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text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -p.pcap { margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; text-indent:0em; font-weight:bold; - text-align:justify; margin-top:0; max-width:30em; font-style:italic; font-size:90%; } -p.pcapc { margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; font-weight:bold; text-align:justify; max-width:30em; font-size:90%; font-style:italic;} -p.pcap .ss, p.pcapc b, p.pcapc .ss, p.pcap b { font-style:normal; } -span.pn { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; }</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Castillo de San Marcos, by National Park Service - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Castillo de San Marcos - A Guide to Castillo de San Marcos National Monument, Florida - -Author: National Park Service - -Release Date: November 25, 2017 [EBook #56050] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASTILLO DE SAN MARCOS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Castillo de San Marcos" width="500" height="705" /> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<p class="center"><span class="ss">Handbook 149</span></p> -<h1>Castillo de San Marcos</h1> -<p class="center"><span class="ss">A Guide to Castillo de San Marcos National Monument -<br />Florida</span></p> -<p class="center"><span class="ss">Produced by the Division of Publications -<br />National Park Service</span></p> -<p class="center"><span class="ss">U.S. Department of the Interior -<br />Washington, D.C.</span></p> -</div> -<h3><i>Using this Handbook</i></h3> -<p>Castillo de San Marcos National Monument is located -in the longest continuously inhabited community -founded by Europeans in the United States. This -handbook tells the intercultural story of the long -effort to build the Castillo and the emergence of a -new Nation. The Guide and Adviser provides a brief -guide to Saint Augustine and other related National -Park Service areas in Florida.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_2">2</div> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/i02.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="705" /> -<p class="pcap">From the air the rationale for the layout of -Castillo de San Marcos is readily apparent: no wall or -approach is unguarded.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_4">4</div> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/i03.jpg" alt="" width="563" height="799" /> -<p class="pcap">This map, one of the earliest -maps of a city that is now in -the United States, depicts the -June 1586 attack on St. Augustine -by Sir Francis Drake. -Note, in the middle, the English -troops on Anastasia -Island firing across the water -on the Spanish fort.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">Florida and the Pirates</span></h2> -<p>On May 28, 1668, a ship anchored off St. Augustine -harbor. It was a vessel from Veracruz, bringing flour -from México. In the town, the drum sounded the -alert for the garrison of 120 men. A launch went out -to identify the newcomer and put the harbor pilot -aboard. As it neared the ship, the crew on the launch -hailed the Spaniards lining her gunwale. To the -routine questions came the usual answers: Friends -from México—come aboard! Two shots from the -launch told the town the ship had been identified as -friendly, and the seamen warped the launch alongside -the ship. In St. Augustine, the people heard the -signal shots and rejoiced. The soldiers returned their -arms to the main guardhouse on the town plaza. -Tomorrow the supplies would come ashore.</p> -<p>Unknown to the townspeople, when the launch -pilot stepped aboard the supply ship, an alien crew -of pirates swarmed out of hiding and leveled their -guns at him and the others. He could do nothing but -surrender.</p> -<p class="tb">Some time after midnight, a corporal was out on the -bay fishing when he heard the sound of many oars -pulling across the water. Something was not right. -Desperately he paddled his little craft toward shore. -The pirates, four boatloads of them, were right -behind. Twice their shots found their mark, but he -got to the fort where his shouts aroused the guards.</p> -<p>At the main guardhouse, a quarter mile from the -fort, the sentries heard the shouting and the gunfire, -but before they could respond, the pirates were upon -them, a hundred strong. Out-numbered, the guards -ran for the fort. Gov. Francisco de la Guerra rushed -out of his house and, with the pirates pounding at his -heels, joined the race for the fort. Somehow the -garrison was able to beat back several assaults. In the -confusion of darkness, however, the pirates seemed -to be everywhere. They destroyed the weapons they -found in the guardhouse and went on to the government -<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span> -house. Shouting and cursing, they scattered -through the narrow streets, seizing or shooting the -frightened, bewildered inhabitants.</p> -<p>Sgt. Maj. Nicolás Ponce de Léon, the officer -responsible for defending the town, was at home, a -sick man, covered with a greasy mercury salve and -weak from the “sweatings” prescribed for his illness. -On hearing the din, he roused himself and rushed to -the guardhouse, only to find the pirates had been -there first. He turned to the urgent task of shepherding -his 70 unarmed soldiers and the others—men, -women, and children—into the woods, leaving -the pirates in complete possession of the town.</p> -<p>By daybreak the little force at the fort had lost five -men, but they believed they had killed 11 pirates and -wounded 19 others. Ponce came from the woods and -reinforced the fort with his weaponless men. With -daylight, two other vessels joined the ship from -Veracruz. One was St. Augustine’s own frigate, taken -by the raiders near Havana, in which the pirates had -been able to move in Spanish waters without detection. -The other was the pirates’ own craft. All three -sailed into the bay, passed the cannon fire of the fort, -anchored just out of range, and landed their remaining -forces. Systematically they began to sack the -town; no structure was neglected.</p> -<p>That afternoon, the governor sent out a sortie -from the fort, but the leaders were wounded and the -party retired. After 20 hours ashore, however, the -pirates were ready to leave anyway, taking their -booty, which probably amounted to only a few -thousand pesos, and about 70 prisoners whom they -had seized during the previous night’s rampage. Just -before leaving they ransomed most of their prisoners -for meat, water, and firewood. The local Indians, -however, they kept, claiming that the governor of -Jamaica had told them to keep all Indians, blacks, -and mulattoes as slaves, even if they were Spanish -freemen. Finally on June 5 the raiders headed out to -sea, amused as once again they passed the thunder of -the useless guns in the old wooden fort as the small -community grieved over its 60 dead and gave thanks -for the ransomed prisoners.</p> -<p>The released prisoners identified the invaders as -English and told how the enemy had carefully sounded -the inlet, taken its latitude, and noted the landmarks. -They intended to come back and seize the fort and -<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span> -make it a base for future operations against Spanish -shipping.</p> -<p class="tb">To the Spaniards the attack on St. Augustine was far -more than a pirate raid. St. Augustine, though -isolated and small, was the keystone in the defense of -Florida, a way station on Spain’s great commercial -route. Each year, galleons bearing the proud Iberian -banners sailed past the coral keys and surf-pounded -beaches of Florida, following the Gulf Stream on the -way to Cádiz. Each galleon carried a treasure of gold -and silver from the mines of Perú and México—and -all Europe knew it.</p> -<p>A shipload of treasure, dispatched from México -by Hernán Cortés in 1522, never reached the Spanish -court. A French corsair attacked the Spanish ship -and the treasure ended up in Paris, not Madrid. -Soon, daring adventurers of all nationalities sailed -for the West Indies and Spanish treasure. Florida’s -position on the lifeline connecting Spain with her -colonies gave this sandy peninsula strategic importance. -Spain knew that Florida must be defended to -prevent enemies from using the harbors for preying -upon Spanish commerce and to give safe haven to -shipwrecked Spanish mariners.</p> -<p>The French, ironically, brought the situation to a -head in 1564 when they established Fort Caroline, a -colony named for their teenage king, Charles IX, -near the mouth of Florida’s St. Johns River. A year -later Spanish Admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés -came to Florida, established the St. Augustine colony, -and forthwith removed the Frenchmen, suspected of -piracy. This small fortified settlement on Florida’s -northeast coast and Havana in Cuba anchored opposite -ends of the passage through the Straits of Florida -enabling Spanish ships to pass safely from the Gulf -of Mexico out into the Atlantic.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/i04.jpg" alt="" width="397" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap">Sir Francis Drake’s attack on -St. Augustine was part of the -growing hostilities between -Spain and England that culminated -in the attack of the -Spanish Armada on England -two years later. Drake was -also the first sea captain to -take his own ship all the way -around the world. Ferdinand -Magellan’s ship had made -the trip 57 years earlier, but -Magellan had been killed in -the Philippines.</p> -</div> -<p>A typical early fort was San Juan de Pinos, burned -by English sailor Francis Drake in 1586. Drake took -the fort’s bronze artillery and a considerable amount -of money. San Juan consisted of a pine stockade -around small buildings for gunpowder storage and -quarters. Cannon were mounted atop a broad platform, -or cavalier, so they could fire over the stockade. -Such forts could be built quickly, but they could also -be destroyed easily. If Indian fire arrows, enemy -attack, or mutinies failed, then hurricanes, time, and -termites were certain to do the job. During the first -100 years of Spanish settlement, nine wooden forts -one after another were built at St. Augustine.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_8">8</div> -<h4 class="interlude">Spain in the Caribbean, 1717-1748</h4> -<blockquote> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/i05.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="707" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">Spain, England, and France vied for the land and wealth of the New World. This -map, while not showing actual settlement and possession of the land shows -what each nation thought was theirs. Spain’s dominions were more extensive -than those of Britain or France, for the Spaniards were the first to explore and -to begin to claim and settle the land.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">The spice fleet from the Philippines -sailed to Acapulco, on Mexico’s west -coast, the goods were hauled overland -to Veracruz, and then carried by ship -to Havana.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Fleets of ships filled with silver, gold, -spices, precious woods, and other -products of the New World left Havana -for Spain each year.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">The silver fleet from Perú brought the -treasure to the isthmus of Panamá -where it was transshipped to -Portobelo and then on to Havana via -Cartagena.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Spanish St. Augustine served as the -northernmost outpost of the -Caribbean, watching over the waters -of the Gulf stream, Spain’s highway -to Europe.</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/i06.jpg" alt="" width="389" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés -(1519-74) was the founder -of St. Augustine and first governor -of Florida. He struggled -throughout his life to -put St. Augustine on a firm -footing, fending off French -efforts to destroy his settlement. -The engraving is a copy -of a portrait by Titian that -was destroyed in a fire at the -end of the last century.</p> -</div> -<p>Spain did not yet see the need for an impregnable -fort here. After the English failures at Roanoke -Island in North Carolina in 1586-87, the weak settlement -of Jamestown, Virginia, a few years later did -not impress the powerful Council of the Indies in -Madrid as a threat to Spanish interests. Moreover, -the Franciscans, by extending the mission frontier -deep into Indian lands, put the Spanish stamp of -occupation upon a vast territory. The fallacy in this -thinking lay in underestimating the colonizing ability -of the English and believing that an Indian friendly -to Spain would never become a friend of England.</p> -<p>The defeat of the powerful Spanish Armada in -1588 was a dramatic harbinger of things to come; -the way was clear for England to extend its control of -the seas. Its great trading companies were active on -the coasts of four continents, and powerful English -nobles strove for possessions beyond the seas. Jamestown, -despite its inauspicious beginning, was soon -followed by the settlements in New England and -elsewhere. Between the James River and Spanish -Florida stretched a vast, rich territory too tempting -to ignore, and in 1665 Charles II of England granted -a patent for its occupation. The boundaries of the -new colony of Carolina brazenly included some -hundred miles or more of Spanish-occupied land—even -St. Augustine itself!</p> -<p>The signs were clear: The fight for Florida was -inevitable.</p> -<p class="tb">In the middle 1600s at St. Augustine, just south of -where the Castillo now stands, there was a wooden -fort. It was almost as large as the Castillo, but it was -a fort only in name. Most of the timbers were rotten. -Smallpox had killed so many Indians that there were -not enough laborers to carry in replacement logs.</p> -<p>Money to maintain the outposts came from New -Spain, for, the government in Madrid reasoned, the -Florida forts protected the commercial routes from -México to Spain. Consequently, officials in México -City had to find the silver to pay the troops and buy -the food, clothing, and other supplies that Florida so -desperately needed. Despite the orders from Madrid, -payments from México City were always behind, -<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span> -as Floridians knew from bitter experience.</p> -<p>Yet, if ever there was a time to protect Spanish -interests in Florida, it was now. The English had -attacked Santo Domingo and captured Jamaica. The -Dutch had been seen in Apalache Bay on Florida’s -west coast. As the corsairs grew bolder, one governor -made this appraisal: “In spite of the great valor with -which we would resist, successful defense would be -doubtful” without stronger defenses.</p> -<p>Proposals for a permanent, stone fort dated back -to 1586 after the discovery of the native shellstone, -coquina. For years officials in Spain, México, and -Florida argued about what needed to be done. By -1668 payments and sufficient supplies of food were -eight years behind. The townspeople and the soldiers -lived in poverty and the old wooden fort was on the -verge of falling into the sea.