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diff --git a/old/56050-0.txt b/old/56050-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 21b2007..0000000 --- a/old/56050-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2516 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Castillo de San Marcos, by National Park Service - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Castillo de San Marcos - A Guide to Castillo de San Marcos National Monument, Florida - -Author: National Park Service - -Release Date: November 25, 2017 [EBook #56050] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASTILLO DE SAN MARCOS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - Handbook 149 - - - - - Castillo de San Marcos - - - A Guide to Castillo de San Marcos National Monument - Florida - - Produced by the Division of Publications - National Park Service - - U.S. Department of the Interior - Washington, D.C. - - - _Using this Handbook_ - -Castillo de San Marcos National Monument is located in the longest -continuously inhabited community founded by Europeans in the United -States. This handbook tells the intercultural story of the long effort -to build the Castillo and the emergence of a new Nation. The Guide and -Adviser provides a brief guide to Saint Augustine and other related -National Park Service areas in Florida. - - [Illustration: From the air the rationale for the layout of Castillo - de San Marcos is readily apparent: no wall or approach is - unguarded.] - - [Illustration: This map, one of the earliest maps of a city that is - now in the United States, depicts the June 1586 attack on St. - Augustine by Sir Francis Drake. Note, in the middle, the English - troops on Anastasia Island firing across the water on the Spanish - fort.] - - - - - Florida and the Pirates - - -On May 28, 1668, a ship anchored off St. Augustine harbor. It was a -vessel from Veracruz, bringing flour from México. In the town, the drum -sounded the alert for the garrison of 120 men. A launch went out to -identify the newcomer and put the harbor pilot aboard. As it neared the -ship, the crew on the launch hailed the Spaniards lining her gunwale. To -the routine questions came the usual answers: Friends from México—come -aboard! Two shots from the launch told the town the ship had been -identified as friendly, and the seamen warped the launch alongside the -ship. In St. Augustine, the people heard the signal shots and rejoiced. -The soldiers returned their arms to the main guardhouse on the town -plaza. Tomorrow the supplies would come ashore. - -Unknown to the townspeople, when the launch pilot stepped aboard the -supply ship, an alien crew of pirates swarmed out of hiding and leveled -their guns at him and the others. He could do nothing but surrender. - - -Some time after midnight, a corporal was out on the bay fishing when he -heard the sound of many oars pulling across the water. Something was not -right. Desperately he paddled his little craft toward shore. The -pirates, four boatloads of them, were right behind. Twice their shots -found their mark, but he got to the fort where his shouts aroused the -guards. - -At the main guardhouse, a quarter mile from the fort, the sentries heard -the shouting and the gunfire, but before they could respond, the pirates -were upon them, a hundred strong. Out-numbered, the guards ran for the -fort. Gov. Francisco de la Guerra rushed out of his house and, with the -pirates pounding at his heels, joined the race for the fort. Somehow the -garrison was able to beat back several assaults. In the confusion of -darkness, however, the pirates seemed to be everywhere. They destroyed -the weapons they found in the guardhouse and went on to the government -house. Shouting and cursing, they scattered through the narrow streets, -seizing or shooting the frightened, bewildered inhabitants. - -Sgt. Maj. Nicolás Ponce de Léon, the officer responsible for defending -the town, was at home, a sick man, covered with a greasy mercury salve -and weak from the “sweatings” prescribed for his illness. On hearing the -din, he roused himself and rushed to the guardhouse, only to find the -pirates had been there first. He turned to the urgent task of -shepherding his 70 unarmed soldiers and the others—men, women, and -children—into the woods, leaving the pirates in complete possession of -the town. - -By daybreak the little force at the fort had lost five men, but they -believed they had killed 11 pirates and wounded 19 others. Ponce came -from the woods and reinforced the fort with his weaponless men. With -daylight, two other vessels joined the ship from Veracruz. One was St. -Augustine’s own frigate, taken by the raiders near Havana, in which the -pirates had been able to move in Spanish waters without detection. The -other was the pirates’ own craft. All three sailed into the bay, passed -the cannon fire of the fort, anchored just out of range, and landed -their remaining forces. Systematically they began to sack the town; no -structure was neglected. - -That afternoon, the governor sent out a sortie from the fort, but the -leaders were wounded and the party retired. After 20 hours ashore, -however, the pirates were ready to leave anyway, taking their booty, -which probably amounted to only a few thousand pesos, and about 70 -prisoners whom they had seized during the previous night’s rampage. Just -before leaving they ransomed most of their prisoners for meat, water, -and firewood. The local Indians, however, they kept, claiming that the -governor of Jamaica had told them to keep all Indians, blacks, and -mulattoes as slaves, even if they were Spanish freemen. Finally on June -5 the raiders headed out to sea, amused as once again they passed the -thunder of the useless guns in the old wooden fort as the small -community grieved over its 60 dead and gave thanks for the ransomed -prisoners. - -The released prisoners identified the invaders as English and told how -the enemy had carefully sounded the inlet, taken its latitude, and noted -the landmarks. They intended to come back and seize the fort and make it -a base for future operations against Spanish shipping. - - -To the Spaniards the attack on St. Augustine was far more than a pirate -raid. St. Augustine, though isolated and small, was the keystone in the -defense of Florida, a way station on Spain’s great commercial route. -Each year, galleons bearing the proud Iberian banners sailed past the -coral keys and surf-pounded beaches of Florida, following the Gulf -Stream on the way to Cádiz. Each galleon carried a treasure of gold and -silver from the mines of Perú and México—and all Europe knew it. - -A shipload of treasure, dispatched from México by Hernán Cortés in 1522, -never reached the Spanish court. A French corsair attacked the Spanish -ship and the treasure ended up in Paris, not Madrid. Soon, daring -adventurers of all nationalities sailed for the West Indies and Spanish -treasure. Florida’s position on the lifeline connecting Spain with her -colonies gave this sandy peninsula strategic importance. Spain knew that -Florida must be defended to prevent enemies from using the harbors for -preying upon Spanish commerce and to give safe haven to shipwrecked -Spanish mariners. - -The French, ironically, brought the situation to a head in 1564 when -they established Fort Caroline, a colony named for their teenage king, -Charles IX, near the mouth of Florida’s St. Johns River. A year later -Spanish Admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés came to Florida, established -the St. Augustine colony, and forthwith removed the Frenchmen, suspected -of piracy. This small fortified settlement on Florida’s northeast coast -and Havana in Cuba anchored opposite ends of the passage through the -Straits of Florida enabling Spanish ships to pass safely from the Gulf -of Mexico out into the Atlantic. - - [Illustration: Sir Francis Drake’s attack on St. Augustine was part - of the growing hostilities between Spain and England that culminated - in the attack of the Spanish Armada on England two years later. - Drake was also the first sea captain to take his own ship all the - way around the world. Ferdinand Magellan’s ship had made the trip 57 - years earlier, but Magellan had been killed in the Philippines.] - -A typical early fort was San Juan de Pinos, burned by English sailor -Francis Drake in 1586. Drake took the fort’s bronze artillery and a -considerable amount of money. San Juan consisted of a pine stockade -around small buildings for gunpowder storage and quarters. Cannon were -mounted atop a broad platform, or cavalier, so they could fire over the -stockade. Such forts could be built quickly, but they could also be -destroyed easily. If Indian fire arrows, enemy attack, or mutinies -failed, then hurricanes, time, and termites were certain to do the job. -During the first 100 years of Spanish settlement, nine wooden forts one -after another were built at St. Augustine. - - - Spain in the Caribbean, 1717-1748 - - [Illustration: Spain, England, and France vied for the land and - wealth of the New World. This map, while not showing actual - settlement and possession of the land shows what each nation thought - was theirs. Spain’s dominions were more extensive than those of - Britain or France, for the Spaniards were the first to explore and - to begin to claim and settle the land. - -The spice fleet from the Philippines sailed to Acapulco, on Mexico’s -west coast, the goods were hauled overland to Veracruz, and then carried -by ship to Havana. - -Fleets of ships filled with silver, gold, spices, precious woods, and -other products of the New World left Havana for Spain each year. - -The silver fleet from Perú brought the treasure to the isthmus of Panamá -where it was transshipped to Portobelo and then on to Havana via -Cartagena. - -Spanish St. Augustine served as the northernmost outpost of the -Caribbean, watching over the waters of the Gulf stream, Spain’s highway -to Europe.] - - [Illustration: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés (1519-74) was the founder of - St. Augustine and first governor of Florida. He struggled throughout - his life to put St. Augustine on a firm footing, fending off French - efforts to destroy his settlement. The engraving is a copy of a - portrait by Titian that was destroyed in a fire at the end of the - last century.] - -Spain did not yet see the need for an impregnable fort here. After the -English failures at Roanoke Island in North Carolina in 1586-87, the -weak settlement of Jamestown, Virginia, a few years later did not -impress the powerful Council of the Indies in Madrid as a threat to -Spanish interests. Moreover, the Franciscans, by extending the mission -frontier deep into Indian lands, put the Spanish stamp of occupation -upon a vast territory. The fallacy in this thinking lay in -underestimating the colonizing ability of the English and believing that -an Indian friendly to Spain would never become a friend of England. - -The defeat of the powerful Spanish Armada in 1588 was a dramatic -harbinger of things to come; the way was clear for England to extend its -control of the seas. Its great trading companies were active on the -coasts of four continents, and powerful English nobles strove for -possessions beyond the seas. Jamestown, despite its inauspicious -beginning, was soon followed by the settlements in New England and -elsewhere. Between the James River and Spanish Florida stretched a vast, -rich territory too tempting to ignore, and in 1665 Charles II of England -granted a patent for its occupation. The boundaries of the new colony of -Carolina brazenly included some hundred miles or more of -Spanish-occupied land—even St. Augustine itself! - -The signs were clear: The fight for Florida was inevitable. - - -In the middle 1600s at St. Augustine, just south of where the Castillo -now stands, there was a wooden fort. It was almost as large as the -Castillo, but it was a fort only in name. Most of the timbers were -rotten. Smallpox had killed so many Indians that there were not enough -laborers to carry in replacement logs. - -Money to maintain the outposts came from New Spain, for, the government -in Madrid reasoned, the Florida forts protected the commercial routes -from México to Spain. Consequently, officials in México City had to find -the silver to pay the troops and buy the food, clothing, and other -supplies that Florida so desperately needed. Despite the orders from -Madrid, payments from México City were always behind, as Floridians knew -from bitter experience. - -Yet, if ever there was a time to protect Spanish interests in Florida, -it was now. The English had attacked Santo Domingo and captured Jamaica. -The Dutch had been seen in Apalache Bay on Florida’s west coast. As the -corsairs grew bolder, one governor made this appraisal: “In spite of the -great valor with which we would resist, successful defense would be -doubtful” without stronger defenses. - -Proposals for a permanent, stone fort dated back to 1586 after the -discovery of the native shellstone, coquina. For years officials in -Spain, México, and Florida argued about what needed to be done. By 1668 -payments and sufficient supplies of food were eight years behind. The -townspeople and the soldiers lived in poverty and the old wooden fort -was on the verge of falling into the sea. - -The sack of St. Augustine was a blessing in disguise, for it shocked -Spanish officials into action. The governor of Havana lent 1,200 pesos -for masting and rigging St. Augustine’s frigate, thus ensuring the -presidio’s communication with its supply bases. The Viceroy released the -1669 payroll plus money for general repairs, weapons, gunpowder, and -lead for bullets. He also promised 