diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 4 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-0.txt | 2516 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-0.zip | bin | 50967 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h.zip | bin | 6107531 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/56050-h.htm | 3114 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/cover.jpg | bin | 99442 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i02.jpg | bin | 240063 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i03.jpg | bin | 147159 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i04.jpg | bin | 69084 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i05.jpg | bin | 169078 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i06.jpg | bin | 89280 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i07.jpg | bin | 210876 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i08.jpg | bin | 80077 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i08a.jpg | bin | 66293 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i09.jpg | bin | 123453 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i10.jpg | bin | 235665 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i12.jpg | bin | 218474 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i13.jpg | bin | 43046 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i13a.jpg | bin | 71752 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i14.jpg | bin | 131725 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i14a.jpg | bin | 131852 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i14c.jpg | bin | 119928 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i15.jpg | bin | 35295 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i16.jpg | bin | 78710 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i16a.jpg | bin | 67001 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i17.jpg | bin | 68034 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i18.jpg | bin | 253613 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i18a.jpg | bin | 98558 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i19.jpg | bin | 199854 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i20.jpg | bin | 57067 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i20a.jpg | bin | 184354 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i21.jpg | bin | 228197 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i22.jpg | bin | 208472 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i23.jpg | bin | 7493 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i23a02.jpg | bin | 12547 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i23a03.jpg | bin | 8446 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i23a04.jpg | bin | 6916 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i23a05.jpg | bin | 33882 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i23a06.jpg | bin | 24622 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i23a07.jpg | bin | 22014 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i23a08.jpg | bin | 20839 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i23a09.jpg | bin | 9448 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i23a10.jpg | bin | 33280 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i23a11.jpg | bin | 31104 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i24.jpg | bin | 118793 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i24a.jpg | bin | 28954 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i25.jpg | bin | 112451 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i25b.jpg | bin | 85872 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i26.jpg | bin | 330488 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i27.jpg | bin | 8414 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i28.jpg | bin | 92901 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i28a.jpg | bin | 100343 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i28c.jpg | bin | 87214 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i28e.jpg | bin | 87564 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i28f.jpg | bin | 94946 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i28h.jpg | bin | 91104 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i28i.jpg | bin | 83617 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i28j.jpg | bin | 90152 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i29.jpg | bin | 96985 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i30.jpg | bin | 212996 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i31.jpg | bin | 176808 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i32.jpg | bin | 37441 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i32a.jpg | bin | 104742 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/56050-h/images/i32c.jpg | bin | 87351 -> 0 bytes |
66 files changed, 17 insertions, 5630 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d11aaee --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #56050 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/56050) diff --git a/old/56050-0.txt b/old/56050-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 21b2007..0000000 --- a/old/56050-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2516 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Castillo de San Marcos, by National Park Service - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Castillo de San Marcos - A Guide to Castillo de San Marcos National Monument, Florida - -Author: National Park Service - -Release Date: November 25, 2017 [EBook #56050] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASTILLO DE SAN MARCOS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - Handbook 149 - - - - - Castillo de San Marcos - - - A Guide to Castillo de San Marcos National Monument - Florida - - Produced by the Division of Publications - National Park Service - - U.S. Department of the Interior - Washington, D.C. - - - _Using this Handbook_ - -Castillo de San Marcos National Monument is located in the longest -continuously inhabited community founded by Europeans in the United -States. This handbook tells the intercultural story of the long effort -to build the Castillo and the emergence of a new Nation. The Guide and -Adviser provides a brief guide to Saint Augustine and other related -National Park Service areas in Florida. - - [Illustration: From the air the rationale for the layout of Castillo - de San Marcos is readily apparent: no wall or approach is - unguarded.] - - [Illustration: This map, one of the earliest maps of a city that is - now in the United States, depicts the June 1586 attack on St. - Augustine by Sir Francis Drake. Note, in the middle, the English - troops on Anastasia Island firing across the water on the Spanish - fort.] - - - - - Florida and the Pirates - - -On May 28, 1668, a ship anchored off St. Augustine harbor. It was a -vessel from Veracruz, bringing flour from México. In the town, the drum -sounded the alert for the garrison of 120 men. A launch went out to -identify the newcomer and put the harbor pilot aboard. As it neared the -ship, the crew on the launch hailed the Spaniards lining her gunwale. To -the routine questions came the usual answers: Friends from México—come -aboard! Two shots from the launch told the town the ship had been -identified as friendly, and the seamen warped the launch alongside the -ship. In St. Augustine, the people heard the signal shots and rejoiced. -The soldiers returned their arms to the main guardhouse on the town -plaza. Tomorrow the supplies would come ashore. - -Unknown to the townspeople, when the launch pilot stepped aboard the -supply ship, an alien crew of pirates swarmed out of hiding and leveled -their guns at him and the others. He could do nothing but surrender. - - -Some time after midnight, a corporal was out on the bay fishing when he -heard the sound of many oars pulling across the water. Something was not -right. Desperately he paddled his little craft toward shore. The -pirates, four boatloads of them, were right behind. Twice their shots -found their mark, but he got to the fort where his shouts aroused the -guards. - -At the main guardhouse, a quarter mile from the fort, the sentries heard -the shouting and the gunfire, but before they could respond, the pirates -were upon them, a hundred strong. Out-numbered, the guards ran for the -fort. Gov. Francisco de la Guerra rushed out of his house and, with the -pirates pounding at his heels, joined the race for the fort. Somehow the -garrison was able to beat back several assaults. In the confusion of -darkness, however, the pirates seemed to be everywhere. They destroyed -the weapons they found in the guardhouse and went on to the government -house. Shouting and cursing, they scattered through the narrow streets, -seizing or shooting the frightened, bewildered inhabitants. - -Sgt. Maj. Nicolás Ponce de Léon, the officer responsible for defending -the town, was at home, a sick man, covered with a greasy mercury salve -and weak from the “sweatings” prescribed for his illness. On hearing the -din, he roused himself and rushed to the guardhouse, only to find the -pirates had been there first. He turned to the urgent task of -shepherding his 70 unarmed soldiers and the others—men, women, and -children—into the woods, leaving the pirates in complete possession of -the town. - -By daybreak the little force at the fort had lost five men, but they -believed they had killed 11 pirates and wounded 19 others. Ponce came -from the woods and reinforced the fort with his weaponless men. With -daylight, two other vessels joined the ship from Veracruz. One was St. -Augustine’s own frigate, taken by the raiders near Havana, in which the -pirates had been able to move in Spanish waters without detection. The -other was the pirates’ own craft. All three sailed into the bay, passed -the cannon fire of the fort, anchored just out of range, and landed -their remaining forces. Systematically they began to sack the town; no -structure was neglected. - -That afternoon, the governor sent out a sortie from the fort, but the -leaders were wounded and the party retired. After 20 hours ashore, -however, the pirates were ready to leave anyway, taking their booty, -which probably amounted to only a few thousand pesos, and about 70 -prisoners whom they had seized during the previous night’s rampage. Just -before leaving they ransomed most of their prisoners for meat, water, -and firewood. The local Indians, however, they kept, claiming that the -governor of Jamaica had told them to keep all Indians, blacks, and -mulattoes as slaves, even if they were Spanish freemen. Finally on June -5 the raiders headed out to sea, amused as once again they passed the -thunder of the useless guns in the old wooden fort as the small -community grieved over its 60 dead and gave thanks for the ransomed -prisoners. - -The released prisoners identified the invaders as English and told how -the enemy had carefully sounded the inlet, taken its latitude, and noted -the landmarks. They intended to come back and seize the fort and make it -a base for future operations against Spanish shipping. - - -To the Spaniards the attack on St. Augustine was far more than a pirate -raid. St. Augustine, though isolated and small, was the keystone in the -defense of Florida, a way station on Spain’s great commercial route. -Each year, galleons bearing the proud Iberian banners sailed past the -coral keys and surf-pounded beaches of Florida, following the Gulf -Stream on the way to Cádiz. Each galleon carried a treasure of gold and -silver from the mines of Perú and México—and all Europe knew it. - -A shipload of treasure, dispatched from México by Hernán Cortés in 1522, -never reached the Spanish court. A French corsair attacked the Spanish -ship and the treasure ended up in Paris, not Madrid. Soon, daring -adventurers of all nationalities sailed for the West Indies and Spanish -treasure. Florida’s position on the lifeline connecting Spain with her -colonies gave this sandy peninsula strategic importance. Spain knew that -Florida must be defended to prevent enemies from using the harbors for -preying upon Spanish commerce and to give safe haven to shipwrecked -Spanish mariners. - -The French, ironically, brought the situation to a head in 1564 when -they established Fort Caroline, a colony named for their teenage king, -Charles IX, near the mouth of Florida’s St. Johns River. A year later -Spanish Admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés came to Florida, established -the St. Augustine colony, and forthwith removed the Frenchmen, suspected -of piracy. This small fortified settlement on Florida’s northeast coast -and Havana in Cuba anchored opposite ends of the passage through the -Straits of Florida enabling Spanish ships to pass safely from the Gulf -of Mexico out into the Atlantic. - - [Illustration: Sir Francis Drake’s attack on St. Augustine was part - of the growing hostilities between Spain and England that culminated - in the attack of the Spanish Armada on England two years later. - Drake was also the first sea captain to take his own ship all the - way around the world. Ferdinand Magellan’s ship had made the trip 57 - years earlier, but Magellan had been killed in the Philippines.] - -A typical early fort was San Juan de Pinos, burned by English sailor -Francis Drake in 1586. Drake took the fort’s bronze artillery and a -considerable amount of money. San Juan consisted of a pine stockade -around small buildings for gunpowder storage and quarters. Cannon were -mounted atop a broad platform, or cavalier, so they could fire over the -stockade. Such forts could be built quickly, but they could also be -destroyed easily. If Indian fire arrows, enemy attack, or mutinies -failed, then hurricanes, time, and termites were certain to do the job. -During the first 100 years of Spanish settlement, nine wooden forts one -after another were built at St. Augustine. - - - Spain in the Caribbean, 1717-1748 - - [Illustration: Spain, England, and France vied for the land and - wealth of the New World. This map, while not showing actual - settlement and possession of the land shows what each nation thought - was theirs. Spain’s dominions were more extensive than those of - Britain or France, for the Spaniards were the first to explore and - to begin to claim and settle the land. - -The spice fleet from the Philippines sailed to Acapulco, on Mexico’s -west coast, the goods were hauled overland to Veracruz, and then carried -by ship to Havana. - -Fleets of ships filled with silver, gold, spices, precious woods, and -other products of the New World left Havana for Spain each year. - -The silver fleet from Perú brought the treasure to the isthmus of Panamá -where it was transshipped to Portobelo and then on to Havana via -Cartagena. - -Spanish St. Augustine served as the northernmost outpost of the -Caribbean, watching over the waters of the Gulf stream, Spain’s highway -to Europe.] - - [Illustration: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés (1519-74) was the founder of - St. Augustine and first governor of Florida. He struggled throughout - his life to put St. Augustine on a firm footing, fending off French - efforts to destroy his settlement. The engraving is a copy of a - portrait by Titian that was destroyed in a fire at the end of the - last century.] - -Spain did not yet see the need for an impregnable fort here. After the -English failures at Roanoke Island in North Carolina in 1586-87, the -weak settlement of Jamestown, Virginia, a few years later did not -impress the powerful Council of the Indies in Madrid as a threat to -Spanish interests. Moreover, the Franciscans, by extending the mission -frontier deep into Indian lands, put the Spanish stamp of occupation -upon a vast territory. The fallacy in this thinking lay in -underestimating the colonizing ability of the English and believing that -an Indian friendly to Spain would never become a friend of England. - -The defeat of the powerful Spanish Armada in 1588 was a dramatic -harbinger of things to come; the way was clear for England to extend its -control of the seas. Its great trading companies were active on the -coasts of four continents, and powerful English nobles strove for -possessions beyond the seas. Jamestown, despite its inauspicious -beginning, was soon followed by the settlements in New England and -elsewhere. Between the James River and Spanish Florida stretched a vast, -rich territory too tempting to ignore, and in 1665 Charles II of England -granted a patent for its occupation. The boundaries of the new colony of -Carolina brazenly included some hundred miles or more of -Spanish-occupied land—even St. Augustine itself! - -The signs were clear: The fight for Florida was inevitable. - - -In the middle 1600s at St. Augustine, just south of where the Castillo -now stands, there was a wooden fort. It was almost as large as the -Castillo, but it was a fort only in name. Most of the timbers were -rotten. Smallpox had killed so many Indians that there were not enough -laborers to carry in replacement logs. - -Money to maintain the outposts came from New Spain, for, the government -in Madrid reasoned, the Florida forts protected the commercial routes -from México to Spain. Consequently, officials in México City had to find -the silver to pay the troops and buy the food, clothing, and other -supplies that Florida so desperately needed. Despite the orders from -Madrid, payments from México City were always behind, as Floridians knew -from bitter experience. - -Yet, if ever there was a time to protect Spanish interests in Florida, -it was now. The English had attacked Santo Domingo and captured Jamaica. -The Dutch had been seen in Apalache Bay on Florida’s west coast. As the -corsairs grew bolder, one governor made this appraisal: “In spite of the -great valor with which we would resist, successful defense would be -doubtful” without stronger defenses. - -Proposals for a permanent, stone fort dated back to 1586 after the -discovery of the native shellstone, coquina. For years officials in -Spain, México, and Florida argued about what needed to be done. By 1668 -payments and sufficient supplies of food were eight years behind. The -townspeople and the soldiers lived in poverty and the old wooden fort -was on the verge of falling into the sea. - -The sack of St. Augustine was a blessing in disguise, for it shocked -Spanish officials into action. The governor of Havana lent 1,200 pesos -for masting and rigging St. Augustine’s frigate, thus ensuring the -presidio’s communication with its supply bases. The Viceroy released the -1669 payroll plus money for general repairs, weapons, gunpowder, and -lead for bullets. He also promised 75 men to bring the troop levels to -authorized strength. And St. Augustine was allowed to keep an 18-pounder -bronze cannon that had been salvaged from a shipwreck. This aid—12 -months of life for the colony—totaled at least 110,000 pesos. Included -was the hire of mules for the 75 recruits to ride from México City to -Veracruz. Hiring the animals was easier than finding men, however. -Fifty-one of them arrived at last in 1670; the rest had deserted or -died. Officials in St. Augustine, however, were not sure that the new -troops were particularly loyal to Spanish interests. - -It was Mariana, Queen Regent of Spain, who gave permanent aid to St. -Augustine in three decrees addressed to the viceroy. On March 11, 1669, -she ordered him to pay the Florida funds on time and add a proper amount -for building the fortification proposed by the governor. Next, on April -10, she commanded him to support a full 300-man garrison in Florida -instead of the customary 257 soldiers and 43 missionaries. Finally, on -October 30, she enjoined him to consult with the governor about an -adequate fortification and provide for its construction. - - [Illustration: Billions of sea creatures produced the coquina that - provided the building blocks of the Castillo. Because of the high - water table, the layers of rock were damp when quarried. Once - trimmed and shaped, the rock dried and hardened. During the British - bombardment of 1740, the walls absorbed the impact of the cannon - balls and very little damage was done.] - - - - - Beginning the Castillo - - -To show her commitment to the proposed construction, the Queen Regent -appointed Sgt. Maj. Don Manuel de Cendoya, a veteran of 22 years -service, as successor to Governor Guerra. - -In México City Cendoya followed Queen Mariana’s orders and delivered his -message to the Viceroy, the Marquis de Mancera. Florida’s defenses were -to be strengthened at once with a main castillo at St. Augustine, a -second fort to protect the harbor entrance, and a third to prevent troop -landings. Initial estimates were that the project would cost 30,000 -pesos. At this point came the news of the English settlement at -Charleston, and Cendoya at once suggested a fourth fort at Santa -Catalina. - -The viceroy’s finance council finally decided to allot 12,000 pesos to -begin work on one fort. If suitable progress were made, they would -consider sending 10,000 yearly until completion. The question of -additional forts would be referred to the crown. Cendoya had to be -satisfied with this arrangement and a levy of 17 soldiers. He left for -Florida, making a stop at Havana where he sought skilled workers. There -he also found an engineer, Ignacio Daza. - -On August 8, 1671, a month after Cendoya’s arrival in St. Augustine, the -first worker began to draw pay. By the time the mosquitoes were sluggish -in the cooler fall weather, the quarrymen had opened coquina pits on -Anastasia Island, and the lime burners were building two big kilns just -north of the old fort. The carpenters put up a palm-thatched shelter at -the quarry, built a dozen rafts for ferrying stone, firewood, and oyster -shells for the limekilns across the water. They built boxes, -handbarrows, and carretas—the long, narrow, hauling wagons—as well. The -blacksmith hammered out axes, picks, stonecutters’ hatchets, crowbars, -shovels, spades, hoes, wedges, and nails for the carpenters. The -grindstone screeched as the cutting edge went on the tools. - -Indians at the quarry chopped out the dense thickets of scrub oak and -palmetto, driving out the rattlesnakes and clearing the ground for the -shovelmen to uncover the top layer of coquina. Day after day Diego Díaz -Mejía, the overseer, kept the picks and axes going, cutting deep groves -into the soft yellow stone, while with wedge and bar the workers broke -loose and pried up the blocks—small pieces that a single man could -shoulder, and tremendously heavy cubes two feet thick and twice as long -that six strong men could hardly lift. - - [Illustration: Stone masons were the most skilled and highly paid - laborers who worked on the Castillo.] - -Díaz watched his workers heave the finest stone on the wagons. He sent -the oxen plodding to the wharf at the head of a marshy creek, where the -load of rough stone was carefully balanced on the rafts for ferrying to -the building site. And on the opposite shore of the bay, next to the old -fort, the cache of unhewn stone grew larger daily, and the stonecutters -shaped the soft coquina for the masons. - -In the limekilns, oyster shells glowed white-hot and changed into fine -quality, quicksetting lime. By spring of 1672, there were 4,000 -_fanegas_ (about 7,000 bushels) of lime in the two storehouses and great -quantities of hewn and rough stone. - -Although the real construction had not even started, great obstacles had -already been overcome. Maintaining an adequate work force and skilled -workers was a continual problem. When there should have been 150 men to -keep the 15 artisans working at top speed—50 in the quarries and hauling -stone, 50 for gathering oyster shells and helping at the kilns, and -another 50 for digging foundation trenches, toting the excavation -baskets, and mixing mortar—it was hard to get as many as 100 laborers on -the job. - -Indians from three nations, the Guale (coastal Georgia), Timucua -(Florida east of the Aucilla River), and Apalache (between the Aucilla -and the Apalachicola), were employed. True, they were paid labor, but -some had to travel more than 200 miles to reach the presidio, and many -served unwillingly. In theory each complement of Indian labor served -only a certain length of time; in practice it was not uncommon for the -men to be held long past their assigned time, either through necessity -or carelessness. - -Indians were used as unskilled laborers and paid the lowest wages—one -_real_ (about 20 cents) per day plus corn rations. Most labored at the -monotonous, back-straining work in the quarries. A few were trained as -carpenters and received correspondingly greater wages but never the -equal of what the Europeans earned. One Indian was trained as a -stonecutter and worked on the Castillo for 16 years. - - [Illustration: Great numbers of local Indians carried out the many - heavy-duty tasks that kept this labor-intensive project continually - moving forward.] - -Besides Indian labor, there were a few Spanish workers paid 4 _reales_ -per day, and a number of convicts, either local or from Caribbean ports. -Beginning in 1679 there were seven blacks and mulattoes among the -convicts. Eighteen black slaves belonging to the crown joined the labor -gang in 1687. Convicts and slaves received rations but no wage. A -typical convict might have been a Spaniard caught smuggling English -goods into the colony, who was condemned to six years’ labor on the -fortifications. If he tried to escape, the term was doubled and he faced -the grim prospect of being sent to a fever-infested African presidio to -work. - -The military engineer, Ignacio Daza, was paid the top wage of 3 pesos -(about $4.75) per day. Daza died seven months after coming to Florida, -so the crown paid only the surprisingly small sum of 546 pesos (about -$862) for engineering services in starting the greatest of Spanish -Florida fortifications. - -Of the artisans, there were Lorenzo Lajones, master of construction, and -two master masons, each of whom received the master workman’s wage of 20 -_reales_ (about $4). Seven masons and eight stonecutters at 12 _reales_, -and 12 carpenters whose pay ranged from 6 to 12 _reales_, completed the -ranks of the skilled workers. Later, some of these wages were reduced: -Lajones’ successor as master of construction was paid only 17 _reales_, -the master mason 13, and the stonecutters from 3 to 11 _reales_, with -half of them at the 3- and 4-_real_ level. - -These were few men for the job at hand, and to speed the work along -Governor Cendoya used any prisoner including neighboring Carolinians who -fell into Spanish hands. In 1670, a vessel bound for Charleston, -mistakenly put in at Santa Catalina Mission, the Spanish post near the -Savannah River, and William Carr and John Rivers were taken. A rescue -sloop sent from Charleston protested the Spaniards’ actions, with Joseph -Bailey and John Collins carrying the message from the English. For their -trouble, they were dispatched with Rivers and Carr to St. Augustine to -labor on the fort. - -Three of the prisoners were masons, and their Spanish names—Bernardo -Patricio (for Bernard Fitzpatrick), and Juan Calens (for John Collins), -and Guillermo Car (for William Carr)—were duly written on the payrolls. -Some of these British subjects became permanent residents. Carr, for -instance, embraced first the Catholic faith and then Juana de Contreras, -by whom he fathered eight children. His father-in-law was a corporal, a -circumstance that may have helped Carr enlist as a gunner while also -working as a highly paid stonecutter. - - [Illustration: Spanish silver coins were used throughout the - Caribbean and the British colonies. Often they were cut in two, or - quartered, or even cut into eight pieces, giving rise to our - expression, “two bits, four bits, six bits, a dollar,” bit meaning - the number of pieces of one coin needed to make a dollar. The coins - shown here are a 2-_real_, a 1-_real_, and another 2-_real_ piece. - On the one 2-_real_ coin, note the Chinese characters indicating - that the coin had been used in trade in the Orient. The profile is - that of Charles III, who had died in 1788, though the inscription - says that it is of Charles IV. The diemaker simply changed the date - and added another “I” rather than using the more conventional “IV” - roman numeral designation for 4.] - -The Spaniards were understandably cautious in relying on the loyalty of -foreigners, but actually the new subjects served well. John Collins -especially pleased the officials. He could burn more lime in a week than -others could in twice the time. And as a prisoner he had to be paid only -8 _reales_ instead of the 20 due a master workman. Like Carr, Collins -seemed to like St. Augustine. He rose steadily in the crown’s employ -from master of the kilns to quarrymaster, with dugouts, provisions, and -convicts all in his charge. When pirates landed on Anastasia in 1683 and -marched on the city, Carr made sure that all crown property in the -quarry was moved to safety. Royal recognition honored his loyalty and -years of service. - -A few years later 11 Englishmen were captured several miles north of St. -Augustine. All were committed to the labor gang—except Andrew Ransom. He -was to be garroted. On the appointed day Ransom ascended the scaffold. -The executioner put the rope collar about his neck. The screw was turned -6 times—and the rope broke! Ransom breathed again. - -While the onlookers marveled, the friars took the incident as an act of -God and led Ransom to sanctuary in the parish church. Word reached the -governor that this man was an ingenious fellow, an artillerist, a -carpenter, and what was most remarkable, a maker of “artificial -fires”—fire bombs. Ransom was offered his life if he would put his -talents to use at the Castillo. He agreed and, like Collins, was -exceedingly helpful. Twelve years later, church authorities finally -agreed that the sanctuary granted by the parish pastor was valid. At -last Ransom was free of the garrote. - -All told, between 100 and 150 workers on the construction crew labored -in those first days of feverish preparations. They, along with some 500 -others—including about 100 soldiers in the garrison, a few Franciscan -friars, a dozen mariners, and the townspeople—had to be fed. When -supplies from México did not come, getting food was even harder than -finding workers, especially since the coastal soil at St. Augustine -yielded poorly to 17th-century agricultural methods. - -Of the crops grown at St. Augustine, Indian corn was the staple. Most of -the planting, cultivating, and harvesting of extensive fields near the -town was done by Indians. At times as many as 300 Indians, including -those working on the fortification, served the crown at the presidio. To -make the food, whether grown locally or shipped in from México, go as -far as possible, it was rationed: 3 pounds daily until 1679, then 2½ -pounds until 1684, then 2 pounds until 1687, and finally 2½ again. -Convicts also got corn if flour was not on hand, and they also received -a meat ration. Fresh meat was rather scarce, but the waters teemed with -fish and shellfish. A paid fisherman kept the men supplied. - -Garden vegetables were few. Squash grew well in the sandy soil, as did -beans and sweet potatoes, citron, pomegranates, figs, and oranges. And -of course there were onions and garlic. But St. Augustine was never -self-supporting. After a century of existence, it still depended for its -very life upon supplies from México. - -As the long, hot days of the second summer shortened into fall, Governor -Cendoya saw that after a year of gathering men and materials, he was -ready to start building. - -Daza and the governor decided to construct the Castillo on the west -shore of the bay just north of the old fort. It was a site that would -take advantage of every natural feature for the best possible defensive -position. The new fort, they decided, would be similar, though somewhat -larger. In line with the more recent ideas, Daza recommended a slight -lengthening of the bastions. All around the castillo they planned a -broad, deep moat and beyond the moat, a high palisade on the three land -sides. - -It was a simple and unpretentious plan, but a good one. Daza, schooled -in the Italian-Spanish principles of fortification that grew out of the -16th-century designs of Franceso de Marchi, was clearly a practical man. -His plan called for a “regular” fort—that is, a symmetrical structure. -Basically it was a square with a bastion at each corner. Equally strong -on all sides, this design was ideal for Florida’s low, flat terrain. - - [Illustration: This document is the official report to government - officials in Madrid that ground had been broken for the Castillo. - “Today, Sunday, about four in the afternoon, the second of October - 1672 ... Don Manuel de Cendoya, Governor and Captain General of - these provinces for Her Majesty ... with spade in hand ... began the - foundation trenches for construction of the Castillo,” the document - states.] - -About four o’clock Sunday afternoon, October 2, 1672, Governor Cendoya -walked to a likely looking spot between the strings marking out the -lines of the new fortification and thrust a spade into the earth, as -Juan