostly used as an exercising
+battery. Another redoubt of stone stands at the southern point of the
+outer ditch, and flanks the sea shore to a considerable distance to
+the southward: it also serves to cover the head of the outer ditch,
+which is not carried round the sea face, apparently for want of room,
+as its crest would nearly approach high water mark in this part.
+
+There are six gates to the city, two on each face: those on the
+land side have neat stone bridges over the outer ditch, which are
+not mined, and, being of solid masonry, would be found cumbersome
+in case of an attack. The inner ones, and those on the sea side,
+are of wood or stone pillars with drawbridges. The ditches are wide
+and deep, but much encumbered with mud and weeds, from which last
+the fortifications also have suffered. The bastions on the sea and
+land sides are in many places without embrasures, the guns being
+"en barbette." [127] The shore is not very flat, and will perhaps
+allow a frigate to lay within gunshot of the ramparts.
+
+Within the walls of the city is the cathedral, the inside of which is
+very handsome, though the exterior is destitute of all symmetry, and
+seems to have been intended as a contrast to the majestic architecture
+of the interior.
+
+The governor's palace resembles a decent barn or warehouse, both
+externally and internally. It is large, dirty, and ill distributed,
+the basement being used as a prison.
+
+The Cabildo, or Town House, is a handsome building, and the only
+one in the country which has any pretensions to symmetry, of which
+the architects of the Phillippines take every opportunity of shewing
+a sovereign contempt:--so much so, that it is rare to find even the
+doors and windows, or the angles of a room, correctly placed and laid
+out! These three buildings form three sides of a small square, the
+only one in the city, of about 100 yards on each side, the fourth side
+being occupied by private houses. In the centre is a handsome pedestal
+of reddish marble, on which no statue has yet been placed. [128]
+
+The streets of the city are narrow and dirty; and the middle being
+a hollow, in rainy weather forms a continued puddle. They are paved
+at the sides with granite from China, the stone in the immediate
+neighbourhood of Manila being too soft. The pavement is not in good
+repair, and in some streets only occupies one side; the other, which
+is generally occupied by a large house, or the wall of a convent,
+being heaped up with dirt, rendered solid by long accumulation,
+and forming a hill against the wall, the receptacle of.... This is
+not confined to bye-lanes, but is most common in the great square
+(Plaza Constitucional) in front of the cathedral! [129]
+
+The city and suburbs are well lighted, and the European quarters of
+the last are cleaner than the city.
+
+The convents, which occupy nearly one third of the whole area of the
+city! are more distinguished for their size and massy architecture,
+than for their beauty. The church and convent of St. Augustine,
+and that of the Jesuits (now fast falling to decay), are, however,
+neat and well built. That of San Domingo is the most extensive.
+
+The hospital of St. John of God, a military order of Knights
+Hospitallers, is extensive, but for want of funds, is but indifferently
+entertained. [130] There is also a university (St. Thomas), two
+colleges for the instruction of Indians and mestizos, and three
+convents of nuns, who receive girls to educate. There are also two
+schools for girls, both endowed by the piety of single individuals;
+the first of these being a Spanish lady, who came out from Spain for
+the express purpose of devoting herself to the education of Indian
+and mestizo girls! The other is that of a mestizo woman of the village
+of Binondo, a suburb of Manila.
+
+There are some large houses, but they are generally ill-built and
+inconvenient, the rooms being often excessively large, and always
+badly laid out. The ground floor is used for warehouses, stables,
+&c. and always includes a large court-yard. The first floor only
+is inhabited. The architecture of the lower part is very massive,
+being often walls of solid masonry of eight or ten feet thick, with
+large arches from side to side, and connected with massy beams. At
+the height of the floor, these walls are discontinued, and on them are
+raised at distances clumsy pillars of brickwork, or at times of wood
+(which is seldom straight). These pillars are connected at the top by
+large joists in all directions, having wooden forelocks driven through
+them close to the pillars; and on this framework are laid the rafters
+for the tiled roof; the interstices of the pillars, and divisions of
+the rooms, being filled up with brick and plaster. The ends of the
+floor timbers being allowed to project over the walls, form a gallery
+of eight or ten feet in width along the front of the house, and round
+it when insulated: this gallery is boarded for about four feet in
+height in front, and then filled up with sliding windows, the small
+panes of which are filled with plates of thin mother-of-pearl shell,
+[131] forming one continued window, like the front of a hot-house. The
+communication to this gallery is by wide folding doors from the rooms,
+a large one having four or five, which thus admit light and air into
+the apartments; but the shell windows, when closed against the sun,
+transmit an intolerable heat, and the houses are not in general cool
+ones. The galleries are often used as dressing, and even as bathing
+rooms; and as they overhang the streets, the passenger is often
+sprinkled from them, in consequence of this dirty practice.
+
+The exterior of these galleries being painted a curious mixture of
+tawdry colours, such as black, grey, blue, yellow, and red, in panels,
+flowers, ovals, &c. on white or grey grounds, with their shell windows
+above, and the grated ones of the godowns below, gives a tawdry and
+unsociable appearance to the houses. The better sort, and those newly
+built, have venetians, which greatly improves both their appearance
+and comfort.
+
+All the houses have a cross, and some two or three, on the roof or
+gables, as a preservative against evil spirits, [132] and lightning;
+and though few years pass without many accidents from the latter, the
+crosses are still preserved in preference to conductors, even in the
+magazines, not one of which is provided with this useful preservative,
+though that of the citadel contains many thousand pounds of powder.
+
+The suburbs of the city are extensive, and contain many stone houses,
+in which some of the principal inhabitants reside, and generally all
+the foreigners, the vicinity of the river, and its many branches,
+rendering it more convenient for business.
+
+The custom-house is a plain octagonal building of considerable
+extent, and contains a fine courtyard surrounded with an arcade,
+and extensive magazines for warehousing goods. These, from neglect
+and the ravages of the white ants, are fast falling to decay, and
+in a few years the building will be a ruin; it is now very dirty
+and ill-arranged, the entrance not being convenient to the river,
+and wanting quays and a crane. The officers of this establishment
+are in general attentive, civil, and indulgent to foreigners, though
+the length of their siestas does not contribute to the dispatch of
+business. There is no interpreter attached to this establishment,
+nor is the king responsible for goods or money deposited in it,
+this being solely at the merchant's risk.
+
+The "Calzada," or public drive, is a broad neat carriage road,
+leading round the outer face of the outer ditch, from the bridge,
+round the land and sea faces of the fortifications to the river. It
+is planted with trees, and forms a good drive, having roads leading
+from it into the country, whose rich and cultivated appearance gives
+the stranger a high opinion of its fertility. The roads are however
+much in want of waterings in dry weather, the dust of the principal
+one being at these times insufferable.
+
+On the road leading to the village of Santa Anna is the cemetery,
+[133] a building well worth the attention of strangers both as a
+novelty in itself, and as in some measure redeeming the character of
+the architecture of this country from its general want of interest
+and symmetry.
+
+It consists of two concentric circular walls, about ten feet apart
+and fourteen in height, both surmounted with a balustrade. The inner
+wall forms the periphery of a circle of about 250 feet in diameter,
+and is pierced with three rows of small semicircular arches, which
+form the entrances to as many arched, oven-like receptacles, formed
+in the space betwixt the walls, and of a size just calculated to
+receive a coffin, to which purpose they are appropriated.
+
+There are from two to three hundred of those receptacles; and when
+occupied, the entrances are walled up. The plot of ground in the centre
+is crossed by two broad stone walks, the borders of which are planted
+with flowers and shrubs; the remaining space is used for interments.
+
+On the further side from the gate, and joined to the wall, is a
+handsome chapel of an oval shape, the roof being a dome. The interior
+of this chapel is remarkably neat; and the altar, which is white, and
+gold, is particularly so, from its elegant simplicity and chasteness
+of ornament: on each side of it are repositories for the remains of
+governors and bishops.
+
+Without are flights of steps leading to the terrace joining the walls,
+and two passages leading to a smaller building at the back of the
+chapel, and in the same style as the large one. This is called
+the "Angelorio" and a recess in it the "Ossario." The first is
+appropriated to the remains of infants and children, and the last to
+the bones which may in time accumulate. This purpose suggests the only
+objection which is apt to arise in viewing the building, which is,
+that, as in the course of time the receptacles must be filled up,
+those which have been first occupied must be opened, and the bones
+displaced to make room for others. To many this is a most revolting
+objection, and would appear to indicate a dulness of feeling and
+want of sentiment, which, though far from being uncommon at Manila,
+by no means accords with the spirit and style in which the building
+is executed, or with the reflections it is apt to excite.
+
+There are no other buildings in the neighbourhood of Manila worthy
+the attention of the stranger. The appearance of the surrounding
+country is rich, and in some parts highly cultivated; but an air
+of neglect and dilapidation is visible throughout, which strikingly
+marks the apathetic character of both classes of its inhabitants. It
+is remarkable, too, that the neatness of the native villages, and
+the apparent comfort of the people, increase in direct proportion
+to their distance from the capital, as the influence of government
+is less felt, and the Indian, knowing no other authority than the
+"Padre," retains more of his original character.
+
+The vices of Spanish colonies have been often the theme of those
+who have visited them; and when speaking of Manila, they have seldom
+exaggerated. [134] It has been observed, and with some justice, that
+"to know the education of the children, is to know the character
+of a people." If this be true, but little can be said for Manila,
+where this highly important duty is more neglected than perhaps in
+any civilized part of the globe.
+
+The majority of the young are abandoned entirely to the Indian
+servants, who soon familiarize them with all that is vicious. They
+know but little of their parents more than as the master and mistress
+of the house, whose hand they must kiss, kneeling, every morning and
+evening. By five years of age they smoke cigars, ride out at night by
+moonlight, abuse the Indians, and not unfrequently their parents. At 12
+they are debauched. At 18 or 20 they marry, and then form the citizens
+for which such an education has prepared them. They are seldom or
+ever taught any useful employment or profession. This the majority of
+them would look upon with the utmost contempt: "Soy gracias a Dios,
+de sangre noble," [135] is their reply to any advice of this kind;
+and this is a passport to a cadetship in the army or colonial marine;
+which, though attained at the age of 12 or 13, seldom finds them with
+any vice unlearnt. The girls are educated nearly in the same manner,
+as far as to the acquirement of any useful knowledge. They are sent
+to the nunneries till 12 or 14 years, and from thence married. Of
+household duties they know little or nothing, and of any thing else,
+still less.
+
+The manner of living is nearly as follows: The gentlemen rise about
+six or seven, and take chocolate. They then lounge about in their
+shirts and trowsers (the former often outside of the latter) till
+nine, when they dress, and dictate a letter or two to their writers
+(they rarely write for themselves); at 10 they breakfast, after which
+they go out in their carriages to transact any business they may have
+in town. At 12 or 1 they dine, and from table retire to sleep the
+siesta, till 4--at 4 chocolate [136]--at 5 drive on the esplanade,
+or into the country, till 6 or 7, when visits are received or made
+till 10 or 11; supper is served hot at this hour, and at midnight they
+retire to sleep. Some of these evening parties (tertulias) are lively
+and pleasant, but at most of them gambling is carried on with great
+avidity. Both ladies and gentlemen smoke at these, as well as at balls
+and other assemblies. They drink but little wine or strong liquors,
+their ordinary beverage being water, which is handed round in large
+glasses with sweetmeats, which are always eaten before drinking water.
+
+Society in Manila is at a very low standard: in a community,
+the majority of which are men of inferior classes, no very select
+assemblies can be expected; and those whose character and education
+might have given another tone to it, are here, from necessity,
+amalgamated with the crowd. There are in fact only a few houses where
+a respectable society can be met with; at others the stranger is
+disgusted with a coarseness of manners, and with unfeeling or often
+excessively indelicate conversation, and an ignorance of the most
+common branches of knowledge that must be heard to be credited.
+
+Hence, exclusive of some of the civil and military officers of
+government, the agents of the Company, and a few respectable
+merchants and priests, the remainder are but little qualified
+for select society, and there exists amongst them a want of moral
+discrimination, a toleration of publicly known vicious characters of
+both sexes, that is not a little embarrassing to the stranger. This
+is more particularly the case with the female part of society,
+with many of whom "era tentada la pobrecita por el demonio!" [i.e.,
+"The poor woman was tempted by the devil"] appears to be a salvo,
+both at confession and in society, for failings which in Europe
+inevitably and justly entail expulsion from it.
+
+Such is the society of Manila, and such its manners: from them the
+general character of those who compose it may be easily imagined; they
+are polite in offering every thing--but do but little or nothing:--they
+affect great decency of manners and a religious deportment in all their
+actions; but any thing but this is to be found in the conduct of the
+generality; and a common remark amongst themselves, "Esta no es tierra
+para un hombre de bien," [137] is worth a chapter on the subject.
+
+This may be thought an exaggerated, or at least a highly coloured
+picture, and it is natural that it should be so. A recital of
+a well-known custom may add an evidence to these assertions,
+premising that it is not the only, though the most prominent one
+that attracts the notice of the stranger: I allude to that of
+promiscuous bathing. This shamefully indecent custom could exist
+in no country where the common decencies of life were held in due
+consideration. Imagine the members of a large family, the father,
+mother, children, young and old, any visitors who may be in the house
+and often part of another family, all assembled in a large bath, built
+out on the river with bamboos, the women with only a petticoat and
+a gauze chemise, and the men with a thin pair of drawers, and this
+continuing for one or two hours. This is a Manila bath, to which it is
+no uncommon thing for an acquaintance to be asked, and in which 4/5ths
+of all the families in Manila indulge. It may be said in extenuation,
+that from its frequency no evil arises from it: this may be the case,
+but it is not the less indecent on that account.
+
+The policy of Spain towards the Phillippines appears to have been
+to preserve them--no matter how, as it afforded occasion to remark,
+"that the sun never set in the dominions of his Catholic majesty." Its
+neglect of so rich a colony can only be supposed to arise from
+ignorance, or from a mistaken determination to sacrifice it to the
+Americans: from which, this is not the place to enquire. It will
+suffice to observe, that in Spain it has been at all times considered
+as the "ne plus ultra" of expatriation: a natural consequence of this
+was the state of society which has been shewn to exist. [138] Nor is
+this idea confined to Spain alone: Mr. Whitbread, when addressing the
+House on the tyranny of Ferdinand to the liberal party, concluded in
+the following manner: "Some have perished on the scaffold--others in
+the dungeons of Ceuta--and others, still more horrible to relate,
+have been sent to linger out their days amidst the savages of the
+Phillippine islands!"
+
+The islands have suffered too from another cause, the adoption of the
+Spanish language as that of the courts of justice, &c. &c. and the
+consequent neglect of that of the natives amongst the higher classes
+of Europeans. Hence they are ignorant of the feelings and prejudices
+of the people they govern, and who look to them for example, or at
+least for precept; and not a little of the extensive influence of the
+priesthood may be owing to their intimate knowledge of the language,
+and the mutual confidence which results from this. The Indian,
+meanwhile, has not neglected the language of his masters; and as
+from the Indian writers, who transact all business, every thing is
+known, it follows, while both mistakenly consider their interests
+as separate, the natives and creoles have much the advantage. Both
+despise and detest the Spaniards, the majority of whom, divided into
+factions of Andaluces, Montaneses, Serviles, and Liberales, [139]
+abuse each other cordially; while the few who know and feel that
+there are other and higher duties owing from them to the Indian, must
+look on with regret, or complain to be disregarded or insulted. The
+disaffected, and those who have nothing to fear and every thing to
+hope from a popular commotion, do not lose sight of these advantages;
+and are rapidly spreading doctrines gleaned from the works of Voltaire,
+Rousseau, Tom Paine; &c. and stimulating them with songs of liberty and
+equality; as unfit for them as they were for the creoles and slaves
+of St. Domingo, to whose fate the Phillippines are fast verging, and
+from which nothing but some extraordinary event can save them. [140]
+
+The 9th of October, 1820, has given a fatal blow to the power of Spain
+in this country; for much as has been written and said on the subject,
+it is questionable whether there exists any country of black men,
+where the white is not looked upon as an intruder; and "the country
+belongs to the Indians," "La tierra es de los Yndios," is a common
+remark, even amongst the lower orders. Moral or political injustice
+seldom fails to recoil on the head of the oppressor; and when the
+government of Manila allowed an indiscriminate massacre and pillage
+of European foreigners by the mob, and by their shameful lenity gave
+a tacit sanction to it, they taught the Indian, that he might with
+equal impunity attack them. The plunder then obtained is a premium
+to future violence; and perhaps the day is not far distant, when they
+may bitterly repent the hour in which they allowed the Indian to feel
+his physical superiority.
+
+This he is now hourly taught, and the doctrine of "El Pueblo Soberano"
+[i.e., "the sovereign people"] is hourly echoed in his ears by
+those who are least capable of managing him when once aroused. "La
+Constitucion" is made the pretext for every thing subversive of good
+order and due restraint; the convulsed state of Spain, the imbecile
+indecision of the present government, and the recent revolution of
+Mexico (another example to the many already before them), will not
+a little tend to accelerate the crisis to which, it is to be feared,
+they are fast approaching; a crisis to which every political body must
+be subject, who would govern an ignorant people by laws made for an
+enlightened one, and who forget in their speculations, that though
+the civil institutions of a people may be changed in a few hours,
+their moral character cannot; and on it and its influence throughout
+the circle of social intercourse depends the portion of real freedom
+which a people can enjoy.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+Such was the outline of the state of these islands in 1822. Severe
+and frequent as the censures are which are passed in the foregoing
+pages, the writer is not conscious that they are in any instance
+unjust or exaggerated, or that praise has been withheld wherever it
+might be due. The unprejudiced, honourable, and well-informed, will,
+he hopes, think so, the opinion of others is indifferent to him:
+they will perhaps too believe, that his object has neither been to
+flatter nor to wound, but, if a sketch like this had originally any
+object, a hope that when their true state was better known these
+islands might be better appreciated--perhaps better governed; that
+a cruelly-abused class of men (the natives) might one day find their
+condition ameliorated; and lastly, that when this fair and rich portion
+of the earth shall be visited by men of science, a few general remarks
+on their state at any given period, however ill drawn up, might be of
+some use. Who indeed can but reflect with pain, that while the torch
+of science has blazed in the western hemisphere, from Greenland to the
+Antarctic, bearing with it light, and life, and hope, and blessings,
+few are even aware how very much it has yet to illumine in the East!
+
+
+                                 Finis
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+REFORMS NEEDED IN FILIPINAS
+
+
+    Opinion regarding the causes which antagonize the security and
+    progress of the Filipinas Islands
+
+
+Most Excellent Sir:
+
+The Filipinas Islands, on account of their great extent, their
+advantageous location in the center of the commercial world of Asia,
+their considerable population, and the fertility of their soil--which
+is capable of yielding all the products which are grown between the two
+tropics--require from his Majesty's paternal government a carefully
+planned system of measures which shall strengthen their peace and
+internal security, and at the same time advance their agriculture,
+industry, and commerce to that high degree to which they have been
+destined by Providence.
+
+As I am charged by order of the king our sovereign to furnish
+information regarding the measures which can contribute to objects
+so important, it will be my plan to point out (but with that
+circumspection which is so necessary in matters of colonial policy
+and administration) the causes which today are antagonizing both the
+internal and external security of those islands and their successful
+administration--civil, economic, and commercial--proposing in regard
+to each one of these the correctives which have been impressed upon me
+by my experience as consulting attorney [asesor] and judge in all the
+public affairs of justice, army and navy, the government, revenues,
+and commerce; and my own observations under popular revolutions,
+changes in the system of government, and other vicissitudes and
+critical positions in which that colony has been seen during the long
+period of my residence therein.
+
+
+
+
+OF THE CAUSES WHICH ANTAGONIZE THE INTERNAL SECURITY OF THE FILIPINAS
+ISLANDS, AND OF CORRECTIVES FOR THEM
+
+
+Of the present composition of the divisions of the army
+
+The army of the Filipinas Islands, in view of the class of men of
+whom it now consists, offers very little (if any) moral confidence
+for their resisting the force of the revolutions which may be formed
+in the very bosom of the islands. It is officered, in great part,
+by Spaniards of the country, and by some Americans and mestizos; and
+the disposition, tendencies, and education of the latter class are
+(with very rare exceptions) absolutely different from those of the
+other and European officers; consequently, there exists between the two
+classes, from the outset, a certain insuperable disunion of feeling,
+between not only individuals but the two classes. The officer who
+is a native of the country has all the lax characteristics which the
+climate induces. He lives in exclusive intercourse with his neighbors,
+and separated from the Europeans. He likes the military career solely
+for the conveniences connected with his office; he is incapable of
+a noble emulation, and limits himself in the service to the outside
+and very inexact fulfilment of the necessary obligations of his
+position; and when the cause of the legitimate government exacts on
+his part sacrifices incompatible with his own interests or those of
+his neighbors, he disowns and absolutely abandons his duties. For
+these reasons the officers born in that country have never come to
+merit the confidence of their chiefs; and if from the rank of cadets
+they have been promoted to that of captain, it has been more from the
+peremptory necessity of completing the military corps and protecting
+the service than on account of their fitness, military spirit, or
+appreciation of the confidence and honor which the king bestows on
+them. Such sentiments they can never possess until they undergo a
+rigid training moral and political, in the colleges of España. This
+mental divergence, and the natural contrariety of their temperaments,
+so mischievous in the ordinary service of military bodies, are much
+more lamentable in the crisis of a revolution. The officers of the
+country, being nearer to the Indian soldiers in their customs and
+language, make common cause with the latter, and seduce and lead
+them into their own faction, with a marvelous readiness; this I have
+repeatedly seen in the mutinies of military bodies which have occurred
+in the Americas, and especially in that of the troops in the kingdom
+of Guadalajara in the year '21, and in that at Manila in the year '23.
+
+The army of Filipinas also contains a considerable number of Indian
+sergeants and corporals, and this is another of the causes from
+which have already arisen, and always will arise, seditions in the
+corps. Whoever has observed the natural disposition of the Filipino
+Indian will recognize two things: First, that he always imitates
+and obeys only that which is directly commanded, explained, and
+taught to him; and, second, that while he is kept in his simple
+condition of laborer, artisan, or soldier he is entirely void of
+ambition. The Indian soldier serves very contentedly during the eight
+years of his term, and returns to his own land without aspiring to
+anything; but when he is placed in command, of any degree whatever,
+he is filled with pride, and vehemently desires to be at the head
+[serlo todo], without changing, for all that, his station as an
+Indian. [The writer states that even these non-commissioned officers
+were formerly always Spaniards; [141]] the appointment of Indians to
+these posts has been only in these last years, in which a system of
+commerce which entirely separated those islands from their center of
+government has rendered impossible the despatch of reënforcements,
+so necessary to those islands. From that very time may be noted much
+laxity in the military service and discipline; and I have witnessed the
+insurrections and disorders which never were known in former days. In
+the popular uprisings in the suburbs of Manila, at the end of 1820,
+[142] the detachments commanded by Indian corporals who were sent
+out to pacify the villages took such part in the lawlessness that
+they even attacked houses, and it was by their gunshots that many
+foreigners were butchered. In the military insurrection of June 3,
+1823, parties of troops commanded by only one officer (a Philippine
+Spaniard), without any previous plan or any combination, and simply
+by appearing before the barracks of their regiment and offering
+to make captains of the Indian sergeants, immediately persuaded
+them to revolt; and, directing the soldiers at their own pleasure,
+they committed the lamentable and horrible acts of that day, which
+ought to be kept well in mind. [This should be a warning against
+allowing the Indians any place of command, especially as they have
+more influence with the common soldiers than do the superior officers;
+and all military posts of command should be filled with competent and
+trained Spaniards. The writer urges the following measures of reform:
+(1) that a sufficient number of Spanish officers to fill all the posts
+of sergeant and corporal, and a surplus number to fill vacancies
+as they occur, shall be sent to Filipinas annually; (2) the class
+of cadets should be suppressed, who "have always been (with a few
+exceptions) very unsatisfactory officers; for, belonging to very poor
+and obscure families, and receiving no kind of education, in a country
+which so depraves and corrupts a youth, they demoralize the soldiers,
+and cause the military career to be held there in slight esteem;" (3)
+in future, no other officers except the heads of corps should be sent
+there from the Peninsula, so as to make room for promoting the lower
+officers, and to avoid demoralizing the young Spaniards; (4) that
+the Indian and mestizo sergeants or corporals who, after fulfilling
+their twelve years of all service, have to be replaced by Spaniards,
+shall be given places in the custom-house or revenue service, or in the
+monopoly shops, so as to recompense them for losing their posts.] In
+this manner the Indian soldier--who is docile, and always imitates
+the desires and opinions of his immediate superiors--will receive more
+disinterested treatment than he has hitherto had; he will make common
+cause with his leaders, in critical cases of popular revolutions;
+and the army will remain loyal and incorrupt in its opinions, always
+ready for its duty, and united in action and interests.
+
+
+
+Of the enlargement of the army of the islands
+
+The colonies are governed and maintained more by opinion, justice and
+example than by force of arms. When opinion in them becomes corrupted
+up to the point of forming great conspiracies, the offensive action
+of the army produces no other effect than to hasten the ruin of the
+legitimate government. [In the Filipinas Islands, the persuasions
+and example of the ministers of religion, and the measures taken by
+the civil authorities, have been usually sufficient to put down an
+uprising; but it is not well to rely too much on military force in
+such cases, since such action causes rankling resentment and unites
+the discontented in the common effort to throw off the yoke. It is
+impossible, in such a climate, to employ only Spaniards in the army,
+since they cannot endure it, and the expense of such an army would also
+be too great a burden on the royal treasury.] The army of Filipinas,
+then, ought not to have a greater force than is sufficient to defend
+and maintain, in any event, a post or locality that is impregnable,
+which can serve as a protection and defense to the government, its
+interests and employees, and the families of Spanish blood. A center
+of strength, ordered and disciplined, of this sort (the locality of
+which I will mention later), will be inaccessible not only to three
+millions of inhabitants who now people the islands, but to thirty
+millions who might inhabit them; and this idea alone in the mind
+of the Filipino Indian is the most efficacious for disconcerting,
+in its origin or progress, any plan for conspiring or taking by
+surprise. [In such a point of vantage, the government can use measures
+of policy,] which in revolutions are more effective than arms for
+reëstablishing order, without leaving in the minds of the people,
+as war does, deep feelings of resentment at being repressed; and the
+partial revolutions in the provinces will be always broken--as thus
+far have been those of Ilocos, Cebú, Bataan, and others--by the zeal
+and sagacity of the European religious and coöperation of the civil
+employees of the king. In such a crisis, the principle is, to disunite
+sagaciously the opinions and feelings of the people; and repression by
+force only unites them. [If the military forces, the forts, and the
+navy be augmented, the only results will be to demoralize the army,
+make unnecessary display of the government's power, teach the Indians
+the art of war (which as few of them as possible ought to know), and
+impose unendurable burdens on the treasury. Plans of this sort ought
+to be postponed until the country can bear such burdens. The present
+permanent veteran force of the islands seems to Bernaldez sufficient
+for the above purpose;] it consists of four battalions of infantry,
+each containing approximately one thousand men; of a cavalry corps,
+recently increased to three squadrons; and a brigade of artillery,
+with a force of four hundred forty-four men, including a light-armed
+company. The following may also be regarded as permanent troops: a
+company, called the Pampanga, annexed to the service of the engineer
+corps; and three brigades called the "pirate marines" [marina
+corsaria], who have been in service twenty years. [The system of
+rewards is costly and useless. The soldier receives enough pay to live
+comfortably, in a country where living is so cheap; "it is equivalent
+for an Indian, and even for a Spaniard, to three times the same amount
+in Europa." The rewards given to the soldiers ought to be reduced in
+such measure as the circumstances of the colony demand, "taking for
+a basis the fact that with four hard dollars a month any inferior
+employee can maintain himself and all his family comfortably in the
+provinces, and that all beyond that is extravagance." The Pampanga
+company has no organization; it ought to be placed on a military
+basis, with European officers, and ranked as a company of pioneers,
+when it would be very useful in the service. The militia troops of the
+islands have been neglected, although they are (especially the pirate
+marines) so important in checking the Moro pirates. The commanders
+are "men of no force, arbitrarily chosen by the governor there, from
+the class of merchants and private citizens of Manila, who possess
+only honorary titles, without any military instruction or love for
+the military career." The militia forces do not cost the government
+much, but they are of very little use. Bernaldez thinks that the
+pirate marines ought to be regarded as a part of the regular army,
+with the same pay, and with European officers. The cavalry corps of
+Luzon is untrained, and would be of little use in an invasion of the
+country; it ought to be replaced by light and irregular cavalry, and
+supplemented by a small body of veterans. Two squadrons in the corps
+of dragoons of Luzon would be sufficient to preserve order in Manila,
+and the third ought to be abolished as unnecessary.]
+
+
+
+Of the artillery and its dependent branches
+
+[The artillery corps is in better condition than any other part of
+the military force of the islands; it is under better discipline,
+and has always been under European officers. The Indians are in great
+terror of the cannon. When in the tumult of 1820 Folgueras ordered
+three pieces to be planted at various points outside the walls,
+the natives implored him to take the cannon away, as the inhabitants
+were so terrified that they did not dare to cross the streets; and
+in the disturbances of 1809 in Ilocos, "only one four-libra cannon,
+fired by a revenue-clerk, the ball from which hit a church-tower, was
+sufficient to curb and disconcert more than 10,000 insurgents." To
+this corps might be added (but as footmen) the company which should
+be disbanded in the cavalry, since in so rough and broken a country
+as Luzon horsemen are of little use. The artillery in Manila is of
+wretched quality: almost all of it was cast there, at various periods,
+and by unskilled founders; not only the guns but their carriages
+are irregular, clumsy, unreliable, and are difficult to manage;
+and for these very reasons the foundry there has been abolished, but
+since that time no cannon save a small siege battery has been sent
+thither from Europe. The artillery cast in Manila is sufficiently
+good to provide for the defense of the provinces against the Moros;
+but measures should be taken to provide for the better defense of
+that city. The working of iron and the making of artillery are almost
+entirely in the hands of the Chinese of Manila, [143] and the Indians
+therefore are unskilled in this industry; some skilled masters should
+be sent over from Spain to teach them and oversee the manufacture
+of iron. The country abounds in rich mines of iron, but these have
+been barely scratched and then abandoned; only some common utensils
+are made there, and other iron articles are sold to the people at
+high prices by foreigners, who carry great sums of money out of
+the country. "The iron of Manila has been examined in the artillery
+workshops, and has been found to be very soft and fibrous." Attempts
+have been made by the Spanish government to utilize the mines
+and introduce machinery into their operation; but the officials
+entrusted with these enterprises have been ineffective, caring only
+to draw their salaries. Bernaldez urges the encouragement of private
+capital to undertake these works, with concessions, privileges, and
+protection which shall be adequate to enlist their energies; this
+would lead to the development of the natural riches of the islands,
+the population would be increased by skilled artisans and mechanics,
+and the great increase thus obtained in wealth of the country would
+likewise bring incalculable benefits to the royal treasury--not only
+in revenues from the increased commerce and manufactures, but in the
+great saving in the expenses of furnishing the army with weapons,
+made in the country at so much less cost than before. In the arsenal
+reform is needed; all its workmen except the gunsmiths should be
+replaced gradually by Indians, who are so skilful and work for less
+wages than the Spaniards; and the gunsmiths should have a regular
+military organization. Better provision should also be made for a
+supply of gunpowder. At the beginning of the century, a powder factory
+was erected, which cost eighty thousand hard dollars, although it was
+made of only bamboo and nipa; with this a large supply of powder was
+made, but its quality was poor, on account of the impurities in the
+saltpetre, which they had to obtain from India. There has been talk of
+building another factory (the former one being apparently no longer in
+existence); it is likely to be as costly an enterprise, because the
+lack of a strong current in the rivers "has rendered impracticable
+the installation of hydraulic machinery." The Spanish government
+ought to take measures to provide the large amount of powder needed
+for the use of the forts, army, navy, and revenue service. Bernaldez
+advises that this be done by making contracts (with either Spaniards or
+foreigners), by which they can secure powder of better quality and at
+lower prices; and besides this they ought to send immediately to the
+islands a scientist (whose salary ought to be paid from the funds of
+the Economic Society and the consulate of commerce)--"whose mission
+shall be not only to establish in the capital a chair of mineralogy
+(which is so necessary for exploring the hitherto unknown interior
+of the islands), but himself to make researches in the provinces of
+the archipelago for places where the saltpetre can be found--which he
+will find, without fail." Then gunpowder can be made in the islands,
+and they will be independent in the means for their defense.]
+
+
+
+Of the forts of Manila and Cavite
+
+No location like that of Manila could have been selected by the
+conquistadors of the island of Luzon for fortifying themselves
+and founding the capital of an infant colony. [Its position is
+described, with mention of its earlier fortifications; but these
+were only suitable for the defense of its inhabitants against
+piratical attacks. Its present condition is a dangerous one, for its
+fortifications are unable to withstand a siege by European troops;
+it has no bomb-proof magazine, and hostile batteries across the Pasig
+River could easily reduce the city to ashes. Manila is not suitable for
+a military center, and the efforts of the government ought to be bent
+toward the fortification of Cavite, which would render that place a
+first-class fortress; its advantages for this are enumerated in detail,
+and the measures which should be taken to render it impregnable.] The
+feeble fortifications of Manila and its citadel may be preserved for
+the present, in order to shelter the government and the property of
+the Spaniards from a sedition; but in case of war and the landing of
+an enemy let them be abandoned and destroyed, in order to proceed
+for safety to the impregnable point of Cavite. In this manner will
+be laid the foundation for the perpetual security of the [Spanish]
+government in those islands, and for their preservation against all
+enemies, whether within or without.
+
+
+
+Of the piracies of the Moros
+
+Longer tolerance of the piratical raids by the Moros is another cause
+which in time must compromise our secure possession of the islands,
+through the plundering of their maritime villages and the captivity of
+their inhabitants, and the stoppage of the commerce and the coasting
+trade. Much more is this true because some ports of the islands,
+which are in the possession of those pirates, are already frequented
+by foreign vessels, which provide the pirates with military supplies
+and firearms; and it is to be feared that later the foreigners will
+furnish them with plans, vessels, leaders, and other aids, like those
+which they have furnished to the disaffected peoples in the Americas,
+to wage steady war on the Spanish government. [The Spanish colony has
+carried on defensive warfare with the Moros ever since the conquest,
+but has gained no permanent advantage therein, while the enemy have
+increased in numbers and strength, inflicting ravages on the southern
+provinces that are "continually greater and more scandalous." The
+Spaniards have spent enormous sums in forts, vessels, and other
+defenses; but with little effect, on account of the immense extent of
+the coasts of Filipinas and the great number of uninhabited places
+where the pirates can hide themselves from pursuit.] Their vessels,
+called pancos, are of extraordinary swiftness. The Moros make these
+of planks lashed together with rattans, without nails or any [other]
+ligature. Their masts are three bamboos, their rigging a few pieces
+of rattan or the bark of trees, their sails are certain petates,
+or mats, which they call saguran; and their provisions are reduced
+to the flour made from a tree, called yoro [i.e., sago] and dried
+shellfish. Nearly all their pancos have two banks of oars, and two men
+for each oar. And with this slight though warlike equipment, with their
+harpoons, javelins, campilans, and arrows (in handling which weapons
+they are very dextrous), and with their swarming crews--composed of
+their slaves, who row under the lash; and of a multitude of pirates,
+who thus make their living, and traffic in their booty--they attack,
+among many, with the odds on their side, surround, and jump aboard,
+any Christian vessel which cannot defend itself on account of a small
+crew or the inaccurate firing of its cannon. [If they are caught
+in some bay by the Spanish who pursue them, they abandon their
+pancos, hide in the mountains, where they find enough to live on,
+and, as soon as the Spaniards depart, the pirates easily construct
+new boats and resume their raids. The pirate marine with the forts,
+troops, and cannon supported by the Spaniards make a heavy burden of
+expense on the treasury and on the people; and the amount thus spent
+in half a dozen years is enough to equip a strong naval expedition
+which could humble the insolence of the pirates. In view of this,
+and of the importance of Joló--which is the headquarters of the
+Moro pirates and of their government, and the general market for
+the Christian slaves and property which they carry away--Bernaldez
+advocates the immediate conquest of that island, and its repopulation
+from the more thickly settled parts of the northern islands. This can
+easily be done. Thousands of families whose members have been enslaved,
+especially in Bohol, are ready to join such an expedition, if leaders
+and provisions are supplied to them; and there are a multitude of
+skilled inter-island pilots--mestizos who are efficient and rich--who
+would act as leaders for the sake of their own profit and reward in
+such an enterprise. For ships they could use the government armed
+vessels, and the multitude of boats which ply among the islands;
+and sufficient rewards could be furnished to the soldiers in the
+distribution of the conquered lands and of the plunder which they
+would obtain. By this plan, the Moro piracies could be suppressed,
+and the islands thus gain peace from those fierce enemies.]
+
+
+
+Of the large Indian villages
+
+Although the laws of the Indias endeavor to establish firmly the peace
+and good government, both temporal and spiritual, of the villages by
+placing limits to their extent and the number of their residents,
+the inattention of the governors of Filipinas in regard to this so
+important subject, on the one hand, and on the other the interested
+motives of the parish curas and the ministers of the doctrinas,
+have given rise to the abuse of the villages of excessive size which
+are now found established in Filipinas. These, as they cannot be
+properly governed by their respective local authorities, maintain
+within themselves a source of internal civil discord, and from time
+to time they have broken out in disturbances which have placed the
+islands in a very critical situation.
