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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/48579-0.txt b/48579-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..756308f --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2049 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 48579 *** + + BIRDS AND NATURE. + + ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. + + VOL. VIII. NOVEMBER, 1900. NO. 4. + + + + + CONTENTS. + + + Page + SONNET--NOVEMBER. 145 + SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WESTERN WILLET. 146 + CRUEL TREATMENT OF BIRDS DEMANDED BY DAME FASHION. 150 + THE FALL MIGRATIONS. 151 + THE WAYS OF SOME BANTAMS. 152 + THE BUFFLE-HEAD. 155 + AN HOUR WITH AN ANT. 156 + SONG. 157 + THE AMERICAN EARED GREBE. 158 + THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES. 161 + THE LOUISIANA TANAGER. 167 + CHATTER OF A CHAT. 168 + THE LUNA AND POLYPHEMUS MOTHS. 170 + CASTLES IN THE AIR. 175 + THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE. 179 + PLANT PROTECTION. 182 + THE BIRTH OF A TREE. 187 + THE ALMOND. 188 + + + + +SONNET--NOVEMBER. + + + Yet one smile more, departing, distant sun, + One mellow smile through the soft vapory air, + Ere, o'er the frozen earth, the loud winds run, + Or snows are sifted o'er the meadow bare. + One smile on the brown hills and naked trees + And the dark rocks whose summer wreaths are cast, + And the blue Gentian flower, that, in the breeze, + Nods lonely, of her beauteous race the last. + Yet a few sunny days, in which the bee + Shall murmur by the hedge that skirts the way, + The cricket chirp upon the russet lea, + And man delight to linger in thy ray. + Yet one rich smile, and we will try to bear + The piercing winter frost, and winds, and darkened air. + --William Cullen Bryant. + + * * * * * + + Oh, Autumn! Why so soon + Depart the hues that make thy forests glad; + Thy gentle wind and thy fair sunny noon, + And leave thee wild and sad! + + Ah! 'twere a lot too blessed + Forever in thy colored shades to stray; + Amid the kisses of the soft southwest + To rove and dream for aye. + --William Cullen Bryant. + +Copyright, 1900, by A. W. Mumford. + + + + +SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WESTERN WILLET. + +(_Symphemia semipalmata inornata._) + + +The Western Willet is one of the largest of the Limicolae or Shore +Birds. The body is about the size of a common pigeon, the long neck, +legs and extent of wings making it appear much larger. The feet +are only about one-half webbed and only when great danger makes it +necessary will it go into the water beyond its depth. The bill is +straight and in summer the color of the bird is gray above, with many +small but rather distinct black marks. On the sides and breast these +marks are arrow-shaped. In the plumage of winter and of the young these +markings are absent. + +I am inclined to believe that this species has a more extended range +than any other of the order. It has become quite abundant of late +years in the Calumet Region in Northern Indiana, near Chicago. Mr. +E. W. Nelson, in the Natural History Survey of Illinois, says, that +in the seventies this species was a rare summer resident on the wet +prairies of Northwestern Illinois, although I can find no authentic +record of the taking of the nest and eggs. Captain Charles Bendire +found it abundant and resident in Southeastern Oregon when he procured +several sets of its eggs. It is said to breed from the coast of Texas +to Manitoba. Straggling flocks of from five to fifty may be found along +the shores of our larger fresh water lakes, particularly Lake Michigan, +during the fall migration, which takes place from about the fifteenth +of August to the last of September. + +This bird might well be called the clown of the Limicolae. I have often +been amused by the antics of a flock of Willets on the shore of Lake +Michigan. They would droop their necks and wings in an absurd fashion, +taking short runs and jumps as the waves rolled in upon them. I have +never seen a bird which at times could be so wary and hard to approach, +and again, if a number are shot from a flock, the remaining birds will +seem to lose their senses, and I have frequently walked within a few +feet of the survivors before they would take flight. This trait is +noticeable among a large number of shore birds and the terns, but more +especially so with the Willet. + +On the plains bordering the Brazos river, near the Gulf coast of +Texas, during the months of April and May, I have found the Willet +proper (Symphemia semipalmata), a smaller and darker form, breeding +in abundance. The Willets usually select for a nesting site a thick +tussock of salt marsh grass on the borders of a small pond, where +they can command a good view of the vicinity. In the center of this +they hollow out a space of about six or eight inches in diameter, and +simply line it with the grass they have matted down. In this nest are +laid four pyriform eggs of a greenish white, or a light olive brown +ground color, marked with large, irregular blotches or brownish black +and faint purple; the eggs are immense for the size of the bird, being +about two inches in length by one and one-half in width. + +The illustration faithfully portrays three birds taken at Miller's, +Indiana, on the beach of Lake Michigan. The color of the legs, which +are obscured by the shadow of the body, is a pale, slaty blue. + + [Illustration: THE WESTERN WILLET + (Symphemia semipalmata inornata.) + 1/4 Life-size. + FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +Though the Willets are restless and noisy birds, they are much less +so, and, indeed, quite unconscious of their surroundings when nesting. +Regarding their habits at this time, Dr. Coues has told us that if +they "become thoroughly alarmed by too open approach, particularly +if the setting bird be driven from her nest, there is a great +outcry, violent protest and tumult where there was quietude. Other +pairs, nesting near by, join their cries till the confusion becomes +general. But now, again, their actions are not those they would show +at other times; for, instead of flying off with the instinct of +self-preservation, to put distance between them and danger, they are +held by some fascination to the spot, and hover around, wheeling about, +flying in circles a little ways, to return again, with unremitting +clamor. They may be only too easily destroyed under such circumstances, +provided the ornithologist can lay aside his scruples and steel himself +against sympathy." + +It is to be hoped that all the States, frequented by the Willets, will +enact proper legislation which will amply protect these interesting +waders. + + Frank M. Woodruff. + + * * * * * + + Autumn once more begins to teach; + Sere leaves their annual sermon preach; + And with the southward-slipping sun + Another stage of life is done. + The day is of a paler hue, + The night is of a darker blue, + Just as it was a year ago; + For time runs fast, but grace is slow! + + Thou comest, autumn, to unlade + Thy wealthy freight of summer shade, + Still sorrowful as in past years, + Yet mild and sunny in thy tears, + Ripening and hardening all thy growth + Of solid wood, yet nothing loth + To waste upon the frolic breeze + Thy leaves, like flights of golden bees. + --Frederick William Faber. + + + + +CRUEL TREATMENT OF BIRDS DEMANDED BY DAME FASHION. + + +All of my readers probably know in a general way that Dame Fashion is +responsible for the destruction of the lives of many birds, but they +may not know to what extent this is true. + +Why do we say that any cruel treatment of the birds is chargeable to +fashion? It can hardly be necessary to remind ourselves that there is +in almost every boy's nature a touch of the savage instincts which find +expression in the desire to kill something. Traces of this instinct +do not entirely disappear with the development into manhood, but +show themselves there in the love of hunting and fishing. Let these +remnants of savagery be appealed to by the promise of gain and they are +immediately fanned into flame in the natures of those persons who are +naturally more strongly drawn to this primitive occupation of men. In +short, place before the professional hunter an easy means of profiting +by his skill as a hunter, and in far too many instances he will smother +any humane instincts which he may have for the sake of the gain. It is +the demands of fashion for plumes and feathers for hat trimmings which +place before these hunters the temptation to kill. Have we not a right, +therefore, to place the blame at the door of Fashion? + +But what are the practices which we call cruel? In the first place it +is cruelty to cause the destruction of life without good and sufficient +reason. Unnecessary sacrifice of life is cruelty. Certainly no one +will say that it is necessary to trim hats with feathers. Fashion +decrees that feathers must be worn, and presto! feathers are worn. In +the second place, it is cruel to kill birds who are feeding young ones +in the nest, leaving them to starvation. Yet this is just what has +happened and does happen every year. Plume hunters are no respecters +of times and seasons. With them there are no closed seasons. The birds +which they are after gather in large rookeries during the nesting +season and are therefore much easier to