Moreno y Segovia, reported the ground breaking ceremonies for Queen -Mariana. - -Little more than a month later on Wednesday, November 9, Cendoya laid -the first stone of the foundation. The people of St. Augustine must have -wept for joy. All were glad and proud, the aged soldiers who had given a -lifetime of service to the crown, the four orphans whose father had died -in the pirate raid a few years earlier, the widows and their children, -the craftsmen, the workers, and the royal officials. But none could have -been more pleased or proud than Don Manuel de Cendoya. He of all the -Florida governors had the honor to begin the first permanent Florida -fortification. - -Laying the foundations was not easy, for the soil was sandy and low and -as winter came the Indians were struck by _El Contagio_—a smallpox -epidemic. The laboring force dwindled to nothing. The governor asked the -crown to have Havana send 30 slaves. Meanwhile, Cendoya himself and his -soldiers took to the shovels. As they dug a trench some 17 feet wide and -5 feet deep, the masons came in and laid two courses of heavy stones -directly on the hard-packed sand bottom for the foundation. The work was -slow, for high tide flooded the trenches. - -About 1½ feet inside the toe of this broad 2-foot-high foundation, the -masons stretched a line marking the scarp or curtain, a wall that would -gradually taper upward from a 13-foot base to about 9 feet at its top, -20 feet above the foundation. In the 12 months that followed, the north, -south, and east walls rose steadily. By midsummer of 1673 the east side -was 12 feet high, and the presidio was jubilant over the news that the -Viceroy was sending even more money. - -This good news was tempered by the viceroy’s assertion that he would -release no more money for the work without a direct order from the -crown. Cendoya had already asked the queen to raise the allowance to -16,000 pesos a year so the construction could be finished in four years. -For, as he put it, the English menace at Charleston brooked no delay. -The English were said to be outfitting ships for an invasion. - -Gradually, however, construction slowed. In 1673 Cendoya and Daza died -within a few days of one another. The governor’s mantle fell upon Major -Ponce, in whom the local Spaniards had little confidence. - -Trouble beset Ponce on every side. The viceroy was reluctant to part -with money for this project despite evidence that English strength and -influence was increasing daily, especially among the Indians. Shortly -after Ponce took control, a terrific storm hit the city. High tides -undermined houses, flooded fields and gardens, and polluted the wells. -Sickness took its toll. The old wooden fort was totally ruined. Waves -washed out a bastion, causing it to collapse under the weight of its -guns. The other seaward bastion and the palisade were also breached in -several places. - -Then in the spring of 1675 when another provision ship was lost, Ponce -had to lead a group of workers on a long march into Timucua to fetch -provisions from the Indians. Only a few masons were left to carry on the -work at the Castillo. - -Despite all these problems, Ponce made progress. The north curtain was -completed and the east and south were well underway. But looking west -the soldiers could see only open country. - -On May 3, 1675, the long-awaited supply ship from México safely arrived. -Among its few passengers was a new governor for Florida, Sgt. Maj. Don -Pablo de Hita Salazar, a hard-bitten veteran of campaigns in Europe, and -most recently governor of Veracruz. Surely it was because of his -reputation as a soldier that he was assigned to Florida. Besides -continuing the work on the fort he was ordered to “dislocate” the -Charleston settlement. Led to believe the viceroy would help in the -difficult task ahead, Hita, in fact, found that official singularly -reluctant. - -At St. Augustine, the work had been dragging, but Hita made some -positive points in writing the crown: “Although I have seen many -castillos of consequence and reputation in the form of its plan, this -one is not surpassed by any of those of greater character.” Furthermore, -he endorsed the statement of the royal officials, who were eager to -point out the brighter side of the picture: “If it had to be built in -another place than St. Augustine it would cost a double amount because -there will not be the advantage of having the laborers, at a _real_ of -wages each day, with such meagre sustenance as three pounds of maize, -nor will the overseers and artisans work in other places with such -little salaries ... nor will the stone, lime, and other materials be -found so close at hand and with the convenience there is in this -presidio.” - -So much money—34,298 pesos—had been spent on the fort, and it was not -yet finished, so it was important to tell the authorities the positive -benefits of this project, for at this point the old stockade was a ruin -and the new one was unusable. Reports from English deserters told them -that Charleston, less than 215 miles to the north, was well defended by -a stockade and 20 cannon. - -Using characteristic realism, energy, and enthusiasm that would have -done credit to a much younger man, Don Pablo set about making his own -fortification defensible. The bastion of San Carlos—at the northeast -corner of the Castillo—was the nearest to completion. Hita ordered it -finished so that cannon could be mounted on its rampart. - -While the masons were busy at that work, he took his soldiers and razed -the old fort. The best of its wood went into a barrier across the open -west side of the Castillo. In 15 days they built a 12-foot-high -earthwork with two half-bastions, faced with a veneer of stone and -fronted by a moat 14 feet wide and 10 feet deep. At last the garrison -had four walls for protection. - -Next the powder magazine in the gorge of San Carlos was completed and a -ramp laid over it to give access to the rampart above. The three -curtains rose to their full height of 20 feet. At the southeast corner -the workers dumped hundreds of baskets of sand and rubble into the void -formed by the walls of San Agustin bastion and filled it to the 20-foot -level. - -Both carpenters and masons worked on the temporary buildings and -finished a little powder magazine near the north curtain. A -timber-framed coquina structure, partitioned into guardhouse, -lieutenant’s quarters, armory, and provision magazine, took shape along -the west wall. Finally, a few of the guns from the old fort were mounted -in San Carlos and San Agustin bastions and along the west front. After -three years of work, the Castillo was a defense at last. - - [Illustration: Practically every phase of construction is shown - here: ferrying the newly-quarried stones across from Anastasia - Island, hauling them to the site, cutting and shaping the stones, - mixing mortar, using oxen to hoist a load of stones to the work - area, and setting the stones in place. Overseeing all this and - reviewing the plans are the engineer and master mason.] - - [Illustration: Archeology, in one of its functions, provides us with - glimpses into the life of days gone by. The three bone buttons were - found in and around the Castillo. The light-colored, smooth button - with one hole was found in a sentry box. Perhaps a coat caught on - the entry way and the button tore off, never to be found by the - owner? The brass button is from a 19th-century Spanish uniform.] - -And now Governor Hita’s first admiration for its design vanished. The -Castillo, he said, was too massive. Surely no one would ever besiege it -formally. Rather, the danger lay in a blockade of the harbor or -occupation of Anastasia Island, actions that would cut the presidio’s -lifeline. The San Carlos bastion was too high for effective fire on the -inlet or to sweep Anastasia. He argued that the Castillo, including the -parapet, should be held to a total height of only 20 feet and -supplemented by a 6-gun redoubt directly facing the inlet. - -Royal officials strenuously opposed the governor’s attempts to change -Daza’s plan. They wrote the crown of Hita’s desire to tear finished -walls down to the level he thought proper. - -In Hita’s view the west wall, though temporary, was adequate. Therefore -he would defer the permanent wall and start instead on the permanent -guardroom, quarters, ravelin, and moat. Royal officials insisted, -however, that since the west wall was nothing but a half-rotten fence -and a mound of earth faced with stone, all the walls must be completed -as soon as possible. - -In the hope that the crown would agree to lower the walls, Hita let the -work lag on the two seaward bastions while he began the west wall and -bastions. Construction continued despite trouble with the Choctaws, -despite the worrisome impossibility of driving out the Carolina -settlers, despite the pirate raid on the port of Apalache in the west, -and the ever-present fear of invasion. Lorenzo Lajones, the master of -construction, died, but still the work went on. Even after the viceroy’s -10,000 pesos were spent, work continued with money diverted from the -troop payroll. As a last resort, people gave what they could out of -their own poverty. When these gifts were gone, the scrape of the trowel -ceased and the hammer and axe were laid aside. Construction stopped on -the last day of 1677. - -At the same time, the supply vessel bringing desperately needed -provisions and clothing from México arrived, only to be lost on a sand -bar right in St. Augustine harbor. It was a heartbreaking loss. Hita -became disconsolate. The help he begged from Havana never came, and for -four years his reports to the viceroy were ignored. Old, discouraged, -and sick, Hita wrote the crown that he was “without human recourse” in -this remote province. Perhaps the final blow to his pride was a terse -order from the crown to stick strictly to Daza’s plan for the Castillo. - -Yet the old warrior did not give up. Eventually the viceroy released -5,000 more pesos, and after 20 months of idleness construction resumed -on August 29, 1679. As soon as Hita left his sickbed he was back at the -fort, impatient with the snail’s pace of progress under a new master of -construction, Juan Márquez Molina from Havana, whose sharp-eyed -inspections found stones missing from their courses and some of the -walls too thin. - -The royal officials, always on hand to make sure the governor followed -the crown’s directives to the letter, blamed the deficiencies on Hita, -“who has trod this fort down without knowledge of the art of -fortification.” With another 5,000 pesos plus the masons due to arrive -from Havana, said the old man in rebuttal, “I promise to leave the work -in very good condition.” Before he could make good on that promise, Sgt. -Maj. Don Juan Márquez Cabrera arrived at the end of November 1680 to -take over the reins of government. - -So, half apologizing for his own little knowledge of “architecture and -geometry,” Hita left the trials and tribulations of this frontier -province to his more youthful successor. - -Actually, Hita had done a great deal. Within six weeks after his arrival -he had made the Castillo defensible against any but an overwhelming -force. During the rest of his 5½-year term he brought the walls up to -where they were ready for the parapet builders, despite one obstacle -after another. In fact, the parapet on San Carlos bastion was almost -complete, with embrasures for the artillery and firing steps for the -musketeers. The only low part of the work was the San Pablo bastion, -where the level had been miscalculated. The sally port had its -drawbridge and iron-bound portal, and another heavy door closed the -postern in the north curtain. Permanent rooms that would go along the -curtain walls were still only plans, but in a temporary building -centered in the courtyard were a guardroom and storeroom, and a little -chapel stood near the postern in the shadow of the north curtain. - - [Illustration: These bottles, dating from the 19th-century American - presence in St. Augustine, attest to the continuity of life. The - shells on the stoneware flask indicate that it has been in saltwater - for some time. The gold and tan bottle originally held ginger beer, - a popular drink in the mid-1800s. The green bottle is stamped - “Rumford Chemical Works” of Rumford, Rhode Island, on the shoulder.] - - - Saint Augustine - - Although Saint Augustine was primarily a military outpost intended to - protect Spain’s dominion over Florida and the sea route of its - treasure fleets, Saint Augustine also became a viable community as - well, home to the settler-soldiers and their families. Except for the - Castillo, which was finished in 1695, hardly any structure survives - from Saint Augustine’s first 150 years. Archeological investigations - show that almost all the earliest dwellings were small, crude - structures made of local materials with thatched roofs and bare, dirt - floors; coquina, the stone used in building the fort was not used for - homes until 1690. The ordinary wear and tear of weather and time - ensured that none of these early structures lasted. - - Archeology can tell us about the lives of the people who lived in - these houses, for more than 1,000 objects and pieces and bits of - pottery dating to the 16th century have been found. Most of them are - from local Indian sources and corroborate written records that show - that by 1600 almost 25 percent of the soldiers had taken Indian wives - because few Spanish women initially came to Florida. Besides using - their local ceramics, the Indian women introduced New World foods to - their families and into the Spanish diet, creating something that was - neither wholly Spanish nor wholly Indian. - - [Illustration: The Oldest House Museum] - - [Illustration: View in St. George Street] - -The town itself was laid out according to ordinances dictated by the -Spanish government in 1563, resulting in a carefully planned community -with houses fronting directly on standard-width streets with gardens in -the rear or at the side. This showed clearly that Spain intended St. -Augustine to be a permanent settlement, not a mere outpost on the -fringes of empire. In the 18th century, indeed, it had become a vibrant -community that numbered almost 3,000 persons when the garrison and all -inhabitants withdrew after Florida became British in 1763. - -The community and the people who lived in it were a mixture of -influences showing graphically how quickly Spaniards adapted to the New -World, using its materials, changing patterns that they had brought from -their homeland to meet new conditions, and creating a society that -simulated, but did not mirror, what they had left behind. Saint -Augustine was the beginning of a new world for those who came here in -1565. - - [Illustration: The map, based on the surveys of Juan de Solís, was - drawn in 1764, a year after the British took control of Florida. - English names have already been given to the town’s features. - Somehow Fort St. Mark, a translation of Castillo de San Marcos, does - not have the same ring.] - -The new man, Major Juan Márquez Cabrera, formerly governor of Honduras, -checked the Castillo work carefully with the construction master. Those -long years without an engineer had left them a heritage of -mistakes—skimpy foundations, levels miscalculated—that had to be set -right. From Havana came a military engineer, Ensign Don Juan de Císcara. -During his brief stay he gave valuable guidance for continuing the work, -built the ramp to San Pablo bastion, and laid foundations for the -ravelin and its moat wall. - -The 1680s were turbulent years. In 1682, the year the ravelin was -finished, a dozen or so pirate craft in the Straits of Florida seized -numerous Spanish prizes, including the Florida frigate on its way to -Veracruz. They raided Mosquito Inlet, only 60 miles south of St. -Augustine. In the west, pirates struck Fort San Marcos de Apalache and -even went up the San Martín (Suwanee) River to rob cattle ranches in -Timucua. - -Work on the Castillo fell further and further behind schedule. Márquez -appealed to the curate for dispensation to work on Sundays and holy -days. Because of a history of bad relations with Márquez, the request -was refused. Márquez appealed to higher authorities. When approval came, -however, it was too late, for invasion came first. - -On March 30, 1683, English corsairs landed a short way south of the -_Centinela de Matanzas_, the watchtower, at Matanzas Inlet near the -south end of Anastasia Island and about 14 miles from St. Augustine. -Under cover of darkness, a few of the raiders came up behind the tower -and surprised the sentries. - -The march on St. Augustine began the next day. Fortunately a soldier -from St. Augustine happened by Matanzas and saw the motley band. -Posthaste he warned the governor, who sent Capt. Antonio de Argüelles -with 30 musketeers to meet them on Anastasia. A mile from the presidio -the pirates walked into the captain’s ambush. After exchanging a few -shots—one of which lodged in Argüelles’ leg—the Englishmen beat a hasty -retreat down the island to their boats. They sailed to St. Augustine and -anchored at the inlet in plain sight of the unfinished Castillo. - -Márquez, his soldiers, and the townspeople worked day and night to -strengthen the Castillo. Missing parapets and a firing step were -improvised from dry stone. Expecting the worst, everybody crowded into -the fort. But the corsairs, looking at the stone fort and nursing their -wounds, decided to sail on. - -After this scare, the Castillo crew worked with renewed zeal. By -mid-1683 they had completed the San Agustín and San Pablo bastions. -Governor Márquez sent the crown a wooden model to show what had been -done. - -This was progress made in the face of privation—hunger that made the -people demand of Márquez that he buy supplies from a stray Dutch trader -from New York. It was unlawful, but the people had to eat. Imagine the -joy in the presidio soon afterward when two subsidy payments came at one -time! Márquez gave the soldiers two years’ back pay and had enough -provisions on hand for 14 months. The 27 guns of the presidio, from the -iron 2-pounder to the 40-pounder bronze, all had their gunner’s ladle, -rammer, sponge, and wormer, along with plenty of powder and shot. There -was also an alarm bell in San Carlos bastion. - -By August 1684 Governor Márquez started on the fort rooms and finished -them the next spring. Courtyard walls paralleled the four curtains, and -foot-square beams spanned the distance between them. Laid over these -great beams were 3-inch planks, supporting a slab roof of tabby masonry. -On the north were the powder magazine and two big storerooms. Quarters -were along the west curtain, guardroom and chapel on the south, and -rooms on the east included a latrine and prison. Altogether there were -more than 20 rooms. - -The only major work yet to do was beyond the walls. The surrounding -moat, 40 feet wide, needed to be deepened, for only part of the moat -wall was up to its full 8-foot depth. In fact, of the outworks only the -ravelin was finished. - -With the fortification this far along, Governor Márquez could give more -attention to other business, such as Lord Cardross’ Scottish colony at -Port Royal, South Carolina. This was, in the Spanish view, a new and -obnoxious settlement that encouraged heathen Indians to raid mission -Indians. Furthermore, it was in land recognized as Spanish even by the -English monarch. - -So in September 1686, Márquez sent Captain Alejandro Tomás de Léon, with -orders to destroy the colony, which he did. He then sacked and burned -Governor Joseph Morton’s plantation on Edisto Island. - - [Illustration: This cannon tube is typical of most 18th-century guns - and bears the cipher of Carlos III, showing it to be Spanish.] - - - The Castillo - - [Illustration: This bird’s-eye view of Castillo de San Marcos shows - how it is laid out and why. The fort was located at the north end of - Saint Augustine and on the water for defensive reasons. The moat - protected it on four sides, and the Matanzas River lent additional - protection as well. The only entrance was at the point closest to - the town, so the inhabitants could quickly go to the fort if danger - threatened. The fort was designed, too, so that every wall could be - seen from some vantage point inside the Castillo. No attacking force - could sneak up to the very walls without the defenders seeing them. - The original Castillo was simply the exterior walls. Parallel to - them were the inner, or courtyard, walls, built also of stone. Beams - spanned the space between exterior and inner walls and held up - platforms upon which guns sat aimed at the surrounding countryside - or out over the water. Such a structure offered scant bombproof - defense against incoming projectiles. And the wooden beams were - subject to rot in the humid, subtropical air. - -Bastions - -Each corner of the fort is protected by a diamond-shaped bastion. From -the bastion the adjacent walls could be protected from an attacking -force, and in conjunction with the neighboring bastions a deadly -crossfire could be turned on any force that got so close. - -Guard Rooms - -St. Augustine was a garrison town and no one lived inside the Castillo. -When soldiers were on guard duty—usually a period of 24 hours—they slept -and prepared their meals in these rooms. - -Storage Rooms - -Most of the rooms around the central courtyard were used for storage. -They were stockpiled with gunpowder, ammunition, weapons, lumber, tools, -and food, such as beans, rice, flour, and corn, that could be used in -time of siege.] - - [Illustration: Work began on stone vaults in 1738 to solve these - problems. First, carpenters built wooden forms that supported the - stone until all pieces of the arch were in place. As the form was - removed, other workers began dumping sand, rubble, earth—anything to - build up the level—into the spaces above the arches. Over this a - cement-like mixture of sand and coquina was placed and tamped down - and built up in stages until the desired height was reached. The - result was a wide gun platform on top that would support the - heaviest guns and provide bombproof spaces beneath.] - -Next they set course for Charleston but again, as had happened in 1670, -a storm blew them away from the hated English colony. Leon’s vessel, the -_Rosario_, was lost, and he along with it. Another ship was driven -aground, and the last of the little armada limped back to St. Augustine. - -Actually the real contest for the southeast was in the backcountry where -English traders operated. Governor Márquez sent soldiers and -missionaries from St. Augustine to the Apalachecola nation in western -Georgia. For the Spaniards, however, it was a losing fight—an exciting, -exasperating struggle of diplomacy and intrigue, trade and cupidity, war -and religion, slavery and death. - -Captain of cuirassiers Diego de Quiroga y Losada assumed the -governorship on August 21, 1687, after Márquez fled to Cuba in April. -That same day he stopped work on the Castillo because there was no way -to feed the workers. These troubles and the certainty of reprisals from -the Carolinians sent Capt. Juan de Ayala Escobar directly to Spain for -help. He came back with 80 soldiers, the money for maintaining them, and -even a Negro slave to help in the fields. The black man, one of a dozen -Ayala had hoped to deliver, was a much-needed addition to the colony, -and Captain Ayala was welcomed back to St. Augustine with rejoicing “for -his good diligence.” - -Soon there was more black labor for both fields and fortifications. From -the Carolina plantations, an occasional slave would slip away and move -southward along the waterways. In 1687 a small boat loaded with nine -runaways made its way to St. Augustine. The men found work to do and the -governor took the two women into his household as servants. It was a -fairly happy arrangement: the slaves worked well and soon asked for -Catholic baptism. - -A few months later, William Dunlop came from Charleston in search of -them. Governor Quiroga, reluctant to surrender converted slaves, offered -to buy them for the Spanish crown. Dunlop agreed to the sale, even -though the governor was as usual short of cash and had given him a -promissory note. To seal the bargain, Dunlop gave one of the slaves, a -baby girl, her freedom. Later the crown liberated the others. - -This incident resulted in a knotty problem. First, commerce with -Carolina, as an English colony, was illegal. Secondly, the crown could -not buy freedom for every runaway that came to Florida, as more and more -Carolina blacks left their English masters, seeking refuge. The slave -issue made any hope of amicable relations between the Spanish and -English colonists impossible. Eventually the Spaniards decreed freedom -for all Carolina slaves coming to Florida, and the governor established -a fortified village—Gracia Real de Mose—for them hardly more than a -cannon shot from the Castillo. - -Construction work on the Castillo resumed in the spring of 1688, after a -shipment of corn came from Apalache. In Havana Governor Quiroga bought -for 137 pesos a stone bearing the royal arms to be set into the wall -over the gate. At this time, too, the little town entered its “stone -age,” for as surplus materials from the crown quarries became available, -masonry buildings gradually took the place of the board-and-thatch -housing that had been traditional here since the founding. - -Until the outworks could be finished, the Castillo was vulnerable to -siege guns and scaling ladders. Nevertheless it was impossible to push -the heavy work of quarrying, lumbering, and hauling at this crucial -time. There were too many other pressures. Belatedly trying to -counteract English gains and strengthen their own ties with the Indians, -the Spaniards built a fort in the Apalachecola country. Unfortunately -the soldiers had to be pulled back to St. Augustine when Spain declared -war on France in 1689. - -This time Spain and England were allies. Yet Governor Quiroga wondered -at the presence of English vessels off both northern and southern -coasts. As a bit of insurance he wrote a letter telling of a strength -far beyond what he had, in the hope that if an English ship would -capture the letter they would not know of St. Augustine’s weakness. For -again the supply situation was critical, and swarms of French corsairs -infested the waters between Florida and Havana. Two provision vessels -were lost in the Keys and a third fell into French hands. Until food -eventually came in from Havana and Campeche, the soldiers had to live on -handouts from the townspeople. - - [Illustration: In the royal arms of Spain, the lions stand for the - province of León and the castles for the province of Castile. The - shield is surrounded by the chain of the Order of the Golden Fleece, - a knightly order founded in 1430, of which the Spanish monarch was - grand master. The story of the Golden Fleece recalls the courageous - exploits in the ancient Greek myth of Jason and the Argonauts.] - - - The Drawbridge - - [Illustration: The inner workings of the Castillo drawbridge. - -Pulling up the drawbridge was like locking the door. Once it was pulled -up flush against the walls and the portcullis—the heavy grating made of -solid yellow pine—rolled shut, no one could get into the fort. To raise -the bridge, trapdoors were removed so that the counterweights could -descend into the pit. A windlass also lay beneath this trapdoor. -Soldiers inserted bars into holes bored into the windlass and rotated -it, causing the lifting drums to revolve. The chains, attached to the -far end of the bridge, pulled the bridge up as the chains turned on the -lifting drums. The counterweights helped neutralize the weight of the -bridge so that three soldiers were able to lift its great -weight—approximately 1,900 pounds. When the bridge was in the upright -position, the soldiers then rolled the portcullis shut behind them, and -secured it. This was done every night or in time of danger.] - -To lessen the chances of famine in the future, Florida officials -resolved to plant great fields of corn nearby. And where was better than -the broad clearings around the fort? Acres of waving corn soon covered -the land almost up to the moat. When the crown heard of these plantings, -back to Florida came a royal order banning corn fields within a musket -shot of the Castillo. A whole army could hide in the tall corn without -being seen by the sentries! - - [Illustration: The Castillo drawbridge.] - -A new governor, Don Laureano de Torres y Ayala, arrived in 1693. At the -outset he had to deal with hostilities between St. Augustine and -Charleston—hostilities that mocked the Spanish-English alliance in -Europe. - -More importantly, however, to Governor Torres belongs the credit for -completing Castillo de San Marcos. Torres saw the last stones go into -place for the water battery—bright yellow coquina that was in contrast -to weathered masonry almost a quarter of a century old. In August 1695 -the workmen finally moved out of the Castillo to another job: a seawall -that would keep storm tides out of the city. - -The pile of stone on which Cendoya had planned to spend some 70,000 -pesos and which Hita had estimated would cost a good 80,000 if built -elsewhere, ended up costing at least 138,375 pesos, a tremendous sum -impossible to translate into today’s money. But more than the money, it -was the blood, sweat, and hardship of the Florida soldier that paid the -cost. For the funds came out of money never paid. Let the Castillo be -his monument! - -And what did completion of this citadel mean? Only a year later, -soldiers gaunt with hunger slipped into the church and left an unsigned -warning for the governor: If the enemy came, they intended to surrender, -for they were starving. - - [Illustration: Weapons of the 17th and 18th centuries may seem crude - and primitive to a late-20th-century observer, but they could rain - death and destruction on any foe. See the feature on Ordnance, pages - 44-45, for more details.] - - - - - Defending San Marcos - - -The test of the Castillo’s strength was not long in coming. Relations -with France had become peaceful, but incursions by the English-led -Indians kept the backcountry inflamed. As tensions increased, Gov. José -de Zúñiga y Cerda looked at the St. Augustine defenses with an -experienced eye. Zúñiga knew, after a military career spanning 28 years, -that strong walls were not enough. The Castillo’s guns were ancient and -obsolete—many of them unserviceable. The powder from México so fouled -the gun barrels that after “four shots, the Ball would not go in the -Cannon.” Arquebuses, muskets, powder, and shot were in short supply. - -Once again Captain Ayala sailed directly to Spain to ask for aid. It was -a race against time, for the War of the Spanish Succession with France -and Spain allied against England had broken out. Gov. James Moore of -Carolina lost no time moving against St. Augustine in 1702. If he could -capture the Castillo, he would clap an English lock on the Straits of -Florida and forestall a possible Spanish-French attack on Charleston. - -On the way south, Moore’s forces destroyed the Franciscan missions in -the Guale country. At St. Augustine they avoided the Castillo and -occupied the town, whose inhabitants had fled to the fort. South and -west of its walls, where the town approached the fort, the Spaniards -burned many structures that could have hidden the enemy advance. - -Moore’s 500 Englishmen and 300 Indians vastly outnumbered the 230 -soldiers and 180 Indians and Negroes in the Castillo’s garrison, but -Moore was ill-equipped to besiege the Castillo. He settled down to await -the arrival of more artillery from Jamaica, and thus matters stood when -four Spanish men-of-war arrived and blocked the harbor entrance, -bottling up Moore’s fleet of eight small vessels. Moore burned his -ships, left most of his supplies, and retreated overland to the St. -Johns River. He left St. Augustine in ashes, but the Castillo and its -people survived. - -The ease with which the English had taken and held the city for almost -two months made it clear that more defenses were needed. Moreover, -English and Indian obliteration of the missions in Apalache, Timucua, -and Guale had reduced Spanish control to the tiny area directly under -the Castillo guns. - -In the next two decades strong earthworks and palisades, buttressed at -strategic points with redoubts, made St. Augustine a walled town, secure -as long as there were enough soldiers to man the walls. But in those -dark days who could be sure of tomorrow? In 1712 came _La Gran -Hambre_—the Great Hunger—when starving people even ate the dogs and -cats. - -At last the war ended in 1714. The threat to St. Augustine lessened, but -it was an uneasy kind of peace with many “incidents.” In 1728 Col. -William Palmer of Carolina marched against the presidio. The grim walls -of the fort, the readiness of the heavy guns, and the needle-sharp -points of the yucca plants lining the palisades were a powerful -deterrent. Palmer “refrained” from taking the town. For their part, the -Spaniards fired their guns, but made no sorties. - -Palmer’s bold foray to the very gates of St. Augustine foreshadowed