75 men to bring the troop levels to -authorized strength. And St. Augustine was allowed to keep an 18-pounder -bronze cannon that had been salvaged from a shipwreck. This aid—12 -months of life for the colony—totaled at least 110,000 pesos. Included -was the hire of mules for the 75 recruits to ride from México City to -Veracruz. Hiring the animals was easier than finding men, however. -Fifty-one of them arrived at last in 1670; the rest had deserted or -died. Officials in St. Augustine, however, were not sure that the new -troops were particularly loyal to Spanish interests. - -It was Mariana, Queen Regent of Spain, who gave permanent aid to St. -Augustine in three decrees addressed to the viceroy. On March 11, 1669, -she ordered him to pay the Florida funds on time and add a proper amount -for building the fortification proposed by the governor. Next, on April -10, she commanded him to support a full 300-man garrison in Florida -instead of the customary 257 soldiers and 43 missionaries. Finally, on -October 30, she enjoined him to consult with the governor about an -adequate fortification and provide for its construction. - - [Illustration: Billions of sea creatures produced the coquina that - provided the building blocks of the Castillo. Because of the high - water table, the layers of rock were damp when quarried. Once - trimmed and shaped, the rock dried and hardened. During the British - bombardment of 1740, the walls absorbed the impact of the cannon - balls and very little damage was done.] - - - - - Beginning the Castillo - - -To show her commitment to the proposed construction, the Queen Regent -appointed Sgt. Maj. Don Manuel de Cendoya, a veteran of 22 years -service, as successor to Governor Guerra. - -In México City Cendoya followed Queen Mariana’s orders and delivered his -message to the Viceroy, the Marquis de Mancera. Florida’s defenses were -to be strengthened at once with a main castillo at St. Augustine, a -second fort to protect the harbor entrance, and a third to prevent troop -landings. Initial estimates were that the project would cost 30,000 -pesos. At this point came the news of the English settlement at -Charleston, and Cendoya at once suggested a fourth fort at Santa -Catalina. - -The viceroy’s finance council finally decided to allot 12,000 pesos to -begin work on one fort. If suitable progress were made, they would -consider sending 10,000 yearly until completion. The question of -additional forts would be referred to the crown. Cendoya had to be -satisfied with this arrangement and a levy of 17 soldiers. He left for -Florida, making a stop at Havana where he sought skilled workers. There -he also found an engineer, Ignacio Daza. - -On August 8, 1671, a month after Cendoya’s arrival in St. Augustine, the -first worker began to draw pay. By the time the mosquitoes were sluggish -in the cooler fall weather, the quarrymen had opened coquina pits on -Anastasia Island, and the lime burners were building two big kilns just -north of the old fort. The carpenters put up a palm-thatched shelter at -the quarry, built a dozen rafts for ferrying stone, firewood, and oyster -shells for the limekilns across the water. They built boxes, -handbarrows, and carretas—the long, narrow, hauling wagons—as well. The -blacksmith hammered out axes, picks, stonecutters’ hatchets, crowbars, -shovels, spades, hoes, wedges, and nails for the carpenters. The -grindstone screeched as the cutting edge went on the tools. - -Indians at the quarry chopped out the dense thickets of scrub oak and -palmetto, driving out the rattlesnakes and clearing the ground for the -shovelmen to uncover the top layer of coquina. Day after day Diego Díaz -Mejía, the overseer, kept the picks and axes going, cutting deep groves -into the soft yellow stone, while with wedge and bar the workers broke -loose and pried up the blocks—small pieces that a single man could -shoulder, and tremendously heavy cubes two feet thick and twice as long -that six strong men could hardly lift. - - [Illustration: Stone masons were the most skilled and highly paid - laborers who worked on the Castillo.] - -Díaz watched his workers heave the finest stone on the wagons. He sent -the oxen plodding to the wharf at the head of a marshy creek, where the -load of rough stone was carefully balanced on the rafts for ferrying to -the building site. And on the opposite shore of the bay, next to the old -fort, the cache of unhewn stone grew larger daily, and the stonecutters -shaped the soft coquina for the masons. - -In the limekilns, oyster shells glowed white-hot and changed into fine -quality, quicksetting lime. By spring of 1672, there were 4,000 -_fanegas_ (about 7,000 bushels) of lime in the two storehouses and great -quantities of hewn and rough stone. - -Although the real construction had not even started, great obstacles had -already been overcome. Maintaining an adequate work force and skilled -workers was a continual problem. When there should have been 150 men to -keep the 15 artisans working at top speed—50 in the quarries and hauling -stone, 50 for gathering oyster shells and helping at the kilns, and -another 50 for digging foundation trenches, toting the excavation -baskets, and mixing mortar—it was hard to get as many as 100 laborers on -the job. - -Indians from three nations, the Guale (coastal Georgia), Timucua -(Florida east of the Aucilla River), and Apalache (between the Aucilla -and the Apalachicola), were employed. True, they were paid labor, but -some had to travel more than 200 miles to reach the presidio, and many -served unwillingly. In theory each complement of Indian labor served -only a certain length of time; in practice it was not uncommon for the -men to be held long past their assigned time, either through necessity -or carelessness. - -Indians were used as unskilled laborers and paid the lowest wages—one -_real_ (about 20 cents) per day plus corn rations. Most labored at the -monotonous, back-straining work in the quarries. A few were trained as -carpenters and received correspondingly greater wages but never the -equal of what the Europeans earned. One Indian was trained as a -stonecutter and worked on the Castillo for 16 years. - - [Illustration: Great numbers of local Indians carried out the many - heavy-duty tasks that kept this labor-intensive project continually - moving forward.] - -Besides Indian labor, there were a few Spanish workers paid 4 _reales_ -per day, and a number of convicts, either local or from Caribbean ports. -Beginning in 1679 there were seven blacks and mulattoes among the -convicts. Eighteen black slaves belonging to the crown joined the labor -gang in 1687. Convicts and slaves received rations but no wage. A -typical convict might have been a Spaniard caught smuggling English -goods into the colony, who was condemned to six years’ labor on the -fortifications. If he tried to escape, the term was doubled and he faced -the grim prospect of being sent to a fever-infested African presidio to -work. - -The military engineer, Ignacio Daza, was paid the top wage of 3 pesos -(about $4.75) per day. Daza died seven months after coming to Florida, -so the crown paid only the surprisingly small sum of 546 pesos (about -$862) for engineering services in starting the greatest of Spanish -Florida fortifications. - -Of the artisans, there were Lorenzo Lajones, master of construction, and -two master masons, each of whom received the master workman’s wage of 20 -_reales_ (about $4). Seven masons and eight stonecutters at 12 _reales_, -and 12 carpenters whose pay ranged from 6 to 12 _reales_, completed the -ranks of the skilled workers. Later, some of these wages were reduced: -Lajones’ successor as master of construction was paid only 17 _reales_, -the master mason 13, and the stonecutters from 3 to 11 _reales_, with -half of them at the 3- and 4-_real_ level. - -These were few men for the job at hand, and to speed the work along -Governor Cendoya used any prisoner including neighboring Carolinians who -fell into Spanish hands. In 1670, a vessel bound for Charleston, -mistakenly put in at Santa Catalina Mission, the Spanish post near the -Savannah River, and William Carr and John Rivers were taken. A rescue -sloop sent from Charleston protested the Spaniards’ actions, with Joseph -Bailey and John Collins carrying the message from the English. For their -trouble, they were dispatched with Rivers and Carr to St. Augustine to -labor on the fort. - -Three of the prisoners were masons, and their Spanish names—Bernardo -Patricio (for Bernard Fitzpatrick), and Juan Calens (for John Collins), -and Guillermo Car (for William Carr)—were duly written on the payrolls. -Some of these British subjects became permanent residents. Carr, for -instance, embraced first the Catholic faith and then Juana de Contreras, -by whom he fathered eight children. His father-in-law was a corporal, a -circumstance that may have helped Carr enlist as a gunner while also -working as a highly paid stonecutter. - - [Illustration: Spanish silver coins were used throughout the - Caribbean and the British colonies. Often they were cut in two, or - quartered, or even cut into eight pieces, giving rise to our - expression, “two bits, four bits, six bits, a dollar,” bit meaning - the number of pieces of one coin needed to make a dollar. The coins - shown here are a 2-_real_, a 1-_real_, and another 2-_real_ piece. - On the one 2-_real_ coin, note the Chinese characters indicating - that the coin had been used in trade in the Orient. The profile is - that of Charles III, who had died in 1788, though the inscription - says that it is of Charles IV. The diemaker simply changed the date - and added another “I” rather than using the more conventional “IV” - roman numeral designation for 4.] - -The Spaniards were understandably cautious in relying on the loyalty of -foreigners, but actually the new subjects served well. John Collins -especially pleased the officials. He could burn more lime in a week than -others could in twice the time. And as a prisoner he had to be paid only -8 _reales_ instead of the 20 due a master workman. Like Carr, Collins -seemed to like St. Augustine. He rose steadily in the crown’s employ -from master of the kilns to quarrymaster, with dugouts, provisions, and -convicts all in his charge. When pirates landed on Anastasia in 1683 and -marched on the city, Carr made sure that all crown property in the -quarry was moved to safety. Royal recognition honored his loyalty and -years of service. - -A few years later 11 Englishmen were captured several miles north of St. -Augustine. All were committed to the labor gang—except Andrew Ransom. He -was to be garroted. On the appointed day Ransom ascended the scaffold. -The executioner put the rope collar about his neck. The screw was turned -6 times—and the rope broke! Ransom breathed again. - -While the onlookers marveled, the friars took the incident as an act of -God and led Ransom to sanctuary in the parish church. Word reached the -governor that this man was an ingenious fellow, an artillerist, a -carpenter, and what was most remarkable, a maker of “artificial -fires”—fire bombs. Ransom was offered his life if he would put his -talents to use at the Castillo. He agreed and, like Collins, was -exceedingly helpful. Twelve years later, church authorities finally -agreed that the sanctuary granted by the parish pastor was valid. At -last Ransom was free of the garrote. - -All told, between 100 and 150 workers on the construction crew labored -in those first days of feverish preparations. They, along with some 500 -others—including about 100 soldiers in the garrison, a few Franciscan -friars, a dozen mariners, and the townspeople—had to be fed. When -supplies from México did not come, getting food was even harder than -finding workers, especially since the coastal soil at St. Augustine -yielded poorly to 17th-century agricultural methods. - -Of the crops grown at St. Augustine, Indian corn was the staple. Most of -the planting, cultivating, and harvesting of extensive fields near the -town was done by Indians. At times as many as 300 Indians, including -those working on the fortification, served the crown at the presidio. To -make the food, whether grown locally or shipped in from México, go as -far as possible, it was rationed: 3 pounds daily until 1679, then 2½ -pounds until 1684, then 2 pounds until 1687, and finally 2½ again. -Convicts also got corn if flour was not on hand, and they also received -a meat ration. Fresh meat was rather scarce, but the waters teemed with -fish and shellfish. A paid fisherman kept the men supplied. - -Garden vegetables were few. Squash grew well in the sandy soil, as did -beans and sweet potatoes, citron, pomegranates, figs, and oranges. And -of course there were onions and garlic. But St. Augustine was never -self-supporting. After a century of existence, it still depended for its -very life upon supplies from México. - -As the long, hot days of the second summer shortened into fall, Governor -Cendoya saw that after a year of gathering men and materials, he was -ready to start building. - -Daza and the governor decided to construct the Castillo on the west -shore of the bay just north of the old fort. It was a site that would -take advantage of every natural feature for the best possible defensive -position. The new fort, they decided, would be similar, though somewhat -larger. In line with the more recent ideas, Daza recommended a slight -lengthening of the bastions. All around the castillo they planned a -broad, deep moat and beyond the moat, a high palisade on the three land -sides. - -It was a simple and unpretentious plan, but a good one. Daza, schooled -in the Italian-Spanish principles of fortification that grew