+
+If the reports of their population be examined, it will be found
+that in a great number of villages it does not fall below 10,000,
+11,000, or 12,000 souls; and it is impossible that so many can be
+well directed spiritually by the one parish cura alone which each
+village has, or in secular matters by only one gobernadorcillo or
+alcalde. In this class of towns the most notable are the following:
+Tondo, with 13,424 souls; Binondoc, 22,570; Tambobo, 21,378; Pasig,
+14,465; Malolos, 19,655; Vigan, 17,320; Pavay, 14,840; Lavag [Laoag],
+25,242; Bacarra, 13,064; Balayan, 18,631; Taal, 23,526; Banan, 17,438;
+Batangas, 19,566; Cabatuan, 17,359; Xaro, 14,911. In these populations
+which do not conform to the rule there has always been recognized more
+or less instability, for the class of the plebeians, or caylianes,
+is immense, and out of proportion to that of the timauas, or nobles;
+and likewise because the unarmed authority of a gobernadorcillo must
+necessarily be vacillating, at the mercy of that great mass of people,
+who are easily set in motion by a seditious person, a few drunkards,
+or the superstitious tale of some old man.
+
+The successive revolts of various towns in the province of Ilocos
+in the years 1810, 1812, and 1816 had no other source. The cause
+of this last uprising was decided by me, in my official character
+as fiscal of the royal Audiencia of Manila. In my reply I explained
+the origin of those repeated insurrections, analyzed the degree of
+perverseness which progressively in each of them had been revealed
+in the purpose of the conspirators, and deduced the necessity of
+dividing the province of Ilocos into two, to the end that its large
+towns should each have a ruler closer at hand who might keep them
+in check. The Audiencia made a report, with my opinion as fiscal
+thereon to the king our sovereign; and, his Majesty having deigned
+to command that immediately the said province should be divided into
+two, it has been maintained on that footing, up to the present time,
+in the greatest order and tranquillity.
+
+[Even more surprising is the neglect of the governors to enforce
+the law that no houses shall be erected close to the castles
+and fortresses.] Within cannon-shot of the walls of Manila, and
+even no farther away than the breadth of the river, one hundred
+thousand souls--Indians, mestizos, and Chinese--have been allowed
+to establish themselves; a people of foreign origin, in great part,
+without passports, classification, settled occupation, or any other
+requisite of a well-ordered social condition, and whose formidable
+number is threatening Manila with an inevitable blow. The sudden
+movements of that great mob of people, ignorant and swayed by blind
+passion, reached the point of approaching close to the defenses of
+the city, in the year of 1820, even before this was known to the
+government and the military council (which for this object had been
+called together, and of which I was a member)--notwithstanding that
+the object of their revenge was in the outer suburbs, and that their
+aim was not, at least for the time, directed against the city. [These
+facts ought to make the authorities of the colony realize that no
+other considerations ought to interfere with their prime obligation,
+which is to preserve peace and order in the towns and maintain the
+military posts in security. Bernaldez recommends that new regulations
+be formed regarding the settlements of the islands; that no town be
+allowed to contain over five thousand souls and one thousand houses
+(except the capitals of the provinces, which might have ten thousand
+souls and two thousand houses); that the large towns be divided
+into villages on the above basis, which should be kept separate from
+one another; and that in the suburbs of Manila there should be more
+rigorous police control of the people. The Indians there should be
+classified by occupations, to each being appointed a chief or leader
+who should be responsible for the conduct of those in his class; the
+use of all dangerous weapons should be forbidden; passports should be
+required for all persons coming from the provinces; and vigilant watch
+should be kept over the occupations and mode of life of every family.]
+
+
+
+Of the titles to landed property belonging to the Indians and the
+villages
+
+The lack of clear and exact laws for properly authenticating the
+documents regarding the ownership of the lands of the Indians, and
+the uncertain and unlimited possession which the villages have of
+lands under the pretext, of their being communal, have been and always
+will be in Filipinas the origin of a multitude of ruinous lawsuits and
+contentions--sometimes those of Indians and villages among themselves,
+sometimes between these and the Spanish and mestizo proprietors. The
+Indians, as a rule, have no title of ownership in the lands which they
+possess, and if any one has such it is a private document, signed
+by other Indians--who with the greatest readiness deny, change,
+and forge their signatures--or it will be simply a writing signed
+by the alcalde-mayor, a copy of which, if it remains in the court,
+will disappear or be mutilated, with equal readiness, by the Indian
+clerks of the alcalde, in whose charge the archives are--if indeed
+these are not entirely destroyed in the frequent fires which occur in
+the villages. The most common method which the Indians of the villages
+have for proving their territorial property is by tradition, and the
+depositions of witnesses; and with that powerful weapon they undertake
+and maintain the most contentious lawsuits, aided by the fiscals of
+the Audiencia--who often forget that their office of defenders of the
+Indians is bona fide, and for the sake and protection of the natives
+in the tribunals to which the laws commend them. But any person who may
+have exercised the duties of magistrate for any time in Filipinas will
+know that in the decisions of judges there is nothing more discredited
+than the evidence presented by Indian and mestizo witnesses, who
+are not restrained from perjury by either an intimate acquaintance
+with the obligations of religion or by sentiments of conscience,
+honor, and reputation. It is very common to see, in court cases,
+that witnesses of that sort will swear, and then contradict their
+own testimony, according as the witnesses [are affected by] either
+their own interests or the influence of the litigant who presents them.
+
+These causes, besides rendering the lawsuits of this kind eternal, have
+very frequently produced scandalous disobedience of the villagers to
+the enactments of the Audiencia of the islands, and uprisings of armed
+men in order to prevent effectually even the judicial possession of
+the crown lands which had been sold, with all the formalities of the
+laws, by the government there; and, finally, they withhold the Spanish
+families and persons of wealth from purchasing rural establishments in
+order to undertake on a large scale the cultivation of the products
+of the country, which is perhaps the only means of promoting the
+agriculture of the islands.
+
+It is therefore expedient, in order to cut short these noisy
+controversies, which have so mischievous consequences for the internal
+peace of the communities in the islands, that his Majesty be pleased
+to command that the government there shall oblige all the villages
+and private land-owners in them to have authenticated before the
+respective alcaldes-mayor of the provinces the documents for their
+ownership, both private and communal. Strict obligation should be
+imposed on them to surround their lands with trees--achiote, [144]
+mulberry, cotton, cinnamon, cacao--under penalty of losing their title
+to the land. The documents should be registered in the tribunals of
+the respective alcaldes, who at the end of every year should send to
+the capital the original books of record, in order that these may
+be kept there securely in the archives, for which provision shall
+be made by the government, not admitting in the courts or declaring
+lawful any other titles of ownership to lands than those which are
+supported by those necessary conditions.
+
+
+
+Of the ecclesiastical orders which are conferred on Indians and
+mestizos
+
+The irregular procedure of the reverend archbishops and bishops of the
+islands in conferring ecclesiastical orders on the Indians and mestizos
+there, will be in that colony, as it has already been in America,
+one of the causes which most incite revolutions. The Indians receive
+through the priesthood a standing which they cannot worthily sustain,
+because they never lay aside the affections, passions, and usages of
+Indians. Educated by the religious, they afterward come to be their
+decided enemies; they divide with the religious the opinions of the
+villagers, who finally, even though they know the deficient morals
+of the native priests, always respect the sacred functions which
+these exercise. The least political evil which the latter occasion
+is [through] their neglect of their obligations as parish priests,
+the irregularity of their mode of life, and their carelessness in
+everything pertaining to divine worship. The inhabitants of the
+villages administered by Indian curas are very different from those
+of the religious from Europa, whose people are distinguished by their
+simplicity, docility, and religious training. He who knows the active
+and leading part played by this class of persons in accomplishing
+the independence of America will not be surprised that in the
+establishment of the constitution in Filipinas Indian curas have
+almost all been the directors of the elections in their villages,
+the electors, and the deputies in Cortes and for the province--in
+all these functions distinguishing themselves by their officiousness,
+and their pretensions against the legitimate government of the islands.
+
+This class of persons, dominating the consciences of the ignorant
+and unfortunate, can easily drag them into error. As simple farmers
+and artisans, they would have been useful to their families and to
+the government; but mistakenly raised to the dignity of priests,
+other interests now move them, and they form a commonwealth apart in
+the safe retreat of the provinces. A consideration of justice wrongly
+understood by the prelates of the islands, and a vehement desire in the
+Indian or mestizo heads of families to ennoble these by placing their
+sons in the priesthood, have caused there an excessive ordination
+of Indians--which I cannot avoid characterizing as such, since,
+besides the many clerics who are actually administering villages,
+there is a considerable surplus of others who are scattered through
+the provinces. These evils were foreseen in the laws of the Indias
+(ley iv, tit. vii, lib. i), which cautions and exhorts the reverend
+prelates of the Indias not to ordain so many clerics as they were
+doing; but this has not sufficed, and it is necessary that the
+government, recognizing the unfortunate experience that it has already
+had with this abuse, should take the most efficacious measures for
+the purpose of limiting the authority of the prelates in Filipinas,
+in conferring ecclesiastical orders on Indians and mestizos, strictly
+to the number of clerics which the religious orders of those islands
+agree upon and propose as necessary to have for their coadjutors,
+and for Indian villages not now occupied, or which in the future the
+religious shall fail to occupy--ordering the governor of Filipinas
+to secure, by mild and discreet means, that the vacant curacies of
+clerics be conferred on European religious.
+
+
+
+Of the European religious in Filipinas
+
+The lack of European religious in the Filipinas Islands for filling
+at least four-fifths of their curacies is incompatible with the
+permanent preservation of that colony. It can be safely asserted that
+the government of his Majesty has in this class of ministers the most
+powerful force for maintaining that possession in attachment to his
+sovereignty. Their virtuous and unworldly mode of life; their absolute
+disinterestedness in regard to temporal matters, which is a marvelous
+contrast to the greed and ambition of the European trader, the mestizo,
+and the Chinese; their extraordinary sacrifices in living apart from
+the society of their equals for nineteen, twenty, and [even] thirty
+years in those almost uninhabited islands, which are unprovided with
+the sort of nourishment suitable to their estate; their discretion and
+patience in correcting and teaching the Indians; their resignation in
+all kinds of adversity: everything, in short, contributes to make the
+inhabitants of that land regard them as supernatural beings, and in
+the light of this conception the fathers exercise over the Indians
+a moral force more powerful than even that of the government. The
+Indians live in entire moral separation from the Spaniards; they
+have their own laws of tradition, their own opinions and customs,
+entirely unknown to any one who is ignorant of their language or
+has not continual intercourse with them. The European religious are
+the only persons in the confidence of the government who by favor of
+these circumstances, and with a practical and intimate knowledge of
+the nature and inclinations of the natives there, can find a way into
+their hearts, incline their wills to what is right, enlighten them,
+and keep them peaceful and submissive; and without this larger armies
+would be of no avail.
+
+[The religious are the only persons who understand the condition
+of their respective villages, and the alcaldes-mayor are usually
+indolent and inefficient, relying on native interpreters, and caring
+little for aught save their own profit; they depend on the religious
+in all cases of difficulty, and the higher authorities are jealous of
+this superiority of the religious. The government ought to maintain
+as many religious as possible in the islands, and give them as much
+political authority as is consistent with their ministry; five hundred
+of them should be sent there, and the alcaldes-mayor should be obliged
+to consult every month with their respective curas on the best means
+of promoting the interests of the people, and the central government
+can then act on reports of these conferences.]
+
+
+
+On the settlement of banished and vagabond foreigners in the islands
+
+[The entrance of these persons causes trouble among the people of the
+islands: the Indians are easily influenced by white men, especially
+those who teach them to live in more freedom and insubordination to
+authority; foreigners of this sort are almost always of lax morals
+and dangerous political opinions, which are even more dangerous to
+"the Spaniards of the country, who, although more enlightened than the
+Indians, are more susceptible to such corruption." The foreigner thus
+residing in the islands, "usually from the dregs of other nations,"
+makes light of all the institutions there, and tries to set the people
+against the mother country; and three times recently has occurred]
+the scandal, unheard-of in that colony, of foreigners who, abusing
+the innocence of the country, have, being already married in their
+own country, again married Philippine Spanish girls, leaving them
+abandoned and dishonored. Others, who feigned to be learned physicians
+and agriculturists, have deceived and defrauded proprietors in the
+islands. Others have clandestinely introduced impious, revolutionary,
+and obscene books printed in the Spanish language, but pirated in
+France, with which they have caused atrocious injury in the morals of
+families there. In fine, the settlement of foreigners in the islands
+would not be expedient, even for the sake of the advantages which
+their industry and arts would produce there; for works carried on
+always with foreign capital, on the account of foreigners, and by
+the agency of foreigners, would leave to the country very little
+benefit as compared to that from labor employed there by Spanish
+capital, and on the account and for the benefit of Spaniards. If we
+desire to preserve intact in Filipinas the religious ideas and the
+pure morals of our ancestors, and due submission to the government
+of his Majesty, it is necessary to keep the people away from every
+point of contact with foreigners. In China, Japan, and other nations,
+the revolutionary spirit has not been able to penetrate, because the
+laws of those kingdoms keep the gates closed to all strangers. In
+a colony still in its infancy in customs and enlightenment--which,
+like a school of education, needs to have for models men of sound
+morals--it has been very absurd to allow to remain and become citizens
+therein men who have served a term of exile, and polisones [145]
+or vagabonds, sometimes followed by officers of justice from the
+Peninsula; and that the Indian people should see (as so many times I
+have seen) that this sort of men succeeded in obtaining positions as
+corporals, revenue officials, and even militia captains, solely from
+the circumstance of their being white men. It is necessary always
+to remove from the colonies this sort of people, who on account of
+their principles and their inclinations must be enemies of order and
+of government, permitting therein the settlement only of respectable
+Spanish artisans and merchants, whose upright conduct may serve as
+an example to that neophyte people, while at the same time they make
+fortunes for themselves. But even this point needs careful study,
+and in regard to it I will present the following reflections.
+
+
+
+Of the residence of European Spaniards in Filipinas
+
+By a necessary and inevitable effect of certain causes, physical and
+moral, which would take too long to explain here, the Spanish race in
+the colonies--or the descendants of Europeans, and mestizos of these,
+born and reared there--have from their birth political sentiments
+which are entirely opposite to those of their ancestors and other
+Europeans. They regard the Indian as an entirely passive being, the
+European as a foreigner, and the land as exclusively their own. The
+educational institutions which thus far have been founded in the
+colonies, with the object of uniting their inhabitants, by means of
+enlightening them, under the same principles of religion, morals,
+and politics, have not been able to uproot those ideas; on the other
+hand, recent events in the Americas have proved that the men who had
+most education and acquaintance with the sciences were the party
+leaders [corifeos] of revolution and independence. It ought to be
+regarded as an incontestable truth that as soon as the Spanish race
+in Filipinas reaches a greater number than that of the Europeans,
+and with this increase acquires a certain degree of moral force,
+a war for independence will be declared; and according to this idea
+the educational institutions, when there is not sincerity in the
+minds of the persons and in the laws that aim at encouraging this
+class of population in the colonies, have a tendency hostile to the
+preservation of the royal government in them. This class of Spanish
+families is, for another reason, very unfortunate in Filipinas, and may
+be regarded as condemned to perpetual slothfulness and misery. They
+cannot devote themselves to agriculture, because in that burning
+climate only the Indian resists labor so hard; nor to handicrafts,
+because the wages which the Indian and the Sangley mestizo alike earn,
+which is sufficient to meet their simple needs, is insufficient to
+pay for another sort of food and clothing for the Spaniards. For these
+same reasons, they cannot occupy themselves in the coasting trade; nor,
+finally, in the commerce of the islands on a large scale, for lack of
+sufficient capital, since by inheritance is divided among all the sons
+the wealth which their European parents left to them; and the practice
+of law is there a career to which resort is very unfortunate. All these
+causes, added to the lassitude which the climate inspires, maintain
+that class of people in such a condition of idleness and poverty,
+especially the women, that it has been necessary to establish in
+the capital alone six seminaries and beaterios in which to shelter
+and educate Spanish girls; and that in the ordinance regarding the
+Acapulco galleon his Majesty should grant to the Spanish widows of
+merchants the special favor of a pension or widow's usufruct on the
+boletas of that vessel, their only means of making a living.
+
+[Bernaldez declares that these European Spaniards, "there abandoned,
+as it were, to the mercy of charity, or to vices," are not only
+useless but dangerous to the country; that among them revolutions
+are born; that it is for the best interests of España to retain
+her population at home, and, while furnishing means for Spaniards
+to enrich themselves in the colonies or their trade, to attract to
+the mother country all possible wealth and capital, not allowing her
+children to remain abroad after acquiring wealth; and, finally, "to
+remove from the colonies all cause of insurrection, than which there is
+none greater and more terrible than the propagation [therein] of the
+Spanish race." Moreover, the Europeans settled in the colonies "have
+too much influence, through their exclusive wealth and connections,
+for weakening governmental action there; and care nothing for any
+political changes except as they can find therein opportunity for
+speculations" (on which he instances the action of European Spaniards
+in Mexico in Iturbide's short reign, and in other events of the
+revolution there). "The Filipinas Islands need, to maintain them in
+tranquillity, nothing more than a stable system of administration,
+civil and spiritual, by means of religious, and an army trained and
+commanded by competent European leaders, officers, sergeants, and
+corporals, with the necessary number of civil officials." The creole
+inhabitants should be diminished as much as possible, all Spaniards
+being required to return with their families to their own country;
+and "aid given to destitute widows and orphans of Spaniards who die
+in Filipinas would be better employed in paying for their removal
+to Europa." This matter should be considered in the residencia of
+every governor. Convicts and exiles should no longer be sent to
+the islands. No foreigner should be allowed to marry there except on
+condition of leaving the country with his wife. No European adventurer
+or idler should be allowed to remain in the islands unless he proffer
+sufficient security for his good conduct and occupation; he may then
+remain not longer than ten years; otherwise, he should be at once sent
+back whence he came. Every ship should carry back to España as many
+Spaniards as it brought to the islands; and European Spaniards should
+not be allowed to remain in Filipinas more than ten years, after which
+they should be compelled to return with their families to España.]
+
+
+
+Of the residencias
+
+[It is highly desirable that public officials should undergo
+strict residencia, and that regulations be made for these, which
+are adapted to the special needs of Filipinas. This is especially
+true of the alcaldes-mayor, who, as they have permission to trade,
+are more tempted to evade or infringe the laws; and many persons are
+appointed to that office who "lack all the qualifications necessary
+for obtaining any public office whatever." Unfortunately, since the
+royal decree of August 24, 1799, no alcalde has been or can be subject
+to residencia, and they consequently enjoy absolute impunity in their
+transgressions; for that decree does not allow a sufficient time for
+complaints to be made in a country like Filipinas, where intercourse
+between the provinces and the capital is so uncertain, interrupted,
+and difficult, on account of the vicissitudes of weather and climate,
+the lack of roads and postal facilities, and the great distance of
+many provinces from Manila. "This impunity has most serious results,
+very detrimental to the peace and quiet of the islands; for such has
+been the class of persons whom necessity has compelled to appoint
+as alcaldes-mayor that not only have they used their authority to
+possess themselves of the property of the Indians--seizing the boats of
+traders, which injured the natives in their traffic--and defrauded the
+Indians with unjust exactions; but they have humiliated the religious,
+stolen moneys from the king, outraged young girls, burned houses, and,
+in short, have thrown the provinces into a condition of effervescence
+and of conspiracy against the government which sent to the natives
+such a ruler." Bernaldez urges the government to take such measures
+that the residencia of the alcaldes may be made effective and just.]
+
+
+
+Of the selection of all classes of employees for the Filipinas Islands
+
+[On this point, the writer urges greater care and more sense of
+responsibility. All government officials, of every grade, should
+be of good morals, old enough to have stability of character,
+sufficiently competent and experienced to understand their duties,
+and such as will set a good example to the natives.] The imprudence
+of one man alone has often been sufficient to incite a sedition in
+the minds of various parties or castes in those islands; and in any
+case it is very dangerous to entrust positions of command to persons
+who are not endowed with well-proved ability and discretion. I
+cannot attribute the laxity which in recent times is evident in
+all branches of the administration and government of those islands
+to any other cause than the injudicious selection of many of their
+employees. The military corps, whose former captains and subalterns
+had been mainly sergeants sent from the Peninsula, were kept in the
+best order and discipline until, in the year '23, those officers were
+added to them who accompanied General Martinez--of some of whom,
+according to the documents which were executed for my court, their
+appointment to the Indias, with their scandalous conduct, looks
+like a proof that in España there was neither religion, morality,
+nor subordination. [Bernaldez urges that certain qualifications be
+required for office in Filipinas; the governors should be members of
+learned bodies, and excel in discretion and ability, and in the art
+of governing, and of promoting the welfare of a country, rather than
+in the military art. The intendants should be "enlightened economists,
+capable of creating and promoting the great wealth of which that virgin
+country is capable." The officials of the Audiencia should be at least
+thirty-five years old, with ten years of service, and experienced in
+legal practice; and other employees should be trustworthy, experienced,
+and not mere youths. "The Filipinas Islands, like every colony, are
+the country of the corruption of youth, and where it is necessary to
+work with men whose characters are already formed."]
+
+
+
+Of the use of weapons in Filipinas
+
+[The writer protests against the carelessness which, contrary to
+the laws of the Indias, has allowed the natives to possess and carry
+weapons--even including campilans and sabers, pistols and guns. These
+arms have, through culpable negligence of the government officials,
+been imported in the foreign ships and sold publicly; and, possessing
+them, the natives are a constant source of danger to the whites. He
+recommends that the governor of Filipinas be commanded to disarm the
+natives, using mild and politic methods, and allow them no implements
+or tools save those required in their labor; to stop the importation
+of arms into the islands; to compel all coasting vessels to deposit
+with the authorities, during their stay in the harbor, the arms which
+they carry for defense against the pirates; to see that no weapons
+be allowed in the villages save those needed by the local guards;
+and to stop all clandestine manufacture and sale of gunpowder.]
+
+
+
+Of the despatch of assistance to the Filipinas Islands
+
+[This section is devoted to the evils resulting from the remoteness
+of the islands, and the neglect of providing them with facilities
+for communication with España; it is necessary, if the government
+desires to keep the islands; to remedy this deficiency at once,
+for their material prosperity, the administration of justice, their
+safety from enemies, their loyalty to the crown--all are at great
+risk under present conditions. "The establishment of postal service
+in vessels of the royal armada would be a most burdensome expense
+to the treasury of España and to that of Filipinas. Unfortunately,
+previous to the royal decree of 1820 in regard to the commerce of
+Filipinas, in the long period of forty years only twenty trading
+ships have gone to those islands, leaving them without assistance or
+communication during the long space of three, four, five, or [even]
+seven years." However, this can be remedied, and without expense, by
+suitable measures for the promotion of commerce between the islands
+and España, "an attempt at which has been made in these last six
+years, during which time more expeditions direct to Filipinas have
+been effected than in the preceding forty years--that is, sixteen
+from Cadiz, three from Santander, Coruña, and San Sebastian, and five
+whose return is now expected."]
+
+
+
+
+
+OF THE CAUSES WHICH OPERATE IN THE BACKWARD CONDITION OF THE
+ADMINISTRATION, BOTH CIVIL AND ECONOMIC, OF THE FILIPINAS ISLANDS;
+AND THEIR CORRECTIVE
+
+
+[Of the failure of governors and intendants to make reports]
+
+[Exact and circumstantial information is of course, necessary for
+the guidance of the home government in all measures relating to the
+resources, needs, development, and administration of the islands, and
+annual reports on all these matters are demanded from governors and
+intendants by the laws of the Indias. Essential as this requirement
+is, it has always been neglected.] What those officials sometimes
+write, when questioned about these matters, are but generalities;
+their reports and information are reduced to how much has been
+produced and how much spent, in the résumé of the royal exchequer
+accounts. Thus it is not known with what necessity and justice certain
+extraordinary expenses have been incurred, what number of employees the
+king has in that colony, what causes have occasioned the increase or
+decrease in the product of the revenues, and, finally, how the means
+and resources of the people who contribute to the royal income can be
+augmented so that the latter can likewise be increased, all which the
+government ought to know. [It is true that the governors are laden with
+multifarious routine duties, which often prevent them from attending
+to these important matters, and from examining conditions personally,
+for which they have to depend upon the reports of their subordinates;
+and these are apt to be actuated by self-interest and they do not like
+reforms, so their statements are not very reliable. The reports made by
+the municipalities, commercial consulate, and other bodies are of the
+same sort, as being always from the standpoint of their corporation;
+and neither authorities nor corporations have the same stimulus to
+thoroughness, accuracy, and energy as has the private person who
+undertakes an enterprise. It is through the latter class that great
+projects and advances are made, but such persons hesitate to present
+plans for these to the authorities there, because the authorities
+do not examine them personally, "but by means of a contentious,
+voluminous, and annoying expediente," and likewise have no authority to
+adopt these plans until they are referred to Madrid--where, too, they
+are not encouraged to bring such projects before the royal government,
+and these, moreover, would have to be sent to Manila first (apparently
+to contend there with the aforesaid expediente). Bernaldez continues:]
+In order, then, to awaken this interest of enterprising private
+persons in the agriculture, manufactures, and commerce of Filipinas,
+it is necessary to have there a body expressly devoted to this object,
+and authorized to adopt provisionally any plan for improvement and
+progress which may be proposed to it and examined by it with the aid
+of its special knowledge of the country; and this body ought to be
+the superior council of the royal exchequer of the islands.... This
+council, as such, has very little occupation; its ministers, like
+all who are employed in Filipinas, attend to their official duties
+only in the forenoons, remaining free during all the afternoons and
+evenings for employment in a service of so great importance as this.
+
+I am, then, of opinion that his Majesty should deign to establish
+the following: That the superior council of the royal exchequer
+in Filipinas constitute a similar council for the improvement and
+prosperity of the country, with the object of stimulating in every way
+the Indians to work, and capitalists to undertake enterprises. That
+its members hold weekly meetings for this purpose, at such hours as
+the president shall designate. That it also call in the proprietors of
+lands, agriculturists, manufacturers, and merchants of the country,
+listen to their views, and encourage them to propose reforms and
+plans for promoting the useful arts. That it be authorized to decide
+upon the execution of projects, provisionally, until the approbation
+of his Majesty is secured, in all matters which do not occasion loss
+to the country or injure the interests of the treasury. That it can
+draw upon the treasury of the community for a moderate amount of
+necessary expenses for the encouragement and reward of enterprises,
+for anything which can bring a positive and general benefit to the
+Indians and the government.
+
+
+
+Of the royal court
+
+[Our writer notes the requirement of the laws of the Indias that the
+governors and audiencias should consult and act together in matters
+of government, and the excellent results of this procedure. [146]] But
+unfortunately such has not been the case in the recent governments of
+Filipinas. The governor-presidents have entirely separated themselves
+from their audiencias, and have governed alone--sometimes in military
+fashion, not heeding the opinions and customs of the country, but
+depending on force of arms; and sometimes only by the advice of the
+lawyer who assists the governor, who has the title of government
+counselor [asesor], and who, although he ought to limit himself to
+giving opinion on points and cases regarding statutes, is counselor in
+all the arduous matters of administration. From this it has resulted
+that the fate of the colonies may be left in the hands of this class
+of counselors, and that their subordinates have had so much power
+and importance. [Moreover, this course leads to dissensions and
+hostilities between the governor and the Audiencia, which is a bad
+example to furnish to the people and lowers their respect for the
+authorities.] It must be borne in mind that the Indians of Filipinas
+are not so sunken in ignorance that they do not of themselves,
+and likewise through their attorneys and confessors, recognize that
+they have a sovereign who rules them, and who to this end has given
+them laws; consequently, all lack of concord among the authorities,
+and every change introduced in the method of governing the villages,
+must produce fatal consequences. [It is therefore recommended that
+the governor consult the Audiencia in all matters of the internal
+government of the islands, and any failure in this should be made a
+charge in his residencia.]
+
+
+
+Of the administration of justice in general
+
+The consideration and respect which the Audiencia of Manila merits
+among the Indians proceeds also from those times in which its
+members made official visits to the provinces, and in these visits
+did so much good to the villages. The visiting auditors were, in
+reality, friendly mediators in the disputes between the Indians;
+and they made agreements, placed limits to the villages, furnished
+a sort of municipal ordinance, and protected the natives against the
+oppressions of the alcaldes-mayor. Notwithstanding my high opinion of
+that tribunal, I regard as very proper the provisions of law xxxiv,
+título ii, book ii of the laws of the Indias in regard to the removal
+and promotion of its ministers, basing my opinion on the same arguments
+as did the law--that is, that it is very desirable not only to reward
+them, but to uproot them from the friendships which they contract
+in places where they remain a long time. These friendships, whose
+influence is always detrimental to the equitable administration of
+justice, are in Manila an almost necessary result of the small Spanish
+population, of the lack of all public amusement or diversion, and of
+the fact that with the enervating effect of the climate the rectitude
+and vigor of European morals is lost after some years of residence
+in the country. [The Audiencia has been unable to attend to the
+administration of justice in the islands as it has desired, for it has
+always been hindered by the many obstacles which arise from the storms,
+the lack of roads and mail service, the attraction of all the lawyers
+in the islands to the capital, the ignorance of the gobernadorcillo and
+the alcalde of each other's language and of judicial procedures, the
+dilatory mode of carrying on these between the provinces and Manila,
+etc. "Thus it is very common that these lawsuits, besides being always
+full of defects, last three, four, or six years; and that in that
+long period either the delinquents take to flight, or the documents
+are lost." Even in the Audiencia itself there are many obstacles to
+its action. Its subordinate officials are Indian or mestizo lawyers,
+who often are neither competent nor qualified for their positions;]
+and that which most contributes to retard the despatch of business,
+and to maintain the offices of the court without any organization,
+is the unfitness of those who occupy the class or purchasable and
+renunciable offices. The court clerk, the special commissioners,
+and the attorneys know nothing else than how to obtain the greatest
+possible advantage from the purchase of their offices. Without any
+instruction in the obligations of those positions, because they cannot
+acquire it in that country, and incapable of carrying out even what the
+ministers themselves have the patience to teach them, those men are,
+notwithstanding, the only ones whom the ministers can choose for those
+offices, because they are likewise the only ones who can outbid others
+in the sale of them. These positions are also of little advantage,
+because in the immense extension of the military jurisdiction, among
+the wealthy persons of Filipinas, the tribunal of the War Department
+has drawn to itself all the civil causes of importance in the islands;
+and the Audiencia has been reduced to criminal causes, and the minor
+controversies over land among the Indians, for which reason it is
+impossible to have educated Europeans who will purchase those posts
+and serve in them. The consequence of this is that the offices of
+the Audiencia are in the utmost disorder; that they do not contain
+even the books of entry which the laws provide for, or registers,
+citations, or reports of cases; that in order to record a decree or an
+official report it is necessary for a minister to take upon himself the
+task of doing that; and, finally, that the administration of justice
+must necessarily be slow. [Bernaldez therefore recommends that the
+ministers of the Audiencia be promoted at least every ten years to
+other appointments; that the minor offices be no longer purchasable
+or renunciable, but filled directly by royal appointment, and given
+to suitable persons, with good salaries (which are specified); and
+that the government of the islands provide some expedient for raising
+money to pay the salary of an attorney-general in each province.]
+
+
+
+Of the alcaldes-mayor and military governors of the provinces
+
+[The office of alcalde-mayor and provincial governor involves the
+civil government and defense of the province, the administration of
+justice, and the collection of the taxes; but those who are appointed
+to it are usually only traders, in reality, and care more for the
+profits yielded by the trade that is permitted to them than for the
+obligations of their office. They are paid twenty-five hard dollars
+a month for salary, "and they pay to the treasury the same sum for
+the indulto [i.e., privilege], as it is called there, of trading," to
+which pursuit they devote all their time and energies during the term
+of their office.] A system of alcaldeships so anomalous and irregular
+nevertheless produced at the outset some benefits to the islands,
+because, by reason of the great lack of capitalists there, many
+products of the agriculture and industries of the provinces would have
+received no encouragement if the alcalde had not speculated in them
+for the sake of his own trade. It is also necessary to note that there
+are provinces with which, on account of their remoteness and the little
+advantage which they have for the coasting trade, there was hardly any
+other means of communication than the barks of the alcalde. But now,
+when the coasting trade has become so general, it is a necessity to
+abolish, in most of the provinces of the islands, that absurd system of
+trading alcaldes; and to appoint in their places corregidors, lawyers
+educated in España, with only a salary, and the charge of making
+collections for the royal revenue, with the right to the offices in
+the Audiencia there. This increase in expenditure should be covered
+by the duties which ought to be imposed on the coasting trade, which
+by this means remains free from all impediment. [Bernaldez urges that
+the provincial magistrates be carefully selected, for their knowledge,
+experience, discretion, and executive ability; and that they be men
+who will devote themselves to the proper administration of justice,
+the study of those regions hitherto unknown, plans of reform, and the
+encouragement of industry and commerce among the people--not forgetting
+to preserve friendly relations with the parish priests. He recommends
+that seventeen of the provinces in the islands of Luzon, Panay, and
+Cebú be divided into corregidorships, eight into those of the first
+class, and nine into those of the second, with specified salaries
+to each; that appointments to these posts be made for six years;
+and that corregidors of the first class be proposed by the Audiencia.]
+
+
+
+Of the taxes
+
+[At present, the tribute paid by the Indians should not be increased
+because so many of them would be distressed by any heavier tax; but
+this might be done later, when the class of large proprietors may have
+increased in numbers. The payment of this tax in kind is a source
+of loss, not only in the quantity and quality of the products paid
+in, but in the damage caused by transportation and storage; and in
+selling the products thus received by the government there is loss,
+because its agents are poor managers of such business, not having
+the shrewdness or the knowledge of the markets which enable private
+merchants to make their profits. The commutation of the payment from
+money to kind was only partly due to the influence of the alcaldes,
+who preferred it for the benefit of their own trading;] the cause which
+has rendered that commutation almost necessary and which operates
+directly to the prejudice of the Indian, is the lack of a colonial
+money peculiar to the Filipinas Islands, like that which the other
+possessions in Asia have (of the necessity of which I will speak in
+another chapter), in order to revive internal commerce and promote
+and facilitate the payment of taxes.
+
+The indirect taxes by means of government monopolies in Filipinas
+are, in my opinion, those most suitable to the native disposition of
+inhabitants who, furnished most abundantly by the soil with all the
+income necessary for their support, convert the superfluous enjoyments
+of life into objects of prime necessity. It should be a firm principle
+of good government to protect and rectify the administration of these
+indirect taxes, especially those on tobacco and wine--not only because
+these will be sufficient to cover abundantly all the expenses of army
+and navy, but because in case of a war and the absolute cessation of
+trade the government will have this firm support for its existence; and
+therefore no hearing should be given to the suggestions and proposals
+of those persons who are craftily working to free the islands from
+those monopolies. But so long as these taxes are not made general
+through all the provinces of the archipelago, so that the fire of the
+contraband trade (which always finds lodgment in the exempt provinces)
+may be extinguished, and until certain reforms are adopted in their
+administration and protection, the produce [of these taxes] in favor
+of the royal exchequer must be very disproportionate to the amounts
+consumed by that large population.
+
+
+
+Of the revenue from tobacco
+
+The revenue which supports the Filipinas Islands, which cannot be
+replaced by any other, and which if it were properly established
+and administered would yield incalculable advantages, is that from
+tobacco. Three millions of inhabitants, all without exception of sex
+or age consumers of that article--and for each one of them, on the
+average, and at a very low estimate, can be set down a consumption of
+four pesos [worth] a year--would produce an addition to the revenue
+of twelve million pesos, which they would obtain from the land and
+from their industries, in order to give at the same time a great
+impulse to commerce. This is not a paradox, for the use of tobacco
+is of so prime necessity for the Indians that the same calculation
+can be made for that object that would be made for the use of bread
+in España. [Bernaldez considers the injurious effects of enforcing
+this monopoly in only a part of the islands--"although more than half
+the population is today subject to the monopoly, its income is only
+one-tenth of what, at a reasonable estimate, it ought to be"--and
+those of its careless and negligent administration. He makes the
+following suggestions:] That the collection of the tributes from
+the Indians of Filipinas be made compulsory in money, as soon as the
+colonial money can be placed in circulation in their provinces. That
+the monopoly of tobacco in Filipinas be extended to all the [now]
+exempt provinces, without exception; and the government there will
+succeed much better in establishing it therein by sagacity than
+by authority or force. That the examination and appraisal of the
+leaf tobacco which the monopoly purchases from the growers be made
+before a board which the government there shall appoint annually,
+composed of officials from the capital who are most trustworthy and
+intelligent in that branch of administration, such tobacco as proves
+to be unfit for use being burned in their presence. That all the
+tobacco which can be collected in Filipinas be conveyed to España, by
+means of contracts with private persons for the freighting of ships;
+and with it the amount which can be remitted from the [different]
+branches of the royal exchequer, and the annual surplus of their funds.