a -new move southward by the English, beginning with the settlement of -Savannah in 1732. With his eye on Florida, James Oglethorpe landed at -St. Simons Island in 1736, built Fort Frederica, and nurtured it into a -strong military post. From Frederica he pushed his Georgia boundary -southward all the way to the St. Johns River—a scant 35 miles from St -Augustine. - - [Illustration: Mortars have long held an important place in the - family of field artillery because of their ability to throw a - projectile over a barrier. The Spaniards were among the earliest to - use mortars whose trajectory could be varied, thereby making the - mortars even more effective.] - -Meanwhile, Castillo de San Marcos began to show signs of being 50 years -old. The capable engineer and frontier diplomat Antonio de Arredondo -came from Havana to inspect Florida’s defenses and make recommendations. -Backed by Arredondo’s expertise, Gov. Manuel de Montiano wrote a frank -letter to the governor of Cuba, who was now responsible for Florida’s -security: “Your Excellency must know that this castle, the only defense -here, has no bombproofs for the protection of the garrison, that the -counterscarp is too low, that there is no covered way, that the curtains -are without demilunes, that there are no other exterior works to give -them time for a long defense; ... we are as bare outside as we are -without life inside, for there are no guns that could last 24 hours and -if there were, we have no artillery-men to serve them.” - - - Spanish-English Conflict, 1670-1748 - - [Illustration: The Treaty of Madrid, 1670, aimed at stopping the - Spanish-English contest along the South Atlantic coast by confirming - Spanish claims as far north as 32°30′. The English agreed to this - but within a few years continued their push southward. Savannah, - settled in 1733 was well within Spanish territory.] - - Selected attacks Nationality - - Charleston 1670, 1706 Spanish - ″, 1706 French - Edisto Island, 1706 Spanish - Port Royal, 1686 Spanish - Santa Catalina Island, 1680 English - Fort Frederica, 1742 Spanish - St. Simons Island, 1742 Spanish - Santa Maria Island, 1683 English - San Juan de Puerto, 1683 English - Fort San Diego, 1740 English - St. Augustine, 1683, 1702, 1728, 1740 English - Matanzas Inlet, 1683, 1740, 1741, 1742, 1743 English - Little Matanzas Inlet, 1686 French - Mosquito Inlet, 1682 French - Santa Fe, 1702 English - Santa Catalina de Afuica, 1685 English - San Juan de Guacara, 1693 English - Ayubale, 1704 English - San Pedro de Patale, 1704 English - Apalache Fort, 1677, 1682 French - San Carlos, 1693 English - - - Defending the Fort - - [Illustration: The most serious attack on the Castillo took place - when James Oglethorpe, the founder of Georgia, arrived off Saint - Augustine on June 13, 1740, with 7 warships and 1,400 troops. - Oglethorpe’s arrival was not entirely unexpected. The English and - Spaniards were rivals in Europe and continued their contest in the - New World, with the Spaniards becoming increasingly restive as the - English penetrated into the lands south of Charleston. By the time - Oglethorpe arrived in Georgia, only about 150 miles north of the - Castillo and on land the Spaniards considered their own, tensions - were high. Oglethorpe wanted to guarantee that his new settlements - would be secure from Spanish attack, so he decided to capture and - occupy Spain’s base in Florida—before they decided to attack him. - Oglethorpe had his work cut out for him, because the Castillo was - superbly sited. Creeks and marshes protected it to the west and - south. On the east the bay stretched to a shallow bar across the - harbor entrance that kept heavy warships out of range. The only land - approach was from the north. An English spy for Oglethorpe reported - that the fort was well supplied and staffed. There were “22 pieces - of Cannon well mounted on the Bastions from 6 pound’rs to 36.... - There is a guard of a Lieutenant, a Serjeant & 2 Corporals & 30 - Soldiers here who is relieved Every Day.... There is a Mote Round it - of 30 foot wide & a draw Bridge of about 15 foot long, they draw - every Night & Lett it down in the Morning.” With this kind of - information Oglethorpe knew what he was up against and came - prepared. Fortunately for the defenders, the attackers were divided. - Some had landed on Vilano Point and on Anastasia Island, opposite - the Castillo and were setting up batteries there. Some troops were - on the mainland where they had seized vacant Fort Mose, a free black - settlement just north of the Castillo. Though the total British - force outnumbered the defenders, Gov. Manuel de Montiano reasoned - that his forces could attack one segment before it could be - reinforced by the other two. This is exactly what the Spaniards did, - overwhelming the British force at Fort Mose. Undecided about further - land attack, the British then began shelling the Castillo and the - town from their siege batteries in a bombardment that lasted 27 - days. But the British mortars and siege guns were too far away to be - totally effective and the damage they did was slight. Some of the - newer stonework was damaged. Only two Spanish soldiers were killed - during the attack and another had a leg shot away. Among the British - there was no agreement regarding another course of action. - Oglethorpe himself was down with a fever, and the troops had become - unnecessarily tired by purposeless maneuvering. With the approach of - the hurricane season, the naval commander refused to continue the - blockade, and British forces left. The Castillo and its defenders - had done what they were meant to do.] - - [Illustration: The construction of the bombproof vaults in 1738-40 - and 1751-56 provided a substantial room for the guard. Bedding was - laid on the raised platform at left.] - -Cuba’s governor was a resourceful administrator eager to meet his -responsibilities. He sent guns, soldiers, artisans, convicts, -provisions, and money. The walls would be raised five feet and masonry -vaults, to withstand English bombs, would replace the rotting beams of -old rooms in the Castillo. Stronger outworks would be built, too. To -supervise the project, Engineer Pedro Ruiz de Olano came from Venezuela. -The work began in April 1738 rather inauspiciously. The master of -construction, one Cantillo, was a syphilitic too sick to earn his -16-_real_ daily wage. Much of his work fell to his assistant, a -12-_real_ master mason. All six stonecutters were Negroes. One was an -invalid, and none of them as yet had much skill with coquina. For moving -stone, there was but one oxcart. The labor gang—52 convicts—was too -small. Nevertheless, quarry and kiln hummed with activity, and in the -Castillo the crash of demolition echoed as the convicts pulled down old -structures and began trenching for the new bombproofs. They started on -the east, because this side faced the inlet where enemy action was -likely. - -As usual, misfortunes beset the work. Cantillo’s illness worsened and -Blas de Ortega came from Havana to replace him. Eight convicts working -at the limekiln deserted. Engineer Ruiz moved a crew of carpenters, -sawyers, and axemen from work on the Castillo to rebuild a blockhouse -where the trail to Apalache crossed the St. Johns River. - -The oxcart driver broke his arm. Quarrying and stonecutting dragged. The -old quarry played out. Luckily, a new one was found and opened, even -though farther away. And Havana sent two more carts and more -stonecutters and convicts. - -It was well into October before the carpenters began setting the forms -for the vaults. The masons followed close on their heels and finished -the first of the massive, round-arched bombproofs before the year ended. -Just a year later all eight vaults, side by side along the east curtain, -were done. Each one spanned a 17- by 34-foot area, and had its own door -to the courtyard. Windows above and beside the door let in light and -air. - - - Ordnance - - Forts are often described with words like impregnable, unassailable, - grim, invulnerable, and redoubtable. These descriptions often came - about because of their armaments. A strategically positioned fort with - a full complement of weaponry would be a problem for any invader, - because the fortress, unlike naval ships, provided a stable platform - upon which guns could be mounted and trained on the enemy. Anyone - approaching within approximately 500 yards would be in great danger, - even though the artillery in those times was not always accurate and - aim was extremely difficult. - - Tools for Guns - -The tools used to operate the ordnance had a variety of functions. The -wet sponge swabbed out the cannon to make sure all sparks were -extinguished. The ladle dumped the exact amount of powder needed into -the chamber. The scraper removed any powder residue. The worm removed -unfired bits of cartridge and wadding. The point was to make sure the -cannon was clean before it was loaded and fired. - - [Illustration: 1. Sponge] - - [Illustration: 2. Powder ladle] - - [Illustration: 3. Scraper] - - [Illustration: 4. Worm] - - [Illustration: 5. 24-pounder cannon] - - [Illustration: 6. 16-pounder cannon] - - [Illustration: 7. 12-pounder cannon] - - [Illustration: 8. Grape shot, side view] - - [Illustration: 9. Tongs for handling hot shot] - - [Illustration: 10. Garrison carriage, top view] - - [Illustration: 11. Garrison carriage, side view] - - These illustrations come from Tomás de Morla’s _A Treatise on - Artillery_ - -Basically all artillery falls into two categories: mortars and guns. -Mortars were designed to fire the largest and heaviest projectiles on a -curved trajectory. They could shoot over obstacles or fortifications, -landing on, and perhaps piercing, the deck of a ship, or hitting a pile -of powder kegs or other supplies behind fortified walls, or just -wreaking havoc and demoralizing the people. Guns fired their projectiles -in a flat trajectory, and their effectiveness in turn depended upon the -weight of the shot: the greater the weight of the shot, the greater the -muzzle velocity—the speed at which the shot exited the gun—and the -farther the shot would go and the deadlier it would be. - -The first artillery pieces were made of forged iron. The greatest -concern was in producing a weapon that could contain the explosive force -of the gunpowder, hurl the projectile at the enemy, and not blow up in -the faces of the gun crew. Once guns could be cast in a single piece in -either brass or bronze, great strides were made in the effectiveness of -the artillery pieces. By the 18th century bronze seems to have been the -metal of choice. The guns and mortars were highly decorated. All bore -the coat of arms of the sovereign. Usually the maker was identified in -some way; the name might be part of the base ring or shown in a cipher -below the sovereign’s arms. Garlands of flowers, animals, and mythical -creatures sometimes decorated the piece. All Spanish guns were -named—_Vindicator_, _Invincible_, _Destroyer_ are a few examples—and the -authorities made sure that each gun’s whereabouts was always known. This -has been invaluable for present-day historians investigating what guns -were used where and when. Guns were classified by the weight of the -projectile: a 12-pounder gun shot a 12-pound ball. The kinds of -projectiles varied greatly: solid shot, canister shot (a container full -of bullets), grape shot (cloth container full of bullets), and bombs or -grenades (hollow shot filled with gunpowder) fired from a mortar. -Sometimes solid shot was heated until it was red hot. If it landed on a -ship, hot shot could set a wooden ship afire. Ordnance enabled a -fortification to meet the potential the military engineers had hoped for -when they sited and built it. - -The tops of the ponderous vaults were leveled off with a fill of coquina -chips and sand. Tabby mortar was poured onto the surface, and tampers -beat the mixture smooth. After the first layer set, others were added -until the pavement was six inches thick. The whole roof was thus made -into a gun deck, and cannon were no longer restricted to the bastions -alone. For unlike the old raftered roof, the new terreplein was -buttressed by construction that could take tremendous weight and -terrific shock; and masonry four feet thick protected the rooms -underneath from bombardment. In San Carlos bastion, by mid-January of -1740, they had finished the tall watchtower and the new parapet. - -It was the English settlement of Georgia that had spurred all this -activity. In fact, Spain’s plan for recovery of Georgia and other -Spanish-claimed land was well past the first stages. Troops were -assembling in Havana and reinforcements of 400 had already come to -Florida. The situation came to a head when Spanish officials boarded -Capt. Robert Jenkins’ ship _Rebecca_, believing the English mariners to -be illegally carrying goods to Spanish settlements, an enterprise -forbidden by Spanish law. In the ensuing scuffle, Jenkins’ ear was -sliced off. Jenkins, back in London, reported to Parliament that the -Spanish officer who handed him back his ear said: “Carry it to your King -and tell his majesty that if he were present I would serve him in the -same manner.” - -Alexander Pope, the couplet maker, smiled and said: “The Spaniards did a -waggish thing/Who cropped our ears and sent them to the King.” But -others were not amused, and England and Spain declared war in 1739. It -was called, of course, the War of Jenkins’ Ear. - -England’s main target was the Caribbean, with Havana at center with -Portobelo, Cartagena, and St. Augustine on the perimeter. Admiral Edward -Vernon quickly won fame with his capture of Portobelo in 1739. -Oglethorpe tried to imitate him in Florida. Already he had probed the -St. Johns River approaches; St. Augustine would be next. - -Governor Montiano, however, was fully aware of weaknesses. “Considering -that 21 months have been spent on a bastion and eight arches,” he -pointed out, “we need at least eight years for rehabilitation of the -Castillo.” - - - How a Siege Works, Circa 1700 - - [Illustration: The Mechanics of a Siege - -Military engineers built forts for several reasons: to protect cities, -to protect strong points from falling into enemy hands, to be a visible -symbol of governmental authority. If a fort could not be taken by -surprise, an attacking party had to take the fort by force. The process -of surrounding an enemy’s strong point and slowly cutting off all -contact with the outside world is known as a siege. Sieges go back to -Biblical times, but the principles were formulated by Sébastien le -Prestre de Vauban (1633-1707), a French military engineer who served in -the armies of Louis XIV. He created a very formal, disciplined science, -and his plan was maddeningly simple. First a trench parallel to the fort -was dug out of gun range so the attackers could move in supplies and -troops. Sappers—crews of trench diggers—then dug zigzag trenches toward -the fort; the zigzag pattern made it more difficult for defenders to hit -the trenches. Next the sappers dug a second parallel that included some -batteries for shelling the fort. Additional zigzag trenches and -parallels would be dug until the attackers were in a position to -concentrate their fire at one point on the fortification to breach its -walls. The fortress would then have no alternative but to surrender or -be stormed. Conducting a textbook perfect siege did not always result in -success, for the fort’s defenders would not have been idle. They would -fire cannon at the sappers. Often they dug counter trenches out from the -fortress and planted mines to blow up the work of the attackers. And -they would send out nighttime raiding parties, too. - -1st Parallel - -Military engineers, called sappers, construct trenches and raise -earthworks to protect the attacking forces. - -_Line of attack_ - -Mortar fire destroys cannon and drives defenders to cover; siege lines -prevent supplies from reaching the fort. - -2nd Parallel - -Siege guns destroy cannon and weaken fort walls. - -3rd Parallel - -Siege guns breach the walls, enabling attacking forces to enter the -fort.] - - [Illustration: A Fort’s Defenses] - - - Attackers - OUTER WORKS - Glacis - Covered Way - Moat - Ravelin - INNER FORT - Moat - Parapet - Scarp - Rampart - Magazine - - - [Illustration: The Cubo Line originally stretched from the Castillo - to the San Sebastian River. It was strengthened and rebuilt - repeatedly by both the Spaniards and the British. The city gate, a - part of the line, was built in 1808, only a few years before the - United States took control of Florida.] - -His concerns were genuine, for work on the vaults had to stop as the war -dried up construction funds. The fort was left in a strangely irregular -shape. The east side, including San Carlos bastion, was at the new -height, but all others were several feet lower. The old rooms still -lined three sides of the courtyard. - - -On June 13, 1740, seven British warships dropped anchor outside the -inlet. The long-expected siege of St. Augustine had begun. Montiano -hastily sent the news to Havana and with it a plea for help. He had 750 -soldiers and the 120 or more sailors who manned the galliots. Rations -would last only until the end of June. - -The attackers numbered almost 1,400, including sailors and Indian -allies. While the warships blockaded the harbor on the east, William -Palmer came in from the north with a company of Highlanders and occupied -the deserted outpost called Fort Mose. Oglethorpe landed his men and -guns on each side of the inlet and began building batteries across the -bay from the Castillo. - -Montiano saw at once that all the English positions were separated from -each other by water and could not speedily reinforce one another. Fort -Mose, at the village of the black runaways a couple of miles north of -the Castillo, was the weakest. At dawn on June 26 a sortie from St. -Augustine hit Fort Mose, and in the bloodiest action of the siege -scattered the Highlanders and burned the palisaded fortification. -Colonel Palmer, veteran of Florida campaigns, was among the dead. - -As if in revenge, the siege guns at the inlet opened fire. Round shot -whistled low over the bay and crashed into fort and town. Bombs from the -mortars soared high—deadly dots against the bright summer sky—and fell -swiftly to burst with terrific concussion. The townspeople fled, 2,000 -of them, some to the woods, others to the covered way where Castillo -walls screened them from the shelling. - -For 27 nerve-shattering days the British batteries thundered. At the -Castillo, newly laid stones in the east parapet scattered under the -hits, but the weathered old walls held strong. As one Englishman -observed, the native rock “will not splinter but will give way to cannon -ball as though you would stick a knife into cheese.” One of the balls -shot away a gunner’s leg, but only two men in the Castillo were killed -during the bombardment. - -The heavy guns of San Marcos and the long 9-pounders of the fast little -galliots in the harbor kept the British back. Despite the bluster of the -cannonades, the siege had stalemated. Astride the inlet, Oglethorpe and -his men battled insects and shifting sand on barren, sun-baked shores, -while Spanish soldiers in San Marcos, down to half rations themselves, -saw their families and friends starving. On July 6 Montiano wrote, “My -greatest anxiety is provisions. If these do not come, there is no doubt -that we shall die in the hands of hunger.” - -The very next day came news that supplies had reached a harbor down the -coast south of Matanzas. Shallow-draft Spanish vessels went down the -waterway behind Anastasia Island, fought their way out through Matanzas -Inlet and, hugging the coast, went to fetch the provisions. Coming back -into Matanzas that same night, they found the British blockade gone; -they reached St. Augustine unopposed. - -Oglethorpe made ready to assault the Castillo despite the low morale of -his men. His naval commander, however, was nervous over the approach of -the hurricane season and refused to cooperate. Without support from the -warships, Oglethorpe had to withdraw. Daybreak on July 20—38 days since -the British had arrived at St. Augustine—revealed that the redcoats were -gone. - - [Illustration: This 1763 engraving shows the finished Castillo after - all the bombproof vaults and a new ravelin had been built.] - - [Illustration: Beyond the military aspects, which were so vital to - the decision to establish St. Augustine, the city had become a - vibrant community of soldiers, their families, government officials, - and shopkeepers. Religion and the church played an important part in - the life of the community. This page from a Roman Catholic missal. - printed in 1690, is open to the service for Easter The right-hand - column recounts the story of how the Marys went to the tomb and - found it empty.] - - - - - The End of an Era - - -This was why the Castillo had been built—to resist aggression, to stand -firm through the darkest hour. Years of dogged labor and privations had -brought the Castillo to the point where it could easily withstand a -siege. Yet it remained unfinished, while in 1742 Spanish forces from -Havana and St. Augustine tried unsuccessfully to take Oglethorpe’s -settlement at Fort Frederica. The next year Oglethorpe moved -unsuccessfully against St. Augustine. - -Work still needed to be done on the vaults, but other projects were even -more urgent. First, came repair of the bombardment damage. After that, -the defenses around fort and town were strengthened and a strong new -earth wall called the hornwork was thrown up across the land approach, -half a mile north of town. And for a year or more a sizable crew was -busy at Matanzas building a permanent tower and battery, since the -events of 1740 had again shown the vital defensive importance of this -inlet a few miles south of St. Augustine. - -Several years slipped by with nothing being done to Castillo itself, the -heart of the defense system. Termites and rot were in the old rafters, -and in 1749 part of the roof collapsed. - -The governor’s appeal to the crown eventually brought action. Engineer -Pedro de Brozas y Garay came from Ceuta in Africa to replace Ruiz, who -was returning to Spain. Having overseen the construction of the last -fort rooms, it was Brozas who, with Governor Alonso Fernández de -Heredia, stood under the royal coat of arms at the sally port, as the -masons set in the inscription giving credit to the governor and himself -for completion of the Castillo in 1756. The ceremony was a politic -gesture, carried out on the name day of King Fernando VI; but in truth -there was still a great deal to do. - -The new bombproof vaults had raised the Castillo’s walls by five feet. -Where once they had measured about 25 feet from foundation to crown of -parapet, now they were more than 30. The little ravelin of 1682 could no -longer shield the main gate, and as yet the covered way screened only -the base of the high new walls. The glacis existed only on the plans. - - [Illustration: This British musket dates from 1777-90 and is of the - type that would have been used by the British forces stationed at - the Castillo from 1763 to 1784. It is 4 feet, 8 inches long.] - -So, having finished the vaults, the builders moved outside and worked -until money ran out in the spring of 1758. The break lasted until 1762, -by which time Britain and Spain were again at war. Spain, as an ally of -France, got into the fracas just at the time when Britain had eliminated -France as a factor in the control of North America and was quite ready -to take on Spain. And this time the British would capture the pearl of -the Antilles—Havana itself. - -Havana was well fortified, and the general officers sitting there were -perhaps more worried about St. Augustine than Havana. They released -10,000 pesos for strengthening the Florida fortifications and sent -Engineer Pablo Castelló, who had been teaching mathematics at the -military college in Havana, to assist the ailing Pedro Brozas. - -St. Augustine had only 25 convicts for labor, but when work began on -July 27, 1762, many soldiers and townspeople sensed the urgency, for -Havana was already besieged, and volunteered to help. Since much of the -project was a simple but strenuous task of digging and moving a mountain -of sand from borrow pit to earthwork, all able-bodied people were -welcome. The volunteers did, in fact, contribute labor worth more than -12,000 pesos. The only paid workers were the teamsters driving the 50 -horses that hauled the fill. Each dray dumped 40 cubic feet of earth, -and the hauling kept on until the covered way had been raised five more -feet to its new height. - -The masons soon finished a stone parapet, six feet high, for the new -covered way. With this wall in place, the teamsters moved outside the -covered way and began dumping fill for the glacis. This simple but -important structure was a carefully designed slope from the field up to -the parapet of the covered way. Not only would it screen the main walls -and covered way, but its upward slope would lift attackers right into -the sights of the fort cannon. - -Meanwhile, to replace the 1682 ravelin, Castelló began a new one with -room for five cannon and a powder magazine. He realigned the moat wall -to accommodate the larger work and pushed the job along so that as -December of 1762 ended, the masons laid the final stone of the cordon -for the ravelin. They never started its parapet, for the close of the -year brought the devastating news that Spain would give Florida to Great -Britain. - - -So Spain’s work on the fort ended. And although ravelin and glacis were -not finished, Castillo de San Marcos was a handsome structure. The main -walls were finished with a hard, waterproofing, lime plaster, shining -white in the sunlight with the brilliance of Spain’s olden glory. In the -haste of building, engineers had not forgotten such niceties as classic -molded cornices, pendants, and pilasters to cast relieving shadows on -stark smooth walls. At the point of each bastion was color—the tile-red -plaster of the sentry boxes. White and red. These were Spain’s symbolic -colors, revealed again in the banner floating above the ramparts. - -With walls high over the blue waters of the bay, its towers thrusting -toward the clouds, and guns of bright bronze or iron pointed over turf -and sweep of marsh toward the gloom of the forest or the distant surf -breaking on the bar, San Marcos was properly the background for -Florida’s capital. In the narrow streets that led to the citadel, -military men and sailors mingled with tradesman and townsfolk. Indians, -their nakedness smeared with beargrease against the bugs, were a strange -contrast to the silken opulence of the governor’s lady. But this was St. -Augustine—a town of contrasts, with a long past and an uncertain future. - -The day of the transfer to British rule was July 21, 1763. At Castillo -de San Marcos, Gov. Melchor de Feliú delivered the keys to Maj. John -Hedges, at the moment the ranking representative of George III. The -Spanish troops departed Florida, and with them went the entire Spanish -population. The English were left with an empty city. - -The defenses they found at St. Augustine were far stronger than the ones -that had stopped Oglethorpe in 1740. The renovated Castillo, which the -new owners called Fort St. Mark, was the citadel of a defense-in-depth -system that began with fortified towers at St. Augustine and Matanzas -inlets and blockhouses at the St. Johns River crossings. Since St. -Augustine was on a small peninsula with Matanzas Bay on one side and the -San Sebastián River on the other, there was only one way to reach the -city by land; and Fort Mose, rebuilt and enlarged after 1740, guarded -this lone access. In 1762 Mose also became the anchor for a mile-long -defense line across the peninsula to a strong redoubt on the San -Sebastián. This earthwork, planted at its base with prickly pear, -protected the farmlands behind it. Just north of the Castillo, the -hornwork spanned the narrowest part of the peninsula. A third line -stretched from the Castillo to the San Sebastián, and this one was -intersected by a fourth line that enclosed the town on west and south. -Along the eastern shore was the stone seawall. One by one, these -defenses had evolved in the years after 1702. - -Such defensive precautions seemed outmoded, now that all eastern North -America was under one sovereignty. Obviously the old enmities between -Florida and the English colonies had departed with the Spaniards; -Britain saw no need for concern about the fortifications. No need, that -is, until the Thirteen Colonies showed disquieting signs of rebellion. -And as rebellion flamed into revolution, St. Augustine entered a new -role as capital of George III’s loyal province of East Florida. - -In the summer of 1775, after Lexington and Concord, British concerns -about the Castillo’s state of repair could be seen. The gate was -repaired and the well in the courtyard, which had become brackish, was -re-dug. In several of the high-arched bombproofs, the carpenters doubled -the capacity by building a second floor, for St. Augustine was -regimental headquarters and many redcoated troops were quartered in Fort -St. Mark. - -By October 1776 the British had renovated two of the three lines -constructed north of the city by the Spaniards. In place of the old -earthwork that hemmed in the town on the south and west, however, they -depended on a pair of detached redoubts at the San Sebastián, one at the -ford and the other at the ferry. Later they added five other redoubts in -the same quadrant. Many improvements were made to the outer works as -well. - -Behind the thick walls of the fort were stored weapons and equipment -that went to arm British forces for repeated use against the rebellious -colonials to the north. The damp prison also held a number of these -colonists. - - - Links to the Past - - It is impossible to fully retrieve the past, to know what it was - actually like to live in another time, to understand the cadences of - another life. Some disciplines work at peeling back the layers of time - and attempt to explain those bygone days. Archeology is one of these - sciences. By retrieving the remains of the material culture, by seeing - a plate that held food, a bottle that held oil, a dish in which herbs - were ground to make medicine, the connection with those long gone - personages begins to be made. The objects on the next page are among - more than 1,000 items that have been retrieved from digs in and around - the Castillo and St. Augustine. - - [Illustration: Bottle body] - - [Illustration: Dish fragment, majolica] - - [Illustration: Spanish olive jar] - - [Illustration: China accordion player] - - [Illustration: Plate fragment, majolica] - - [Illustration: Dish with caduceus (medical symbol)] - - [Illustration: Platter base fragment, slipware] - - [Illustration: Bowl fragment, pearlware-mochaware] - -Even as the British were working to secure the Castillo against a -possible attack, international events brought Spain back into the -picture. In 1779 Spain declared war on Britain after France promised -help in retrieving Florida, if the powers allied against Britain were -victorious. One Spanish plan even had the Spaniards launching a surprise -attack on the Castillo: Troops would sail upriver from Matanzas, land -south of town, sweep north through St. Augustine, and take the Castillo -by storm. If this failed they would settle in for a siege. At the last -minute, practically, the authorities decided to attack Pensacola, on -Florida’s Gulf Coast, instead. A Spanish attack on the British inside a -fortress designed and built by Spanish engineers would have been full of -irony. - -In the settlement after the Revolution, the Spaniards did indeed recover -Florida, and on July 12, 1784, the transfer took place. - - -The Spaniards returned to an impossible situation. The border problems -of earlier times had multiplied as runaway slaves from Georgia found -welcome among the Seminole Indians, and ruffians from both land and sea -made Florida their habitat. - -Bedeviled by these perversities and distracted by revolutionary unrest -in Latin America, Spain nevertheless did what had to be done at the -Castillo—repairs to the bridges, a new pine stairway for San Carlos -tower, a bench for the criminals in the prison. In 1785 Mariano de la -Rocque designed an attractive entrance in the neoclassic style for the -chapel doorway. It was built, only to crumble slowly away like the -Spanish hold on Florida. - -Defense strategies had changed too, over the years. The British had -built a few redoubts to cover vulnerable approaches on the west and -south. The Spaniards on their return adapted the British works but also -greatly strengthened the long wall from the Castillo to the San -Sebastián River. They widened its moat to 40 feet, lined the entire -length of the 9-foot-high earthwork with palm logs, and planted it with -prickly pear. The three redoubts were armed with light cannon, and a new -city gate was completed in 1808. Its twin towers of white masonry were -trimmed with red plaster, and each roof was capped with a pomegranate, a -symbol of fertility. - -Even though San Marcos remained a bulwark