capture then than at other +times. + +Most of the herons and similar plume-bearing birds are hunted and +killed for the plumes alone, or, at most, for a very small part of the +whole plumage. The part wanted is taken and the rest left to waste, +while the bird's body is never used for anything. If nothing worse, it +is an unpardonable waste. In Florida alone whole rookeries of herons +and ibises numbering hundreds and even thousands of individuals have +been wholly destroyed. Now the insatiable plume hunter, in his effort +to supply the demands of a no less insatiable fashion, is pursuing the +unfortunate birds into the fastnesses of Mexico and South America. +There is but one way to stop this work of extermination, and that +is to take away the demand. This remedy lies wholly in the hands of +women. Unless they are willing to take a firm stand against the use +of feathers for purposes of ornament the birds are doomed. This may +seem like a strong statement, but a little reflection will prove it +true. When the birds which are now hunted for plumes and feathers are +gone, there will be a modification of the demand to include birds +of different plumage, just as the aigrette is giving place to the +quill. After the quill and the long-pointed wing will come the shorter +wing, and after that the plumage of the small birds, and the cycle of +destruction will be complete. + +Some one may ask why it is that the birds are so foolish as to allow +the hunter to kill hundreds in a single day from one rookery. Why don't +they leave the region when the shooting begins? The plume hunter has +learned cunning. He no longer uses a shot gun, but a small caliber +rifle or a wholly noiseless air gun. The rifle makes no more noise +than the snapping of a twig, and will therefore not frighten the +birds. By remaining concealed the hunter may kill every bird that is +within range. Since each bird is worth from twenty-five cents to five +dollars, according to the kind, a single day's work (or slaughter) +is profitable. The temptation is certainly great, and becomes almost +irresistible to him who loves hunting for its own sake. + +The most cruel part of the whole business I have already stated, but it +will bear repeating. It is the killing of the breeding birds before the +young are able to care for themselves. There is abundant evidence that +the breeding time is the favorite time for hunting among plume hunters, +because then the old birds are more easy to kill, and because then the +plumage is the most perfect, for then the wedding garments are put on. + +It should not be an impossible task to stop this whole cruel business. +But laws will not do it without a wholesome public sentiment behind +it. Women are notably foremost in all good works, and many of them +are doing nobly in this work, but it is painfully evident that many +are not. Let us make "a long pull and a strong pull and a pull all +together," and then we shall drag this growing evil back and down +forever. + + Lynds Jones. + + + + +THE FALL MIGRATIONS. + + + A rush of wings through the darkening night, + A sweep through the air in the distant height. + + Far off we hear them, cry answering cry: + 'Tis the voice of the birds as they southward fly. + + From sea to sea, as if marking the time, + Comes the beat of wings from the long, dark line. + + O strong, steady wing, with your rhythmic beat, + Flying from cold to the summertime heat; + + O, keen, glancing eye, that can see so far, + Do you guide your flight by the northern star? + + The birds from the North are crossing the moon, + And the southland knows they are coming soon. + + With gladness and freedom and music gone, + Another migration is passing on. + + No long, dark lines o'er the face of the moon; + No dip of wings in the southern lagoon. + + No sweet, low titter, no welcoming song; + These are birds of silence that sweep along. + + Lifeless and stiff, with the death mark on it, + This "Fall Migration" on hat and bonnet. + + And the crowd goes by, with so few to care + For this march of death of the "fowls of the air." + --Mary Drummond, in the Chicago Times-Herald. + + + + +THE WAYS OF SOME BANTAMS. + + +Last summer, when I was out in the country, I made the acquaintance +of a kind-hearted little bantam rooster, who was as funny as he was +kind-hearted. + +An old speckled hen, who looked as if she might be a good mother, but +wasn't, had brought up a family of chickens to that stage where their +legs had grown long and their down all turned to pin-feathers. + +Very ugly they were; there was no doubt of it. Perhaps this queer +mother thought so. At any rate, she turned the poor things adrift and +pecked them cruelly whenever they came near her. + +Little "Banty" saw this unkind behavior. He was small, but his heart +was big, and he set Madam Speckle an example which ought to have made +her hide her head in the darkest corner of the hen-house for shame. + +He adopted those chickens! + +Each one of them was about half the size of "Banty," and to see that +loving little father-bird standing on tiptoe with his wings spread, +trying in vain to cover all eight of his adopted children, was a +pathetic as well as a ludicrous sight. + +They loved him and believed in him fully. They followed him all day +long, and seemed to see nothing amusing when he choked down a crow to +cluck over the food he found for them, and at night they quarreled over +the privilege of being nearest to him. + +I think bantams perhaps are more interesting than other fowls. When I +was a little girl father brought three of them home. Dandy and his two +little wives were all pure white and very small. + +We had other fowls, the aristocratic Spanish kind, each as large as two +or three of Dandy, and the Spanish rooster hinted very strongly that +Dandy's presence in that barnyard could be dispensed with. But Dandy +was a brave little fighter, and he soon settled it once for all with +Grandee as to what the rights of the former and his family were. + +In a month or so one of the little hens was missing. After a long time +we found her, and in such a queer, cozy place! Upon the foundations +of the old red farmhouse where we lived, rested great squared beams. +An end of one of these beams had decayed, out of sight, under the +clapboards on the south side of the house, until there was a large, +soft-lined hollow. Here the little hen had stolen her nest, and when +we found her she was just ready to lead off twenty-one tiny white +fluff-balls of chickens, every egg having hatched. + +Dandy's bravery saved his little life one day, and made him forever +famous in the annals of our pets. On this most eventful day of his +life, a shadow flitted over the barnyard, and a wail went up from us +children as a chicken-hawk swooped down upon our beloved Dandy and +carried him off before our indignant and tearful eyes. + +Up they went! But in a moment or two we saw that the thief was having +trouble, as somehow Dandy had managed to turn in those wicked talons, +and the little fellow was using his sharp beak and spurs with all his +might. + +The battle was brief, and then Dandy dropped at our feet. He was +bleeding and had lost the sight of one of his eyes, but otherwise +he was little hurt. All the rest of his days Dandy carried himself +proudly, as one who has been tried as a hero and not found wanting. + + May H. Prentice. + + + + + [Illustration: BUFFLE-HEAD. + (Charitonetta albeola.) + Nearly 1/2 Life-size. + FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +THE BUFFLE-HEAD. + +(_Charitonetta albeola._) + + +This small and wonderfully beautiful duck is a native of North America, +wintering in the latitude of Cuba and Mexico and breeding from Maine to +Montana and northward. It is said that a favorite place for its nesting +is along the banks of the Yukon river, and other streams of the boreal +regions, yet it is reported that the young have been captured in the +Adirondack mountains. Though classed with the "sea ducks" (Fuligulinae) +it is one of the most common of our fresh-water forms, and, like many +other animals, as well as vegetable forms, of wide distribution, it is +the recipient of numerous popular names, nearly all of them being more +or less suggestive of its characteristics or habits. In the North it +is frequently called the Butter-ball, the Butter-box, the Butter duck, +the Spirit duck and the Dipper. In the South some of the same names are +heard, but perhaps more often the Marionette, the Scotch dipper, or +duck, the Scotch teal and the Wool-head. However, no more appropriate +name could be selected than that of Buffle-head, having reference to +the showy, ruffled or puffed plumage of the head. The technical name, +albeola, meaning whitish, was given this species by Linnaeus in 1758, +on account of the pure white on the side of the head. + +The adult males vary but little. The plumage of the head is puffy and, +with that of the upper half of the neck, is a "rich silky, metallic +green, violet purple and greenish bronze, the last prevailing on the +lower part of the neck, the green on the anterior part of the head, the +purple on the cheeks and crown." A beautiful pure white patch extends +from the eyes, meeting on the top of the head. The lower portion of the +neck and nearly all the feathers of the under side of the body, as well +as the wing coverts, are also showy white. The