+
+
+
+Of the revenue from wine
+
+The product of the revenue from wine cannot in Filipinas be considered
+so important as that from tobacco, because the Indians are very
+moderate in their drinking. The wines made from the cocoanut and
+nipa (the only ones subject to the monopoly) are wholesome for the
+Indians; and as the monopoly has regulated the supply for each village,
+greatly improving the process of making the liquor and diminishing its
+strength, the Indians prefer the monopoly to the free privilege of this
+article. The failure of this revenue to increase depends on two causes:
+first, that the monopoly is not extended, as it ought to be, to all the
+provinces of the islands, not only thus to place all the natives on the
+same footing, and so suppress the contraband trade, but to prevent by
+this method the manufacture by the Indians of other beverages which
+are more injurious to their health, and which, without giving them
+pleasure, intoxicate them as has been the case with the brandy and rum
+from sugar-cane juice or molasses; second, the great amount of the two
+last-named liquors which is clandestinely furnished to the public, as
+a result of the permission, very negligently guarded, which was given
+to manufacture them freely to export abroad, or to sell them under a
+certain tax in order that they should not injure the consumption of
+the article placed under monopoly control. [Bernaldez admits that the
+manufacture of the above-mentioned brandy and rum ought to be allowed,
+"because otherwise the country would lose the enormous quantity of
+molasses which results from the sugar-making, which has a considerable
+value, but cannot be employed for other uses;" but the government
+ought to maintain the value of the monopolized beverages, and at
+the same time facilitate the exportation of rum and brandy. [147]
+He recommends, besides the extension of the wine monopoly:] That,
+as a consequence, every other kind of beverage made in the country
+be prohibited in the islands for the common use of the Indians. That
+the manufacture of brandy and rum from sugar-cane be allowed only
+for the export trade. That each manufacturer be likewise allowed to
+have a retail warehouse, under the imposts which they now pay. That
+the manufacturers be compelled to establish their factories in the
+immediate vicinity of Manila, where they can and must be watched,
+at their own expense, by the revenue clerks. That all the brandy and
+rum which is made from sugar be immediately deposited in warehouses,
+the keys of which the custom-house shall take charge of, the government
+levying on it moderate duties for deposit as well as for export. [148]
+
+
+
+Of the head-money, or personal tax, from the Chinese
+
+[The Chinese were at first allowed in Filipinas only to cultivate
+the soil and work in handicrafts; but they have drawn into their
+possession the control of trade and commerce, "winning the good-will
+of the government and the tolerance of the inhabitants of Manila
+with a thousand intrigues unknown in the country. They have done in
+Filipinas what the Europeans ought to have done, that is, to acquire
+wealth and send it, or themselves go with it, to their own country to
+establish commercial houses;" and thus they have added a marvelous
+amount to the wealth of China. Their method of doing business is
+explained--practically the same as is done in the United States at
+the present time; united capital and effort, division of the gains
+accordingly, quick sales and small profits, etc. They have obtained the
+exclusive retail trade in Manila, and a great part of the wholesale
+trade, "and thereby have aroused the hostility of corporations and
+private persons, notwithstanding that they are a class of peaceable and
+industrious people in the country." Bernaldez thinks that their tax of
+six pesos a year is much too small, considering the advantages which
+they enjoy and the large fortunes which they acquire in the islands;
+in Batavia the Chinese pay the government as much as thirty pesos a
+month for merely the permission to trade. The tax on them at Manila is
+farmed out to a Chinaman, and does not yield as much as it should. The
+following recommendations are made:] That measures be immediately taken
+to correct and render accurate the registration of the Chinese settled
+in Filipinas. That the individuals of that nation be divided into three
+classes: first, wholesale merchants, understanding by that term all
+those who embark for China and receive thence goods on commission or
+for their own account; second, retail merchants, or shopkeepers; third,
+artisans of every class. That these be distributed by groups under
+head-men [por cabecerias], which shall not exceed sixty individuals to
+each one. That every Chinaman, as soon as he is registered, shall be
+joined to one of these groups, the head-man becoming responsible for
+him. That these Chinese heads of barangay must give security for the
+tribute from those under them, and collect the tax and deliver it to
+the alcalde-mayor of their respective province, being responsible in
+every case for the residence and occupation of their tribute-payers;
+and for this commission collecting the three per cent. That in future
+the tax on the Chinese already settled and those who shall settle
+in Filipinas shall be as follows: the wholesale merchant, ten pesos
+fuertes a month; the retail merchant, four pesos ditto; the artisan of
+every class, two pesos ditto. That every Chinaman settled there shall
+be free to return to his own country, provided he is not married,
+the limit of six months being allowed for this. That the Chinaman,
+of whatever class, who shall not pay his respective tax within one
+year shall be sent and delivered up to one of the ranch-owners for
+compulsory labor [por repartimiento], in order that there he may work
+at the day-wages agreed upon, which must not fall below two reals a
+day and food-rations of rice; and that the ranchman shall with these
+wages pay the tax [due], at the rate of two pesos a month.
+
+[Among the advantages derived from this arrangement will be that
+of sending out of the islands the many poor and useless Chinese who
+have been gradually multiplying there, and have been infecting the
+natives with their vices. It will even benefit the Chinese themselves,
+"who with two reals a day, which make 7 1/2 dollars a month clear"
+(thus showing that Sunday labor was exacted), "can pay two pesos of
+tax and be exceedingly prosperous."] [149]
+
+
+
+Of the custom-house duties
+
+The royal decree of August 25, 1818, by which it was decided that
+the exaction of import and export duties should be made in the Manila
+custom-house from the owners of the vessels, without considering the
+ownership of their lading, and that if the vessel were Spanish it
+should pay three per cent, and if foreign six per cent, has been a
+special favor or privilege granted to half a dozen Spanish ship-owners
+(for those who conduct the commerce with China and Bengala cannot be
+more than that number), with serious loss to the exchequer. This is,
+of course, annually deprived of the considerable income of the three
+per cent rebate on all foreign goods imported into Manila, which is
+a direct benefit to the foreigners who own nearly all the commerce
+in those goods. The manufacturers of Filipinas, especially those of
+cotton fabrics--which are able to compete with, and even exceed in
+cheapness, those of China, since the cotton of which these are made
+is of their own raising--are being ruined, because that rebate of
+duties brings the prices of the Chinese goods so near to those of
+their infant industry that the former ought always to be preferred;
+and, finally, the above arrangement has also given opportunity for
+various frauds proceeding from the pretended sale of foreign vessels
+to Spaniards, solely for the purpose of availing themselves of the
+rebate of duties on their cargoes, and to the possession (under
+assumed names) by Chinese settled in Manila of Spanish vessels.
+
+[Bernaldez states the considerations which should regulate these
+duties, and the following recommendations for the payment of duties on
+various classes of merchandise, this amount to cover in each case the
+entire exaction: On national goods in transit, carried to Manila--on a
+Spanish vessel, three per cent; on a foreign ship, six per cent. The
+same goods for consumption in the country shall pay nine and ten per
+cent respectively. On foreign goods from India and China, for domestic
+consumption, ten and fifteen per cent respectively; from this class
+should be excepted the wines, brandies, pig iron, small articles of
+cast iron, dry beans, and foreign paper, which should pay twenty and
+twenty-five per cent respectively. Goods, whether national or foreign,
+not declared as in transit at leaving Manila shall pay two and four per
+cent respectively; but those registered on a Spanish ship from India,
+China, and all Asia for España, ten per cent. Coined silver and gold,
+and silver bullion, shall pay no entrance duty at Manila, but on
+leaving that port shall pay three and six per cent respectively;
+and foreign gold in bullion shall pay eight per cent at entering
+Manila (whether on Spanish or foreign vessels). National products,
+and those of the industries of Filipinas, shall pay when exported
+eight per cent on a foreign vessel, but nothing on a Spanish ship. The
+duty of the merchant's peso [peso marchante] which the municipality
+of Manila collects should be abolished as obstructive to commerce;
+for the legal origin of this imposition is unknown, and it is very
+unsuitable for a municipality which is rich through its rents,
+revenues, and imposts. Bernaldez believes that this tariff would
+promote agriculture, industry, and navigation, and benefit the royal
+treasury. More coin would be brought into the islands, the plan of
+exempting it from duties having been adopted for that purpose by
+all the other governments of Asia. The burden of these duties will
+fall mainly on the rich class, and not on the Indians. The "infant
+industries" [fabricas nacientes] will be protected, and the Spanish
+merchant marine will be given the advantage over the foreigners.]
+
+
+
+Of the inter-island trade
+
+The inter-island trade of the Filipinas Islands is at present quite
+active, as is shown by the latest reports received. Its importance is
+well worth consideration, since the commodities which are traded in
+this way constitute the greater part of the cargoes of the export
+commerce. Tortoise-shell, gold, birds'-nests, balate, wax, cacao,
+and other products form cargoes of great value which come from
+the provinces. The exclusive proprietors of this commerce are the
+alcaldes-mayor of the provinces, and the rich mestizos and Chinese, who
+in this traffic have made exorbitant profits, for it is these alone who
+exclusively avail themselves of the rise in prices which is produced in
+Manila by the arrival there of foreign vessels together. This causes
+those posts of alcalde there to be very eagerly sought, since in only
+three years of holding them they allow [the making of] a fortune;
+and also that the class of mestizos and Chinese is the only one that
+is sure of becoming rich in Filipinas.... The result is, that with
+the exception of the great fortunes which in other times were made in
+the privileged commerce of Nueva España, it is this [coasting trade]
+from which have proceeded the fortunes of Manila. [This branch of trade
+is exempt from all duties, a privilege which does not benefit either
+the agriculture or the other industries of the Indians, since they
+always sell at the same price, and have no share in the profits of
+the trade. Nor is this commerce promoted by the freedom from duties,
+for it will always continue and always yield great profits to those
+who carry it on--who can well afford to pay a moderate tax on their
+lucrative trade, especially as it is partly for their benefit that
+the government incurs so great expense for curbing the piracies of
+the Moros. It is recommended:] That all commodities, whether natural
+products or those of industry, which arrive at the port of Manila by
+sea from the provinces shall pay one per cent on the prices current
+in that city; and from this tax shall be exempted only rice (whether
+in the hull or cleaned), cocoanut oil, and fresh fruits, as being
+articles of prime necessity for the Indians. That no duty shall
+be collected for those same products when they are transported by
+land, or by the rivers and bayous of the island of Luzon. And that,
+from the time when this law shall go into effect, the power which
+the municipality of Manila has to tax the value of the provisions
+which come from the provinces shall be suppressed. The exemption from
+duties will tend, in regard to the provinces of Luzon, to encourage in
+that island preëminently, as is desirable, agriculture and industry,
+and at the same time will save to the custom-house the new expenses
+which it would [otherwise] have to incur for establishing posts and
+men to guard against smuggling.
+
+
+
+Of money
+
+The Spanish peso is the universal money in the commerce among all the
+nations of Asia; and, as therefore the exterior commerce is constantly
+drawing it into circulation, the governments of all the colonies
+in that part of the world have found themselves obliged to create
+a colonial money, which on account of its provisional value cannot
+be taken out of the country, and, being directed into the internal
+commerce of the province, feeds and multiplies exchanges. In Filipinas
+there was no need of adopting that measure while its commerce with
+Nueva España lasted, because then those islands were receiving annually
+a million of Mexican pesos, and the situado of two hundred and fifty
+thousand; and, besides this, the business that was carried on during
+that period in the natural and industrial products of the country
+was almost insignificant. And if in Filipinas at this present time
+enough money circulates to support the outside traffic, that results
+from the fact that the profits which the colony has gained from the
+commerce with all the nations of Europa (the balance of which is in
+favor of Filipinas) are greater than the losses of money which it
+experiences in its commerce with India and China. [This is of course
+a very precarious situation; for the contingencies of war, diversion
+of commerce from the islands, or poor crops may at any time compel
+Filipinas to send out all its money to India or China for the supply of
+its needed commodities; and this would ruin even the internal commerce,
+"on account of the serious difficulties which the establishment of a
+system of public credit there presents."] Besides that, considering now
+the matter of giving a strong impulse to the agriculture and industry
+of those islands, there would be needed for the former project many
+millions of pesos in constant circulation in the provinces, and there
+must be a great reversion of the capital employed in commerce to the
+interior of the islands; and this cannot be practiced in a country in
+which hardly enough money circulates to support the government and
+the demands from without, and which had undertaken to promote its
+interests by commerce before placing its agriculture and industry
+on a sound basis. In almost all the provinces of the islands very
+little money circulates, and in some of them there is not even what
+is necessary in order that the natives can pay the government taxes;
+and from this has proceeded the necessity of commuting the tribute
+from money to kind. The Spanish pesos go from and return to the
+provinces rapidly; and it can be said that the produce of the taxes
+which has to be sent annually to the capital, and the importations of
+the alcaldes and the mestizos, are equal. Most of the Indians trade
+among themselves by means of simple barter, and the mestizos make
+them pay dearly with their products for the money that they need for
+clothing themselves and paying their taxes.
+
+There is, then, nothing to hope for--either advance in agriculture
+and the useful arts, or the great extension and progress of which
+the consumption of monopolized articles is susceptible--without the
+creation of a colonial money which will remain within the colony to
+which it belongs, which will liberate it from the precarious dependence
+on foreign commerce, which will afford to the Indian the just profits
+from his labor, which by remaining with him in the provinces will
+encourage him to obtain possession of it as an easy means of providing
+him with the necessities of life at the time [when he needs them,]
+and which likewise may be an allurement to his children--which up to a
+certain point it is of great importance to encourage in the Indians,
+as a powerful incentive to make them labor. [Lastly, this colonial
+money would check the exportation of silver coin by the Chinese,
+[150] who would then prefer to export from Filipinas its nature
+products in return for their commodities. In China all the Spanish
+pesos are, in order to keep them within the empire, disfigured with
+so many marks that they cannot be used in foreign commerce.] We
+have no knowledge thus far of there being silver mines in Filipinas;
+but it is a positive fact that gold abounds there, of so low grade
+and so mingled with silver that it has little more value than that
+metal. This circumstance, aided by the introduction of some silver
+bars from America, carried thither by foreigners, the recoinage of
+the half-dollars, and of the silver two-real, one-real, and half-real
+pieces which circulate in the islands, and the use of the great amount
+of old silver in household articles--which is there sold at very low
+prices, on account of being alloyed and manufactured in China--would
+supply the government with easy means for the creation of a colonial
+currency without need for expense, or for forestalling [the income
+from] any fund, only by accepting from the persons interested their
+respective materials in gold or silver, under assay, and returning to
+them the value of the metal in the coined money which it would yield,
+after deducting the necessary expenses. Likewise the government could
+accept, in payment of all taxes, the gold which is obtained from
+the placers, at the same prices at which the Chinese carry it away,
+and after it was assayed at its mint--where the learned professors
+who for this purpose would be sent from Europe would dictate the
+necessary measures for carrying into effect an undertaking which is
+the basis for all progress in the islands. I am therefore of opinion
+that his Majesty should deign to issue the following orders: That a
+colonial currency be immediately created for internal circulation in
+the Filipinas Islands. That for this purpose a mint be established
+there. That the standard for this money be the same as those of the
+moneys of the same kind which have been adopted in the other colonies
+of Asia. That the subdivisions of its value be made according to the
+needs of internal trade. That all the gold and silver, in various
+forms, which private persons offer for coinage be accepted at the
+mint, returning it to them in the standard coin which it yields after
+the expenses are deducted. That the government there be authorized
+to accept in payment of taxes the gold from the mines of Filipinas,
+after it is assayed. That regulations be drawn up by competent persons,
+in which precautions are taken against any fraud in this matter.
+
+
+
+Of the charitable funds established in Filipinas
+
+[The obras pías merit full attention from the government,] on account
+of the advantages which the agriculture and industry of the islands
+may gain from them. If the limited and privileged dealings of Manila
+with Nueva España had not been reduced to a merely passive commerce
+of transfer or transportation, those foundations would, at the same
+time while they have become wealthy, have given real opulence to that
+commerce. Of the enormous profit of two hundred and three hundred
+per cent which the transactions of the galleon yielded at Acapulco,
+the greater part was for the foreign dealers of India and China,
+whose wares supplied almost all the lading of the galleons, and for
+the obras pías; a greatly reduced profit remained for the Manila
+merchants, which could be shown by a calculation which might be made
+of the many millions imported from Nueva España by the galleons, and
+of the comparatively small value, in money or assistance, which has
+remained [therefrom] in the islands. [The returns from these funds are
+now greatly diminished, since the cessation of the Acapulco trade,
+for on that depended the commerce with India and China, which also
+has practically ended, save for the commodities from those countries
+which are consumed in Filipinas. This could not have been foreseen
+by the founders of those funds, many of which, moreover, are impeded
+by various restrictions and conditions; and the government should
+interpose its authority not only to secure the fulfilment of the
+founders' wishes, but to commute the investment of the funds in such a
+way that they may be used to promote the agriculture and industry of
+the country. These funds ought also to be preserved as a most useful
+resource in case of war or revolution, when the usual revenues of the
+government would cease. Bernaldez therefore recommends:] That the
+government of Manila furnish special protection to the charitable
+foundations of the islands, and keep close watch over their honest
+administration. That it stimulate the managers to obtain immediately
+from the competent authority the commutation of the allotments of these
+funds so as to benefit the agriculture and manufactures of the country,
+giving reports of what shall be effected in a matter so important for
+the welfare of the islands. That the funds in the communal treasuries
+of the Indians and the Chinese, those of the secular revenues,
+[151] and any others which are not subject to private foundations and
+regulations, and which hitherto have followed in their investments the
+rules of the obras pías, shall be by preference set aside for rewards
+bestowed for enterprises in agriculture, industry, and inter-island
+trade. Thus will be remedied the injury arising from the failure of
+those great funds to be in circulation; and the abuse of employing
+them in favor of foreigners and their commerce, under assumed names,
+will be corrected.
+
+
+
+Of the arsenal of Cavite
+
+[Bernaldez declares that the works of naval construction, etc., for the
+government can be accomplished for half the cost by means of private
+contracts awarded to the lowest bidder, which is proved by the history
+of all the enterprises which have been undertaken by the government
+in those islands, whether in agriculture, mining, or metal-working;
+"for, however great the disinterestedness and economy which can
+be ascribed to the officials who conduct the enterprise, in this
+direction nothing can take the place of the contractor's activity and
+vigilance." In the cutting and gathering of timber there is abundant
+cheating and graft, as that work is directed by Indian overseers,
+or by mestizos and Chinese; the latter have abandoned the system of
+day wages ("which the natural slothfulness of the Indian renders
+very costly"), and instead pay the natives so much for a certain
+amount of work (which they call paqueao). "In this way the Indians,
+who always are cheated in these calculations, have to redouble their
+efforts to gain the amount bargained for, thus allowing to the mestizo
+the benefit of at least one-third of the usual daily wages." After
+the timber is cut, its transportation, storage, and seasoning cost
+more when done by the government than by the mestizo contractor, and
+occasion much loss and damage. Ships of war could be built at Manila
+to great advantage, so far as the abundance and cheapness and location
+of the timber is concerned; but the lack of iron and copper there is
+a serious hindrance to such plans. There are mines of both metals in
+the islands, but they are not worked for lack of enterprising persons
+and suitable machinery. Bernaldez recommends: That the crown offer
+large rewards for the successful operation of the iron and copper
+mines in the islands, the supply therefrom of metal sufficient for the
+construction of ships and cannon, and the introduction of machinery
+for mining and iron-working. That arrangements be made for building
+war-ships each year, by contracts for the supply of timber and the
+manual labor. That competent engineers and constructors be sent from
+España, at good salaries; that necessary supplies and materials be
+secured by contracts, bid for in public; and that funds from the royal
+exchequer be set aside for this purpose to the amount of one hundred
+thousand to one hundred and fifty thousand pesos annually. That all the
+construction and repairing of war-ships for Filipinas be done through
+contracts, at public bidding; and that the arsenal of Cavite be reduced
+to a simple depository for the articles required for arming the ships,
+with such officials as may be necessary for the custody of these.]
+
+
+
+Of the agriculture of the Filipinas Islands, in general, and of their
+principal productions
+
+The Filipinas Islands, on account of the fertility of their land,
+their abundant rains, and the great number of animals for labor,
+constitute an agricultural colony; and to the readiness with which the
+country supplies the principal articles for human support has been
+due the rapid increase of its population. And although the Indians,
+as a general thing, only devote themselves to the cultivation of
+what they actually need for subsistence, the annual production so
+far exceeds the necessities of the people that very seldom has the
+failure or scarcity of provisions been experienced. The abundance of
+its arable lands and the excellence of its products have also rendered
+this colony capable of a considerable commerce with the other nations,
+at a much greater advantage over the other colonies, inasmuch as
+the land is tilled by free labor, which costs only the value of its
+food and clothing; and not by slaves, who, besides those expenses,
+occasion that of the premium or interest on the money invested in
+their purchase, which causes a difference of at least a third more
+in the cost of the manual labor employed in agriculture.
+
+The neglected condition in which agriculture is in Filipinas,
+considered under this last aspect, and the backwardness in knowledge of
+the manipulations required in the preparation of its raw products for
+their consumption in trade, proceed from the following causes: (1) The
+lack of a stable and regular system of commerce which can assure to the
+inhabitants of the islands the annual exportation of the produce of an
+extensive agriculture. The foreign vessels resort to the ports there,
+some years in excessive number and others very infrequently; and this
+irregularity always produces an effect opposed to the interests of the
+colony. The extraordinary rise in prices--which during the last three
+years has reached a value double that from which the ability to sell at
+all times would enable the colony to gain a profit--and the consequent
+lack of commodities for supplying all the vessels, prevent them from
+returning in the following years; while the decline of prices below
+what is fair, caused by the non-arrival of ships, discourages large
+production in agriculture. The Indians are absolutely without capital
+and storehouses which would enable them to hold back their produce for
+another market. They are induced to cultivate the soil solely by their
+present advantage; they always sell, but they suffer from the stern
+law of trade which, although it flatters them in years of scarcity,
+equally tyrannizes over them in years of abundance--for they are
+always deceived regarding the actual prices of the general market,
+of which they are ignorant; and one year only of unsuccessful sales,
+whether from lack of foreign ships, or through the loss of their crops,
+will be a warning to them for a long time. In short, the agriculture of
+Filipinas at this time depends on the irregular and transient stimulus
+which is furnished to it by the peripatetic capital of the mestizo,
+who buys only in the years when he calculates that he must in view of
+the condition of the crops and the market, make a profit; while the
+Indian farmer always sows his seed heedless of results, and without
+the guidance of that elementary principle in affairs of commerce that
+the estimate of what he acquires ought to be based on a calculation of
+the market for it. For the corrective of this evil, and assuming that,
+for reasons that are rightful and conformable to sound policy (as I
+have set forth), the residence of foreigners in the islands ought not
+to be permitted, I find no other means than this, that the government
+encourage, by judicious measures, the direct and unlimited commerce of
+España with that colony--of which I shall speak in another chapter,
+[presenting] the rough sketch of a plan which ought to produce the
+following effects: (a) The definite and reliable annual exportation
+from those islands, not only of the great quantity of sugar, indigo,
+coffee, and other native products which are needed in the ordinary
+consumption of España, but of that which Spanish commerce can dispose
+of in the other nations and free ports of Europa. (b) The establishment
+of Spanish trading posts [factorias] in the interior of the provinces
+of Filipinas, which the Spanish mercantile interests will carry on
+for the sake of acquiring the agricultural produce at first hand,
+freeing the Indians from the oppressive rule of the mestizo trader,
+and forming contracts with them, at prices agreed upon, for a certain
+number of years.
+
+[The backward condition of agriculture proceeds] (2) from the lack
+of great agricultural establishments. One of the causes for this is
+the fact that the capital of the islands, which ought to be employed
+for that object, has been diverted by the commerce of India, China,
+and Nueva España, which offers greater and quicker profits. The
+religious orders administer their estates as in mortmain, or by
+ecclesiastical rules. The Indians cultivate, not from inclination
+but through necessity, the little plots of ground on which they have
+fixed their abodes. They lack the buildings and appliances necessary
+for the preparation of the little sugar and indigo that they collect;
+and from that results the wretched and unreliable quality of those
+articles which so discredits them in the trade. They lack also the
+capital to incur the expenses of a regular plantation, and these
+enterprises require costly outlays at the start. But this cause of
+backwardness would be remedied by the impulse which would be given to
+commerce by the exportation of native products, which would attract
+to agriculture the capital which it has hitherto lacked, and by the
+special protection which the government can grant to large capitalists
+who may devote themselves to agriculture.
+
+(3) From the ignorance of the Indians, not only of the various methods
+of making plantations, but of the means of preparing the raw materials
+for their employment in the trade--a cause which is so universal
+and so mischievous that the agricultural products of Filipinas,
+which ought to be, on account of their excellent character and the
+extent of territory of the islands, commodities which should supply
+all the markets of Europe and hold the first rank in quality, are
+the most scarce in general commerce, and moreover lowest in price,
+as I am going to prove by some instances. The sugar of Filipinas
+is today the most important commodity for exportation which the
+commerce there includes. The cultivation of the sugar-cane cannot
+be improved; but the manufacture of the sugar is so defective that,
+in spite of the superior quality of the cane, the sugar which is
+produced from it is inferior to that which is called terciado [i.e.,
+brown] at Habana. Although in the market of Cadiz the white sugar from
+Habana is worth thirty-two to twenty-five silver reals, and the brown
+sugar twenty-six to twenty-eight, the white sugar of Manila is worth
+twenty-four to twenty-five [152]--that is, nine silver reals less
+than the former, and two or three reals less than the latter on each
+arroba. Consequently, the temporary privilege granted by his Majesty
+in exempting the products of Filipinas from duties is the only support
+of the expeditions which have come [thence] to the Peninsula; and it
+is unquestionable that when that privilege ceases that commerce will
+likewise come to a complete stop. For if from the twenty-four silver
+reals, the highest price at which an arroba of the Manila sugar
+can be sold, be deducted for duties eight reals and twenty-seven
+maravedís, the trader will receive a price of only nineteen silver
+reals, five cuartos; subtracting from this the fourteen and one-half
+reals of the prime cost at Manila (according to the latest information
+received), and the only profit left to him would be four reals, three
+maravedís--with which it is absolutely impossible for him to pay either
+the heavy freight charges on that commodity, or the interest on money
+and the insurance premiums, on a voyage three times as long as that
+from Habana. The low price [of sugar] in the market has no other cause
+than the lack of skill at Manila for manufacturing the sugar; this art
+is there found entirely in its infancy, and without any other method
+than that which, since very ancient times, the Chinese have taught
+them. [The sugar-makers have not proper machinery or appliances,
+or the knowledge, for any of the stages of the process; and their
+product is inferior, when it might be as good as that of Habana--or
+even better, if the same skill and care were used in making it as are
+used there. The above profit of nine reals on the arroba, if equally
+divided among the grower, the manufacturer, and the government (for
+duties which in that case should be imposed on the sugar), would
+yield each of them $300,000 annually, on the estimated production
+of 1,000,000 arrobas which would be practicable for Filipinas--to
+say nothing of the increased benefits to the laboring class--with
+improved methods of manufacture. To secure this, the government must
+be energetic in promoting large establishments there, and introducing
+machinery and skilled laborers. "The funds in the communal treasury
+of the Indians, which at the present time must reach about $300,000,
+and whose object is the benefit of those same Indians," might aid
+the government in meeting the expenses of such measures; the skilled
+artisans could instruct the Indian farmers in the new improved methods,
+and the industry would be almost perfected in two years' time, at very
+little expense. Bernaldez describes in similar manner the deficiencies,
+possibilities, and needs of the indigo, coffee, and cacao industries,
+and urges the government to extend like care to these; what has been
+done thus far by the colonial government has been quite ineffective,
+because it has been in the form of proclamations and enactments which
+merely required small plantations to be made by all the inhabitants,
+but these failed because they disregarded the principles of political
+economy and made no provision for the individual interest of the
+cultivator.] There are, then, two means which ought to be adopted
+for the promotion of large plantations in Filipinas, incentive
+and instruction; and for this it is necessary to grant pecuniary
+rewards to the agriculturists, and furnish them with teachers from
+the near-by islands of Java or even Bourbon, where not only coffee
+but cacao is cultivated.
+
+(4) And, finally, the cause which likewise exerts a powerful influence
+in [causing] the neglected and backward condition of agriculture is
+the slothfulness of the Indians and their absolute indifference to
+acquiring and keeping property. [This sloth is caused by the climate,
+the abundant supply of the necessities of life with little labor,
+and the hospitality which prevails among the natives;] and if it
+were not that in the capital and its adjacent provinces there has
+now been introduced a certain degree of decency and [even] luxury in
+some families of that class, it would be difficult to find any one to
+render service or to practice the useful arts that are necessary in
+villages. [With a people like this, it would be hazardous to attempt
+to compel them to work; but "even if they are naturally slothful,
+they have their likes and dislikes; and a wise government ought to
+avail itself of these two powerful resources to urge them to work." The
+Indians dislike to pay direct taxes, and hate the collector of these;
+also they are passionately fond of cockfighting and spectacles of
+all sorts, and of office-holding; and if these characteristics are
+considered in the policy of the government much can be done to make
+them industrious. Bernaldez recommends: That a system of direct,
+unlimited, and regular commerce be established between España and
+Filipinas, for the purpose of maintaining a reliable and definite
+annual exportation of the latter's products. That agricultural
+establishments be protected by the government, being allowed
+(although at their own expense) the assistance of a band of irregular
+soldiers. That machines, tools, and other aids to agricultural
+production be admitted free of duties. That skilled workmen be taken
+to the islands as instructors in the manufacture of sugar and indigo,
+and cultivators of coffee, etc., with their machinery and tools;
+their salaries for three years and their transportation to Manila
+being paid from the communal funds of the Indians. That large rewards
+be paid to the farmers who shall make large plantations of coffee and
+other useful trees or establish the silk industry. That the owners of
+these large plantations shall be allowed to keep on their lands each
+a cockpit for his laborers, free of expense. That groups of Indians,
+Chinese, and mestizos, limited to twenty families each, who shall
+maintain an indigo or sugar plantation of a certain extent in good
+condition, shall be relieved from paying the tribute so long as the
+plantation is kept up. That every Indian who works for wages during
+five consecutive years, to the satisfaction of his employer, shall be
+perpetually exempted from tribute, the employer paying the laborer's
+tax for twenty years. That the Indians and mestizos who cultivate
+large plantations on their own account shall have the preference
+for the offices in their respective villages. That the government
+of Filipinas take measures to avoid frauds in connection with these
+proposed changes.]
+
+
+
+Of the anfion, or opium
+
+[Bernaldez describes the efforts made by the English East India Company
+to import opium into China, although against the will of the Chinese
+government, and states that a certain amount is smuggled into Manila
+to supply the Chinese settled in Filipinas; he supposes that the
+prohibition of this trade in the islands arose from the fear of the
+governors that the Indians would become habitual users of this drug and
+thus be injured; but in his experience of seventeen years in various
+judicial positions in Filipinas he has never seen a scandalous case of
+opium inebriacy among the Chinese of Luzon, nor any Indian brought into
+court for using the drug; and "the Indians without exception regard
+the use of opium with the utmost indifference and contempt." He thinks
+that it should not be prohibited in Filipinas, since its use appears
+not to injure the Chinese there, or to be necessary for the Indians;
+while the islands] ought not to be deprived of a revenue that is
+exceedingly lucrative for agriculture, commerce, and the treasury;
+of an article which in the order of nature ought to be exclusively
+for the trade and benefit of the islands; and a means by which the
+Manila commerce would draw great wealth from China, turning in its
+favor, and with large sales, the balance of trade with that empire,
+which is now and always has been against Manila. A chest of opium,
+weighing one pico of Filipinas or 100 cates of China (each of 22
+onzas), would probably cost the Manila grower for all expenses at
+most 100 pesos; and its value in China is usually 1,400 to 1,600
+pesos. Add to this advantage that of the large and secure market which
+Filipinas has close at hand, since there would be annually consumed
+in China more than eight millions pesos' worth of this article from
+the islands; this would permit all the extension which they choose
+to give to the cultivation of this article. And if 8,000 chests of
+opium produced in Filipinas would yield in China 12,000,000 dollars,
+the royal exchequer, which ought to secure its proportion of the great
+advantages to agriculture and commerce, could without any difficulty
+load that product with a duty so considerable that it would produce
+four to six millions of pesos a year. [Bernaldez therefore recommends:
+That the government, without abrogating the present prohibition of the
+importation and use of opium in the islands, give free permission to
+capitalists to cultivate the poppy and export opium from Filipinas;
+that the poppy-fields be close to the capital and enclosed; that the
+harvest be superintended by trustworthy persons from the revenue
+service, as is that of tobacco; and that the entire product be
+deposited in the magazines of the custom-house. That at the time of
+its exportation a duty of 25 per cent be collected on the value of
+the opium, at the prices current in China. That the concession of
+raising opium should be granted by preference to the planters who
+already are maintaining large plantations of sugar, indigo, coffee,
+and other useful products.]
+
+
+
+Of the cotton manufactures
+
+The Madrast commerce annually carries into Filipinas fabrics of cotton,
+called cambayas, to the value of $300,000 to $350,000, a sum which
+the traders carry back to their own country in cash, without taking
+away any natural or industrial product of Filipinas. Likewise the
+Chinese carry into the islands annually, by means of their champans,
+cotton fabrics with the names of manta Hipo, Chuapo, and others,
+to the value of $300,000, nearly all of which sum they carry back to
+their own country in cash. The Armenians of India and the Chinese had
+likewise the control, from the time of the conquest of the islands,
+of importing into them annually the enormous quantity of small cotton
+articles [pañuelos] and ordinary cambayas which the natives of the
+country consume, until intercourse with those coasts was interrupted
+in the late war with Inglaterra. Then necessity and the high price
+of those goods induced the natives of Filipinas to manufacture them,
+and in such abundance that the ships which arrived at Manila, after the
+peace, with those commodities suffered great loss; and from that time
+the importation of those fabrics ceased, and the natives continued to
+manufacture them in the country. This has not been the case, however,
+with the fine cambayas and kerchiefs from Madrast, nor with the cotton
+fabrics from China; for the former are dyed with the beautiful and
+permanent Indian colors, furnished by certain plants which are to this
+day unknown in Filipinas, and the latter [are desired] on account of
+the very low prices at which the Chinese sell them. Thus, although
+various manufacturers of Manila have attempted to weave and dye that
+class of goods, they have not obtained favorable results, and have
+abandoned to the Armenians and Chinese the exclusive provision of
+Filipinas with those commodities. It seems impossible that a colony
+in which is produced cotton of a quality superior to that of all the
+other colonies in Asia, whose natives are industrious, and where the
+general consumption of the country offers a large and sure market
+for cotton fabrics, must be dependent for its supply on foreign
+manufacturers, and carry on with them a commerce which is one-sided
+[pasivo] and ruinous. Nevertheless, the causes of this incongruity
+lie in the great population of India and China as compared with that
+of Filipinas, which causes the wages paid for the spinning of the
+thread (and it is this item which increases or diminishes the cost
+of the woven goods) to be very low; in the enormous crops of cotton
+which those countries produce as compared with that of Filipinas,
+which abundance causes a diminution in the price of the raw material
+there; and, finally, in the superiority of the dyes of India, which
+no colony has been able thus far to imitate.
+
+In order to compensate for the cheapness of hand labor in the great
+populations of India and China, it is necessary that in Filipinas
+cotton-spinning machinery should be introduced, and that this project
+be encouraged by all means; that instructors in weaving and dyeing
+cambayas and kerchiefs be taken thither from Madrast, who shall at
+the same time introduce into Filipinas a knowledge of the plants from
+which the Oriental dyes are obtained, with the methods of planting
+and cultivating these--meeting this expense from the communal funds
+of the Indians. [These measures, and the promotion already urged for
+large plantations of cotton, would furnish employment to many natives
+of Filipinas, and "place in circulation within the country itself the
+$650,000 which annually are carried out of it in hard money to foreign
+lands for the value of the cambayas and other fabrics imported into
+it." Moreover, a new and important line of goods would be added to
+the exports of Filipinas in these fine cotton fabrics, which would
+be equal to those of India and even cheaper; while the islands can
+always supply their own coarse cottons much more cheaply than these
+can be manufactured in España, an industry which should therefore be
+fostered in Filipinas. These coarse commodities could thus be supplied
+also to España, more cheaply than they can be manufactured there;
+thus Spanish commerce would be liberated from its present dependence
+upon foreign countries for them, and the money paid for them would
+instead go into the hands of Spaniards, in Spanish possessions. To
+secure these ends, the government of Filipinas should be cautious in
+imposing import duties on the fine foreign goods, gradually increasing
+them according to the ability of Philippine manufacturers to displace
+foreign goods by native products. Bernaldez therefore recommends:
+That encouragement and rewards be conferred on those who introduce
+cotton-spinning machinery; that instructors in weaving and dyeing be
+brought from India, as above mentioned; that the manufacture of coarse
+cotton fabrics in the islands be promoted; that duties on the fine
+goods should be gradually increased; that raw cotton be permitted
+free exportation from the islands; and that the authorities of the
+exchequer there confer on these matters with the local manufacturers
+and merchants.]
+
+
+
+Of the means for establishing regular communication and frequent
+and permanent mercantile relations between España and the Filipinas
+Islands.