against American advances, -Florida had lost its former importance to Spain as independence -movements sprang up in one South American Spanish colony after another. -Constant pressure from the expanding United States finally resulted in -Spain’s ceding Florida to the United States. Perhaps Spanish officials -signed the papers with a sigh of relief, glad to be rid of a province so -burdensome and unprofitable for 300 years. On July 10, 1821, the ensign -of Spain fluttered down to the thunderous salute of Castillo cannon, and -the 23-star flag of the United States of America was hauled aloft. - -In this new era, the aging fort was already a relic. Fortunately for its -preservation, the US. strategy for coastal defense did not require much -alteration of the Castillo. U.S. Army engineers added only a water -battery in the east moat, mounted a few new guns on the bastions, and -improved the glacis during the 1840s. - -The fort’s name was also changed, for the Americans chose to honor Gen. -Francis Marion, Revolutionary leader and son of the very colony against -whose possible aggression San Marcos had been built. Congress restored -the original name in 1942, almost 20 years after the fort had been -designated a national monument. - -Heavy doors and iron bars that once protected precious stores of food -and ammunition made the old fort a good prison, and the prison days soon -obscured the olden times when Spain’s hold upon Florida depended upon -the strength of these walls and the brave hearts that served here. - - -Now the echo of the Spanish tongue has faded and the scarred walls are -silent. The records tell of the people who built and defended the -Castillo—and those who attacked it, too. In the archives are countless -instances of unselfish zeal and loyalty, the cases of Ransom, Collins, -and Carr, the crown’s patriarchal protection of its Indian vassals, the -unflagging work of the friars. The structure itself tells its own story. -As William Cullen Bryant, 19th-century poet wrote: “The old fort of St. -Mark is a noble work, frowning over the Matanzas, and it is worth making -a long journey to see.” - - [Illustration: The Spanish government constructed replicas of - Christopher Columbus’ three ships to commemorate the 500th - anniversary of his voyage to America. The ships followed Columbus’ - route across the Atlantic and made calls at ports throughout the - Americas. Here the _Santa Maria_, in the foreground, _Pinta_, and - _Niña_ visit St. Augustine in 1992.] - - [Illustration: Soldiers crossing the moat] - - - - - Guide and Advisor - - - [Illustration: NPS Ranger] - -St. Augustine is the oldest, continuously inhabited city founded by -Europeans in the present-day United States. It represents the beginnings -of contact between Spanish settlers and the native inhabitants, the -emergence of the Hispanic American, the struggle between Spanish, -French, and English settlers for control of the southeastern Atlantic -coast, and ultimately the birth of the United States. - - - Visiting St. Augustine - -As well as being an old city, with many historic houses on quiet, narrow -streets, St. Augustine is a bustling modern city with a range of -facilities and accommodations to meet all expectations and travel -budgets. - -Begin your visit to the city at the Visitor Information Center on San -Marco Avenue, opposite the Castillo. Here you can get free information, -maps, and answers to your questions from the staff. The center is open -daily from 8 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. Limited parking is available for patrons. -You may write: Visitor Information Center, P.O. Drawer 210, St. -Augustine, FL 32085; or call 904-825-1000. Additional information is -available from the St. Augustine and St. Johns County Chamber of -Commerce, 1 Ribera Street, St. Augustine, FL 320841 or call -904-829-5681. - -St. Augustine is a wonderful city to walk in, for it is compact and easy -to find your way around. Take time to leave the main streets and walk -through residential areas to get a feel for the city and the way it was -laid out. St. Augustine has its own personality and charm that -distinguish it from such other colonial communities as Williamsburg, -Charleston, and Santa Fe. Today’s St. Augustine bears the imprint of -Henry Flagler (1830-1913), a close partner of John D. Rockefeller in the -development of the Standard Oil Company and a railroad tycoon in -Florida. Flagler bought several small railroads in Florida, consolidated -them, and laid track that eventually ran from Jacksonville to Key West. -Along with his railroad he built luxury hotels in Daytona, Palm Beach, -Miami, and St. Augustine and helped to create the tourist industry that -has played such an important role in Florida’s economy in the 20th -century. Flagler’s legacy lives on in St. Augustine where Flagler -College occupies the former Hotel Ponce de Leon at Cordova and King -streets and in the Lightner Museum housed in the old Alcazar Hotel -across the street from the college. The St. Johns County Courthouse and -the St. Augustine City Hall also occupy Flagler buildings. Flagler is -buried on the grounds of the Flagler Memorial Presbyterian Church. - -St. George Street, a pedestrian walkway between Castillo Drive and -Cathedral Place, is lined with shops and restaurants of every type and -description. The Spanish Quarter, a restored 18th-century portion of the -city, is a living history museum operated by the state of Florida on the -north end of St. George Street. Along this street a number of residences -dating back more than two centuries have either been reconstructed or -restored by the St. Augustine Restoration and Preservation Commission. -Some of them may be open to the public. But do not assume that they are. -Inquire at the Visitor Information Center for specific information about -opening and closing times. - -The Oldest House, located at the corner of St. Francis and Charlotte -streets, is administered by the St. Augustine Historical Society. Guides -give house tours, for which there is a charge. The adjacent museum tells -the story of St. Augustine and of the people who lived here through the -four centuries of the city’s history. In Government House, at the corner -of St. George and King streets, the Historic St. Augustine Preservation -Board, an agency of the state of Florida, also runs a museum that tells -a more inclusive story of Spanish Florida, including Fort Mose, the -oldest free black settlement in the United States. - - - Visiting the Castillo - -The Castillo de San Marcos is one of the oldest structures in North -America built by Europeans. It is one of the few links on this continent -to early modern Europe and a way of warfare that has become obsolete. -Park interpreters give frequent programs at the fort telling its history -and explaining its construction. They can answer questions you have -about the history of the area and about related National Park System -sites. You may wish to walk around the Castillo at your own pace; a free -park folder available at the entrance station will help you find your -way. - -A sales outlet to the left of the guard rooms as you enter the Castillo -offers books and pamphlets on the history of Florida and Spanish -colonization. Some souvenirs and postcards are also available. - -Parking is limited at the Castillo and in St. Augustine. Because of the -limited parking, therefore, you may wish to take one of the sightseeing -tours around the city. Information is available at the Visitor -Information Center. For further information about the Castillo de San -Marcos and Fort Matanzas, write: Superintendent, Castillo de San Marcos -National Monument, 1 Castillo Drive East, St. Augustine, FL 32084. - - - Beaches - -Florida A1A north or south takes you to some of the most beautiful -beaches on the east coast. A fee buys a permit from county authorities -to drive on county beaches during the summer months. There is also a -charge for parking at Anastasia State Recreation Area. - - - Accommodations - -St. Augustine has a variety of accommodations: national chains, locally -owned hotels and motels, bed and breakfast inns, and vacation cottages -and condominiums for rent by the day, week, or longer. - - - Other Areas Related to Spanish Florida - -Besides Castillo de San Marcos, several other National Park System sites -in Florida preserve and interpret aspects of Spanish colonial history. -They are located on the map and described below. - - [Illustration: Map] - - - Gulf Islands NS - De Soto N MEM - Fort Carolina N MEM - Castillo de San Marcos NM - Ft. Matanzas NM - - - De Soto National Memorial - _P.O. Box 16390_ - _Bradenton, FL 34280-5390._ - - -No one knows exactly where Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto landed on -Florida’s west coast in 1539. This park at the entrance to Tampa Bay -memorializes that landing and de Soto’s subsequent journeys of -exploration throughout the southeastern United States. - - - Fort Caroline National Memorial - _12713 Fort Caroline Road_ - _Jacksonville, FL 32225._ - - -The establishment of a French colony here in 1564 directly challenged -the Spaniards, who responded by establishing Saint Augustine the next -year. After securing a firm base of operations, the Spaniards led by -Pedro Menéndez marched to the French settlement and captured it, ending -French interest in the area. - - - Fort Matanzas National Monument - _c/o Castillo de San Marcos National Monument_ - _1 Castillo Drive_ - _Saint Augustine, FL 32084._ - - -On this site Spanish troops killed French soldiers who were part of the -ill-fated attempt to establish a French settlement in Florida. In 1740, -after the failed English attack on Saint Augustine, the Spaniards built -a masonry fortification—Fort Matanzas—on Rattlesnake Island overlooking -Matanzas Inlet to control the inlet permanently. - - - Gulf Islands National Seashore - _1801 Gulf Breeze Parkway_ - _Gulf Breeze, FL 32561._ - - -The ravelin of Fort Barrancas, located on the grounds of the Pensacola -Naval Air Station, is another Spanish masonry fortification in Florida -besides the Castillo and Fort Matanzas. It is called Battery San Antonio -and dates from 1797. It was planned as part of a larger fortification -never built by the Spaniards. Fort Barrancas, built by the U.S., dates -from the early 19th century. - -Besides these parks in Florida there is one in Georgia (not shown on the -map) that bears importantly on the story of St. Augustine. - - - Fort Frederica National Monument - _Route 9, Box 286-C_ - _Savannah, GA 31410._ - - -It was at Fort Frederica that James Edward Oglethorpe established a -settlement in 1736 only a few days march north of St. Augustine in -territory that the Spaniards clearly believed to be their own. - - [Illustration: Fort Matanzas National Monument] - - [Illustration: Fort Caroline National Memorial] - -★ GPO: 1993—342-396 80002 - - - - - National Park Service - - -National Park Handbooks are published to support the National Park -Service’s management programs and to promote understanding and enjoyment -of the more than 360 National Park System sites that represent important -examples of our country’s natural and cultural inheritance. Each -handbook is intended to be informative reading and a useful guide -before, during, and after a park visit. More than 100 titles are in -print. They are sold at parks and can be purchased by mail from the -Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, -Washington, DC 20402-9325. - -The National Park Service expresses its appreciation to all those -persons who made the preparation and production of this handbook -possible. The original text for this handbook was written by Albert -Manucy and Luis Arana and appeared as _The Building of the Castillo de -San Marcos_. The vault construction, drawbridge, and siege illustrations -on pages 33, 34, and 47 are based on artwork originally developed by -Albert Manucy. The National Park Service also expresses its appreciation -to Eastern National Park and Monument Association for its cooperation in -this project. All photos and artwork not credited below come from the -files of the Castillo de San Marcos or of the National Park Service. - - - Archivo General de Indias, Seville 18, 49 - Michael Hampshire 31 (detail), 34 - Karen Kasmauski 2-3 - Ken Laffal cover, 12, 16, 24, 25, 26 (photographs), 29, 35, 36, 38, - 42, 48, 50, 52, 55, 57, 58-59, 60 - Library of Congress 4, 10, 26-27 (map), 49 - National Geographic Society 14, 15, 22-23 - Ken Townsend 30-31, 40-41 - - - - - U.S. Department of the Interior - - -As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the -Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally-owned public -lands and natural resources. This includes fostering sound use of our -land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological -diversity; preserving the environmental and cultural values of our -national parks and historical places; and providing for the enjoyment of -life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and -mineral resources and works to ensure that their development is in the -best interest of all our people by encouraging stewardship and citizen -participation in their care. The Department also has a major -responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for -people who live in island territories under U.S. administration. - - - _Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data_ - -Castillo de San Marcos: a Guide to the Castillo de San Marcos National -Monument, Florida/produced by the Division of Publications, National -Park Service. p. cm.—(National Park Handbook; 149) - - - 1. Castillo de San Marcos National Monument (Saint Augustine, - Fla.)—Guidebooks. - 2. Saint Augustine (Fla.)—Guidebooks. - 3. Saint Augustine (Fla.)—History. - I. United States. National Park Service. Division of Publications. - II. Series: Handbook (United States, National Park Service, Division - of Publications); 149. F319.S2C37 1993. 917.59’ 18—dc20. - 92-40413 CIP. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—Relocated all image captions to be immediately under the corresponding - images, removing redundant references like ”preceding page”. - -—Silently corrected a few palpable typos. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Castillo de San Marcos, by National Park Service - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASTILLO DE SAN MARCOS *** - -***** This file should be named 56050-0.txt or 56050-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/6/0/5/56050/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - diff --git a/old/56050-0.zip b/old/56050-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d2d47cc..0000000 --- a/old/56050-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h.zip b/old/56050-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 80aa555..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/56050-h.htm b/old/56050-h/56050-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 504a43c..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/56050-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3114 +0,0 @@ -<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> -<head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> -<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" /> -<title>Castillo de San Marcos, by National Park Service: a Project Gutenberg eBook</title> -<meta name="author" content="National Park Service" /> -<meta name="pss.pubdate" content="1993" /> -<link rel="schema.DC" href="http://dublincore.org/documents/1998/09/dces/" /> -<meta name="DC.Title" content="Castillo de San Marcos" /> -<meta name="DC.Language" content="en" /> -<meta name="DC.Format" content="text/html" /> -<meta name="DC.Created" content="1993" /> -<meta name="DC.Creator" content="National Park Service" /> -<style type="text/css"> -large { font-size:125%; } -sc { font-variant:small-caps; font-style: normal; } - -/* == GLOBAL MARKUP == */ -body, table.twocol tr td { margin-left:2em; margin-right:2em; } /* BODY */ -.box { border-style:double; margin-bottom:2em; max-width:30em; margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-top:2em; } -.box p { margin-right:1em; margin-left:1em; } -.box dl { margin-right:1em; margin-left:1em; } -h1, h2, h3, h5, h6, .titlepg p { text-align:center; clear:both; } /* HEADINGS */ -h2 { margin-top:2.5em; margin-bottom:1em; font-family:sans-serif; } -h2 span.small { font-size:100%; } -h3.interlude { width:100%; color:white; background-color:black; clear:both; text-align:left; } -h4.interlude { width:100%; color:white; background-color:black; clear:both; font-family:sans-serif; } -div.interlude { width:100%; color:white; background-color:black; clear:both; } -h4.interlude a { color:white; background-color:black; } -h1 { margin-top:3em; font-family:sans-serif; } -div.box h1 { margin-top:1em; } -h3 { margin-top:2.5em; font-size:150%; } -h4, h5 { font-size:100%; text-align:left; } -h4.inline { display:inline-block; float:left; } -h6 { font-size:100%; } -h6.var { font-size:80%; font-style:normal; } -.titlepg { margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; border-style:double; clear:both; } -span.chaptertitle { font-style:normal; display:block; text-align:center; font-size:150%; } -.tblttl { text-align:center; } -.tblsttl { text-align:center; font-variant:small-caps; } -.norm { font-style:normal; } - -pre sub.ms { width:4em; letter-spacing:1em; } -table.fmla { text-align:center; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; margin-left:0em; margin-right:0em; } -table.inline, table.symbol { font-style:normal; font-weight:bold; - display: inline-table; vertical-align: middle; } -td.cola { text-align:left; vertical-align:100%; } -td.colb { text-align:justify; } - -p, blockquote, div.p, div.bq { text-align:justify; } /* PARAGRAPHS */ -div.p, div.bq { margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; } -blockquote, .bq { margin-left:1em; margin-right:0em; } -.verse { font-size:100%; } -p.indent {text-indent:2em; text-align:left; } -p.tb, p.tbcenter, verse.tb, blockquote.tb { margin-top:2em; } - -span.pb, div.pb, dt.pb, p.pb /* PAGE BREAKS */ -{ text-align:right; float:right; margin-right:0em; clear:right; } -div.pb { display:inline; } -.pb, dt.pb, dl.toc dt.pb, dl.tocl dt.pb { text-align:right; float:right; margin-left: 1.5em; - margin-top:.5em; margin-bottom:.5em; display:inline; text-indent:0; - font-size:80%; border:1px solid gray; padding:1px 3px; } -div.index .pb { display:block; } -.bq div.pb, .bq span.pb { font-size:90%; margin-right:2em; } - -div.img, body a img {text-align:center; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:2em; clear:right; } - -sup, a.fn { font-size:75%; vertical-align:100%; line-height:50%; font-weight:normal; } -h3 a.fn { font-size:65%; } -sub { font-size:75%; } -.center, .tbcenter { text-align:center; clear:both; } /* TEXTUAL MARKUP */ -span.center { display:block; } -table.center { clear:both; margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto; } -table.center tr td.l {text-align:left; margin-left:0em; } -table.center tr td.t {text-align:left; text-indent:1em; } -table.center tr td.t2 {text-align:left; text-indent:2em; } -table.center tr td.r {text-align:right; } -table.center tr td.ll {text-align:left; margin-left:0em; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; min-width:4em; vertical-align:top; } -table.center tr td.lf {text-align:left;width:100%; } -table.center tr th {vertical-align:bottom; } -table.center tr td {vertical-align:top; } -table.inline, table.symbol { display: inline-table; vertical-align: middle; } - -p { clear:left; } -.small, .lsmall { font-size:90%; } -.smaller { font-size:80%; } -.smallest { font-size:67%; } -.larger { font-size:150%; } -.large { font-size:125%; } -.xlarge { font-size:200%; line-height:60%; } -.xxlarge { font-size:200%; line-height:60%; } -.gs { letter-spacing:1em; } -.gs3 { letter-spacing:2em; } -.gslarge { letter-spacing:.3em; font-size:110%; } -.sc { font-variant:small-caps; font-style:normal; } -.ss { font-weight:bold; font-family:sans-serif; } -.unbold { font-weight:normal; } -.xo { position:relative; left:-.3em; } -.over, over { text-decoration: overline; display:inline; } -hr { width:20%; } -.jl { text-align:left; } -.jr { text-align:right; min-width:2em; display:inline-block; float:right; } -.jr1 { text-align:right; margin-right:2em; } -h1 .jr { margin-right:.5em; } -.ind1 { text-align:left; margin-left:2em; } -.u { text-decoration:underline; } -.hst { margin-left:2em; } -.rubric { color:red; } -.cnwhite { color:white; background-color:black; min-width:2em; display:inline-block; - text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-family:sans-serif; } -.cwhite { color:white; background-color:black; text-align:center; font-weight:bold; - font-family:sans-serif; } -ul li { text-align:justify; } -.left { text-align:left; } -span.f { font-size:150%; font-style:normal; } - -dd.t { text-align:left; margin-left: 5.5em; } -dl.toc { clear:both; margin-top:1em; } /* CONTENTS (.TOC) */ -.toc dt.center { text-align:center; clear:both; margin-top:3em; margin-bottom:1em;} -.toc dt { text-align:right; clear:left; font-weight:bold; font-size:150%; font-family:sans-serif; } -.toc dd { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:6em; } -.toc dd.ddt { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:4em; } -.toc dd.ddt2 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:5em; } -.toc dd.ddt3 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:6em; } -.toc dd.ddt4 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:7em; } -.toc dd.ddt5 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:8em; } -.toc dd.note { text-align:justify; clear:both; margin-left:5em; text-indent:-1em; margin-right:3em; } -.toc dt .xxxtest {width:17em; display:block; position:relative; left:4em; } -.toc dt a, -.toc dd a, -.toc dt span.left, -.toc dt span.lsmall, -.toc dd span.left, -.toc dd.left { text-align:left; clear:right; float:left; } -.toc dt a span.cn { width:4em; text-align:left; float:left; } -.toc dt.sc { text-align:right; clear:both; } -.toc dt.scl { text-align:left; clear:both; } -.toc dt.sct { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:1em; } -.toc dt.jl { text-align:left; clear:both; font-variant:normal; } -.toc dt.scc { text-align:center; clear:both;} -.toc dt span.lj { text-align:left; display:block; float:left; } -.toc dd.center { text-align:center; } -dd.tocsummary {text-align:justify; margin-right:2em; margin-left:2em; } -dd.center sc {display:block; text-align:center; } -/* BOX CELL */ -td.top { border-top:1px solid; width:.5em; height:.8em; } -td.bot { border-bottom:1px solid; width:.5em; height:.8em; } -td.rb { border:1px solid; border-left:none; width:.5em; height:.8em; } -td.lb { border:1px solid; border-right:none; width:.5em; height:.8em; } - -/* INDEX (.INDEX) */ -dl.index { clear:both; } -.index dd { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left; } -.index dt { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left; } -.index dt.center {text-align:center; } - -.ab, .ab1, .ab2 { -font-weight:bold; text-decoration:none; -border-style:solid; border-color:gray; border-width:1px; -margin-right:0px; margin-top:5px; display:inline-block; text-align:center; } -.ab { width:1em; } -.ab2 { width:1.5em; } -a.gloss { background-color:#f2f2f2; border-bottom-style:dotted; text-decoration:none; border-color:#c0c0c0; color:inherit; } - - /* FOOTNOTE BLOCKS */ -div.notes p { margin-left:1em; text-indent:-1em; text-align:justify; } - -dl.undent dd { margin-left:3em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; } -dl.undent dt { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; } -dl.undent dd.t { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; } - /* POETRY LINE NUMBER */ -.lnum { text-align:right; float:right; margin-left:.5em; display:inline; } - -.hymn { text-align:left; } /* HYMN AND VERSE: HTML */ -.verse { text-align:left; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0em; } -.versetb { text-align:left; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0em; } -.originc { text-align:center; } -.subttl { text-align:center; font-size:80%; } -.srcttl { text-align:center; font-size:80%; font-weight:bold; } -p.t0, p.l { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.lb { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.tw, div.tw, .tw { margin-left:1em; text-indent:-1em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t, div.t, .t { margin-left:5em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t2, div.t2, .t2 { margin-left:6em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t3, div.t3, .t3 { margin-left:7em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t4, div.t4, .t4 { margin-left:8em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t5, div.t5, .t5 { margin-left:9em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t6, div.t6, .t6 { margin-left:10em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t7, div.t7, .t7 { margin-left:11em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t8, div.t8, .t8 { margin-left:12em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t9, div.t9, .t9 { margin-left:13em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t10, div.t10,.t10 { margin-left:14em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t11, div.t11,.t11 { margin-left:15em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t12, div.t12,.t12 { margin-left:16em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t13, div.t13,.t13 { margin-left:17em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t14, div.t14,.t14 { margin-left:18em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.t15, div.t15,.t15 { margin-left:19em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; } -p.lr, div.lr, span.lr { display:block; margin-left:0em; margin-right:1em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:right; } -dt.lr { width:100%; margin-left:0em; margin-right:0em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; margin-top:1em; text-align:right; } -dl dt.lr a { text-align:left; clear:left; float:left; } - -.fnblock { margin-top:2em; } -.fndef { text-align:justify; margin-top:1.5em; margin-left:1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em; } -.fndef p.fncont, .fndef dl { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0em; } -dl.catalog dd { font-style:italic; } -dl.catalog dt { margin-top:1em; } -.author { text-align:right; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; display:block; } - -dl.biblio dt { margin-top:.6em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt div { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; } -dl.biblio dd { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; text-indent:0em; font-weight:bold; - text-align:justify; margin-top:0; max-width:30em; font-style:italic; font-size:90%; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; font-weight:bold; text-align:justify; max-width:30em; font-size:90%; font-style:italic;} -p.pcap .ss, p.pcapc b, p.pcapc .ss, p.pcap b { font-style:normal; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; }</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Castillo de San Marcos, by National Park Service - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Castillo de San Marcos - A Guide to Castillo de San Marcos National Monument, Florida - -Author: National Park Service - -Release Date: November 25, 2017 [EBook #56050] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASTILLO DE SAN MARCOS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Castillo de San Marcos" width="500" height="705" /> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<p class="center"><span class="ss">Handbook 149</span></p> -<h1>Castillo de San Marcos</h1> -<p class="center"><span class="ss">A Guide to Castillo de San Marcos National Monument -<br />Florida</span></p> -<p class="center"><span class="ss">Produced by the Division of Publications -<br />National Park Service</span></p> -<p class="center"><span class="ss">U.S. Department of the Interior -<br />Washington, D.C.</span></p> -</div> -<h3><i>Using this Handbook</i></h3> -<p>Castillo de San Marcos National Monument is located -in the longest continuously inhabited community -founded by Europeans in the United States. This -handbook tells the intercultural story of the long -effort to build the Castillo and the emergence of a -new Nation. The Guide and Adviser provides a brief -guide to Saint Augustine and other related National -Park Service areas in Florida.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/i02.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="705" /> -<p class="pcap">From the air the rationale for the layout of -Castillo de San Marcos is readily apparent: no wall or -approach is unguarded.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/i03.jpg" alt="" width="563" height="799" /> -<p class="pcap">This map, one of the earliest -maps of a city that is now in -the United States, depicts the -June 1586 attack on St. Augustine -by Sir Francis Drake. -Note, in the middle, the English -troops on Anastasia -Island firing across the water -on the Spanish fort.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">Florida and the Pirates</span></h2> -<p>On May 28, 1668, a ship anchored off St. Augustine -harbor. It was a vessel from Veracruz, bringing flour -from México. In the town, the drum sounded the -alert for the garrison of 120 men. A launch went out -to identify the newcomer and put the harbor pilot -aboard. As it neared the ship, the crew on the launch -hailed the Spaniards lining her gunwale. To the -routine questions came the usual answers: Friends -from México—come aboard! Two shots from the -launch told the town the ship had been identified as -friendly, and the seamen warped the launch alongside -the ship. In St. Augustine, the people heard the -signal shots and rejoiced. The soldiers returned their -arms to the main guardhouse on the town plaza. -Tomorrow the supplies would come ashore.</p> -<p>Unknown to the townspeople, when the launch -pilot stepped aboard the supply ship, an alien crew -of pirates swarmed out of hiding and leveled their -guns at him and the others. He could do nothing but -surrender.</p> -<p class="tb">Some time after midnight, a corporal was out on the -bay fishing when he heard the sound of many oars -pulling across the water. Something was not right. -Desperately he paddled his little craft toward shore. -The pirates, four boatloads of them, were right -behind. Twice their shots found their mark, but he -got to the fort where his shouts aroused the guards.</p> -<p>At the main guardhouse, a quarter mile from the -fort, the sentries heard the shouting and the gunfire, -but before they could respond, the pirates were upon -them, a hundred strong. Out-numbered, the guards -ran for the fort. Gov. Francisco de la Guerra rushed -out of his house and, with the pirates pounding at his -heels, joined the race for the fort. Somehow the -garrison was able to beat back several assaults. In the -confusion of darkness, however, the pirates seemed -to be everywhere. They destroyed the weapons they -found in the guardhouse and went on to the government -<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span> -house. Shouting and cursing, they scattered -through the narrow streets, seizing or shooting the -frightened, bewildered inhabitants.</p> -<p>Sgt. Maj. Nicolás Ponce de Léon, the officer -responsible for defending the town, was at home, a -sick man, covered with a greasy mercury salve and -weak from the “sweatings” prescribed for his illness. -On hearing the din, he roused himself and rushed to -the guardhouse, only to find the pirates had been -there first. He turned to the urgent task of shepherding -his 70 unarmed soldiers and the others—men, -women, and children—into the woods, leaving -the pirates in complete possession of the town.</p> -<p>By daybreak the little force at the fort had lost five -men, but they believed they had killed 11 pirates and -wounded 19 others. Ponce came from the woods and -reinforced the fort with his weaponless men. With -daylight, two other vessels joined the ship from -Veracruz. One was St. Augustine’s own frigate, taken -by the raiders near Havana, in which the pirates had -been able to move in Spanish waters without detection. -The other was the pirates’ own craft. All three -sailed into the bay, passed the cannon fire of the fort, -anchored just out of range, and landed their remaining -forces. Systematically they began to sack the -town; no structure was neglected.</p> -<p>That afternoon, the governor sent out a sortie -from the fort, but the leaders were wounded and the -party retired. After 20 hours ashore, however, the -pirates were ready to leave anyway, taking their -booty, which probably amounted to only a few -thousand pesos, and about 70 prisoners whom they -had seized during the previous night’s rampage. Just -before leaving they ransomed most of their prisoners -for meat, water, and firewood. The local Indians, -however, they kept, claiming that the governor of -Jamaica had told them to keep all Indians, blacks, -and mulattoes as slaves, even if they were Spanish -freemen. Finally on June 5 the raiders headed out to -sea, amused as once again they passed the thunder of -the useless guns in the old wooden fort as the small -community grieved over its 60 dead and gave thanks -for the ransomed prisoners.