lining of the wings is +dark, and the upper side of the body is black. + +The head of the female is less puffy and of a brownish or dark gray +color. The white head patch is not so prominent or pure and the plumage +of the under side of the body is more or less tinged with gray. In both +sexes the iris is dark brown, the bill bluish or lead color, and the +legs and feet pinkish. + +There are few birds that are more expert in diving or swimming, while +on land, owing to their larger feet and shorter legs, they are more +awkward and waddle more than many of the ordinary ducks. Their graceful +attitude while floating on the water, moving apparently without any +motion of the body and scarcely causing a ripple on even a placid +surface, has given them the name Spirit duck. + +The Buffle-head, like nearly all the sea ducks, feeds on mollusks and +other animal-forms found in the water. As a result, their flesh is +usually coarse and quite too rank for use as a food. The canvas-back is +a notable exception, for during the winter months it feeds on the wild +celery (Vallisneria) of the Middle Atlantic coast, and thus its flesh +receives the flavor so appreciated by those who relish game food. + + + + +AN HOUR WITH AN ANT. + + +If you want to know how to accomplish a hard task, come with me and +watch a little ant for an hour. + +She was a small, black ant, and, seeing a brown worm eight times as +large as herself, she was seized with the ambition to take it home in +triumph. + +Now will you tell me how she knew that she could have no power over +the worm while he was on his ten feet, that stuck to the sidewalk like +glue? Before she attempted anything, she fastened her mandibles into +his side and turned him over on his back just as you see Bridget turn +the mattress. Then running to his head she again fastened her mandibles +and dragged him for a couple of inches. While pausing to get her +breath, the worm took the opportunity to get on his feet once more. The +ant did not seem to notice the change in position till she tried again +to drag the body. As soon as she felt it sticking, around she ran to +the side, over went the worm in a trice, and once more the two started +on their journey. Now they were close to a crack in the broad sidewalk, +and I, thinking to help the little worker, in whom by this time I was +quite interested, lifted the worm across the crack. + +Did you ever try to help some one and find too late you had done +exactly the wrong thing? Then you know how I felt when that little ant +began rushing around as if she were crazy, and when she got hold of the +worm again, began to drag it back across the very crack I had lifted it +over. Can you guess why? She was taking a bee-line to her house, and I +had changed the direction. But how was she to get that big body across +a crack that could swallow them both? That was what I waited anxiously +to see. Soon the worm felt himself going down, down into a dark abyss, +and of course caught hold of the side to save himself, and when he once +felt he had a hold on life how he did hold on! The ant was not to be +daunted; balancing herself on the edge, and holding on by her feet, she +reached down her mandibles and dragged him by main force straight up +the perpendicular wall to the top; nor did she stop till he was carried +far enough from the edge not to get down again. + +In this way three cracks were safely crossed, and it was plain to see +the worm was losing heart, although every time the ant paused for +breath he would get over on his feet and have to be tossed back again. + +And now a new difficulty arose. The worm had been dragged about +eighteen inches over the boards. Fourteen inches more would bring them +to the ant's house, or, rather, hill. But the way was now off from the +sidewalk, and no sooner did the worm feel the stubble under him than +he gathered all his strength, turned over on his feet, and held on to +every spear of grass for dear life. + +Indeed, it was his last chance, and I felt tempted to snatch him +from the certain death awaiting him, but curiosity to see how this +new obstacle would be overcome induced me to wait. The ant now felt +justified in calling for assistance, and soon a dozen ants had come to +help. Only five could work to advantage, so the rest, for ants never +like to do the "heavy looking on," left to find other employment. + +The first thing to be done was to get the worm on his back, and this +proved no easy task. He could fasten his feet just as fast as the ants +could unfasten them. At last two ants went to one end and two to the +other. Each one of the four seized a foot in her strong mandibles and +held it out as far as possible, while the fifth one turned the captive. +It was the funniest sight! It was easy now to drag him two or three +inches, but breath had to be taken, and again the worm fastened. In +vain they tugged and pulled. He had evidently learned their tactics +and knew how to defend himself. Suddenly his body moved along an inch +and a half, as if by magic. Was it magic? Not at all. One little ant +had run up on an overhanging blade of grass, and, reaching down, +holding on by the wonderful feet spoken of before, and grabbed the poor +creature in the middle, raised it right up from the ground, and keeping +hold, ran along overhead till the end of the spear of grass was reached. + +This was the last struggle of any importance. The worm gave up +discouraged; it was only now a question of time till they had dragged +him through the stubble up to the door of the house in the hill, and +I saw only a faint quiver as of dread as his body passed through the +mysterious opening. I could not help wondering if the ant who started +the capture received all the praise she deserved, or if the other four +took the glory to themselves. + +At any rate, no one could take away her own satisfaction in overcoming +and winning in the struggle. + + Harriet Woodbridge. + + + + +SONG. + + + Day is dying! Float, O song, + Down the westward river, + Requiem chanting to the Day-- + Day, the mighty Giver. + + Pierced by shafts of Time he bleeds, + Melted rubies sending + Through the river and the sky, + Earth and heaven blending; + + All the long-drawn earthly banks + Up to cloud-land lifting: + Slow between them drifts the swan, + 'Twixt two heavens drifting. + + Wings half open, like a flow'r, + Inly deeper flushing, + Neck and breast as Virgin's pure-- + Virgin proudly blushing. + + Day is dying! Float, O swan, + Down the ruby river; + Follow, song, in requiem + To the mighty Giver. + --George Eliot, in the Spanish Gypsy. + + + + +THE AMERICAN EARED GREBE. + +(_Colymbus nigricollis californicus._) + + +The American Eared Grebe belongs to the order of Diving Birds +(Podicipedes) and the family of Grebes (Podicipidae). The order also +includes the loons and auks, having in all about thirty-six species +that frequent North America. Closely related to the loons, the Grebes +differ from them in having the head incompletely feathered near the +nostrils, which are not lobed. The feet also are not completely webbed, +as are those of the loons. + +Owing to the inadequately developed wings, the Grebes are poorly +provided with means for protracted flight. Locomotion on land is +equally difficult, due to their short legs and the fact that they are +inserted far back on the body, necessitating a partially erect position +in walking. However, they are expert swimmers and divers and will, when +alarmed, sink quietly back into the water, swimming long distances +with only the bill above the surface of the water. The popular name +"Hell-diver," by which these birds are frequently known, has reference +to the rapidity with which they dive. + +The apparent lack of a tail and the ruffs, frequently composed of +variously colored feathers, give the grebes a peculiarly characteristic +appearance. The plumage of the breeding season differs greatly from +that of the adult in winter and that of the young. + +The grebes are abundant throughout the world, seemingly preferring +lakes and rivers as a foraging ground rather than the seacoast. + +The American Eared Grebe has an extensive range, including that part +of North America west of the Mississippi Valley and from the Great +Slave Lake south to Guatemala. It breeds in nearly all parts of this +territory. + +A few years since Professor Henshaw published in the American +Naturalist some very interesting facts concerning the nesting habits +of this bird, and they especially well illustrate some of its +characteristics. He says, "In a series of alkali lakes, about thirty +miles northward of Fort Garland, Southern Colorado, I found this +species common and breeding. A colony of perhaps a dozen pairs had +established themselves in a small pond four or five acres in extent. In +the middle of this, in a bed of reeds, were found upwards of a dozen +nests. These in each case merely consisted of a slightly hollowed pile +of decaying weeds and rushes, four or five inches in diameter, and +scarcely raised above the surface of the water upon which they floated. +In a number of instances they were but a few feet distant from the +nests of the coot (Fulica Americana) which abounded. Every Grebe's nest +discovered contained three eggs, which in most instances were fresh, +but in some nests were considerably advanced. These vary but little in +shape, are