</p> -<p>The sack of St. Augustine was a blessing in disguise, -for it shocked Spanish officials into action. -The governor of Havana lent 1,200 pesos for masting -and rigging St. Augustine’s frigate, thus ensuring the -presidio’s communication with its supply bases. The -Viceroy released the 1669 payroll plus money for -general repairs, weapons, gunpowder, and lead for -bullets. He also promised 75 men to bring the troop -levels to authorized strength. And St. Augustine was -allowed to keep an 18-pounder bronze cannon that -had been salvaged from a shipwreck. This aid—12 -months of life for the colony—totaled at least 110,000 -pesos. Included was the hire of mules for the 75 -recruits to ride from México City to Veracruz. Hiring -the animals was easier than finding men, however. -Fifty-one of them arrived at last in 1670; the rest had -deserted or died. Officials in St. Augustine, however, -were not sure that the new troops were particularly -loyal to Spanish interests.</p> -<p>It was Mariana, Queen Regent of Spain, who gave -permanent aid to St. Augustine in three decrees -addressed to the viceroy. On March 11, 1669, she -ordered him to pay the Florida funds on time and -add a proper amount for building the fortification -proposed by the governor. Next, on April 10, she -commanded him to support a full 300-man garrison -in Florida instead of the customary 257 soldiers and -43 missionaries. Finally, on October 30, she enjoined -him to consult with the governor about an adequate -fortification and provide for its construction.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/i07.jpg" alt="" width="533" height="801" /> -<p class="pcap">Billions of sea creatures produced -the coquina that provided -the building blocks of -the Castillo. Because of the -high water table, the layers -of rock were damp when -quarried. Once trimmed and -shaped, the rock dried and -hardened. During the British -bombardment of 1740, the -walls absorbed the impact of -the cannon balls and very -little damage was done.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div> -<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">Beginning the Castillo</span></h2> -<p>To show her commitment to the proposed construction, -the Queen Regent appointed Sgt. Maj. Don -Manuel de Cendoya, a veteran of 22 years service, as -successor to Governor Guerra.</p> -<p>In México City Cendoya followed Queen Mariana’s -orders and delivered his message to the Viceroy, the -Marquis de Mancera. Florida’s defenses were to be -strengthened at once with a main castillo at St. -Augustine, a second fort to protect the harbor entrance, -and a third to prevent troop landings. Initial -estimates were that the project would cost 30,000 -pesos. At this point came the news of the English -settlement at Charleston, and Cendoya at once suggested -a fourth fort at Santa Catalina.</p> -<p>The viceroy’s finance council finally decided to -allot 12,000 pesos to begin work on one fort. If -suitable progress were made, they would consider -sending 10,000 yearly until completion. The question -of additional forts would be referred to the crown. -Cendoya had to be satisfied with this arrangement -and a levy of 17 soldiers. He left for Florida, making -a stop at Havana where he sought skilled workers. -There he also found an engineer, Ignacio Daza.</p> -<p>On August 8, 1671, a month after Cendoya’s -arrival in St. Augustine, the first worker began to -draw pay. By the time the mosquitoes were sluggish -in the cooler fall weather, the quarrymen had opened -coquina pits on Anastasia Island, and the lime -burners were building two big kilns just north of the -old fort. The carpenters put up a palm-thatched -shelter at the quarry, built a dozen rafts for ferrying -stone, firewood, and oyster shells for the limekilns -across the water. They built boxes, handbarrows, and -carretas—the long, narrow, hauling wagons—as well. -The blacksmith hammered out axes, picks, stonecutters’ -hatchets, crowbars, shovels, spades, hoes, -wedges, and nails for the carpenters. The grindstone -screeched as the cutting edge went on the tools.</p> -<p>Indians at the quarry chopped out the dense -<span class="pb" id="Page_14">14</span> -thickets of scrub oak and palmetto, driving out the -rattlesnakes and clearing the ground for the -shovelmen to uncover the top layer of coquina. Day -after day Diego Díaz Mejía, the overseer, kept the -picks and axes going, cutting deep groves into the -soft yellow stone, while with wedge and bar the -workers broke loose and pried up the blocks—small -pieces that a single man could shoulder, and -tremendously heavy cubes two feet thick and twice -as long that six strong men could hardly lift.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/i08.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="697" /> -<p class="pcap">Stone masons were the most -skilled and highly paid laborers -who worked on the Castillo.</p> -</div> -<p>Díaz watched his workers heave the finest stone on -the wagons. He sent the oxen plodding to the wharf -at the head of a marshy creek, where the load of -rough stone was carefully balanced on the rafts for -ferrying to the building site. And on the opposite -shore of the bay, next to the old fort, the cache of -unhewn stone grew larger daily, and the stonecutters -shaped the soft coquina for the masons.</p> -<p>In the limekilns, oyster shells glowed white-hot -and changed into fine quality, quicksetting lime. By -spring of 1672, there were 4,000 <i>fanegas</i> (about 7,000 -bushels) of lime in the two storehouses and great -quantities of hewn and rough stone.</p> -<p>Although the real construction had not even -started, great obstacles had already been overcome. -Maintaining an adequate work force and skilled -workers was a continual problem. When there should -have been 150 men to keep the 15 artisans working at -top speed—50 in the quarries and hauling stone, 50 -for gathering oyster shells and helping at the kilns, -and another 50 for digging foundation trenches, -toting the excavation baskets, and mixing mortar—it -was hard to get as many as 100 laborers on the job.</p> -<p>Indians from three nations, the Guale (coastal -Georgia), Timucua (Florida east of the Aucilla -River), and Apalache (between the Aucilla and the -Apalachicola), were employed. True, they were paid -labor, but some had to travel more than 200 miles to -reach the presidio, and many served unwillingly. In -theory each complement of Indian labor served only -a certain length of time; in practice it was not -uncommon for the men to be held long past their assigned -time, either through necessity or carelessness.</p> -<p>Indians were used as unskilled laborers and paid -the lowest wages—one <i>real</i> (about 20 cents) per day -plus corn rations. Most labored at the monotonous, -back-straining work in the quarries. A few were trained -<span class="pb" id="Page_15">15</span> -as carpenters and received correspondingly greater -wages but never the equal of what the Europeans -earned. One Indian was trained as a stonecutter and -worked on the Castillo for 16 years.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/i08a.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="753" /> -<p class="pcap">Great numbers of local Indians -carried out the many -heavy-duty tasks that kept this -labor-intensive project continually -moving forward.</p> -</div> -<p>Besides Indian labor, there were a few Spanish -workers paid 4 <i>reales</i> per day, and a number of -convicts, either local or from Caribbean ports. Beginning -in 1679 there were seven blacks and mulattoes -among the convicts. Eighteen black slaves -belonging to the crown joined the labor gang in 1687. -Convicts and slaves received rations but no wage. A -typical convict might have been a Spaniard caught -smuggling English goods into the colony, who was -condemned to six years’ labor on the fortifications. If -he tried to escape, the term was doubled and he -faced the grim prospect of being sent to a fever-infested -African presidio to work.</p> -<p>The military engineer, Ignacio Daza, was paid the -top wage of 3 pesos (about $4.75) per day. Daza died -seven months after coming to Florida, so the crown -paid only the surprisingly small sum of 546 pesos -(about $862) for engineering services in starting the -greatest of Spanish Florida fortifications.</p> -<p>Of the artisans, there were Lorenzo Lajones, master -of construction, and two master masons, each of -whom received the master workman’s wage of 20 -<i>reales</i> (about $4). Seven masons and eight stonecutters -at 12 <i>reales</i>, and 12 carpenters whose pay -ranged from 6 to 12 <i>reales</i>, completed the ranks of -the skilled workers. Later, some of these wages were -reduced: Lajones’ successor as master of construction -was paid only 17 <i>reales</i>, the master mason 13, and -the stonecutters from 3 to 11 <i>reales</i>, with half of -them at the 3- and 4-<i>real</i> level.</p> -<p>These were few men for the job at hand, and to -speed the work along Governor Cendoya used any -prisoner including neighboring Carolinians who fell -into Spanish hands. In 1670, a vessel bound for -Charleston, mistakenly put in at Santa Catalina -Mission, the Spanish post near the Savannah River, -and William Carr and John Rivers were taken. A -rescue sloop sent from Charleston protested the -Spaniards’ actions, with Joseph Bailey and John -Collins carrying the message from the English. For -their trouble, they were dispatched with Rivers and -Carr to St. Augustine to labor on the fort.</p> -<p>Three of the prisoners were masons, and their -<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span> -Spanish names—Bernardo Patricio (for Bernard -Fitzpatrick), and Juan Calens (for John Collins), and -Guillermo Car (for William Carr)—were duly written -on the payrolls. Some of these British subjects -became permanent residents. Carr, for instance, -embraced first the Catholic faith and then Juana de -Contreras, by whom he fathered eight children. His -father-in-law was a corporal, a circumstance that -may have helped Carr enlist as a gunner while also -working as a highly paid stonecutter.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/i09.jpg" alt="" width="542" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">Spanish silver coins were -used throughout the Caribbean -and the British colonies. -Often they were cut in -two, or quartered, or even -cut into eight pieces, giving -rise to our expression, “two -bits, four bits, six bits, a dollar,” -bit meaning the number -of pieces of one coin needed -to make a dollar. The coins -shown here are a 2-<span class="noti">real</span>, a -1-<span class="noti">real</span>, and another 2-<span class="noti">real</span> -piece. On the one 2-<span class="noti">real</span> coin, -note the Chinese characters -indicating that the coin had -been used in trade in the -Orient. The profile is that of -Charles III, who had died in -1788, though the inscription -says that it is of Charles IV. -The diemaker simply changed -the date and added another -“I” rather than using the more -conventional “IV” roman numeral -designation for 4.</p> -</div> -<p>The Spaniards were understandably cautious in -relying on the loyalty of foreigners, but actually the -new subjects served well. John Collins especially -pleased the officials. He could burn more lime in a -week than others could in twice the time. And as a -prisoner he had to be paid only 8 <i>reales</i> instead of -the 20 due a master workman. Like Carr, Collins -seemed to like St. Augustine. He rose steadily in -the crown’s employ from master of the kilns to -quarrymaster, with dugouts, provisions, and convicts -all in his charge. When pirates landed on Anastasia -in 1683 and marched on the city, Carr made sure that -all crown property in the quarry was moved to safety. -Royal recognition honored his loyalty and years of -service.</p> -<p>A few years later 11 Englishmen were captured -several miles north of St. Augustine. All were committed -to the labor gang—except Andrew Ransom. -He was to be garroted. On the appointed day Ransom -ascended the scaffold. The executioner put the -rope collar about his neck. The screw was turned 6 -times—and the rope broke! Ransom breathed again.</p> -<p>While the onlookers marveled, the friars took the -incident as an act of God and led Ransom to -sanctuary in the parish church. Word reached the -governor that this man was an ingenious fellow, an -artillerist, a carpenter, and what was most remarkable, -a maker of “artificial fires”—fire bombs. Ransom -was offered his life if he would put his talents to use -at the Castillo. He agreed and, like Collins, was exceedingly -helpful. Twelve years later, church authorities -finally agreed that the sanctuary granted by the -parish pastor was valid. At last Ransom was free of -the garrote.</p> -<p>All told, between 100 and 150 workers on the construction -crew labored in those first days of feverish -preparations. They, along with some 500 others—including -<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span> -about 100 soldiers in the garrison, a few -Franciscan friars, a dozen mariners, and the townspeople—had -to be fed. When supplies from México -did not come, getting food was even harder than -finding workers, especially since the coastal soil at -St. Augustine yielded poorly to 17th-century agricultural -methods.</p> -<p>Of the crops grown at St. Augustine, Indian corn -was the staple. Most of the planting, cultivating, and -harvesting of extensive fields near the town was done -by Indians. At times as many as 300 Indians, including -those working on the fortification, served the -crown at the presidio. To make the food, whether -grown locally or shipped in from México, go as far as -possible, it was rationed: 3 pounds daily until 1679, -then 2½ pounds until 1684, then 2 pounds until 1687, -and finally 2½ again. Convicts also got corn if flour -was not on hand, and they also received a meat -ration. Fresh meat was rather scarce, but the waters -teemed with fish and shellfish. A paid fisherman kept -the men supplied.</p> -<p>Garden vegetables were few. Squash grew well in -the sandy soil, as did beans and sweet potatoes, -citron, pomegranates, figs, and oranges. And of -course there were onions and garlic. But St. Augustine -was never self-supporting. After a century of -existence, it still depended for its very life upon -supplies from México.</p> -<p>As the long, hot days of the second summer -shortened into fall, Governor Cendoya saw that after -a year of gathering men and materials, he was ready -to start building.</p> -<p>Daza and the governor decided to construct the -Castillo on the west shore of the bay just north of -the old fort. It was a site that would take advantage -of every natural feature for the best possible defensive -position. The new fort, they decided, would be -similar, though somewhat larger. In line with the -more recent ideas, Daza recommended a slight -lengthening of the bastions. All around the castillo -they planned a broad, deep moat and beyond the -moat, a high palisade on the three land sides.</p> -<p>It was a simple and unpretentious plan, but a good -one. Daza, schooled in the Italian-Spanish principles -of fortification that grew out of the 16th-century -designs of Franceso de Marchi, was clearly a practical -man. His plan called for a “regular” fort—that is, -a symmetrical structure. Basically it was a square with -a bastion at each corner. Equally strong on all sides, -this design was ideal for Florida’s low, flat terrain.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/i10.jpg" alt="" width="705" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">This document is the official report to government officials -in Madrid that ground had been broken for the Castillo. -“Today, Sunday, about four in the afternoon, the second of -October 1672 ... Don Manuel de Cendoya, Governor and -Captain General of these provinces for Her Majesty ... -with spade in hand ... began the foundation trenches for -construction of the Castillo,” the document states.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div> -<p>About four o’clock Sunday afternoon, October 2, -1672, Governor Cendoya walked to a likely looking -spot between the strings marking out the lines of the -new fortification and thrust a spade into the earth, as -Juan Moreno y Segovia, reported the ground breaking -ceremonies for Queen Mariana.