+
+[The writer urges the necessity of more interest and care for the needs
+of the islands, and action by the Spanish government in their behalf,
+if they are to be retained as a Spanish possession. For this purpose a
+regular commerce with the islands should be maintained, sufficient to
+keep twelve ships in constant employment, six sailing for the islands
+every year; and thus could be kept in efficient condition the large
+force (more than one thousand two hundred) of government employees
+in all the departments of the island service. He warns the ministry
+against plans which may be proposed by selfish interests and intrigues,
+for leaving the islands in their present poverty and isolation from
+the mother country. The commercial interests of the latter should
+unite to carry on this work, partly for their own profit, partly as a
+matter of patriotism. "The Filipinas Islands ought to be the center of
+the Spanish government's power in Asia, the great market for Spanish
+commerce," and the source of enormous revenues to the Spanish treasury;
+they should be to España what India is to England, and are even more
+capable, by their natural endowments, of being a source of power
+and opulence to the mother country. Spanish commerce is being greatly
+injured by the restrictions laid upon trade with the countries of Asia,
+and the treasury should adjust the duties it exacts to those of other
+countries; this would put an end to the smuggling which wastes more
+than half of its revenues under the present system, cheapen prices,
+increase the consumption of goods, and augment the revenues of the
+crown. Bernaldez compares the restrictive Spanish policy with that
+pursued by the Dutch and English in Asia, the latter being "based on
+the principle of maintaining and protecting their principal possessions
+in those regions;" and illustrates this by allusion to their leading
+colonies, while he censures Spain's negligence and folly in regard
+to Filipinas, and her apathy in allowing foreign nations to seize
+her commerce. The royal decree of January 10, 1820, although aiding
+Philippine commerce only as a temporary measure, has already done much
+for the islands; their commerce with España has placed in circulation
+considerable quantities of capital, and has increased the products of
+agriculture and the exportation of these from Manila to such a degree
+that their value has risen to almost double what it was before. This
+has been mutually beneficial to both countries; but the colony "will
+become the victim of this very prosperity" unless the home government
+shall grant certain exemptions and privileges to render it permanent
+and solid. The present restrictions on Spanish commerce prevent the
+exportation of silver to Filipinas, and enable the foreigners to
+monopolize the trade of the islands in iron, wine, brandy, paper,
+and other wares which, being Spanish products, ought to be furnished
+by Spanish merchants--who, in this fettered condition, are "unable
+to find any way of placing funds in Manila for the purchase of their
+cargoes." Moreover, "the premiums on insurance have been considerably
+increased for [vessels bearing] the Spanish flag, on account of the
+risk from the insurgent corsairs; and these same risks compel the
+merchants to increase, for their part, the expenses for the armament
+and crews of their ships." The merchants of Manila have only two
+commodities to offer to Spanish trade, sugar and indigo, and the
+latter of these is not practicable for the sole lading of a vessel;
+while if the sugar crop should fail, those merchants are left without
+other resource, to say nothing of the uncertainty in prices caused by
+that in the number of foreign customers who will arrive at Manila. The
+Spanish government, therefore, "should open to the commerce of España
+with Filipinas a wider range of objects in all the productions of India
+and China, both natural and industrial, in which commerce can engage
+in speculation and with which it can furnish cargoes for its ships;"
+for the trade in sugar alone is far too inadequate and uncertain
+to support the ships needed for the maintenance and protection of
+Filipinas. Bernaldez urges forcibly such action by the government,
+and makes these recommendations: That Spanish ships be allowed to
+trade with Filipinas, without any restrictions or duties, save that
+on foreign goods carried by them a duty of ten per cent be paid,
+and five per cent on arrival at Manila. That returns from these
+consignments which consist in products of Filipinas shall be free
+from any duties or imposts whatsoever, at either end of the voyage
+or on their circulation in España. That ships may complete their
+cargoes at Manila, if they wish, with any products of India, China,
+and other Asiatic countries, to the extent of 30 toneladas of lading
+for every 100 toneladas of Philippine products carried in the vessel;
+these foreign goods shall pay ten per cent duty at Manila, and ten per
+cent on reaching the Spanish ports, reckoned on the cost of the goods
+at Manila as shown by the official registers. Any ship-owner who shall
+have carried only Spanish goods to Filipinas and Philippine products
+on the return trip shall be given the right to make another voyage
+to the ports of India or China, carrying the goods most suitable
+for those markets and returning to España with white cotton stuffs
+and other goods at their pleasure. In these latter voyages, Spanish
+products carried to Asia shall be exempt from all duties; and foreign
+products carried thither shall pay a duty of ten per cent on the values
+in the general tariffs; and Asiatic goods brought back to España shall
+pay the same rate on the first cost in Asia, as shown by the original
+invoices. That silver may be freely exported from España for all these
+trading expeditions, by paying two per cent. And that the shipments
+of moneys due from the colonial revenues to the Spanish government
+be made through the Spanish ships which shall be at Manila at the
+beginning of the monsoon, in proportion to their respective tonnage.]
+
+
+
+Of the necessity of forming a special code of laws for the Filipinas
+Islands; and of ordaining that a periodical visitation of that colony
+be made by officials from the Peninsula.
+
+[Such visitation should be made] every five years, by officials
+despatched from the Peninsula for the purpose of inspecting the
+manner in which the laws are fulfilled, and the conduct of government
+employees of all classes; to examine the progress made in all the
+branches of administration, and matters that are worthy of reform; to
+make provisional arrangements for these, according to the instructions
+that shall be entrusted to them; and to furnish information to his
+Majesty's government, from their positive knowledge and examination of
+the facts. The climate of Filipinas, and the disposition, passions,
+and customs of its inhabitants, are very different from those of the
+two Americas, by whose code the islands are governed. Although they
+form a naturally agricultural colony, they lack agrarian laws suited to
+the nature and resources of the country. The administration of justice
+demands many modifications of the general laws; and the institutions
+of the municipality and the [commercial] consulate, similar to those
+of the Peninsula, have not corresponded to the beneficial ends which
+the sovereign intended in them, on account of the character of the
+persons who in Manila compose that class of corporations, and of
+their clashing interests and relations. The chairs of theology,
+laws, and philosophy should, I am forced to say, be abolished, on
+account of the abuse which is made of the knowledge gained in those
+branches of learning; and in their places be substituted chairs of
+agriculture, botany, mineralogy, arts, and commerce--throwing open
+the colleges and universities of España to the natives of Filipinas
+who desire to cultivate the former branches. In the laws which
+regulate law-suits, in the tariffs, in the penalties--in short, in
+all which has been adopted from other countries and another condition
+of human life--there is a certain discord with the character, usages,
+and customs of the inhabitants of Filipinas which it is necessary to
+correct. A periodical visitation by officials experienced in affairs,
+would set everything in motion in that colony, fill the natives with
+hope, correct the arbitrary use of power (which usually increased
+in proportion to the distances from the center of government), and
+furnish to this government accurate and impartial data for making its
+decisions. It is a great mistake, in my judgment, to seek for light on
+affairs of government in the colonies from the information furnished by
+their authorities and corporations; they are always prone to support
+their own jurisdictions or interests, and, in whatever matter these
+may cross, it is impossible to expect impartiality. The laxity which
+the climate inspires, the pleasures, the relations of friendship,
+kindred, and interest in a small population of Spaniards - all these
+things cause the neglect of affairs of government, and the domination
+of private interests. Points of mere etiquette, questions of little
+importance to the [royal] service, and discords (which furnish a bad
+example) between married persons - it has been mainly these things
+which for many years have filled the official correspondence of the
+colonies and kept their authorities occupied. Many of the subjects
+which are touched upon in this writing are either absolutely unknown
+to the government, or have not been discussed with the specifications
+and explanations which their importance deserves.
+
+I have explained to your Excellency impartially the causes which
+antagonize the security and progress of the Filipinas Islands; and
+your Excellency will recognize, by the irrefutable facts which I
+have here set down, that in that colony there exist the elements
+necessary for it to render itself prosperous, and to distribute
+its wealth throughout España, increasing the glory and power of her
+sovereign. Your Excellency desires radical measures of reform, and
+solidly-grounded plans for prosperity, because you recognize that
+this is the great art of government and of political economy. I have
+endeavored not to embarrass myself with the examination of one-sided
+and isolated questions, but rather to rise to the comprehension of
+the axioms and general principles which would give perpetual strength
+to the tranquillity of the Filipinas Islands and lay the foundations
+for their advancing prosperity.
+
+It has already been made evident by melancholy experience that the
+governmental measures adopted since the conquest of the colonies have
+not been suited to their object. It is therefore necessary either
+to leave existing in Filipinas the same causes which have brought
+other colonies to their ruin, or to change the system without loss
+of time. This great reform will assuredly be the work of the present
+enlightened government of his Majesty, and the future prosperity of the
+Filipinas Islands will be the grandest monument to his glory. Madrid,
+April 26, 1827.
+
+
+Most excellent Sir,
+
+MANUEL BERNALDEZ PIZARRO
+
+
+
+
+[Here follows a "résumé of the measures proposed in this memorial,"
+which we have already presented by sections, at the end of each subject
+treated. At the end is a list of the items of estimated increase in
+the public revenues of the islands provided the reforms advocated by
+Bernaldez are adopted.]
+
+[Another MS. in the possession of Edward E. Ayer, dated Madrid,
+July 15, 1827, is of similar scope to this; it is signed with the
+initials "P. de S. M.," and is addressed to the Spanish minister
+Ballesteros. The writer states, in the prefatory note, that his
+paper is the fruit of his many years of practical experience and
+observation, being actively engaged in commerce from Manila throughout
+the Philippine archipelago, in China, in all the foreign colonies
+of India, and on the Pacific coasts of America; and that he has
+written this paper "in the short time since he knew the charge given
+to Señor Bernaldez." He sends it to the minister to be laid before
+"the junta extraordinaria (or special committee) which at that time
+was considering the judicious informatory report of the auditor Señor
+Bernaldez Folgueras in regard to the protection and preservation of
+the Filipinas Islands;" and he offers to appear before the committee
+in person, to give any further information or explanation which may
+be desired. He states that, like Ballesteros, he is a Galician; and
+he displays much enthusiasm for the advancement and prosperity of
+Filipinas. This MS. is headed, "Impartial reflections of a Spaniard,
+who is enrolled among the citizens of Manila, upon the causes of
+the decadence of the Filipinas Islands, and the means which he deems
+most suitable for making them productive to the central government,
+and for restoring them to the state which, by their advantageous
+location, they are capable of occupying." It begins by deploring the
+injury and loss caused to the islands by the piracies of the Moros,
+and recommending that the Spanish government remedy the abuses and
+negligence displayed in the administration of the colony, and the
+enormous and extravagant expenditure of funds in the wars against
+those pirates. This latter could be ended by effecting the conquest
+of Joló, Mindanao, and other centers of piracy, and establishing
+therein military and agricultural colonies of Visayans; this,
+and the development of the natural resources of those islands,
+would stop piracy and add much to the colonial revenues. Following
+the example of the English colonies in America, and of the Jesuit
+missionaries in Paraguay and California, agriculture should be
+fostered in every way in Filipinas--where much greater success can
+be obtained because the native population is large and robust, and
+needs not to be supplemented by slave labor, which fortunately has
+been kept out of the islands. This and other industries there can be
+promoted at the same time, by proper measures. The preservation of
+the colony cannot be left to the Indians, and six thousand men from
+España, selected carefully, should be sent to Filipinas as soldiers
+and colonists, lands being bestowed on them; and with them should
+come commissioners of high standing and integrity to reform abuses
+in the colony and take measures for its benefit. Banks should be
+established, currency provided for, and facilities given to all the
+people for securing credit when needed--under the care, protection,
+and partly the management of the government. Commerce should be
+made entirely free to the world, in all kinds of products, whether
+native or foreign, save for the payment of moderate customs duties. A
+lottery should be established; fire and marine insurance companies
+should be protected; all artisans, of every class, nationality,
+and religion, should be free to settle in the islands (those who
+oppose this show puerile fears and absurd and impolitic notions);
+the ownership of land should be made secure and legal; waste lands
+should be brought under cultivation, under penalty of losing title to
+them; such lands should be freely granted to all, whether natives or
+foreigners, who will cultivate them; and intending colonists be aided
+in all practicable ways, even from the public funds. The convents and
+cabildos which have the administration of funds deposited with them
+for the promotion of agriculture should be obliged to render their
+accounts of these, and to distribute them so as to carry out the
+intentions of the founders; and the funds which were to be invested
+in the Acapulco trade should, as that has now ceased, be applied to
+the benefit of agriculture. Foreign nations should be allowed to send
+consuls to Manila, which would be a benefit not only to foreigners
+residing in the islands, but reciprocally to Spaniards who navigate
+the seas controlled by foreign nations. A printing-office should be
+established there, and provision be made for the publication of a daily
+paper devoted to commerce and industry, and having correspondents in
+the other Oriental colonies to furnish information of their progress
+and achievements in all the useful arts. A mint should be erected at
+Manila; and the government establishments there for making cannon and
+gun-powder, which now are almost useless, should be put on an effective
+footing, and those articles should be supplied for the defense of
+the merchant and coasting vessels. A probate court has been formed,
+for the proper care of intestate property and that left to minors;
+and its administration should be regulated carefully, and the funds
+in its charge be administered for the benefit of its owners and of
+the country. Manila and its environs should be sufficiently policed,
+and lawlessness curbed; vagabonds should be kept under control, and
+all who employ Indian servants should be made responsible for their
+conduct; and such servants should not be employed by any one, whether
+Spaniard or foreigner, nor allowed to enter colleges as students,
+without producing certificates from the police department. A college
+should be established in which the youth should receive instruction in
+belles lettres, medicine, chemistry, botany, experimental physics, and
+mathematics; and a botanical garden should be made near Manila. Martins
+should be introduced into Luzon, for the extermination of the locust
+plague. The intendancy of the royal exchequer should be separated
+from the office of captain-general, so that the intendant shall have
+authority to direct the affairs of the former independently.]
+
+[The writer proceeds to describe the character of the Tagalog natives,
+which he paints in gloomy colors.] It is impossible to define either
+the character of these Tagálos, or their morality--although it can be
+said that they have none; for, although in outward appearance they
+profess the Catholic religion, inwardly and in their actions they
+manifest that they follow no religion. The zeal with which the first
+conquistadors undertook to instruct them in the true belief has been
+useless; and the watchful care of the missionaries whom the piety
+of our kings has not ceased to send to those regions has been of no
+avail, except to make of their neophytes, instead of true Catholics
+and useful members of society, a new species of men, who unite the
+slothfulness of the savages to the vices of civilized peoples. Thus
+it is that the Tagálos are fickle, vagabonds, full of superstitions,
+assassins, liars, licentious but without love, adroit thieves; and,
+in one word, they do not respect even the most sacred of the laws,
+divine or human. They lose no opportunity to make mischief among the
+authorities, and between the latter and Spaniards of all classes;
+and they have the cunning to throw the blame on these last, as being
+more timid. Moreover, they perjure themselves without the least
+scruple; their telling the truth depends on their being more or less
+carefully instructed by the parties to the suit; and unfortunate is
+he who summons them as his witnesses. They do not understand love,
+and their sensuality is carried to the extreme; consequently they are
+cruel fathers and worse husbands, and they have not the least respect
+or consideration for their wives. Paternal love is a strange thing
+for them, and therefore when they punish their children they do so
+barbarously, and if they begin it in the morning they do not finish
+until night. The same cruel disposition is seen among the schoolmasters
+who are paid by the government to teach the youth in their villages.
+
+The code of laws for the Indias, considering these Indians as
+neophytes like those of the Antillas and the Americas, has made them
+participants in the privileges and liberties granted to those natives;
+and it exempts them from the penalties of which they render themselves
+worthy by the atrocious crimes which they continually commit. Incest,
+for example, is a common vice among them, for which opportunity is
+given by the little privacy in which the families live; for the
+mother, daughters, and sisters all sleep in one bed [hacen cama
+redonda], without any other separation from the men than merely a
+blanket. It is difficult to prove this crime among them, and only the
+cura or missionary could rebuke them and apply the proper correction,
+in their wrongly-understood condition of neophytes, if in confession
+they should reveal their sin; but, as lying is their dominant vice,
+they are silent or else deny it, and the cura cannot, even when he
+knows of it, obtain any satisfaction from them. The capital and its
+environs are the refuge of the more perverse, who migrate from the
+provinces and from their villages, in order not to work and to relieve
+themselves from paying the tribute. There they devote themselves to
+studies in the colleges of Santo Tomas, San José, and San Juan de
+Letran, making progress in a short time, and deceiving the professors
+with their apparent ingenuousness; at the same time they are occupied
+as servants to the Spaniards and foreigners, but only nominally, since
+they do not go to their master's house except for eating, sleeping, and
+stealing from him (which they do with astonishing dexterity). After a
+little time, having abused the master's patience, and having violated
+his wife, daughters, and other relatives, if he has such (without
+respecting even those who have not reached the age of puberty), they
+end by departing with the utmost coolness; and in order to avoid
+recognition, and so that they cannot be caught if they happen to be
+pursued, they employ the trick of shaving the head, and, while naked,
+anointing the entire body with oil, and then take to flight, with no
+other covering than a mere breech-clout. The poor Spaniard, although
+he finds that he has been robbed, does not think of resorting to the
+magistrates to make complaint, for he knows that instead of doing him
+justice they would, after making him spend much money, sentence him
+to pay the costs and exculpate the Indian, regarding the latter as a
+neophyte. Still less does he say a word about the rape, in order not to
+make public his own dishonor. Let it not be supposed that this occurs
+only among private persons; for there have been persons in authority
+who have experienced in their own houses similar acts of insolence
+from these vicious and immoral neophytes. After these evil deeds,
+they disappear, as I have said; and in a very short time they are
+seen returning from Ilocos, Camarines, and Cebú, ordained as clerics,
+with what sort of character may be understood--now cleansed from all
+their crimes, and absolved from guilt and penalty, to continue their
+studies in the colleges. Thus they graduate as bachelors and doctors,
+and secure curacies, in which they commit the acts of folly which
+may easily be inferred, and which it would be tedious to explain
+here; and with their corrupt behavior they set an example to their
+parishioners of dissoluteness, impiety, and slothfulness.
+
+[The writer then enumerates the good qualities of this people,
+so far as they go. They are inclined to the arts and sciences, and
+learn quickly, and their deficiencies therein are due only to their
+lack of books for their instruction, and tools with which to finish
+off their work; this is mainly due to their improvidence, "for an
+Indian, even though he is a doctor and a cura, is unable to save one
+cuarto for purchasing those things, no matter how cheap they may be;
+on the other hand, he will, if he needs money for his vices, pledge
+his breviary or sell his missal." "Nevertheless, they exercise all
+the occupations except those of silversmith, tailor, and watch-maker,
+for no one would trust them [in these];" but lack of tools prevents
+them from doing as good work as Europeans. They have taste in the
+fine arts, and almost all the buildings are planned by them. They
+are excellent artillerists, and a French naval commander (in 1798)
+thought them better than his own; and are useful in naval fights, on
+account of their courage and agility. An Indian will in a few days'
+practice understand as much of seamanship as a European would gain
+in twenty years; and many of them have migrated from the islands as
+seamen on the ships. But they resent being called "negroes," and in
+several cases where they have been thus affronted they have mutinied,
+killed the Europeans, and fled with the ship and cargo. So great
+has been this migration that in the other colonies of Asia rigorous
+measures have been taken to stop it, and "in all the ports of India,
+the entrances and roads are full of gibbets on which men from Manila
+are hanged, for a warning; but, seeing that this had no effect,
+all the owners and captains of merchant ships have been compelled by
+law not to receive on their vessels more than four or six of these
+Indians." The Tagálos are free with their money, and readily lend to
+any European whatever they may possess. They take great care of their
+fighting cocks ("who are for them actual idols"), are very temperate
+in eating and drinking, and are never seen intoxicated. They are often
+devoted to agricultural labor, and will do well in it when they are
+supplied with better methods and appliances.]
+
+[Some account is given of the Negritos and other wild tribes of Luzón;
+and it is stated that any colonist who wishes to settle among them
+will be able to succeed in any agricultural or other enterprise which
+he may undertake, if he will obtain the consent of the chiefs, pay
+the savages whom he may employ exactly what he has agreed to give,
+and not annoy them with matters of religion. As for the civilized
+Tagálos, their women are entirely different from the men; they are
+kind, hospitable, and industrious, and, although coquettish, are
+very modest and decorous in behavior. They sow the rice, and gather
+all the crops; roll cigars, and weave beautiful fabrics of cotton
+and abacá; and embroider beautifully, besides making hats, mats, and
+many other articles. In fine, "if it were possible to put an end to
+all the men and leave only the women, or rather unite them to other
+men who would possess their good qualities and think as they do,
+Filipinas would come to be the most wealthy and fortunate country
+in the universe." It is certain that agriculture would be the best
+mode of life for the Indians, and they ought to be urged to engage
+in it, after the examples furnished by the Jesuits in Paraguay,
+the Quakers in America, and other successful colonists. The writer
+suggests various means to stimulate the Indians to greater industry
+(especially as the Spaniards cannot undertake work in the fields),
+and for the formation and management of agricultural enterprises; he
+would have them well treated, promptly and justly paid, and supplied
+with house, land, and suitable amusements. It has been a great mistake
+to prohibit the alcaldes-mayor and other provincial officials from
+owning estates there, while permitting them to engage in trade; this
+policy ought to be reversed, and they be obliged to cultivate the land,
+and prevented from harassing the Indians as they have done. In forming
+large estates, provision should be made for the homes of the laborers
+being comfortable, arranged in regular streets, protected as far as
+possible from the danger of fire, and shaded by trees of useful sorts;
+and from these should be well isolated the proprietor's dwelling,
+sheds, machinery, and other property. Gardens, orchards, fishponds,
+etc., should be formed; and all appliances should be furnished which
+are desirable for improving the quantity and quality of the products
+of the estate, and for providing a safe and abundant supply of food,
+and of the luxuries which are dear to the heart of the Indian. Careful
+directions are given for the selection of land, the supply of water,
+cattle-raising, making of plantations, protection against storms,
+etc. An interesting account is given of the Chinese in Filipinas,
+their trade, relations with the Spaniards, the abuses in these,
+the hatred felt toward them by the Tagálos (resulting mainly from
+the illicit relations of the Chinese with the Indian women), their
+mode of life, etc.; they should be compelled to devote themselves
+only to agriculture and the useful arts, and to abandon commerce and
+business entirely. They have been very injurious to the interests of
+the islands, and ought to be expelled from Filipinas, save as they are
+engaged in handicrafts or the tillage of the soil. The Spaniards ought
+thus to follow the example of the Dutch in Java and other islands,
+where the Chinese have made excellent agriculturists and manufacturers
+of agricultural products, and have enriched both themselves and the
+Dutch; if they had been thus treated in Filipinas, that country would
+now be as prosperous and wealthy as are the Dutch colonies, and its
+trade would be as rich and extensive as that of the Dutch. As it is,
+enormous sums of money have been carried to Filipinas from España, and
+spent in the islands, with hardly any return to the mother country;
+and the greater part of this wealth has been absorbed by the trade
+with China, and has been stored away in that country.]
+
+[A note at the end of this MS. outlines the author's plan for the
+establishment of a banking system at Manila.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DATA
+
+
+The documents in this volume are obtained from the following sources:
+
+1. Events in Filipinas.--Compiled from Montero y Vidal's Historia de
+Filipinas, tomo ii, pp. 360-573; iii, pp. 6-32.
+
+2. Remarks on the Phillippine Islands, 1819-22.--Reprinted from the
+original publication (Calcutta, 1828), from a copy in the possession
+of Edward E. Ayer, Chicago.
+
+3. Reforms needed in Filipinas.--From two original MSS. in the
+collection of Edward E. Ayer.
+
+4. Representation of Filipinas in Cortes.--Compiled from various
+sources, as indicated in preliminary note.
+
+5. List of archbishops.--Compiled from various sources, as indicated
+in first paragraph.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+    Representation of Filipinas in Cortes. [Compiled from various
+    sources.]
+    List of the archbishops of Manila, 1581-1898. [Compiled from
+    various sources.]
+
+
+Sources: These appendices are obtained from various sources, as
+indicated therein; they are compiled by James Alexander Robertson.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+REPRESENTATION OF FILIPINAS IN THE SPANISH CORTES
+
+
+Preliminary Note: The account of the first two Cortes is drawn largely
+from notes made by James A. LeRoy from Diario de las sessiones de las
+Cortes generales y extraordinarias, and other sources, and kindly
+sent by him to the Editors. For the first Cortes see also Montero
+y Vidal, Historia general, ii, pp. 388-390, 392, 396-398, 400-409,
+411-413,422-435, and Guia oficial de España, 1813, pp. 21, 22, where
+the Philippine deputies are named. For the second Cortes, see also
+Montero y Vidal, ut supra, ii, pp. 444-452, 457-462, 476-481. For
+the third Cortes, see Montero y Vidal, ut supra, ii, pp. 544, 545,
+552-560, 563-573; and Filipinas y su representacion en Cortes (Madrid,
+February 8, 1836), which although published anonymously is by Camba.
+
+
+
+The Cortes of 1810-1813
+
+Three times in their history have the Philippines had representation in
+the Spanish national Cortes, [153] namely, for the years 1810-1813,
+1820-1823, and 1834-1837. In the first two periods is emphasized
+the backwardness of the Philippines politically as compared with the
+Spanish-American colonies. In all three periods, one cannot point to
+any single great measure that was enacted solely at the initiative of
+the Philippine representatives (unless with the possible exception
+of the suppression of the Acapulco galleon), and indeed, not to a
+great many in which they took part. [154]
+
+With Fernando virtually a prisoner in France (where he remained
+for five years), the nationalists in Spain being without a ruler,
+since they refused to consider Joseph Bonaparte as king, organized
+a provisional government known as the central governing assembly
+(Junta central), with headquarters in the south. This Junta, taking
+the necessary steps for the reorganization of government, and the
+calling of a Cortes, proceeded, on June 25, 1809, to rehabilitate the
+old Consejo de España, and on January 29, 1810, to constitute the
+supreme Consejo de Regencia. The delegates to the first session of
+the Cortes, for which final orders were issued by decree of June 18,
+1810, and in which, by a decree of January 22, 1829, all the Spanish
+domain was to have equality of representation, assembled on the island
+of León during the month of August, 1810. On account of the distance
+of the American countries and the Philippines and the impossibility of
+regularly-appointed delegates reaching Spain in time for the opening of
+the session, substitutes were chosen from residents of those countries
+then in the Peninsula. Consequently, at the opening of the Cortes,
+September 24, 1810, the Philippines were represented by Pedro Pérez
+de Tagle, an officer in the corps of the Spanish Royal Guards, and
+Dr. José Manuel Couto, prebend of La Puebla. The election at Manila
+(held by order of the Regency, February 14, 1810), resulted in the
+choice of Ventura de los Reyes, a wealthy merchant of Manila, and on
+the whole an active representative, who, despite his seventy years,
+set out immediately for Cádiz. The two substitutes above mentioned
+took but little part in affairs. [155]
+
+Several general measures enacted by the Cortes touch the Philippines
+incidentally. [156] The first matter, however, specifically connected
+with the Philippines was the receipt by the Cortes (March 16, 1811)
+of the report of the governor of the Philippines (dated August 8, 1809)
+in regard to the French vessel "Mosca," which had been captured by the
+parish priest of Batangas (Fray Melchor Fernandez), and the despatches
+carried on that vessel. The reading on April 26, 1812, of the proposed
+decree prescribing the manner of holding elections in the regular
+Cortes to be convened in 1813, aroused lengthy discussion. [157]
+On May 6, Reyes moved that a special form of election be granted for
+the Philippines because of their distance and the character of their
+inhabitants. The islands had neither the funds nor the men to send by
+which equality of representation would be justified, and he requested
+that it only be declared that they must not send less than two. An
+amendment offered by the committee on the Constitution proposed that
+to the instructions regarding the elections in Ultramar be added a
+clause to meet Reyes's wishes, but the matter was hotly contested
+by the American representatives who feared that such a clause might
+sometime lead to the cutting down of their own representation, and
+as a consequence the proposal of the committee was not voted on. [158]
+
+In January, 1813, after recommendation by the committee on Ultramar,
+it was resolved to grant the petition of the board (mesa) of
+the Misericordia of Manila (which had been hanging fire in the
+Cortes since September 25, 1812), asking for certain reforms,
+among them that the number of persons voting for the electors of
+the board itself be reduced. [159] On January 6, 1813, the proposed
+ordinances for the hospice for the poor at Manila (the establishment
+of which was provided for by royal order of December 27, 1806),
+were declared unconstitutional by the committee on Ultramar, [160]
+and that committee's report was adopted. A minute in the records of
+March 11, 1813, shows that the suppression of the brandy monopoly had
+been decreed by the governor of the Philippines and that it could
+be manufactured freely in the provinces of Tondo, Cavite, Bulacan,
+and Pampanga.
+
+By far the most important measure affecting the Philippines, however,
+was the suppression of the Acapulco galleon. [161] The discussion
+on the matter was lengthy and bitter, and arose over one of twelve
+propositions submitted by Reyes on February 11, 1813, to the effect
+that the determined suppression of the Acapulco galleon be published,
+and in its place those engaged in that commerce be allowed to fit up
+private vessels at their own cost to continue the trade with Nueva
+España, through the ports of Acapulco, San Blas, or any other, under
+the old terms of 500,000 pesos for the outgoing voyage and 1,000,000
+for the return, and a lowering of the duties by one-half. The matter
+was debated in the presence of the secretaries of the Peninsula and
+Ultramar, and after full discussion, in which many of the delegates
+took part, and in which the American delegates generally favored
+a liberal policy for the Philippines, the decree suppressing the
+galleon was finally issued on September 14, 1813. [162]
+
+The special session of the Cortes closed on the date of the decree
+above, and the regular session opened at Cádiz, either in the latter
+part of September or the first part of October. On October 4, the
+last meeting was held in Cádiz and opened again in the island of León
+because of yellow fever in the former place. On the eighth of that
+month, Reyes presented three plans for the benefit of the agriculture,
+industry, commerce, and navigation of the Philippines. On the
+twenty-ninth of October meetings at the island of León were suspended,
+and resumed again in Madrid, on January 15, 1814. Fernando VII,
+released by order of Napoleon, after the disastrous campaign conducted
+by Joseph in Spain, abolished the Cortes by his decree of May 4, 1814,
+and on the publication of this decree in Madrid, on the thirteenth
+many of the members of the Cortes were arrested, all the acts of the
+constitutional government were declared null and void, the Inquisition
+reëstablished, and absolutism was again proclaimed in Spain. On the
+publication of the decree in the Philippines, the Ilocans, deeming it
+only a ruse of the governor, revolted, sacked churches and convents,
+and destroyed public records. Their insurrection was directed chiefly
+against their own principales and their wives. [163]
+
+
+
+The Cortes of 1820-1823
+
+After vainly endeavoring to rule as an absolute monarch, Fernando
+VII was compelled to convoke the Cortes by his decree of March 6,
+1820. [164] On the twenty-second the regular session of the Cortes
+for 1820-1821 was formally summoned, the colonies being allowed to be
+represented by substitutes pending the arrival of regularly-elected
+representatives. At the first preliminary meeting of June 26, the two
+Philippine substitutes, [165] Jose María Arnedo and Manuel Felix Camus
+y Herrera, presented their credentials. The Cortes were declared open
+on July 9. Matters of trade and commerce, involving the question of
+duties, [166] were of paramount interest, so far as the Philippines
+are concerned, although the matters of elections, revenues, and
+ecclesiastical affairs were debated at some length. From July 18 to
+October 19, were considered at intervals the privileges and monopolies
+of the Compañía de Filipinas, which were abolished by a decree of
+the latter date. [167] Several decrees and orders of November 9 (on
+which date the first session of the Cortes ended), affecting trade
+and looking toward the development of the colonies, were issued. [168]
+
+At the opening of the new session of the Cortes, the Philippine
+substitutes of the previous session held over. [169] An order [170]
+of March 22 decided that the vice-royalties, captaincies-general, etc.,
+were not to be filled for stated periods, but incumbents were to hold
+them at the will of the king. Of great importance was the approval
+on June 30, of a petition presented by Arnedo on June 16 asking for
+direct mails between Spain and the Philippines under charge of the
+navy department. On that same date the report of the committee on
+Hacienda on the estimated budget for the Ministry of Ultramar for 1822
+(over 330,000 reals more than that of 1821), aroused considerable
+discussion, especially among the American delegates. [171] A decree
+of June 29 provided for public schools and provincial universities,
+of which Manila was to have one. This decree provided for schools and
+courses much ahead of anything in the islands, but it remained a dead
+letter because of the speedy suppression of the constitution. [172]
+This session of the Cortes closed on June 30.
+
+The preliminary meeting of a special session was held on September
+22, 1821, at which the above two Philippine substitutes were
+approved. [173] Camus y Herrera was one of a committee chosen on the
+twenty-third, to inform the king that the Cortes was ready to open
+the session, which accordingly was opened next day. On November 4,
+the Philippine government and governor were arraigned by representative
+Lallave of Veracruz for electing only four instead of the twenty-five
+representatives to whom they were entitled. Discussion of this
+matter resulted in the Cortes directing the Minister of Ultramar
+(February 11, 1822), that the Philippines, notwithstanding claims of
+distance and poverty, were to elect their whole quota to Cortes. At
+the secret session of February 12, 1822, it was decided to allow
+Arnedo and Camus y Herrera (in view of a petition presented by them
+on the eighth, and because of their pressing need), to draw a sum
+sufficient to meet their needs and the debts that they had been
+obliged to contract in the performance of their duties, from the
+money sent by the provincial deputation of Manila (24,500 pesos)
+for the regularly-elected Philippine representatives of the next
+session. This special session closed February 14.
+
+The first preliminary meeting of the regular session was held February
+15, at which Vicente Posada, a former magistrate of the Manila
+Audiencia, presented himself as a regularly-elected representative
+from the Philippines. He was not, however, allowed to take his seat
+in this session, which opened formally on March 7, and closed on July
+30, as it was claimed that his resignation had not been confirmed and
+that he was consequently still a government employe. [174] During this
+session, a clause of a decree of June 28 ordered the encouragement
+of visits to Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines by naturalists
+for the purpose of study.
+
+At the first preliminary meeting of the special session, held
+October 1, 1822, Francisco Bringas y Taranco, ex-alcalde-mayor of
+Ilocos, the deputy elect for Nueva Segovia, Manuel Sáenz de Vizmanos,
+senior accountant of the Tribunal de Cuentas of the Philippines, and
+Posada, presented their credentials, which were approved on October 3,
+although Posada was again contested. At the preliminary meeting held
+on the fourth complaint was made that the Philippines had elected but
+four deputies instead of twenty-five. [175] The session which opened
+on October 7 closed on February 19, 1823, without any action having
+been taken by the Philippine representatives.
+
+The regular session opened on March 1, 1823, at Madrid, but the
+absolutists gaining control through the invasion of the French,
+nothing was done in this session, and the Cortes, which had been
+compelled to flee first to Sevilla and then to Cádiz, were finally
+dissolved by Fernando on October 1, who declared all their acts from
+March 7, 1820, to that time null and void. Posada was one of those
+condemned by Fernando after his entrance into Madrid, for his liberal
+tendencies. By decree of December 25, 1823, Fernando communicated
+to America and the Philippines the reëstablishment of absolutism,
+the suppression of the Constitution of 1812, and the abolition of
+all the organisms inaugurated during the constitutional régime. [176]
+
+
+
+The Cortes of 1834-1837
+
+The third Cortes of 1834-37 were called after the death of Fernando
+VII, which occurred September 29, 1833, when the liberals again
+demanded concessions and a constitutional government. [177] The ship
+"Santa Ana" sailing from Cádiz, August 28, 1834, reached Manila with
+official orders and the summons to the Cortes; [178] which having
+been called for July 24, 1834 (by decree of May 10), had already
+convened. The election for the Philippine representatives (March 1,
+1835) [179] resulted in the choice of Brigadier Andrés García Camba,
+[180] and Licentiate Juan Francisco Lecaros (or Lecaroz) [181]--the
+first a resident of Manila (formerly a resident in Nueva España),
+and the second the Madrid agent for the Manila Ayuntamiento. Camba
+sailed for Cádiz on the "Santa Ana" on March 21, and arrived in
+Spain August 20, 1835, after the end of the first session of the
+Cortes. That session imposed a special tax on certain classes of
+financial documents, which affected all the Spanish domains; and
+which was sanctioned by the regent, May, 1835, and communicated to
+the Philippines on June 2.
+
+The new session was set in a meeting of the Consejo de Ministros
+(September 28, 1835) for November 16, 1835. The first preliminary
+meeting was held on November 12, at which the Philippine
+representatives presented their credentials, being duly confirmed on
+the meeting of the fourteenth, although Camba was contested by one
+Manuel Cacho of Manila. The formal opening of the session occurred on
+the sixteenth, and on the twenty-fourth, Camba and Lecaros took the
+oath, the former being placed on the committee on Etiquette. On the
+occasion of the vote of confidence in the government, the Philippine
+representatives spoke on the rumors of the transfer of the Philippines
+to a foreign government, stating that such rumors had already been
+reported in foreign newspapers, as well as the power to whom the
+transfer was to be made and the sum to be paid. Such a sale they
+could not believe would be the reward of so many years of loyalty
+to the Spanish government. In the discussion of the election law
+for the Cortes, the government and the Cortes came to a deadlock,
+and the Cortes were dissolved by the government. Hence nothing was
+accomplished during this session. [182]
+
+A royal decree of the date when the Cortes were dissolved, ordered
+the new Cortes to assemble at Madrid, March 22, article 5 of the
+decree specifying that elections should be held in the provinces of
+Ultramar on receipt of the decree. Consequently, at this session,
+which lasted from March 22 until May 23, when it was again dissolved,
+the Philippines had no representation.