out of the -16th-century designs of Franceso de Marchi, was clearly a practical man. -His plan called for a “regular” fort—that is, a symmetrical structure. -Basically it was a square with a bastion at each corner. Equally strong -on all sides, this design was ideal for Florida’s low, flat terrain. - - [Illustration: This document is the official report to government - officials in Madrid that ground had been broken for the Castillo. - “Today, Sunday, about four in the afternoon, the second of October - 1672 ... Don Manuel de Cendoya, Governor and Captain General of - these provinces for Her Majesty ... with spade in hand ... began the - foundation trenches for construction of the Castillo,” the document - states.] - -About four o’clock Sunday afternoon, October 2, 1672, Governor Cendoya -walked to a likely looking spot between the strings marking out the -lines of the new fortification and thrust a spade into the earth, as -Juan Moreno y Segovia, reported the ground breaking ceremonies for Queen -Mariana. - -Little more than a month later on Wednesday, November 9, Cendoya laid -the first stone of the foundation. The people of St. Augustine must have -wept for joy. All were glad and proud, the aged soldiers who had given a -lifetime of service to the crown, the four orphans whose father had died -in the pirate raid a few years earlier, the widows and their children, -the craftsmen, the workers, and the royal officials. But none could have -been more pleased or proud than Don Manuel de Cendoya. He of all the -Florida governors had the honor to begin the first permanent Florida -fortification. - -Laying the foundations was not easy, for the soil was sandy and low and -as winter came the Indians were struck by _El Contagio_—a smallpox -epidemic. The laboring force dwindled to nothing. The governor asked the -crown to have Havana send 30 slaves. Meanwhile, Cendoya himself and his -soldiers took to the shovels. As they dug a trench some 17 feet wide and -5 feet deep, the masons came in and laid two courses of heavy stones -directly on the hard-packed sand bottom for the foundation. The work was -slow, for high tide flooded the trenches. - -About 1½ feet inside the toe of this broad 2-foot-high foundation, the -masons stretched a line marking the scarp or curtain, a wall that would -gradually taper upward from a 13-foot base to about 9 feet at its top, -20 feet above the foundation. In the 12 months that followed, the north, -south, and east walls rose steadily. By midsummer of 1673 the east side -was 12 feet high, and the presidio was jubilant over the news that the -Viceroy was sending even more money. - -This good news was tempered by the viceroy’s assertion that he would -release no more money for the work without a direct order from the -crown. Cendoya had already asked the queen to raise the allowance to -16,000 pesos a year so the construction could be finished in four years. -For, as he put it, the English menace at Charleston brooked no delay. -The English were said to be outfitting ships for an invasion. - -Gradually, however, construction slowed. In 1673 Cendoya and Daza died -within a few days of one another. The governor’s mantle fell upon Major -Ponce, in whom the local Spaniards had little confidence. - -Trouble beset Ponce on every side. The viceroy was reluctant to part -with money for this project despite evidence that English strength and -influence was increasing daily, especially among the Indians. Shortly -after Ponce took control, a terrific storm hit the city. High tides -undermined houses, flooded fields and gardens, and polluted the wells. -Sickness took its toll. The old wooden fort was totally ruined. Waves -washed out a bastion, causing it to collapse under the weight of its -guns. The other seaward bastion and the palisade were also breached in -several places. - -Then in the spring of 1675 when another provision ship was lost, Ponce -had to lead a group of workers on a long march into Timucua to fetch -provisions from the Indians. Only a few masons were left to carry on the -work at the Castillo. - -Despite all these problems, Ponce made progress. The north curtain was -completed and the east and south were well underway. But looking west -the soldiers could see only open country. - -On May 3, 1675, the long-awaited supply ship from México safely arrived. -Among its few passengers was a new governor for Florida, Sgt. Maj. Don -Pablo de Hita Salazar, a hard-bitten veteran of campaigns in Europe, and -most recently governor of Veracruz. Surely it was because of his -reputation as a soldier that he was assigned to Florida. Besides -continuing the work on the fort he was ordered to “dislocate” the -Charleston settlement. Led to believe the viceroy would help in the -difficult task ahead, Hita, in fact, found that official singularly -reluctant. - -At St. Augustine, the work had been dragging, but Hita made some -positive points in writing the crown: “Although I have seen many -castillos of consequence and reputation in the form of its plan, this -one is not surpassed by any of those of greater character.” Furthermore, -he endorsed the statement of the royal officials, who were eager to -point out the brighter side of the picture: “If it had to be built in -another place than St. Augustine it would cost a double amount because -there will not be the advantage of having the laborers, at a _real_ of -wages each day, with such meagre sustenance as three pounds of maize, -nor will the overseers and artisans work in other places with such -little salaries ... nor will the stone, lime, and other materials be -found so close at hand and with the convenience there is in this -presidio.” - -So much money—34,298 pesos—had been spent on the fort, and it was not -yet finished, so it was important to tell the authorities the positive -benefits of this project, for at this point the old stockade was a ruin -and the new one was unusable. Reports from English deserters told them -that Charleston, less than 215 miles to the north, was well defended by -a stockade and 20 cannon. - -Using characteristic realism, energy, and enthusiasm that would have -done credit to a much younger man, Don Pablo set about making his own -fortification defensible. The bastion of San Carlos—at the northeast -corner of the Castillo—was the nearest to completion. Hita ordered it -finished so that cannon could be mounted on its rampart. - -While the masons were busy at that work, he took his soldiers and razed -the old fort. The best of its wood went into a barrier across the open -west side of the Castillo. In 15 days they built a 12-foot-high -earthwork with two half-bastions, faced with a veneer of stone and -fronted by a moat 14 feet wide and 10 feet deep. At last the garrison -had four walls for protection. - -Next the powder magazine in the gorge of San Carlos was completed and a -ramp laid over it to give access to the rampart above. The three -curtains rose to their full height of 20 feet. At the southeast corner -the workers dumped hundreds of baskets of sand and rubble into the void -formed by the walls of San Agustin bastion and filled it to the 20-foot -level. - -Both carpenters and masons worked on the temporary buildings and -finished a little powder magazine near the north curtain. A -timber-framed coquina structure, partitioned into guardhouse, -lieutenant’s quarters, armory, and provision magazine, took shape along -the west wall. Finally, a few of the guns from the old fort were mounted -in San Carlos and San Agustin bastions and along the west front. After -three years of work, the Castillo was a defense at last. - - [Illustration: Practically every phase of construction is shown - here: ferrying the newly-quarried stones across from Anastasia - Island, hauling them to the site, cutting and shaping the stones, - mixing mortar, using oxen to hoist a load of stones to the work - area, and setting the stones in place. Overseeing all this and - reviewing the plans are the engineer and master mason.] - - [Illustration: Archeology, in one of its functions, provides us with - glimpses into the life of days gone by. The three bone buttons were - found in and around the Castillo. The light-colored, smooth button - with one hole was found in a sentry box. Perhaps a coat caught on - the entry way and the button tore off, never to be found by the - owner? The brass button is from a 19th-century Spanish uniform.] - -And now Governor Hita’s first admiration for its design vanished. The -Castillo, he said, was too massive. Surely no one would ever besiege it -formally. Rather, the danger lay in a blockade of the harbor or -occupation of Anastasia Island, actions that would cut the presidio’s -lifeline. The San Carlos bastion was too high for effective fire on the -inlet or to sweep Anastasia. He argued that the Castillo, including the -parapet, should be held to a total height of only 20 feet and -supplemented by a 6-gun redoubt directly facing the inlet. - -Royal officials strenuously opposed the governor’s attempts to change -Daza’s plan. They wrote the crown of Hita’s desire to tear finished -walls down to the level he thought proper. - -In Hita’s view the west wall, though temporary, was adequate. Therefore -he would defer the permanent wall and start instead on the permanent -guardroom, quarters, ravelin, and moat. Royal officials insisted, -however, that since the west wall was nothing but a half-rotten fence -and a mound of earth faced with stone, all the walls must be completed -as soon as possible. - -In the hope that the crown would agree to lower the walls, Hita let the -work lag on the two seaward bastions while he began the west wall and -bastions. Construction continued despite trouble with the Choctaws, -despite the worrisome impossibility of driving out the Carolina -settlers, despite the pirate raid on the port of Apalache in the west, -and the ever-present fear of invasion. Lorenzo Lajones, the master of -construction, died, but still the work went on. Even after the viceroy’s -10,000 pesos were spent, work continued with money diverted from the -troop payroll. As a last resort, people gave what they could out of -their own poverty. When these gifts were gone, the scrape of the trowel -ceased and the hammer and axe were laid aside. Construction stopped on -the last day of 1677. - -At the same time, the supply vessel bringing desperately needed -provisions and clothing from México arrived, only to be lost on a sand -bar right in St. Augustine harbor. It was a heartbreaking loss. Hita -became disconsolate. The help he begged from Havana never came, and for -four years his reports to the viceroy were ignored. Old, discouraged, -and sick, Hita wrote the crown that he was “without human recourse” in -this remote province. Perhaps the final blow to his pride was a terse -order from the crown to stick strictly to Daza’s plan for the Castillo. - -Yet the old warrior did not give up. Eventually the viceroy released -5,000 more pesos, and after 20 months of idleness construction resumed -on August 29, 1679. As soon as Hita left his sickbed he was back at the -fort, impatient with the snail’s pace of progress under a new master of -construction, Juan Márquez Molina from Havana, whose sharp-eyed -inspections found stones missing from their courses and some of the -walls too thin. - -The royal officials, always on hand to make sure the governor followed -the crown’s directives to the letter, blamed the deficiencies on Hita, -“who has trod this fort down without knowledge of the art of -fortification.” With another 5,000 pesos plus the masons due to arrive -from Havana, said the old man in rebuttal, “I promise to leave the work -in very good condition.” Before he could make good on that promise, Sgt. -Maj. Don Juan Márquez Cabrera arrived at the end of November 1680 to -take over the reins of government. - -So, half apologizing for his own little knowledge of “architecture and -geometry,” Hita left the trials and tribulations of this frontier -province to his more youthful successor. - -Actually, Hita had done a great deal. Within six weeks after his arrival -he had made the Castillo defensible against any but an overwhelming -force. During the rest of his 5½-year term he brought the walls up to -where they were ready for the parapet builders, despite one obstacle -after another. In fact, the parapet on San Carlos bastion was almost -complete, with embrasures for the artillery and firing steps for the -musketeers. The only low part of the work was the San Pablo bastion, -where the level had been miscalculated. The sally port had its -drawbridge and iron-bound portal, and another heavy door closed the -postern in the north curtain. Permanent rooms that would go along the -curtain walls were still only plans, but in a temporary building -centered in the courtyard were a guardroom and storeroom, and a little -chapel stood near the postern in the shadow of the north curtain. - - [Illustration: These bottles, dating from the 19th-century American - presence in St. Augustine, attest to the continuity of life. The - shells on the stoneware flask indicate that it has been in saltwater - for some time. The gold and tan bottle originally held ginger beer, - a popular drink in the mid-1800s. The green bottle is stamped - “Rumford Chemical Works” of Rumford, Rhode Island, on the shoulder.] - - - Saint Augustine - - Although Saint Augustine was primarily a military outpost intended to - protect Spain’s dominion over Florida and the sea route of its - treasure fleets, Saint Augustine also became a viable community as - well, home to the settler-soldiers and their families. Except for the - Castillo, which was finished in 1695, hardly any structure survives - from Saint Augustine’s first 150 