considerably elongated, one end being slightly more pointed +than the other. The color is a faint yellowish or bluish white, usually +much stained from contact with the nest. The texture is generally quite +smooth, in some instances roughened by a chalky deposit. The eggs were +wholly concealed from view by a pile of weeds and other vegetable +material laid across. That they were thus carefully covered merely for +concealment I cannot think, since, in the isolated position in which +the nests are usually found, the bird has no enemy against which such +precaution would avail. On first approaching the locality, the Grebes +all congregated at the further end of the pond, and shortly betook +themselves through an opening to the neighboring slough; nor, so far +as I could ascertain, did they again approach the nests during my stay +of three days. Is it not, then, possible that they are more or less +dependent for the hatching of their eggs upon artificial heat induced +by the decaying vegetable substances of which the nests are wholly +composed?" + +The food of the Grebe consists of fish to a great extent, which are +dexterously caught while swimming under water. They also feed upon +the insects floating upon the surface, and will, when other food is +lacking, feed upon mollusks. + + [Illustration: AMERICAN EARED GREBE. + (Colymbus nigricollis californicus.) + 1/2 Life-size. + FROM COL CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + + + + +THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES. + + +There are known at the present about twenty thousand species of fishes, +which are distributed throughout the creeks, rivers, lakes, seas and +oceans of the world. A few species of the open sea are cosmopolitan; +the others are more or less restricted in their range. Northern Asia, +Europe and North America have in common a few species of fresh water +fishes. There are many others of close relationship, which indicates a +somewhat common origin of the fish faunas. The same is largely true of +the salt water shore fishes, which live well to the north. The fresh +water fishes of South America, Africa and Australia are all different +from each other, none being even closely related as are those we find +in the countries of the northern hemisphere. + +The fishes of our Atlantic coast are different from those of the +Pacific, very few species being common to both coasts. The fishes of +the Ohio river are entirely different from those of the Columbia, not a +single species being common to both streams. The fishes of the Missouri +river are very different from the Ohio, many of the larger species, as +catfishes, buffalo fishes, black basses, and some of the sun fishes are +common to both rivers. The difference between the fishes of these two +rivers is chiefly in the smaller kinds, which do not migrate to any +great extent, and is greater as you go toward their sources, or confine +yourself to their smaller tributaries. + +There are many reasons why the fishes of one region are not the same as +those we find in another. Some of these reasons we may learn by making +a careful study of the fishes of each region, and their environment. +In addition we must learn all we can about the past history of the +country, finding which streams were formed first, and how they became +inhabited from the old ancient fish faunas of our earlier geological +periods. If you visit streams in the Alleghanies, the Ozarks and the +Black Hills you will find them much alike. All have clear, cool water, +flowing over sand or gravel. The black bass, speckled trout, channel +cat, and the eastern pickerel will live quite as well in streams of +each locality. If you spend a day at each place collecting fishes all +your catch will not be the same species. In the Alleghany region you +will obtain about forty species, and a like number in the Ozarks. Of +these quite one-fourth, or one-fifth, will be the same species, and +the others closely related. A large portion will consist of sunfishes +and very small, perch-like fishes, which are called darters. These are +spiny-rayed fishes; that is, nearly all of the fins are made partly of +strong, sharp spines, such as you find on the back of sunfishes, black +bass and the like. In the streams of the Black Hills you will not find +more than fifteen species, and not more than one or two, if any, will +be the same as in either of the other two catches. There are none of +the spiny-rayed fishes in the Black Hills, and no trout, though the +streams seem in every way well suited for them. The fishes of the Black +Hills consist of two catfishes, four suckers, eight minnows, and one +member of the cod family. Why are there no spiny-rayed fishes? If you +examine a map you will find that the Black Hills is an isolated region, +about seventy-five by one hundred miles in extent. It is covered with +heavy pine forests and drained by a dozen or more good-sized creeks, +which find, through the north and south forks of the Cheyenne, an +outlet into the Missouri river. Surrounding the Black Hills is a broad +plain one hundred or two hundred miles in width. It has no forests, and +only a scant vegetation. Its streams are alkali and contain much solid +matter in suspension. None of these streams flow over rocky or gravelly +beds. Like all the streams of the great plains they are overloaded +with sediment. All the streams can do with this sediment is to deposit +it in places during falling or low water, and in time of freshets, +pick it up, shift it about and redeposit it farther down the stream. +Such streams are like the Platte, narrow and deep in a few places, +but mostly wide and shallow, with a bottom of quicksand. The streams +of the plains have in them but few species of fishes; especially is +this true of the upper Missouri, and these are such species as we find +in the Black Hills. It is thus evident that the fishes of this region +migrated there, and only such fishes as were able or willing to live +in the muddy, alkaline streams of the great plains could have ever +reached the Black Hills. The minnows and suckers are ever preyed upon +by sunfishes, bass and the like, and to escape them evidently sought +retreat in the alkaline water, which was too much disliked by their +enemies for them to follow. Once there and accustomed to such water +they would migrate farther up stream until they reached the clear, cool +streams of the Black Hills. If we compare the fishes of two rivers +whose mouths are near each other, as the Ohio and the Missouri, those +fishes found near the mouths will be the same species and the two river +faunas will differ most as you go toward their sources. On the other +hand, if you select two rivers whose sources are near each other, as +the James and tributaries of the Ohio, then the fish faunas will differ +most as you go towards their mouths. The same is true of the Missouri +and the Columbia. In such cases it often happens that during high water +some fishes are able to pass from the head waters of one river basin to +the other, just as we see the trout from the Columbia at the present +time colonizing the upper Yellowstone through the Two Ocean Pass. Near +the head waters of many mountain streams there is usually a pass, which +contains a strip of meadow land where the small streams from mountains +unite, forming the sources of two great rivers flowing in opposite +directions. This is the case both at the Two Ocean Pass, the source +of the Missouri and the Columbia, and at the point where the Canadian +Pacific Railroad crosses the divide, forming the source of the Frazier +and Saskatchewan rivers. + +Many mountain streams whose sources are at present in no way connected +may have been so at no very remote period. All of our streams which +have their sources within the glaciated area were no doubt connected +as the ice receded. The drainage of Lake Champlain and the lakes in +central New York was southward at the close of the glacial epoch. It +is said that in times of high water one may pass in a skiff from the +head waters of the Mississippi to the Red River of the North. With such +facts before us we can easily understand why the fishes of two rivers +whose sources are near each other should be most nearly alike nearest +the divide. If the two rivers were formed about the same time, as no +doubt were the James and the Ohio, they would naturally have several +species in common. In other words, the two fish faunas will resemble +each other throughout their whole extent. In the case of the Missouri +and the Columbia, the former is much the older stream, and while their +sources have fishes common to both streams, in the lower parts of the +rivers the fish faunas are entirely different. The upper Missouri river +and its tributaries are for the most part inhabited by Rocky Mountain +fishes, practically the same fauna as we find in the Columbia, but few +species characteristic of the Mississippi valley have been able to even +cross the great plains and none have ever passed the Rocky Mountain +divide. + +In the study of the geographical distribution of our fresh water +fishes, we are able to make a few generalizations as follows: Two +rivers in the same latitude, and belonging to the same great drainage +basin, and draining similar areas, will have similar fish faunas. +Thus we find a great similarity in the fishes of the Washita and