</p> -<p>The released prisoners identified the invaders as -English and told how the enemy had carefully sounded -the inlet, taken its latitude, and noted the landmarks. -They intended to come back and seize the fort and -<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span> -make it a base for future operations against Spanish -shipping.</p> -<p class="tb">To the Spaniards the attack on St. Augustine was far -more than a pirate raid. St. Augustine, though -isolated and small, was the keystone in the defense of -Florida, a way station on Spain’s great commercial -route. Each year, galleons bearing the proud Iberian -banners sailed past the coral keys and surf-pounded -beaches of Florida, following the Gulf Stream on the -way to Cádiz. Each galleon carried a treasure of gold -and silver from the mines of Perú and México—and -all Europe knew it.</p> -<p>A shipload of treasure, dispatched from México -by Hernán Cortés in 1522, never reached the Spanish -court. A French corsair attacked the Spanish ship -and the treasure ended up in Paris, not Madrid. -Soon, daring adventurers of all nationalities sailed -for the West Indies and Spanish treasure. Florida’s -position on the lifeline connecting Spain with her -colonies gave this sandy peninsula strategic importance. -Spain knew that Florida must be defended to -prevent enemies from using the harbors for preying -upon Spanish commerce and to give safe haven to -shipwrecked Spanish mariners.</p> -<p>The French, ironically, brought the situation to a -head in 1564 when they established Fort Caroline, a -colony named for their teenage king, Charles IX, -near the mouth of Florida’s St. Johns River. A year -later Spanish Admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés -came to Florida, established the St. Augustine colony, -and forthwith removed the Frenchmen, suspected of -piracy. This small fortified settlement on Florida’s -northeast coast and Havana in Cuba anchored opposite -ends of the passage through the Straits of Florida -enabling Spanish ships to pass safely from the Gulf -of Mexico out into the Atlantic.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/i04.jpg" alt="" width="397" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap">Sir Francis Drake’s attack on -St. Augustine was part of the -growing hostilities between -Spain and England that culminated -in the attack of the -Spanish Armada on England -two years later. Drake was -also the first sea captain to -take his own ship all the way -around the world. Ferdinand -Magellan’s ship had made -the trip 57 years earlier, but -Magellan had been killed in -the Philippines.</p> -</div> -<p>A typical early fort was San Juan de Pinos, burned -by English sailor Francis Drake in 1586. Drake took -the fort’s bronze artillery and a considerable amount -of money. San Juan consisted of a pine stockade -around small buildings for gunpowder storage and -quarters. Cannon were mounted atop a broad platform, -or cavalier, so they could fire over the stockade. -Such forts could be built quickly, but they could also -be destroyed easily. If Indian fire arrows, enemy -attack, or mutinies failed, then hurricanes, time, and -termites were certain to do the job. During the first -100 years of Spanish settlement, nine wooden forts -one after another were built at St. Augustine.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div> -<h4 class="interlude">Spain in the Caribbean, 1717-1748</h4> -<blockquote> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/i05.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="707" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">Spain, England, and France vied for the land and wealth of the New World. This -map, while not showing actual settlement and possession of the land shows -what each nation thought was theirs. Spain’s dominions were more extensive -than those of Britain or France, for the Spaniards were the first to explore and -to begin to claim and settle the land.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">The spice fleet from the Philippines -sailed to Acapulco, on Mexico’s west -coast, the goods were hauled overland -to Veracruz, and then carried by ship -to Havana.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Fleets of ships filled with silver, gold, -spices, precious woods, and other -products of the New World left Havana -for Spain each year.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">The silver fleet from Perú brought the -treasure to the isthmus of Panamá -where it was transshipped to -Portobelo and then on to Havana via -Cartagena.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Spanish St. Augustine served as the -northernmost outpost of the -Caribbean, watching over the waters -of the Gulf stream, Spain’s highway -to Europe.</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/i06.jpg" alt="" width="389" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés -(1519-74) was the founder -of St. Augustine and first governor -of Florida. He struggled -throughout his life to -put St. Augustine on a firm -footing, fending off French -efforts to destroy his settlement. -The engraving is a copy -of a portrait by Titian that -was destroyed in a fire at the -end of the last century.</p> -</div> -<p>Spain did not yet see the need for an impregnable -fort here. After the English failures at Roanoke -Island in North Carolina in 1586-87, the weak settlement -of Jamestown, Virginia, a few years later did -not impress the powerful Council of the Indies in -Madrid as a threat to Spanish interests. Moreover, -the Franciscans, by extending the mission frontier -deep into Indian lands, put the Spanish stamp of -occupation upon a vast territory. The fallacy in this -thinking lay in underestimating the colonizing ability -of the English and believing that an Indian friendly -to Spain would never become a friend of England.</p> -<p>The defeat of the powerful Spanish Armada in -1588 was a dramatic harbinger of things to come; -the way was clear for England to extend its control of -the seas. Its great trading companies were active on -the coasts of four continents, and powerful English -nobles strove for possessions beyond the seas. Jamestown, -despite its inauspicious beginning, was soon -followed by the settlements in New England and -elsewhere. Between the James River and Spanish -Florida stretched a vast, rich territory too tempting -to ignore, and in 1665 Charles II of England granted -a patent for its occupation. The boundaries of the -new colony of Carolina brazenly included some -hundred miles or more of Spanish-occupied land—even -St. Augustine itself!</p> -<p>The signs were clear: The fight for Florida was -inevitable.</p> -<p class="tb">In the middle 1600s at St. Augustine, just south of -where the Castillo now stands, there was a wooden -fort. It was almost as large as the Castillo, but it was -a fort only in name. Most of the timbers were rotten. -Smallpox had killed so many Indians that there were -not enough laborers to carry in replacement logs.</p> -<p>Money to maintain the outposts came from New -Spain, for, the government in Madrid reasoned, the -Florida forts protected the commercial routes from -México to Spain. Consequently, officials in México -City had to find the silver to pay the troops and buy -the food, clothing, and other supplies that Florida so -desperately needed. Despite the orders from Madrid, -payments from México City were always behind, -<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span> -as Floridians knew from bitter experience.</p> -<p>Yet, if ever there was a time to protect Spanish -interests in Florida, it was now. The English had -attacked Santo Domingo and captured Jamaica. The -Dutch had been seen in Apalache Bay on Florida’s -west coast. As the corsairs grew bolder, one governor -made this appraisal: “In spite of the great valor with -which we would resist, successful defense would be -doubtful” without stronger defenses.</p> -<p>Proposals for a permanent, stone fort dated back -to 1586 after the discovery of the native shellstone, -coquina. For years officials in Spain, México, and -Florida argued about what needed to be done. By -1668 payments and sufficient supplies of food were -eight years behind. The townspeople and the soldiers -lived in poverty and the old wooden fort was on the -verge of falling into the sea.</p> -<p>The sack of St. Augustine was a blessing in disguise, -for it shocked Spanish officials into action. -The governor of Havana lent 1,200 pesos for masting -and rigging St. Augustine’s frigate, thus ensuring the -presidio’s communication with its supply bases. The -Viceroy released the 1669 payroll plus money for -general repairs, weapons, gunpowder, and lead for -bullets. He also promised 75 men to bring the troop -levels to authorized strength. And St. Augustine was -allowed to keep an 18-pounder bronze cannon that -had been salvaged from a shipwreck. This aid—12 -months of life for the colony—totaled at least 110,000 -pesos. Included was the hire of mules for the 75 -recruits to ride from México City to Veracruz. Hiring -the animals was easier than finding men, however. -Fifty-one of them arrived at last in 1670; the rest had -deserted or died. Officials in St. Augustine, however, -were not sure that the new troops were particularly -loyal to Spanish interests.</p> -<p>It was Mariana, Queen Regent of Spain, who gave -permanent aid to St. Augustine in three decrees -addressed to the viceroy. On March 11, 1669, she -ordered him to pay the Florida funds on time and -add a proper amount for building the fortification -proposed by the governor. Next, on April 10, she -commanded him to support a full 300-man garrison -in Florida instead of the customary 257 soldiers and -43 missionaries. Finally, on October 30, she enjoined -him to consult with the governor about an adequate -fortification and provide for its construction.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/i07.jpg" alt="" width="533" height="801" /> -<p class="pcap">Billions of sea creatures produced -the coquina that provided -the building blocks of -the Castillo. Because of the -high water table, the layers -of rock were damp when -quarried. Once trimmed and -shaped, the rock dried and -hardened. During the British -bombardment of 1740, the -walls absorbed the impact of -the cannon balls and very -little damage was done.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div> -<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">Beginning the Castillo</span></h2> -<p>To show her commitment to the proposed construction, -the Queen Regent appointed Sgt. Maj. Don -Manuel de Cendoya, a veteran of 22 years service, as -successor to Governor Guerra.</p> -<p>In México City Cendoya followed Queen Mariana’s -orders and delivered his message to the Viceroy, the -Marquis de Mancera. Florida’s defenses were to be -strengthened at once with a main castillo at St. -Augustine, a second fort to protect the harbor entrance, -and a third to prevent troop landings. Initial -estimates were that the project would cost 30,000 -pesos. At this point came the news of the English -settlement at Charleston, and Cendoya at once suggested -a fourth fort at Santa Catalina.</p> -<p>The viceroy’s finance council finally decided to -allot 12,000 pesos to begin work on one fort. If -suitable progress were made, they would consider -sending 10,000 yearly until completion. The question -of additional forts would be referred to the crown. -Cendoya had to be satisfied with this arrangement -and a levy of 17 soldiers. He left for Florida, making -a stop at Havana where he sought skilled workers. -There he also found an engineer, Ignacio Daza.</p> -<p>On August 8, 1671, a month after Cendoya’s -arrival in St. Augustine, the first worker began to -draw pay. By the time the mosquitoes were sluggish -in the cooler fall weather, the quarrymen had opened -coquina pits on Anastasia Island, and the lime -burners were building two big kilns just north of the -old fort. The carpenters put up a palm-thatched -shelter at the quarry, built a dozen rafts for ferrying -stone, firewood, and oyster shells for the limekilns -across the water. They built boxes, handbarrows, and -carretas—the long, narrow, hauling wagons—as well. -The blacksmith hammered out axes, picks, stonecutters’ -hatchets, crowbars, shovels, spades, hoes, -wedges, and nails for the carpenters. The grindstone -screeched as the cutting edge went on the tools.</p> -<p>Indians at the quarry chopped out the dense -<span class="pb" id="Page_14">14</span> -thickets of scrub oak and palmetto, driving out the -rattlesnakes and clearing the ground for the -shovelmen to uncover the top layer of coquina. Day -after day Diego Díaz Mejía, the overseer, kept the -picks and axes going, cutting deep groves into the -soft yellow stone, while with wedge and bar the -workers broke loose and pried up the blocks—small -pieces that a single man could shoulder, and -tremendously heavy cubes two feet thick and twice -as long that six strong men could hardly lift.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/i08.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="697" /> -<p class="pcap">Stone masons were the most -skilled and highly paid laborers -who worked on the Castillo.</p> -</div> -<p>Díaz watched his workers heave the finest stone on -the wagons. He sent the oxen plodding to the wharf -at the head of a marshy creek, where the load of -rough stone was carefully balanced on the rafts for -ferrying to the building site. And on the opposite -shore of the bay, next to the old fort, the cache of -unhewn stone grew larger daily, and the stonecutters -shaped the soft coquina for the masons.</p> -<p>In the limekilns, oyster shells glowed white-hot -and changed into fine quality, quicksetting lime. By -spring of 1672, there were 4,000 <i>fanegas</i> (about 7,000 -bushels) of lime in the two storehouses and great -quantities of hewn and rough stone.</p> -<p>Although the real construction had not even -started, great obstacles had already been overcome. -Maintaining an adequate work force and skilled -workers was a continual problem. When there should -have been 150 men to keep the 15 artisans working at -top speed—50 in the quarries and hauling stone, 50 -for gathering oyster shells and helping at the kilns, -and another 50 for digging foundation trenches, -toting the excavation baskets, and mixing mortar—it -was hard to get as many as 100 laborers on the job.</p> -<p>Indians from three nations, the Guale (coastal -Georgia), Timucua (Florida east of the Aucilla -River), and Apalache (between the Aucilla and the -Apalachicola), were employed. True, they were paid -labor, but some had to travel more than 200 miles to -reach the presidio, and many served unwillingly. In -theory each complement of Indian labor served only -a certain length of time; in practice it was not -uncommon for the men to be held long past their assigned -time, either through necessity or carelessness.</p> -<p>Indians were used as unskilled laborers and paid -the lowest wages—one <i>real</i> (about 20 cents) per day -plus corn rations. Most labored at the monotonous, -back-straining work in the quarries. A few were trained -<span class="pb" id="Page_15">15</span> -as carpenters and received correspondingly greater -wages but never the equal of what the Europeans -earned. One Indian was trained as a stonecutter and -worked on the Castillo for 16 years.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/i08a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="753" /> -<p class="pcap">Great numbers of local Indians -carried out the many -heavy-duty tasks that kept this -labor-intensive project continually -moving forward.</p> -</div> -<p>Besides Indian labor, there were a few Spanish -workers paid 4 <i>reales</i> per day, and a number of -convicts, either local or from Caribbean ports. Beginning -in 1679 there were seven blacks and mulattoes -among the convicts. Eighteen black slaves -belonging to the crown joined the labor gang in 1687. -Convicts and slaves received rations but no wage. A -typical convict might have been a Spaniard caught -smuggling English goods into the colony, who was -condemned to six years’ labor on the fortifications. If -he tried to escape, the term was doubled and he -faced the grim prospect of being sent to a fever-infested -African presidio to work.</p> -<p>The military engineer, Ignacio Daza, was paid the -top wage of 3 pesos (about $4.75) per day. Daza died -seven months after coming to Florida, so the crown -paid only the surprisingly small sum of 546 pesos -(about $862) for engineering services in starting the -greatest of Spanish Florida fortifications.</p> -<p>Of the artisans, there were Lorenzo Lajones, master -of construction, and two master masons, each of -whom received the master workman’s wage of 20 -<i>reales</i> (about $4). Seven masons and eight stonecutters -at 12 <i>reales</i>, and 12 carpenters whose pay -ranged from 6 to 12 <i>reales</i>, completed the ranks of -the skilled workers. Later, some of these wages were -reduced: Lajones’ successor as master of construction -was paid only 17 <i>reales</i>, the master mason 13, and -the stonecutters from 3 to 11 <i>reales</i>, with half of -them at the 3- and 4-<i>real</i> level.</p> -<p>These were few men for the job at hand, and to -speed the work along Governor Cendoya used any -prisoner including neighboring Carolinians who fell -into Spanish hands. In 1670, a vessel bound for -Charleston, mistakenly put in at Santa Catalina -Mission, the Spanish post near the Savannah River, -and William Carr and John Rivers were taken. A -rescue sloop sent from Charleston protested the -Spaniards’ actions, with Joseph Bailey and John -Collins carrying the message from the English. For -their trouble, they were dispatched with Rivers and -Carr to St. Augustine to labor on the fort.</p> -<p>Three of the prisoners were masons, and their -<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span> -Spanish names—Bernardo Patricio (for Bernard -Fitzpatrick), and Juan Calens (for John Collins), and -Guillermo Car (for William Carr)—were duly written -on the payrolls. Some of these British subjects -became permanent residents. Carr, for instance, -embraced first the Catholic faith and then Juana de -Contreras, by whom he fathered eight children. His -father-in-law was a corporal, a circumstance that -may have helped Carr enlist as a gunner while also -working as a highly paid stonecutter.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/i09.jpg" alt="" width="542" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">Spanish silver coins were -used throughout the Caribbean -and the British colonies. -Often they were cut in -two, or quartered, or even -cut into eight pieces, giving -rise to our expression, “two -bits, four bits, six bits, a dollar,” -bit meaning the number -of pieces of one coin needed -to make a dollar. The coins -shown here are a 2-<span class="noti">real</span>, a -1-<span class="noti">real</span>, and another 2-<span class="noti">real</span> -piece. On the one 2-<span class="noti">real</span> coin, -note the Chinese characters -indicating that the coin had -been used in trade in the -Orient. The profile is that of -Charles III, who had died in -1788, though the inscription -says that it is of Charles IV. -The diemaker simply changed -the date and added another -“I” rather than using the more -conventional “IV” roman numeral -designation for 4.</p> -</div> -<p>The Spaniards were understandably cautious in -relying on the loyalty of foreigners, but actually the -new subjects served well. John Collins especially -pleased the officials. He could burn more lime in a -week than others could in twice the time. And as a -prisoner he had to be paid only 8 <i>reales</i> instead of -the 20 due a master workman. Like Carr, Collins -seemed to like St. Augustine. He rose steadily in -the crown’s employ from master of the kilns to -quarrymaster, with dugouts, provisions, and convicts -all in his charge. When pirates landed on Anastasia -in 1683 and marched on the city, Carr made sure that -all crown property in the quarry was moved to safety. -Royal recognition honored his loyalty and years of -service.</p> -<p>A few years later 11 Englishmen were captured -several miles north of St. Augustine. All were committed -to the labor gang—except Andrew Ransom. -He was to be garroted. On the appointed day Ransom -ascended the scaffold. The executioner put the -rope collar about his neck. The screw was turned 6 -times—and the rope broke! Ransom breathed again.</p> -<p>While the onlookers marveled, the friars took the -incident as an act of God and led Ransom to -sanctuary in the parish church. Word reached the -governor that this man was an ingenious fellow, an -artillerist, a carpenter, and what was most remarkable, -a maker of “artificial fires”—fire bombs. Ransom -was offered his life if he would put his talents to use -at the Castillo. He agreed and, like Collins, was exceedingly -helpful. Twelve years later, church authorities -finally agreed that the sanctuary granted by the -parish pastor was valid. At last Ransom was free of -the garrote.</p> -<p>All told, between 100 and 150 workers on the construction -crew labored in those first days of feverish -preparations. They, along with some 500 others—including -<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span> -about 100 soldiers in the garrison, a few -Franciscan friars, a dozen mariners, and the townspeople—had -to be fed. When supplies from México -did not come, getting food was even harder than -finding workers, especially since the coastal soil at -St. Augustine yielded poorly to 17th-century agricultural -methods.</p> -<p>Of the crops grown at St. Augustine, Indian corn -was the staple. Most of the planting, cultivating, and -harvesting of extensive fields near the town was done -by Indians. At times as many as 300 Indians, including -those working on the fortification, served the -crown at the presidio. To make the food, whether -grown locally or shipped in from México, go as far as -possible, it was rationed: 3 pounds daily until 1679, -then 2½ pounds until 1684, then 2 pounds until 1687, -and finally 2½ again. Convicts also got corn if flour -was not on hand, and they also received a meat -ration. Fresh meat was rather scarce, but the waters -teemed with fish and shellfish. A paid fisherman kept -the men supplied.</p> -<p>Garden vegetables were few. Squash grew well in -the sandy soil, as did beans and sweet potatoes, -citron, pomegranates, figs, and oranges. And of -course there were onions and garlic. But St. Augustine -was never self-supporting. After a century of -existence, it still depended for its very life upon -supplies from México.</p> -<p>As the long, hot days of the second summer -shortened into fall, Governor Cendoya saw that after -a year of gathering men and materials, he was ready -to start building.</p> -<p>Daza and the governor decided to construct the -Castillo on the west shore of the bay just north of -the old fort. It was a site that would take advantage -of every natural feature for the best possible defensive -position. The new fort, they decided, would be -similar, though somewhat larger. In line with the -more recent ideas, Daza recommended a slight -lengthening of the bastions. All around the castillo -they planned a broad, deep moat and beyond the -moat, a high palisade on the three land sides.</p> -<p>It was a simple and unpretentious plan, but a good -one. Daza, schooled in the Italian-Spanish principles -of fortification that grew out of the 16th-century -designs of Franceso de Marchi, was clearly a practical -man. His plan called for a “regular” fort—that is, -a symmetrical structure. Basically it was a square with -a bastion at each corner. Equally strong on all sides, -this design was ideal for Florida’s low, flat terrain.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/i10.jpg" alt="" width="705" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">This document is the official report to government officials -in Madrid that ground had been broken for the Castillo. -“Today, Sunday, about four in the afternoon, the second of -October 1672 ... Don Manuel de Cendoya, Governor and -Captain General of these provinces for Her Majesty ... -with spade in hand ... began the foundation trenches for -construction of the Castillo,” the document states.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div> -<p>About four o’clock Sunday afternoon, October 2, -1672, Governor Cendoya walked to a likely looking -spot between the strings marking out the lines of the -new fortification and thrust a spade into the earth, as -Juan Moreno y Segovia, reported the ground breaking -ceremonies for Queen Mariana.</p> -<p>Little more than a month later on Wednesday, -November 9, Cendoya laid the first stone of the -foundation. The people of St. Augustine must have -wept for joy. All were glad and proud, the aged -soldiers who had given a lifetime of service to the -crown, the four orphans whose father had died in -the pirate raid a few years earlier, the widows and -their children, the craftsmen, the workers, and the -royal officials. But none could have been more -pleased or proud than Don Manuel de Cendoya. He -of all the Florida governors had the honor to begin -the first permanent Florida fortification.</p> -<p>Laying the foundations was not easy, for the soil -was sandy and low and as winter came the Indians -were struck by <i>El Contagio</i>—a smallpox epidemic. -The laboring force dwindled to nothing. The governor -asked the crown to have Havana send 30 slaves. -Meanwhile, Cendoya himself and his soldiers took to -the shovels. As they dug a trench some 17 feet wide -and 5 feet deep, the masons came in and laid two -courses of heavy stones directly on the hard-packed -sand bottom for the foundation. The work was slow, -for high tide flooded the trenches.</p> -<p>About 1½ feet inside the toe of this broad -2-foot-high foundation, the masons stretched a line -marking the scarp or curtain, a wall that would -gradually taper upward from a 13-foot base to about -9 feet at its top, 20 feet above the foundation. In -the 12 months that followed, the north, south, and -east walls rose steadily. By midsummer of 1673 the -east side was 12 feet high, and the presidio was -jubilant over the news that the Viceroy was sending -even more money.</p> -<p>This good news was tempered by the viceroy’s -assertion that he would release no more money for -the work without a direct order from the crown. -Cendoya had already asked the queen to raise the -allowance to 16,000 pesos a year so the construction -<span class="pb" id="Page_20">20</span> -could be finished in four years. For, as he put it, the -English menace at Charleston brooked no delay. The -English were said to be outfitting ships for an invasion.</p> -<p>Gradually, however, construction slowed. In 1673 -Cendoya and Daza died within a few days of one -another. The governor’s mantle fell upon Major -Ponce, in whom the local Spaniards had little -confidence.</p> -<p>Trouble beset Ponce on every side. The viceroy -was reluctant to part with money for this project -despite evidence that English strength and influence -was increasing daily, especially among the Indians. -Shortly after Ponce took control, a terrific storm hit -the city. High tides undermined houses, flooded fields -and gardens, and polluted the wells. Sickness took its -toll. The old wooden fort was totally ruined. Waves -washed out a bastion, causing it to collapse under -the weight of its guns. The other seaward bastion and -the palisade were also breached in several places.</p> -<p>Then in the spring of 1675 when another provision -ship was lost, Ponce had to lead a group of workers on -a long march into Timucua to fetch provisions from -the Indians. Only a few masons were left to carry on -the work at the Castillo.</p> -<p>Despite all these problems, Ponce made progress. -The north curtain was completed and the east and -south were well underway. But looking west the -soldiers could see only open country.</p> -<p>On May 3, 1675, the long-awaited supply ship from -México safely arrived. Among its few passengers was -a new governor for Florida, Sgt. Maj. Don Pablo de -Hita Salazar, a hard-bitten veteran of campaigns in -Europe, and most recently governor of Veracruz. -Surely it was because of his reputation as a soldier -that he was assigned to Florida. Besides continuing -the work on the fort he was ordered to “dislocate” -the Charleston settlement. Led to believe the viceroy -would help in the difficult task ahead, Hita, in fact, -found that official singularly reluctant.</p> -<p>At St. Augustine, the work had been dragging, but -Hita made some positive points in writing the crown: -“Although I have seen many castillos of consequence -and reputation in the form of its plan, this one is not -surpassed by any of those of greater character.” -Furthermore, he endorsed the statement of the royal -officials, who were eager to point out the brighter -side of the picture: “If it had to be built in another -<span class="pb" id="Page_21">21</span> -place than St. Augustine it would cost a double -amount because there will not be the advantage of -having the laborers, at a <i>real</i> of wages each day, with -such meagre sustenance as three pounds of maize, -nor will the overseers and artisans work in other -places with such little salaries ... nor will the stone, -lime, and other materials be found so close at hand -and with the convenience there is in this presidio.”</p> -<p>So much money—34,298 pesos—had been spent -on the fort, and it was not yet finished, so it was -important to tell the authorities the positive benefits -of this project, for at this point the old stockade was -a ruin and the new one was unusable. Reports from -English deserters told them that Charleston, less -than 215 miles to the north, was well defended by a -stockade and 20 cannon.</p> -<p>Using characteristic realism, energy, and enthusiasm -that would have done credit to a much younger -man, Don Pablo set about making his own fortification -defensible. The bastion of San Carlos—at the -northeast corner of the Castillo—was the nearest to -completion. Hita ordered it finished so that cannon -could be mounted on its rampart.</p> -<p>While the masons were busy at that work, he took -his soldiers and razed the old fort. The best of its -wood went into a barrier across the open west side of -the Castillo. In 15 days they built a 12-foot-high -earthwork with two half-bastions, faced with a veneer -of stone and fronted by a moat 14 feet wide -and 10 feet deep. At last the garrison had four walls -for protection.</p> -<p>Next the powder magazine in the gorge of San -Carlos was completed and a ramp laid over it to give -access to the rampart above. The three curtains rose -to their full height of 20 feet. At the southeast corner -the workers dumped hundreds of baskets of sand -and rubble into the void formed by the walls of San -Agustin bastion and filled it to the 20-foot level.</p> -<p>Both carpenters and masons worked on the temporary -buildings and finished a little powder magazine -near the north curtain. A timber-framed coquina -structure, partitioned into guardhouse, lieutenant’s -quarters, armory, and provision magazine, took shape -along the west wall. Finally, a few of the guns from -the old fort were mounted in San Carlos and San -Agustin bastions and along the west front. After -three years of work, the Castillo was a defense at last.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/i12.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="716" /> -<p class="pcap">Practically every phase of construction is shown -here: ferrying the newly-quarried stones across from -Anastasia Island, hauling them to the site, cutting and -shaping the stones, mixing mortar, using oxen to hoist a -load of stones to the work area, and setting the stones in -place. Overseeing all this and reviewing the plans are the -engineer and master mason.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/i13.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="593" /> -<p class="pcap">Archeology, in one of its functions, provides us with -glimpses into the life of days gone by. The three bone buttons -were found in and around the Castillo. The light-colored, -smooth button with one hole was found in a sentry box. -Perhaps a coat caught on the entry way and the button tore -off, never to be found by the owner? The brass button is -from a 19th-century Spanish uniform.</p> -</div> -<p>And now Governor Hita’s first admiration for its -design vanished. The Castillo, he said, was too -massive. Surely no one would ever besiege it formally. -Rather, the danger lay in a blockade of the -harbor or occupation of Anastasia Island, actions -that would cut the presidio’s lifeline. The San Carlos -bastion was too high for effective fire on the inlet or -to sweep Anastasia. He argued that the Castillo, -including the parapet, should be held to a total -height of only 20 feet and supplemented by a 6-gun -redoubt directly facing the inlet.</p> -<p>Royal officials strenuously opposed the governor’s -attempts to change Daza’s plan. They wrote the -crown of Hita’s desire to tear finished walls down to -the level he thought proper.