years. Archeological investigations - show that almost all the earliest dwellings were small, crude - structures made of local materials with thatched roofs and bare, dirt - floors; coquina, the stone used in building the fort was not used for - homes until 1690. The ordinary wear and tear of weather and time - ensured that none of these early structures lasted. - - Archeology can tell us about the lives of the people who lived in - these houses, for more than 1,000 objects and pieces and bits of - pottery dating to the 16th century have been found. Most of them are - from local Indian sources and corroborate written records that show - that by 1600 almost 25 percent of the soldiers had taken Indian wives - because few Spanish women initially came to Florida. Besides using - their local ceramics, the Indian women introduced New World foods to - their families and into the Spanish diet, creating something that was - neither wholly Spanish nor wholly Indian. - - [Illustration: The Oldest House Museum] - - [Illustration: View in St. George Street] - -The town itself was laid out according to ordinances dictated by the -Spanish government in 1563, resulting in a carefully planned community -with houses fronting directly on standard-width streets with gardens in -the rear or at the side. This showed clearly that Spain intended St. -Augustine to be a permanent settlement, not a mere outpost on the -fringes of empire. In the 18th century, indeed, it had become a vibrant -community that numbered almost 3,000 persons when the garrison and all -inhabitants withdrew after Florida became British in 1763. - -The community and the people who lived in it were a mixture of -influences showing graphically how quickly Spaniards adapted to the New -World, using its materials, changing patterns that they had brought from -their homeland to meet new conditions, and creating a society that -simulated, but did not mirror, what they had left behind. Saint -Augustine was the beginning of a new world for those who came here in -1565. - - [Illustration: The map, based on the surveys of Juan de Solís, was - drawn in 1764, a year after the British took control of Florida. - English names have already been given to the town’s features. - Somehow Fort St. Mark, a translation of Castillo de San Marcos, does - not have the same ring.] - -The new man, Major Juan Márquez Cabrera, formerly governor of Honduras, -checked the Castillo work carefully with the construction master. Those -long years without an engineer had left them a heritage of -mistakes—skimpy foundations, levels miscalculated—that had to be set -right. From Havana came a military engineer, Ensign Don Juan de Císcara. -During his brief stay he gave valuable guidance for continuing the work, -built the ramp to San Pablo bastion, and laid foundations for the -ravelin and its moat wall. - -The 1680s were turbulent years. In 1682, the year the ravelin was -finished, a dozen or so pirate craft in the Straits of Florida seized -numerous Spanish prizes, including the Florida frigate on its way to -Veracruz. They raided Mosquito Inlet, only 60 miles south of St. -Augustine. In the west, pirates struck Fort San Marcos de Apalache and -even went up the San Martín (Suwanee) River to rob cattle ranches in -Timucua. - -Work on the Castillo fell further and further behind schedule. Márquez -appealed to the curate for dispensation to work on Sundays and holy -days. Because of a history of bad relations with Márquez, the request -was refused. Márquez appealed to higher authorities. When approval came, -however, it was too late, for invasion came first. - -On March 30, 1683, English corsairs landed a short way south of the -_Centinela de Matanzas_, the watchtower, at Matanzas Inlet near the -south end of Anastasia Island and about 14 miles from St. Augustine. -Under cover of darkness, a few of the raiders came up behind the tower -and surprised the sentries. - -The march on St. Augustine began the next day. Fortunately a soldier -from St. Augustine happened by Matanzas and saw the motley band. -Posthaste he warned the governor, who sent Capt. Antonio de Argüelles -with 30 musketeers to meet them on Anastasia. A mile from the presidio -the pirates walked into the captain’s ambush. After exchanging a few -shots—one of which lodged in Argüelles’ leg—the Englishmen beat a hasty -retreat down the island to their boats. They sailed to St. Augustine and -anchored at the inlet in plain sight of the unfinished Castillo. - -Márquez, his soldiers, and the townspeople worked day and night to -strengthen the Castillo. Missing parapets and a firing step were -improvised from dry stone. Expecting the worst, everybody crowded into -the fort. But the corsairs, looking at the stone fort and nursing their -wounds, decided to sail on. - -After this scare, the Castillo crew worked with renewed zeal. By -mid-1683 they had completed the San Agustín and San Pablo bastions. -Governor Márquez sent the crown a wooden model to show what had been -done. - -This was progress made in the face of privation—hunger that made the -people demand of Márquez that he buy supplies from a stray Dutch trader -from New York. It was unlawful, but the people had to eat. Imagine the -joy in the presidio soon afterward when two subsidy payments came at one -time! Márquez gave the soldiers two years’ back pay and had enough -provisions on hand for 14 months. The 27 guns of the presidio, from the -iron 2-pounder to the 40-pounder bronze, all had their gunner’s ladle, -rammer, sponge, and wormer, along with plenty of powder and shot. There -was also an alarm bell in San Carlos bastion. - -By August 1684 Governor Márquez started on the fort rooms and finished -them the next spring. Courtyard walls paralleled the four curtains, and -foot-square beams spanned the distance between them. Laid over these -great beams were 3-inch planks, supporting a slab roof of tabby masonry. -On the north were the powder magazine and two big storerooms. Quarters -were along the west curtain, guardroom and chapel on the south, and -rooms on the east included a latrine and prison. Altogether there were -more than 20 rooms. - -The only major work yet to do was beyond the walls. The surrounding -moat, 40 feet wide, needed to be deepened, for only part of the moat -wall was up to its full 8-foot depth. In fact, of the outworks only the -ravelin was finished. - -With the fortification this far along, Governor Márquez could give more -attention to other business, such as Lord Cardross’ Scottish colony at -Port Royal, South Carolina. This was, in the Spanish view, a new and -obnoxious settlement that encouraged heathen Indians to raid mission -Indians. Furthermore, it was in land recognized as Spanish even by the -English monarch. - -So in September 1686, Márquez sent Captain Alejandro Tomás de Léon, with -orders to destroy the colony, which he did. He then sacked and burned -Governor Joseph Morton’s plantation on Edisto Island. - - [Illustration: This cannon tube is typical of most 18th-century guns - and bears the cipher of Carlos III, showing it to be Spanish.] - - - The Castillo - - [Illustration: This bird’s-eye view of Castillo de San Marcos shows - how it is laid out and why. The fort was located at the north end of - Saint Augustine and on the water for defensive reasons. The moat - protected it on four sides, and the Matanzas River lent additional - protection as well. The only entrance was at the point closest to - the town, so the inhabitants could quickly go to the fort if danger - threatened. The fort was designed, too, so that every wall could be - seen from some vantage point inside the Castillo. No attacking force - could sneak up to the very walls without the defenders seeing them. - The original Castillo was simply the exterior walls. Parallel to - them were the inner, or courtyard, walls, built also of stone. Beams - spanned the space between exterior and inner walls and held up - platforms upon which guns sat aimed at the surrounding countryside - or out over the water. Such a structure offered scant bombproof - defense against incoming projectiles. And the wooden beams were - subject to rot in the humid, subtropical air. - -Bastions - -Each corner of the fort is protected by a diamond-shaped bastion. From -the bastion the adjacent walls could be protected from an attacking -force, and in conjunction with the neighboring bastions a deadly -crossfire could be turned on any force that got so close. - -Guard Rooms - -St. Augustine was a garrison town and no one lived inside the Castillo. -When soldiers were on guard duty—usually a period of 24 hours—they slept -and prepared their meals in these rooms. - -Storage Rooms - -Most of the rooms around the central courtyard were used for storage. -They were stockpiled with gunpowder, ammunition, weapons, lumber, tools, -and food, such as beans, rice, flour, and corn, that could be used in -time of siege.] - - [Illustration: Work began on stone vaults in 1738 to solve these - problems. First, carpenters built wooden forms that supported the - stone until all pieces of the arch were in place. As the form was - removed, other workers began dumping sand, rubble, earth—anything to - build up the level—into the spaces above the arches. Over this a - cement-like mixture of sand and coquina was placed and tamped down - and built up in stages until the desired height was reached. The - result was a wide gun platform on top that would support the - heaviest guns and provide bombproof spaces beneath.] - -Next they set course for Charleston but again, as had happened in 1670, -a storm blew them away from the hated English colony. Leon’s vessel, the -_Rosario_, was lost, and he along with it. Another ship was driven -aground, and the last of the little armada limped back to St. Augustine. - -Actually the real contest for the southeast was in the backcountry where -English traders operated. Governor Márquez sent soldiers and -missionaries from St. Augustine to the Apalachecola nation in western -Georgia. For the Spaniards, however, it was a losing fight—an exciting, -exasperating struggle of diplomacy and intrigue, trade and cupidity, war -and religion, slavery and death. - -Captain of cuirassiers Diego de Quiroga y Losada assumed the -governorship on August 21, 1687, after Márquez fled to Cuba in April. -That same day he stopped work on the Castillo because there was no way -to feed the workers. These troubles and the certainty of reprisals from -the Carolinians sent Capt. Juan de Ayala Escobar directly to Spain for -help. He came back with 80 soldiers, the money for maintaining them, and -even a Negro slave to help in the fields. The black man, one of a dozen -Ayala had hoped to deliver, was a much-needed addition to the colony, -and Captain Ayala was welcomed back to St. Augustine with rejoicing “for -his good diligence.” - -Soon there was more black labor for both fields and fortifications. From -the Carolina plantations, an occasional slave would slip away and move -southward along the waterways. In 1687 a small boat loaded with nine -runaways made its way to St. Augustine. The men found work to do and the -governor took the two women into his household as servants. It was a -fairly happy arrangement: the slaves worked well and soon asked for -Catholic baptism. - -A few months later, William Dunlop came from Charleston in search of -them. Governor Quiroga, reluctant to surrender converted slaves, offered -to buy them for the Spanish crown. Dunlop agreed to the sale, even -though the governor was as usual short of cash and had given him a -promissory note. To seal the bargain, Dunlop gave one of the slaves, a -baby girl, her freedom. Later the crown liberated the others. - -This incident resulted in a knotty problem. First, commerce with -Carolina, as an English colony, was illegal. Secondly, the crown could -not buy freedom for every runaway that came to Florida, as more and more -Carolina blacks left their English masters, seeking refuge. The slave -issue made any hope of amicable relations between the Spanish and -English colonists impossible. Eventually the Spaniards decreed freedom -for all Carolina slaves coming to Florida, and the governor established -a fortified village—Gracia Real de Mose—for them hardly more than a -cannon shot from the Castillo. - -Construction work on the Castillo resumed in the spring of 1688, after a -shipment of corn came from Apalache. In Havana Governor Quiroga bought -for 137 pesos a stone bearing the royal arms to be set into the wall -over the gate. At this time, too, the little town entered its “stone -age,” for as surplus materials from the crown quarries became available, -masonry buildings gradually took the place of the board-and-thatch -housing that had been traditional here since the founding. - -Until the outworks could be finished, the Castillo was vulnerable to -siege guns and scaling ladders. Nevertheless it was impossible to push -the heavy work of quarrying, lumbering, and hauling at this crucial -time. There were too many other pressures. Belatedly trying to -counteract English gains and strengthen their own ties with the Indians, -the Spaniards built a fort in the Apalachecola country. Unfortunately -the soldiers had to be pulled back to St. Augustine when Spain declared -war on France in 1689. - -This time Spain and England were allies. Yet Governor Quiroga wondered -at the presence of English vessels off both northern and southern -coasts. As a bit of insurance he wrote a letter telling of a strength -far beyond what he had, in the hope that if an English ship would -capture the letter they would not know of St. Augustine’s weakness. For -again the supply situation was critical, and swarms of French corsairs -infested the