the +Tennessee rivers, a much greater similarity than we do in the fishes +of the Washita and the Cedar rivers. If the stream is a large one, +the fishes near its source will be much unlike those near its mouth. +The fishes of Minnesota differ greatly from those of Louisiana, +though the drainage of these two States is in the Mississippi river +basin. Limestone streams have in them more species of fishes than do +sandstone. All things being equal, the larger of two or more streams +will contain the most species of fishes. There are few, if any, rivers +as rich in species as the Mississippi river and its tributaries. It +drains one slope of each of our two great mountain systems, besides +an immense area of wood-land and prairie, and numerous swamps and +marshes. Its upper course and many of its upper tributaries lie in +the region once covered by glaciers, though now traversed by great +moraines. Its fishes are as diversified as the area it drains. In its +mountain streams we find such fishes as the trout, darters, minnows +and suckers. In the upland streams are darters, shiners, suckers, +sunfishes and small-mouthed black bass. In the channels of the larger +tributaries are found the large suckers, buffalo fishes, gar pike, +channel catfish, drum, pike and pickerel. The lowland streams contain +the dogfish, pirate perch, some sunfishes, the large-mouthed black +bass, some suckers, catfishes and other species. Minnows, darters, +suckers and sunfishes are found in lowland, upland and mountain +streams, though not the same species in each. These fishes belong to +families which are made up of many species, some being strictly upland, +others strictly lowland, each having a limited range. In the same way +we have fresh water fishes and salt water fishes; some fishes, as the +trout and salmon and eel, live in both salt and fresh water. Many +other fishes, as the killifishes, thrive best in brackish water. Each +species of fishes is best fitted for a particular region into which it +has been forced to live, either to escape its enemies or to be able to +get a living easiest. In its migrations it has moved along lines of +least resistance, and has colonized those streams where Mother Nature +has been able to do the most for it. The darters are small, perch-like +fishes, which seldom exceed a length of six inches, the average being +about three. All are active and swift swimmers and well suited for +a life among the rocks and swift water of our smaller streams. All +countries have small, swift, rocky streams, but few have darters. In +their stead we find loaches, gobies, characins, sculpins, and the like. +These fishes have "become dwarfed and concentrated, taking the place in +their respective habitats which the darters occupy in the waters of the +Mississippi valley. By the same process of 'analogous variation' the +cichlids of South America parallel the sunfishes of the United States, +although in structure and in origin the two groups are diverse." + +Dr. Jordan tells us that the trout of the Pacific coast came to America +from Asia, and gradually spread eastward and southward until now it is +found in all the streams of the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, the +Cascades and the Coast range. It is but a short distance from Kamchatka +to Alaska, and this distance is traveled by trout to this day; once +over, a fish able to spend much of its time in salt water could easily +colonize all our coast streams. Whether or not all of our Pacific trout +are descendants of one species, the cut-throat trout, is more or less +uncertain, though it is quite certain that all have descended from not +more than two or three species. In many places they have been able to +pass from the head waters of one river to that of another, just as they +now pass from the head waters of the Columbia to the Missouri by the +way of Two Ocean Pass. The ancient lakes, Lahontan and Bonneville, no +doubt assisted them in their migrations. Since these have disappeared +each colony has had to remain more or less isolated. In time they +have become somewhat changed, to better adapt themselves to their new +environment. These changes have developed certain peculiar characters, +by means of which we can distinguish one kind of trout from another, +just as the farmer distinguishes his Berkshire from his Poland China. +Spread, as the trout are, over such a large area, in such an immense +variety of streams and lakes, and with a vertical range of over one +thousand feet, we would certainly expect as large a number of species +and varieties of trout to be developed as we find at present in the +streams of our west coast. + +Fishes are found in the deepest parts of the ocean. Some of these +are peculiar to the deep waters, none of the shore fishes resembling +them. On the other hand, many deep sea fishes belong to families well +represented in the shallow water. The flounders are found in water at +all depths, and the same is true of the bat fishes, rock fishes and +other shore fishes. It is easy to understand how these fishes have +found their way to the deep water. It was either to escape their +enemies or to extend their range for some reason; as Mr. Garman puts +it, "They have slid down," as it were to the bottom of the ocean. + +In general, animals migrating will always move along lines of least +resistance. Some deep-sea fishes have a considerable vertical range. It +is thought that some move into shallower water to deposit their eggs or +place their young in warmer water, and where the peculiar kind of food +they need early in life is the most abundant. To study deep sea fishes +is difficult, and so little has been done that we not only know them +imperfectly but also know very little concerning their life histories. + +In February, March and April of 1891 the United States Fish Commission +steamer Albatross explored a portion of the region between the +coasts of Mexico and Central America and the Galapagos Archipelago. +Besides obtaining a large number of shore fishes, about nine hundred +specimens of fishes were secured, ranging from a depth of one hundred +to twenty-two hundred and twenty-three fathoms. This collection was +carefully studied by Professor Garman, of Harvard. He found the +collection to contain one hundred and eighty species, eighty-five +per cent. of which were new to science. The bottoms of the oceans +are far from level, and each deep basin has its own peculiar fauna. +The shallower parts of the sea prevent migration of the deep water +forms and no doubt living as they do in eternal darkness and in a +temperature near the freezing point, there is little to induce them +to much activity. The fact that they are easily captured in nets of +comparatively small size would indicate that they move about slowly. + +Dr. Jenkins, who has lately studied the fishes of the Sandwich Islands, +informs me that less than five per cent. are found on our American +coast, while a large per cent. is found all the way to the Red sea. +In other words, the fishes of the Sandwich Islands are East Indian +rather than American. This is no doubt caused from the fact that the +deep water between the islands of the American coast forms a barrier +which has always prevented the two fish faunas from mingling with each +other. Between Africa and the Sandwich Islands this has not been the +case. A recent study of the fishes of the Galapagos Archipelago shows +its fauna to be American, though in what respect its fishes differ from +those of our west coast they resemble all the more the fishes of the +Sandwich Islands. Two fish faunas will usually differ from each other +if separated by an impassable barrier; especially is this true if the +barrier be older than the two faunas. + +Any barrier which prevents or hinders fishes in their movements from +one body of water to another will separate two more or less well-marked +fish faunas. These barriers may be mountains, or shallow water, as in +the case of deep sea fishes; deep water, as in case of shore fishes; +muddy or alkaline water, or water of different temperature. Temperature +no doubt has far more influence in governing the movement of fishes +than is generally believed. It plays an important part in guiding +salmon up stream to their spawning beds. It explains why they reach the +head waters of some streams and spawn earlier than in similar streams +not far distant, but of different temperature. If you would know to +what extent fishes of one region differ from those of another, study +well the barriers between the two regions, learn to what extent and +how long they have existed, consider the age geologically of the two +regions, and how fishes may have migrated to one or the other, and in +a general way you will have the key to the situation, which a careful +study of the fishes is quite sure to verify. + + Seth E. Meek. + + + + + [Illustration: LOUISIANA TANAGER. + (Piranga ludoviciana.) + Life-size. + FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +THE LOUISIANA TANAGER. + +(_Piranga ludoviciana._) + + +The family of Tanagers is remarkable for the number of species, the +gaudy coloring of many and the interesting fact that they are confined +to the Americas and the adjacent islands. Dr. Ridgway says, "that +the five families of Neotropical birds, which are represented by the +greatest number of species, are absolutely