+
+A decree of May 24 ordered a new session for August 20, at which the
+Philippines were to have four representatives, the officials evidently
+not taking into account the distance of the Philippines from Spain,
+for it would be manifestly impossible for any representative to arrive
+from the Philippines for that session or even for the one of March,
+1837. The election at Manila held in 1836 resulted in the reelection
+of Camba and Lecaros. On August 13, a royal decree (in consequence of
+the mutiny of La Granja) ordered the publication of the Constitution of
+1812 until the Cortes clearly manifested their will or drew up a new
+constitution. Another decree of August 21 called the general Cortes
+for October 24, in accordance with the rules of the Constitution of
+1812; and one of September 28 suppressed the Real Consejo de España
+é Indias. At the secret session of the Cortes on January 16, 1837, a
+proposition for special laws to govern Ultramar was made, being passed
+to the proper committee. On February 10 the committee having in charge
+the drafting of a new constitution, presented a plan for the provinces
+to be ruled by special laws, in accordance with which their delegates
+were not to sit in the Cortes. On March 9, 1837, the elections at
+Manila resulted in Camba and Luis Prudencio Alvarez y Tejero, [183]
+formerly of the Manila Audiencia, and a resident of Manila for thirteen
+years, being elected. The latter arrived in Spain after the passing
+of the law excluding the Philippine representation from the Cortes. A
+royal order of May 31, 1837, presented the method to be observed
+in the provision of alcaldes-mayor for the Philippines. On June 18,
+the new constitution was promulgated in Madrid, article 2 of which
+decreed that Ultramar should be governed by special laws. [184] Since
+that time the Philippines have had no representation in Cortes. [185]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ARCHBISHOPS OF MANILA
+
+
+The authorities used in the following chronological list of the
+archbishops of Manila are as follows: San Antonio, Chronicas; Zúñiga,
+Historia general; Delgado, Historia; Buzeta y Bravo, Diccionario;
+Ferrando y Fonseca, Historia de los padres dominicos; Montero y Vidal,
+Historia general; various copies of the Guia; the Reports of the
+Philippine Commission; and some minor works.
+
+SALAZAR, DOMINGO DE, O.P.--Born at Rioja, in 1512; takes Dominican
+habit at convent of San Esteban, Salamanca; becomes master in theology;
+missionary in Nueva España for 40 years; goes to Spain as procurator
+general for his province, and preaches before Felipe II, in favor of
+the Indians; proposed as first bishop of the Philippines in 1578 and
+consecrated at Madrid, 1579; arrives at Manila in March, 1581, with
+two Jesuits, two coadjutors, eight Franciscans, and one Dominican;
+erects cathedral of Manila, Dec. 21, 1581, by virtue of bull of Gregory
+XIII, as suffragan to the see of Mexico; celebrates provincial synod
+(1582-86), with attendance of 90 ecclesiastics and 6 seculars (to
+discuss both ecclesiastical and secular matters); tries to enforce
+episcopal visit on the regulars, thus raising the question in the
+Philippines that was so often to convulse those islands both in
+ecclesiastical and secular circles; royal Audiencia founded partly
+on account of his petition; defends natives against encomenderos;
+aids greatly in the building of the cathedral and in the church of the
+Dominicans, as well as the hospital for the natives, and the college
+of Santa Potenciana; quarrels with Gomez Perez Dasmariñas, by whom
+the Audiencia had been suppressed in obedience to royal commands;
+goes to Spain in 1591 (leaving his companion Salvatierra in charge),
+to seek royal redress, and secures reëstablishment of Audiencia,
+and complete royal favor, although opposed by the governor and the
+Augustinians; procures elevation of Manila into a metropolitan see,
+with three suffragan churches; designated as first archbishop by
+king, but dies Dec. 4, 1594, at college of Santo Tomás at Madrid,
+before the papal bulls arrive, aged 82; hot-headed and impetuous,
+and apt to meddle too freely in secular affairs, but a worker. See
+the many documents in our series by Salazar, and those containing
+matter in regard to him.
+
+SANTIBAÑEZ, IGNACIO, O.S.F.--Native of Búrgos; guardian of the province
+of Búrgos, and later provincial; preacher to Felipe II; presented as
+first archbishop, June 17, 1595; consecrated in Nueva España in 1596;
+delays going to the Philippines until 1598 because the bulls of the
+pallium are not correct in all details; takes possession of his see,
+May 28, 1598; immediately erects the cathedral into a metropolitan
+church, with three suffragan sees (Cebú, with Pedro de Agurto, O.S.A.,
+as bishop; Nueva Cáceres, with Miguel Benavides, O.P., as bishop;
+and Nueva Segovia, with Francisco Ortega, O.S.A., as bishop), by
+virtue of the bull of Clement VII, dated Aug. 14, 1595; Audiencia
+reëstablished during his time; dies from dysentery, Aug. 14, 1598,
+after term of 2 months and 17 days; buried in cathedral; funeral
+sermon preached by Pedro de Agurto, O.S.A., bishop of Cebú.
+
+VACANT SEE.
+
+BENAVIDES, MIGUEL, O.P.--Native of Carrion de los Condes, where he was
+born of illustrious parents; takes the Dominican habit in San Pablo at
+Valladolid, where he also becomes a collegiate at the college of San
+Gregorio; reader of theology; goes to Manila with the first Dominican
+mission in 1587; spends a short time in the Chinese missions, whence
+he is exiled; helps promote building of Chinese hospital in Manila;
+elected procurator general for his order and accompanies Salazar to
+Spain; there gains three missions, and an increase in the commerce;
+elected first bishop of Nueva Segovia; consecrated in Nueva España,
+in 1597; arrives at Manila, 1598; takes possession of bishopric, 1599;
+presented as archbishop, 1601; takes possession of Manila see, 1603,
+the king defraying the cost of the bulls, on account of Benavides's
+poverty; by decree of Sept. 9, 1603, gives administration of the
+Japanese in Manila to the Franciscans; partly responsible for the
+Chinese massacre of 1603 (see the various documents in our series); in
+response to a royal decree ordering all natives to take a new oath of
+allegiance to Spain, takes possession of all the natives in the name
+of the crown of Castilla and Leon; dies on St. Anne's day, July 26,
+1605; buried in Dominican church; leaves bequest for foundation of
+Dominican college (San Tomás); a generous alms-giver. See documents
+on the foundation of San Tomás.
+
+VACANT SEE.
+
+VAZQUEZ DE MERCADO, DR. DIEGO--Native of Arévalo, in Castilla la Vieja;
+related to the family of the Ronquillos; obtains degree licentiate
+in canons in university of Mexico; becomes secular priest, goes to
+Philippines with Salazar, where he becomes his lawyer and acts as dean
+of Manila cathedral for sixteen years; in 1597 goes to Nueva España,
+to assume the curacy of Acapulco; in Nueva España given the degree
+of Doctor of canon law from the university of Mexico; resigns his
+office as dean of Manila during the sojourn of Santibañez in Nueva
+España; in 1600, presented as bishop of Mechoacán, where he serves
+three years; Oct. 22, 1603, presented as first bishop of Yucatan,
+and receives necessary bulls in Campeche; consecrated in Mexico,
+Jan. 13, 1604, and governs his bishopric for three years; in 1608,
+presented as archbishop of Manila; takes possession of see, on eve
+of Corpus Christi, 1610; completes building of cathedral by means
+of his own funds and contributions of the inhabitants of Manila;
+builds a chapel in the collateral nave on epistle side of cathedral,
+for his own burial and that of the prebendaries of the cathedral;
+enacts various acts for the good government of the cathedral; dies
+June 12, 1616; buried in chapel.
+
+VACANT SEE.--The archbishopric is governed by Pedro de Arce, O.S.A., by
+virtue of a brief of Paul V, which is delivered to the ecclesiastical
+cabildo by the Audiencia; governs for a period of more than four years.
+
+GARCIA SERRANO, MIGUEL, O.S.A.--Native of Madrid or of Chinchilla;
+goes to the Philippines in one of the early missions; becomes prior
+of Manila and provincial of his province, and is elected procurator
+to Spain; there presented as bishop of Nueva Segovia; consecrated in
+Nueva España in 1616; goes to the Philippines the same year and governs
+his bishopric for two and one-half years, presented as archbishop,
+in 1618; takes possession of his see, Aug. 24, 1619, having received
+the pallium at the church of Nuestra Señora de Guia, Aug. 1 of that
+year; during his term, the nuns of St. Clare arrive at Manila, whom
+he aids greatly; obtains brief (1625) from Urban VIII, allowing the
+feast of Corpus Christi to be celebrated at a more opportune season,
+but this brief was never carried out; tries to enforce episcopal visit
+of regular parish priests, but opposed vigorously by regulars who
+threaten to resign curacies, and question is finally submitted to king
+and pope for decision; holy sacrament stolen from cathedral in 1628,
+[186] and due partly to his grief over this calamity, Garcia Serrano
+dies on Corpus Christi day, June 14 (Montero y Vidal says June 6),
+1629, at age of 60.
+
+VACANT SEE.--On the death of Garcia Serrano, the ecclesiastical
+cabildo and the bishop of Nueva Segovia, Hernando Guerrero, O.S.A.,
+go to law in regard to the government ad interim of the archbishopric,
+the latter claiming it by virtue of the brief of Paul V, since Pedro
+de Arce, O.S.A., has resigned his right. The litigation lasts until
+Jan. 29, 1630, when Arce assumes the government by decree of the
+royal Audiencia, and although he has continual suits he maintains
+his office. The vacancy lasts 6 years and 9 days.
+
+GUERRERO, HERNANDO, O.S.A.--Native of Madrid or Alcaraz; professes in
+the Augustinian convent at Madrid; after going to the Philippines,
+holds many posts in the order, and is finally sent to Spain as
+procurator; on arrival at Mexico, finds decree appointing him bishop
+of Nueva Segovia; proceeds to Spain, where he obtains a mission,
+and his bulls confirming his appointment; returns to the Philippines
+in 1627; consecrated at Cebú, in 1628; governs his bishopric for 7
+years; tries to obtain the government of the archbishopric of Manila
+in vacant see (see above); presented as archbishop, Jan. 16, 1632;
+takes possession of see, June 23, 1635; during his term quarrels with
+the governor, Hurtado de Corcuera, the Audiencia, and the Jesuits
+(see the numerous documents in our series concerning this); refuses
+to authorize or recognize the Collado faction among the Dominicans;
+exiled, in 1636, to Marivelez; returns from exile, June 6, 1636, his
+exile having lasted 26 days; visits diocese personally, and nearly
+captured by Camucones in consequence; dies July 1, 1641, at age of
+75; buried in Augustinian church; zealous, but obstinate, hot-headed,
+and too unbending.
+
+VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo governs because Arce renounces
+his right to do so.
+
+MONTERO DE ESPINOSA, DR. FERNANDO.--Native of Búrgos; becomes secular
+priest; doctor of theology in Salamanca University, and holds other
+offices; first palace cura of Felipe IV, when royal chapel was erected
+into a parish church; a noted preacher; administrator of the hospital
+outside of Toledo; presented as bishop of Nueva Segovia in 1642;
+consecrated in Mexico in 1643; May 20, 1644, while on way to islands,
+receives presentation as archbishop; embarks at Acapulco, in March,
+1645; arrives at the port of Lampon, at the end of July of that year;
+sets out for Manila, but dies at Pila, in Laguna de Bay, of fever;
+funeral celebrated on day he was to have made his public entrance
+into Manila; 45 years old; buried beside Benavides, but his remains
+afterward removed to the sagrario of the curas by Archbishop Poblete.
+
+VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo governs; although it is agreed
+that the different members of the cabildo shall govern by months, the
+dean obtains the upper hand through connivance with the governor's
+favorite Venegas, and a vicar general is elected. In this period
+occurs the Jesuit-Dominican contest as to priority of colleges; the
+Franciscans are disturbed by interior dissensions; while the cabildo
+itself is racked by internal dissensions; the royal decree ordering
+St. Michael the Archangel to be published as patron of the islands
+is put into force.
+
+POBLETE, DR. MIGUEL DE.--Secular priest; born in Mexico, in 1603; a
+professor in the university; occupies some of the best ecclesiastical
+posts in Nueva España; resigns the bishopric of Nicaragua in 1644;
+the decree of his presentation as archbishop of Manila, dated May,
+1648; keeps decree hid for more than a month before showing it;
+consecrated at the archiepiscopal palace at Mexico, Sept. 9, 1650;
+reaches Cavite, July. 22, 1653, with Governor Manrique de Lara;
+latter requests him to go ashore first and bless the country, on
+account of the troubles of the former archbishop; makes solemn entry,
+July 24; at Lent of 1654 the brief of Innocent X (Aug. 7, 1649),
+giving benediction and absolution to the land placed in force; tries
+to enforce episcopal visit of regulars, who oppose him strongly, and
+resign their curacies, compelling the archbishop to restore them for
+want of seculars to put in their place; quarrels with Governor Salcedo,
+who refuses to pay the ecclesiastical stipends, whereupon the cabildo
+is suspended for the time being, and Poblete tries to borrow 2,000
+pesos with which to satisfy the most pressing needs of the cabildo;
+trouble over the appointment to the office of dean of the cabildo,
+which falls vacant; rebuilds cathedral, laying the first stone, April
+20, 1654; begs alms for cathedral, and applies to it 22,000 pesos,
+which has been contributed to it by the inhabitants of Manila; dies on
+the day of the Conception, Dec. 8, 1667; orders body not embalmed, but
+his orders disregarded; buried (governor participating in obsequies),
+Dec. 11, in the sagrario of the curas in the cathedral; funeral
+services met by alms of private persons; memorial honors celebrated,
+Jan. 30, 1668; 64 years old at time of death; much regretted.
+
+VACANT SEE.--The ecclesiastical cabildo governs the archbishopric.
+
+LOPEZ, JUAN, O.P.--Born in Martin Muñoz in Castilla la Vieja; professes
+in Dominican convent of San Esteban of Salamanca; collegiate at
+college of San Gregorio at Valladolid; goes to Philippines in 1643
+as missionary; lectures on theology in the college of Santo Tomás;
+in 1658, goes to Nueva España to recover health; following year sent
+title as definitor and procurator general; goes to Spain by way of
+France, in 1662, and thence to Rome; general of order gives him the
+degree of master of theology; at Rome receives decree of Felipe IV
+(Dec., 1662) presenting him as bishop of Cebú; receives confirmation
+from pope, Apr. 23, 1663; gathers a band of 40 missionaries, and on
+reaching Nueva España is consecrated at Mechoacán, Jan. 4, 1665; takes
+possession of bishopric, Aug. 31, 1665; has troubles in bishopric,
+and proceeds to excommunications, unjustifiably, so that it becomes
+necessary for the royal Audiencia to intervene; during term as bishop,
+visits Manila twice, once when the commissary of the Holy Inquisition
+arrested Governor Salcedo, and the second time at Poblete's death,
+under summons from the governor, who requested him to rule the
+archbishopric ad interim; presented for archbishopric in 1671; takes
+possession, Aug. 21, 1672; quarrels with ecclesiastical officials and
+with governor, the latter depriving him of the ecclesiastical stipends;
+obtains royal permission to have stipends sent from Mexico, in order
+that this might be avoided in the future (although the decree does not
+arrive until after his death); dies, Feb. 12, 1674, after a fever of
+5 months, at age of 61; heart and entrails buried in sagrario of the
+curas, and body in the Dominican church; honors celebrated, Mar. 1,
+1674; no bishop in islands at time of his death as all had died in
+1671; harsh and impetuous by nature, and hence carried by his zeal
+into constant trouble.
+
+VACANT SEE.--Dean and cabildo rule the archbishopric.
+
+PARDO, FELIPE, O.P.--Born in Valladolid of noble parents; takes
+habit in convent of San Pablo at Valladolid; there becomes master of
+students; goes as missionary to Philippines in 1648; lector and rector
+in university of Santo Tomás in Manila; holds many posts in his order,
+his first term as provincial ending in 1665; and his second in 1677;
+twice commissary of Inquisition; presented as archbishop, by royal
+decree of May 30, 1676; takes possession of archbishopric, at age of
+68, Nov 11, 1677, without being consecrated, by special order of the
+king; requisite bulls reach him only in 1681; consecrated, Oct. 28,
+1681, in Manila cathedral; makes public entry, Nov. 1; during his
+term, the first governor of the Marianas arrives; arrival of auxiliary
+bishop de partibus Gines de Barrientos, O.P., with title of bishop
+of Troya; takes missions in Luzón from Recollects, which he gives
+to the Dominicans, giving to the Recollects the missions of Mindoro
+in exchange (see the documents in our series referring to this);
+has conflicts with the governor, other orders, and ecclesiastical
+cabildo; orders all Spaniards to pay all fees to the parish priests
+of each district instead of to the parish priest of Bagumbayan, and
+since almost all the Spaniards lived in Binondo, this benefited his
+order especially; exiled to Lingayen, in Pangasinan, Mar. 31, 1683;
+secretly appoints Barrientos to govern the archbishopric; brought
+back from exile by Governor Curuzalaegui, and takes vengeance on the
+ex-governor, Vargas, and others; dies, Dec. 31, 1689, at age of 80,
+without the aids of religion; buried in church of the Dominicans;
+harsh, obstinate, revengeful, partial to the Dominicans; under the
+influence of the Dominican Verart, who was his counselor, and a man
+quarrelsome by nature. See the documents of the Pardo controversy in
+our series.
+
+VACANT SEE.--The ecclesiastical cabildo yields the government of the
+archbishopric to the bishop of Troya, Gines de Barrientos, but the
+latter finally resigns the post, and the cabildo rules. Barrientos
+makes so extreme use of his power while in command, that two members
+of the cabildo retire to the Augustinian convent in order to be immune
+from arrest, and ask aid of the governor ad interim.
+
+CAMACHO Y AVILA, DR. DIEGO.--Secular priest; native of Badajoz;
+collegiate-mayor in the Insigne de Cuenca of Salamanca; canon of the
+church of Badajoz; presented as archbishop, Aug. 19, 1696; consecrated
+at La Puebla in Nueva España; takes possession of his see, Sept. 13,
+1697; the papal legate Tournon comes to the islands during his term,
+and Camacho's connection with him leads to complications with the
+Spanish government; a strong champion of the episcopal visit of
+the regular parish priests, and hence opposed by all the regulars;
+his attempts to place seculars in control of the parish churches
+end because there are not enough seculars to supply the places left
+vacant by the regulars; makes many improvements in the cathedral, and
+spends on it more than 40,000 pesos; founds seminary of San Clemente,
+which is thrown open to foreigners; because of this and his connection
+with Tournon, as well as indirectly because of his opposition to the
+regulars, transferred by royal order to the bishopric of Guadalajara,
+in Nueva España; takes possession of this, Mar. 25, 1706; visits
+bishopric several times; dies, in 1712; in will orders honors to be
+celebrated for him in Manila cathedral; these celebrated, Oct. 26,
+1713, by Diego de Gorospe Yrala bishop of Nueva Segovia. See the
+various documents regarding the Camacho controversy in our series.
+
+VACANT SEE--Cabildo governs until the arrival of the following.
+
+CUESTA, FRANCISCO DE LA, Ordr of San Gerónimo.--Native of Colmenar,
+near Madrid; master in theology; preacher to the king; presented as
+archbishop in 1706; consecrated in Mexico, Aug. 12, 1707; Clement
+XI decides in favor of episcopal visit of regular parish priests,
+and Cuesta attempts to carry the visits into effect, but regulars
+induce him to wait until representations can be made to the pope;
+imprisoned by Governor Bustamante; Governor Bustamante assassinated
+Oct. 11, 1719, and Cuesta freed and becomes governor ad interim,
+as all the auditors refuse the post; governs islands until July 24,
+1721; all three bishoprics vacant during part of his term; transferred
+to the bishopric of Mechoacán, in Nueva España, because of the death
+of Bustamante; arrives at Acapulco, Jan. 11, 1724; takes charge of
+diocese, April 18; dies May 30 (Buzeta and Bravo say, May 31), 1724,
+at age of 63; buried in his church.
+
+VACANT SEE.--Archbishopric governed by ecclesiastical cabildo; house
+for girls built.
+
+BERMUDEZ GONZALEZ DE CASTRO, DR. CARLOS.--Secular; native of Puebla de
+los Angeles, Nueva España; licentiate and doctor of laws; professor
+in canons in the university of Mexico; holds office in Inquisition
+of Mexico, and other high offices in that archbishopric; presented as
+archbishop of Manila; in 1722; consecrated, June 17, 1725; compelled to
+remain in Nueva España three years longer for lack of a vessel sailing
+to the Philippines; leaves Mexico City, Mar. 5, 1728, and embarks
+at Acapulco, Mar. 27; goes ashore at Marianas, where he baptizes an
+infant; received privately in Manila, July 29, 1728; receives pallium,
+Aug. 22, from the bishop of Cagayan, at parish church of Quiapo;
+takes possession, Aug. 25; has trouble with the governor in regard
+to the college of San Felipe; establishes formal rites; falls ill,
+Oct. 5, 1729, and dies, Nov. 13, at the age of almost 62; bequeaths
+heart to convent of San Lorenzo in Mexico; corpse buried, Nov. 18.
+
+VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo governs the archbishopric.
+
+ANGEL RODRIGUEZ, JUAN, Trinitarian.--Born in Medina del Campo;
+master in sacred theology; fills various posts in Spanish cathedrals;
+professor in Salamanca and Alcalá universities; appointed confessor of
+Diego Morcillo Rubio de Auñon, archbishop of Lima; arrives at Lima,
+April 17, 1731; presented as archbishop of Manila, May 18, 1731;
+obtains bulls, Dec. 17, and council decrees, dated Feb. 29, 1732,
+on May 25, 1732; compelled to remain in Lima until Jan. 2, 1736,
+as no ship is allowed to sail to Acapulco; embarks at Acapulco,
+Apr. 17, 1736; lands at Samar, Aug. 30; reaches Nueva Cáceres,
+Oct. 4; consecrated there by bishop Dr. Felipe de Molina, Nov. 23;
+receives pallium, Nov. 26; takes possession of see through Dean Luis
+Rico, Jan. 23, 1737, and makes public entry on the twenty-fourth;
+gives form to the cathedral choir, and introduces the Gregorian
+chant; prohibits night processions, and reforms several feasts;
+takes up the cause of the fiscal who has become embroiled with the
+governor and taken refuge in the Recollect convent, and persuades him
+to present himself in fuerza, hoping that the governor would treat
+him compassionately; matters turning out differently than he hopes,
+the archbishop, believing himself to be the cause of the evils that
+come upon the fiscal, is attacked by severe melancholy which causes
+immediate death; peaceful by disposition, lovable, and virtuous.
+
+VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo governs the archbishopric.
+
+SANTISIMA TRINIDAD MARTINEZ DE ARRIZALA, PEDRO DE, O.S.F.--Native of
+Madrid; auditor of Quito; counselor of the Indies; becomes Franciscan;
+consecrated as archbishop of Manila in Spain; makes public entry
+into Manila, Aug. 27, 1747; in Spain obtains decree ordering the
+expulsion of the Chinese settled in the islands, but does not present
+it, because of the representations of the bishop of Nueva Segovia,
+Arrechedera, then governor ad interim, and whose order, the Dominican,
+has charge of the Chinese; on the arrival of the new governor, Obando,
+presents the decree, but it has no effect because of various disputes
+between the governor and archbishop; demands that Arrechedera hand over
+the government of the islands to him and even appeals to the court;
+quarrels with Obando's successor, Governor Arandía, over questions
+of etiquette; dies, May 28, 1755 (Zúñiga says May 29).
+
+VACANT SEE.--Dean and ecclesiastical cabildo in charge of the
+archbishopric.
+
+ROJO DEL RIO Y VIEYRA, MANUEL ANTONIO.--Native of Tula, Nueva España;
+canon and provisor of Mexico; consecrated as archbishop of Manila
+in Nueva España, in 1758; takes possession of his see, July 22,
+1759; demands charge of government of islands from Bishop Lino
+de Espeleta, governor ad interim, but latter holds command until
+arrival of decree from Spain transferring the command to Rojo;
+immediately settles Villacorta matter and quashes case against the
+Spanish mestizo Orendaín; British besiege and capture Manila, 1762;
+Rojo made virtually a prisoner; has disputes with Anda; dies, Jan. 30,
+1764, and given military burial by English; see VOL. XLIX.
+
+VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo assumes control of the
+archbishopric.
+
+SANTA JUSTA Y SANCHO DE RUFINA, BASILIO.--An Aragonese; a member of
+the Escuelas pias; preacher to the king; procurator for the province
+of Aragon; appointed archbishop, in 1767; consecrated in Spain,
+and arrives at Manila in 1767 via Cape of Good Hope; immediately
+establishes mission and preaches rigorously against all the vices for
+nine days; adorns cathedral; presides over council by which bishop of
+Nueva Cáceres exiled to his bishopric; makes most vigorous attempts
+to enforce episcopal visit of regular parish priests of any archbishop
+in history of the Philippines; bases his action on the bull Firmandis
+of Benedict XIV, dated Nov. 6, 1744, and the bull of Feb. 24, 1745,
+which were confirmed at the instance of the king by the bull Nunc
+nuper, of Nov. 8, 1751; in 1768, visits all the curacies held by the
+Dominicans; all the other orders resist; although the governor commands
+the orders to submit to the visit, and strives to uphold the royal
+patronage, the orders disregard him; many parishes provided with native
+secular priests by the archbishop in 1768, especially the parishes
+of the Parián, Binondo and the Province of Bataán, which had been
+administered by the Dominicans (which regulars claim was an irreparable
+injury); regulars complain to king, and archbishop directs energetic
+representation against them, May 10, 1768; Jesuit expulsion occurs
+during his term; Raón is finally gained by the orders and yields; when
+his successor Anda arrives, the archbishop appeals to him for aid,
+and although the latter is unwilling to go as far as Santa Justa y
+Rufina, he aids him; provincial council called at Manila for May 19,
+1771, to which the three suffragan bishops summoned; six meetings held
+but nothing lasting done; trouble over visit of the beaterio of Santa
+Catalina; Anda suspends cedula of Nov. 9, 1774, ordering the curacies
+secularized as they fall vacant; secularization ordered suspended by
+royal decree of Dec. 11, 1776; archbishop dies at Manila, Dec. 15,
+1787; strong character, vigorous mind, impetuous; regular historians
+assert that he was influenced by the French encyclopedists and by the
+ministers of Cárlos III. See Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca filipina
+(Washington, 1903), for various writings of Santa Justa y Rufina;
+and our series for some account of his time.
+
+VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo takes charge of the archbishopric.
+
+ORBIGO Y GALLEGO, ANTONIO DE, O.S.F.--Born at Orbigo in León, in 1729;
+takes Franciscan habit at Priego; goes to Philippines as preacher and
+confessor, in 1759; elected bishop of Nueva Cáceres while procurator
+for his order in Spain, in 1779; takes possession of his see, in 1780;
+chosen archbishop of Manila, in 1789, and takes possession of his
+see Oct. 15 through the procurator, capitular vicar, and archdeacon,
+Francisco Durana, and makes public entry next day; visits his see,
+and once narrowly escapes capture by the Moros near Manila; dies
+May 15 (Buzeta and Bravo say May 16), 1790, at Santa Ana; buried in
+Franciscan church at Manila, on following day, as he had requested
+that his corpse be not embalmed; of pacific character, learned,
+simple in his tastes, and without enemies.
+
+VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo assumes control of the
+archbishopric.
+
+SALAMANCA, IGNACIO.--Native of Manila; dean of Manila cathedral;
+becomes bishop of Cebú, Sept. 28, 1789; consecrated in Manila,
+and goes to bishopric in 1794; presented as archbishop of Manila,
+but dies at Cebú, Feb. 1802, before having received the despatches
+of his new dignity.
+
+VACANT SEE.--The ecclesiastical cabildo rules the archbishopric
+continuously from the death of Orbigo y Gallego to the coming of
+Zulaibar, as Salamanca does not actually hold the office.
+
+ZULAIBAR, JUAN ANTONIO, O.P.--Born in Vizcaya in 1753; takes habit
+at age of 16 in convent of San Pablo at Búrgos; receives degree of
+doctor at university of Ávila; professor of theology at university
+of Alcalá for 7 years; presented as archbishop of Manila, Aug. 1803;
+arrives at Manila, Sept. 2, 1804; consecrated at Manila, by Domingo
+Collantes, bishop of Nueva Cáceres, July 14, 1805 (Ferrando; Buzeta
+and Bravo say Sept. 8, 1804); voting member of vaccination board
+formed at Manila, Dec. 20, 1806, by royal order of Sept. 1, 1803;
+endows seminary of his diocese; dies Mar. 4, 1824.
+
+VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo assumes control of the
+archbishopric.
+
+DIEZ, HILARION, O.S.A.--Born at Valladolid, 1761; takes habit at an
+early age in the same city; in the Philippines serves as parish priest
+in several Tagálog villages, and becomes proficient in the Tagálog
+language; is twice prior of the Manila convent, and provincial of his
+order; his appointment as archbishop meets general approval; assumes
+charge of his see, Sept. 15, 1826; consecrated in the Augustinian
+church, Oct. 21, 1827; dies, May 7, 1829.
+
+VACANT SEE.--Ecclesiastical cabildo governs the archbishopric.
+
+SEGUI, JOSE, O.S.A.--Born at Camprodon, in bishopric of Gerona,
+Oct. 3, 1773; takes habit at Seo de Urgel; goes to Philippines in 1795;
+missionary for 20 years in China; after his return to the Philippines,
+serves as definitor and procurator general for 12 years; auxiliary
+to his predecessor and made bishop in partibus of Hierocesaréa, July
+27, 1829; elevated to the metropolitan see by Pius VIII, July 5,
+1830; consecrated at the Manila Augustinian church, Oct. 28, 1830;
+receives pallium, Sept. 14, 1831, from the bishop of Ilocos whither
+he goes for that purpose; enters Manila publicly, Sept. 29, 1831;
+sends several circulars to his clergy, and invites them to spiritual
+exercises annually; receives the great cross of Isabel the Catholic;
+dies, July 4, 1845.
+
+VACANT SEE.--Governed by ecclesiastical cabildo.
+
+ARANGUREN, JOSE.--Recollect; born at Barasoain, diocese of Pamplona,
+Feb. 16, 1801; studies philosophy at Pamplona, and law at Zaragoza;
+takes habit at Alfaro, at the college of the Recollects (since
+removed to Monteagudo), in 1816; arrives at Manila, in 1830; serves in
+Pampanga; acts as provincial secretary; cura at Masinlos in Zambales;
+definitor in the chapter of 1840; elected provincial in 1843; appointed
+archbishop by king, Nov. 12, 1845; begins to govern, Mar. 19, 1846;
+consecrated, Jan. 31, 1847; receives pallium, Feb. 2, 1847, and makes
+public entrance into Manila, Feb. 7; receives great cross of Isabel
+the Catholic; dies, Apr. 18, 1862; laborious, prudent, and economical.
+
+VACANT SEE.--The archbishopric is governed by Dr. Pedro Peláez,
+a Filipino secular priest, who is elected by the ecclesiastical
+cabildo as capitular vicar.
+
+MELITON MARTINEZ DE SANTA CRUZ, DR. GREGORIO.--Secular; born in
+1815, in Prado-Luengo, in the diocese of Búrgos; studies theology in
+seminary of San Jerónimo in Búrgos, and afterwards occupies a chair
+in the same seminary; receives degree of bachelor at the university
+of Valladolid, and studies in the university of Madrid, where he also
+receives degrees; acts as provisor in Palencia, for 12 years, where
+he receives the doctorate by competition; holds various posts in the
+Pamplona ecclesiastical cabildo; appointed archbishop of Manila by
+the sovereign, July 31, 1861; consecrated in Madrid, Mar. 23, 1862;
+takes possession of see, May 27, 1862; receives degree of doctor in
+jurisprudence from the University of the Philippines, Aug. 24, 1862;
+a member of the Vatican Council until its suspension in 1871; has
+dissensions with the Recollects over vacancies occurring in the Manila
+diocese; together with the secular bishops of Cebú and Nueva Cáceres,
+sends exposition to queen, Feb. 15, 1863, urging the right of episcopal
+visitation of the regular parish priests; asks that briefs and laws
+declaring removable ad nutum the regular curas, be left in force;
+with provincials of orders protests to governor against the Moret
+decrees, May 16, 1869; Feb. 19, 1872, publishes long pastoral letter in
+Spanish and Tagálog lamenting and condemning Cavite insurrection, and
+especially the part taken in it by the Filipino clergy; resigns, 1875.
+
+VACANT SEE.--1875-1876.
+
+PAYO, PEDRO, O.P.--Takes charge of see, 1876; adorns and improves
+cathedral; dies, 1889.
+
+VACANT SEE.--1889-1890.
+
+NOZALEDA, BERNARDINO, O.P.--Native of Asturías, of rustic parentage;
+originally a professor in Manila; takes possession of his diocese,
+Oct. 29, 1890; Apr. 28, and May 8, 1898, issues circulars to the
+Filipinos urging them to repel the American invaders; resides about 26
+years in Philippines; relinquishes archbishopric, June, 1903; returns
+to Spain after the transfer of the Philippines to the United States;
+there nominated archbishop of Valencia, [187] but the citizens refuse
+to receive him, because of evil reports about him. [188]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+[1] "Originally, when the port of the capital of Filipinas was visited
+only by vessels from the Asiatic nations and a few Spanish ships, the
+exaction of duties was in the hands of the royal officials, according
+to the laws of the Indias. In 1779 Basco y Vargas ordained that
+those functionaries should attend only to collecting duties from the
+ships which navigated to the coasts of Coromandel, Malabar, Bengala,
+Java, Cantón, Acapulco, and Cádiz; and that the duties proper to the
+entrance or outgo of products and commodities in the inter-island
+commerce should be in charge of the director of alcabala. From this
+originated the foundation of the custom-house, it being completed
+by royal decrees of 1786 and 1788, from which time it was provided
+with the necessary force of men for collecting the import and export
+duties." (Note by Montero y Vidal.)
+
+[2] Cf. Forrest, Voyage to New Guinea, p. 368: "They believe the deity
+pleased with human victims. An Idaan or Maroot [a tribe in northern
+Borneo] must, for once at least, in his life, have imbued his hands in
+a fellow creature's blood; the rich are said to do it often, adorning
+their houses with sculls and teeth, to show how much they have honored
+their author, and laboured to avert his chastisement. Several in low
+circumstances will club to buy a Bisayan Christian slave, or any one
+that is to be sold cheap; that all may partake the benefit of the
+execution. So at Kalagan, on Mindano, as Rajah Moodo informed me,
+when the god of the mountain gives no brimstone, they sacrifice some
+old slave, to appease the wrath of the deity. Some also believe,
+those they kill in this world, are to serve them in the next, as
+Mr. Dalrymple observes." He also says (p. 271), that they pay "perhaps
+five or six Kangans" for an old slave, and that the above mountain
+is "in the district of Kalagan [i.e., Caraga], a little way west of
+Pandagitan, which emits at times smoke, fire, and brimstone." This
+evidently alludes to Mt. Butulan, a volcano (now apparently extinct),
+in the extreme southern point of Davao province, Mindanao.
+
+[3] See account of this at end of "Events in Filipinas," the first
+document in VOL. L.
+
+[4] See post, near the end of this volume, the document on the
+representation of Filipinas in the Spanish Cortes.
+
+[5] "A fanatic, who, styling himself a new Christ, appeared to the
+fishermen and announced to them their true redemption--freedom from
+monopolies and tributes, and whatever could allure the unwary. This
+fanatic and more than seventy of his following, called 'apostles,' were
+seized, with their gowns, litters, flags, and other articles with which
+'the new god,' as was reported, must make himself manifest." (Official
+despatch, cited by Montero y Vidal.)
+
+[6] It may be noted that in 1809 Folgueras had, "in order to quiet the
+public anxiety" to know what was going on, published on two occasions
+a sort of gazette (called Aviso al público) of news regarding his
+encounter and correspondence with the French in that summer. (Montero
+y Vidal, ii, pp. 390, 391.)
+
+[7] See Retana's Periodismo filipino (Madrid, 1895), appendix i
+(pp. 533-559), in which a detailed account of this gazette, with lists
+of the articles in most of the numbers, is given by J. T. Medina. He
+concludes that it had fifteen numbers, irregularly issued, the last
+of which was dated February 7, 1812.
+
+[8] According to Jagor (Reisen, pp. 108, 109), "the receipts from
+the sale of the bulls of the Crusade in 1819 were $15,930, in 1839,
+$36,390, and in 1860, $58,954. In the two years 1844-45 they rose
+to $292,115, because the families and the heads of barangay were
+forcibly obliged to accept the certificates of indulgences, 'with the
+assistance and supervision of the curas and subordinate officials'
+(who for this received 8 and 5 per cent respectively), and thus they
+were distributed in the houses--certainly one of the most shameless
+applications of the repartimiento system."
+
+[9] A note by Montero y Vidal cites José R. Trujillo, a Philippine
+official, as stating (1887) that the chief opponent and plotter against
+Gardoqui was Joaquin Cirilo de la Cajigas, the chief accountant of the
+treasury board and head of the naval bureau; he left a great fortune
+to his descendants, "who even now figure as rich men in the country,
+while the naval chiefs and officers who served here at that epoch
+did not bequeath to their descendants more than poverty and honor,
+although some of them had risen to high positions in the naval forces."