</p> -<p>In Hita’s view the west wall, though temporary, -was adequate. Therefore he would defer the permanent -wall and start instead on the permanent guardroom, -quarters, ravelin, and moat. Royal officials -insisted, however, that since the west wall was nothing -but a half-rotten fence and a mound of earth faced -with stone, all the walls must be completed as soon -as possible.</p> -<p>In the hope that the crown would agree to lower -the walls, Hita let the work lag on the two seaward -bastions while he began the west wall and bastions. -Construction continued despite trouble with the -Choctaws, despite the worrisome impossibility of -driving out the Carolina settlers, despite the pirate -raid on the port of Apalache in the west, and the -ever-present fear of invasion. Lorenzo Lajones, the -master of construction, died, but still the work went -on. Even after the viceroy’s 10,000 pesos were spent, -work continued with money diverted from the troop -payroll. As a last resort, people gave what they could -out of their own poverty. When these gifts were gone, -the scrape of the trowel ceased and the hammer and -axe were laid aside. Construction stopped on the last -day of 1677.</p> -<p>At the same time, the supply vessel bringing -desperately needed provisions and clothing from -México arrived, only to be lost on a sand bar right in -St. Augustine harbor. It was a heartbreaking loss. -Hita became disconsolate. The help he begged from -Havana never came, and for four years his reports to -the viceroy were ignored. Old, discouraged, and -sick, Hita wrote the crown that he was “without -<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span> -human recourse” in this remote province. Perhaps -the final blow to his pride was a terse order from the -crown to stick strictly to Daza’s plan for the Castillo.</p> -<p>Yet the old warrior did not give up. Eventually the -viceroy released 5,000 more pesos, and after 20 -months of idleness construction resumed on August -29, 1679. As soon as Hita left his sickbed he was back -at the fort, impatient with the snail’s pace of progress -under a new master of construction, Juan Márquez -Molina from Havana, whose sharp-eyed inspections -found stones missing from their courses and some of -the walls too thin.</p> -<p>The royal officials, always on hand to make sure -the governor followed the crown’s directives to the -letter, blamed the deficiencies on Hita, “who has -trod this fort down without knowledge of the art of -fortification.” With another 5,000 pesos plus the -masons due to arrive from Havana, said the old man -in rebuttal, “I promise to leave the work in very good -condition.” Before he could make good on that -promise, Sgt. Maj. Don Juan Márquez Cabrera arrived -at the end of November 1680 to take over the -reins of government.</p> -<p>So, half apologizing for his own little knowledge of -“architecture and geometry,” Hita left the trials and -tribulations of this frontier province to his more -youthful successor.</p> -<p>Actually, Hita had done a great deal. Within six -weeks after his arrival he had made the Castillo -defensible against any but an overwhelming force. -During the rest of his 5½-year term he brought the -walls up to where they were ready for the parapet -builders, despite one obstacle after another. In fact, -the parapet on San Carlos bastion was almost complete, -with embrasures for the artillery and firing -steps for the musketeers. The only low part of the -work was the San Pablo bastion, where the level had -been miscalculated. The sally port had its drawbridge -and iron-bound portal, and another heavy -door closed the postern in the north curtain. Permanent -rooms that would go along the curtain walls -were still only plans, but in a temporary building -centered in the courtyard were a guardroom and -storeroom, and a little chapel stood near the postern -in the shadow of the north curtain.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/i13a.jpg" alt="" width="394" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap">These bottles, dating from -the 19th-century American -presence in St. Augustine, -attest to the continuity of life. -The shells on the stoneware -flask indicate that it has been -in saltwater for some time. -The gold and tan bottle originally -held ginger beer, a popular -drink in the mid-1800s. -The green bottle is stamped -“Rumford Chemical Works” -of Rumford, Rhode Island, -on the shoulder.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div> -<h4 class="interlude">Saint Augustine</h4> -<blockquote> -<p>Although Saint Augustine was primarily a military outpost intended -to protect Spain’s dominion over Florida and the -sea route of its treasure fleets, Saint Augustine also became -a viable community as well, home to the settler-soldiers -and their families. Except for the Castillo, which was finished -in 1695, hardly any structure survives from Saint Augustine’s -first 150 years. Archeological investigations show -that almost all the earliest dwellings were small, crude -structures made of local materials with thatched roofs and -bare, dirt floors; coquina, the stone used in building the fort -was not used for homes until 1690. The ordinary wear and -tear of weather and time ensured that none of these early -structures lasted.</p> -<p>Archeology can tell us about the lives of the people who -lived in these houses, for more than 1,000 objects and pieces -and bits of pottery dating to the 16th century have been found. -Most of them are from local Indian sources and corroborate -written records that show that by 1600 almost 25 percent of -the soldiers had taken Indian wives because few Spanish -women initially came to Florida. Besides using their local -ceramics, the Indian women introduced New World foods -to their families and into the Spanish diet, creating something -that was neither wholly Spanish nor wholly Indian.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/i14.jpg" alt="" width="669" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap">The Oldest House Museum</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/i14a.jpg" alt="" width="672" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap">View in St. George Street</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div> -<p>The town itself was laid out according to ordinances dictated -by the Spanish government in 1563, resulting in a -carefully planned community with houses fronting directly -on standard-width streets with gardens in the rear or at the -side. This showed clearly that Spain intended St. Augustine -to be a permanent settlement, not a mere outpost on the -fringes of empire. In the 18th century, indeed, it had become -a vibrant community that numbered almost 3,000 persons -when the garrison and all inhabitants withdrew after Florida -became British in 1763.</p> -<p>The community and the people who lived in it were a mixture -of influences showing graphically how quickly Spaniards -adapted to the New World, using its materials, changing -patterns that they had brought from their homeland to meet -new conditions, and creating a society that simulated, but -did not mirror, what they had left behind. Saint Augustine -was the beginning of a new world for those who came here -in 1565.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/i14c.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="361" /> -<p class="pcap">The map, based on the surveys of Juan de Solís, was -drawn in 1764, a year after the British took control of -Florida. English names have already been given to the -town’s features. Somehow Fort St. Mark, a translation -of Castillo de San Marcos, does not have the same ring.</p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div> -<p>The new man, Major Juan Márquez Cabrera, -formerly governor of Honduras, checked the Castillo -work carefully with the construction master. Those -long years without an engineer had left them a -heritage of mistakes—skimpy foundations, levels -miscalculated—that had to be set right. From Havana -came a military engineer, Ensign Don Juan de Císcara. -During his brief stay he gave valuable guidance for -continuing the work, built the ramp to San Pablo -bastion, and laid foundations for the ravelin and its -moat wall.</p> -<p>The 1680s were turbulent years. In 1682, the year -the ravelin was finished, a dozen or so pirate craft in -the Straits of Florida seized numerous Spanish prizes, -including the Florida frigate on its way to Veracruz. -They raided Mosquito Inlet, only 60 miles south of -St. Augustine. In the west, pirates struck Fort San -Marcos de Apalache and even went up the San -Martín (Suwanee) River to rob cattle ranches in -Timucua.</p> -<p>Work on the Castillo fell further and further -behind schedule. Márquez appealed to the curate for -dispensation to work on Sundays and holy days. -Because of a history of bad relations with Márquez, -the request was refused. Márquez appealed to higher -authorities. When approval came, however, it was -too late, for invasion came first.</p> -<p>On March 30, 1683, English corsairs landed a -short way south of the <i>Centinela de Matanzas</i>, the -watchtower, at Matanzas Inlet near the south end of -Anastasia Island and about 14 miles from St. Augustine. -Under cover of darkness, a few of the raiders -came up behind the tower and surprised the sentries.</p> -<p>The march on St. Augustine began the next day. -Fortunately a soldier from St. Augustine happened -by Matanzas and saw the motley band. Posthaste he -warned the governor, who sent Capt. Antonio de -Argüelles with 30 musketeers to meet them on -Anastasia. A mile from the presidio the pirates -walked into the captain’s ambush. After exchanging -a few shots—one of which lodged in Argüelles’ -leg—the Englishmen beat a hasty retreat down the -island to their boats. They sailed to St. Augustine -and anchored at the inlet in plain sight of the -unfinished Castillo.</p> -<p>Márquez, his soldiers, and the townspeople worked -day and night to strengthen the Castillo. Missing -parapets and a firing step were improvised from dry -stone. Expecting the worst, everybody crowded into -<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span> -the fort. But the corsairs, looking at the stone fort -and nursing their wounds, decided to sail on.</p> -<p>After this scare, the Castillo crew worked with -renewed zeal. By mid-1683 they had completed the -San Agustín and San Pablo bastions. Governor -Márquez sent the crown a wooden model to show -what had been done.</p> -<p>This was progress made in the face of privation—hunger -that made the people demand of Márquez -that he buy supplies from a stray Dutch trader from -New York. It was unlawful, but the people had to eat. -Imagine the joy in the presidio soon afterward when -two subsidy payments came at one time! Márquez -gave the soldiers two years’ back pay and had enough -provisions on hand for 14 months. The 27 guns of the -presidio, from the iron 2-pounder to the 40-pounder -bronze, all had their gunner’s ladle, rammer, sponge, -and wormer, along with plenty of powder and shot. -There was also an alarm bell in San Carlos bastion.</p> -<p>By August 1684 Governor Márquez started on the -fort rooms and finished them the next spring. Courtyard -walls paralleled the four curtains, and foot-square -beams spanned the distance between them. -Laid over these great beams were 3-inch planks, -supporting a slab roof of tabby masonry. On the -north were the powder magazine and two big storerooms. -Quarters were along the west curtain, guardroom -and chapel on the south, and rooms on the east -included a latrine and prison. Altogether there were -more than 20 rooms.</p> -<p>The only major work yet to do was beyond the -walls. The surrounding moat, 40 feet wide, needed -to be deepened, for only part of the moat wall was up -to its full 8-foot depth. In fact, of the outworks only -the ravelin was finished.</p> -<p>With the fortification this far along, Governor -Márquez could give more attention to other business, -such as Lord Cardross’ Scottish colony at Port -Royal, South Carolina. This was, in the Spanish view, -a new and obnoxious settlement that encouraged -heathen Indians to raid mission Indians. Furthermore, -it was in land recognized as Spanish even by -the English monarch.</p> -<p>So in September 1686, Márquez sent Captain -Alejandro Tomás de Léon, with orders to destroy the -colony, which he did. He then sacked and burned -Governor Joseph Morton’s plantation on Edisto Island.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/i15.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="167" /> -<p class="pcap">This cannon tube is typical of most 18th-century guns and -bears the cipher of Carlos III, showing it to be Spanish.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div> -<h4 class="interlude">The Castillo</h4> -<blockquote> -<div class="img" id="fig18"> -<img src="images/i16.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="479" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">This bird’s-eye view of Castillo de San Marcos shows how it is -laid out and why. The fort was located at the north end of -Saint Augustine and on the water for defensive reasons. -The moat protected it on four sides, and the Matanzas River -lent additional protection as well. The only entrance was at -the point closest to the town, so the inhabitants could quickly -go to the fort if danger threatened. The fort was designed, -too, so that every wall could be seen from some vantage point -inside the Castillo. No attacking force could sneak up to the -very walls without the defenders seeing them. The original -Castillo was simply the exterior walls. Parallel to them were the -inner, or courtyard, walls, built also of stone. Beams spanned -the space between exterior and inner walls and held up -platforms upon which guns sat aimed at the surrounding -countryside or out over the water. Such a structure offered -scant bombproof defense against incoming projectiles. -And the wooden beams were subject to rot in the humid, -subtropical air.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><b>Bastions</b></p> -<p class="pcapc">Each corner of the fort is protected -by a diamond-shaped -bastion. From the bastion the -adjacent walls could be protected -from an attacking -force, and in conjunction with -the neighboring bastions a -deadly crossfire could be -turned on any force that got -so close.</p> -<p class="pcapc"><b>Guard Rooms</b></p> -<p class="pcapc">St. Augustine was a garrison town and no one lived inside -the Castillo. When soldiers were on guard duty—usually -a period of 24 hours—they slept and prepared their meals -in these rooms.</p> -<p class="pcapc"><b>Storage Rooms</b></p> -<p class="pcapc">Most of the rooms around the central courtyard were used -for storage. They were stockpiled with gunpowder, ammunition, -weapons, lumber, tools, and food, such as beans, -rice, flour, and corn, that could be used in time of siege.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_31">31</div> -<div class="img" id="fig19"> -<img src="images/i16a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="287" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">Work began on stone vaults in 1738 to solve -these problems. First, carpenters built wooden forms that supported the stone until all pieces -of the arch were in place. As the form was removed, other -workers began dumping sand, rubble, earth—anything to -build up the level—into the spaces above the arches. Over -this a cement-like mixture of sand and coquina was placed -and tamped down and built up in stages until the desired -height was reached. The result was a wide gun platform -on top that would support the heaviest guns and provide -bombproof spaces beneath.</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div> -<p>Next they set course for Charleston but again, as -had happened in 1670, a storm blew them away from -the hated English colony. Leon’s vessel, the <i>Rosario</i>, -was lost, and he along with it. Another ship was -driven aground, and the last of the little armada -limped back to St. Augustine.</p> -<p>Actually the real contest for the southeast was in -the backcountry where English traders operated. -Governor Márquez sent soldiers and missionaries -from St. Augustine to the Apalachecola nation in -western Georgia. For the Spaniards, however, it was -a losing fight—an exciting, exasperating struggle of -diplomacy and intrigue, trade and cupidity, war and -religion, slavery and death.</p> -<p>Captain of cuirassiers Diego de Quiroga y Losada -assumed the governorship on August 21, 1687, after -Márquez fled to Cuba in April. That same day he -stopped work on the Castillo because there was no -way to feed the workers. These troubles and the -certainty of reprisals from the Carolinians sent Capt. -Juan de Ayala Escobar directly to Spain for help. He -came back with 80 soldiers, the money for maintaining -them, and even a Negro slave to help in the fields. -The black man, one of a dozen Ayala had hoped to -deliver, was a much-needed addition to the colony, -and Captain Ayala was welcomed back to St. Augustine -with rejoicing “for his good diligence.”</p> -<p>Soon there was more black labor for both fields -and fortifications. From the Carolina plantations, an -occasional slave would slip away and move southward -along the waterways. In 1687 a small boat -loaded with nine runaways made its way to St. -Augustine. The men found work to do and the -governor took the two women into his household as -servants. It was a fairly happy arrangement: the -slaves worked well and soon asked for Catholic -baptism.</p> -<p>A few months later, William Dunlop came from -Charleston in search of them. Governor Quiroga, -reluctant to surrender converted slaves, offered to -buy them for the Spanish crown. Dunlop agreed to -the sale, even though the governor was as usual short -of cash and had given him a promissory note. To seal -the bargain, Dunlop gave one of the slaves, a baby -girl, her freedom. Later the crown liberated the -others.</p> -<p>This incident resulted in a knotty problem. First, -<span class="pb" id="Page_33">33</span> -commerce with Carolina, as an English colony, was -illegal. Secondly, the crown could not buy freedom -for every runaway that came to Florida, as more and -more Carolina blacks left their English masters, -seeking refuge. The slave issue made any hope of -amicable relations between the Spanish and English -colonists impossible. Eventually the Spaniards decreed -freedom for all Carolina slaves coming to -Florida, and the governor established a fortified -village—Gracia Real de Mose—for them hardly more -than a cannon shot from the Castillo.</p> -<p>Construction work on the Castillo resumed in the -spring of 1688, after a shipment of corn came from -Apalache. In Havana Governor Quiroga bought for -137 pesos a stone bearing the royal arms to be set -into the wall over the gate. At this time, too, the little -town entered its “stone age,” for as surplus materials -from the crown quarries became available, masonry -buildings gradually took the place of the board-and-thatch -housing that had been traditional here since -the founding.</p> -<p>Until the outworks could be finished, the Castillo -was vulnerable to siege guns and scaling ladders. -Nevertheless it was impossible to push the heavy -work of quarrying, lumbering, and hauling at this -crucial time. There were too many other pressures. -Belatedly trying to counteract English gains and -strengthen their own ties with the Indians, the Spaniards -built a fort in the Apalachecola country. Unfortunately -the soldiers had to be pulled back to -St. Augustine when Spain declared war on France -in 1689.</p> -<p>This time Spain and England were allies. Yet -Governor Quiroga wondered at the presence of -English vessels off both northern and southern coasts. -As a bit of insurance he wrote a letter telling of a -strength far beyond what he had, in the hope that if -an English ship would capture the letter they would -not know of St. Augustine’s weakness. For again the -supply situation was critical, and swarms of French -corsairs infested the waters between Florida and -Havana. Two provision vessels were lost in the Keys -and a third fell into French hands. Until food eventually -came in from Havana and Campeche, the soldiers -had to live on handouts from the townspeople.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig20"> -<img src="images/i17.jpg" alt="" width="442" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap">In the royal arms of Spain, the lions stand for the province -of León and the castles for the province of Castile. -The shield is surrounded by the chain of the Order of the -Golden Fleece, a knightly order founded in 1430, of -which the Spanish monarch was grand master. The story -of the Golden Fleece recalls the courageous exploits in the -ancient Greek myth of Jason and the Argonauts.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div> -<h4 class="interlude">The Drawbridge</h4> -<blockquote> -<div class="img" id="fig21"> -<img src="images/i18.jpg" alt="" width="731" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">The inner workings of the Castillo drawbridge.</p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Pulling up the drawbridge was like locking the door. Once it -was pulled up flush against the walls and the portcullis—the -heavy grating made of solid yellow pine—rolled shut, no -one could get into the fort. To raise the bridge, trapdoors -were removed so that the counterweights could descend -into the pit. A windlass also lay beneath this trapdoor. Soldiers -inserted bars into holes bored into the windlass and -rotated it, causing the lifting drums to revolve. The chains, -attached to the far end of the bridge, pulled the bridge up -as the chains turned on the lifting drums. The counterweights -helped neutralize the weight of the bridge so that -three soldiers were able to lift its great weight—approximately -1,900 pounds. When the bridge was in the upright -position, the soldiers then rolled the portcullis shut behind -them, and secured it. This was done every night or in -time of danger.</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div> -<p>To lessen the chances of famine in the future, -Florida officials resolved to plant great fields of corn -nearby. And where was better than the broad clearings -around the fort? Acres of waving corn soon -covered the land almost up to the moat. When the -crown heard of these plantings, back to Florida came -a royal order banning corn fields within a musket -shot of the Castillo. A whole army could hide in the -tall corn without being seen by the sentries!</p> -<div class="img" id="fig22"> -<img src="images/i18a.jpg" alt="" width="393" height="599" /> -<p class="pcap">The Castillo drawbridge.</p> -</div> -<p>A new governor, Don Laureano de Torres y Ayala, -arrived in 1693. At the outset he had to deal with -hostilities between St. Augustine and Charleston—hostilities -that mocked the Spanish-English alliance -in Europe.</p> -<p>More importantly, however, to Governor Torres -belongs the credit for completing Castillo de San -Marcos. Torres saw the last stones go into place for -the water battery—bright yellow coquina that was in -contrast to weathered masonry almost a quarter of a -century old. In August 1695 the workmen finally -moved out of the Castillo to another job: a seawall -that would keep storm tides out of the city.</p> -<p>The pile of stone on which Cendoya had planned -to spend some 70,000 pesos and which Hita had -estimated would cost a good 80,000 if built elsewhere, -ended up costing at least 138,375 pesos, a -tremendous sum impossible to translate into today’s -money. But more than the money, it was the blood, -sweat, and hardship of the Florida soldier that paid -the cost. For the funds came out of money never -paid. Let the Castillo be his monument!</p> -<p>And what did completion of this citadel mean? -Only a year later, soldiers gaunt with hunger slipped -into the church and left an unsigned warning for the -governor: If the enemy came, they intended to -surrender, for they were starving.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div> -<div class="img" id="fig23"> -<img src="images/i19.jpg" alt="" width="683" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">Weapons of the 17th and 18th centuries may seem crude -and primitive to a late-20th-century observer, but they -could rain death and destruction on any foe. See the feature -on Ordnance, pages <a class="pgref" href="#Page_44">44</a>-45, for more details.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div> -<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">Defending San Marcos</span></h2> -<p>The test of the Castillo’s strength was not long in -coming. Relations with France had become peaceful, -but incursions by the English-led Indians kept -the backcountry inflamed. As tensions increased, -Gov. José de Zúñiga y Cerda looked at the St. -Augustine defenses with an experienced eye. Zúñiga -knew, after a military career spanning 28 years, that -strong walls were not enough. The Castillo’s guns -were ancient and obsolete—many of them unserviceable. -The powder from México so fouled the gun -barrels that after “four shots, the Ball would not go in -the Cannon.” Arquebuses, muskets, powder, and -shot were in short supply.</p> -<p>Once again Captain Ayala sailed directly to Spain -to ask for aid. It was a race against time, for the War -of the Spanish Succession with France and Spain -allied against England had broken out. Gov. James -Moore of Carolina lost no time moving against St. -Augustine in 1702. If he could capture the Castillo, -he would clap an English lock on the Straits of -Florida and forestall a possible Spanish-French attack -on Charleston.</p> -<p>On the way south, Moore’s forces destroyed the -Franciscan missions in the Guale country. At St. -Augustine they avoided the Castillo and occupied -the town, whose inhabitants had fled to the fort. -South and west of its walls, where the town approached -the fort, the Spaniards burned many structures -that could have hidden the enemy advance.</p> -<p>Moore’s 500 Englishmen and 300 Indians vastly -outnumbered the 230 soldiers and 180 Indians and -Negroes in the Castillo’s garrison, but Moore was -ill-equipped to besiege the Castillo. He settled down -to await the arrival of more artillery from Jamaica, -and thus matters stood when four Spanish men-of-war -arrived and blocked the harbor entrance, bottling -up Moore’s fleet of eight small vessels. Moore -burned his ships, left most of his supplies, and -retreated overland to the St. Johns River. He left St. -<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span> -Augustine in ashes, but the Castillo and its people -survived.</p> -<p>The ease with which the English had taken and -held the city for almost two months made it clear -that more defenses were needed. Moreover, English -and Indian obliteration of the missions in Apalache, -Timucua, and Guale had reduced Spanish control to -the tiny area directly under the Castillo guns.</p> -<p>In the next two decades strong earthworks and -palisades, buttressed at strategic points with redoubts, -made St. Augustine a walled town, secure as -long as there were enough soldiers to man the walls. -But in those dark days who could be sure of tomorrow? -In 1712 came <i>La Gran Hambre</i>—the Great -Hunger—when starving people even ate the dogs -and cats.</p> -<p>At last the war ended in 1714. The threat to St. -Augustine lessened, but it was an uneasy kind of -peace with many “incidents.” In 1728 Col. William -Palmer of Carolina marched against the presidio. -The grim walls of the fort, the readiness of the heavy -guns, and the needle-sharp points of the yucca plants -lining the palisades were a powerful deterrent. Palmer -“refrained” from taking the town. For their part, the -Spaniards fired their guns, but made no sorties.</p> -<p>Palmer’s bold foray to the very gates of St. Augustine -foreshadowed a new move southward by the -English, beginning with the settlement of Savannah -in 1732. With his eye on Florida, James Oglethorpe -landed at St. Simons Island in 1736, built Fort -Frederica, and nurtured it into a strong military post. -From Frederica he pushed his Georgia boundary -southward all the way to the St. Johns River—a scant -35 miles from St Augustine.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig24"> -<img src="images/i20.jpg" alt="" width="443" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap">Mortars have long held an important -place in the family of -field artillery because of their -ability to throw a projectile -over a barrier. The Spaniards -were among the earliest to use -mortars whose trajectory -could be varied, thereby making -the mortars even more -effective.</p> -</div> -<p>Meanwhile, Castillo de San Marcos began to show -signs of being 50 years old. The capable engineer -and frontier diplomat Antonio de Arredondo came -from Havana to inspect Florida’s defenses and make -recommendations. Backed by Arredondo’s expertise, -Gov. Manuel de Montiano wrote a frank letter to -the governor of Cuba, who was now responsible for -Florida’s security: “Your Excellency must know that -this castle, the only defense here, has no bombproofs -for the protection of the garrison, that the -counterscarp is too low, that there is no covered way, -that the curtains are without demilunes, that there -are no other exterior works to give them time for a -long defense; ... we are as bare outside as we are -without life inside, for there are no guns that could -last 24 hours and if there were, we have no artillery-men -to serve them.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div> -<h4 class="interlude">Spanish-English Conflict, 1670-1748</h4> -<blockquote> -<div class="img" id="fig25"> -<img src="images/i20a.jpg" alt="" width="730" height="993" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">The Treaty of Madrid, 1670, aimed at stopping the Spanish-English contest -along the South Atlantic coast by confirming Spanish claims as far north -as 32°30′. The English agreed to this but within a few years continued their -push southward. Savannah, settled in 1733 was well within Spanish territory.</span></p> -</div> -<table class="center" summary=""> -<tr class="th"><th>Selected attacks </th><th>Nationality</th></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Charleston 1670, 1706 </td><td class="l">Spanish</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"><span class="hst">″, 1706</span> </td><td class="l">French</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Edisto Island, 1706 </td><td class="l">Spanish</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Port Royal, 1686 </td><td class="l">Spanish</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Santa Catalina Island, 1680 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Fort Frederica, 1742 </td><td class="l">Spanish</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">St. Simons Island, 1742 </td><td class="l">Spanish</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Santa Maria Island, 1683 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">San Juan de Puerto, 1683 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Fort San Diego, 1740 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">St. Augustine, 1683, 1702, 1728, 1740 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Matanzas Inlet, 1683, 1740, 1741, 1742, 1743 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Little Matanzas Inlet, 1686 </td><td class="l">French</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Mosquito Inlet, 1682 </td><td class="l">French</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Santa Fe, 1702 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Santa Catalina de Afuica, 1685 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">San Juan de Guacara, 1693 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Ayubale, 1704 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">San Pedro de Patale, 1704 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Apalache Fort, 1677, 1682 </td><td class="l">French</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">San Carlos, 1693 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -</table> -</blockquote> -<blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div> -<h4 class="interlude">Defending the Fort</h4> -<div class="img" id="fig26"> -<img src="images/i21.