</p> -<p>Little more than a month later on Wednesday, -November 9, Cendoya laid the first stone of the -foundation. The people of St. Augustine must have -wept for joy. All were glad and proud, the aged -soldiers who had given a lifetime of service to the -crown, the four orphans whose father had died in -the pirate raid a few years earlier, the widows and -their children, the craftsmen, the workers, and the -royal officials. But none could have been more -pleased or proud than Don Manuel de Cendoya. He -of all the Florida governors had the honor to begin -the first permanent Florida fortification.</p> -<p>Laying the foundations was not easy, for the soil -was sandy and low and as winter came the Indians -were struck by <i>El Contagio</i>—a smallpox epidemic. -The laboring force dwindled to nothing. The governor -asked the crown to have Havana send 30 slaves. -Meanwhile, Cendoya himself and his soldiers took to -the shovels. As they dug a trench some 17 feet wide -and 5 feet deep, the masons came in and laid two -courses of heavy stones directly on the hard-packed -sand bottom for the foundation. The work was slow, -for high tide flooded the trenches.</p> -<p>About 1½ feet inside the toe of this broad -2-foot-high foundation, the masons stretched a line -marking the scarp or curtain, a wall that would -gradually taper upward from a 13-foot base to about -9 feet at its top, 20 feet above the foundation. In -the 12 months that followed, the north, south, and -east walls rose steadily. By midsummer of 1673 the -east side was 12 feet high, and the presidio was -jubilant over the news that the Viceroy was sending -even more money.</p> -<p>This good news was tempered by the viceroy’s -assertion that he would release no more money for -the work without a direct order from the crown. -Cendoya had already asked the queen to raise the -allowance to 16,000 pesos a year so the construction -<span class="pb" id="Page_20">20</span> -could be finished in four years. For, as he put it, the -English menace at Charleston brooked no delay. The -English were said to be outfitting ships for an invasion.</p> -<p>Gradually, however, construction slowed. In 1673 -Cendoya and Daza died within a few days of one -another. The governor’s mantle fell upon Major -Ponce, in whom the local Spaniards had little -confidence.</p> -<p>Trouble beset Ponce on every side. The viceroy -was reluctant to part with money for this project -despite evidence that English strength and influence -was increasing daily, especially among the Indians. -Shortly after Ponce took control, a terrific storm hit -the city. High tides undermined houses, flooded fields -and gardens, and polluted the wells. Sickness took its -toll. The old wooden fort was totally ruined. Waves -washed out a bastion, causing it to collapse under -the weight of its guns. The other seaward bastion and -the palisade were also breached in several places.</p> -<p>Then in the spring of 1675 when another provision -ship was lost, Ponce had to lead a group of workers on -a long march into Timucua to fetch provisions from -the Indians. Only a few masons were left to carry on -the work at the Castillo.</p> -<p>Despite all these problems, Ponce made progress. -The north curtain was completed and the east and -south were well underway. But looking west the -soldiers could see only open country.</p> -<p>On May 3, 1675, the long-awaited supply ship from -México safely arrived. Among its few passengers was -a new governor for Florida, Sgt. Maj. Don Pablo de -Hita Salazar, a hard-bitten veteran of campaigns in -Europe, and most recently governor of Veracruz. -Surely it was because of his reputation as a soldier -that he was assigned to Florida. Besides continuing -the work on the fort he was ordered to “dislocate” -the Charleston settlement. Led to believe the viceroy -would help in the difficult task ahead, Hita, in fact, -found that official singularly reluctant.</p> -<p>At St. Augustine, the work had been dragging, but -Hita made some positive points in writing the crown: -“Although I have seen many castillos of consequence -and reputation in the form of its plan, this one is not -surpassed by any of those of greater character.” -Furthermore, he endorsed the statement of the royal -officials, who were eager to point out the brighter -side of the picture: “If it had to be built in another -<span class="pb" id="Page_21">21</span> -place than St. Augustine it would cost a double -amount because there will not be the advantage of -having the laborers, at a <i>real</i> of wages each day, with -such meagre sustenance as three pounds of maize, -nor will the overseers and artisans work in other -places with such little salaries ... nor will the stone, -lime, and other materials be found so close at hand -and with the convenience there is in this presidio.”</p> -<p>So much money—34,298 pesos—had been spent -on the fort, and it was not yet finished, so it was -important to tell the authorities the positive benefits -of this project, for at this point the old stockade was -a ruin and the new one was unusable. Reports from -English deserters told them that Charleston, less -than 215 miles to the north, was well defended by a -stockade and 20 cannon.</p> -<p>Using characteristic realism, energy, and enthusiasm -that would have done credit to a much younger -man, Don Pablo set about making his own fortification -defensible. The bastion of San Carlos—at the -northeast corner of the Castillo—was the nearest to -completion. Hita ordered it finished so that cannon -could be mounted on its rampart.</p> -<p>While the masons were busy at that work, he took -his soldiers and razed the old fort. The best of its -wood went into a barrier across the open west side of -the Castillo. In 15 days they built a 12-foot-high -earthwork with two half-bastions, faced with a veneer -of stone and fronted by a moat 14 feet wide -and 10 feet deep. At last the garrison had four walls -for protection.</p> -<p>Next the powder magazine in the gorge of San -Carlos was completed and a ramp laid over it to give -access to the rampart above. The three curtains rose -to their full height of 20 feet. At the southeast corner -the workers dumped hundreds of baskets of sand -and rubble into the void formed by the walls of San -Agustin bastion and filled it to the 20-foot level.</p> -<p>Both carpenters and masons worked on the temporary -buildings and finished a little powder magazine -near the north curtain. A timber-framed coquina -structure, partitioned into guardhouse, lieutenant’s -quarters, armory, and provision magazine, took shape -along the west wall. Finally, a few of the guns from -the old fort were mounted in San Carlos and San -Agustin bastions and along the west front. After -three years of work, the Castillo was a defense at last.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/i12.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="716" /> -<p class="pcap">Practically every phase of construction is shown -here: ferrying the newly-quarried stones across from -Anastasia Island, hauling them to the site, cutting and -shaping the stones, mixing mortar, using oxen to hoist a -load of stones to the work area, and setting the stones in -place. Overseeing all this and reviewing the plans are the -engineer and master mason.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_24">24</div> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/i13.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="593" /> -<p class="pcap">Archeology, in one of its functions, provides us with -glimpses into the life of days gone by. The three bone buttons -were found in and around the Castillo. The light-colored, -smooth button with one hole was found in a sentry box. -Perhaps a coat caught on the entry way and the button tore -off, never to be found by the owner? The brass button is -from a 19th-century Spanish uniform.</p> -</div> -<p>And now Governor Hita’s first admiration for its -design vanished. The Castillo, he said, was too -massive. Surely no one would ever besiege it formally. -Rather, the danger lay in a blockade of the -harbor or occupation of Anastasia Island, actions -that would cut the presidio’s lifeline. The San Carlos -bastion was too high for effective fire on the inlet or -to sweep Anastasia. He argued that the Castillo, -including the parapet, should be held to a total -height of only 20 feet and supplemented by a 6-gun -redoubt directly facing the inlet.</p> -<p>Royal officials strenuously opposed the governor’s -attempts to change Daza’s plan. They wrote the -crown of Hita’s desire to tear finished walls down to -the level he thought proper.</p> -<p>In Hita’s view the west wall, though temporary, -was adequate. Therefore he would defer the permanent -wall and start instead on the permanent guardroom, -quarters, ravelin, and moat. Royal officials -insisted, however, that since the west wall was nothing -but a half-rotten fence and a mound of earth faced -with stone, all the walls must be completed as soon -as possible.</p> -<p>In the hope that the crown would agree to lower -the walls, Hita let the work lag on the two seaward -bastions while he began the west wall and bastions. -Construction continued despite trouble with the -Choctaws, despite the worrisome impossibility of -driving out the Carolina settlers, despite the pirate -raid on the port of Apalache in the west, and the -ever-present fear of invasion. Lorenzo Lajones, the -master of construction, died, but still the work went -on. Even after the viceroy’s 10,000 pesos were spent, -work continued with money diverted from the troop -payroll. As a last resort, people gave what they could -out of their own poverty. When these gifts were gone, -the scrape of the trowel ceased and the hammer and -axe were laid aside. Construction stopped on the last -day of 1677.</p> -<p>At the same time, the supply vessel bringing -desperately needed provisions and clothing from -México arrived, only to be lost on a sand bar right in -St. Augustine harbor. It was a heartbreaking loss. -Hita became disconsolate. The help he begged from -Havana never came, and for four years his reports to -the viceroy were ignored. Old, discouraged, and -sick, Hita wrote the crown that he was “without -<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span> -human recourse” in this remote province. Perhaps -the final blow to his pride was a terse order from the -crown to stick strictly to Daza’s plan for the Castillo.</p> -<p>Yet the old warrior did not give up. Eventually the -viceroy released 5,000 more pesos, and after 20 -months of idleness construction resumed on August -29, 1679. As soon as Hita left his sickbed he was back -at the fort, impatient with the snail’s pace of progress -under a new master of construction, Juan Márquez -Molina from Havana, whose sharp-eyed inspections -found stones missing from their courses and some of -the walls too thin.</p> -<p>The royal officials, always on hand to make sure -the governor followed the crown’s directives to the -letter, blamed the deficiencies on Hita, “who has -trod this fort down without knowledge of the art of -fortification.” With another 5,000 pesos plus the -masons due to arrive from Havana, said the old man -in rebuttal, “I promise to leave the work in very good -condition.” Before he could make good on that -promise, Sgt. Maj. Don Juan Márquez Cabrera arrived -at the end of November 1680 to take over the -reins of government.</p> -<p>So, half apologizing for his own little knowledge of -“architecture and geometry,” Hita left the trials and -tribulations of this frontier province to his more -youthful successor.</p> -<p>Actually, Hita had done a great deal. Within six -weeks after his arrival he had made the Castillo -defensible against any but an overwhelming force. -During the rest of his 5½-year term he brought the -walls up to where they were ready for the parapet -builders, despite one obstacle after another. In fact, -the parapet on San Carlos bastion was almost complete, -with embrasures for the artillery and firing -steps for the musketeers. The only low part of the -work was the San Pablo bastion, where the level had -been miscalculated. The sally port had its drawbridge -and iron-bound portal, and another heavy -door closed the postern in the north curtain. Permanent -rooms that would go along the curtain walls -were still only plans, but in a temporary building -centered in the courtyard were a guardroom and -storeroom, and a little chapel stood near the postern -in the shadow of the north curtain.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/i13a.jpg" alt="" width="394" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap">These bottles, dating from -the 19th-century American -presence in St. Augustine, -attest to the continuity of life. -The shells on the stoneware -flask indicate that it has been -in saltwater for some time. -The gold and tan bottle originally -held ginger beer, a popular -drink in the mid-1800s. -The green bottle is stamped -“Rumford Chemical Works” -of Rumford, Rhode Island, -on the shoulder.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div> -<h4 class="interlude">Saint Augustine</h4> -<blockquote> -<p>Although Saint Augustine was primarily a military outpost intended -to protect Spain’s dominion over Florida and the -sea route of its treasure fleets, Saint Augustine also became -a viable community as well, home to the settler-soldiers -and their families. Except for the Castillo, which was finished -in 1695, hardly any structure survives from Saint Augustine’s -first 150 years. Archeological investigations show -that almost all the earliest dwellings were small, crude -structures made of local materials with thatched roofs and -bare, dirt floors; coquina, the stone used in building the fort -was not used for homes until 1690. The ordinary wear and -tear of weather and time ensured that none of these early -structures lasted.</p> -<p>Archeology can tell us about the lives of the people who -lived in these houses, for more than 1,000 objects and pieces -and bits of pottery dating to the 16th century have been found. -Most of them are from local Indian sources and corroborate -written records that show that by 1600 almost 25 percent of -the soldiers had taken Indian wives because few Spanish -women initially came to Florida. Besides using their local -ceramics, the Indian women introduced New World foods -to their families and into the Spanish diet, creating something -that was neither wholly Spanish nor wholly Indian.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/i14.jpg" alt="" width="669" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap">The Oldest House Museum</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/i14a.jpg" alt="" width="672" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap">View in St. George Street</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div> -<p>The town itself was laid out according to ordinances dictated -by the Spanish government in 1563, resulting in a -carefully planned community with houses fronting directly -on standard-width streets with gardens in the rear or at the -side. This showed clearly that Spain intended St. Augustine -to be a permanent settlement, not a mere outpost on the -fringes of empire. In the 18th century, indeed, it had become -a vibrant community that numbered almost 3,000 persons -when the garrison and all inhabitants withdrew after Florida -became British in 1763.</p> -<p>The community and the people who lived in it were a mixture -of influences showing graphically how quickly Spaniards -adapted to the New World, using its materials, changing -patterns that they had brought from their homeland to meet -new conditions, and creating a society that simulated, but -did not mirror, what they had left behind. Saint Augustine -was the beginning of a new world for those who came here -in 1565.