+
+[10] "The Holy Office was, however, again abolished by the Cortes,
+in its session of 1820.
+
+[11] "In 1797, when on account of the decadence of the Society and
+the opposition of Aguilar it practically ceased its functions, its
+president at that time, the auditor Don Francisco Javier Moreno, placed
+on deposit in the Consulate [of commerce] 6,000 pesos, which at that
+period constituted all its funds. At the time of its reëstablishment,
+the capital of the Society consisted of 34,224 pesos, two reals,
+one grano in ready cash; a debt owed by the convent of San Juan de
+Dios, of 7,525 pesos--the remainder of the sum of 15,890 pesos, four
+reals, one grano, which by decree of the government dated April 1,
+1805, were ordered to be paid for the rebuilding of that convent's
+edifice; and twelve gold medals and 241 of silver. It was agreed
+to invest these funds in commerce by sea or land, according to
+circumstances." (Pamphlet cited by Montero y Vidal.)
+
+[12] For a brief account of this Society's work, see note on
+"Agriculture" at end of VOL. LII.
+
+[13] An interesting account of this event is furnished in a letter
+by Peter Dobell, then Russian consul in the Philippines, which is
+preserved in the New York Public Library; it is printed in the Bulletin
+of that institution for June, 1903, at pp. 198-200. Dobell went to
+Macao for medical treatment in July, 1820, and this letter was written
+from that city, on November 28 of that year. He thus writes: "I arrived
+with my wife and daughter at Manilla last March, was received with
+great apparent attention, politeness & hospitality. After living there
+a couple of months, however, I perceived that there existed a vast deal
+of jealousy and envy, against all strangers, and particularly those
+who resided or intended to form establishments in the country. Those
+ignorant people could not divest themselves of this feeling, even
+toward those, whose capitals, talents and industry, were directed
+to the most laudable pursuits, and promised to produce great public
+as well as private advantages to the colony. At this crisis several
+french ships were in the port, one or two Americans and a English ship
+from Bengal. In the French ships, had arrived a naturalist sent out
+by the government to make collections, and some persons, who intended
+to remain in the Philippines to cultivate sugar, cotton &c. &c. In the
+month of July last, I discovered that I had in my travels, contracted
+a disease, called by the Doctr Hydrocele and becoming very troublesome
+to me, I determined as there are no good surgeons in Manilla to pay
+a short visit to Macao with my family & return to my post, as soon
+as circumstances would permit, after the operation. This I found,
+I could do the more conveniently, as my Nephew, a fine young Man of
+23 years, had joined me at my arrival and I left him, in full charge
+of my office &c and departed. This envious disposition, on the part
+of the Spaniards, increased daily, against the Strangers, until an
+opportunity presented itself of gratifying their malignant hatred, in
+the most cruel & bloody manner & without themselves appearing to have
+any thing to do in the business. It is necessary first to tell you,
+that the new constitution, had been received during the prevalence
+of this feeling, giving extensive privileges & liberal encouragement
+to foreigners, who might think proper to settle in the Philippines &
+rendering the natives as free & equal, in rights, etc. as their former
+masters. This certainly made them a little unruly, but, if not secretly
+instigated, it would never have induced them to commit a crime, that
+makes humanity shudder. The ship from Bengal, was the Merope Captain
+Nichols and it was supposed she had brot into the colony the epidemic,
+that has ravaged all India, this year, under the name of the 'Cholera
+Morbus.' It made its appearance, in the beginning of October last,
+carrying off great numbers of the Indians every day. The humane French
+& other Strangers, who beheld these miserable wretches, dying around
+them without any medical aid, freely administered what medicines they
+had, and were actively & daily employed, in endeavoring to alleviate;
+the distress & cure the complaints of all those, who lived within the
+sphere of their exertions. This also became, a cause of jealousy and
+hatred and the villains, began immediately to exasperate the Indians
+by saying, 'this poisonous disease, was introduced by the French &
+the other strangers, they have poisoned even the waters, and they
+administer poison to the sick, purposely to exterpate the whole
+race of Tagalians.' The ferocious Indians wanted nothing farther
+to excite them to deeds of blood & plunder. On the 9th of October
+about 10 or 11 in the morning they collected, to the number of
+about 3,000 Men armed with pikes knives and bludgeons and proceeded
+coolly and deliberately to plunder and Massacre all the Strangers
+on whom they could lay their hands! I have not time to give you the
+details of this shocking business, but you will certainly read them
+in the gazettes as I have sent both to England and Russia very full
+accounts for publication. Suffice it now to say that the Governor &
+the authorities were vainly implored for assistance. They came, it is
+true, with the troops, but it was only to behold with sang froid the
+horrid spectacle. Not a musket was fired to save the lives of those
+unfortunate and defenceless strangers, who to the number of 39 were
+plundered & cruelly massacred; some of them were so cut up & mangled
+it was impossible to recognize them. As the most of them were Roman
+Catholics, they were all collected and thrown into a hole together
+without the shadow of a ceremony or a stone to mark their graves! What
+is worse, the last accts from there down to the 9th of November
+mention that not a spanish life was lost, nor has a single native as
+yet suffered punishment for this most atrocious & horrible deed. My
+house was attacked & pillaged, my Nephew & a Mr Prince of Boston,
+who lived with him, made prisonners, and, after being near two days
+in the hands of the Indians, suffering the most abominable treatment,
+they luckily escaped Death. Eighty five Chinese & 11 English seamen
+were also plundered & assassinated. I have been obliged to represent
+this affair in its full suit of Black to my Government and have at the
+same time declared my intention of going back to Siberia, next April,
+where I shall await the orders of His Imperial Majesty.... I leave
+the place & those miscreants to themselves, from the conviction,
+that its commerce is ruined forever. In the first place they held
+their productions too high & paid too low for European commodities, so
+that, when the allowance of the half duties granted to the importers
+of sugars shall cease, no french ships will visit the Philippines
+to pay from 7 to 9 Dollars a pecul for Sugars. The Cadmus, you say
+will make money. If she does, she will I fancy be the only American
+ship that profits by its trade to Manilla. All those, who came out
+last year lost money on the sales of their cargoes, &, from what we
+hear of prices in America, and on the Continent, they must lose by
+the returns. But what will give the death blow to the prosperity of
+the Philippines, is the late horrible massacre. All those french and
+other foreigners, who were anxious to have established themselves
+in commerce or on estates in the country, are now frightened off
+and certainly no one will find himself, confident enough to trust
+to a Government, which could permit such a massacre to take place,
+immediately under its eyes, when it had 5,000 men in arms, ready at a
+minutes notice to disperse the Mob. Thus situated, Manilla offers no
+chance of profit or Speculation; and I confess, however my hopes and
+wishes may have been disappointed, I turn from them with disgust &
+horror, better pleased to be ordered to live, in some remote corner
+of Siberia, on black bread & salt, than roll in wealth, amidst such an
+inhuman, illiberal and unchristianlike race of Men.... I must close my
+letter by informing you that the Captain General has refused all the
+applications for indemnification, from those who have been plundered;
+so that as yet, neither the punishment due to the assassins has been
+inflicted, nor redress made to the unfortunate people who were robbed."
+
+By the kindness of James A. LeRoy, the Editors have in their hands
+a copy (furnished by Dr. Pardo de Tavera from the original in
+his possession) of a decree issued by Governor Folgueras (dated at
+Manila, October 20, 1820), addressed "to the natives of the Filipinas
+Islands, and especially to those of the district of Tondo," in which
+he rebukes them severely for thus violating the law of nations,
+under the influence of "a general frenzy," and "led astray and
+infuriated by certain malicious persons." He characterizes their
+belief that the strangers had poisoned the waters as a foolish and
+absurd notion, which "the mountain Negritos or the Moros of Joló and
+Mindanao would be ashamed to entertain;" and reminds them that the
+strangers whom they have plundered and slain were not only friends
+and brethren, but the very persons on whom the prosperity of the
+islands must depend, since they supplied a market for the produce
+of the country. He then presents the report which has been made by
+an official whom the governor had specially appointed (October 13)
+to investigate this idea of the foreigners' crime, which is to the
+following effect: "As the evidence of guilt [cuerpo de delito, the
+same as the Latin corpus delicti] in the poisoning which is charged,
+the Indians have brought to us, among the spoils which they plundered
+from the houses of the Frenchmen, various animals of different forms,
+and among them a serpent, of quite the usual size, one of those which
+they call 'house-snakes,' in a dissected state; others, with some
+little shellfish, preserved in spirits of wine, in a crystal flask;
+in another, two granos of muriatic baryte; a quantity of Peruvian
+bark, which in my opinion would weigh about an arroba and a half;
+and a box of sheet-tin about a vara long, one-fourth as wide, and six
+dedos thick, in which also was found a mass of insects, but already
+decaying; and finally, in the house of a woman who had been accused
+of being an agent of the French for the alleged poisoning, a little
+package of some black powders in China paper [i.e., rice paper]." The
+official states that these animal specimens have evidently "no other
+object than to enrich cabinets of natural history," and could not
+in any way have been used for injuring human beings. The muriatic
+baryte was for use in analyzing mineral waters, and was, moreover,
+useful in various diseases. The Peruvian bark was, as all might
+know, a useful medicine and had often been helpful in checking the
+cholera itself. The black powders, it was also decided, were also of
+medicinal value; and the entire story is characterized as a fiction
+and delusion. The official regrets that it was believed by so many
+persons who should have known better than to accept so gross an error;
+"but it is certain that they did, and, among them, many of the clergy;
+and with this the delusion attained such power that it has caused
+the very scandalous deeds which all good persons lament; for it is
+certain that there is no better way of propagating an error than for
+persons of authority to adopt it. There is no doubt, it appears, that
+this foolish idea of poisoning had its origin in the ignorance of the
+Indians; but there is as little doubt that malicious persons, imposing
+upon this folly and lack of knowledge in the Indians, incited them to
+perpetrate the assassinations and robberies of the disastrous days,
+October 9 and 10." He adds that one of the books brought to him by the
+Indians, which they had taken from the house of the French naturalist,
+was filled with sketches of fishes, mollusks, and birds peculiar to
+the country, which plainly showed that he was only making zoological
+observations. In view of all these things, Folgueras calls upon the
+natives to repent of their sin, to surrender to the authorities the
+instigators of the tumult, to restore to the plundered foreigners
+what had been stolen from them, and to denounce the authors of the
+murders, that justice might be done to these evil persons. These
+exhortations are especially addressed to the inhabitants of Binondo,
+"which has been the theatre of the most horrible tragedy, and has
+covered itself with blood and ignominy." This decree is published
+by Dr. Pardo de Tavera, from the original printed edition, in his
+Biblioteca filipina, pp. 45-47.
+
+[14] In his scarce third volume of the Informe, Mas says that the
+governor, either wittingly or unwittingly, did well in not sending
+out the soldiers, who were natives, until the fury of the people had
+spent itself; as otherwise all discipline might easily have been lost,
+and the soldiers have joined with their kindred in the massacre.
+
+[15] Our author gives the name of this periodical incorrectly; it
+should be El Noticioso Filipino--see Retana's Periodismo filipino,
+appendix ii (pp. 561, 563). It was apparently begun on July 29, 1821;
+it was issued on Sundays. Its publication ceased before November 1 of
+that year. This information was furnished to Retana by Pardo de Tavera;
+he also supplied accurate data for La Filantropia (pp. 561-563), which
+began on September 1, 1821; it seems to have ceased publication in
+1822. El Ramillete Patriótico is known only by an allusion in one of
+the numbers of Filantropia, which speaks of the former as having been
+"silenced" (presumably by the authorities). Pedro Torres y Lanzas
+gives (p. 565) a description of Nos. 27-37 (March 16-May 25, 1822)
+of Filantropia.
+
+[16] Regarding this man and his works, see Retana's El precursor
+de la político redentorista (Madrid, 1894); it is specially devoted
+to Varela's Parnaso filipino (Sampaloc, 1814). Retana says of him:
+"It is unquestionable that his writings in prose and verse encouraged
+among the Indians the wrong interpretation which was given to the
+Constitution of 1812, from which resulted the series of insurrections,
+fortunately isolated, which took place in Filipinas."
+
+[17] This publication was begun in January, 1824, and continued until
+May, 1833; at first two hundred and fifty copies were printed. It
+was finally obliged to suspend publication, for lack of funds. See
+Retana's Periodismo filipino, pp. 10-14, and 566; at the latter place,
+Torres y Lanzas describes a file of Nos. 49-109 (lacking two numbers)
+of this publication, which is presumably preserved in the Archivo
+general at Sevilla.
+
+[18] In 1823 the pirates captured the provincial of the Recollects,
+with one of his friars; and that order had to furnish 10,000 pesos
+for their ransom. (Montero y Vidal, Hist. de Filipinas, ii, p. 482.)
+
+[19] General Ricafort published a relation of this enterprise, dated
+at Manila, December 30, 1829; he describes the island, presents an
+historical sketch of the insurrection in Bohol since 1744 and the
+efforts to quell it, and at the end furnishes a tabulated statement of
+the expeditions sent by his orders, with number of men, expenditures,
+etc., and of their results--a statement signed by Captain Manuel Sanz,
+the leader of the expedition, and dated at Talibon, August 31, 1829;
+to this is added the signed statement by the parish curas of Bohol that
+the numbers of insurgents who have been conquered or have submitted to
+the Spanish rule agree with their respective registers. According to
+this account, the number of insurgents reduced or submitted was 19,420;
+to this must be added 98 "banished for their rebellious dispositions,"
+and 395 "obstinate persons who died at the hands of the troops," and
+an unknown ("for lack of information") number of those killed in the
+year 1827 and on March 28 of 1828, and more than 3,000 souls who have
+fled to other provinces. Some of the troops were Spaniards from Manila,
+but the main part of the force was composed of Indians from Bohol and
+Cebú, to the number of 5,970 and 54 respectively; 294 of the former
+and 32 of the latter deserted the ranks, and 4,977 Boholans and 22
+Cebuans were at the end disbanded, as being on the sick list; and
+very few were either killed or wounded in the campaign. The reduced
+insurgents were formed into the following new villages: Catigbian,
+with 1,967 souls; Batuanan, with 6,266 souls; Cabulao, with 790;
+Balilijan, with 2,100; and Vilar, with 930. In other villages were
+distributed the remaining insurgents.
+
+[20] "The Chinese refused to accept their reduction into villages; more
+than eight hundred elected to return to their own country; four hundred
+odd were assigned to labor on the public works, as being insolvent;
+and about a thousand fled to the mountains in order to elude payment
+and punishment. The intendant, in view of the difficulty in collecting
+[their] taxes, explained to the government the expediency of modifying
+the enactment; and this was done in 1834." (Note by Montero y Vidal.)
+
+[21] These funds were chiefly the obras pías which had been
+administered by the Jesuit order in Filipinas up to their expulsion
+from the islands; at that time, nearly half of these foundations
+were extinguished by the authorities, and such moneys as remained in
+them were covered into the royal treasury. Forty-five of the Jesuit
+obras pías were thus left, which were administered by the government
+in the following manner: The capital was divided (as had long been
+the custom of all the orders in Filipinas in administering obras
+pías) into three parts; one of these was invested in the commerce
+of Acapulco, another in that of the Coromandel Coast and China,
+and the other third remained on deposit as a reserve to make good
+any losses in the amounts invested. Much light is thrown on the
+management of these funds by the Jesuits, in the official report made
+(June 23, 1797), in pursuit of a command from the Spanish government,
+by Angel de la Fuente, the chief of the Bureau of Secular Revenues
+[Contaduría de Temporalidades] at Manila; the original MS. of this
+is in the possession of Edward K. Ayer, Chicago. Fuente examined the
+account-books which the Jesuits had kept of these funds, and found them
+full of confusion, discrepancies, and omissions; but after comparing
+and verifying them so far as he could, he made a list of them, with
+statement of their origin, amount, and application. He found that in
+seventeen of these funds there was no evidence that the money had been
+applied as directed by the donors, and only partial indications of this
+in fifteen others. He reported that many of these obras pías had been
+contributed for the advantage and benefit of the Jesuits themselves,
+and therefore, since that order had been suppressed, the funds might
+now justly be applied to any desirable pious purpose. To this end,
+he recommended that nineteen of the funds be placed in charge of
+the diocesan authorities, and twelve others used by the government
+for specified purposes, and that the rest be covered into the royal
+treasury.
+
+[22] "In order to give aid to the widow of Torres, and pay the
+expenses of her voyage to España, a subscription was raised which
+produced 12,000 pesos; but we note that the promoter of this married
+the widow, and they returned to the Peninsula together." (Note by
+Montero y Vidal.)
+
+[23] The "pillar dollar" was so called from the pillars on the
+reverse of the coin, which represent the pillars of Hercules, or
+the Straits of Gibraltar; this device was characteristic of the
+Spanish-American coinage. This dollar was the peso duro (or "hard
+dollar"), of eight reals; and its half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth,
+and thirty-second parts were represented by smaller coins. The
+greater part of the supply of pillar dollars were made in Mexico;
+but this coinage ceased in 1822. In the Peninsula, the coins were the
+dollar--formerly of ten reals, but now of twenty reals vellón--the
+half, the peseta or pistareen (which is one-fifth of the dollar,
+or four reals vellón), and the half and the quarter pistareen. After
+the Peninsular revolution of 1821, pillar dollars were struck for a
+short time at Madrid, but these are easily distinguishable from the
+true pillar dollar. In 1810-16, silver coins were used in Brazil,
+which were only the Spanish dollar, softened by annealing, and then
+restamped; the pillars may be distinguished underneath this surface,
+by close inspection. See Eckfeldt and DuBois, Manual of Gold and
+Silver Coins (Philadelphia, 1842), pp. 33, 77, 119, 122, See also
+chapter on Spanish coinage, especially that called "vellón," in
+Lea's Inquisition in Spain (New York, 1906-07), i, pp. 560 et seq.;
+this latter, although debased, was the standard of value until 1871,
+when it was replaced by the decimal system.
+
+[24] "According to a memorial published by Don Francisco Enríquez
+on leaving his office, there were at that time in the funds [of his
+department] a surplus of 1,000,000 pesos, and in the storehouses over
+275,000 bales of tobacco, the value of which exceeded 4,000,000 hard
+dollars." (Note by Montero y Vidal.)
+
+[25] Hangers-on of the palace at Manila tried to throw on Galvey the
+blame for this failure; but Montero y Vidal cites Galvey's diary, to
+show that he had to contend with overwhelming difficulties, inadequate
+supplies and lack of proper facilities, and the insalubrity of the
+country. He stated therein that he had made "forty-five expeditions
+into the hill-country, and had received therein four wounds, two of
+which were mortal." He died in 1839.
+
+[26] Royal decrees of 1835 and 1836 suppressed the Jesuit order
+throughout the Spanish empire; all the religious communities and
+colleges of men (excepting the colleges of missionaries for Asia,
+the clergy of the Escuelas Pías and the hospital convents of St. John
+of God), and the houses of the military orders; and all the beaterios
+whose inmates were not devoted to educational or hospital labors.
+
+[27] "In Filipinas the peseta is worth only 32 cuartos." (Vidal y
+Soler, Viajes por Jagor, p. 227; published in 1874.)
+
+[28] Soon after his return to Spain he published a book (Cádiz, 1839)
+relating his experiences as governor of Filipinas.
+
+[29] Camba's wife died, three months after their arrival at Manila;
+and at her funeral certain military honors were paid her, as provided
+in the regulations of affairs in the Indias, and these were promptly
+approved by the home government. Camba's enemies, however, accused
+him at Madrid of having had the same honors paid to his wife as were
+customary with royal persons; and, at the time, the artillery officials
+demanded from him pay for the powder used on that occasion. (Note by
+Montero y Vidal.)
+
+[30] In conjunction with the Audiencia, he commissioned a magistrate,
+Francisco Otín y Duazo, to draw up new "Ordinances of good government,"
+in 1838. (Montero y Vidal, ii, p. 360.)
+
+[31] Montero y Vidal says (iii, p. 21): "On March 21, 1840, the
+Economic Society of Friends of the Country made a grant of 500 pesos
+to Father Blanco for the expenses of printing and publishing the Flora
+which bears his name." In 1845 a second edition appeared, corrected
+and enlarged by the author himself; and a third edition was issued
+(1877-80) at the cost of the Augustinian order. This last was in four
+volumes, a limited edition, with an atlas (in two volumes) containing
+478 colored plates; it also included a previously unpublished MS. on
+Philippine botany, written late in the sixteenth century, and an
+appendix prepared by the editors of Blanco (Fathers Andrés Naves and
+Celestino Fernández-Villar) in which they endeavored to coördinate
+Blanco's species with those of other authors and to enumerate all the
+species of Philippine plants then known. See an account of Blanco's
+work and that of his later editors, with estimate of the scientific
+value of both, in Review of the Identifications of Species Described
+in Blanco's "Flora" (Manila, 1905), by Elmer D. Merrill, botanist of
+the Bureau of Government Laboratories at Manila.
+
+[32] In Retana's Periodismo filipino (pp. 566, 567) Torres y Lanzas
+describes some copies of this periodical, dated October 5-November 9,
+1839, and January 23-February 6, 1841; he cites a letter by Urréjola
+to show that Precios corrientes was published weekly, beginning July 6,
+1839, by private enterprise.
+
+[33] By a later royal decree, the fiscal was to settle any case of
+disagreement between the two censors, and any books seized by the
+authorities should be only sent back to the shipper, and not kept by
+them--the archbishop having demanded that confiscated books should
+be surrendered to him. (Note by Montero y Vidal.)
+
+[34] The full title of this book is as follows: Remarks on the
+Phillippine Islands, and on their capital Manila. 1819 to 1822. By
+an Englishman. "When a traveller returneth home, let him not leave
+the countries where he hath travelled altogether behind him." Lord
+Bacon--Essays. Calcutta: Printed at the Baptist mission Press,
+Circular Road; and sold by Messrs. W. Thacker and Co. St. Andrew's
+Library. 1828.
+
+Opposite the title-page is a folding map, entitled "Map of the province
+of Tondo." It is Spanish, dated 1819; and shows as well portions of
+the adjacent provinces. The book is dedicated "To Holt Mackenzie,
+Esq. This Work is respectfully inscribed, by his obedient humble
+servant, The Author. Calcutta, March, 1828."
+
+Notes signed "Eds." are supplied by the Editors; the rest are those
+of the author himself. The original text is reproduced as exactly
+as possible.
+
+[35] Besides the references already given, see J. Roth's sketch
+of the geology of the Philippines, in appendix to Jagor's Reisen,
+pp. 333-354.--Eds.
+
+[36] The Bureau of Government Laboratories at Manila published, during
+1902-05, a valuable series of bulletins on various topics in botany,
+ornithology, biology, diseases of man and beast, etc., and another
+series was published by the Mining Bureau; the former bureau is now
+replaced by the Bureau of Science.--Eds.
+
+[37] In the environs of Manila, a monument is erected to the memory
+of ..., [37-A] a Spanish naturalist of unwearied industry, and it is
+said, great talents, sent out by government to examine the Phillippine
+Islands. After seven years' incessant labour, he died of a fever, and
+at his death his manuscripts, which are all written in cyphers, were
+taken possession of by the government; they are said yet to remain
+buried in the archives of 'la Secretaria,' having never been sent
+to Europe!
+
+[37-A] Apparently referring to Antonio Pineda (VOL. L, p. 61); but he
+died only three years after leaving Spain. In the expedition to
+which he was attached, he was director of the department of natural
+sciences; he was accompanied by Louis Née, a Frenchman naturalized
+in Spain. They visited Uruguay, Patagonia, Chile, Peru, and Nueva
+España; and in Chile were joined by the Hungarian naturalist, Tadeo
+Haenke (who, reaching Cádiz after their vessel sailed, was obliged
+to sail to South America to meet them). From Acapulco they went to
+Marianas and Filipinas; and journeyed (1791) through Luzón from
+Sorsogón to Manila. Pineda labored diligently in Luzón, and made large
+collections; but died at Badoc, in Ilocos, in 1792; his brother Arcadio
+Pineda, who was first lieutenant of the ship, was charged to put in
+order the materials collected by Antonio, but many of these were lost
+on the return journey. Returning to South America, at Callao Haenke and
+Née parted company; the former again traveled in America, but in the
+vicissitudes of these journeys much of the material collected by him
+was lost or spoiled. The residue was classified and described, after
+his death, by the leading botanists of Europe, and this matter was
+published in a work entitled Reliquiæ Haenkeane, seu descriptiones et
+icones plantarum quæ in America meridionali et boreali in insulis
+Philippinis et Marianis collegit Thaddeus Haenke, Philosophiæ Doctor,
+Phytographus Regis Hispaniæ (Pragæ, 1825-35). Née went from Concepción,
+Chile, overland to Montevideo, and thence to Spain; and in September,
+1794, he reached Cádiz, with a herbarium of 10,000 plants, of which
+4,000 were new ones. These were preserved in the Botanical Gardens at
+Madrid, with more than 300 drawings. See Ramón Jordana y Morera's
+Bosquejo geográfico é historico-natural del archipiélago filipino
+(Madrid, 1885), pp. 356-358, 361; and José Gogorza y González's Datos
+para la fauna filipina (Madrid, 1888), p. 2.--Eds.
+
+[38] The loftiest peak in Mindoro is Mount Halcón, said to be 8,800
+feet in height. The most prominent volcano in the archipelago is Mayón,
+7,916 feet high, in Albay, Luzon; in Negros is another volcano, called
+Canlaón, 8,192 feet high. In Panay the highest peak is Madiaás, 7,264
+feet; and in Mindanao is the loftiest peak in the entire archipelago,
+the almost extinct volcano of Apo, which rises to 10,312 feet. See
+the chapter on "Mountains and rivers," in Census of Philippines, i,
+pp. 00-73.--Eds.
+
+[39] Le Gentil says (Voyage, ii, p. 29): "This animal [the hog] is so
+common there that they even use its fat for sauces, ragouts, and fried
+articles; for butter is not known in Manila, and there is very little
+use of milk there. The Manilans doubtless find less difficulty (for in
+that climate people are very fond of repose) in using pork fat in their
+food than in rearing and keeping cattle and making butter. This sort
+of food, joined to the heat and the great humidity of that country,
+occasions serious dysentery in many persons." He adds (p. 123):
+"The venereal disease (or 'French disease,' as they call it, I know
+not why), is very common there [in Manila]; but they do not die from
+it; the great heat and copious perspiration enable people to live at
+Manila with this malady, they marry without being frightened at it,
+and the evil passes by inheritance to their children; it is a sort of
+heritage with which but few European families are not stained."--Eds.
+
+[40] Le Gentil thus speaks of the placer-mining practiced by the
+Indians in Luzon (Voyage, ii, p. 32): "It is true that this sort
+of life shortens the days of these wretched people; as they are
+perpetually in the water, they swell, and soon die. Besides that,
+the friars say that it is their experience that the Indians who lead
+that sort of life have no inclination to follow the Christian life,
+and that they give much trouble to the ministers of God who instruct
+them. Despite that, it is to the friars and to the alcaldes that
+these Indians sell their gold."--Eds.
+
+[41] In his "Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon," Worcester calls
+attention to the various indefinite modes of using the word "tribe,"
+among ethnological writers, and proposes (p. 803) the following
+definition as a means of securing clearness and accuracy therein:
+"A division of a race composed of an aggregate of individuals of
+a kind and of a common origin, agreeing among themselves in, and
+distinguished from their congeners by, physical characteristics,
+dress, and ornaments; the nature of the communities which they form;
+peculiarities of house architecture; methods of hunting, fishing, and
+carrying on agriculture; character and importance of manufactures;
+practices relative to war and the taking of heads of enemies; arms
+used in warfare; music and dancing, and marriage and burial customs;
+but not constituting a political unit subject to the control of any
+single individual nor necessarily speaking the same dialect." He adds:
+"Where different dialects prevail among the members of a single
+tribe it should be subdivided into dialect groups." He also says
+(p. 798): "It was the usage of the Spaniards to designate as a tribe
+each group of people which had a dialect, more or less peculiar, of
+its own. Furthermore, the custom which is widespread among the hill
+people of northern Luzon of shouting out the name of a settlement
+when they desire to call for one or more persons belonging to it,
+seems in many instances to have led the Spaniards to adopt settlement
+names as tribal ones, even when there were no differences of dialect
+between the peoples thus designated."--Eds.
+
+[42] The fullest and most authoritative account of the Negritos is,
+of course, the monograph by W. A. Reed, The Negritos of Zambales,
+published by the Philippine Ethnological Survey. See also Worcester's
+account of them in his "Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon,"
+in Philippine Journal of Science, October, 1906, pp. 805 et seq.--Eds.
+
+[43] See Le Gentil, Voyage aux Indes.
+
+[44] Is not this, or something resembling it, a custom of the natives
+of Australasia?
+
+[45] See Herrera and Ant. de Solis, Hist. of Mexico.
+
+[46] The negro of the east appears to have amalgamated with some other
+family. On the south coasts of Australasia, they resemble in many
+points the people just described. This continues to be the case as far
+as Cape Capricorn. To the northward of this, as far as Murray's Islands
+in Torres Straits, they are a stout, tall, athletic race of men, [46-A]
+and as hairy on the face and body as Europeans, with long hair, and
+without the negro cast of countenance. This race may be traced by
+intervals to Ternate, Gilolo, &c., where they are called Harraforas;
+[46-B] but none are found in the Phillippines (unless the Ylocos have
+some relationship to them). Is not the native of New Ireland and Queen
+Charlotte's Islands too of this race? [46-C] The difference between
+them is most striking. The one are dwarfish negroes, the others almost
+black Europeans. Both are essentially different from the Malay family,
+and not only so, but from each other (the native of Amboyna, I think,
+forms the link between them) and this difference is apparently
+anatomical, in the shape of the skull, facial angles, &c.
+
+We are as yet in the infancy of our knowledge of the origin of these
+various families of the human race: like that of languages, it will
+in all probability remain one more of conjecture than of fact; but it
+is still a subject of deep interest. I have heard from respectable
+authority, that the language of Cagayan, the most northern province
+but one of the island of Luzon, the men of which are tail, stout,
+olive-coloured, almost beardless, and proverbial for their mildness,
+peaceable behaviour, and fidelity, so much resembles that of the
+Sandwich islanders, that some of these at Manila found no difficulty
+in making the Cagayan servants understand them! The province of Ylocos
+is the next to this to the north, and forms the north coast of the
+island. The Ylocos are black, short-bearded men, and noted for their
+insubordination and dissipated character.
+
+[46-A] The writer of this memoir has, on the coast of New Holland,
+between Cape Capricorn and Endeavour Straits, had occasion to know this
+fact. A party of these savages attacked the captain and supercargo of
+a vessel in which he was an officer, and they were repulsed only by
+firearms. The account of them given by the supercargo, and indeed by
+all the party attacked, uniformly agreed in describing them as the
+finest made and strongest looking men possible. Their bodies were
+also very hairy.
+
+[46-B] The term "Haraforas" is applied to the Subanos of Mindanao by
+Captain Forrest; from his Voyage, pp. 266, 268, 271, 273, 278-282, we
+obtain the following interesting and first-hand information about
+that people:
+
+"The vassals of the Sultan, and of others, who possess great estates,
+are called Kanakan. Those vassals are sometimes Mahometans, though
+mostly Haraforas ["who are also called Subanos, or Oran Manubo,"
+p. 186]. The latter only may be sold with the lands, but cannot be sold
+off the lands. The Haraforas are more opprest than the former. The
+Mahometan vassals are bound to accompany their lords, on any sudden
+expedition; but the Haraforas being in a great measure excused from
+such attendance, pay yearly certain taxes, which are not expected from
+the Mahometan vassals. They pay a boiss, or land tax. A Harafora family
+pays ten battels of paly (rough rice) forty lb. each; three of rice,
+about sixty lb.; one fowl, one bunch of plantains, thirty roots,
+called clody, or St. Helena yam, and fifty heads of Indian corn. I
+give this as one instance of the utmost that is ever paid. Then
+they must sell fifty battels of paly, equal to two thousand pound
+weight, for one kangan. So at Dory, or New Guinea, one prong, value
+half a dollar, or one kangan, given to a Harafora, lays a perpetual
+tax on him. Those vassals at Magindano have what land they please;
+and the Mahometans on the sea coast, whether free or kanakan, live
+mostly by trading with the Haraforas, while their own gardens produce
+them betel nuts, coco nuts, and greens. They seldom grow any rice,
+and they discourage as far as they can, the Haraforas from going to
+Mindano, to sell the produce of their plantations. On the banks of
+the Pelangy and Tamantakka, the Mahometans grow much rice. The boiss
+is not always collected in fruits of the earth only. A tax-gatherer,
+who arrived at Coto Intang, when I was there, gave me the following
+list of what he had brought from some of Rajah Moodo's crown lands,
+being levied on perhaps five hundred families. 2870 battels of paly,
+of forty lb. each; 490 Spanish dollars; 160 kangans; 6 tayls of gold,
+equal to 30 l [sterling]; 160 Malons: a cloth made of the plantain
+tree, three yards long, and one broad. This last mentioned cloth is
+the usual wear of the country women, made in the form of a Bengal
+lungy, or Buggess [i.e., Bugis] cloth, being a wide sack without a
+bottom; and is often used as a currency in the market. The currency
+in most parts of the country, is the Chinese kangan, coarse cloth,
+thinly woven, nineteen inches broad, and six yards long; the value at
+Sooloo is ten dollars for a bundle of twenty-five sealed up; and at
+Magindano much the same; but at Magindano dollars are scarce. These
+bundles are called gandangs, rolled up in a cylindrical form. They
+have also, as a currency, kousongs, a kind of nankeen, dyed black;
+and kompow, a strong white Chinese linen, made of flax; of which
+more particularly hereafter. The kangans generally come from Sooloo;
+so they are got at second hand: for the Spaniards have long hindered
+Chinese junks, bound from Amoy to Magindano, to pass Samboangan. This
+is the cause of so little trade at Magindano, no vessels sailing
+from Indostan thither; and the little trade is confined to a few
+country Chinese, called Oran Sangly, and a few Soolooans who come
+hither to buy rice and paly, bringing with them Chinese articles: for
+the crop of rice at Sooloo can never be depended on. In the bazar,
+or market, the immediate currency is paly. Ten gantangs of about
+four pounds each, make a battel; and three battels (a cylindrical
+measure, thirteen inches and five-tenths high; the same in diameter)
+about one hundred and twenty pounds of paly, are commonly sold for
+a kangan. Talking of the value of things here, and at Sooloo, they
+say, such a house or prow, &c., is worth so many slaves; the old
+valuation being one slave for thirty kangans. They also specify in
+their bargains, whether is meant matto (eye) kangan, real kangan,
+or nominal kangan. The dealing in the nominal, or imaginary kangan,
+is an ideal barter. When one deals for the real kangans, they must
+be examined; and the gandangs, or bundles of twenty-five pieces, are
+not to be trusted, as the dealers will often forge a seal, having
+first packed up damaged kangans. In this the Chinese here, and at
+Sooloo, are very expert. The China cash at Magindano, named pousin,
+have holes as in China. I found them scarce; their price is from one
+hundred and sixty to one hundred and eighty for a kangan. At Sooloo
+is coined a cash of base copper, called petis, of which two hundred,
+down to one hundred and seventy, go for a kangan."
+
+"On Sooloo are no Haraforas. The Haraforas on Magindano make a strong
+cloth, not of cotton, but of a kind of flax, very like what the Batta
+people wear on the coast of Sumatra." "One day near Tubuan, a Harafora
+brought down some paddy from the country: I wanted to purchase it;
+but the head man of the village, a Magindanoer, would not permit him
+to sell it me. I did not dispute the point; but found afterwards, the
+poor Harafora had sold about three hundred pounds of paly for a prong,
+or chopping knife." "They all seem to be slaves to the Magindano
+people: for these take what they please, fowls or anything in the
+house they like best; and if the owners seem angry, threaten to tie
+them up, and flog them." "The inhabitants of this country [of the
+Illanos] have generally their name from the lake [i.e., Lake Lanao]
+on which they reside. The inlanders dwell chiefly towards the East,
+where are said to be thirty thousand men, intermixed in many places
+with the Haraforas, who seem to be the primitives of the island. On
+the north coast of Magindano, the Spaniards have had great success,
+in converting to Christianity those Haraforas. Their agreeing in one
+essential point, the eating of hog's flesh, may, in a great measure,
+have paved the way."
+
+"The Magindano people sell to the Haraforas iron chopping knives,
+called prongs, cloth, salt, &c., for their rice and other fruits
+of the earth. For the Haraforas dread going to sea, else they could
+carry the produce of their lands to a better market. They are much
+imposed on, and kept under by their Mahometan lords; and are all
+tributary to the Sultan, or to some Rajah Rajah (noblemen) under
+him. Their system proves thus the feudal." "The Haraforas are thinly
+scattered; and, being all tributary, many together seldom stay long
+at one place. This cannot be for want of water, pasture, or fertile
+ground; as with the Tartars on the continent of Asia. On this island,
+almost every spot is covered either with timber, brushwood, reeds,
+or grass; and streams are found every where in abundance. Nor can it
+be to avoid wild beasts; there are none on the island: a good cause
+why deer, wild horses and other wild cattle are found in so many
+parts of it. I suspect that the Haraforas are often so opprest that
+some have wisely got inland, beyond the tax-gatherer's ken."