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="677" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">The most serious attack on the Castillo took place when -James Oglethorpe, the founder of Georgia, arrived off Saint -Augustine on June 13, 1740, with 7 warships and 1,400 -troops. Oglethorpe’s arrival was not entirely unexpected. -The English and Spaniards were rivals in Europe and continued -their contest in the New World, with the Spaniards becoming -increasingly restive as the English penetrated into the -lands south of Charleston. By the time Oglethorpe arrived in -Georgia, only about 150 miles north of the Castillo and on -land the Spaniards considered their own, tensions were high. -Oglethorpe wanted to guarantee that his new settlements -would be secure from Spanish attack, so he decided to capture -and occupy Spain’s base in Florida—before they decided -to attack him. Oglethorpe had his work cut out for -him, because the Castillo was superbly sited. Creeks and -marshes protected it to the west and south. On the east -the bay stretched to a shallow bar across the harbor entrance -that kept heavy warships out of range. The only land approach -was from the north. An English spy for Oglethorpe reported -that the fort was well supplied and staffed. There -were “22 pieces of Cannon well mounted on the Bastions -from 6 pound’rs to 36.... There is a guard of a Lieutenant, a -Serjeant & 2 Corporals & 30 Soldiers here who is relieved -Every Day.... There is a Mote Round it of 30 foot wide & a -draw Bridge of about 15 foot long, they draw every Night & -Lett it down in the Morning.” With this kind of information -Oglethorpe knew what he was up against and came prepared. -Fortunately for the defenders, the attackers were divided. -Some had landed on Vilano Point and on Anastasia Island, -opposite the Castillo and were setting up batteries there. -Some troops were on the mainland where they had seized vacant -Fort Mose, a free black settlement just north of the -Castillo. Though the total British force outnumbered the -defenders, Gov. Manuel de Montiano reasoned that his -forces could attack one segment before it could be reinforced -by the other two. This is exactly what the Spaniards -did, overwhelming the British force at Fort Mose. Undecided -about further land attack, the British then began shelling the -Castillo and the town from their siege batteries in a bombardment -that lasted 27 days. But the British mortars and -siege guns were too far away to be totally effective and the -damage they did was slight. Some of the newer stonework -was damaged. Only two Spanish soldiers were killed during -the attack and another had a leg shot away. Among the British -there was no agreement regarding another course of -action. Oglethorpe himself was down with a fever, and the -troops had become unnecessarily tired by purposeless maneuvering. -With the approach of the hurricane season, the -naval commander refused to continue the blockade, and -British forces left. The Castillo and its defenders had done -what they were meant to do.</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div> -<div class="img" id="fig27"> -<img src="images/i22.jpg" alt="" width="688" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">The construction of the bombproof vaults in 1738-40 -and 1751-56 provided a substantial room for the guard. -Bedding was laid on the raised platform at left.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_43">43</div> -<p>Cuba’s governor was a resourceful administrator -eager to meet his responsibilities. He sent guns, -soldiers, artisans, convicts, provisions, and money. -The walls would be raised five feet and masonry -vaults, to withstand English bombs, would replace -the rotting beams of old rooms in the Castillo. -Stronger outworks would be built, too. To supervise -the project, Engineer Pedro Ruiz de Olano came -from Venezuela. The work began in April 1738 -rather inauspiciously. The master of construction, -one Cantillo, was a syphilitic too sick to earn his -16-<i>real</i> daily wage. Much of his work fell to his -assistant, a 12-<i>real</i> master mason. All six stonecutters -were Negroes. One was an invalid, and none of -them as yet had much skill with coquina. For moving -stone, there was but one oxcart. The labor gang—52 -convicts—was too small. Nevertheless, quarry and -kiln hummed with activity, and in the Castillo the -crash of demolition echoed as the convicts pulled -down old structures and began trenching for the new -bombproofs. They started on the east, because this -side faced the inlet where enemy action was likely.</p> -<p>As usual, misfortunes beset the work. Cantillo’s -illness worsened and Blas de Ortega came from -Havana to replace him. Eight convicts working at the -limekiln deserted. Engineer Ruiz moved a crew of -carpenters, sawyers, and axemen from work on the -Castillo to rebuild a blockhouse where the trail to -Apalache crossed the St. Johns River.</p> -<p>The oxcart driver broke his arm. Quarrying and -stonecutting dragged. The old quarry played out. -Luckily, a new one was found and opened, even -though farther away. And Havana sent two more -carts and more stonecutters and convicts.</p> -<p>It was well into October before the carpenters -began setting the forms for the vaults. The masons -followed close on their heels and finished the first of -the massive, round-arched bombproofs before the -year ended. Just a year later all eight vaults, side by -side along the east curtain, were done. Each one -spanned a 17- by 34-foot area, and had its own door -to the courtyard. Windows above and beside the -door let in light and air.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_44">44</div> -<h4 class="interlude">Ordnance</h4> -<blockquote> -<p>Forts are often described with words like impregnable, unassailable, -grim, invulnerable, and redoubtable. These descriptions -often came about because of their armaments. -A strategically positioned fort with a full complement of weaponry -would be a problem for any invader, because the fortress, -unlike naval ships, provided a stable platform upon -which guns could be mounted and trained on the enemy. Anyone -approaching within approximately 500 yards would be -in great danger, even though the artillery in those times was -not always accurate and aim was extremely difficult.</p> -<div class="img"><p class="pcap"><b>Tools for Guns</b></p> -<p class="pcapc">The tools used to operate the ordnance had a variety of -functions. The wet sponge swabbed out the cannon to -make sure all sparks were extinguished. The ladle dumped -the exact amount of powder needed into the chamber. The -scraper removed any powder residue. The worm removed -unfired bits of cartridge and wadding. The point was to -make sure the cannon was clean before it was loaded and fired.</p></div> -<div class="img" id="fig28"> -<img src="images/i23.jpg" alt="" width="716" height="63" /> -<p class="pcap">1. Sponge</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig29"> -<img src="images/i23a02.jpg" alt="" width="840" height="72" /> -<p class="pcap">2. Powder ladle</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig30"> -<img src="images/i23a03.jpg" alt="" width="842" height="84" /> -<p class="pcap">3. Scraper</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig31"> -<img src="images/i23a04.jpg" alt="" width="748" height="47" /> -<p class="pcap">4. Worm</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig32"> -<img src="images/i23a05.jpg" alt="" width="865" height="189" /> -<p class="pcap">5. 24-pounder cannon</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig33"> -<img src="images/i23a06.jpg" alt="" width="774" height="159" /> -<p class="pcap">6. 16-pounder cannon</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig34"> -<img src="images/i23a07.jpg" alt="" width="762" height="153" /> -<p class="pcap">7. 12-pounder cannon</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig35"> -<img src="images/i23a08.jpg" alt="" width="222" height="329" /> -<p class="pcap">8. Grape shot, side view</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig36"> -<img src="images/i23a09.jpg" alt="" width="498" height="127" /> -<p class="pcap">9. Tongs for handling hot shot</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig37"> -<img src="images/i23a10.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="344" /> -<p class="pcap">10. Garrison carriage, top view</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig38"> -<img src="images/i23a11.jpg" alt="" width="458" height="288" /> -<p class="pcap">11. Garrison carriage, side view</p> -</div> -<div class="img"><p class="pcap">These illustrations come from Tomás de Morla’s <span class="noti">A Treatise on Artillery</span></p></div> -<p>Basically all artillery falls into two categories: mortars and -guns. Mortars were designed to fire the largest and heaviest -projectiles on a curved trajectory. They could shoot over -obstacles or fortifications, landing on, and perhaps piercing, -the deck of a ship, or hitting a pile of powder kegs or -other supplies behind fortified walls, or just wreaking havoc -and demoralizing the people. Guns fired their projectiles in -a flat trajectory, and their effectiveness in turn depended -upon the weight of the shot: the greater the weight of the -shot, the greater the muzzle velocity—the speed at which -the shot exited the gun—and the farther the shot would go -and the deadlier it would be.</p> -<p>The first artillery pieces were made of forged iron. The greatest -concern was in producing a weapon that could contain -<span class="pb" id="Page_45">45</span> -the explosive force of the gunpowder, hurl the projectile at -the enemy, and not blow up in the faces of the gun crew. Once -guns could be cast in a single piece in either brass or bronze, -great strides were made in the effectiveness of the artillery -pieces. By the 18th century bronze seems to have been the -metal of choice. The guns and mortars were highly decorated. -All bore the coat of arms of the sovereign. Usually the maker -was identified in some way; the name might be part of the base -ring or shown in a cipher below the sovereign’s arms. Garlands -of flowers, animals, and mythical creatures sometimes -decorated the piece. All Spanish guns were named—<i>Vindicator</i>, -<i>Invincible</i>, <i>Destroyer</i> are a few examples—and the -authorities made sure that each gun’s whereabouts was -always known. This has been invaluable for present-day historians -investigating what guns were used where and when. -Guns were classified by the weight of the projectile: a 12-pounder -gun shot a 12-pound ball. The kinds of projectiles -varied greatly: solid shot, canister shot (a container full of -bullets), grape shot (cloth container full of bullets), and -bombs or grenades (hollow shot filled with gunpowder) -fired from a mortar. Sometimes solid shot was heated -until it was red hot. If it landed on a ship, hot shot could set a -wooden ship afire. Ordnance enabled a fortification to meet -the potential the military engineers had hoped for when -they sited and built it.</p> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_46">46</div> -<p>The tops of the ponderous vaults were leveled off -with a fill of coquina chips and sand. Tabby mortar -was poured onto the surface, and tampers beat the -mixture smooth. After the first layer set, others were -added until the pavement was six inches thick. The -whole roof was thus made into a gun deck, and -cannon were no longer restricted to the bastions -alone. For unlike the old raftered roof, the new -terreplein was buttressed by construction that could -take tremendous weight and terrific shock; and -masonry four feet thick protected the rooms underneath -from bombardment. In San Carlos bastion, by -mid-January of 1740, they had finished the tall watchtower -and the new parapet.</p> -<p>It was the English settlement of Georgia that had -spurred all this activity. In fact, Spain’s plan for -recovery of Georgia and other Spanish-claimed land -was well past the first stages. Troops were assembling -in Havana and reinforcements of 400 had already -come to Florida. The situation came to a head when -Spanish officials boarded Capt. Robert Jenkins’ ship -<i>Rebecca</i>, believing the English mariners to be illegally -carrying goods to Spanish settlements, an enterprise -forbidden by Spanish law. In the ensuing -scuffle, Jenkins’ ear was sliced off. Jenkins, back in -London, reported to Parliament that the Spanish -officer who handed him back his ear said: “Carry it -to your King and tell his majesty that if he were -present I would serve him in the same manner.”</p> -<p>Alexander Pope, the couplet maker, smiled and -said: “The Spaniards did a waggish thing/Who -cropped our ears and sent them to the King.” But -others were not amused, and England and Spain -declared war in 1739. It was called, of course, the -War of Jenkins’ Ear.</p> -<p>England’s main target was the Caribbean, with -Havana at center with Portobelo, Cartagena, and St. -Augustine on the perimeter. Admiral Edward Vernon -quickly won fame with his capture of Portobelo in -1739. Oglethorpe tried to imitate him in Florida. -Already he had probed the St. Johns River approaches; -St. Augustine would be next.</p> -<p>Governor Montiano, however, was fully aware of -weaknesses. “Considering that 21 months have been -spent on a bastion and eight arches,” he pointed out, -“we need at least eight years for rehabilitation of the -Castillo.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div> -<h4 class="interlude">How a Siege Works, Circa 1700</h4> -<blockquote> -<div class="img" id="fig39"> -<img src="images/i24.jpg" alt="" width="642" height="773" /> -<p class="pcap"><b>The Mechanics of a Siege</b></p> -<p class="pcapc">Military engineers built forts for several reasons: to protect -cities, to protect strong points from falling into enemy hands, -to be a visible symbol of governmental authority. If a fort -could not be taken by surprise, an attacking party had -to take the fort by force. The process of surrounding an -enemy’s strong point and slowly cutting off all contact -with the outside world is known as a siege. Sieges go -back to Biblical times, but the principles were formulated -by Sébastien le Prestre de Vauban (1633-1707), a -French military engineer who served in the armies of Louis -XIV. He created a very formal, disciplined science, and his -plan was maddeningly simple. First a trench parallel to the -fort was dug out of gun range so the attackers could move -in supplies and troops. Sappers—crews of trench diggers—then -dug zigzag trenches toward the fort; the zigzag -pattern made it more difficult for defenders to hit the -trenches. Next the sappers dug a second parallel that included -some batteries for shelling the fort. Additional -zigzag trenches and parallels would be dug until the attackers -were in a position to concentrate their fire at -one point on the fortification to breach its walls. The fortress -would then have no alternative but to surrender -or be stormed. Conducting a textbook perfect siege did -not always result in success, for the fort’s defenders would -not have been idle. They would fire cannon at the sappers. -Often they dug counter trenches out from the fortress -and planted mines to blow up the work of the attackers. -And they would send out nighttime raiding parties, too.</p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss"><span class="large">1st Parallel</span></span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Military engineers, called sappers, construct trenches and raise -earthworks to protect the attacking forces.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><i>Line of attack</i></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Mortar fire destroys cannon and drives defenders to cover; siege -lines prevent supplies from reaching the fort.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss"><span class="large">2nd Parallel</span></span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Siege guns destroy cannon and weaken fort walls.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss"><span class="large">3rd Parallel</span></span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Siege guns breach the walls, enabling attacking forces -to enter the fort.</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig40"> -<img src="images/i24a.jpg" alt="" width="740" height="152" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">A Fort’s Defenses</span></p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Attackers</dt> -<dt>OUTER WORKS</dt> -<dd>Glacis</dd> -<dd>Covered Way</dd> -<dd>Moat</dd> -<dd>Ravelin</dd> -<dt>INNER FORT</dt> -<dd>Moat</dd> -<dd>Parapet</dd> -<dd>Scarp</dd> -<dd>Rampart</dd> -<dd>Magazine</dd></dl> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div> -<div class="img" id="fig41"> -<img src="images/i25.jpg" alt="" width="342" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">The Cubo Line originally stretched from the Castillo to -the San Sebastian River. It was strengthened and rebuilt -repeatedly by both the Spaniards and the British. The -city gate, a part of the line, was built in 1808, only a few -years before the United States took control of Florida.</p> -</div> -<p>His concerns were genuine, for work on the vaults -had to stop as the war dried up construction funds. -The fort was left in a strangely irregular shape. The -east side, including San Carlos bastion, was at the -new height, but all others were several feet lower. -The old rooms still lined three sides of the courtyard.</p> -<p class="tb">On June 13, 1740, seven British warships dropped -anchor outside the inlet. The long-expected siege of -St. Augustine had begun. Montiano hastily sent the -news to Havana and with it a plea for help. He had -750 soldiers and the 120 or more sailors who manned -the galliots. Rations would last only until the end of -June.</p> -<p>The attackers numbered almost 1,400, including -sailors and Indian allies. While the warships blockaded -the harbor on the east, William Palmer came in -from the north with a company of Highlanders and -occupied the deserted outpost called Fort Mose. -Oglethorpe landed his men and guns on each side of -the inlet and began building batteries across the bay -from the Castillo.</p> -<p>Montiano saw at once that all the English positions -were separated from each other by water and -could not speedily reinforce one another. Fort Mose, -at the village of the black runaways a couple of miles -north of the Castillo, was the weakest. At dawn on -June 26 a sortie from St. Augustine hit Fort Mose, -and in the bloodiest action of the siege scattered the -Highlanders and burned the palisaded fortification. -Colonel Palmer, veteran of Florida campaigns, was -among the dead.</p> -<p>As if in revenge, the siege guns at the inlet opened -fire. Round shot whistled low over the bay and -crashed into fort and town. Bombs from the mortars -soared high—deadly dots against the bright summer -sky—and fell swiftly to burst with terrific concussion. -The townspeople fled, 2,000 of them, some to -the woods, others to the covered way where Castillo -walls screened them from the shelling.</p> -<p>For 27 nerve-shattering days the British batteries -thundered. At the Castillo, newly laid stones in the -east parapet scattered under the hits, but the weathered -old walls held strong. As one Englishman -observed, the native rock “will not splinter but will -give way to cannon ball as though you would stick a -knife into cheese.” One of the balls shot away a -<span class="pb" id="Page_49">49</span> -gunner’s leg, but only two men in the Castillo were -killed during the bombardment.</p> -<p>The heavy guns of San Marcos and the long -9-pounders of the fast little galliots in the harbor kept -the British back. Despite the bluster of the cannonades, -the siege had stalemated. Astride the inlet, -Oglethorpe and his men battled insects and shifting -sand on barren, sun-baked shores, while Spanish -soldiers in San Marcos, down to half rations themselves, -saw their families and friends starving. On -July 6 Montiano wrote, “My greatest anxiety is -provisions. If these do not come, there is no doubt -that we shall die in the hands of hunger.”</p> -<p>The very next day came news that supplies had -reached a harbor down the coast south of Matanzas. -Shallow-draft Spanish vessels went down the waterway -behind Anastasia Island, fought their way out -through Matanzas Inlet and, hugging the coast, went -to fetch the provisions. Coming back into Matanzas -that same night, they found the British blockade -gone; they reached St. Augustine unopposed.</p> -<p>Oglethorpe made ready to assault the Castillo -despite the low morale of his men. His naval commander, -however, was nervous over the approach of -the hurricane season and refused to cooperate. -Without support from the warships, Oglethorpe had -to withdraw. Daybreak on July 20—38 days since the -British had arrived at St. Augustine—revealed that -the redcoats were gone.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig42"> -<img src="images/i25b.jpg" alt="" width="389" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap">This 1763 engraving shows the finished Castillo after all the -bombproof vaults and a new ravelin had been built.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div> -<div class="img" id="fig43"> -<img src="images/i26.jpg" alt="" width="686" height="998" /> -<p class="pcap">Beyond the military aspects, which were so vital to the decision -to establish St. Augustine, the city had become a vibrant -community of soldiers, their families, government officials, -and shopkeepers. Religion and the church played -an important part in the life of the community. This page -from a Roman Catholic missal. printed in 1690, is open to -the service for Easter The right-hand column recounts -the story of how the Marys went to the tomb and found it empty.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_51">51</div> -<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">The End of an Era</span></h2> -<p>This was why the Castillo had been built—to resist -aggression, to stand firm through the darkest hour. -Years of dogged labor and privations had brought -the Castillo to the point where it could easily withstand -a siege. Yet it remained unfinished, while in -1742 Spanish forces from Havana and St. Augustine -tried unsuccessfully to take Oglethorpe’s settlement -at Fort Frederica. The next year Oglethorpe moved -unsuccessfully against St. Augustine.</p> -<p>Work still needed to be done on the vaults, but -other projects were even more urgent. First, came -repair of the bombardment damage. After that, the -defenses around fort and town were strengthened -and a strong new earth wall called the hornwork was -thrown up across the land approach, half a mile -north of town. And for a year or more a sizable crew -was busy at Matanzas building a permanent tower -and battery, since the events of 1740 had again shown -the vital defensive importance of this inlet a few -miles south of St. Augustine.</p> -<p>Several years slipped by with nothing being done -to Castillo itself, the heart of the defense system. -Termites and rot were in the old rafters, and in 1749 -part of the roof collapsed.</p> -<p>The governor’s appeal to the crown eventually -brought action. Engineer Pedro de Brozas y Garay -came from Ceuta in Africa to replace Ruiz, who was -returning to Spain. Having overseen the construction -of the last fort rooms, it was Brozas who, with -Governor Alonso Fernández de Heredia, stood under -the royal coat of arms at the sally port, as the -masons set in the inscription giving credit to the -governor and himself for completion of the Castillo -in 1756. The ceremony was a politic gesture, carried -out on the name day of King Fernando VI; but in -truth there was still a great deal to do.</p> -<p>The new bombproof vaults had raised the Castillo’s -walls by five feet. Where once they had measured -about 25 feet from foundation to crown of parapet, -<span class="pb" id="Page_52">52</span> -now they were more than 30. The little ravelin of -1682 could no longer shield the main gate, and as yet -the covered way screened only the base of the high -new walls. The glacis existed only on the plans.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig44"> -<img src="images/i27.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="93" /> -<p class="pcap">This British musket dates -from 1777-90 and is of the -type that would have been -used by the British forces stationed -at the Castillo from -1763 to 1784. It is 4 feet, 8 -inches long.</p> -</div> -<p>So, having finished the vaults, the builders moved -outside and worked until money ran out in the spring -of 1758. The break lasted until 1762, by which time -Britain and Spain were again at war. Spain, as an ally -of France, got into the fracas just at the time when -Britain had eliminated France as a factor in the -control of North America and was quite ready to -take on Spain. And this time the British would -capture the pearl of the Antilles—Havana itself.</p> -<p>Havana was well fortified, and the general officers -sitting there were perhaps more worried about St. -Augustine than Havana. They released 10,000 pesos -for strengthening the Florida fortifications and sent -Engineer Pablo Castelló, who had been teaching -mathematics at the military college in Havana, to -assist the ailing Pedro Brozas.</p> -<p>St. Augustine had only 25 convicts for labor, but -when work began on July 27, 1762, many soldiers and -townspeople sensed the urgency, for Havana was -already besieged, and volunteered to help. Since -much of the project was a simple but strenuous task -of digging and moving a mountain of sand from -borrow pit to earthwork, all able-bodied people were -welcome. The volunteers did, in fact, contribute -labor worth more than 12,000 pesos. The only paid -workers were the teamsters driving the 50 horses that -hauled the fill. Each dray dumped 40 cubic feet of -earth, and the hauling kept on until the covered way -had been raised five more feet to its new height.</p> -<p>The masons soon finished a stone parapet, six feet -high, for the new covered way. With this wall in -place, the teamsters moved outside the covered way -and began dumping fill for the glacis. This simple but -important structure was a carefully designed slope -from the field up to the parapet of the covered way. -Not only would it screen the main walls and covered -way, but its upward slope would lift attackers right -into the sights of the fort cannon.</p> -<p>Meanwhile, to replace the 1682 ravelin, Castelló -began a new one with room for five cannon and a -powder magazine. He realigned the moat wall to -accommodate the larger work and pushed the job -along so that as December of 1762 ended, the -<span class="pb" id="Page_53">53</span> -masons laid the final stone of the cordon for the -ravelin. They never started its parapet, for the close -of the year brought the devastating news that Spain -would give Florida to Great Britain.</p> -<p class="tb">So Spain’s work on the fort ended. And although -ravelin and glacis were not finished, Castillo de San -Marcos was a handsome structure. The main walls -were finished with a hard, waterproofing, lime plaster, -shining white in the sunlight with the brilliance -of Spain’s olden glory. In the haste of building, -engineers had not forgotten such niceties as classic -molded cornices, pendants, and pilasters to cast -relieving shadows on stark smooth walls. At the -point of each bastion was color—the tile-red plaster -of the sentry boxes. White and red. These were -Spain’s symbolic colors, revealed again in the banner -floating above the ramparts.</p> -<p>With walls high over the blue waters of the bay, its -towers thrusting toward the clouds, and guns of -bright bronze or iron pointed over turf and sweep of -marsh toward the gloom of the forest or the distant -surf breaking on the bar, San Marcos was properly -the background for Florida’s capital. In the narrow -streets that led to the citadel, military men and -sailors mingled with tradesman and townsfolk. Indians, -their nakedness smeared with beargrease -against the bugs, were a strange contrast to the silken -opulence of the governor’s lady. But this was St. -Augustine—a town of contrasts, with a long past and -an uncertain future.</p> -<p>The day of the transfer to British rule was July 21, -1763. At Castillo de San Marcos, Gov. Melchor de -Feliú delivered the keys to Maj. John Hedges, at the -moment the ranking representative of George III. -The Spanish troops departed Florida, and with them -went the entire Spanish population. The English -were left with an empty city.</p> -<p>The defenses they found at St. Augustine were far -stronger than the ones that had stopped Oglethorpe -in 1740. The renovated Castillo, which the new -owners called Fort St. Mark, was the citadel of a -defense-in-depth system that began with fortified -towers at St. Augustine and Matanzas inlets and -blockhouses at the St. Johns River crossings. Since -St. Augustine was on a small peninsula with Matanzas -Bay on one side and the San Sebastián River on the -<span class="pb" id="Page_54">54</span> -other, there was only one way to reach the city by -land; and Fort Mose, rebuilt and enlarged after 1740, -guarded this lone access. In 1762 Mose also became -the anchor for a mile-long defense line across the -peninsula to a strong redoubt on the San Sebastián. -This earthwork, planted at its base with prickly pear, -protected the farmlands behind it. Just north of the -Castillo, the hornwork spanned the narrowest part of -the peninsula. A third line stretched from the Castillo -to the San Sebastián, and this one was intersected by -a fourth line that enclosed the town on west and -south. Along the eastern shore was the stone seawall. -One by one, these defenses had evolved in the years -after 1702.</p> -<p>Such defensive precautions seemed outmoded, -now that all eastern North America was under one -sovereignty. Obviously the old enmities between -Florida and the English colonies had departed with -the Spaniards; Britain saw no need for concern -about the fortifications. No need, that is, until the -Thirteen Colonies showed disquieting signs of rebellion. -And as rebellion flamed into revolution, St. -Augustine entered a new role as capital of George -III’s loyal province of East Florida.</p> -<p>In the summer of 1775, after Lexington and Concord, -British concerns about the Castillo’s state of -repair could be seen. The gate was repaired and the -well in the courtyard, which had become brackish, -was re-dug. In several of the high-arched bombproofs, -the carpenters doubled the capacity by building -a second floor, for St. Augustine was regimental -headquarters and many redcoated troops were quartered -in Fort St. Mark.</p> -<p>By October 1776 the British had renovated two of -the three lines constructed north of the city by the -Spaniards. In place of the old earthwork that hemmed -in the town on the south and west, however, they -depended on a pair of detached redoubts at the San -Sebastián, one at the ford and the other at the ferry. -Later they added five other redoubts in the same -quadrant. Many improvements were made to the -outer works as well.</p> -<p>Behind the thick walls of the fort were stored -weapons and equipment that went to arm British -forces for repeated use against the rebellious colonials -to the north. The damp prison also held a number -of these colonists.</p> -<h4 class="interlude">Links to the Past</h4> -<blockquote> -<p>It is impossible to fully retrieve the past, to know what it was -actually like to live in another time, to understand the cadences -of another life. Some disciplines work at peeling -back the layers of time and attempt to explain those bygone -days. Archeology is one of these sciences. By retrieving -the remains of the material culture, by seeing a plate -that held food, a bottle that held oil, a dish in which herbs -were ground to make medicine, the connection with -those long gone personages begins to be made. The objects -on the next page are among more than 1,000 items -that have been retrieved from digs in and around the Castillo -and St. Augustine.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_55">55</div> -<div class="img" id="fig45"> -<img src="images/i28.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="418" /> -<p class="pcap">Bottle body</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig46"> -<img src="images/i28a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="423" /> -<p class="pcap">Dish fragment, majolica</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig47"> -<img src="images/i28c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="429" /> -<p class="pcap">Spanish olive jar</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig48"> -<img src="images/i28e.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="427" /> -<p class="pcap">China accordion player</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig49"> -<img src="images/i28f.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="429" /> -<p class="pcap">Plate fragment, majolica</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig50"> -<img src="images/i28h.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="427" /> -<p class="pcap">Dish with caduceus (medical symbol)</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig51"> -<img src="images/i28i.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" /> -<p class="pcap">Platter base fragment, slipware</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig52"> -<img src="images/i28j.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="430" /> -<p class="pcap">Bowl fragment, pearlware-mochaware</p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div> -<p>Even as the British were working to secure the -Castillo against a possible attack, international events -brought Spain back into the picture. In 1779 Spain -declared war on Britain after France promised help -in retrieving Florida, if the powers allied against -Britain were victorious. One Spanish plan even had -the Spaniards launching a surprise attack on the -Castillo: Troops would sail upriver from Matanzas, -land south of town, sweep north through St. Augustine, -and take the Castillo by storm. If this failed -they would settle in for a siege. At the last minute, -practically, the authorities decided to attack Pensacola, -on Florida’s Gulf Coast, instead. A Spanish -attack on the British inside a fortress designed and -built by Spanish engineers would have been full of -irony.