waters between Florida and Havana. Two provision vessels -were lost in the Keys and a third fell into French hands. Until food -eventually came in from Havana and Campeche, the soldiers had to live on -handouts from the townspeople. - - [Illustration: In the royal arms of Spain, the lions stand for the - province of León and the castles for the province of Castile. The - shield is surrounded by the chain of the Order of the Golden Fleece, - a knightly order founded in 1430, of which the Spanish monarch was - grand master. The story of the Golden Fleece recalls the courageous - exploits in the ancient Greek myth of Jason and the Argonauts.] - - - The Drawbridge - - [Illustration: The inner workings of the Castillo drawbridge. - -Pulling up the drawbridge was like locking the door. Once it was pulled -up flush against the walls and the portcullis—the heavy grating made of -solid yellow pine—rolled shut, no one could get into the fort. To raise -the bridge, trapdoors were removed so that the counterweights could -descend into the pit. A windlass also lay beneath this trapdoor. -Soldiers inserted bars into holes bored into the windlass and rotated -it, causing the lifting drums to revolve. The chains, attached to the -far end of the bridge, pulled the bridge up as the chains turned on the -lifting drums. The counterweights helped neutralize the weight of the -bridge so that three soldiers were able to lift its great -weight—approximately 1,900 pounds. When the bridge was in the upright -position, the soldiers then rolled the portcullis shut behind them, and -secured it. This was done every night or in time of danger.] - -To lessen the chances of famine in the future, Florida officials -resolved to plant great fields of corn nearby. And where was better than -the broad clearings around the fort? Acres of waving corn soon covered -the land almost up to the moat. When the crown heard of these plantings, -back to Florida came a royal order banning corn fields within a musket -shot of the Castillo. A whole army could hide in the tall corn without -being seen by the sentries! - - [Illustration: The Castillo drawbridge.] - -A new governor, Don Laureano de Torres y Ayala, arrived in 1693. At the -outset he had to deal with hostilities between St. Augustine and -Charleston—hostilities that mocked the Spanish-English alliance in -Europe. - -More importantly, however, to Governor Torres belongs the credit for -completing Castillo de San Marcos. Torres saw the last stones go into -place for the water battery—bright yellow coquina that was in contrast -to weathered masonry almost a quarter of a century old. In August 1695 -the workmen finally moved out of the Castillo to another job: a seawall -that would keep storm tides out of the city. - -The pile of stone on which Cendoya had planned to spend some 70,000 -pesos and which Hita had estimated would cost a good 80,000 if built -elsewhere, ended up costing at least 138,375 pesos, a tremendous sum -impossible to translate into today’s money. But more than the money, it -was the blood, sweat, and hardship of the Florida soldier that paid the -cost. For the funds came out of money never paid. Let the Castillo be -his monument! - -And what did completion of this citadel mean? Only a year later, -soldiers gaunt with hunger slipped into the church and left an unsigned -warning for the governor: If the enemy came, they intended to surrender, -for they were starving. - - [Illustration: Weapons of the 17th and 18th centuries may seem crude - and primitive to a late-20th-century observer, but they could rain - death and destruction on any foe. See the feature on Ordnance, pages - 44-45, for more details.] - - - - - Defending San Marcos - - -The test of the Castillo’s strength was not long in coming. Relations -with France had become peaceful, but incursions by the English-led -Indians kept the backcountry inflamed. As tensions increased, Gov. José -de Zúñiga y Cerda looked at the St. Augustine defenses with an -experienced eye. Zúñiga knew, after a military career spanning 28 years, -that strong walls were not enough. The Castillo’s guns were ancient and -obsolete—many of them unserviceable. The powder from México so fouled -the gun barrels that after “four shots, the Ball would not go in the -Cannon.” Arquebuses, muskets, powder, and shot were in short supply. - -Once again Captain Ayala sailed directly to Spain to ask for aid. It was -a race against time, for the War of the Spanish Succession with France -and Spain allied against England had broken out. Gov. James Moore of -Carolina lost no time moving against St. Augustine in 1702. If he could -capture the Castillo, he would clap an English lock on the Straits of -Florida and forestall a possible Spanish-French attack on Charleston. - -On the way south, Moore’s forces destroyed the Franciscan missions in -the Guale country. At St. Augustine they avoided the Castillo and -occupied the town, whose inhabitants had fled to the fort. South and -west of its walls, where the town approached the fort, the Spaniards -burned many structures that could have hidden the enemy advance. - -Moore’s 500 Englishmen and 300 Indians vastly outnumbered the 230 -soldiers and 180 Indians and Negroes in the Castillo’s garrison, but -Moore was ill-equipped to besiege the Castillo. He settled down to await -the arrival of more artillery from Jamaica, and thus matters stood when -four Spanish men-of-war arrived and blocked the harbor entrance, -bottling up Moore’s fleet of eight small vessels. Moore burned his -ships, left most of his supplies, and retreated overland to the St. -Johns River. He left St. Augustine in ashes, but the Castillo and its -people survived. - -The ease with which the English had taken and held the city for almost -two months made it clear that more defenses were needed. Moreover, -English and Indian obliteration of the missions in Apalache, Timucua, -and Guale had reduced Spanish control to the tiny area directly under -the Castillo guns. - -In the next two decades strong earthworks and palisades, buttressed at -strategic points with redoubts, made St. Augustine a walled town, secure -as long as there were enough soldiers to man the walls. But in those -dark days who could be sure of tomorrow? In 1712 came _La Gran -Hambre_—the Great Hunger—when starving people even ate the dogs and -cats. - -At last the war ended in 1714. The threat to St. Augustine lessened, but -it was an uneasy kind of peace with many “incidents.” In 1728 Col. -William Palmer of Carolina marched against the presidio. The grim walls -of the fort, the readiness of the heavy guns, and the needle-sharp -points of the yucca plants lining the palisades were a powerful -deterrent. Palmer “refrained” from taking the town. For their part, the -Spaniards fired their guns, but made no sorties. - -Palmer’s bold foray to the very gates of St. Augustine foreshadowed a -new move southward by the English, beginning with the settlement of -Savannah in 1732. With his eye on Florida, James Oglethorpe landed at -St. Simons Island in 1736, built Fort Frederica, and nurtured it into a -strong military post. From Frederica he pushed his Georgia boundary -southward all the way to the St. Johns River—a scant 35 miles from St -Augustine. - - [Illustration: Mortars have long held an important place in the - family of field artillery because of their ability to throw a - projectile over a barrier. The Spaniards were among the earliest to - use mortars whose trajectory could be varied, thereby making the - mortars even more effective.] - -Meanwhile, Castillo de San Marcos began to show signs of being 50 years -old. The capable engineer and frontier diplomat Antonio de Arredondo -came from Havana to inspect Florida’s defenses and make recommendations. -Backed by Arredondo’s expertise, Gov. Manuel de Montiano wrote a frank -letter to the governor of Cuba, who was now responsible for Florida’s -security: “Your Excellency must know that this castle, the only defense -here, has no bombproofs for the protection of the garrison, that the -counterscarp is too low, that there is no covered way, that the curtains -are without demilunes, that there are no other exterior works to give -them time for a long defense; ... we are as bare outside as we are -without life inside, for there are no guns that could last 24 hours and -if there were, we have no artillery-men to serve them.” - - - Spanish-English Conflict, 1670-1748 - - [Illustration: The Treaty of Madrid, 1670, aimed at stopping the - Spanish-English contest along the South Atlantic coast by confirming - Spanish claims as far north as 32°30′. The English agreed to this - but within a few years continued their push southward. Savannah, - settled in 1733 was well within Spanish territory.] - - Selected attacks Nationality - - Charleston 1670, 1706 Spanish - ″, 1706 French - Edisto Island, 1706 Spanish - Port Royal, 1686 Spanish - Santa Catalina Island, 1680 English - Fort Frederica, 1742 Spanish - St. Simons Island, 1742 Spanish - Santa Maria Island, 1683 English - San Juan de Puerto, 1683 English - Fort San Diego, 1740 English - St. Augustine, 1683, 1702, 1728, 1740 English - Matanzas Inlet, 1683, 1740, 1741, 1742, 1743 English - Little Matanzas Inlet, 1686 French - Mosquito Inlet, 1682 French - Santa Fe, 1702 English - Santa Catalina de Afuica, 1685 English - San Juan de Guacara, 1693 English - Ayubale, 1704 English - San Pedro de Patale, 1704 English - Apalache Fort, 1677, 1682 French - San Carlos, 1693 English - - - Defending the Fort - - [Illustration: The most serious attack on the Castillo took place - when James Oglethorpe, the founder of Georgia, arrived off Saint - Augustine on June 13, 1740, with 7 warships and 1,400 troops. - Oglethorpe’s arrival was not entirely unexpected. The English and - Spaniards were rivals in Europe and continued their contest in the - New World, with the Spaniards becoming increasingly restive as the - English penetrated into the lands south of Charleston. By the time - Oglethorpe arrived in Georgia, only about 150 miles north of the - Castillo and on land the Spaniards considered their own, tensions - were high. Oglethorpe wanted to guarantee that his new settlements - would be secure from Spanish attack, so he decided to capture and - occupy Spain’s base in Florida—before they decided to attack him. - Oglethorpe had his work cut out for him, because the Castillo was - superbly sited. Creeks and marshes protected it to the west and - south. On the east the bay stretched to a shallow bar across the - harbor entrance that kept heavy warships out of range. The only land - approach was from the north. An English spy for Oglethorpe reported - that the fort was well supplied and staffed. There were “22 pieces - of Cannon well mounted on the Bastions from 6 pound’rs to 36.... - There is a guard of a Lieutenant, a Serjeant & 2 Corporals & 30 - Soldiers here who is relieved Every Day.... There is a Mote Round it - of 30 foot wide & a draw Bridge of about 15 foot long, they draw - every Night & Lett it down in the Morning.” With this kind of - information Oglethorpe knew what he was up against and came - prepared. Fortunately for the defenders, the attackers were divided. - Some had landed on Vilano Point and on Anastasia Island, opposite - the Castillo and were setting up batteries there. Some troops were - on the mainland where they had seized vacant Fort Mose, a free black - settlement just north of the Castillo. Though the total British - force outnumbered the defenders, Gov. Manuel de Montiano reasoned - that his forces could attack one segment before it could be - reinforced by the other two. This is exactly what the Spaniards did, - overwhelming the British force at Fort Mose. Undecided about further - land attack, the British then began shelling the Castillo and the - town from their siege batteries in a bombardment that lasted 27 - days. But the British mortars and siege guns were too far away to be - totally effective and the damage they did was slight. Some of the - newer stonework was damaged. Only two Spanish soldiers were killed - during the attack and another had a leg shot away. Among the British - there was no agreement regarding another course of action. - Oglethorpe himself was down with a fever, and the troops had become - unnecessarily tired by purposeless maneuvering. With the approach of - the hurricane season, the naval commander refused to continue the - blockade, and British forces left. The Castillo and its defenders - had done what they were meant to do.] - - [Illustration: The construction of the bombproof vaults in 1738-40 - and 1751-56 provided a substantial room for the guard. Bedding was - laid on the raised platform at left.] - -Cuba’s governor was a resourceful administrator eager to meet his -responsibilities. He sent guns, soldiers, artisans, convicts, -provisions, and money. The walls would be raised five feet and masonry -vaults, to withstand English bombs, would replace the rotting beams of -old rooms in the Castillo. Stronger outworks would be built, too. To -supervise the project, Engineer Pedro Ruiz de Olano came from Venezuela. -The work began in April 1738 rather inauspiciously. The master of -construction, one Cantillo, was a syphilitic too sick to earn his -16-_real_ daily wage. Much of his work fell to his assistant, a -12-_real_ master mason. All six stonecutters were Negroes. One was an -invalid, and none of them as yet had much skill with coquina. For moving -stone, there was but one oxcart. The labor gang—52 convicts—was too -small. Nevertheless, quarry and kiln hummed with activity, and in the -Castillo the crash of demolition echoed as the convicts pulled down old -structures and began trenching for the new bombproofs. They