peculiar to America, these +families being the Tanagers, Tyrant Flycatchers, Wood-hewers, Ant +Thrushes and Humming-birds. None of these families have even true +representatives in any part of the Old World." + +The family of Tanagers includes approximately three hundred and eighty +species, of which not more than ten per cent. have a range extending +as far north as Southern Mexico, and only four, or at the most five, +species are known to the United States. Of these only two, the Scarlet +Tanager and the Summer Red-bird, are generally known as far north as +Canada. + +The Tanagers make their home in the trees, and, being of a retiring +disposition, are more numerous within the bounds of the forest. During +the breeding season they retire still further into the interior. No +wonder that they are more numerous in tropical regions, where the +luxuriant foliage of the forests furnishes them with a safe retreat, +and where there is an abundance of food suited to their taste. This +tendency to avoid the society of man has made the study of their +habits much more difficult, and but little has been recorded except +that which pertains to the more northern forms. + +The food is chiefly insects, especially in the larval form, and +berries. To some extent they also feed upon the buds of flowers. +Mr. Chapman tells us that "the tropical species are of a roving +disposition, and wander through the forests in search of certain trees +bearing ripe fruit, near which they may always be found in numbers." +Their nests are shallow and the eggs, usually three to five in number, +are greenish-blue in color, speckled with brown and purple. + +The Louisiana Tanager is a Western species, ranging from British +Columbia on the north to Guatemala on the south, and from the Missouri +river to the Pacific coast. Our illustration well represents the +male. The female, like its sister tanagers, is plainly colored, but +still beautiful. It is olive green, with the underside yellowish. +The feathers of the wings and tail are brown, edged with olive. It +resembles the female Scarlet Tanager. The young are at first like the +female. Then appears the black of the back, mixed with some olive and a +slight tinge of red on the head. + +It would seem that its name is a misnomer, as it is not found in the +State of Louisiana. + + + + +CHATTER OF A CHAT. + + +I'm the "Chat." You've heard me if you haven't seen me. But there +isn't a better lookin' bird in our wood, either. My olive-green coat +is a beauty. My yellow satin vest would dazzle your eyes. And my white +china spectacles are heirlooms in our family. My wife dresses just +as handsome as I do. I'm a prey to high spirits. Some folk call me +a "wag." Don't know what that is, but I don't see the use in bein' +doleful. Why, when I get back from Mexico, I feel obliged to holler. So +I just holler. The way old Mother Earth rigs up in the Spring makes me +full of life. I get down and cool my legs in the deep grass. It brings +my appetite back a-whizzin'. My! If I don't eat a thousand bugs a day. +"Juicy" don't describe 'em. Then I climb a tree-top and holler. If I +eat a thousand bugs seems like I have to give two thousand hollers. +I holler straight through a moonlight night. You see, I hate to let +old Whippoorwill think he's the only bird alive. Mornin' after folks +stop talkin' 'bout how bad they slept and say, "What's that?" somebody +says, "That's the Chat." Then they always laugh. And I laugh, too--a +very Falstaffian laugh, as if I'se shakin' great fat sides out of their +accordion plaits. Then I give a beautiful whistle. And they say, "Now, +what's that?" The fellow I know says, "That's the Chat." Then I give a +surprised whistle, just as if you stepped on a tack or took a drink of +red-hot coffee. And they say, "And what's that?" And the wise man says, +"That's the Chat again." Well, says the other fellow, "I'll never know +that bird." But the bad sleeper says, "Well, you would if he kept you +awake all last night as he did me. He never knows when to stop." But +even that fellow will never know when I've said my last word! + +These rag folks are awful stupids, anyhow. I call 'em "blunderers." +Do more harm than good wherever they're at. My wife knits our house +among thorns just to plague 'em. They hate to get their rags torn. +Then they'd better keep scarce of our door. If it ain't in blackberry +jungles it's in catbrier tangles. I could yarn from sun-up to sundown +'bout how rag folks come blunderin' round interferin'. Barrin' o cat's, +they've got the most meddlesome forefeet I ever saw. But it ain't +often they find us. Cause why? We keep still. Our next-door neighbor's +Dame Indigo. Can't a body go by she don't pop up scoldin' like a house +afire. Then they blunder round till they find her nest-eggs, too! Lots +of other feather-heads just like her! There's Topknot Cardnal makes +such a fuss anybody'd know he's got something to hide. Sure enough, +he's had such lots of kin behind the bars it makes him scary. But I'd +show more pluck, anyhow. + +Once this summer a blunderer smarter'n common came along by us. We had +a nice place, too, in a dreadful blackberry tangle. A small sassafras +threw a nice shadow over it when the sun got hot. Well, I shut up +quick, I tell you. Was just tellin' Mrs. Chat a few things while she +kep' an eye on our four eggs like. We kep' still as mice. But didn't +that blunderin' rags march right up to our door and push and scratch +till she saw what we had? Had a little rag blunderer with her. An' she +held her up to look in, too. Every single feather we had stood on end! +It was good riddance when they went along. Couldn't believe my specs +when I saw they had left our eggs alone. Seven suns after, big rags +came back. We're in a peck o' trouble. Our four bairns just out the +shell. We both had to scratch round with all our toes to feed and keep +'em breathin'. Been rainin' for a solid week. Dame Chat said she just +knew they'd get a chill and die. But the blunderin' party didn't stay +long. + +Well, sir, we hadn't got rid of that blunderer yet. The nex' time she +brought another, bigger one, along. Both crowded up and looked in +our door. You never saw such beauties as our bairns that day. Just +gettin' so plump and featherin' right along. But it meant a sight o' +work for us. They just sat and took in every mouthful we could rake +and scrape. They kep' us busy. Well, when these blunderin' rags shook +the house the bairns all up and spread their jaws wide open. Rags +thought it was awful cute, but I'm thankful they didn't offer to feed +'em anything. Did bad enough, anyhow. Big one said, "Why don't you +take their picture?" First rags said she couldn't. Second rags said +she'd try, anyhow. With that, first rags began to snap off our best +defenses--without so much as by your leave. They scratched her good, +anyhow; for she said so. Well, she put some kind of square black gun +right up to our door. Dame Chat went into hysterics and those little +Chats just boiled over like a teakettle and went out the nest in four +different directions! The two blunderers went off in a hurry, both +talkin' at once and one suckin' her paw. Thankful to say ain't ever +seen 'em since. But Dame Chat's a nervous wreck from the fright they +gave her; and I'm worked to skin and bone takin' care of the little +Chats. I just wish all the town's fenced in so's blunderers couldn't +get loose to meddle round in their bunglin', elephant, rhinoceros way! + + Elizabeth Nunemacher. + + * * * * * + + He comes--he comes--the Frost Spirit comes! You may trace his + footsteps now + On the naked woods and the blasted fields, and the brown hill's + withered brow. + + He has smitten the leaves of the gray old trees where their + pleasant green came forth, + And the winds, which follow wherever he goes, have shaken them down + to earth. + --John Greenleaf Whittier. + + + + +THE LUNA AND POLYPHEMUS MOTHS. + + +The two silk-worm moths which we figure this month both possess a point +of excellence far in advance of any other of our native silk-worm +moths; Luna on account of its graceful form and delicate colors, and +Polyphemus for the silk of its cocoons. + +It seems that most persons who speak of the Luna moth (Tropaea luna) +feel called upon to give a more or less poetic description of it. This, +I hope, has been rendered unnecessary by the colored plate, so that it +will suffice simply to mention that the beautiful shade of green is of +very rare occurrence among our larger moths, and that no other has the +long, graceful "tails" on the hind wings, a characteristic which adds +greatly to the beauty of this insect. + +This moth does not seem to be very abundant anywhere, but when once +seen will long be remembered on account of its great beauty. The green +and yellow colors are evidently very closely related, because either +one may, to a greater or less degree, replace the other, so that some +of the moths have quite a strong, yellowish tinge. One of our common +swallow-tail butterflies (Iphiclides ajax) possesses a very similar +green color in its wings, but does not seem to show this tendency to +replace the green by yellow. On the wings are four eyespots which +are also found in Polyphemus. These are remarkable in that they are +transparent in the center. This clear area in Luna is quite small, +while in Polyphemus it is about as