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/i14c.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="361" /> -<p class="pcap">The map, based on the surveys of Juan de Solís, was -drawn in 1764, a year after the British took control of -Florida. English names have already been given to the -town’s features. Somehow Fort St. Mark, a translation -of Castillo de San Marcos, does not have the same ring.</p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div> -<p>The new man, Major Juan Márquez Cabrera, -formerly governor of Honduras, checked the Castillo -work carefully with the construction master. Those -long years without an engineer had left them a -heritage of mistakes—skimpy foundations, levels -miscalculated—that had to be set right. From Havana -came a military engineer, Ensign Don Juan de Císcara. -During his brief stay he gave valuable guidance for -continuing the work, built the ramp to San Pablo -bastion, and laid foundations for the ravelin and its -moat wall.</p> -<p>The 1680s were turbulent years. In 1682, the year -the ravelin was finished, a dozen or so pirate craft in -the Straits of Florida seized numerous Spanish prizes, -including the Florida frigate on its way to Veracruz. -They raided Mosquito Inlet, only 60 miles south of -St. Augustine. In the west, pirates struck Fort San -Marcos de Apalache and even went up the San -Martín (Suwanee) River to rob cattle ranches in -Timucua.</p> -<p>Work on the Castillo fell further and further -behind schedule. Márquez appealed to the curate for -dispensation to work on Sundays and holy days. -Because of a history of bad relations with Márquez, -the request was refused. Márquez appealed to higher -authorities. When approval came, however, it was -too late, for invasion came first.</p> -<p>On March 30, 1683, English corsairs landed a -short way south of the <i>Centinela de Matanzas</i>, the -watchtower, at Matanzas Inlet near the south end of -Anastasia Island and about 14 miles from St. Augustine. -Under cover of darkness, a few of the raiders -came up behind the tower and surprised the sentries.</p> -<p>The march on St. Augustine began the next day. -Fortunately a soldier from St. Augustine happened -by Matanzas and saw the motley band. Posthaste he -warned the governor, who sent Capt. Antonio de -Argüelles with 30 musketeers to meet them on -Anastasia. A mile from the presidio the pirates -walked into the captain’s ambush. After exchanging -a few shots—one of which lodged in Argüelles’ -leg—the Englishmen beat a hasty retreat down the -island to their boats. They sailed to St. Augustine -and anchored at the inlet in plain sight of the -unfinished Castillo.</p> -<p>Márquez, his soldiers, and the townspeople worked -day and night to strengthen the Castillo. Missing -parapets and a firing step were improvised from dry -stone. Expecting the worst, everybody crowded into -<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span> -the fort. But the corsairs, looking at the stone fort -and nursing their wounds, decided to sail on.</p> -<p>After this scare, the Castillo crew worked with -renewed zeal. By mid-1683 they had completed the -San Agustín and San Pablo bastions. Governor -Márquez sent the crown a wooden model to show -what had been done.</p> -<p>This was progress made in the face of privation—hunger -that made the people demand of Márquez -that he buy supplies from a stray Dutch trader from -New York. It was unlawful, but the people had to eat. -Imagine the joy in the presidio soon afterward when -two subsidy payments came at one time! Márquez -gave the soldiers two years’ back pay and had enough -provisions on hand for 14 months. The 27 guns of the -presidio, from the iron 2-pounder to the 40-pounder -bronze, all had their gunner’s ladle, rammer, sponge, -and wormer, along with plenty of powder and shot. -There was also an alarm bell in San Carlos bastion.</p> -<p>By August 1684 Governor Márquez started on the -fort rooms and finished them the next spring. Courtyard -walls paralleled the four curtains, and foot-square -beams spanned the distance between them. -Laid over these great beams were 3-inch planks, -supporting a slab roof of tabby masonry. On the -north were the powder magazine and two big storerooms. -Quarters were along the west curtain, guardroom -and chapel on the south, and rooms on the east -included a latrine and prison. Altogether there were -more than 20 rooms.</p> -<p>The only major work yet to do was beyond the -walls. The surrounding moat, 40 feet wide, needed -to be deepened, for only part of the moat wall was up -to its full 8-foot depth. In fact, of the outworks only -the ravelin was finished.</p> -<p>With the fortification this far along, Governor -Márquez could give more attention to other business, -such as Lord Cardross’ Scottish colony at Port -Royal, South Carolina. This was, in the Spanish view, -a new and obnoxious settlement that encouraged -heathen Indians to raid mission Indians. Furthermore, -it was in land recognized as Spanish even by -the English monarch.</p> -<p>So in September 1686, Márquez sent Captain -Alejandro Tomás de Léon, with orders to destroy the -colony, which he did. He then sacked and burned -Governor Joseph Morton’s plantation on Edisto Island.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/i15.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="167" /> -<p class="pcap">This cannon tube is typical of most 18th-century guns and -bears the cipher of Carlos III, showing it to be Spanish.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div> -<h4 class="interlude">The Castillo</h4> -<blockquote> -<div class="img" id="fig18"> -<img src="images/i16.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="479" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">This bird’s-eye view of Castillo de San Marcos shows how it is -laid out and why. The fort was located at the north end of -Saint Augustine and on the water for defensive reasons. -The moat protected it on four sides, and the Matanzas River -lent additional protection as well. The only entrance was at -the point closest to the town, so the inhabitants could quickly -go to the fort if danger threatened. The fort was designed, -too, so that every wall could be seen from some vantage point -inside the Castillo. No attacking force could sneak up to the -very walls without the defenders seeing them. The original -Castillo was simply the exterior walls. Parallel to them were the -inner, or courtyard, walls, built also of stone. Beams spanned -the space between exterior and inner walls and held up -platforms upon which guns sat aimed at the surrounding -countryside or out over the water. Such a structure offered -scant bombproof defense against incoming projectiles. -And the wooden beams were subject to rot in the humid, -subtropical air.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><b>Bastions</b></p> -<p class="pcapc">Each corner of the fort is protected -by a diamond-shaped -bastion. From the bastion the -adjacent walls could be protected -from an attacking -force, and in conjunction with -the neighboring bastions a -deadly crossfire could be -turned on any force that got -so close.</p> -<p class="pcapc"><b>Guard Rooms</b></p> -<p class="pcapc">St. Augustine was a garrison town and no one lived inside -the Castillo. When soldiers were on guard duty—usually -a period of 24 hours—they slept and prepared their meals -in these rooms.</p> -<p class="pcapc"><b>Storage Rooms</b></p> -<p class="pcapc">Most of the rooms around the central courtyard were used -for storage. They were stockpiled with gunpowder, ammunition, -weapons, lumber, tools, and food, such as beans, -rice, flour, and corn, that could be used in time of siege.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_31">31</div> -<div class="img" id="fig19"> -<img src="images/i16a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="287" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">Work began on stone vaults in 1738 to solve -these problems. First, carpenters built wooden forms that supported the stone until all pieces -of the arch were in place. As the form was removed, other -workers began dumping sand, rubble, earth—anything to -build up the level—into the spaces above the arches. Over -this a cement-like mixture of sand and coquina was placed -and tamped down and built up in stages until the desired -height was reached. The result was a wide gun platform -on top that would support the heaviest guns and provide -bombproof spaces beneath.</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_32">32</div> -<p>Next they set course for Charleston but again, as -had happened in 1670, a storm blew them away from -the hated English colony. Leon’s vessel, the <i>Rosario</i>, -was lost, and he along with it. Another ship was -driven aground, and the last of the little armada -limped back to St. Augustine.</p> -<p>Actually the real contest for the southeast was in -the backcountry where English traders operated. -Governor Márquez sent soldiers and missionaries -from St. Augustine to the Apalachecola nation in -western Georgia. For the Spaniards, however, it was -a losing fight—an exciting, exasperating struggle of -diplomacy and intrigue, trade and cupidity, war and -religion, slavery and death.</p> -<p>Captain of cuirassiers Diego de Quiroga y Losada -assumed the governorship on August 21, 1687, after -Márquez fled to Cuba in April. That same day he -stopped work on the Castillo because there was no -way to feed the workers. These troubles and the -certainty of reprisals from the Carolinians sent Capt. -Juan de Ayala Escobar directly to Spain for help. He -came back with 80 soldiers, the money for maintaining -them, and even a Negro slave to help in the fields. -The black man, one of a dozen Ayala had hoped to -deliver, was a much-needed addition to the colony, -and Captain Ayala was welcomed back to St. Augustine -with rejoicing “for his good diligence.”</p> -<p>Soon there was more black labor for both fields -and fortifications. From the Carolina plantations, an -occasional slave would slip away and move southward -along the waterways. In 1687 a small boat -loaded with nine runaways made its way to St. -Augustine. The men found work to do and the -governor took the two women into his household as -servants. It was a fairly happy arrangement: the -slaves worked well and soon asked for Catholic -baptism.</p> -<p>A few months later, William Dunlop came from -Charleston in search of them. Governor Quiroga, -reluctant to surrender converted slaves, offered to -buy them for the Spanish crown. Dunlop agreed to -the sale, even though the governor was as usual short -of cash and had given him a promissory note. To seal -the bargain, Dunlop gave one of the slaves, a baby -girl, her freedom. Later the crown liberated the -others.</p> -<p>This incident resulted in a knotty problem. First, -<span class="pb" id="Page_33">33</span> -commerce with Carolina, as an English colony, was -illegal. Secondly, the crown could not buy freedom -for every runaway that came to Florida, as more and -more Carolina blacks left their English masters, -seeking refuge. The slave issue made any hope of -amicable relations between the Spanish and English -colonists impossible. Eventually the Spaniards decreed -freedom for all Carolina slaves coming to -Florida, and the governor established a fortified -village—Gracia Real de Mose—for them hardly more -than a cannon shot from the Castillo.</p> -<p>Construction work on the Castillo resumed in the -spring of 1688, after a shipment of corn came from -Apalache. In Havana Governor Quiroga bought for -137 pesos a stone bearing the royal arms to be set -into the wall over the gate. At this time, too, the little -town entered its “stone age,” for as surplus materials -from the crown quarries became available, masonry -buildings gradually took the place of the board-and-thatch -housing that had been traditional here since -the founding.</p> -<p>Until the outworks could be finished, the Castillo -was vulnerable to siege guns and scaling ladders. -Nevertheless it was impossible to push the heavy -work of quarrying, lumbering, and hauling at this -crucial time. There were too many other pressures. -Belatedly trying to counteract English gains and -strengthen their own ties with the Indians, the Spaniards -built a fort in the Apalachecola country. Unfortunately -the soldiers had to be pulled back to -St. Augustine when Spain declared war on France -in 1689.</p> -<p>This time Spain and England were allies. Yet -Governor Quiroga wondered at the presence of -English vessels off both northern and southern coasts. -As a bit of insurance he wrote a letter telling of a -strength far beyond what he had, in the hope that if -an English ship would capture the letter they would -not know of St. Augustine’s weakness. For again the -supply situation was critical, and swarms of French -corsairs infested the waters between Florida and -Havana. Two provision vessels were lost in the Keys -and a third fell into French hands. Until food eventually -came in from Havana and Campeche, the soldiers -had to live on handouts from the townspeople.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig20"> -<img src="images/i17.jpg" alt="" width="442" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap">In the royal arms of Spain, the lions stand for the province -of León and the castles for the province of Castile. -The shield is surrounded by the chain of the Order of the -Golden Fleece, a knightly order founded in 1430, of -which the Spanish monarch was grand master. The story -of the Golden Fleece recalls the courageous exploits in the -ancient Greek myth of Jason and the Argonauts.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div> -<h4 class="interlude">The Drawbridge</h4> -<blockquote> -<div class="img" id="fig21"> -<img src="images/i18.jpg" alt="" width="731" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">The inner workings of the Castillo drawbridge.</p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Pulling up the drawbridge was like locking the door. Once it -was pulled up flush against the walls and the portcullis—the -heavy grating made of solid yellow pine—rolled shut, no -one could get into the fort. To raise the bridge, trapdoors -were removed so that the counterweights could descend -into the pit. A windlass also lay beneath this trapdoor. Soldiers -inserted bars into holes bored into the windlass and -rotated it, causing the lifting drums to revolve. The chains, -attached to the far end of the bridge, pulled the bridge up -as the chains turned on the lifting drums. The counterweights -helped neutralize the weight of the bridge so that -three soldiers were able to lift its great weight—approximately -1,900 pounds. When the bridge was in the upright -position, the soldiers then rolled the portcullis shut behind -them, and secured it. This was done every night or in -time of danger.</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div> -<p>To lessen the chances of famine in the future, -Florida officials resolved to plant great fields of corn -nearby. And where was better than the broad clearings -around the fort? Acres of waving corn soon -covered the land almost up to the moat. When the -crown heard of these plantings, back to Florida came -a royal order banning corn fields within a musket -shot of the Castillo. A whole army could hide in the -tall corn without being seen by the sentries!</p> -<div class="img" id="fig22"> -<img src="images/i18a.jpg" alt="" width="393" height="599" /> -<p class="pcap">The Castillo drawbridge.</p> -</div> -<p>A new governor, Don Laureano de Torres y Ayala, -arrived in 1693. At the outset he had to deal with -hostilities between St. Augustine and Charleston—hostilities -that mocked the Spanish-English alliance -in Europe.