started on -the east, because this side faced the inlet where enemy action was -likely. - -As usual, misfortunes beset the work. Cantillo’s illness worsened and -Blas de Ortega came from Havana to replace him. Eight convicts working -at the limekiln deserted. Engineer Ruiz moved a crew of carpenters, -sawyers, and axemen from work on the Castillo to rebuild a blockhouse -where the trail to Apalache crossed the St. Johns River. - -The oxcart driver broke his arm. Quarrying and stonecutting dragged. The -old quarry played out. Luckily, a new one was found and opened, even -though farther away. And Havana sent two more carts and more -stonecutters and convicts. - -It was well into October before the carpenters began setting the forms -for the vaults. The masons followed close on their heels and finished -the first of the massive, round-arched bombproofs before the year ended. -Just a year later all eight vaults, side by side along the east curtain, -were done. Each one spanned a 17- by 34-foot area, and had its own door -to the courtyard. Windows above and beside the door let in light and -air. - - - Ordnance - - Forts are often described with words like impregnable, unassailable, - grim, invulnerable, and redoubtable. These descriptions often came - about because of their armaments. A strategically positioned fort with - a full complement of weaponry would be a problem for any invader, - because the fortress, unlike naval ships, provided a stable platform - upon which guns could be mounted and trained on the enemy. Anyone - approaching within approximately 500 yards would be in great danger, - even though the artillery in those times was not always accurate and - aim was extremely difficult. - - Tools for Guns - -The tools used to operate the ordnance had a variety of functions. The -wet sponge swabbed out the cannon to make sure all sparks were -extinguished. The ladle dumped the exact amount of powder needed into -the chamber. The scraper removed any powder residue. The worm removed -unfired bits of cartridge and wadding. The point was to make sure the -cannon was clean before it was loaded and fired. - - [Illustration: 1. Sponge] - - [Illustration: 2. Powder ladle] - - [Illustration: 3. Scraper] - - [Illustration: 4. Worm] - - [Illustration: 5. 24-pounder cannon] - - [Illustration: 6. 16-pounder cannon] - - [Illustration: 7. 12-pounder cannon] - - [Illustration: 8. Grape shot, side view] - - [Illustration: 9. Tongs for handling hot shot] - - [Illustration: 10. Garrison carriage, top view] - - [Illustration: 11. Garrison carriage, side view] - - These illustrations come from Tomás de Morla’s _A Treatise on - Artillery_ - -Basically all artillery falls into two categories: mortars and guns. -Mortars were designed to fire the largest and heaviest projectiles on a -curved trajectory. They could shoot over obstacles or fortifications, -landing on, and perhaps piercing, the deck of a ship, or hitting a pile -of powder kegs or other supplies behind fortified walls, or just -wreaking havoc and demoralizing the people. Guns fired their projectiles -in a flat trajectory, and their effectiveness in turn depended upon the -weight of the shot: the greater the weight of the shot, the greater the -muzzle velocity—the speed at which the shot exited the gun—and the -farther the shot would go and the deadlier it would be. - -The first artillery pieces were made of forged iron. The greatest -concern was in producing a weapon that could contain the explosive force -of the gunpowder, hurl the projectile at the enemy, and not blow up in -the faces of the gun crew. Once guns could be cast in a single piece in -either brass or bronze, great strides were made in the effectiveness of -the artillery pieces. By the 18th century bronze seems to have been the -metal of choice. The guns and mortars were highly decorated. All bore -the coat of arms of the sovereign. Usually the maker was identified in -some way; the name might be part of the base ring or shown in a cipher -below the sovereign’s arms. Garlands of flowers, animals, and mythical -creatures sometimes decorated the piece. All Spanish guns were -named—_Vindicator_, _Invincible_, _Destroyer_ are a few examples—and the -authorities made sure that each gun’s whereabouts was always known. This -has been invaluable for present-day historians investigating what guns -were used where and when. Guns were classified by the weight of the -projectile: a 12-pounder gun shot a 12-pound ball. The kinds of -projectiles varied greatly: solid shot, canister shot (a container full -of bullets), grape shot (cloth container full of bullets), and bombs or -grenades (hollow shot filled with gunpowder) fired from a mortar. -Sometimes solid shot was heated until it was red hot. If it landed on a -ship, hot shot could set a wooden ship afire. Ordnance enabled a -fortification to meet the potential the military engineers had hoped for -when they sited and built it. - -The tops of the ponderous vaults were leveled off with a fill of coquina -chips and sand. Tabby mortar was poured onto the surface, and tampers -beat the mixture smooth. After the first layer set, others were added -until the pavement was six inches thick. The whole roof was thus made -into a gun deck, and cannon were no longer restricted to the bastions -alone. For unlike the old raftered roof, the new terreplein was -buttressed by construction that could take tremendous weight and -terrific shock; and masonry four feet thick protected the rooms -underneath from bombardment. In San Carlos bastion, by mid-January of -1740, they had finished the tall watchtower and the new parapet. - -It was the English settlement of Georgia that had spurred all this -activity. In fact, Spain’s plan for recovery of Georgia and other -Spanish-claimed land was well past the first stages. Troops were -assembling in Havana and reinforcements of 400 had already come to -Florida. The situation came to a head when Spanish officials boarded -Capt. Robert Jenkins’ ship _Rebecca_, believing the English mariners to -be illegally carrying goods to Spanish settlements, an enterprise -forbidden by Spanish law. In the ensuing scuffle, Jenkins’ ear was -sliced off. Jenkins, back in London, reported to Parliament that the -Spanish officer who handed him back his ear said: “Carry it to your King -and tell his majesty that if he were present I would serve him in the -same manner.” - -Alexander Pope, the couplet maker, smiled and said: “The Spaniards did a -waggish thing/Who cropped our ears and sent them to the King.” But -others were not amused, and England and Spain declared war in 1739. It -was called, of course, the War of Jenkins’ Ear. - -England’s main target was the Caribbean, with Havana at center with -Portobelo, Cartagena, and St. Augustine on the perimeter. Admiral Edward -Vernon quickly won fame with his capture of Portobelo in 1739. -Oglethorpe tried to imitate him in Florida. Already he had probed the -St. Johns River approaches; St. Augustine would be next. - -Governor Montiano, however, was fully aware of weaknesses. “Considering -that 21 months have been spent on a bastion and eight arches,” he -pointed out, “we need at least eight years for rehabilitation of the -Castillo.” - - - How a Siege Works, Circa 1700 - - [Illustration: The Mechanics of a Siege - -Military engineers built forts for several reasons: to protect cities, -to protect strong points from falling into enemy hands, to be a visible -symbol of governmental authority. If a fort could not be taken by -surprise, an attacking party had to take the fort by force. The process -of surrounding an enemy’s strong point and slowly cutting off all -contact with the outside world is known as a siege. Sieges go back to -Biblical times, but the principles were formulated by Sébastien le -Prestre de Vauban (1633-1707), a French military engineer who served in -the armies of Louis XIV. He created a very formal, disciplined science, -and his plan was maddeningly simple. First a trench parallel to the fort -was dug out of gun range so the attackers could move in supplies and -troops. Sappers—crews of trench diggers—then dug zigzag trenches toward -the fort; the zigzag pattern made it more difficult for defenders to hit -the trenches. Next the sappers dug a second parallel that included some -batteries for shelling the fort. Additional zigzag trenches and -parallels would be dug until the attackers were in a position to -concentrate their fire at one point on the fortification to breach its -walls. The fortress would then have no alternative but to surrender or -be stormed. Conducting a textbook perfect siege did not always result in -success, for the fort’s defenders would not have been idle. They would -fire cannon at the sappers. Often they dug counter trenches out from the -fortress and planted mines to blow up the work of the attackers. And -they would send out nighttime raiding parties, too. - -1st Parallel - -Military engineers, called sappers, construct trenches and raise -earthworks to protect the attacking forces. - -_Line of attack_ - -Mortar fire destroys cannon and drives defenders to cover; siege lines -prevent supplies from reaching the fort. - -2nd Parallel - -Siege guns destroy cannon and weaken fort walls. - -3rd Parallel - -Siege guns breach the walls, enabling attacking forces to enter the -fort.] - - [Illustration: A Fort’s Defenses] - - - Attackers - OUTER WORKS - Glacis - Covered Way - Moat - Ravelin - INNER FORT - Moat - Parapet - Scarp - Rampart - Magazine - - - [Illustration: The Cubo Line originally stretched from the Castillo - to the San Sebastian River. It was strengthened and rebuilt - repeatedly by both the Spaniards and the British. The city gate, a - part of the line, was built in 1808, only a few years before the - United States took control of Florida.] - -His concerns were genuine, for work on the vaults had to stop as the war -dried up construction funds. The fort was left in a strangely irregular -shape. The east side, including San Carlos bastion, was at the new -height, but all others were several feet lower. The old rooms still -lined three sides of the courtyard. - - -On June 13, 1740, seven British warships dropped anchor outside the -inlet. The long-expected siege of St. Augustine had begun. Montiano -hastily sent the news to Havana and with it a plea for help. He had 750 -soldiers and the 120 or more sailors who manned the galliots. Rations -would last only until the end of June. - -The attackers numbered almost 1,400, including sailors and Indian -allies. While the warships blockaded the harbor on the east, William -Palmer came in from the north with a company of Highlanders and occupied -the deserted outpost called Fort Mose. Oglethorpe landed his men and -guns on each side of the inlet and began building batteries across the -bay from the Castillo. - -Montiano saw at once that all the English positions were separated from -each other by water and could not speedily reinforce one another. Fort -Mose, at the village of the black runaways a couple of miles north of -the Castillo, was the weakest. At dawn on June 26 a sortie from St. -Augustine hit Fort Mose, and in the bloodiest action of the siege -scattered the Highlanders and burned the palisaded fortification. -Colonel Palmer, veteran of Florida campaigns, was among the dead. - -As if in revenge, the siege guns at the inlet opened fire. Round shot -whistled low over the bay and crashed into fort and town. Bombs from the -mortars soared high—deadly dots against the bright summer sky—and fell -swiftly to burst with terrific concussion. The townspeople fled, 2,000 -of them, some to the woods, others to the covered way where Castillo -walls screened them from the shelling. - -For 27 nerve-shattering days the British batteries thundered. At the -Castillo, newly laid stones in the east parapet scattered under the -hits, but the weathered old walls held strong. As one Englishman -observed, the native rock “will not splinter but will give way to cannon -ball as though you would stick a knife into cheese.” One of the balls -shot away a gunner’s leg, but only two men in the Castillo were killed -during the bombardment. - -The heavy guns of San Marcos and the long 9-pounders of the fast little -galliots in the harbor kept the British back. Despite the bluster of the -cannonades, the siege had stalemated. Astride the inlet, Oglethorpe and -his men battled insects and shifting sand on barren, sun-baked shores, -while Spanish soldiers in San Marcos, down to half rations themselves, -saw their families and friends starving. On July 6 Montiano wrote, “My -greatest anxiety is provisions. If these do not come, there is no doubt -that we shall die in the hands of hunger.” - -The very next day came news that supplies had reached a harbor down the -coast south of Matanzas. Shallow-draft Spanish vessels went down the -waterway behind Anastasia Island, fought their way out through Matanzas -Inlet and, hugging the coast, went to fetch the provisions. Coming back -into Matanzas that same night, they found the British blockade gone; -they reached St. Augustine unopposed. - -Oglethorpe made ready to assault the Castillo despite the low morale of -his men. His naval commander, however, was nervous over the approach of -the hurricane season and refused to cooperate. Without support from the -warships, Oglethorpe had to withdraw. Daybreak on July 20—38 days since -the British had arrived at St. Augustine—revealed that the redcoats were -gone. - - [Illustration: This 1763 engraving shows the finished Castillo after - all the bombproof vaults and a new ravelin had been built.] - - [Illustration: Beyond the military aspects, which were so vital to - the decision to establish St. Augustine, the city had