+
+Evidently Forrest and the writer of the Remarks had in mind two
+different peoples, to whom they applied the term Haraforas. Crawfurd
+explains this name (Dictionary Ind. Islands, p. 10) as a corruption of
+Alforas; it is "not a native word at all, nor is it the generic name
+of any people whatsoever. It is a word of the Portuguese language,
+apparently derived from the Arabic article al, and the preposition
+fora, 'without.' The Indian Portuguese applied it to all people
+beyond their own authority, or who were not subdued by them, and
+consequently to the wild races of the interior. It would seem to be
+equivalent to the 'Indios bravos' of the Spaniards, as applied to the
+wild and unconquered tribes of America and the Philippines."--Eds.
+
+[46-C] And that groupe to which Quiros, Mendana, or Torres gave the
+name of "Yslas de Gente Hermosa"? [Still thus named on modern charts;
+see Voyages of Quiros (Hakluyt Society's publications, London, 1904),
+pp. xxiv, 217, 424, 431.--Eds.
+
+[47] Our author here confuses the Spanish name "Pintados" (literally,
+"painted," referring to their tattooed bodies) with the native name,
+"Bisayas," both being indifferently applied to the islands south
+of Luzon.--Eds.
+
+[48] See Sir William Draper's dispatches at the siege of Manila.
+
+[49] Was it not by this system (the mita) that the mines and
+plantations of Mexico were wrought? and Mexico,--that Mexico which
+the Spaniards of Cortes in the 15th century called New Spain,--became
+nearly a desert?
+
+[50] A higher and purer praise is due to this gentleman than having
+written the work alluded to: it is that he acted on its spirit, and
+first taught the "red man" to know himself as man, and (a far more
+arduous undertaking), he taught the white man that his prosperity
+was essentially connected with that of the native. The country
+in which the foundations of our power were laid on such a basis,
+should not have been given away like a ministerial snuff-box. [50-A]
+
+[50-A] Java was conquered by England in 1811, but was restored to
+Holland five years later. During that time the island was governed
+by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781-1826), who published a History
+of Java (London, 1817); he was afterward governor of the English
+settlements in Sumatra (1818-24), in both these posts ruling with
+great ability and vigor and an enlightened and liberal mind. Gilbert
+Elliot, Baron Minto, a noted English statesman, was governor-general
+of India during 1807-13, and went with Raffles to Java to organize
+its government.--Eds.
+
+[51] See Descripcion Geografica y Topografica de la Ysla de Luzon,
+Por Don Yldefonso de Arragon, Parte IV. Prov. de la Pampanga, p. 3,
+5, &c. The author is a colonel of engineers. [In 1818-20, he was
+chief of the topographical bureau at Manila.--Eds.]
+
+[52] Ibid.
+
+[53] "Estos (Pueblos) aunque immediatos a las orillas de la mar,
+estén libres de las invasiones de los Moros; la espesura de las
+Manglares occulta y hace dificil la entrada, &c."
+
+"These (towns), though close to the sea shore, are free from the
+invasions of the Moors (pirates); the thickness of the mangroves
+conceal and render the entrances difficult." The writer is speaking of
+towns, of which none are more than 20 miles from Manila!-- Descripcion
+Geog. y Topograf.
+
+[54] The writer was once obliged to arm all his servants against 16
+soldiers with their muskets from a neighboring military post. The two
+parties remained some minutes with their arms levelled at each other,
+when a parley was begun, which ended the affair without bloodshed. The
+origin of the quarrel was a dispute at cockfighting between his
+servants and the soldiers.
+
+[55] Such are, for example, Nuestra Señora de Antipolo, about 20 miles
+east of Manila, and the Santo Niño (Holy Child) of Zebû: to both of
+these it is reckoned almost indispensable to make a pilgrimage: the
+natives of Luzon to the first, which is about 25 miles from Manila;
+and those of all the Bisayas or Southern Islands to the other. From
+Antipolo [55-A] alone have been sent in a single year 180,000 dollars
+as the produce of the masses! And the writer has conversed with
+pilgrims from the province of Ylocos! In all cases of peril and
+difficulty, a vow is made to one of these saints, which is seldom
+left unfulfilled. The crew of a small vessel of men offered 54 dollars
+for masses at the convent of St. Augustin (I think), on the day of the
+feast del Santo Niño.
+
+[55-A] For detailed account of the shrine at Antipolo, its worship,
+miracles, etc., see Murillo Velarde's Hist. de Philipinas, fol.
+210v-229v; and in the engraved frontispiece to that work may be seen
+a representation of the statue of the Virgin of Antipolo (see our
+VOL. XLIV, opposite titlepage).--Eds.
+
+[56] This word is defined by the Standard Dictionary (New York, 1895)
+as a Scottish slang word meaning "unlawful sexual intercourse." It is
+apparently allied to the obsolete Northumbrian word "houghen-moughen,"
+meaning "greedy, ravenous"--see Wright's English Dialect Dictionary,
+iii (London, 1902), p. 247.--Eds.
+
+[57] Nothing has stamped the character of the Manila Indian with
+greater atrocity in the eyes of Englishmen, than their frequent
+appeals to assassination (the knife) in cases of supposed or actual
+wrongs. How long is it since dirks were laid aside, because useless,
+in Scotland? When men cannot appeal immediately to a magistrate,
+they appeal to themselves. Duels too are another kind of appeals of
+the same sort.
+
+[58] "At Manila, therefore, a doctor [of law] is a species of
+phenomenon, and many years pass without one of them being seen; in
+two universities there is no doctor, while in 1767 there was but one
+competitor for the doctoral of the cathedral. Yet it must be noted
+that this competitor was a Mexican, and was not born in Manila. Of
+what use, therefore, are two universities in this city? Would not a
+single one be more than enough? One who knows Latin is greatly esteemed
+in Manila, because that language is not common there, in spite of the
+two universities which I have just mentioned; what is learned in those
+institutions is very poor, and is only imperfectly understood. When
+I arrived there, a great many persons asked me if I knew Latin, and
+when I answered that I knew a little of it they apparently had after
+that more respect for me. All the ancient prejudices of the schools
+seem to have abandoned us of Europe only to take refuge at Manila,
+where certainly they have long remained, for the ancient doctrine is
+there in too good hands to give place to sound ideas of physics. Don
+Feliciano Marqués often honestly confessed to me that in Spain they
+were a hundred years behind France, in the sciences; and that at
+Manila they were a hundred years behind Spain. One can judge, by
+that, of the present state of physics at Manila, in the midst of
+two universities. In that city electricity is known only by name,
+and the Holy Office of the Inquisition has prohibited experiments
+in that line. I knew there a Frenchman, a surgeon by profession,
+a man of parts and of inquiring mind, who was threatened with the
+Inquisition for having tried to make such experiments; but I think
+that what really drew upon him this ill-fortune was the experiment
+of the "little friar." [This simple experiment in physics was made
+with a little figure resembling a friar; it had never before been
+seen in Manila, and everybody ran to look at it and laugh.] "This
+experiment of the surgeon, who made his little friar dance, and
+sometimes sink to the bottom of the vial by way of correcting him,
+drew upon him the displeasure of the entire body of religious with
+whom Manila swarms; there was talk of the Holy Office, and it was said
+that the surgeon's experiment was a case for the Inquisition. The
+surgeon, therefore--whose only intention in the experiment was to
+vex the friars who had prevented him from making his experiments in
+electricity--was compelled to cease his pleasantry, and Manila had to
+express its detestation of the pleasure that it had taken in seeing the
+experiment." [The author was visited by many people at his observatory,
+who desired to see the sun and the planets through his telescope;]
+"the women were even more curious than the men about the rare things
+which I showed them, and which I took pleasure in explaining to them;
+but not a single religious came to visit my observatory." (Le Gentil,
+Voyage, ii, pp. 96, 97.)--Eds.
+
+[59] See El Yndio Agraciado (The aggrieved Indian), a
+pamphlet published at Manila in 1821, but suppressed by order of
+government. [59-A]
+
+[59-A] Pardo de Tavera says of this pamphlet, in his Biblioteca
+Filipina, p. 146: "It attacks one Don M. G., a Philippine Spaniard,
+who was allowed to propose a plan of studies which was not much
+to the liking of the Filipino Indians. As appears by the title of
+this pamphlet, there existed in Manila at that time a publication
+(probably weekly) called El noticioso Filipino. [See also Tavera's
+account of this sheet, at foot of the same page, which he regards
+as the first periodical which appeared in Manila]. Doubtless the
+former was the doing of some friar, who took the name of 'Indian'
+in order to express himself more freely."--Eds.
+
+[60] This distinction should never be lost sight of. The Indian of
+Manila, from whom strangers generally form their estimate of this
+people, is so mixed, that a genuine Indian (Malay) family is scarcely
+to be met with; they are a mixture of Indian, Chinese, Japanese,
+Mexican (from the troops), seamen of different nations, and Spaniards
+besides, "Toutes les Capitales se ressemblent, et çe n'est pas d'eux
+qu'il faut juger les moeurs d'un peuple quelconque." [60-A] --Rousseau.
+Let it never be forgotten, too, that while the Indians of Manila, on
+the 9th of October, 1820, were assassinating every foreigner within
+their reach, the Indians of the country were saving those in their
+power at the hazard of their lives!
+
+[60-A] That is, "All capital cities are alike, and it is not by them
+that the morals of any people should be judged."--Eds.
+
+[61] The following statements regarding the native character
+are made by Ramon Reyes Lala (The Philippine Islands, New York,
+1899, pp. 80-87), himself a Filipino: "The first thing that
+in the native character impresses the traveler is his impassive
+demeanor and imperturbable bearing. He is a born stoic, a fatalist
+by nature. This accounts for his coolness in moments of danger,
+and his intrepid bearing against overwhelming odds. This feature
+of the Malay character has often been displayed in the conflicts
+of the race with the Europeans in the East Indies. Under competent
+leadership the native, though strongly averse to discipline, can be
+made a splendid soldier. As sailors, too, I do not believe they can
+be equaled." "As a result of the stoicism of the native character,
+he never bewails a misfortune, and has no fear of death." "Europeans
+often seem to notice in them what they deem a lack of sympathy for
+the misfortunes of others; but it is not this so much as resignation
+to the inevitable." "The educated native, however, impregnated with
+the bitter philosophy of the civilized world, is by no means so
+imperturbable. While more keenly alive to the sufferings of others,
+he is also more sensitive to his own sorrows." "Incomprehensible
+inconsistencies obtain in nearly every native. Students of character
+may, therefore, study the Filipinos for years, and yet, at last, have
+no definite impression of their mental or moral status. Of course,
+those living in the cities are less baffling to the physiognomist
+and the ethnologist; for endemic peculiarities have been so rubbed
+off or modified that the racial traits are not obvious. But observe
+the natives, in their primitive abodes, where civilizing forces
+have not penetrated! You will then be amazed at the extraordinary
+mingling and clashing of antithetical characteristics in one and
+the same person; uncertain as to whether the good or the bad may
+be manifested. Like the wind, the mood comes and goes, and no one
+can tell why. I myself, with all the inherited feelings, tastes, and
+tendencies of my countrymen--modified and transmuted [by his education
+and long residence in Europe and America], happily--have stood
+aghast or amused at some hitherto unknown characteristic manifesting
+itself in an intimate acquaintance; and after I had been for years,
+too, wholly ignorant of his being so possessed or obsessed. And
+after that, the same mental or moral squint would be displayed at
+irregular intervals." "His indolence is the result of generations of
+tropical ancestors. Besides, deprived by the Spaniards from all active
+participation in affairs of the Government, and robbed of the fruits of
+industry, all incentive to advancement and progress was taken away. He
+therefore yields with composure to the crushing conditions of his
+environment, preferring the lazy joys of indolence rather than labor
+for the benefit of his oppressors. Naturally. Recent events, however,
+show that, given the stimulant of hope, even the 'indolent natives' of
+the Philippines can achieve and nobly dare. Some Spaniards also have
+asserted that the Filipinos are naturally disloyal and treacherous,
+and that their word is not to be depended on. Now, the whole world
+knows that they have every reason to be disloyal to the Spaniard,
+who has for centuries so cruelly oppressed them. The devotion to
+the cause of freedom, however, which has recently made Rizal and
+hundreds of others martyrs to Spanish cruelty, shows that they also
+have the stuff that heroes are made of, and that they ran be loyal to
+an animating principle." "Though calm, the native is not secretive,
+but often loquacious. He is naturally curious and inquisitive, but
+always polite, and respectful withal--especially to his superiors. He
+is passionate, and, in common with all half-civilized races, is
+cruel to his foes. The quality of mercy, like the sentiment--as
+distinguished from the passion--of love, is perhaps more the product
+of the philosophy of civilization than a natural attribute of the
+human heart." "All travelers unite in attributing to the natives
+extreme family affection. They are very fond of their children; who,
+as a rule, are respectful and well-behaved. The noisy little hoodlums
+of European and American cities are utterly unknown. The old are
+tenderly cared for, and venerated; while in almost every well-to-do
+household are one or two poor relatives who, while mere hangers-on,
+are nevertheless made welcome to the table of their host. Indeed, the
+hospitality of the Filipinos is proverbial. A guest is always welcome,
+and welcome to the best. As a rule, the people are superstitious and
+very credulous; but how could they be otherwise? For three hundred
+years they have been denied even the liberty of investigation; when no
+light, save the dim glimmer of priestcraft pierced the utter darkness
+of their lot. Those that have been educated, however, have proved
+apt converts--only too apt, say the priests and the Spaniards--to the
+conclusions of science and of modern research. The native is rarely
+humorous, and seldom witty. He is not easily moved to anger, and when
+angry does not often show it. When he does, like the Malay of Java,
+he is prone to lose all control of himself, and, with destructive
+energy, slays all in his path. This is infrequent, however, but is a
+contingency that may occur at any time. If a native has been unjustly
+punished, he will never forget it, and will treasure the memory of his
+wrong until a good opportunity for revenge presents itself. Like all
+courageous people, he despises cowardice and pusillanimity. He has,
+therefore, but little regard for the meek and humble Chinaman, who
+will pocket an insult rather than avenge himself. He greatly esteems
+the European, who is possessed of the qualities which he admires,
+and will follow him into the very jaws of death. He is easily awed
+by a demonstration of superior force, and is ruled best by mild but
+firm coercion, based upon justice. He is not often ambitious, save
+socially, and to make some display, being fond of ceremony and of the
+pomp and glitter of a procession. He is sober, patient, and always
+clean. This can be said of few peoples. He easily adjusts himself to
+new conditions, and will soon make the best of their surroundings. As
+servants they are honest, obedient, and will do as they are told. It
+must be said that they enjoy litigation more than is good for them or
+for the best interests of the colony. There must be some psychological
+reason for this. It doubtless gives some play to the subtlety of the
+Oriental mind. It is said that he lacks the sense of initiative, and
+to some extent this may be true. The recent conduct of Aguinaldo--a
+full-blooded native--proves, notwithstanding, that he is not wholly
+deficient in aggressiveness nor in organizing power."
+
+Lala adds (pp. 157, 158): "I have talked with many rude, untutored
+natives that, frankly, astonished me with the unwitting revelation
+of latent poetry, love of imagery, and spiritual longings in their
+nature."--Eds.
+
+[62] Such is, although in somewhat varying degree, the condition of
+half-caste classes everywhere. A vivid picture of their condition
+in India, which may illustrate that of the mestizos in Filipinas,
+is found in a book entitled That Eurasian (Chicago, 1905), by "Aleph
+Bey," the pseudonym of an American writer who had spent many years in
+India; he depicts, in terms both vigorous and pathetic, the origin,
+difficulties, and degraded condition of the Eurasians (or half-castes)
+there, and the oppression and cruel treatment which they encounter
+from the dominant white class.--Eds.
+
+[63] "To be born in Spain was enough to secure one marked tokens of
+respect; but this advantage was not transmitted. The children who first
+saw the light in that other world no longer bear the name of chapetons,
+which honored their fathers; they become simply creóles." (Raynal,
+Etablissemens et commerce des Européens, ii, p. 290.)--Eds.
+
+[64] I am perhaps not quite correct here. [Mas states (Informe, ii,
+"Administration of Justice," p. 1), that the limit for civil suits
+was 100 pesos fuertes.--Eds.]
+
+[65] It will be understood that these sureties have their share in
+the advantages, that is plunder, which the Alcalde derives from the
+government. This often amounts to 20, 30, or even 50,000 dollars
+in three or four years--though at the time of their leaving Manila,
+they are in debt to a large amount. It is but just to observe, that
+there are some few honorable exceptions.
+
+[66] This is a typographical error; the reference to Comyn work is
+on p. 13 of Remarks.--Eds.
+
+[67] Even from Spanish writers: see Zuniga's History, Morillo [i.e.,
+Murillo Velarde], and others. Le Gentil (who names his informants,
+men of the first respectability), La Peyrouse, &c. Many public papers
+of the government bear witness to these abuses.
+
+"El Alcalde de aqui Señor! (said an old Indian to the writer at
+Zebú), le quitará los dientes de la boca a S. Md." "The Alcaldé here,
+Sir!--He'll take the teeth out of your worship's mouth." This was
+not too strong an expression.
+
+[68] They are well aware of the extent of their influence, and even at
+times speak of it. "Si aqui manda su tropa el Rey, se vayan los Indios
+al monte, pero si yo cerro las puertas de la Iglesia los tengo todos
+a mis pies en veinte quatro horas." "If the king sends troops here,
+the Indians will retire to the mountains and forests. But if I shut
+the church doors, I shall have them all at my feet in twenty-four
+hours," was the remark of an intelligent "frayle" to the writer.
+
+[69] Le Gentil says (Voyage, ii, p. 2): "Every order of religious has,
+then, taken possession of these provinces, which they have, so to say,
+shared among themselves. In some sort, they command therein, and they
+are more kings than the king himself. They have been so shrewd as to
+learn the dialects of the various peoples among whom they reside, and
+not to teach the Castilian language to them; thus the religious are
+absolute masters over the minds of the Indians in these islands."--Eds.
+
+[70] Those who can see only inquisitors in Catholic bishops will be
+a little incredulous of one of them checking an attempt to convert
+a Protestant! This happened to the writer, who found himself one
+evening seated between an Indian clerigo and the bishop of Zebû,
+an aged and most worthy prelate. The Indian father, to show his
+zeal for the faith, attacked me on the subject of religion with
+the usual arguments of ignorant friars, till I was on the point of
+quitting the room to avoid answering. "My son," said the old prelate
+to the Indian--"we are here to convert the Indians, not to annoy the
+strangers who may visit us. I will send this gentleman some books,
+and I doubt not they will duly prepare his mind to see the errors of
+the Protestant church, and then we may hope for success with him!"
+
+[71] "Yo hé llorado de ansias de ver à un Europeo!" "How often has the
+desire of seeing an European made me weep!" was the pathetic remark
+of a most worthy minister to the writer of these remarks.--This man
+had been 27 years on one small island!
+
+[72] "Insanity is the fashionable disease [at Manila], and a great
+many persons are attacked by it; but it prevails more generally among
+the women and the religious--the latter most of all, and they are very
+subject to it. The life which they lead contributes greatly to this:
+to be always shut up, in a climate so hot, eating scanty and poor food,
+and much given to study; perhaps also there is some grief at finding
+themselves banished and shut in so far away [from Spain]. All these
+causes make the brain grow hot, and madness follows. Nearly all the
+religious who go to the Philippines arrive there while young.... As for
+the women, their natural infirmity may, at a certain age, conduce to
+insanity, with which a great many are stricken." (Le Gentil, Voyage,
+ii, pp. 130, 131.)--Eds.
+
+[73] They have already conducted them to scenes of the last indecency
+and even bloodshed. See Martini's Hist.
+
+The Inquisition has been but little felt in the Philippines of late
+years. A tribunal existed, but it was merely nominal, and held only
+"in terrorem." It was not wanted as a political engine; and as a
+religious one, there was little use for it amongst a people who will
+believe any thing and every thing. The Grand Inquisitor, during the
+last 25 years, is a man universally beloved!--the Padre Coro.
+
+[74] This is, according to Montero y Vidal (Archipiélago filipino,
+p. 72), the name applied by Linnæus to the Caryota onusta of Blanco,
+generally called cabonegro by the Spaniards (see VOL. XVIII, p. 177);
+but the list of fiber plants in Official Handbook of Philippines
+applies to that tree (p. 332) the name Caryota urens L. The natives
+also make various sorts of wine and brandy from the sap of the
+cocoanut palm (Cocos nucifera); see Delgado's Historia general,
+pp. 645-648, 664.--Eds.
+
+[75] There is an instance (I think in the province of Pampanga) of
+a negro tribe, who annually pay their tribute--but upon the express
+condition that no missionaries are to be sent!
+
+[76] "Bulas." Surely this most absurd of all impositions on the
+credulity of a people, should be abolished, or at least imposed in
+a less objectionable manner. The "Bula de Cruzada" (originally a
+contribution to the wars against the Infidels), for which is granted
+permission to eat meat and eggs in Lent, or benefits to the souls
+in purgatory ("Bula de Difuntos"), from the Pope is an article of
+revenue to the king of Spain. His Most Catholic Majesty farms it to
+one of his subjects, who rather than lose a rial of his bargain, will
+sell them to Chinese, Turks, or Hindoos, if they are fools enough to
+buy them, as the Chinese have been known to do for the souls of their
+ancestors!--Quere: What has become of the original intention of these
+precious documents? of which a modern Spanish author has remarked,
+"Que es el papel mas caro y mas malo que se vende." It is the worst
+and dearest paper that is sold, (Gallardo Dicc. Critico Burlesco). It
+is, however, an indispensable condition to the performance of many
+of the offices of religion to have the last published bull. See
+Manila Almanack.
+
+[77] In 1810, the total of receipts was 1,466,610 dollars.
+
+[78] Such assertions demand some evidence in support of them. A very
+recent case has occurred, wherein the colonel of a militia regiment
+(of Chinese descent), having some dispute with a French gentleman,
+and high words taking place, called up the guard stationed at his door,
+it is supposed to flog him! The French gentleman having procured some
+weapon, kept the whole guard at bay, together with their gallant
+colonel. Muskets were levelled at him, and he probably would have
+been assassinated, but for the interference of some of the family,
+and his own firmness! Complaint was made of this, but no notice was
+taken of it, nor was the gallant colonel's conduct thought at all
+incorrect. On the contrary it was very generally applauded!
+
+[79] Large boats undecked, pulling from 20 to 30 oars; they carry a
+four or six pounder and five or six swivels; they are fine boats and
+sail fast. The gun-boats carry a long 24 or 32 pounder, and six or
+eight swivels; and including marines, carry from 80 to 100 men.
+
+[80] For recent information on this subject, see chapter on agriculture
+(revised by Frank Lamson-Scribner, chief of Bureau of Agriculture),
+in Official Handbook of Philippines, pp. 99-126; and Census of
+Philippines, iv, pp. 11-394, with full description of chief products
+of the islands, methods of cultivation, lists of fruits, vegetables,
+and fiber plants, and detailed statistics of production, lands, etc.,
+as well as of domestic animals of all kinds.--Eds.
+
+[81] The fish principally caught is one called Dalag (Blennius?) [81-A]
+This fish, common I believe to many parts of India, presents some
+phenomena well worth the attention of naturalists. In these extensive
+plains, only a few pools remain in the dry season; and after the rains,
+such multitudes of them are found, that they are caught with baskets
+only. They weigh from one to two pounds, and are from one to two feet
+in length; they are found in the rice fields, when these have been
+overflowed a few weeks, and strange to relate, in the graves and vaults
+of churches when in damp situations, but with little or no water near
+them; this fact is related on respectable authority. The fish, though
+not delicate, is good, and forms a valuable article of food for the
+poor.
+
+[81-A] Montero y Vidal mentions this fish (Archipiélago filipino,
+p. 107), as belonging to the genus Ophicephalus; it is "abundant
+in the rivers, lakes, and pools." See also Official Handbook of
+Philippines, pp. 151, 152.--Eds.
+
+[82] They, very unaccountably, neglected any steps to procure the
+martin from Bengal or Cochin China. [82-A] This might, however, have
+arisen from an idea that, as in the Isle of France, the martins might
+have become as great a nuisance as the locusts; but surely the
+introduction of some species of hawk would have obviated this.
+
+[82-A] Montero y Vidal says (Archipiélago filipino, p. 113) that the
+family of Orthoptera, "leaf-eaters in their adult stage, are the most
+fearful scourge for agriculture," perhaps the worst of these plagues
+being the locust (Oedipoda manilensis; Spanish, langosta); "the
+Indians use great nets to catch them, because not only the government
+pays a bounty for a certain quantity of these destructive insects
+which the natives may present, but they preserve the insects and use
+them for food." He also states (p. 96) that a species of grackle
+(Gracula) was imported from China (in the Hist. de Filipinas, ii,
+p. 294, he mentions in the same connection martins [pájaros martines])
+to exterminate this pest; but does not mention the time or the result
+of this experiment.--Eds.
+
+[83] See VOL. XLVIII, p. 96, note 37.--Eds.
+
+[84] This is the Viverra Musanga. [84-A] See Horsfield's Zoology of
+Java.
+
+[84-A] Montero y Vidal states (Archipiélago filipino, pp. 86, 87) that
+two species of carnivores, Paradoxurus philippinensis and P. musanga,
+are dreaded by the coffee-planters; these creatures "spend the day in
+holes dug in the ground, and go out at night to hunt their game." He
+mentions, besides these, two species of civets, both of the genus
+Viverra. Delgado says (p. 875) that he has never seen the miró
+(Paradoxurus) except in the island of Leyte.--Eds.
+
+[85] Eight rials are a Spanish dollar.
+
+[86] The following are the common land measures in use at Manila:
+
+La Brasa de tierra is 8 feet 1.6-10 English, (from a new government
+measure); 10,000 of these, or a square of 100 each way, is a Quinion.
+
+                   10 Balitans is a Quinion
+                   10 Loanes   is a Balitan
+
+Hence the Quinion contains 661511 16-144ths sq. ft. or 73501 2-9ths
+sq. yds., [86-A] which, taking the Bengal bigha at 14400 sq. ft.,
+gives about 46 bigahs, or 15 acres English.
+
+[86-A] The quiñón = 2.79495 hectares = 6.89 acres. (Official Handbook
+of Philippines, p. 294; Jagor's Reisen, p. xv.) Jagor has balístas
+for balitans, and Mallat has baletas.--Eds.
+
+Their dry measure is as follows:
+
+8 Chupas, 1 Ganta.--25 Gantas, 1 Caban.
+
+I could not procure a sight of the standard. A mean measurement
+of several new Gantas and Cabans (for they are all clumsily made,
+though sold at a government office) gave as follows:
+
+The Caban, 4633 cubic inches English.
+
+The Ganta, 186,878 ditto.
+
+The mean of these two (for the first would give 185.72 to the Ganta)
+is thus about 186 cub. inches to a Ganta, and 4650 to the Caban,
+or 2 bushels and 1-6th Winchester measure. [86-A]
+
+[86-A] Since January 1, 1862, the caban of Manila (established
+January 1, 1860) is regarded as the standard measure for all the
+provinces. It measures exactly 75 liters, or, in cubical form,
+422 mm., inside measure, or 5,990.96 Spanish cubic inches. (The
+caban of 1859 contained 80.00919 liters.) A caban of rice weighs
+128 to 137 Spanish pounds = 59 to 63 kilograms." (Jagor's
+Reisen, p. xv.)--Eds.
+
+[87] The table here referred to is as follows:
+
+"Estimate of the cost and annual product of one cabalita of land
+planted with sugar-cane in the province of Pampanga; to wit:
+
+
+                                                          p. r. gr.
+
+For plowing the said land 6 times                          1  4
+For breaking the clumps with the balsa 3 times                6
+For the surrounding fence and rattan 3 p. 5 r., and
+three days' work 3 r. 9 gr.                                4      9
+For 4,000 cane-shoots for planting, 1 p.; tracing the
+lines and making the holes, 5 r.; two days' work at
+planting, 2 r. 6 gr.                                       1  7   6
+For fencing twice more, and cutting out the grass             6
+For 14 moulds, at 1 1/2 r.                                 2  5
+For 1 1/2 tareas [= amount of mill's capacity at one
+time], each of 14 loaves [pilones] of sugar, the amount
+usually obtained, at 8 p. a tarea                         12
+                                                          ---------
+    Total cost                                            23  5   3
+
+Selling price of a loaf of sugar, averaging those of       2  6   6
+the three grades
+Deduct cost of each loaf, at the rate of                   1  6   1
+                                                          =========
+    Net product, equivalent to 90 per cent profit          1  3   2"
+
+
+Comyn gives similar tables for the production of indigo and
+rice, estimating the net profit thereon at 57 and 60 per cent
+respectively. He adds, on the margin of the sheet: "In favorable years
+the profit of the grower is wont to increase in an extraordinary
+manner. The 4,000 shoots of sugar-cane, for instance, yield him 3
+tareas, or 28 loaves of sugar, in place of the 14 loaves which were
+figured in the comparative estimate preceding; the cavan of seed
+yields 80 and even 100 cavans of rice in the hull, in place of the
+35 computed; and he obtains a quintal of indigo from 15, or even
+from 10, balsadas, instead of 25 being necessary for furnishing
+the said product. And if the grower is fairly well-to-do, so that
+he can send his produce to the general market, and sell it to the
+foreign merchants or ship-captains who come for these products, he
+can obtain incomparably more for them than by delivering them upon
+the ground to the middlemen. At Manila I have seen indigo from La
+Laguna sold at the rate of 130 pesos a quintal for extra fine grade,
+and at 100 pesos for the usual quality; sugar, at 4p. 5r. a loaf;
+and palay (or rice in the hull) at 3 pesos; but I have preferred to
+limit myself to a low rate in the selling price which I have assigned
+to the aforesaid products in the preceding estimates, in order to
+demonstrate more thoroughly the advantages which agriculture offers
+in Filipinas, and at the same time to conform to practical experience
+in the formation of estimates of this sort." Cf. similar estimates
+by Mallat (Philippines, ii, pp. 256-281.--Eds.
+
+[88] Pilones are large bell-shaped moulds, from 2 to 2 1/2 feet high,
+and 1 1/2 broad.
+
+[89] Some of their voyages are most curious. One or more of the
+principal men in a village, sometimes 15 or 20 of them, join to build
+a small "parao." On this they embark with their harvest in sugar,
+cacao, wax, &c., sell it at Manila, and return to their village;
+there the accounts are settled, and the return cargo distributed;
+after which a feast is held, and the Santo duly thanked for the good
+markets of this year, and asked for better next. All parties then
+visit the vessel, which they pull to pieces! every man carrying a
+piece home with him--to take care of till next season, when they are
+all sewed together for another trip.
+
+[90] At the present time there are six varieties of sugar-cane in
+Filipinas; of these, the purple is considered the best, and is more
+generally cultivated in the Visayas; the white and the green are
+almost exclusively restricted to some provinces of Luzon and the
+rural districts near Manila; the other kinds are cultivated sparingly
+and in few places. The sugar manufactured in the islands is "made in
+pilones (which includes nearly all from Luzon), and the granulated,
+which is the kind that has been adopted in the Visayan islands and in
+some Luzon plantations." The pilon weighs a quintal; the granulated
+is put up in sacks (known as bayones, containing two and a half
+arrobas of sugar. (José R. de Luzuriaga, in Census of Philippines,
+iv, pp. 26, 27).--Eds.
+
+[91] These last, by a royal Cedula (ordonnance), are only admitted
+into the island as cultivators. This, like almost every ordonnance
+of His Catholic Majesty, relative to this country, is disregarded;
+and the Chinese are almost all shopkeepers, or petty merchants. Were
+an impartial account of the administration of these islands to be
+presented to the king of Spain, it might begin thus: "Sire,--Not
+one of your Majesty's orders are executed in your kingdom of the
+Philippines." [91-A]
+
+[91-A] Cf. similar statements by Viana (letter to Carlos III)
+and Anda (Memorial), in VOL. L.--Eds.
+
+[92] This case actually occurred to one of the most respectable
+military officers in the Spanish service, now a captain in the Queen's
+Regiment, whose name is Don M---- de O----. This gentleman, a man
+of high spirit, and one of the few Spaniards in Manila who are an
+ornament to their profession, bearing the king's commission, and in
+pursuit of the robbers, suddenly fell in with a noted chief of them,
+when accompanied only by a piquet of infantry. The robber knew him,
+and with a gallantry worthy of a better cause, defied him to single
+combat! With true chivalric spirit, the challenge was instantly
+accepted; and orders given to the piquet not to interfere on pain
+of their lives. A desperate conflict ensued, in which the gallant
+Spaniard was at length victorious, and the robber's head was sent
+through the country in triumph. Shall the sequel be told? When he
+returned to Manila, with the blessing of every honest native for
+having cleared that part of the country of robbers, a subject of
+prosecution was found in this service by those numerous enemies which
+every honest man has in a country like this, and on some frivolous
+pretext of having (unavoidably) fired into a cottage, and killed or
+wounded some innocent persons. He could not stoop to flatter or bribe;
+and it was with the utmost difficulty, and rather by the exertions
+of his friends than by his own, that after suffering a long series
+of vexations, he was saved from ruin!
+
+[93] Manufactured, I think, from the Urtica nevea of Linn. [93-A]
+
+[93-A] See our VOL. XXII, p. 279. In regard to cultivation and
+preparation of abacá, see Jagor's Reisen, pp. 245-256; Mallat,
+Philippines, pp. 279, 280; Census of Phil., iv, pp. 14-24.--Eds.
+
+[94] Mimosa saponaria? [94-A]
+
+[94-A] This plant (variously known to the natives as gogong, gogo,
+bayogo, and balogo) is a leguminous climbing plant, Entada scandens
+(Official Handbook of Philippines, pp. 367, 384). Blanco (Flora,
+pp. 247, 248) praises its detergent qualities, especially for bathing
+purposes, as even superior to the soap of Europe; and says that it is
+also used medicinally for asthma, and as a purgative, and that the
+Indians place dry pieces of its wood in their jars of cacao-beans to
+keep away worms. He states that it is also named Mimosa scandens by
+some writers.--Eds.
+
+[95] Tíndalo is the native name of the Afzelia (or Eperua)
+rhomboidea, a leguminous tree highly valued for its durable and
+beautiful timber. Mangachapuy, Vatica (or Dipterocarpus) mangachapoi,
+furnishes a timber especially used for shipbuilding and other work
+which must resist sun and rain. (Official Handbook, pp. 352, 357;
+Blanco, Flora, pp. 260, 261, 281, 313.)--Eds.
+
+[96] It is said by the Indians.
+
+[97] Perhaps Boa hortulana? [97-A]
+
+[97-A] See our VOL. XII, p. 259; and XXIX, p. 301. Dahon-palay is
+Dryimus nasutus (Montero y Vidal, Archipiélago filipino, pp. 103,
+104). See also Official Handbook, p. 149; and Worcester's Philippine
+Islands, p. 514.--Eds.
+
+[98] Many years ago, a complete set of forging machinery was sent out
+on speculation; it was sold as old iron, for no one of course would
+speculate in mines, when they could with so much more ease obtain
+100 per cent. for their capital in the trade to Acapulco.
+
+[99] That is, "to reduce them to a desert, in order to assure her
+empire over them."--Eds.
+
+[100] "By a royal decree of February 2, 1800, the residence of
+foreigners in Filipinas was forbidden. This mandate was renewed by
+royal decrees of September 3, 1807, and July 31, 1816." (Montero y
+Vidal, Hist. de Filipinas, ii, p. 360.)--Eds.
+
+[101] Perhaps much of this may be traced to the avaricious spirit of
+the early adventurers, and to the cruelties of the Buccaneers; and
+thus what might have been only a local, became from habit a national
+principle; though "soy Cristiano viejo" [i.e., "I am an old-time
+Christian"], was always the surest passport amongst an intolerant
+people, with whom "filosofo" is yet an epithet of reproach.
+
+[102] Something of this is more or less visible in the colonial policy
+of almost all countries; but that those have been the most flourishing
+who have acted on the broad and liberal principle of "Ubi dives, ibi
+patria" [i.e., "where wealth is, there is my country"] (a humiliating
+but correct estimate, not only of the bulk of colonial adventurers,
+but of mankind in general), will scarcely be questioned. The Havannah
+is a splendid example. In 1780, strangers were rigorously prohibited,
+or at least loaded with restrictions; an enormous smuggling trade
+was carried on, and the island did not pay its own expenses. In
+1820, when the prohibitory system had been long annihilated, and
+strangers allowed free intercourse and establishment, its trade had
+increased a hundred-fold; and not only did it suffice for its own,
+much more expensive establishments; but, both directly and indirectly,
+contributed large sums to the mother country, though at the first
+epoch, the profits on colonial capital were at least 30 per cent. more
+than at the last.
+
+[103] "We have been told, that we must not sit under the shade of
+our own vines and olives! that we must not pluck the fruits from the
+trees which our fathers have planted!--and why--lest the merchants
+of Cadiz should be deprived of their profits in supplying us with
+wine and oil."--From a Chilian manifesto, published soon after the
+declaration of independence.
+
+[104] A valuable study of "The Spanish colonial system" is furnished
+by the chapter under that heading in Wilhelm Roscher's Kolonien,
+Kolonial-politik und Auswanderung (Leipzig, 1885), an English
+translation of which is published by Prof. E. G. Bourne (New York,
+1904), with some additional annotations. See also "The colonial kingdom
+of Spain," in Helmolt's History of the World (New York, 1902), which
+is praised by Bourne as an excellent and scholarly study by Konrad
+Häbler; but unfortunately the American edition of that work does not
+name the author of the above section. Bourne also treats this subject
+in a chapter of his Spain in America (New York, 1904), pp. 220-242,
+and at pp. 355, 356, gives a helpful list of authorities thereon.--Eds.