</p> -<p>More importantly, however, to Governor Torres -belongs the credit for completing Castillo de San -Marcos. Torres saw the last stones go into place for -the water battery—bright yellow coquina that was in -contrast to weathered masonry almost a quarter of a -century old. In August 1695 the workmen finally -moved out of the Castillo to another job: a seawall -that would keep storm tides out of the city.</p> -<p>The pile of stone on which Cendoya had planned -to spend some 70,000 pesos and which Hita had -estimated would cost a good 80,000 if built elsewhere, -ended up costing at least 138,375 pesos, a -tremendous sum impossible to translate into today’s -money. But more than the money, it was the blood, -sweat, and hardship of the Florida soldier that paid -the cost. For the funds came out of money never -paid. Let the Castillo be his monument!</p> -<p>And what did completion of this citadel mean? -Only a year later, soldiers gaunt with hunger slipped -into the church and left an unsigned warning for the -governor: If the enemy came, they intended to -surrender, for they were starving.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div> -<div class="img" id="fig23"> -<img src="images/i19.jpg" alt="" width="683" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">Weapons of the 17th and 18th centuries may seem crude -and primitive to a late-20th-century observer, but they -could rain death and destruction on any foe. See the feature -on Ordnance, pages <a class="pgref" href="#Page_44">44</a>-45, for more details.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div> -<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">Defending San Marcos</span></h2> -<p>The test of the Castillo’s strength was not long in -coming. Relations with France had become peaceful, -but incursions by the English-led Indians kept -the backcountry inflamed. As tensions increased, -Gov. José de Zúñiga y Cerda looked at the St. -Augustine defenses with an experienced eye. Zúñiga -knew, after a military career spanning 28 years, that -strong walls were not enough. The Castillo’s guns -were ancient and obsolete—many of them unserviceable. -The powder from México so fouled the gun -barrels that after “four shots, the Ball would not go in -the Cannon.” Arquebuses, muskets, powder, and -shot were in short supply.</p> -<p>Once again Captain Ayala sailed directly to Spain -to ask for aid. It was a race against time, for the War -of the Spanish Succession with France and Spain -allied against England had broken out. Gov. James -Moore of Carolina lost no time moving against St. -Augustine in 1702. If he could capture the Castillo, -he would clap an English lock on the Straits of -Florida and forestall a possible Spanish-French attack -on Charleston.</p> -<p>On the way south, Moore’s forces destroyed the -Franciscan missions in the Guale country. At St. -Augustine they avoided the Castillo and occupied -the town, whose inhabitants had fled to the fort. -South and west of its walls, where the town approached -the fort, the Spaniards burned many structures -that could have hidden the enemy advance.</p> -<p>Moore’s 500 Englishmen and 300 Indians vastly -outnumbered the 230 soldiers and 180 Indians and -Negroes in the Castillo’s garrison, but Moore was -ill-equipped to besiege the Castillo. He settled down -to await the arrival of more artillery from Jamaica, -and thus matters stood when four Spanish men-of-war -arrived and blocked the harbor entrance, bottling -up Moore’s fleet of eight small vessels. Moore -burned his ships, left most of his supplies, and -retreated overland to the St. Johns River. He left St. -<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span> -Augustine in ashes, but the Castillo and its people -survived.</p> -<p>The ease with which the English had taken and -held the city for almost two months made it clear -that more defenses were needed. Moreover, English -and Indian obliteration of the missions in Apalache, -Timucua, and Guale had reduced Spanish control to -the tiny area directly under the Castillo guns.</p> -<p>In the next two decades strong earthworks and -palisades, buttressed at strategic points with redoubts, -made St. Augustine a walled town, secure as -long as there were enough soldiers to man the walls. -But in those dark days who could be sure of tomorrow? -In 1712 came <i>La Gran Hambre</i>—the Great -Hunger—when starving people even ate the dogs -and cats.</p> -<p>At last the war ended in 1714. The threat to St. -Augustine lessened, but it was an uneasy kind of -peace with many “incidents.” In 1728 Col. William -Palmer of Carolina marched against the presidio. -The grim walls of the fort, the readiness of the heavy -guns, and the needle-sharp points of the yucca plants -lining the palisades were a powerful deterrent. Palmer -“refrained” from taking the town. For their part, the -Spaniards fired their guns, but made no sorties.</p> -<p>Palmer’s bold foray to the very gates of St. Augustine -foreshadowed a new move southward by the -English, beginning with the settlement of Savannah -in 1732. With his eye on Florida, James Oglethorpe -landed at St. Simons Island in 1736, built Fort -Frederica, and nurtured it into a strong military post. -From Frederica he pushed his Georgia boundary -southward all the way to the St. Johns River—a scant -35 miles from St Augustine.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig24"> -<img src="images/i20.jpg" alt="" width="443" height="500" /> -<p class="pcap">Mortars have long held an important -place in the family of -field artillery because of their -ability to throw a projectile -over a barrier. The Spaniards -were among the earliest to use -mortars whose trajectory -could be varied, thereby making -the mortars even more -effective.</p> -</div> -<p>Meanwhile, Castillo de San Marcos began to show -signs of being 50 years old. The capable engineer -and frontier diplomat Antonio de Arredondo came -from Havana to inspect Florida’s defenses and make -recommendations. Backed by Arredondo’s expertise, -Gov. Manuel de Montiano wrote a frank letter to -the governor of Cuba, who was now responsible for -Florida’s security: “Your Excellency must know that -this castle, the only defense here, has no bombproofs -for the protection of the garrison, that the -counterscarp is too low, that there is no covered way, -that the curtains are without demilunes, that there -are no other exterior works to give them time for a -long defense; ... we are as bare outside as we are -without life inside, for there are no guns that could -last 24 hours and if there were, we have no artillery-men -to serve them.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_39">39</div> -<h4 class="interlude">Spanish-English Conflict, 1670-1748</h4> -<blockquote> -<div class="img" id="fig25"> -<img src="images/i20a.jpg" alt="" width="730" height="993" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">The Treaty of Madrid, 1670, aimed at stopping the Spanish-English contest -along the South Atlantic coast by confirming Spanish claims as far north -as 32°30′. The English agreed to this but within a few years continued their -push southward. Savannah, settled in 1733 was well within Spanish territory.</span></p> -</div> -<table class="center" summary=""> -<tr class="th"><th>Selected attacks </th><th>Nationality</th></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Charleston 1670, 1706 </td><td class="l">Spanish</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l"><span class="hst">″, 1706</span> </td><td class="l">French</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Edisto Island, 1706 </td><td class="l">Spanish</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Port Royal, 1686 </td><td class="l">Spanish</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Santa Catalina Island, 1680 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Fort Frederica, 1742 </td><td class="l">Spanish</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">St. Simons Island, 1742 </td><td class="l">Spanish</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Santa Maria Island, 1683 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">San Juan de Puerto, 1683 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Fort San Diego, 1740 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">St. Augustine, 1683, 1702, 1728, 1740 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Matanzas Inlet, 1683, 1740, 1741, 1742, 1743 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Little Matanzas Inlet, 1686 </td><td class="l">French</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Mosquito Inlet, 1682 </td><td class="l">French</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Santa Fe, 1702 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Santa Catalina de Afuica, 1685 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">San Juan de Guacara, 1693 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Ayubale, 1704 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">San Pedro de Patale, 1704 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">Apalache Fort, 1677, 1682 </td><td class="l">French</td></tr> -<tr><td class="l">San Carlos, 1693 </td><td class="l">English</td></tr> -</table> -</blockquote> -<blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div> -<h4 class="interlude">Defending the Fort</h4> -<div class="img" id="fig26"> -<img src="images/i21.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="677" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">The most serious attack on the Castillo took place when -James Oglethorpe, the founder of Georgia, arrived off Saint -Augustine on June 13, 1740, with 7 warships and 1,400 -troops. Oglethorpe’s arrival was not entirely unexpected. -The English and Spaniards were rivals in Europe and continued -their contest in the New World, with the Spaniards becoming -increasingly restive as the English penetrated into the -lands south of Charleston. By the time Oglethorpe arrived in -Georgia, only about 150 miles north of the Castillo and on -land the Spaniards considered their own, tensions were high. -Oglethorpe wanted to guarantee that his new settlements -would be secure from Spanish attack, so he decided to capture -and occupy Spain’s base in Florida—before they decided -to attack him. Oglethorpe had his work cut out for -him, because the Castillo was superbly sited. Creeks and -marshes protected it to the west and south. On the east -the bay stretched to a shallow bar across the harbor entrance -that kept heavy warships out of range. The only land approach -was from the north. An English spy for Oglethorpe reported -that the fort was well supplied and staffed. There -were “22 pieces of Cannon well mounted on the Bastions -from 6 pound’rs to 36.... There is a guard of a Lieutenant, a -Serjeant & 2 Corporals & 30 Soldiers here who is relieved -Every Day.... There is a Mote Round it of 30 foot wide & a -draw Bridge of about 15 foot long, they draw every Night & -Lett it down in the Morning.” With this kind of information -Oglethorpe knew what he was up against and came prepared. -Fortunately for the defenders, the attackers were divided. -Some had landed on Vilano Point and on Anastasia Island, -opposite the Castillo and were setting up batteries there. -Some troops were on the mainland where they had seized vacant -Fort Mose, a free black settlement just north of the -Castillo. Though the total British force outnumbered the -defenders, Gov. Manuel de Montiano reasoned that his -forces could attack one segment before it could be reinforced -by the other two. This is exactly what the Spaniards -did, overwhelming the British force at Fort Mose. Undecided -about further land attack, the British then began shelling the -Castillo and the town from their siege batteries in a bombardment -that lasted 27 days. But the British mortars and -siege guns were too far away to be totally effective and the -damage they did was slight. Some of the newer stonework -was damaged. Only two Spanish soldiers were killed during -the attack and another had a leg shot away. Among the British -there was no agreement regarding another course of -action. Oglethorpe himself was down with a fever, and the -troops had become unnecessarily tired by purposeless maneuvering. -With the approach of the hurricane season, the -naval commander refused to continue the blockade, and -British forces left. The Castillo and its defenders had done -what they were meant to do.</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div> -<div class="img" id="fig27"> -<img src="images/i22.jpg" alt="" width="688" height="1000" /> -<p class="pcap">The construction of the bombproof vaults in 1738-40 -and 1751-56 provided a substantial room for the guard. -Bedding was laid on the raised platform at left.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_43">43</div> -<p>Cuba’s governor was a resourceful administrator -eager to meet his responsibilities. He sent guns, -soldiers, artisans, convicts, provisions, and money. -The walls would be raised five feet and masonry -vaults, to withstand English bombs, would replace -the rotting beams of old rooms in the Castillo. -Stronger outworks would be built, too. To supervise -the project, Engineer Pedro Ruiz de Olano came -from Venezuela. The work began in April 1738 -rather inauspiciously. The master of construction, -one Cantillo, was a syphilitic too sick to earn his -16-<i>real</i> daily wage. Much of his work fell to his -assistant, a 12-<i>real</i> master mason. All six stonecutters -were Negroes. One was an invalid, and none of -them as yet had much skill with coquina. For moving -stone, there was but one oxcart. The labor gang—52 -convicts—was too small. Nevertheless, quarry and -kiln hummed with activity, and in the Castillo the -crash of demolition echoed as the convicts pulled -down old structures and began trenching for the new -bombproofs. They started on the east, because this -side faced the inlet where enemy action was likely.</p> -<p>As usual, misfortunes beset the work. Cantillo’s -illness worsened and Blas de Ortega came from -Havana to replace him. Eight convicts working at the -limekiln deserted. Engineer Ruiz moved a crew of -carpenters, sawyers, and axemen from work on the -Castillo to rebuild a blockhouse where the trail to -Apalache crossed the St. Johns River.</p> -<p>The oxcart driver broke his arm. Quarrying and -stonecutting dragged. The old quarry played out. -Luckily, a new one was found and opened, even -though farther away. And Havana sent two more -carts and more stonecutters and convicts.</p> -<p>It was well into October before the carpenters -began setting the forms for the vaults. The masons -followed close on their heels and finished the first of -the massive, round-arched bombproofs before the -year ended. Just a year later all eight vaults, side by -side along the east curtain, were done. Each one -spanned a 17- by 34-foot area, and had its own door -to the courtyard. Windows above and beside the -door let in light and air.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_44">44</div> -<h4 class="interlude">Ordnance</h4> -<blockquote> -<p>Forts are often described with words like impregnable, unassailable, -grim, invulnerable, and redoubtable. These descriptions -often came about because of their armaments. -A strategically positioned fort with a full complement of weaponry -would be a problem for any invader, because the fortress, -unlike naval ships, provided a stable platform upon -which guns could be mounted and trained on the enemy. Anyone -approaching within approximately 500 yards would be -in great danger, even though the artillery in those times was -not always accurate and aim was extremely difficult.