large as the entire eye spot of +Luna. The legs are brown and colored like the front edge of the fore +wings. The hairs on the body and at the base of the wing are very +long and are white or yellow. The wing expanse ranges from three and +three-fourths to five and one-half inches. + +During April or May the mother moth lays her dark-brown or +chocolate-colored eggs upon hickory, walnut, beech, oak, and a few +others of our forest trees. The limited number of food plants is +doubtless one reason for the rarity of the moths, as compared with such +a common and almost omnivorous larva as Cecropia. A single moth may lay +about one hundred eggs, which are smaller than those of Polyphemus. +These hatch in about ten or fifteen days, the larva making its escape +by eating a circular hole in the shell. Occasionally a young larva may +be seen crawling about for a short time, carrying upon its head or tail +the empty shell. + +The adult larva is about three inches long, of a delicate pale green, a +color very difficult to preserve in the dead larva. Those on the plate +have lost this delicate green and have become yellow, but show the form +perfectly. This larva is very much like that of Polyphemus, but may be +distinguished from it by possessing a longitudinal pale yellow lateral +line, which is not found in Polyphemus. Since the cocoon is quite thin +and contains but little silk, it is considered of but little value. +This cocoon is spun among two or three weaves, and is about two inches +long. Some authors claim that the cocoon falls to the ground with +the autumnal falling of the leaves; others that it transforms on the +ground among the fallen leaves. The cocoon is quite similar to that of +Polyphemus, but not so firmly attached when fixed to a stem. The moths +emerge in April and May, there being only a single brood in the +north, while there are two in the south. + + [Illustration: LUNA MOTH. + (Tropaea luna.) + Adult Male. Pupa. Adult Female. + Larva. Cocoon. + + POLYPHEMUS MOTH. + (Telea polyphemus.) + Pupa. + Adult Male. Eggs on Maple Leaf. Adult Female. + About 1/2 Life-size. + Larva. Cocoon. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +The color of the cocoon seems to be influenced in some way by the kind +of food eaten by the larva. Cocoons made by larva which have been fed +on hickory leaves have a darker color. In the true silk worm moth this +same influence has been noticed; larvae fed upon the vine producing +red cocoons, on lettuce emerald green cocoons, while those fed upon +white nettle produce yellow, green or violet cocoons. It is necessary +in order to procure these results, that the larvae be fed upon the +mulberry till about twenty days before the formation of the cocoon. + +Polyphemus. The life history of this native silk worm (Telea +polyphemus) is by far the best known, because many years ago it was +very carefully studied with the hope that it would prove an important +silk insect. This hope unfortunately has not been realized. + +The moths, as shown by the plate, are really beautiful; the large eye +spots on the hind wings contributing much towards this effect. The +transparent, window-like centers in the eye spot are also of quite rare +occurrence among our moths. These transparent areas do not possess the +very minute scales found on the other parts of the wing. Almost all +of the wonderful variety of colors found in the wings of butterflies +and moths are due either to coloring matter in these scales, or to +the breaking up of the white light by minute lines on these scales, +such as are seen in the play of colors on a soap-bubble. These +fine lines on the scales are only on the upper side, and are about +one-sixteen-thousandth of an inch apart. + +The eggs of Polyphemus are very much flattened, about the size of those +of Cecropia, and are deposited on leaves and twigs singly or in small +groups. These hatch in about ten days and usually in the morning. The +young larva often devours the shell which a few moments before afforded +it shelter. This larva feeds upon oak, hickory, apple, maple, elm and a +variety of other trees, and thus has a larger range of food plants than +the Luna larva. The rate of growth is prodigious, as has been shown by +Mr. Trovelot. When the larva hatches it weighs about one-twentieth of +a grain; in ten days it weighs one-half of a grain, or ten times its +original weight; in twenty days it weighs three grains, or sixty times +its original weight; when a month old it weighs thirty-one grains, or +six hundred and twenty times its original weight, and has consumed +about ninety grains of food; after fifty days it weighs two hundred +and seven grains, or over four thousand times the original weight. +At fifty-six days the larva has eaten eighty-six thousand times its +original weight in food! It is therefore not surprising that these +larvae can often be easily detected upon trees by the large number of +leaves which they have devoured. + +To provide for this great change in size, the larva moults five times, +but the time between these moults is not always the same; there is +usually about ten days between the first four moults and about twenty +between the fourth and fifth. The larva stops eating a day before the +moult, spins a few threads upon the leaf to which it attaches its hind +legs, and waits for the transformation, which usually takes place in +the afternoon. The larva, when mature and ready to spin its cocoon, is +about three inches long. It is sometimes influenced in its color by the +food plant; the normal larva being of a golden green, although it has +been known to show more yellow coloring when found on red maple. + +A short time before beginning its cocoon the larva ceases to eat and +selects a place for its cocoon. These cocoons are usually found upon +the ground among the leaves, but are frequently attached to twigs. +After about a half day's work the larva spreads over the inside of the +cocoon a gummy, resinous substance, which binds together the threads. +After four or five days more of almost continuous work, another coating +is smeared over the inside, which renders the cocoon practically +air-tight. The silk fibres become considerably finer as the cocoon +nears completion and the supply of silk begins to run low. For this +reason the inner layers of the cocoon are only about half as strong as +the outer ones. The larva, as the supply of silk diminishes in the +silk glands, becomes perceptibly reduced in size. It has been estimated +that the larva, in attaching the continuous thread of its cocoon, makes +two hundred and fifty-four thousand back and forward movements. The +cocoons are very strong and dense, of a dirty white color and generally +coated with a white powder, the female being the larger. + +There is but a single brood in the north, while in the south there are +two. + +In order to see if the pupa needed air, Mr. Trovelot sealed up some +cocoons over winter in shellac, but the moths emerged in due time +after being in an air-tight space for nine months. He also delayed the +emergence of the moth till twenty-one months after entering the cocoon +by placing it upon ice. + +The silk in the spinning glands before it is spun is a clear, +transparent fluid. These glands seem to be of excessive size when +compared with that of the larva, since, when fully expanded, they reach +the great length of twenty-five inches, or about eight times the length +of the full-grown larva. These glands are paired, one being found on +each side of the body, are considerably folded and taper at each end. +The ducts leading from the anterior end of the glands unite to form a +single duct which opens below the mouth. The thread is double, being +really composed of two different fibres, one from each gland, as may +be shown by separating them. The silk in these glands is prepared and +sold as silk "gut" to anglers. On account of its transparency when in +water, it becomes invisible and thus aids in deluding the wary fish, +who does not see any connection between the line and the baited hook. +The "gut" is prepared as follows: Larvae which are ready to spin their +cocoons are cut open and placed in strong vinegar for eighteen hours; +the glands are then taken out, stretched and dried in the shade. + +Six or eight days after beginning the cocoon, the larval skin is +moulted and the real chrysalic or pupal stage begins. This stage +normally lasts till the following spring or summer. A few days before +the time of emergence a pair of glands which open into the mouth become +very active and secrete an acidulated fluid which escapes and wets +the fore end of the cocoon, causing the resinous material binding +together the fibres to become soft. Even cocoons sealed up in shellac +and starch have been dissolved by this fluid, and thus the moths have +been able to escape. When the cocoon has become sufficiently soft, the +moth pushes its way between the fibres, but in doing so often breaks +some of the threads, thus making the silk of such cocoons useless for +commercial purposes. The moth at the time of emergence, with its folded +and crumpled wings, is quite a forlorn-looking object. These wilted +wings soon begin to fill up with fluids from the body, which is very +large at this time. In some cases, the fluid is driven into the wings +with so much force that they swell up, and if such a wing is