+
+[105] "Ecclesiastical foundations and obras pías were, it may be
+said, innumerable. From the richest city to the smallest village,
+from one extreme of the Peninsula to the other, and even to the
+farthest boundaries which the monarchy reached in the period of its
+greatest grandeur, the acts of Christian piety are seen in various
+foundations. These include not only hermitages, confraternities,
+memorials, charitable foundations, and chaplaincies,--which by
+themselves alone made a total of enormous wealth--but more pretentious
+establishments, as convents, cathedrals, parish churches, and colleges;
+and any person will be surprised at those which were supported by some
+towns which in their present condition are reduced in population and
+poor. Larruga in his memoirs states that Toledo had 25 parish churches
+and its cathedral, 39 convents, 14 hospitals, and four colleges,
+in all, 83 foundations. Salamanca had more; Cuenca had 31, Avila 31,
+Almagro 17, and so with the other cities of Castilla." Among these
+pious gifts were "the exchanges of Barcelona, Sevilla, and Valencia,
+the colleges of Salamanca, that of Santa Cruz of Valladolid," and many
+cathedrals and convents. (Arias y Miranda, Examen crítico-histórico,
+p. 139.)--Eds.
+
+[106] At one of them (I believe that of Santa Clara), the sculls of the
+seven founders are placed on the table at which the trustees meet!--but
+this, it is said, does not exempt the funds from being misapplied.
+
+[107] It was not uncommon for a person worth ten thousand dollars
+to borrow 40 more from the public funds. Of these about 25 or 30,000
+were shipped, and the remainder kept at home. If the ship was lost,
+the accounts were settled; and if she came back, the interest was
+always repaid,--which of course entitled them to borrow again, till a
+fortunate loss made them independent. And where every body did this,
+no one thought it incorrect.
+
+[108] It is not here meant to controvert the principle of this kind of
+commerce being at times the most lucrative that can be carried on; but
+to remark, that had it not been for the strange system of trading just
+described, the restrictive system, and the monopoly of the Phillippine
+Company, the activity and ingenuity of private traders would have
+discovered other branches of commerce, and with them, that their
+own produce might suffice to pay for the piece goods of Bengal. As
+an instance, the English and every other nation of Europe have for
+a century carried betel-nut to China, but from the Phillippines not
+a nut was exported--it was a royal monopoly! and the merchants and
+growers were thus deprived of about half a million of dollars annually,
+that the king might pocket 30,000. Many other instances might be cited.
+
+[109] The boletas "long did duty as paper money, passing from hand
+to hand." (Lala, Philippine Islands, p. 177.)--Eds.
+
+[110] "Aunque a Mexico llevan diablos cornudos siempre ganan dinero"
+(Though they should carry horned devils to Mexico, they would make
+money by them), was the gruff observation of an old soldier to the
+writer. The trade could not have been better characterized; for the
+very topmen and cabin servants crammed their departments full of goods
+of all kinds; and it was a very common thing to heave to, to clear
+the decks in the Bay of Manila. The "Timoneles" (quarter-masters)
+had always servants!
+
+[111] The revolt of Mexico from Spain began in 1810, but independence
+was not accomplished until 1821. The first constitution of the republic
+of Mexico was proclaimed on October 4, 1824.--Eds.
+
+[112] A ship was dispatched from Manila in 1821, and another freighted:
+this last as an English ship; both were on account of the Company.
+
+[113] The first constitution of Spain was promulgated on March 19,
+1812, during the Napoleonic invasion of that country. Fernando VII
+had been displaced on the throne by Joseph Bonaparte for a time, but
+the latter fled from Madrid, at Wellington's approach with an English
+army, and Fernando (who had been imprisoned in France since 1808)
+was restored to Spain as its king, returning in March, 1814. After
+long-continued struggles with the Liberal party, Fernando restored
+absolutism in that country in 1823, with the aid of a French army;
+and the Constitution was overthrown until after Fernando's death
+in 1833.--Eds.
+
+[114] To account for the enormous difference, it will be sufficient
+to observe, that the Acapulco ships alone smuggle from 1-4th to 1-3d
+of their cargo (treasure) on shore--that opium which is prohibited,
+is smuggled to a considerable amount, as is also treasure, particularly
+gold, to avoid paying the import duties. With respect to the exports,
+the Chinese alone smuggle nearly a million annually, and no notice
+is taken in the account of treasure exported to Bengal in bars.
+
+[115] Comyn briefly sketches this domestic commerce (pp. 43-45),
+but in vague and indefinite terms, save for the following paragraph:
+"Besides the traffic founded on the ordinary consumption, and the
+necessity of being furnished with goods both domestic and foreign in
+order to supply the fairs known by the name of tianguis, which are
+held weekly in almost all the villages, there is also a species of
+traffic peculiar to the rich Indians and Sangley mestizos (who are an
+industrious class, and own the greater part of the ready money). This
+consists in buying up beforehand the harvests of indigo, sugar, rice,
+etc., with the aim of afterward dictating the prices when they resell
+those products to him who buys at second hand."--Eds.
+
+[116] Large, heavy swords, which some of them wield with great
+dexterity.
+
+[117] They have some few brigs and schooners, but the number of these
+is not much more than 20.
+
+[118] "The Hong merchants (Chinese) were twelve in number, licensed by
+government as intermediate agents in trade, between foreign merchants
+and the Chinese people, becoming responsible for the good conduct
+of the former, and, at the same time, securing to the Emperor the
+payment of all maritime duties." (Allen, Opium Trade, p. 45.)--Eds.
+
+[119] Dr. Nathan Allen, in a pamphlet entitled The Opium Trade (Lowell,
+Mass., 1853), presents a history of this traffic, describes its results
+in both China and India, and protests against its continuance. He
+states that opium, originally a native of Persia, spread thence into
+Turkey and India, being cultivated more extensively in the latter
+country than anywhere else in the world. In 1767 the British East India
+Company formed the plan of sending opium from Bengal to China, where
+but little of this drug had previously been sold; but they had little
+success in this until 1794, when they began a traffic which lasted
+some twenty-five years at the ports of Whampoa and Macao. In 1821,
+the opium merchants abandoned these places, on account of difficulties
+encountered in their trade, and centered it at Lintin Island, in the
+bay at the entrance to Canton River, where it rapidly increased. "Here
+might be seen large armed vessels reposing, throughout the year, at
+anchor, constituting a floating depot of storehouses, for receiving
+the opium in large quantities from the ships bringing it from India,
+and dealing it out in chests and cases to the Chinese junks, to be
+retailed at various points on shore. The Merope, Capt. Parkyns, in
+1821, was the first ship that commenced the system of delivering opium
+at different cities along the coast of China, and from that time,
+the trade increased with wonderful rapidity. Eligible places also
+on the east and north-east coast of China were selected to station
+receiving vessels, to which the Chinese might easily have access, and
+become participators in the trade." Allen cites many contemporary and
+high authorities. Among these, James Holman says, in 1830 (Travels in
+China, p. 162), that the opium boats "are but seldom interfered with,
+nor are they likely to be, so long as the Free Traders can afford to
+pay the mandarins so much better for not fighting, than the government
+will for doing their duty. The use of opium has become so universal
+among the people of China, that the laws which render it penal, and
+the proclamations which send forth their daily fulminations against
+its continuance, have not the slightest effect in checking the
+prevalence of so general a habit. Smoking houses abound in Canton;
+and the inhabitants of every class who can furnish themselves with
+the means to obtain the pipe, are seldom without this article of
+general luxury. It is a propensity that has seized upon all ranks and
+classes, and is generally on the increase." From the year 1800, the
+Chinese government tried to stop this traffic, strictly prohibiting
+the importation of opium; but foreign merchants paid no attention to
+this, and forced the trade on the Chinese people. In 1839, a Chinese
+official destroyed, by command of the emperor, over 20,000 chests
+(worth $12,000,000) of the drug at Canton; this led to a war with
+England, commonly known as "the Opium War." The resulting treaty
+of peace compelled the Chinese to open five ports to British trade
+and residence, to cede the island of Hong-kong to Great Britain--at
+which place the opium trade then centered; and in 1845 the British
+authorities licensed twenty shops to sell opium at retail--and to pay
+heavy indemnities not only to the English government and the merchants,
+but for the opium destroyed, which had been legally confiscated by
+the emperor as contraband goods. The Chinese commissioners objected,
+but were threatened with renewed hostilities if they persisted,
+and they had to yield. During the past year negotiations looking
+to a cessation of the opium traffic have been carried on between
+Great Britain and China. The following also shows the recent growth
+of the drug in China. "As for the gums from the Indias, the Chinese
+physicians and surgeons make hardly any use of them. I do not think
+that in an entire year there is used in Pekin a half-livre of opium
+(which they call Yapien); its place is supplied by using the white
+poppy." (Father Parennin, in a letter dated September 20, 1740;
+Lettres édifiantes, ed. 1811, t. xxii, p. 274.)--Eds.
+
+[120] One of the great drawbacks on the profits of the voyages from
+Europe since 1814 has been, that no light goods of value were to
+be obtained. An American, in 1816, remained 16 months to obtain two
+crops of indigo, and bought all to be got in the market. She made an
+excellent voyage, even with this heavy expense.
+
+[121] At this point in the book (namely, facing p. 82) is a plan
+of Manila entitled "Plano de la ciudad de Manila, capital de las
+Yslas Filipinas," which shows the city and its suburbs; and a
+second illustration showing, first, "View of Manila from the plain
+of Bagumbayan," and second, "View of Manila from the sea." The plan
+of Manila is from a Spanish source.--Eds.
+
+[122] Generally, but incorrectly written, "Manilla."
+
+[123] Under this title is included not only the Phillippines from the
+Bashees and Babuyanes to Mindanao, but also from Palawan on the west
+to the Carolinas on the east.
+
+[124] It has no ditch on this side.
+
+[125] A covert from an enemy's fire, but not intended for defense
+with guns; composed of gabions or bags filled with earth, or of earth
+heaped up.--Eds.
+
+[126] Le Gentil states (Voyage, ii, pp. 103, 104) that Arandía was
+hated by the friars because he desired to demolish two churches outside
+the walls of Manila; these were so solid, and equipped with towers,
+and so near the walls, that they were a source of great danger to
+the city if they should fall into an enemy's hands. "I have been
+assured that the friars raised the cry of heresy against M. Arandía,
+and that they talked of nothing less than excommunicating him; but his
+death stopped all that. This zealous governor actually died in 1760,
+before he had effected his project; but his death was not regarded as
+natural." When the English appeared before Manila, Arandía's loss was
+regretted, when it was too late. The English demolished the aforesaid
+churches and their towers, for their own safety.--Eds.
+
+[127] That is, elevated so as to fire over the top of a parapet.--Eds.
+
+[128] This place was afterward occupied (1824?) by "a statue of Carlos
+IV, in bronze, a true work of art, cast in Manila. It was erected in
+recognition of his having ordered the conveyance [to the islands]
+of vaccine virus, transmitted from arm to arm, for which purpose
+exclusively he arranged for the departure of a ship from Méjico, which
+reached Manila on April 15, 1805." (Montero y Vidal, Archipiélago
+filipino, p. 301.) The same writer says (Hist. de Filipinas, ii,
+p. 388): "The benefits produced by vaccination among the natives,
+always so harassed by that pest [of smallpox], were evident," and
+Folgueras made strenuous efforts to secure its propagation throughout
+the country. He also gave orders that the dead should not be interred
+within the churches, a measure which drew upon him hostilities and
+annoyances from the religious." The Plaza Mayor, where the above
+statue stands, is now called Plaza McKinley.--Eds.
+
+[129] And yet the ignorant natives ascribed the pest of cholera,
+which caused such ravages in Manila in 1820, to the poisoning of their
+wells by foreigners. A French physician, Dr. Charles L. Benoit, who
+arrived at Manila at that time, and spent four years there, states,
+in his Observacións sobre el cólera morbo espasmodico (Madrid, 1832)
+that in this belief the Indians, usually so humble and religious,
+then committed innumerable crimes. See account of their massacre of
+foreigners, pp. 39-45, ante.--Eds.
+
+[130] The brethren devote themselves to the care of the sick, and
+perform their duties most honourably and zealously; so much so, that
+the refectory is often supplied with little but rice for their own
+dinners. The other orders are richly endowed, and fare sumptuously--but
+they are more a-la-mode.
+
+[131] These plates are obtained from the shell of the Placuna placenta,
+a mollusk; they are generally used in place of window-glass, and by
+their partial opacity modify the effects of the sun's heat.--Eds.
+
+[132] This would appear a vulgar interpretation of a popular custom;
+but from this charge the writer will be exonerated, when it is known,
+that should a person yawn, he devoutly makes the sign of the cross
+before his mouth, while it continues open, to--keep the devil from
+him! Ex pede elephantem [i.e., "By the foot-print, one recognizes
+the elephant"].
+
+[133] "When the terrible epidemic which Manila had suffered came to an
+end, the municipal council caused a fine cemetery to be constructed in
+the village of San Fernando de Dilao, commonly called Paco." (Montero
+y Vidal, Historia de Filipinas, ii, p. 457.)--Eds.
+
+[134] La Peyrouse, when speaking of the public flagellants in the
+Passion week, did not, I believe, do so; but though superstitious
+enough, this practice is no longer continued in the present day.
+
+[135] "Thank God! I am of a noble family!"--And if they are told,
+"Well, but if you have nothing to eat?" "Me hago frayle," "Well,
+I can be a friar," is the answer.
+
+[136] Le Gentil says (Voyage, ii, pp. 116, 117) that the Jesuits
+decided that the use of chocolate was admissible on fast days,
+consequently these were no mortification to most of the people.--Eds.
+
+[137] "This is no country for an honest man"--a remark quoted, too,
+I think, by Le Gentil.
+
+[138] Cervantes, whose keen but justly merited satire on many of the
+failings of his countrymen, is only equalled by his beautiful eulogies
+on many of their excellencies, has aptly described the composition
+of their colonies in his day.
+
+"To the Indies--the refuge and resource of despairing Spaniards--asylum
+of rebels--protector of homicides--receptacle of gamblers (called by
+some knowing ones)--common decoy for women of loose characters--the
+deceiver of many, and remedy of few."--Novela del Zeloso Estnemeno
+[i.e., "The jealous Estremaduran"].
+
+[139] Andaluces: natives of Andalusia province. Montañeses:
+appellation of the dwellers in the hill-country of Santander province,
+Spain. Serviles (literally "those who are servile or fawning"): a
+political epithet applied to the Monarchists or Absolutists. Liberales:
+the Liberals in politics, much as that term is used at the present
+time. Le Gentil describes (Voyage, ii, p. 109) the clannishness and
+provincialism of the Spaniards in Manila.--Eds.
+
+[140] This is not an isolated opinion; and in corroboration, it will
+be sufficient to mention, that upwards of 3/4ths of all the disposable
+Spanish property in the country has been sent out of it. This fact is
+a volume in itself. Since this was written, two serious commotions
+have taken place, in the latter of which the conspirators obtained
+possession of the city, which was regained by storming. [140-A]
+
+[140-A] Reference is here made to the rebellion incited by Novales in
+1823; see account of it on pp. 47-48, ante.--Eds.
+
+[141] The great length of this document obliges us to summarize
+passages of lesser importance; but as much of the author's exact
+language has been retained as possible.
+
+[142] Bernaldez refers to the massacre of foreigners in 1820, and
+the mutiny under Novales in 1823, both of which are related in the
+first document of this volume.
+
+[143] In the Archivo general de Indias at Sevilla is a MS. map, drawn
+(June 20, 1773) by the government engineer at Manila, Miguel A. Gomez,
+showing "portion of the site on the river of Tanay, indicating the plan
+of the iron-works for casting anchors and artillery, and the shop for
+casting the small iron articles which are called in the Philippine
+archipelago cauas--which are equivalent to kettles, boilers, and
+frying-pans, and which the Chinese or Sangleys manufacture with so
+great skill and dexterity." Gomez estimated that this establishment
+would cost "at least 175,000 pesos, without reckoning the cost of
+the dwelling-houses" for officials, artisans, and laborers.
+
+[144] The native name for the annotto (Bixa orellana), the seeds of
+which produce a yellow substance used for coloring cheese, butter, etc.
+
+[145] Polizon: "a person who embarks by stealth and without a passport,
+in the ships which sail to America." (Dominguez.)
+
+[146] "The association of the Audiencia with the governor began
+in 1527, with Cortes, as the court recognized the impossibility
+of controlling so great a hero by means of a single, and perhaps
+insignificant, man. (Roscher, Spanish Colonial system, Bourne's ed.,
+p. 24, note 5.)
+
+[147] The writer here adds: "This exportation is of very little
+importance in the markets of Asia, where the more usual and cheaper
+beverage for the people is Rak [English, "arrack"], or wine made
+from rice."
+
+[148] In 1853 a pamphlet was published at Madrid, written by Sinibaldo
+de Mas, entitled, Articulo sobre las rentas de Filipinas y los medios
+de aumentarlas," written for the Boletin Oficial of the Treasury
+Department." (Vindel, Catálogo biblioteca filipina, no. 1558.)
+
+[149] "Only since 1843 have the Chinese shops been opened on the same
+terms as those of other foreigners. But there is no doubt that the
+Chinese have been a great boon to the colony. They have had, in the
+main, a civilizing influence on the natives, and have taught them
+many important things: as the working of iron and the manufacture
+of sugar from the juice of the sugar-cane. They have also ever been
+the leaders in commerce and the chief middlemen of the colony; and
+for this reason mainly they have been deemed an unwelcome necessity,
+for, without them, trade would almost be brought to a standstill, and,
+in consequence, labor would suffer and living be rendered dearer to
+every class. By their superior shrewdness and unscrupulous cunning
+they have, on the other hand, excited the hatred of the natives,
+who despise them for their cowardice. Thus, from time to time,
+the feeling against them is very bitter. Another objection against
+the Celestial is that he underbids all competitors, working for
+what others refuse. Furthermore, he spends little, and all that
+he saves he carries to his own country. Their expulsion, however,
+would be as unwise as it is impracticable, and the only remedy that
+meets the case is a proper State-control. The employment of coolie
+labor, notwithstanding, is at present impossible, on account of the
+hatred that the lower-class natives feel toward them. In Manila there
+are at present no less than 40,000 Chinese, while the whole colony
+contains about 100,000. They have their own courts, their guilds,
+and secret societies, which are necessary for their self-protection;
+and they choose representative deputations to represent them in the
+Government." (Lala, Philippine Islands, pp. 104-106.)
+
+Le Gentil says (Voyage, ii, p. 101) of the banishment of the Chinese
+from Manila in 1767 (at which time he was residing there): "I did not
+know any Spaniard in Manila who did not sincerely regret the departure
+of the Chinese, and who did not frankly admit that the Philippines
+would suffer for it, because the Indians are not capable of replacing
+the Chinese.... The Parian was a sort of market, where could be found
+provision of everything necessary for living; and it is not without
+reason that the Spaniards regretted the loss of this laborious people."
+
+[150] "This spirit of greed compelled the Chinese to abandon in
+their internal commerce the gold and silver coins which were in
+general use. The number of those who made counterfeit money, which
+was continually increasing, permitted no other line of conduct;
+and money was no longer coined save in copper. This metal, however,
+having become scarce, in consequence of events which history does not
+record, the shells so well known under the name of 'cauris' [English,
+'cowries'] were mingled with the copper coins; but the government,
+having observed that the people were dissatisfied with so frail
+an article, ordered that the copper utensils throughout the entire
+empire should be given up to the mints. As this ill-judged expedient
+did not furnish resources adequate to the public needs, the government
+caused about four hundred temples of Foé to be demolished, the idols
+in which were melted down. Finally the court paid the magistrates
+and the army partly in copper and partly in paper; but the people
+rebelled against so dangerous innovation, and it became necessary
+to give it up. Since that time, which was three centuries ago, the
+coinage of copper is the only legal one." (Raynal, Établissemens et
+commerce des Européens, i, pp. 641, 642).
+
+[151] Spanish, temporalidades: referring to the bureau in charge of
+the property formerly belonging to the Jesuits.
+
+[152] Thus in text, but evidently a clerical error by Bernaldez's
+amanuensis. A similar discrepancy is seen in the estimate of the
+trader's profits, below.
+
+[153] The Cortes, as first known by the Spaniards, contained three
+divisions, the three estates; the ones called in the three periods
+above-mentioned had but one chamber; the present Cortes contains
+two houses, the senate and the congress or house of deputies or
+representatives. The senate consists of three divisions: senators in
+their own right (the heir presumptive, the grandees, archbishops, etc.;
+life senators appointed by the crown; and those elected by the people,
+half of whom are removable every five years. Members to the lower
+house are elected for five years by electors chosen by the people. No
+Cortes was held from 1713-1789, and from the latter year until 1810.
+
+[154] For a good account of this period in Spain, which was one of
+great confusion, see E. W. Latimer's Spain in the nineteenth century
+(Chicago, 1898, 3d ed.) The machinations of Napoleon and the other
+events leading up to the establishment of the Cortes of 1810-1813
+are well and concisely narrated. See also Hume, Modern Spain (New
+York, 1900).
+
+[155] The latter, indeed, was granted permission (January 4, 1811)
+to go to Veracruz for his health; and on July 22, 1811, permission
+was given to the former to go to the Philippines on private business,
+although he was later forbidden to leave until the return of his
+colleague, as his absence before that time would leave the Philippines
+without representation. The request was renewed on the arrival of
+Reyes (December 6, 1811), and on the latter's assumption of his seat
+(December 9), Perez de Tagle was allowed to leave. On September
+19, 1813, a discourse was pronounced at Manila by José de Vergara,
+"deputy-elect for the province of Manila to the general Cortes,"
+and published in that year at Sampaloc. The election of deputies in
+that year was regulated by a junta composed of Governor Gardoqui,
+Archbishop Juan de Zúñiga, Manuel Díaz Condé, and three others;
+one of their decisions exempted the very poor in the community from
+contributing to the fund raised for paying the traveling and other
+expenses of the deputies to the Cortes. (Vindel, Catálogo biblioteca
+filipina, nos. 1874, 1875.)
+
+[156] Such were the decree of October 5, 1810, confirming the essential
+unity and equality of all parts of the Spanish domain; the abolition of
+the quicksilver monopoly, January 26, 1811; the provisional creation of
+a Consejo de Estado to consist of twenty members (six from Ultramar),
+on January 21, 1812, although the constitution (adopted March 18, 1812)
+called for one with forty members (twelve from Ultramar): the creation
+of the Secretaría del Despacho de la Gobernación de Ultramar (April
+2, 1812), and the establishment of the Tribunal Supremo de Justicia,
+and the suppression of the Consejos de Castilla, Indias, and Hacienda
+(all of them provided for in the constitution); and the suppression
+of the Inquisition (February 22, 1813). The law of November 9, 1813,
+abolishing personal services for Indians and regulating public works,
+seems to have been intended only for America.
+
+[157] February 20, 1812, was the last meeting on the island of León,
+the Cortes assembling on the twenty-fourth at the church of San Felipe
+Neri, at Cádiz.
+
+[158] The method of election for the Cortes of 1813 (decree of May
+23, 1812) provided for a preliminary election board for each colonial
+province consisting of the provincial head, the archbishop, bishop,
+or acting archbishop, the intendant (if there were one), the senior
+alcalde, the senior regidor, the syndic procurator-general, and two
+commoners (these last to be chosen by the others). One representative
+was to be chosen for each 60,000 people. (See the essential clauses of
+this decree in Montero y Vidal, Historia general, ii, pp. 406, 407.) On
+the same day was also decreed the creation of provincial deputations,
+of which one was specified for Manila. In this session of Cortes also,
+the reorganization of the audiencias was decreed, but the Philippine
+representative seems to have taken no part in the debate.
+
+[159] Trouble had arisen over the administration by the board of the
+obras pias which it was usual to loan out to those interested in the
+galleon trade.
+
+[160] These ordinances were unconstitutional because control of the
+hospice was vested in a board headed by the captain-general, while
+by the constitution such organizations were now to be controlled by
+the ayuntamientos and provincial deputations. The despatch regarding
+this matter was sent to the Cortes by the secretary of Ultramar,
+November 27, 1812.
+
+[161] On July 7, 1810, the governor of the Philippines proposed
+the suppression of the galleon, and requested permission for the
+inhabitants of the Philippines to ship goods in Spanish bottoms not
+in excess of 1,000,000 pesos. The suppression was resolved upon by
+the Cortes by article 3 of the decree of October 8, 1811, regarding
+commerce.
+
+[162] This decree (which is given by Montero y Vidal, Historia general,
+li, pp. 412, 413) states that the inhabitants of the Philippines may
+trade in Chinese and other Asiatic goods in private Spanish bottoms
+with the ports of Acapulco and San Blas in Nueva España, under the
+old terms of 500,000 pesos for the outgoing, and 1,000,000 pesos
+for the return voyage. If the port of Acapulco be closed, they may
+trade at Sonsonate. For four years the lower rates of duties granted
+by Cárlos IV by decree of October, 1806, are continued. Boletas,
+or tickets granting lading space, are to be furnished no longer.
+
+[163] In accordance with a royal order of June 17, commanding the
+representatives of the colonies to report the petitions pending, or
+which had not been moved, that had for their object the welfare of the
+colonies, Reyes petitioned the suppression of the Acapulco galleon;
+permission of 1,000,000 pesos for the outgoing, and 2,000,000 pesos for
+the return voyage; unlimited extension of the lower duties conceded
+October 4, 1806; one or two Peruvian ports open to the commerce of
+the islands; that natives of the islands be allowed to export goods in
+Spanish bottoms to any point of the Spanish monarchy free of export and
+import duties; trade on the northwest coast of America with Spaniards;
+and that the permission be conceded to bring back all unsold goods
+(in addition to the amount of imports allowed), on payment to the
+treasury of a 6 per cent duty. The answers to these requests were
+as follows: the Acapulco ship was suppressed by order of April 23,
+1815; permission of export to the value of 750,000 pesos; the ports of
+Callao and Guayaquil thrown open to Philippine trade; traffic with the
+Spaniards on the northwest coast of America; permission to bring back
+unsold goods to the extent of one-third the amount of imports allowed,
+paying ten per cent duty for such excess; and free trade for Philippine
+products at any port of the monarchy in Spanish bottoms for ten years.
+
+[164] On the seventh he took the oath to observe the Constitution
+of 1812; and on the tenth, by a decree ordered the reëstablishment
+of the Secretaría del Despachó de la Gobernación[, the first acts
+of which were the promulgation of the Constitution of 1812, and
+the reëstablishment of all the organisms created by the Cortes of
+1810-1813.
+
+[165] Apparently appointed by the Secretary of Ultramar. Their
+credentials were approved at the third preliminary meeting of July
+5 or 6.
+
+[166] A general decree of October 5, 1820, ordered a uniform and
+general schedule of duties for the Peninsula and Ultramar; but this
+law was modified by another law of December 20, 1821, recognizing the
+impracticability of uniformity of duties for Spain and the colonies,
+and providing that the schedule be uniform except for the differences
+rendered necessary in the provinces of Ultramar.
+
+[167] The secretary of Hacienda considered the privileges of the
+company for the importation of cotton goods as unconstitutional and
+contrary to the prosperity of national manufactures. At the meeting
+of August 18, it developed that the company had transferred its
+monopoly to a foreign merchant of Cádiz. The company was allowed to
+present its argument, but the report of the committees on Commerce
+and Hacienda was adopted. Later the company presented a petition
+requesting the liquidation of the government's indebtedness to it,
+the privilege of selling its stock of cotton goods, and various other
+concessions incident to the closing up of its affairs. This petition,
+sent to the Cortes by the secretary of Hacienda, was referred to the
+committee on Commerce on November 2. On the fifth, a petition was
+presented by the Philippine representatives and Gregorio Gonzales
+Azaolo, of Sevilla, asking that the prohibition of the importation
+of cotton goods should not affect the Philippines until the industry
+was developed or established in those islands. This petition having
+been referred to the committees on Commerce and Hacienda, their
+report on November 8 recommended the opening of the Oriental trade
+to all Spaniards trading in Spanish bottoms. This recommendation was
+embodied in article 3 of the decree of November 9, specifying the
+kinds of goods which Spanish ships trading by the Cape of Good Hope
+could introduce into Spain or Spanish America.
+
+[168] The decrees of the Diarios de las Cortes show no decree of this
+date confirming a previous decree of March 7, 1820, granting exemption
+of duties for ten years on natural and industrial products of the
+Philippines, when imported in Spanish bottoms into the Peninsula,
+as declared by Montero y Vidal. The decree of December 21, 1820,
+providing for the abolition of the monopoly on tobacco and salt
+after March 1, 1821, and providing customs and consumption duties,
+seems not to have affected the Philippines.
+
+[169] In October, 1820, the preliminary board for the election
+of representatives was organized in Manila, but inasmuch as the
+elections were not held until after the Constitution had been
+sworn to in Manila in May, 1821 (and later in the provinces), no
+regularly-elected representatives were present at the second session.
+
+[170] Wrongly called a decree by Montero y Vidal. This order was
+addressed to the Secretary of War in answer to a question raised by
+the Council of War.
+
+[171] The special discussion arose over the item of 50,000 reals for
+missions and a note in the report reflecting on the native clergy in
+the Philippines. Some of the Americans, who were quite fully imbued
+with the free thought of the French philosophical school, declared
+for the suppression of the missionaries (meaning friars), inasmuch as
+they were useless and even harmful. The committee answered this by
+asserting that the missionaries in the Philippines were used by the
+government as civil and political agents, and that they did do much
+good work in their own legitimate line. The passage concerning the
+incapacity of the native clergy was meant to apply to the Philippines
+alone, but if desired it could be removed as it was not essential to
+the report. An American representative moved that the 50,000 reals
+be used in the establishment of normal schools in Ultramar. The
+Philippine representatives seem to have taken no part in the debate
+except that Camus y Herrera moved that the obnoxious clause concerning
+the Filipino clergy be stricken out. The report was accepted as read.
+
+[172] Each university was to have a public library, a drawing school,
+a chemical laboratory, cabinets of physics, natural history, and
+industrial products, another of models of machines, a botanical garden,
+and an experiment farm. The university to be established in Manila was
+to have theological and law courses for the doctorate. Manila was also
+to have a medical school, a school for veterinary medicine, a school
+of fine arts, and commercial and nautical schools. Professorships were
+to be filled by competition, and those for the Philippines were to
+be examined by persons designated by the Subdirection of Studies in
+Mexico. Girls were to be taught to read, write, and cipher; while the
+older female students were to be taught the work suitable to their
+sex. This matter of education for girls was left to the provincial
+deputations.
+
+[173] On the twenty-third there was a discussion as to the legality
+of the substitutes for the representatives of Ultramar being allowed
+to hold over; and it was finally declared that only those for the
+Philippines and Peru could sit during this session.
+
+[174] This exclusion was in accordance with a decision of the committee
+on Credentials handed in February 11, 1822, to the effect that
+government employes did not cease, to be such until their resignations
+were accepted by the government. Posada did not present his credentials
+at the meeting of February 15, declaring that they had been robbed
+with his baggage en route from Cádiz to Madrid. He did present them,
+however, at the next meeting of February 20. At the third and fourth
+preliminary meetings (February 22 and 24) the matter was debated,
+and he was excluded on the grounds of being still a government employe.
+
+[175] Foreman states wrongly (p. 362, ed. of 1906) that seventeen
+deputies were elected and sat during the Cortes of 1820-23, and he
+names eight of them. He may have confused the names of electors with
+those of representatives. The four elected (of whom only three are
+known) were perhaps elected for the districts of the archiepiscopal
+see and the three suffragan sees of the Philippines; although Montero
+y Vidal says that both Sáenz de Vizmanos and Posada were elected from
+Nueva Cáceres.
+
+[176] Although a provincial deputation had been organized in Manila
+in 1822, almost its only act was to petition (April 12, 1823) for
+more missionaries.
+
+[177] Fernando's infant daughter, Isabel II, ascended the throne
+under the regency of her mother María Cristina. Through the efforts
+of the liberals, six important decrees were passed March 24, 1834:
+suppression of the Consejo de Estado, during the minority of the queen;
+suppression of the Consejos de Castilla and de Indias, in whose place
+was established a Tribunal Superior de España é Indias; suppression of
+the Consejo Supremo de Guerra, and in its place the establishment of
+the Tribunal Supremo de Guerra y Marina y de Extranjería; suppression
+of the Consejo Supremo de Hacienda, replacing it by a Tribunal Supremo
+de Hacienda; an order to the Secretary of the Despacho de Gracia y
+Justicia to propose the new organization of the Consejo Real de las
+Ordenes; and the institution of a Consejo Real de España é Indias to
+have general supervision of American and Philippine matters.
+
+[178] The first news of reform and the fact that the new Cortes were
+to be summoned was received unofficially at Manila by a United States
+ship sailing from Cádiz in June, 1834, and reaching Manila toward
+the end of the same year.
+
+[179] No provision was made in the third Cortes for substitute
+representation for Ultramar (except in the decree of August 21, 1836,
+calling a Cortes for October 24 under the rules of the Constitution of
+1812), which is in point with the ignorance manifested throughout this
+period by the officials at Madrid with regard to the Philippines. This
+accounts for the islands having no representation for some of the
+sessions of the Cortes.
+
+[180] Andrés García Camba resided in Manila during 1825-35, and became
+so popular that he was elected a deputy to the Spanish Cortes; he was
+afterward (August, 1837-December, 1838) governor of the Philippines,
+and wrote a book (published at Cádiz, 1839) regarding his experiences
+while holding that office. Himself liberally inclined, he was
+constantly opposed by reactionary influences. Although his name does
+not appear in the pamphlet Filipinas y su representación en Cortes,
+he is generally considered as its author; and he alludes to it in the
+memoir above mentioned. (Vindel, Cat. bib. filip., nos. 1881, 1886.)
+
+[181] Foreman says that Lecaros was a mestizo; and Montero y Vidal
+that he was a Filipino lawyer. The board of electors was mainly
+composed of peninsulars.
+
+[182] Camba proposed (Filipinas y su representación en Cortes,
+1836) a special mode of election to Cortes for the Philippines,
+which was to be by the Manila Ayuntamiento, as that was the only
+political organization in the islands worth mentioning, and was in
+direct contact with affairs. The law to be adopted for Ultramar,
+Camba argued, must take into account the condition of the country and
+the inhabitants. During this session, the Philippine representatives
+presented two petitions to the Secretario, del Despacho de Hacienda,
+asking in one for a moderation of the excessive duties on the
+introduction of Spanish brandy into the Philippines, and in the other
+the sending of few pensioners and subaltern employes to the islands,
+as this was a prejudice to the native Philippine Spaniards. Lecaros
+presented a plan to Mendizábal, the provisional president of the
+Consejo de Ministros, for the suppression of the monopoly on tobacco
+in the Philippines, but Mendizábal took measures to make the monopoly
+more remunerative to the state. See Montero y Vidal, Historia general,
+ii. pp. 554, 555, note.
+
+[183] He wrote Memoria sobre las Islas Filipinas (Valencia, 1842).
+
+[184] July 31, 1837, the new commercial treaty made September 22,
+1836, between the governor of the Philippines and the sultan of Joló
+was referred to the committees on State and Commerce, was reported on
+favorably on October 4, and was accordingly approved on the twelfth
+of October. This treaty stipulated that every three-masted schooner
+porting at Joló with Chinese passengers from Manila was to pay 2,000
+pesos fuertes, and lesser boats in proportion to their size. As the
+most important cargo ever sent to Joló from Manila never exceeded
+2,500 pesos in value, it is hard to see the value of this treaty so
+greatly lauded in Madrid. No Joloan vessels went to Manila. In this
+matter the officials showed a woful ignorance of the Philippines,
+the minister of the navy stating that all vessels stopped at Joló on
+their way to the Philippines. This treaty, as well as the one made
+by the governor of Zamboanga with the chief of Maluso near Basilan,
+only made the Moros bolder in their piracy. See Montero y Vidal,
+Historia general, ii, pp. 557-560.
+
+[185] On May 25, 1869, an amendment was presented by Julián Pellón
+y Rodriguez in the Spanish Cortes demanding that parliamentary
+representation be granted to Filipinas. Among the signers to this
+amendment were Victor Balaguer and Francisco Javier Moya. (Vindel,
+Cat. bib. filip., no. 1883.)
+
+[186] The host was stolen at least three other times in the history
+of the Philippines: once in Camarines; once in Malate; and in 1730
+from the Franciscan convent and church at Maycavayan. See San Antonio,
+Chronicas, i, p. 181.
+
+[187] In 1808, the Manila diocese comprehended the provinces
+and districts of Manila, Bulacan, Batangas, Cavite, La Infanta,
+Laguna, Mindoro, Morong, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Principe, Tarlac and
+Zambales. It had 219 parishes, 24 parish missions, 16 active missions,
+259 parish priests, or missionaries, and 198 native secular priests
+who acted as assistants to the parish priests (who were mainly
+regulars). See the Rept. of the Phil. Com., for 1900, i, p. 132,
+and iv, p. 107.
+
+[188] Foreman, Philippine Islands (N. Y., 1906 ed.), p. 597, note 2.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898,
+Volume 51, 1801-1840, by Various
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57304 ***