</p> -<div class="img"><p class="pcap"><b>Tools for Guns</b></p> -<p class="pcapc">The tools used to operate the ordnance had a variety of -functions. The wet sponge swabbed out the cannon to -make sure all sparks were extinguished. The ladle dumped -the exact amount of powder needed into the chamber. The -scraper removed any powder residue. The worm removed -unfired bits of cartridge and wadding. The point was to -make sure the cannon was clean before it was loaded and fired.</p></div> -<div class="img" id="fig28"> -<img src="images/i23.jpg" alt="" width="716" height="63" /> -<p class="pcap">1. Sponge</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig29"> -<img src="images/i23a02.jpg" alt="" width="840" height="72" /> -<p class="pcap">2. Powder ladle</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig30"> -<img src="images/i23a03.jpg" alt="" width="842" height="84" /> -<p class="pcap">3. Scraper</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig31"> -<img src="images/i23a04.jpg" alt="" width="748" height="47" /> -<p class="pcap">4. Worm</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig32"> -<img src="images/i23a05.jpg" alt="" width="865" height="189" /> -<p class="pcap">5. 24-pounder cannon</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig33"> -<img src="images/i23a06.jpg" alt="" width="774" height="159" /> -<p class="pcap">6. 16-pounder cannon</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig34"> -<img src="images/i23a07.jpg" alt="" width="762" height="153" /> -<p class="pcap">7. 12-pounder cannon</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig35"> -<img src="images/i23a08.jpg" alt="" width="222" height="329" /> -<p class="pcap">8. Grape shot, side view</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig36"> -<img src="images/i23a09.jpg" alt="" width="498" height="127" /> -<p class="pcap">9. Tongs for handling hot shot</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig37"> -<img src="images/i23a10.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="344" /> -<p class="pcap">10. Garrison carriage, top view</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig38"> -<img src="images/i23a11.jpg" alt="" width="458" height="288" /> -<p class="pcap">11. Garrison carriage, side view</p> -</div> -<div class="img"><p class="pcap">These illustrations come from Tomás de Morla’s <span class="noti">A Treatise on Artillery</span></p></div> -<p>Basically all artillery falls into two categories: mortars and -guns. Mortars were designed to fire the largest and heaviest -projectiles on a curved trajectory. They could shoot over -obstacles or fortifications, landing on, and perhaps piercing, -the deck of a ship, or hitting a pile of powder kegs or -other supplies behind fortified walls, or just wreaking havoc -and demoralizing the people. Guns fired their projectiles in -a flat trajectory, and their effectiveness in turn depended -upon the weight of the shot: the greater the weight of the -shot, the greater the muzzle velocity—the speed at which -the shot exited the gun—and the farther the shot would go -and the deadlier it would be.</p> -<p>The first artillery pieces were made of forged iron. The greatest -concern was in producing a weapon that could contain -<span class="pb" id="Page_45">45</span> -the explosive force of the gunpowder, hurl the projectile at -the enemy, and not blow up in the faces of the gun crew. Once -guns could be cast in a single piece in either brass or bronze, -great strides were made in the effectiveness of the artillery -pieces. By the 18th century bronze seems to have been the -metal of choice. The guns and mortars were highly decorated. -All bore the coat of arms of the sovereign. Usually the maker -was identified in some way; the name might be part of the base -ring or shown in a cipher below the sovereign’s arms. Garlands -of flowers, animals, and mythical creatures sometimes -decorated the piece. All Spanish guns were named—<i>Vindicator</i>, -<i>Invincible</i>, <i>Destroyer</i> are a few examples—and the -authorities made sure that each gun’s whereabouts was -always known. This has been invaluable for present-day historians -investigating what guns were used where and when. -Guns were classified by the weight of the projectile: a 12-pounder -gun shot a 12-pound ball. The kinds of projectiles -varied greatly: solid shot, canister shot (a container full of -bullets), grape shot (cloth container full of bullets), and -bombs or grenades (hollow shot filled with gunpowder) -fired from a mortar. Sometimes solid shot was heated -until it was red hot. If it landed on a ship, hot shot could set a -wooden ship afire. Ordnance enabled a fortification to meet -the potential the military engineers had hoped for when -they sited and built it.</p> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_46">46</div> -<p>The tops of the ponderous vaults were leveled off -with a fill of coquina chips and sand. Tabby mortar -was poured onto the surface, and tampers beat the -mixture smooth. After the first layer set, others were -added until the pavement was six inches thick. The -whole roof was thus made into a gun deck, and -cannon were no longer restricted to the bastions -alone. For unlike the old raftered roof, the new -terreplein was buttressed by construction that could -take tremendous weight and terrific shock; and -masonry four feet thick protected the rooms underneath -from bombardment. In San Carlos bastion, by -mid-January of 1740, they had finished the tall watchtower -and the new parapet.</p> -<p>It was the English settlement of Georgia that had -spurred all this activity. In fact, Spain’s plan for -recovery of Georgia and other Spanish-claimed land -was well past the first stages. Troops were assembling -in Havana and reinforcements of 400 had already -come to Florida. The situation came to a head when -Spanish officials boarded Capt. Robert Jenkins’ ship -<i>Rebecca</i>, believing the English mariners to be illegally -carrying goods to Spanish settlements, an enterprise -forbidden by Spanish law. In the ensuing -scuffle, Jenkins’ ear was sliced off. Jenkins, back in -London, reported to Parliament that the Spanish -officer who handed him back his ear said: “Carry it -to your King and tell his majesty that if he were -present I would serve him in the same manner.”</p> -<p>Alexander Pope, the couplet maker, smiled and -said: “The Spaniards did a waggish thing/Who -cropped our ears and sent them to the King.” But -others were not amused, and England and Spain -declared war in 1739. It was called, of course, the -War of Jenkins’ Ear.</p> -<p>England’s main target was the Caribbean, with -Havana at center with Portobelo, Cartagena, and St. -Augustine on the perimeter. Admiral Edward Vernon -quickly won fame with his capture of Portobelo in -1739. Oglethorpe tried to imitate him in Florida. -Already he had probed the St. Johns River approaches; -St. Augustine would be next.</p> -<p>Governor Montiano, however, was fully aware of -weaknesses. “Considering that 21 months have been -spent on a bastion and eight arches,” he pointed out, -“we need at least eight years for rehabilitation of the -Castillo.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_47">47</div> -<h4 class="interlude">How a Siege Works, Circa 1700</h4> -<blockquote> -<div class="img" id="fig39"> -<img src="images/i24.jpg" alt="" width="642" height="773" /> -<p class="pcap"><b>The Mechanics of a Siege</b></p> -<p class="pcapc">Military engineers built forts for several reasons: to protect -cities, to protect strong points from falling into enemy hands, -to be a visible symbol of governmental authority. If a fort -could not be taken by surprise, an attacking party had -to take the fort by force. The process of surrounding an -enemy’s strong point and slowly cutting off all contact -with the outside world is known as a siege. Sieges go -back to Biblical times, but the principles were formulated -by Sébastien le Prestre de Vauban (1633-1707), a -French military engineer who served in the armies of Louis -XIV. He created a very formal, disciplined science, and his -plan was maddeningly simple. First a trench parallel to the -fort was dug out of gun range so the attackers could move -in supplies and troops. Sappers—crews of trench diggers—then -dug zigzag trenches toward the fort; the zigzag -pattern made it more difficult for defenders to hit the -trenches. Next the sappers dug a second parallel that included -some batteries for shelling the fort. Additional -zigzag trenches and parallels would be dug until the attackers -were in a position to concentrate their fire at -one point on the fortification to breach its walls. The fortress -would then have no alternative but to surrender -or be stormed. Conducting a textbook perfect siege did -not always result in success, for the fort’s defenders would -not have been idle. They would fire cannon at the sappers. -Often they dug counter trenches out from the fortress -and planted mines to blow up the work of the attackers. -And they would send out nighttime raiding parties, too.</p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss"><span class="large">1st Parallel</span></span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Military engineers, called sappers, construct trenches and raise -earthworks to protect the attacking forces.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><i>Line of attack</i></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Mortar fire destroys cannon and drives defenders to cover; siege -lines prevent supplies from reaching the fort.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss"><span class="large">2nd Parallel</span></span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Siege guns destroy cannon and weaken fort walls.</span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss"><span class="large">3rd Parallel</span></span></p> -<p class="pcapc"><span class="ss">Siege guns breach the walls, enabling attacking forces -to enter the fort.</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig40"> -<img src="images/i24a.jpg" alt="" width="740" height="152" /> -<p class="pcap"><span class="ss">A Fort’s Defenses</span></p> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Attackers</dt> -<dt>OUTER WORKS</dt> -<dd>Glacis</dd> -<dd>Covered Way</dd> -<dd>Moat</dd> -<dd>Ravelin</dd> -<dt>INNER FORT</dt> -<dd>Moat</dd> -<dd>Parapet</dd> -<dd>Scarp</dd> -<dd>Rampart</dd> -<dd>Magazine</dd></dl> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div> -<div class="img" id="fig41"> -<img src="images/i25.jpg" alt="" width="342" height="800" /> -<p class="pcap">The Cubo Line originally stretched from the Castillo to -the San Sebastian River. It was strengthened and rebuilt -repeatedly by both the Spaniards and the British. The -city gate, a part of the line, was built in 1808, only a few -years before the United States took control of Florida.</p> -</div> -<p>His concerns were genuine, for work on the vaults -had to stop as the war dried up construction funds. -The fort was left in a strangely irregular shape. The -east side, including San Carlos bastion, was at the -new height, but all others were several feet lower. -The old rooms still lined three sides of the courtyard.</p> -<p class="tb">On June 13, 1740, seven British warships dropped -anchor outside the inlet. The long-expected siege of -St. Augustine had begun. Montiano hastily sent the -news to Havana and with it a plea for help. He had -750 soldiers and the 120 or more sailors who manned -the galliots. Rations would last only until the end of -June.</p> -<p>The attackers numbered almost 1,400, including -sailors and Indian allies. While the warships blockaded -the harbor on the east, William Palmer came in -from the north with a company of Highlanders and -occupied the deserted outpost called Fort Mose. -Oglethorpe landed his men and guns on each side of -the inlet and began building batteries across the bay -from the Castillo.</p> -<p>Montiano saw at once that all the English positions -were separated from each other by water and -could not speedily reinforce one another. Fort Mose, -at the village of the black runaways a couple of miles -north of the Castillo, was the weakest. At dawn on -June 26 a sortie from St. Augustine hit Fort Mose, -and in the bloodiest action of the siege scattered the -Highlanders and burned the palisaded fortification. -Colonel Palmer, veteran of Florida campaigns, was -among the dead.</p> -<p>As if in revenge, the siege guns at the inlet opened -fire. Round shot whistled low over the bay and -crashed into fort and town. Bombs from the mortars -soared high—deadly dots against the bright summer -sky—and fell swiftly to burst with terrific concussion. -The townspeople fled, 2,000 of them, some to -the woods, others to the covered way where Castillo -walls screened them from the shelling.</p> -<p>For 27 nerve-shattering days the British batteries -thundered. At the Castillo, newly laid stones in the -east parapet scattered under the hits, but the weathered -old walls held strong. As one Englishman -observed, the native rock “will not splinter but will -give way to cannon ball as though you would stick a -knife into cheese.” One of the balls shot away a -<span class="pb" id="Page_49">49</span> -gunner’s leg, but only two men in the Castillo were -killed during the bombardment.</p> -<p>The heavy guns of San Marcos and the long -9-pounders of the fast little galliots in the harbor kept -the British back. Despite the bluster of the cannonades, -the siege had stalemated. Astride the inlet, -Oglethorpe and his men battled insects and shifting -sand on barren, sun-baked shores, while Spanish -soldiers in San Marcos, down to half rations themselves, -saw their families and friends starving. On -July 6 Montiano wrote, “My greatest anxiety is -provisions. If these do not come, there is no doubt -that we shall die in the hands of hunger.”</p> -<p>The very next day came news that supplies had -reached a harbor down the coast south of Matanzas. -Shallow-draft Spanish vessels went down the waterway -behind Anastasia Island, fought their way out -through Matanzas Inlet and, hugging the coast, went -to fetch the provisions. Coming back into Matanzas -that same night, they found the British blockade -gone; they reached St. Augustine unopposed.</p> -<p>Oglethorpe made ready to assault the Castillo -despite the low morale of his men. His naval commander, -however, was nervous over the approach of -the hurricane season and refused to cooperate. -Without support from the warships, Oglethorpe had -to withdraw. Daybreak on July 20—38 days since the -British had arrived at St. Augustine—revealed that -the redcoats were gone.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig42"> -<img src="images/i25b.jpg" alt="" width="389" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap">This 1763 engraving shows the finished Castillo after all the -bombproof vaults and a new ravelin had been built.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_50">50</div> -<div class="img" id="fig43"> -<img src="images/i26.jpg" alt="" width="686" height="998" /> -<p class="pcap">Beyond the military aspects, which were so vital to the decision -to establish St. Augustine, the city had become a vibrant -community of soldiers, their families, government officials, -and shopkeepers. Religion and the church played -an important part in the life of the community. This page -from a Roman Catholic missal. printed in 1690, is open to -the service for Easter The right-hand column recounts -the story of how the Marys went to the tomb and found it empty.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_51">51</div> -<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">The End of an Era</span></h2> -<p>This was why the Castillo had been built—to resist -aggression, to stand firm through the darkest hour. -Years of dogged labor and privations had brought -the Castillo to the point where it could easily withstand -a siege. Yet it remained unfinished, while in -1742 Spanish forces from Havana and St. Augustine -tried unsuccessfully to take Oglethorpe’s settlement -at Fort Frederica. The next year Oglethorpe moved -unsuccessfully against St. Augustine.