</p> -<p>In the settlement after the Revolution, the Spaniards -did indeed recover Florida, and on July 12, -1784, the transfer took place.</p> -<p class="tb">The Spaniards returned to an impossible situation. -The border problems of earlier times had multiplied -as runaway slaves from Georgia found welcome -among the Seminole Indians, and ruffians from both -land and sea made Florida their habitat.</p> -<p>Bedeviled by these perversities and distracted by -revolutionary unrest in Latin America, Spain nevertheless -did what had to be done at the Castillo—repairs -to the bridges, a new pine stairway for San -Carlos tower, a bench for the criminals in the prison. -In 1785 Mariano de la Rocque designed an attractive -entrance in the neoclassic style for the chapel doorway. -It was built, only to crumble slowly away like the -Spanish hold on Florida.</p> -<p>Defense strategies had changed too, over the -years. The British had built a few redoubts to cover -vulnerable approaches on the west and south. The -Spaniards on their return adapted the British works -but also greatly strengthened the long wall from the -Castillo to the San Sebastián River. They widened its -moat to 40 feet, lined the entire length of the -9-foot-high earthwork with palm logs, and planted it -with prickly pear. The three redoubts were armed -with light cannon, and a new city gate was completed -in 1808. Its twin towers of white masonry were -trimmed with red plaster, and each roof was capped -with a pomegranate, a symbol of fertility.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_57">57</div> -<p>Even though San Marcos remained a bulwark -against American advances, Florida had lost its -former importance to Spain as independence movements -sprang up in one South American Spanish -colony after another. Constant pressure from the -expanding United States finally resulted in Spain’s -ceding Florida to the United States. Perhaps Spanish -officials signed the papers with a sigh of relief, glad -to be rid of a province so burdensome and unprofitable -for 300 years. On July 10, 1821, the ensign of -Spain fluttered down to the thunderous salute of -Castillo cannon, and the 23-star flag of the United -States of America was hauled aloft.</p> -<p>In this new era, the aging fort was already a relic. -Fortunately for its preservation, the US. strategy for -coastal defense did not require much alteration of -the Castillo. U.S. Army engineers added only a water -battery in the east moat, mounted a few new guns on -the bastions, and improved the glacis during the -1840s.</p> -<p>The fort’s name was also changed, for the Americans -chose to honor Gen. Francis Marion, Revolutionary -leader and son of the very colony against -whose possible aggression San Marcos had been -built. Congress restored the original name in 1942, -almost 20 years after the fort had been designated a -national monument.</p> -<p>Heavy doors and iron bars that once protected -precious stores of food and ammunition made the -old fort a good prison, and the prison days soon -obscured the olden times when Spain’s hold upon -Florida depended upon the strength of these walls -and the brave hearts that served here.</p> -<p class="tb">Now the echo of the Spanish tongue has faded and -the scarred walls are silent. The records tell of the -people who built and defended the Castillo—and -those who attacked it, too. In the archives are -countless instances of unselfish zeal and loyalty, the -cases of Ransom, Collins, and Carr, the crown’s -patriarchal protection of its Indian vassals, the -unflagging work of the friars. The structure itself -tells its own story. As William Cullen Bryant, 19th-century -poet wrote: “The old fort of St. Mark is a -noble work, frowning over the Matanzas, and it is -worth making a long journey to see.”</p> -<div class="img" id="fig53"> -<img src="images/i29.jpg" alt="" width="395" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap">The Spanish government -constructed replicas of Christopher -Columbus’ three ships -to commemorate the 500th -anniversary of his voyage to -America. The ships followed -Columbus’ route across the -Atlantic and made calls at -ports throughout the Americas. -Here the <span class="noti">Santa Maria</span>, -in the foreground, <span class="noti">Pinta</span>, -and <span class="noti">Niña</span> visit St. Augustine -in 1992.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_58">58</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/i30.jpg" alt="Soldiers crossing the moat" width="1000" height="704" /> -</div> -<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">Guide and Advisor</span></h2> -<div class="pb" id="Page_60">60</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/i31.jpg" alt="NPS Ranger" width="684" height="1000" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_61">61</div> -<p>St. Augustine is the oldest, continuously inhabited city founded by Europeans -in the present-day United States. It represents the beginnings of contact -between Spanish settlers and the native inhabitants, the emergence of the -Hispanic American, the struggle between Spanish, French, and English -settlers for control of the southeastern Atlantic coast, and ultimately the birth -of the United States.</p> -<h3 id="c6">Visiting St. Augustine</h3> -<p>As well as being an old city, with many historic houses on quiet, narrow streets, -St. Augustine is a bustling modern city with a range of facilities and accommodations -to meet all expectations and travel budgets.</p> -<p>Begin your visit to the city at the Visitor Information Center on San Marco Avenue, -opposite the Castillo. Here you can get free information, maps, and -answers to your questions from the staff. The center is open daily from 8 -a.m. to 5:30 p.m. Limited parking is available for patrons. You may write: -Visitor Information Center, P.O. Drawer 210, St. Augustine, FL 32085; or call -904-825-1000. Additional information is available from the St. Augustine and -St. Johns County Chamber of Commerce, 1 Ribera Street, St. Augustine, -FL 320841 or call 904-829-5681.</p> -<p>St. Augustine is a wonderful city to walk in, for it is compact and easy to -find your way around. Take time to leave the main streets and walk through -residential areas to get a feel for the city and the way it was laid out. St. -Augustine has its own personality and charm that distinguish it from such -other colonial communities as Williamsburg, Charleston, and Santa Fe. Today’s -St. Augustine bears the imprint of Henry Flagler (1830-1913), a close -partner of John D. Rockefeller in the development of the Standard Oil Company -and a railroad tycoon in Florida. Flagler bought several small railroads -in Florida, consolidated them, and laid track that eventually ran from Jacksonville -to Key West. Along with his railroad he built luxury hotels in Daytona, -Palm Beach, Miami, and St. Augustine and helped to create the tourist industry -that has played such an important role in Florida’s economy in the 20th -century. Flagler’s legacy lives on in St. Augustine where Flagler College occupies -the former Hotel Ponce de Leon at Cordova and King streets and in the -Lightner Museum housed in the old Alcazar Hotel across the street from -the college. The St. Johns County Courthouse and the St. Augustine City -Hall also occupy Flagler buildings. Flagler is buried on the grounds of the -Flagler Memorial Presbyterian Church.</p> -<p><b>St. George Street</b>, a pedestrian walkway between Castillo Drive and Cathedral -Place, is lined with shops and restaurants of every type and description. -The <b>Spanish Quarter</b>, a restored 18th-century portion of the city, is a -living history museum operated by the state of Florida on the north end of St. -George Street. Along this street a number of residences dating back more -than two centuries have either been reconstructed or restored by the St. -Augustine Restoration and Preservation Commission. Some of them may -be open to the public. But do not assume that they are. Inquire at the -Visitor Information Center for specific information about opening and closing times.</p> -<p><b>The Oldest House</b>, located at the corner of St. Francis and Charlotte streets, -<span class="pb" id="Page_62">62</span> -is administered by the St. Augustine Historical Society. Guides give house -tours, for which there is a charge. The adjacent museum tells the story of St. -Augustine and of the people who lived here through the four centuries of the -city’s history. In <b>Government House</b>, at the corner of St. George and King -streets, the Historic St. Augustine Preservation Board, an agency of the state -of Florida, also runs a museum that tells a more inclusive story of Spanish -Florida, including <b>Fort Mose</b>, the oldest free black settlement in the United -States.</p> -<h3 id="c7">Visiting the Castillo</h3> -<p>The Castillo de San Marcos is one of the oldest structures in North America -built by Europeans. It is one of the few links on this continent to early modern -Europe and a way of warfare that has become obsolete. Park interpreters give -frequent programs at the fort telling its history and explaining its construction. -They can answer questions you have about the history of the area and about -related National Park System sites. You may wish to walk around the Castillo -at your own pace; a free park folder available at the entrance station will -help you find your way.</p> -<p>A sales outlet to the left of the guard rooms as you enter the Castillo offers -books and pamphlets on the history of Florida and Spanish colonization. Some -souvenirs and postcards are also available.</p> -<p>Parking is limited at the Castillo and in St. Augustine. Because of the limited -parking, therefore, you may wish to take one of the sightseeing tours around -the city. Information is available at the Visitor Information Center. For further -information about the Castillo de San Marcos and Fort Matanzas, write: -Superintendent, Castillo de San Marcos National Monument, 1 Castillo Drive -East, St. Augustine, FL 32084.</p> -<h3 id="c8">Beaches</h3> -<p>Florida A1A north or south takes you to some of the most beautiful beaches -on the east coast. A fee buys a permit from county authorities to drive on -county beaches during the summer months. There is also a charge for -parking at Anastasia State Recreation Area.</p> -<h3 id="c9">Accommodations</h3> -<p>St. Augustine has a variety of accommodations: national chains, locally -owned hotels and motels, bed and breakfast inns, and vacation cottages and -condominiums for rent by the day, week, or longer.</p> -<h3 id="c10">Other Areas Related to Spanish Florida</h3> -<p><a id="flmap">Besides</a> Castillo de San Marcos, several -other National Park System sites -in Florida preserve and interpret aspects -of Spanish colonial history. They -are located on the map and -described below.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/i32.jpg" alt="Map" width="600" height="515" /> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Gulf Islands NS</dt> -<dt>De Soto N MEM</dt> -<dt>Fort Carolina N MEM</dt> -<dt>Castillo de San Marcos NM</dt> -<dt>Ft. Matanzas NM</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_63">63</div> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="large"><b>De Soto National Memorial</b></span></dt> -<dt><i>P.O. Box 16390</i></dt> -<dt><i>Bradenton, FL 34280-5390.</i></dt></dl> -<p>No one knows exactly where Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto landed -on Florida’s west coast in 1539. This park at the entrance to Tampa Bay -memorializes that landing and de Soto’s subsequent journeys of exploration -throughout the southeastern United States.</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="large"><b>Fort Caroline National Memorial</b></span></dt> -<dt><i>12713 Fort Caroline Road</i></dt> -<dt><i>Jacksonville, FL 32225.</i></dt></dl> -<p>The establishment of a French colony here in 1564 directly challenged the -Spaniards, who responded by establishing Saint Augustine the next year. -After securing a firm base of operations, the Spaniards led by Pedro -Menéndez marched to the French settlement and captured it, ending French -interest in the area.</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="large"><b>Fort Matanzas National Monument</b></span></dt> -<dt><i>c/o Castillo de San Marcos National Monument</i></dt> -<dt><i>1 Castillo Drive</i></dt> -<dt><i>Saint Augustine, FL 32084.</i></dt></dl> -<p>On this site Spanish troops killed French soldiers who were part of the ill-fated -attempt to establish a French settlement in Florida. In 1740, after the -failed English attack on Saint Augustine, the Spaniards built a masonry -fortification—Fort Matanzas—on Rattlesnake Island overlooking Matanzas -Inlet to control the inlet permanently.</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="large"><b>Gulf Islands National Seashore</b></span></dt> -<dt><i>1801 Gulf Breeze Parkway</i></dt> -<dt><i>Gulf Breeze, FL 32561.</i></dt></dl> -<p>The ravelin of Fort Barrancas, located on the grounds of the Pensacola Naval -Air Station, is another Spanish masonry fortification in Florida besides -the Castillo and Fort Matanzas. It is called Battery San Antonio and dates -from 1797. It was planned as part of a larger fortification never built by the -Spaniards. Fort Barrancas, built by the U.S., dates from the early 19th century.</p> -<p>Besides these parks in Florida there is -one in Georgia (not shown on the <a href="#flmap">map</a>) -that bears importantly on the story of -St. Augustine.</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="large"><b>Fort Frederica National Monument</b></span></dt> -<dt><i>Route 9, Box 286-C</i></dt> -<dt><i>Savannah, GA 31410.</i></dt></dl> -<p>It was at Fort Frederica that James Edward Oglethorpe established a settlement -in 1736 only a few days march north of St. Augustine in territory that -the Spaniards clearly believed to be their own.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig54"> -<img src="images/i32a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="544" /> -<p class="pcap">Fort Matanzas National Monument</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig55"> -<img src="images/i32c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="432" /> -<p class="pcap">Fort Caroline National Memorial</p> -</div> -<p><span class="smaller">★ GPO: 1993—342-396 80002</span></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_64">64</div> -<h2 id="c11"><span class="small">National Park Service</span></h2> -<p>National Park Handbooks are published to support -the National Park Service’s management programs -and to promote understanding and enjoyment of the -more than 360 National Park System sites that represent -important examples of our country’s natural -and cultural inheritance. Each handbook is intended -to be informative reading and a useful guide before, -during, and after a park visit. More than 100 titles -are in print. They are sold at parks and can be purchased -by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, -U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, -DC 20402-9325.</p> -<p>The National Park Service expresses its appreciation -to all those persons who made the preparation and -production of this handbook possible. The original -text for this handbook was written by Albert Manucy -and Luis Arana and appeared as <i>The Building of the -Castillo de San Marcos</i>. The vault construction, -drawbridge, and siege illustrations on pages <a class="pgref" href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_34">34</a>, -and <a class="pgref" href="#Page_47">47</a> are based on artwork originally developed by -Albert Manucy. The National Park Service also -expresses its appreciation to Eastern National Park -and Monument Association for its cooperation in -this project. All photos and artwork not credited -below come from the files of the Castillo de San -Marcos or of the National Park Service.</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt>Archivo General de Indias, Seville <a class="pgref" href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_49">49</a></dt> -<dt>Michael Hampshire <a class="pgref" href="#Page_31">31</a> (detail), <a class="pgref" href="#Page_34">34</a></dt> -<dt>Karen Kasmauski <a class="pgref" href="#Page_2">2</a>-3</dt> -<dt>Ken Laffal cover, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_26">26</a> (photographs), <a class="pgref" href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_58">58</a>-59, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_60">60</a></dt> -<dt>Library of Congress <a class="pgref" href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_26">26</a>-27 (map), <a class="pgref" href="#Page_49">49</a></dt> -<dt>National Geographic Society <a class="pgref" href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_22">22</a>-23</dt> -<dt>Ken Townsend <a class="pgref" href="#Page_30">30</a>-31, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_40">40</a>-41</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_65">65</div> -<h2 id="c12"><span class="small">U.S. Department of the Interior</span></h2> -<p>As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the -Department of the Interior has responsibility for most -of our nationally-owned public lands and natural resources. -This includes fostering sound use of our -land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, -and biological diversity; preserving the environmental -and cultural values of our national parks and -historical places; and providing for the enjoyment of -life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses -our energy and mineral resources and works -to ensure that their development is in the best interest -of all our people by encouraging stewardship and -citizen participation in their care. The Department -also has a major responsibility for American Indian -reservation communities and for people who live in -island territories under U.S. administration.</p> -<h3 id="c13"><i>Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data</i></h3> -<p>Castillo de San Marcos: a Guide to the Castillo de -San Marcos National Monument, Florida/produced -by the Division of Publications, National Park Service. -p. cm.—(National Park Handbook; 149)</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt>1. Castillo de San Marcos National Monument (Saint Augustine, Fla.)—Guidebooks.</dt> -<dt>2. Saint Augustine (Fla.)—Guidebooks.</dt> -<dt>3. Saint Augustine (Fla.)—History.</dt> -<dt>I. United States. National Park Service. Division of Publications.</dt> -<dt>II. Series: Handbook (United States, National Park Service, Division of Publications); 149. F319.S2C37 1993. 917.59’ 18—dc20. 92-40413 CIP.</dt></dl> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>Relocated all image captions to be immediately under the corresponding images, removing redundant references like ”preceding page”.</li> -<li>Silently corrected a few palpable typos.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Castillo de San Marcos, by National Park Service - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASTILLO DE SAN MARCOS *** - -***** This file should be named 56050-h.htm or 56050-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/6/0/5/56050/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - - -</pre> - -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 28653b1..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i02.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i02.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 950b422..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i02.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i03.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i03.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 57f626e..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i03.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i04.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i04.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d764d1b..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i04.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i05.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i05.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 340eb38..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i05.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i06.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i06.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fdf2de4..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i06.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i07.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i07.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b0e74df..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i07.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i08.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i08.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index acf1a5e..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i08.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i08a.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i08a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ab3b9c9..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i08a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i09.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i09.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 781cff9..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i09.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i10.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i10.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7a487c9..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i10.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i12.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i12.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 57e1e2c..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i12.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i13.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i13.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d310c3d..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i13.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i13a.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i13a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 93fbecc..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i13a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i14.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i14.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e04ff67..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i14.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i14a.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i14a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1ed4295..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i14a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i14c.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i14c.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 478100b..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i14c.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i15.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i15.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index da4270c..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i15.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i16.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i16.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 90a01b1..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i16.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i16a.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i16a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9bd625d..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i16a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i17.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i17.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9b4a091..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i17.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i18.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i18.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d6390d8..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i18.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i18a.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i18a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index aef7045..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i18a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i19.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i19.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 04b75d7..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i19.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i20.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i20.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 280dbcf..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i20.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i20a.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i20a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 33af6a9..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i20a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i21.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i21.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b72c6ce..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i21.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i22.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i22.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 23a6873..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i22.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i23.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i23.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 826fba0..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i23.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i23a02.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i23a02.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cefca79..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i23a02.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i23a03.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i23a03.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8fed103..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i23a03.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i23a04.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i23a04.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 92d0fce..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i23a04.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i23a05.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i23a05.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ed228d2..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i23a05.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i23a06.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i23a06.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9f30576..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i23a06.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i23a07.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i23a07.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d1984f5..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i23a07.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i23a08.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i23a08.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 85eef5f..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i23a08.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i23a09.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i23a09.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 76ea26c..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i23a09.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i23a10.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i23a10.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 352245d..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i23a10.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i23a11.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i23a11.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 359e014..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i23a11.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i24.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i24.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8f1a5a4..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i24.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i24a.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i24a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5c5be12..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i24a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i25.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i25.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e9b37f5..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i25.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i25b.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i25b.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bd74b6d..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i25b.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i26.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i26.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 18040af..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i26.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i27.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i27.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index bc25107..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i27.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i28.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i28.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 02edf50..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i28.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i28a.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i28a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 248bb49..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i28a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i28c.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i28c.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index a8f91c7..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i28c.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i28e.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i28e.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index c2e6bb6..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i28e.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i28f.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i28f.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index d9588da..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i28f.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i28h.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i28h.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index fda3811..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i28h.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i28i.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i28i.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 8a9013a..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i28i.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i28j.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i28j.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index efd518d..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i28j.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i29.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i29.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1fb8fde..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i29.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i30.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i30.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 78e2f3c..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i30.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i31.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i31.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index cdd1e60..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i31.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i32.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i32.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 43ec8d2..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i32.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i32a.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i32a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 048d630..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i32a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/56050-h/images/i32c.jpg b/old/56050-h/images/i32c.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 35a9845..0000000 --- a/old/56050-h/images/i32c.jpg +++ /dev/null |