become a - vibrant community of soldiers, their families, government officials, - and shopkeepers. Religion and the church played an important part in - the life of the community. This page from a Roman Catholic missal. - printed in 1690, is open to the service for Easter The right-hand - column recounts the story of how the Marys went to the tomb and - found it empty.] - - - - - The End of an Era - - -This was why the Castillo had been built—to resist aggression, to stand -firm through the darkest hour. Years of dogged labor and privations had -brought the Castillo to the point where it could easily withstand a -siege. Yet it remained unfinished, while in 1742 Spanish forces from -Havana and St. Augustine tried unsuccessfully to take Oglethorpe’s -settlement at Fort Frederica. The next year Oglethorpe moved -unsuccessfully against St. Augustine. - -Work still needed to be done on the vaults, but other projects were even -more urgent. First, came repair of the bombardment damage. After that, -the defenses around fort and town were strengthened and a strong new -earth wall called the hornwork was thrown up across the land approach, -half a mile north of town. And for a year or more a sizable crew was -busy at Matanzas building a permanent tower and battery, since the -events of 1740 had again shown the vital defensive importance of this -inlet a few miles south of St. Augustine. - -Several years slipped by with nothing being done to Castillo itself, the -heart of the defense system. Termites and rot were in the old rafters, -and in 1749 part of the roof collapsed. - -The governor’s appeal to the crown eventually brought action. Engineer -Pedro de Brozas y Garay came from Ceuta in Africa to replace Ruiz, who -was returning to Spain. Having overseen the construction of the last -fort rooms, it was Brozas who, with Governor Alonso Fernández de -Heredia, stood under the royal coat of arms at the sally port, as the -masons set in the inscription giving credit to the governor and himself -for completion of the Castillo in 1756. The ceremony was a politic -gesture, carried out on the name day of King Fernando VI; but in truth -there was still a great deal to do. - -The new bombproof vaults had raised the Castillo’s walls by five feet. -Where once they had measured about 25 feet from foundation to crown of -parapet, now they were more than 30. The little ravelin of 1682 could no -longer shield the main gate, and as yet the covered way screened only -the base of the high new walls. The glacis existed only on the plans. - - [Illustration: This British musket dates from 1777-90 and is of the - type that would have been used by the British forces stationed at - the Castillo from 1763 to 1784. It is 4 feet, 8 inches long.] - -So, having finished the vaults, the builders moved outside and worked -until money ran out in the spring of 1758. The break lasted until 1762, -by which time Britain and Spain were again at war. Spain, as an ally of -France, got into the fracas just at the time when Britain had eliminated -France as a factor in the control of North America and was quite ready -to take on Spain. And this time the British would capture the pearl of -the Antilles—Havana itself. - -Havana was well fortified, and the general officers sitting there were -perhaps more worried about St. Augustine than Havana. They released -10,000 pesos for strengthening the Florida fortifications and sent -Engineer Pablo Castelló, who had been teaching mathematics at the -military college in Havana, to assist the ailing Pedro Brozas. - -St. Augustine had only 25 convicts for labor, but when work began on -July 27, 1762, many soldiers and townspeople sensed the urgency, for -Havana was already besieged, and volunteered to help. Since much of the -project was a simple but strenuous task of digging and moving a mountain -of sand from borrow pit to earthwork, all able-bodied people were -welcome. The volunteers did, in fact, contribute labor worth more than -12,000 pesos. The only paid workers were the teamsters driving the 50 -horses that hauled the fill. Each dray dumped 40 cubic feet of earth, -and the hauling kept on until the covered way had been raised five more -feet to its new height. - -The masons soon finished a stone parapet, six feet high, for the new -covered way. With this wall in place, the teamsters moved outside the -covered way and began dumping fill for the glacis. This simple but -important structure was a carefully designed slope from the field up to -the parapet of the covered way. Not only would it screen the main walls -and covered way, but its upward slope would lift attackers right into -the sights of the fort cannon. - -Meanwhile, to replace the 1682 ravelin, Castelló began a new one with -room for five cannon and a powder magazine. He realigned the moat wall -to accommodate the larger work and pushed the job along so that as -December of 1762 ended, the masons laid the final stone of the cordon -for the ravelin. They never started its parapet, for the close of the -year brought the devastating news that Spain would give Florida to Great -Britain. - - -So Spain’s work on the fort ended. And although ravelin and glacis were -not finished, Castillo de San Marcos was a handsome structure. The main -walls were finished with a hard, waterproofing, lime plaster, shining -white in the sunlight with the brilliance of Spain’s olden glory. In the -haste of building, engineers had not forgotten such niceties as classic -molded cornices, pendants, and pilasters to cast relieving shadows on -stark smooth walls. At the point of each bastion was color—the tile-red -plaster of the sentry boxes. White and red. These were Spain’s symbolic -colors, revealed again in the banner floating above the ramparts. - -With walls high over the blue waters of the bay, its towers thrusting -toward the clouds, and guns of bright bronze or iron pointed over turf -and sweep of marsh toward the gloom of the forest or the distant surf -breaking on the bar, San Marcos was properly the background for -Florida’s capital. In the narrow streets that led to the citadel, -military men and sailors mingled with tradesman and townsfolk. Indians, -their nakedness smeared with beargrease against the bugs, were a strange -contrast to the silken opulence of the governor’s lady. But this was St. -Augustine—a town of contrasts, with a long past and an uncertain future. - -The day of the transfer to British rule was July 21, 1763. At Castillo -de San Marcos, Gov. Melchor de Feliú delivered the keys to Maj. John -Hedges, at the moment the ranking representative of George III. The -Spanish troops departed Florida, and with them went the entire Spanish -population. The English were left with an empty city. - -The defenses they found at St. Augustine were far stronger than the ones -that had stopped Oglethorpe in 1740. The renovated Castillo, which the -new owners called Fort St. Mark, was the citadel of a defense-in-depth -system that began with fortified towers at St. Augustine and Matanzas -inlets and blockhouses at the St. Johns River crossings. Since St. -Augustine was on a small peninsula with Matanzas Bay on one side and the -San Sebastián River on the other, there was only one way to reach the -city by land; and Fort Mose, rebuilt and enlarged after 1740, guarded -this lone access. In 1762 Mose also became the anchor for a mile-long -defense line across the peninsula to a strong redoubt on the San -Sebastián. This earthwork, planted at its base with prickly pear, -protected the farmlands behind it. Just north of the Castillo, the -hornwork spanned the narrowest part of the peninsula. A third line -stretched from the Castillo to the San Sebastián, and this one was -intersected by a fourth line that enclosed the town on west and south. -Along the eastern shore was the stone seawall. One by one, these -defenses had evolved in the years after 1702. - -Such defensive precautions seemed outmoded, now that all eastern North -America was under one sovereignty. Obviously the old enmities between -Florida and the English colonies had departed with the Spaniards; -Britain saw no need for concern about the fortifications. No need, that -is, until the Thirteen Colonies showed disquieting signs of rebellion. -And as rebellion flamed into revolution, St. Augustine entered a new -role as capital of George III’s loyal province of East Florida. - -In the summer of 1775, after Lexington and Concord, British concerns -about the Castillo’s state of repair could be seen. The gate was -repaired and the well in the courtyard, which had become brackish, was -re-dug. In several of the high-arched bombproofs, the carpenters doubled -the capacity by building a second floor, for St. Augustine was -regimental headquarters and many redcoated troops were quartered in Fort -St. Mark. - -By October 1776 the British had renovated two of the three lines -constructed north of the city by the Spaniards. In place of the old -earthwork that hemmed in the town on the south and west, however, they -depended on a pair of detached redoubts at the San Sebastián, one at the -ford and the other at the ferry. Later they added five other redoubts in -the same quadrant. Many improvements were made to the outer works as -well. - -Behind the thick walls of the fort were stored weapons and equipment -that went to arm British forces for repeated use against the rebellious -colonials to the north. The damp prison also held a number of these -colonists. - - - Links to the Past - - It is impossible to fully retrieve the past, to know what it was - actually like to live in another time, to understand the cadences of - another life. Some disciplines work at peeling back the layers of time - and attempt to explain those bygone days. Archeology is one of these - sciences. By retrieving the remains of the material culture, by seeing - a plate that held food, a bottle that held oil, a dish in which herbs - were ground to make medicine, the connection with those long gone - personages begins to be made. The objects on the next page are among - more than 1,000 items that have been retrieved from digs in and around - the Castillo and St. Augustine. - - [Illustration: Bottle body] - - [Illustration: Dish fragment, majolica] - - [Illustration: Spanish olive jar] - - [Illustration: China accordion player] - - [Illustration: Plate fragment, majolica] - - [Illustration: Dish with caduceus (medical symbol)] - - [Illustration: Platter base fragment, slipware] - - [Illustration: Bowl fragment, pearlware-mochaware] - -Even as the British were working to secure the Castillo against a -possible attack, international events brought Spain back into the -picture. In 1779 Spain declared war on Britain after France promised -help in retrieving Florida, if the powers allied against Britain were -victorious. One Spanish plan even had the Spaniards launching a surprise -attack on the Castillo: Troops would sail upriver from Matanzas, land -south of town, sweep north through St. Augustine, and take the Castillo -by storm. If this failed they would settle in for a siege. At the last -minute, practically, the authorities decided to attack Pensacola, on -Florida’s Gulf Coast, instead. A Spanish attack on the British inside a -fortress designed and built by Spanish engineers would have been full of -irony. - -In the settlement after the Revolution, the Spaniards did indeed recover -Florida, and on July 12, 1784, the transfer took place. - - -The Spaniards returned to an impossible situation. The border problems -of earlier times had multiplied as runaway slaves from Georgia found -welcome among the Seminole Indians, and ruffians from both land and sea -made Florida their habitat. - -Bedeviled by these perversities and distracted by revolutionary unrest -in Latin America, Spain nevertheless did what had to be done at the -Castillo—repairs to the bridges, a new pine stairway for San Carlos -tower, a bench for the criminals in the prison. In 1785 Mariano de la -Rocque designed an attractive entrance in the neoclassic style for the -chapel doorway. It was built, only to crumble slowly away like the -Spanish hold on Florida. - -Defense strategies had changed too, over the years. The British had -built a few redoubts to cover vulnerable approaches on the west and -south. The Spaniards on their return adapted the British works but also -greatly strengthened the long wall from the Castillo to the San -Sebastián River. They widened its moat to 40 feet, lined the entire -length of the 9-foot-high earthwork with palm logs, and planted it with -prickly pear. The three redoubts were armed with light cannon, and a new -city gate was completed in 1808. Its twin towers of white masonry were -trimmed with red plaster, and each roof was capped with a pomegranate, a -symbol of fertility. - -Even though San Marcos remained a bulwark against American advances, -Florida had lost its former importance to Spain as independence -movements sprang up in one South American Spanish colony after another. -Constant pressure from the expanding United States finally resulted in -Spain’s ceding Florida to the United States. Perhaps Spanish officials -signed the papers with a sigh of relief, glad to be rid of a province so -burdensome and unprofitable for 300 years. On July 10, 1821, the ensign -of Spain fluttered down to the thunderous salute of Castillo cannon, and -the 23-star flag of the United States of America was hauled aloft. - -In this new era, the aging fort was already a relic. Fortunately for its -preservation, the US. strategy for coastal defense did not require much -alteration of the Castillo. U.S. Army engineers added only a water -battery in the east moat, mounted a few new guns on the bastions, and -improved the glacis during the 