</p> -<p>Work still needed to be done on the vaults, but -other projects were even more urgent. First, came -repair of the bombardment damage. After that, the -defenses around fort and town were strengthened -and a strong new earth wall called the hornwork was -thrown up across the land approach, half a mile -north of town. And for a year or more a sizable crew -was busy at Matanzas building a permanent tower -and battery, since the events of 1740 had again shown -the vital defensive importance of this inlet a few -miles south of St. Augustine.</p> -<p>Several years slipped by with nothing being done -to Castillo itself, the heart of the defense system. -Termites and rot were in the old rafters, and in 1749 -part of the roof collapsed.</p> -<p>The governor’s appeal to the crown eventually -brought action. Engineer Pedro de Brozas y Garay -came from Ceuta in Africa to replace Ruiz, who was -returning to Spain. Having overseen the construction -of the last fort rooms, it was Brozas who, with -Governor Alonso Fernández de Heredia, stood under -the royal coat of arms at the sally port, as the -masons set in the inscription giving credit to the -governor and himself for completion of the Castillo -in 1756. The ceremony was a politic gesture, carried -out on the name day of King Fernando VI; but in -truth there was still a great deal to do.</p> -<p>The new bombproof vaults had raised the Castillo’s -walls by five feet. Where once they had measured -about 25 feet from foundation to crown of parapet, -<span class="pb" id="Page_52">52</span> -now they were more than 30. The little ravelin of -1682 could no longer shield the main gate, and as yet -the covered way screened only the base of the high -new walls. The glacis existed only on the plans.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig44"> -<img src="images/i27.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="93" /> -<p class="pcap">This British musket dates -from 1777-90 and is of the -type that would have been -used by the British forces stationed -at the Castillo from -1763 to 1784. It is 4 feet, 8 -inches long.</p> -</div> -<p>So, having finished the vaults, the builders moved -outside and worked until money ran out in the spring -of 1758. The break lasted until 1762, by which time -Britain and Spain were again at war. Spain, as an ally -of France, got into the fracas just at the time when -Britain had eliminated France as a factor in the -control of North America and was quite ready to -take on Spain. And this time the British would -capture the pearl of the Antilles—Havana itself.</p> -<p>Havana was well fortified, and the general officers -sitting there were perhaps more worried about St. -Augustine than Havana. They released 10,000 pesos -for strengthening the Florida fortifications and sent -Engineer Pablo Castelló, who had been teaching -mathematics at the military college in Havana, to -assist the ailing Pedro Brozas.</p> -<p>St. Augustine had only 25 convicts for labor, but -when work began on July 27, 1762, many soldiers and -townspeople sensed the urgency, for Havana was -already besieged, and volunteered to help. Since -much of the project was a simple but strenuous task -of digging and moving a mountain of sand from -borrow pit to earthwork, all able-bodied people were -welcome. The volunteers did, in fact, contribute -labor worth more than 12,000 pesos. The only paid -workers were the teamsters driving the 50 horses that -hauled the fill. Each dray dumped 40 cubic feet of -earth, and the hauling kept on until the covered way -had been raised five more feet to its new height.</p> -<p>The masons soon finished a stone parapet, six feet -high, for the new covered way. With this wall in -place, the teamsters moved outside the covered way -and began dumping fill for the glacis. This simple but -important structure was a carefully designed slope -from the field up to the parapet of the covered way. -Not only would it screen the main walls and covered -way, but its upward slope would lift attackers right -into the sights of the fort cannon.</p> -<p>Meanwhile, to replace the 1682 ravelin, Castelló -began a new one with room for five cannon and a -powder magazine. He realigned the moat wall to -accommodate the larger work and pushed the job -along so that as December of 1762 ended, the -<span class="pb" id="Page_53">53</span> -masons laid the final stone of the cordon for the -ravelin. They never started its parapet, for the close -of the year brought the devastating news that Spain -would give Florida to Great Britain.</p> -<p class="tb">So Spain’s work on the fort ended. And although -ravelin and glacis were not finished, Castillo de San -Marcos was a handsome structure. The main walls -were finished with a hard, waterproofing, lime plaster, -shining white in the sunlight with the brilliance -of Spain’s olden glory. In the haste of building, -engineers had not forgotten such niceties as classic -molded cornices, pendants, and pilasters to cast -relieving shadows on stark smooth walls. At the -point of each bastion was color—the tile-red plaster -of the sentry boxes. White and red. These were -Spain’s symbolic colors, revealed again in the banner -floating above the ramparts.</p> -<p>With walls high over the blue waters of the bay, its -towers thrusting toward the clouds, and guns of -bright bronze or iron pointed over turf and sweep of -marsh toward the gloom of the forest or the distant -surf breaking on the bar, San Marcos was properly -the background for Florida’s capital. In the narrow -streets that led to the citadel, military men and -sailors mingled with tradesman and townsfolk. Indians, -their nakedness smeared with beargrease -against the bugs, were a strange contrast to the silken -opulence of the governor’s lady. But this was St. -Augustine—a town of contrasts, with a long past and -an uncertain future.</p> -<p>The day of the transfer to British rule was July 21, -1763. At Castillo de San Marcos, Gov. Melchor de -Feliú delivered the keys to Maj. John Hedges, at the -moment the ranking representative of George III. -The Spanish troops departed Florida, and with them -went the entire Spanish population. The English -were left with an empty city.</p> -<p>The defenses they found at St. Augustine were far -stronger than the ones that had stopped Oglethorpe -in 1740. The renovated Castillo, which the new -owners called Fort St. Mark, was the citadel of a -defense-in-depth system that began with fortified -towers at St. Augustine and Matanzas inlets and -blockhouses at the St. Johns River crossings. Since -St. Augustine was on a small peninsula with Matanzas -Bay on one side and the San Sebastián River on the -<span class="pb" id="Page_54">54</span> -other, there was only one way to reach the city by -land; and Fort Mose, rebuilt and enlarged after 1740, -guarded this lone access. In 1762 Mose also became -the anchor for a mile-long defense line across the -peninsula to a strong redoubt on the San Sebastián. -This earthwork, planted at its base with prickly pear, -protected the farmlands behind it. Just north of the -Castillo, the hornwork spanned the narrowest part of -the peninsula. A third line stretched from the Castillo -to the San Sebastián, and this one was intersected by -a fourth line that enclosed the town on west and -south. Along the eastern shore was the stone seawall. -One by one, these defenses had evolved in the years -after 1702.</p> -<p>Such defensive precautions seemed outmoded, -now that all eastern North America was under one -sovereignty. Obviously the old enmities between -Florida and the English colonies had departed with -the Spaniards; Britain saw no need for concern -about the fortifications. No need, that is, until the -Thirteen Colonies showed disquieting signs of rebellion. -And as rebellion flamed into revolution, St. -Augustine entered a new role as capital of George -III’s loyal province of East Florida.</p> -<p>In the summer of 1775, after Lexington and Concord, -British concerns about the Castillo’s state of -repair could be seen. The gate was repaired and the -well in the courtyard, which had become brackish, -was re-dug. In several of the high-arched bombproofs, -the carpenters doubled the capacity by building -a second floor, for St. Augustine was regimental -headquarters and many redcoated troops were quartered -in Fort St. Mark.</p> -<p>By October 1776 the British had renovated two of -the three lines constructed north of the city by the -Spaniards. In place of the old earthwork that hemmed -in the town on the south and west, however, they -depended on a pair of detached redoubts at the San -Sebastián, one at the ford and the other at the ferry. -Later they added five other redoubts in the same -quadrant. Many improvements were made to the -outer works as well.</p> -<p>Behind the thick walls of the fort were stored -weapons and equipment that went to arm British -forces for repeated use against the rebellious colonials -to the north. The damp prison also held a number -of these colonists.</p> -<h4 class="interlude">Links to the Past</h4> -<blockquote> -<p>It is impossible to fully retrieve the past, to know what it was -actually like to live in another time, to understand the cadences -of another life. Some disciplines work at peeling -back the layers of time and attempt to explain those bygone -days. Archeology is one of these sciences. By retrieving -the remains of the material culture, by seeing a plate -that held food, a bottle that held oil, a dish in which herbs -were ground to make medicine, the connection with -those long gone personages begins to be made. The objects -on the next page are among more than 1,000 items -that have been retrieved from digs in and around the Castillo -and St. Augustine.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_55">55</div> -<div class="img" id="fig45"> -<img src="images/i28.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="418" /> -<p class="pcap">Bottle body</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig46"> -<img src="images/i28a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="423" /> -<p class="pcap">Dish fragment, majolica</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig47"> -<img src="images/i28c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="429" /> -<p class="pcap">Spanish olive jar</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig48"> -<img src="images/i28e.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="427" /> -<p class="pcap">China accordion player</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig49"> -<img src="images/i28f.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="429" /> -<p class="pcap">Plate fragment, majolica</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig50"> -<img src="images/i28h.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="427" /> -<p class="pcap">Dish with caduceus (medical symbol)</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig51"> -<img src="images/i28i.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" /> -<p class="pcap">Platter base fragment, slipware</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig52"> -<img src="images/i28j.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="430" /> -<p class="pcap">Bowl fragment, pearlware-mochaware</p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div> -<p>Even as the British were working to secure the -Castillo against a possible attack, international events -brought Spain back into the picture. In 1779 Spain -declared war on Britain after France promised help -in retrieving Florida, if the powers allied against -Britain were victorious. One Spanish plan even had -the Spaniards launching a surprise attack on the -Castillo: Troops would sail upriver from Matanzas, -land south of town, sweep north through St. Augustine, -and take the Castillo by storm. If this failed -they would settle in for a siege. At the last minute, -practically, the authorities decided to attack Pensacola, -on Florida’s Gulf Coast, instead. A Spanish -attack on the British inside a fortress designed and -built by Spanish engineers would have been full of -irony.</p> -<p>In the settlement after the Revolution, the Spaniards -did indeed recover Florida, and on July 12, -1784, the transfer took place.</p> -<p class="tb">The Spaniards returned to an impossible situation. -The border problems of earlier times had multiplied -as runaway slaves from Georgia found welcome -among the Seminole Indians, and ruffians from both -land and sea made Florida their habitat.</p> -<p>Bedeviled by these perversities and distracted by -revolutionary unrest in Latin America, Spain nevertheless -did what had to be done at the Castillo—repairs -to the bridges, a new pine stairway for San -Carlos tower, a bench for the criminals in the prison. -In 1785 Mariano de la Rocque designed an attractive -entrance in the neoclassic style for the chapel doorway. -It was built, only to crumble slowly away like the -Spanish hold on Florida.</p> -<p>Defense strategies had changed too, over the -years. The British had built a few redoubts to cover -vulnerable approaches on the west and south. The -Spaniards on their return adapted the British works -but also greatly strengthened the long wall from the -Castillo to the San Sebastián River. They widened its -moat to 40 feet, lined the entire length of the -9-foot-high earthwork with palm logs, and planted it -with prickly pear. The three redoubts were armed -with light cannon, and a new city gate was completed -in 1808. Its twin towers of white masonry were -trimmed with red plaster, and each roof was capped -with a pomegranate, a symbol of fertility.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_57">57</div> -<p>Even though San Marcos remained a bulwark -against American advances, Florida had lost its -former importance to Spain as independence movements -sprang up in one South American Spanish -colony after another. Constant pressure from the -expanding United States finally resulted in Spain’s -ceding Florida to the United States. Perhaps Spanish -officials signed the papers with a sigh of relief, glad -to be rid of a province so burdensome and unprofitable -for 300 years. On July 10, 1821, the ensign of -Spain fluttered down to the thunderous salute of -Castillo cannon, and the 23-star flag of the United -States of America was hauled aloft.</p> -<p>In this new era, the aging fort was already a relic. -Fortunately for its preservation, the US. strategy for -coastal defense did not require much alteration of -the Castillo. U.S. Army engineers added only a water -battery in the east moat, mounted a few new guns on -the bastions, and improved the glacis during the -1840s.</p> -<p>The fort’s name was also changed, for the Americans -chose to honor Gen. Francis Marion, Revolutionary -leader and son of the very colony against -whose possible aggression San Marcos had been -built. Congress restored the original name in 1942, -almost 20 years after the fort had been designated a -national monument.</p> -<p>Heavy doors and iron bars that once protected -precious stores of food and ammunition made the -old fort a good prison, and the prison days soon -obscured the olden times when Spain’s hold upon -Florida depended upon the strength of these walls -and the brave hearts that served here.</p> -<p class="tb">Now the echo of the Spanish tongue has faded and -the scarred walls are silent. The records tell of the -people who built and defended the Castillo—and -those who attacked it, too. In the archives are -countless instances of unselfish zeal and loyalty, the -cases of Ransom, Collins, and Carr, the crown’s -patriarchal protection of its Indian vassals, the -unflagging work of the friars. The structure itself -tells its own story. As William Cullen Bryant, 19th-century -poet wrote: “The old fort of St. Mark is a -noble work, frowning over the Matanzas, and it is -worth making a long journey to see.”</p> -<div class="img" id="fig53"> -<img src="images/i29.jpg" alt="" width="395" height="600" /> -<p class="pcap">The Spanish government -constructed replicas of Christopher -Columbus’ three ships -to commemorate the 500th -anniversary of his voyage to -America. The ships followed -Columbus’ route across the -Atlantic and made calls at -ports throughout the Americas. -Here the <span class="noti">Santa Maria</span>, -in the foreground, <span class="noti">Pinta</span>, -and <span class="noti">Niña</span> visit St. Augustine -in 1992.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_58">58</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/i30.jpg" alt="Soldiers crossing the moat" width="1000" height="704" /> -</div> -<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">Guide and Advisor</span></h2> -<div class="pb" id="Page_60">60</div> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/i31.jpg" alt="NPS Ranger" width="684" height="1000" /> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_61">61</div> -<p>St. Augustine is the oldest, continuously inhabited city founded by Europeans -in the present-day United States. It represents the beginnings of contact -between Spanish settlers and the native inhabitants, the emergence of the -Hispanic American, the struggle between Spanish, French, and English -settlers for control of the southeastern Atlantic coast, and ultimately the birth -of the United States.</p> -<h3 id="c6">Visiting St. Augustine</h3> -<p>As well as being an old city, with many historic houses on quiet, narrow streets, -St. Augustine is a bustling modern city with a range of facilities and accommodations -to meet all expectations and travel budgets.</p> -<p>Begin your visit to the city at the Visitor Information Center on San Marco Avenue, -opposite the Castillo. Here you can get free information, maps, and -answers to your questions from the staff. The center is open daily from 8 -a.m. to 5:30 p.m. Limited parking is available for patrons. You may write: -Visitor Information Center, P.O. Drawer 210, St. Augustine, FL 32085; or call -904-825-1000. Additional information is available from the St. Augustine and -St. Johns County Chamber of Commerce, 1 Ribera Street, St. Augustine, -FL 320841 or call 904-829-5681.</p> -<p>St. Augustine is a wonderful city to walk in, for it is compact and easy to -find your way around. Take time to leave the main streets and walk through -residential areas to get a feel for the city and the way it was laid out. St. -Augustine has its own personality and charm that distinguish it from such -other colonial communities as Williamsburg, Charleston, and Santa Fe. Today’s -St. Augustine bears the imprint of Henry Flagler (1830-1913), a close -partner of John D. Rockefeller in the development of the Standard Oil Company -and a railroad tycoon in Florida. Flagler bought several small railroads -in Florida, consolidated them, and laid track that eventually ran from Jacksonville -to Key West. Along with his railroad he built luxury hotels in Daytona, -Palm Beach, Miami, and St. Augustine and helped to create the tourist industry -that has played such an important role in Florida’s economy in the 20th -century. Flagler’s legacy lives on in St. Augustine where Flagler College occupies -the former Hotel Ponce de Leon at Cordova and King streets and in the -Lightner Museum housed in the old Alcazar Hotel across the street from -the college. The St. Johns County Courthouse and the St. Augustine City -Hall also occupy Flagler buildings. Flagler is buried on the grounds of the -Flagler Memorial Presbyterian Church.</p> -<p><b>St. George Street</b>, a pedestrian walkway between Castillo Drive and Cathedral -Place, is lined with shops and restaurants of every type and description. -The <b>Spanish Quarter</b>, a restored 18th-century portion of the city, is a -living history museum operated by the state of Florida on the north end of St. -George Street. Along this street a number of residences dating back more -than two centuries have either been reconstructed or restored by the St. -Augustine Restoration and Preservation Commission. Some of them may -be open to the public. But do not assume that they are. Inquire at the -Visitor Information Center for specific information about opening and closing times.</p> -<p><b>The Oldest House</b>, located at the corner of St. Francis and Charlotte streets, -<span class="pb" id="Page_62">62</span> -is administered by the St. Augustine Historical Society. Guides give house -tours, for which there is a charge. The adjacent museum tells the story of St. -Augustine and of the people who lived here through the four centuries of the -city’s history. In <b>Government House</b>, at the corner of St. George and King -streets, the Historic St. Augustine Preservation Board, an agency of the state -of Florida, also runs a museum that tells a more inclusive story of Spanish -Florida, including <b>Fort Mose</b>, the oldest free black settlement in the United -States.</p> -<h3 id="c7">Visiting the Castillo</h3> -<p>The Castillo de San Marcos is one of the oldest structures in North America -built by Europeans. It is one of the few links on this continent to early modern -Europe and a way of warfare that has become obsolete. Park interpreters give -frequent programs at the fort telling its history and explaining its construction. -They can answer questions you have about the history of the area and about -related National Park System sites. You may wish to walk around the Castillo -at your own pace; a free park folder available at the entrance station will -help you find your way.</p> -<p>A sales outlet to the left of the guard rooms as you enter the Castillo offers -books and pamphlets on the history of Florida and Spanish colonization. Some -souvenirs and postcards are also available.</p> -<p>Parking is limited at the Castillo and in St. Augustine. Because of the limited -parking, therefore, you may wish to take one of the sightseeing tours around -the city. Information is available at the Visitor Information Center. For further -information about the Castillo de San Marcos and Fort Matanzas, write: -Superintendent, Castillo de San Marcos National Monument, 1 Castillo Drive -East, St. Augustine, FL 32084.</p> -<h3 id="c8">Beaches</h3> -<p>Florida A1A north or south takes you to some of the most beautiful beaches -on the east coast. A fee buys a permit from county authorities to drive on -county beaches during the summer months. There is also a charge for -parking at Anastasia State Recreation Area.</p> -<h3 id="c9">Accommodations</h3> -<p>St. Augustine has a variety of accommodations: national chains, locally -owned hotels and motels, bed and breakfast inns, and vacation cottages and -condominiums for rent by the day, week, or longer.</p> -<h3 id="c10">Other Areas Related to Spanish Florida</h3> -<p><a id="flmap">Besides</a> Castillo de San Marcos, several -other National Park System sites -in Florida preserve and interpret aspects -of Spanish colonial history. They -are located on the map and -described below.</p> -<div class="img"> -<img src="images/i32.jpg" alt="Map" width="600" height="515" /> -</div> -<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Gulf Islands NS</dt> -<dt>De Soto N MEM</dt> -<dt>Fort Carolina N MEM</dt> -<dt>Castillo de San Marcos NM</dt> -<dt>Ft. Matanzas NM</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_63">63</div> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="large"><b>De Soto National Memorial</b></span></dt> -<dt><i>P.O. Box 16390</i></dt> -<dt><i>Bradenton, FL 34280-5390.</i></dt></dl> -<p>No one knows exactly where Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto landed -on Florida’s west coast in 1539. This park at the entrance to Tampa Bay -memorializes that landing and de Soto’s subsequent journeys of exploration -throughout the southeastern United States.</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="large"><b>Fort Caroline National Memorial</b></span></dt> -<dt><i>12713 Fort Caroline Road</i></dt> -<dt><i>Jacksonville, FL 32225.</i></dt></dl> -<p>The establishment of a French colony here in 1564 directly challenged the -Spaniards, who responded by establishing Saint Augustine the next year. -After securing a firm base of operations, the Spaniards led by Pedro -Menéndez marched to the French settlement and captured it, ending French -interest in the area.</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="large"><b>Fort Matanzas National Monument</b></span></dt> -<dt><i>c/o Castillo de San Marcos National Monument</i></dt> -<dt><i>1 Castillo Drive</i></dt> -<dt><i>Saint Augustine, FL 32084.</i></dt></dl> -<p>On this site Spanish troops killed French soldiers who were part of the ill-fated -attempt to establish a French settlement in Florida. In 1740, after the -failed English attack on Saint Augustine, the Spaniards built a masonry -fortification—Fort Matanzas—on Rattlesnake Island overlooking Matanzas -Inlet to control the inlet permanently.</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="large"><b>Gulf Islands National Seashore</b></span></dt> -<dt><i>1801 Gulf Breeze Parkway</i></dt> -<dt><i>Gulf Breeze, FL 32561.</i></dt></dl> -<p>The ravelin of Fort Barrancas, located on the grounds of the Pensacola Naval -Air Station, is another Spanish masonry fortification in Florida besides -the Castillo and Fort Matanzas. It is called Battery San Antonio and dates -from 1797. It was planned as part of a larger fortification never built by the -Spaniards. Fort Barrancas, built by the U.S., dates from the early 19th century.</p> -<p>Besides these parks in Florida there is -one in Georgia (not shown on the <a href="#flmap">map</a>) -that bears importantly on the story of -St. Augustine.</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="large"><b>Fort Frederica National Monument</b></span></dt> -<dt><i>Route 9, Box 286-C</i></dt> -<dt><i>Savannah, GA 31410.</i></dt></dl> -<p>It was at Fort Frederica that James Edward Oglethorpe established a settlement -in 1736 only a few days march north of St. Augustine in territory that -the Spaniards clearly believed to be their own.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig54"> -<img src="images/i32a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="544" /> -<p class="pcap">Fort Matanzas National Monument</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig55"> -<img src="images/i32c.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="432" /> -<p class="pcap">Fort Caroline National Memorial</p> -</div> -<p><span class="smaller">★ GPO: 1993—342-396 80002</span></p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_64">64</div> -<h2 id="c11"><span class="small">National Park Service</span></h2> -<p>National Park Handbooks are published to support -the National Park Service’s management programs -and to promote understanding and enjoyment of the -more than 360 National Park System sites that represent -important examples of our country’s natural -and cultural inheritance. Each handbook is intended -to be informative reading and a useful guide before, -during, and after a park visit. More than 100 titles -are in print. They are sold at parks and can be purchased -by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, -U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, -DC 20402-9325.</p> -<p>The National Park Service expresses its appreciation -to all those persons who made the preparation and -production of this handbook possible. The original -text for this handbook was written by Albert Manucy -and Luis Arana and appeared as <i>The Building of the -Castillo de San Marcos</i>. The vault construction, -drawbridge, and siege illustrations on pages <a class="pgref" href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_34">34</a>, -and <a class="pgref" href="#Page_47">47</a> are based on artwork originally developed by -Albert Manucy. The National Park Service also -expresses its appreciation to Eastern National Park -and Monument Association for its cooperation in -this project. All photos and artwork not credited -below come from the files of the Castillo de San -Marcos or of the National Park Service.</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt>Archivo General de Indias, Seville <a class="pgref" href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_49">49</a></dt> -<dt>Michael Hampshire <a class="pgref" href="#Page_31">31</a> (detail), <a class="pgref" href="#Page_34">34</a></dt> -<dt>Karen Kasmauski <a class="pgref" href="#Page_2">2</a>-3</dt> -<dt>Ken Laffal cover, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_26">26</a> (photographs), <a class="pgref" href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_58">58</a>-59, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_60">60</a></dt> -<dt>Library of Congress <a class="pgref" href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_26">26</a>-27 (map), <a class="pgref" href="#Page_49">49</a></dt> -<dt>National Geographic Society <a class="pgref" href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_22">22</a>-23</dt> -<dt>Ken Townsend <a class="pgref" href="#Page_30">30</a>-31, <a class="pgref" href="#Page_40">40</a>-41</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_65">65</div> -<h2 id="c12"><span class="small">U.S. Department of the Interior</span></h2> -<p>As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the -Department of the Interior has responsibility for most -of our nationally-owned public lands and natural resources. -This includes fostering sound use of our -land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, -and biological diversity; preserving the environmental -and cultural values of our national parks and -historical places; and providing for the enjoyment of -life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses -our energy and mineral resources and works -to ensure that their development is in the best interest -of all our people by encouraging stewardship and -citizen participation in their care. The Department -also has a major responsibility for American Indian -reservation communities and for people who live in -island territories under U.S. administration.</p> -<h3 id="c13"><i>Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data</i></h3> -<p>Castillo de San Marcos: a Guide to the Castillo de -San Marcos National Monument, Florida/produced -by the Division of Publications, National Park Service. -p. cm.—(National Park Handbook; 149)</p> -<dl class="undent"><dt>1. Castillo de San Marcos National Monument (Saint Augustine, Fla.)—Guidebooks.</dt> -<dt>2. Saint Augustine (Fla.)—Guidebooks.</dt> -<dt>3. Saint Augustine (Fla.)—History.</dt> -<dt>I. United States. National Park Service. Division of Publications.</dt> -<dt>II. Series: Handbook (United States, National Park Service, Division of Publications); 149. F319.S2C37 1993. 917.59’ 18—dc20. 92-40413 CIP.</dt></dl> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li> -<li>Relocated all image captions to be immediately under the corresponding images, removing redundant references like ”preceding page”.</li> -<li>Silently corrected a few palpable typos.</li> -<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li> -</ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Castillo de San Marcos, by National Park Service - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASTILLO DE SAN MARCOS *** - -***** This file should be named 56050-h.htm or 56050-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/6/0/5/56050/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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