1840s. - -The fort’s name was also changed, for the Americans chose to honor Gen. -Francis Marion, Revolutionary leader and son of the very colony against -whose possible aggression San Marcos had been built. Congress restored -the original name in 1942, almost 20 years after the fort had been -designated a national monument. - -Heavy doors and iron bars that once protected precious stores of food -and ammunition made the old fort a good prison, and the prison days soon -obscured the olden times when Spain’s hold upon Florida depended upon -the strength of these walls and the brave hearts that served here. - - -Now the echo of the Spanish tongue has faded and the scarred walls are -silent. The records tell of the people who built and defended the -Castillo—and those who attacked it, too. In the archives are countless -instances of unselfish zeal and loyalty, the cases of Ransom, Collins, -and Carr, the crown’s patriarchal protection of its Indian vassals, the -unflagging work of the friars. The structure itself tells its own story. -As William Cullen Bryant, 19th-century poet wrote: “The old fort of St. -Mark is a noble work, frowning over the Matanzas, and it is worth making -a long journey to see.” - - [Illustration: The Spanish government constructed replicas of - Christopher Columbus’ three ships to commemorate the 500th - anniversary of his voyage to America. The ships followed Columbus’ - route across the Atlantic and made calls at ports throughout the - Americas. Here the _Santa Maria_, in the foreground, _Pinta_, and - _Niña_ visit St. Augustine in 1992.] - - [Illustration: Soldiers crossing the moat] - - - - - Guide and Advisor - - - [Illustration: NPS Ranger] - -St. Augustine is the oldest, continuously inhabited city founded by -Europeans in the present-day United States. It represents the beginnings -of contact between Spanish settlers and the native inhabitants, the -emergence of the Hispanic American, the struggle between Spanish, -French, and English settlers for control of the southeastern Atlantic -coast, and ultimately the birth of the United States. - - - Visiting St. Augustine - -As well as being an old city, with many historic houses on quiet, narrow -streets, St. Augustine is a bustling modern city with a range of -facilities and accommodations to meet all expectations and travel -budgets. - -Begin your visit to the city at the Visitor Information Center on San -Marco Avenue, opposite the Castillo. Here you can get free information, -maps, and answers to your questions from the staff. The center is open -daily from 8 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. Limited parking is available for patrons. -You may write: Visitor Information Center, P.O. Drawer 210, St. -Augustine, FL 32085; or call 904-825-1000. Additional information is -available from the St. Augustine and St. Johns County Chamber of -Commerce, 1 Ribera Street, St. Augustine, FL 320841 or call -904-829-5681. - -St. Augustine is a wonderful city to walk in, for it is compact and easy -to find your way around. Take time to leave the main streets and walk -through residential areas to get a feel for the city and the way it was -laid out. St. Augustine has its own personality and charm that -distinguish it from such other colonial communities as Williamsburg, -Charleston, and Santa Fe. Today’s St. Augustine bears the imprint of -Henry Flagler (1830-1913), a close partner of John D. Rockefeller in the -development of the Standard Oil Company and a railroad tycoon in -Florida. Flagler bought several small railroads in Florida, consolidated -them, and laid track that eventually ran from Jacksonville to Key West. -Along with his railroad he built luxury hotels in Daytona, Palm Beach, -Miami, and St. Augustine and helped to create the tourist industry that -has played such an important role in Florida’s economy in the 20th -century. Flagler’s legacy lives on in St. Augustine where Flagler -College occupies the former Hotel Ponce de Leon at Cordova and King -streets and in the Lightner Museum housed in the old Alcazar Hotel -across the street from the college. The St. Johns County Courthouse and -the St. Augustine City Hall also occupy Flagler buildings. Flagler is -buried on the grounds of the Flagler Memorial Presbyterian Church. - -St. George Street, a pedestrian walkway between Castillo Drive and -Cathedral Place, is lined with shops and restaurants of every type and -description. The Spanish Quarter, a restored 18th-century portion of the -city, is a living history museum operated by the state of Florida on the -north end of St. George Street. Along this street a number of residences -dating back more than two centuries have either been reconstructed or -restored by the St. Augustine Restoration and Preservation Commission. -Some of them may be open to the public. But do not assume that they are. -Inquire at the Visitor Information Center for specific information about -opening and closing times. - -The Oldest House, located at the corner of St. Francis and Charlotte -streets, is administered by the St. Augustine Historical Society. Guides -give house tours, for which there is a charge. The adjacent museum tells -the story of St. Augustine and of the people who lived here through the -four centuries of the city’s history. In Government House, at the corner -of St. George and King streets, the Historic St. Augustine Preservation -Board, an agency of the state of Florida, also runs a museum that tells -a more inclusive story of Spanish Florida, including Fort Mose, the -oldest free black settlement in the United States. - - - Visiting the Castillo - -The Castillo de San Marcos is one of the oldest structures in North -America built by Europeans. It is one of the few links on this continent -to early modern Europe and a way of warfare that has become obsolete. -Park interpreters give frequent programs at the fort telling its history -and explaining its construction. They can answer questions you have -about the history of the area and about related National Park System -sites. You may wish to walk around the Castillo at your own pace; a free -park folder available at the entrance station will help you find your -way. - -A sales outlet to the left of the guard rooms as you enter the Castillo -offers books and pamphlets on the history of Florida and Spanish -colonization. Some souvenirs and postcards are also available. - -Parking is limited at the Castillo and in St. Augustine. Because of the -limited parking, therefore, you may wish to take one of the sightseeing -tours around the city. Information is available at the Visitor -Information Center. For further information about the Castillo de San -Marcos and Fort Matanzas, write: Superintendent, Castillo de San Marcos -National Monument, 1 Castillo Drive East, St. Augustine, FL 32084. - - - Beaches - -Florida A1A north or south takes you to some of the most beautiful -beaches on the east coast. A fee buys a permit from county authorities -to drive on county beaches during the summer months. There is also a -charge for parking at Anastasia State Recreation Area. - - - Accommodations - -St. Augustine has a variety of accommodations: national chains, locally -owned hotels and motels, bed and breakfast inns, and vacation cottages -and condominiums for rent by the day, week, or longer. - - - Other Areas Related to Spanish Florida - -Besides Castillo de San Marcos, several other National Park System sites -in Florida preserve and interpret aspects of Spanish colonial history. -They are located on the map and described below. - - [Illustration: Map] - - - Gulf Islands NS - De Soto N MEM - Fort Carolina N MEM - Castillo de San Marcos NM - Ft. Matanzas NM - - - De Soto National Memorial - _P.O. Box 16390_ - _Bradenton, FL 34280-5390._ - - -No one knows exactly where Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto landed on -Florida’s west coast in 1539. This park at the entrance to Tampa Bay -memorializes that landing and de Soto’s subsequent journeys of -exploration throughout the southeastern United States. - - - Fort Caroline National Memorial - _12713 Fort Caroline Road_ - _Jacksonville, FL 32225._ - - -The establishment of a French colony here in 1564 directly challenged -the Spaniards, who responded by establishing Saint Augustine the next -year. After securing a firm base of operations, the Spaniards led by -Pedro Menéndez marched to the French settlement and captured it, ending -French interest in the area. - - - Fort Matanzas National Monument - _c/o Castillo de San Marcos National Monument_ - _1 Castillo Drive_ - _Saint Augustine, FL 32084._ - - -On this site Spanish troops killed French soldiers who were part of the -ill-fated attempt to establish a French settlement in Florida. In 1740, -after the failed English attack on Saint Augustine, the Spaniards built -a masonry fortification—Fort Matanzas—on Rattlesnake Island overlooking -Matanzas Inlet to control the inlet permanently. - - - Gulf Islands National Seashore - _1801 Gulf Breeze Parkway_ - _Gulf Breeze, FL 32561._ - - -The ravelin of Fort Barrancas, located on the grounds of the Pensacola -Naval Air Station, is another Spanish masonry fortification in Florida -besides the Castillo and Fort Matanzas. It is called Battery San Antonio -and dates from 1797. It was planned as part of a larger fortification -never built by the Spaniards. Fort Barrancas, built by the U.S., dates -from the early 19th century. - -Besides these parks in Florida there is one in Georgia (not shown on the -map) that bears importantly on the story of St. Augustine. - - - Fort Frederica National Monument - _Route 9, Box 286-C_ - _Savannah, GA 31410._ - - -It was at Fort Frederica that James Edward Oglethorpe established a -settlement in 1736 only a few days march north of St. Augustine in -territory that the Spaniards clearly believed to be their own. - - [Illustration: Fort Matanzas National Monument] - - [Illustration: Fort Caroline National Memorial] - -★ GPO: 1993—342-396 80002 - - - - - National Park Service - - -National Park Handbooks are published to support the National Park -Service’s management programs and to promote understanding and enjoyment -of the more than 360 National Park System sites that represent important -examples of our country’s natural and cultural inheritance. Each -handbook is intended to be informative reading and a useful guide -before, during, and after a park visit. More than 100 titles are in -print. They are sold at parks and can be purchased by mail from the -Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, -Washington, DC 20402-9325. - -The National Park Service expresses its appreciation to all those -persons who made the preparation and production of this handbook -possible. The original text for this handbook was written by Albert -Manucy and Luis Arana and appeared as _The Building of the Castillo de -San Marcos_. The vault construction, drawbridge, and siege illustrations -on pages 33, 34, and 47 are based on artwork originally developed by -Albert Manucy. The National Park Service also expresses its appreciation -to Eastern National Park and Monument Association for its cooperation in -this project. All photos and artwork not credited below come from the -files of the Castillo de San Marcos or of the National Park Service. - - - Archivo General de Indias, Seville 18, 49 - Michael Hampshire 31 (detail), 34 - Karen Kasmauski 2-3 - Ken Laffal cover, 12, 16, 24, 25, 26 (photographs), 29, 35, 36, 38, - 42, 48, 50, 52, 55, 57, 58-59, 60 - Library of Congress 4, 10, 26-27 (map), 49 - National Geographic Society 14, 15, 22-23 - Ken Townsend 30-31, 40-41 - - - - - U.S. Department of the Interior - - -As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the -Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally-owned public -lands and natural resources. This includes fostering sound use of our -land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological -diversity; preserving the environmental and cultural values of our -national parks and historical places; and providing for the enjoyment of -life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and -mineral resources and works to ensure that their development is in the -best interest of all our people by encouraging stewardship and citizen -participation in their care. The Department also has a major -responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for -people who live in island territories under U.S. administration. - - - _Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data_ - -Castillo de San Marcos: a Guide to the Castillo de San Marcos National -Monument, Florida/produced by the Division of Publications, National -Park Service. p. cm.—(National Park Handbook; 149) - - - 1. Castillo de San Marcos National Monument (Saint Augustine, - Fla.)—Guidebooks. - 2. Saint Augustine (Fla.)—Guidebooks. - 3. Saint Augustine (Fla.)—History. - I. United States. National Park Service. Division of Publications. - II. Series: Handbook (United States, National Park Service, Division - of Publications); 149. F319.S2C37 1993. 917.59’ 18—dc20. - 92-40413 CIP. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—Relocated all image captions to be immediately under the corresponding - images, removing redundant references like ”preceding page”. - -—Silently corrected a few palpable typos. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Castillo de San Marcos, by National Park Service - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASTILLO DE SAN MARCOS *** - -***** This file should be named 56050-0.txt or 56050-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/6/0/5/56050/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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