punctured, +thus allowing some of the fluid to escape, the mature wing will be of +a smaller size than one from which no fluid has been lost. It must be +remembered that it is possible to inflate a butterfly or moth's wing, +because the wings of insects are not composed of a single layer, but +are sacs of two layers which are closely applied. It is thus possible +to split the wing into upper and lower halves, but this can only be +done at the time of emergence, when these two layers are not so firmly +cemented together as they are in a few hours after emergence. + +The enemies of Polyphemus are numerous. Birds prey upon the larvae, in +addition to numerous parasitic insects which are very similar to those +which destroy Cecropia. The cocoon itself is not a complete protection +because rats and squirrels plunder them. We thus see that the life of +even an insect is full of dangers, and that it is really a wonder that +so many are able to become mature and reproduce. + +The silk-worm moths are excellent illustrations of what is called +complete metamorphosis in insects. An insect like the grasshopper, when +it hatches from the egg, is very much like the adult insect in its +general form and appearance; the most evident difference being the lack +of wings. An insect which shows such slight changes in its growth to +maturity is said to have an incomplete metamorphosis. It is incomplete +in the sense that the change is not of a very radical nature. But +in the case of the silk worm moths, and moths and butterflies in +general, the larva which hatches from the eggs has not even the most +superficial resemblance to the adult insect, the fully-developed moth. +This necessitates a complete change or metamorphosis in the form and +structure of the insect before it can become mature. This great change +is accomplished during the quiet pupal stage in the cocoon. Because +the pupa is apparently passive when viewed from the exterior, one must +not conclude that it is so internally; far from it; the digestive +organs of the larva must be completely made over from those of a +chewing leaf eater to those of a moth which can only take liquid food. + + Charles Christopher Adams. + + + + +CASTLES IN THE AIR. + + +In a little bend of the San Joaquin River, where the current, +attempting to straighten its course, has left a bank a few feet wide, +there is a small grove of tall cottonwood trees, perhaps a dozen in +number, whose branches lean far over the stream and whose tops reach +almost to the level of the bluff or rather the floor of the valley 250 +feet above, for this swift river has, in the course of ages, cut thus +deep a channel for itself. + +The place is not easy of access, for the shore narrows above and below +the bend to a few inches where one with difficulty keeps from crumbling +away the sand with his feet and falling into the water, and the cliff +is so nearly perpendicular that in many places it is inaccessible to a +climber, being of soft sand whose different stratas are clearly defined +where they have been sliced off by the cutting stream. + +The valley above is a vast grainfield out almost to the edge of the +bluff, and along the edge and face of the bluff, wherever root can +cling or tendril hold, grow beautiful wild flowers in the early spring +days--their last refuge between the cultivation and the deep sea, or +rather, river. + +In the tops of the cottonwoods live a number of baronial families in +castles huge, gray and ugly, overlooking the sweep of the stream. They +are the Great Blue Herons whose Latin title, (Ardea herodias), gives +one some idea of their ancient lineage. They claim to be older than the +storks of Egypt, and indeed, they look older as they stand humpbacked +and sleepy on one leg by the side of their nests, the long fringe of +light-speckled neck feathers underneath looking like a long gray beard +sweeping over their recurved neck and breast. There is a wise look +about them, too, for the black markings of the head sweep back over the +eye and prolong into the appearance of a quill extending behind their +ears. + +Though they are almost four feet long and spread their wings to six +feet and over, the herons' large blue-grey bodies are often almost +indistinguishable from the bark of the cottonwood branches and the +blue of the sky against which they are silhouetted so oddly. One's +eyes open with astonishment when these sticks or excrescences of the +tree-tops slowly unfold an enormous sweep of sail and, extending their +long stilts behind them, flap off across the stream with a creaking +sound like the pulleys of a vessel when the halliards are running +through them. Standing or flapping they are not handsome birds and +one who comes suddenly upon a large heron for the first time as he +stands in the shallow water of the brookside, will be convulsed with +laughter, for if there is an utterly clumsy and awkward form or motion +in bird-life it belongs to this heron. + +Their homes are big baskets of nests made of twigs as large as a man's +finger, closely intermeshed. From year to year they use the same nest +or build over it until it has two or three stories or more and is +bigger than a bushel basket. There are probably two dozen nests in the +dozen cottonwood trees, some of the larger trees having three or four +or even six away up in their tops where the branches seem scarcely +strong enough to bear such heavy burdens. From the top of the bluff one +can look down into the nests and in early March see the big blue eggs, +almost as large as hens' eggs, reposing like amethysts in their rough +brown setting. Some authors state that not over three eggs are laid, +but I have seen four about as often as three and, on one occasion, +five in a nest. + +From their high-placed towers the herons watch the small fry in the +river below and make forays among the young trout, pike and catfish and +the frogs. They listen to the complaining voices in the twilight and in +the morning give them cause for still further complainings. They keep +in terror the big wood rats whose homes in the clumps of elder berries +below surpass in size those of the herons. And the gophers and field +mice of the grain fields never know at what moment an ungainly shadow +shall fall upon them and end their harvestings. There was a conceited +young frog who sang loud and shrill at sunset on the edge of the river +and who had an ambition to be, not an ox like the one in the fable, but +a Patti. And she had her wish after a fashion, for that connoisseur, +the heron who dwelt on the farthest branch over the water, attracted by +her vocal abilities, sought her out, and the little herons thought her +the nicest _paté de foie gras_ they had ever eaten. + +There they dwell, this ancient race of high-born philosophers, stalking +the shallows of sunny baylets, or dreaming in the breeze of the +tree-tops of traditions old as the sequoias. What an authority would +you and I be if we could read the unwritten history of their race! + + Charles Elmer Jenny. + + * * * * * + + Boughs are daily rifled + By the gusty thieves, + And the Book of Nature + Getteth short of leaves. + --Hood, "The Seasons." + + + + + [Illustration: PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE. + (Antilocapra americana.) + Greatly reduced. + FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE. + +(_Antilocapra americana._) + + +The antelope family comprises many of the most beautiful and graceful +species among horned animals. When we behold the curiously twisted +horns of the sasin, the long, sharp horns of the pasan, the large, +spiral horns of the koodoo and the shorter horns of the eland, not to +mention the graceful bodies and limbs of these animals, we are led to +wonder at the extravagance of nature in furnishing such a variety of +appendages to these creatures. + +By far the larger number of species of this family live in Africa and +Asia, where they have reached the highest development of structure. +They are not, like some families of mammals, confined to any one +particular locality, but are found on the plains and high up on the +mountains; in a country sparsely covered with vegetation and in the +thick forests; in marshes and bogs. In fact, they seem to inhabit all +varieties of country. While the family is thus diversified in habitat, +the different species are by no means so widely distributed, for while +some species, like the sasin, live only on the open plains, others, +like the chamois, live high up on the mountains, frequently above the +snow-line. + +The subject of our sketch, the Prong-horned antelope (Antilocapra +americana), is not as large nor so strikingly horned as the other +animals which have been mentioned. In fact, so different is its +structure, having hollow, pronged horns which do not increase by +continuous growth, as do those of the true antelopes, but are shed like +those of the deer family, and having a somewhat different structure of +feet and different texture of hair, that a family has been made for it +known as Antilocapridae. + +The Prong-horn ranges throughout the western part of North America from +the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean, and from the Saskatchewan +river south to the Rio Grande. It is not confined to the plains, but +has been found in the wild valleys of the Rocky mountains to a height +of over eight thousand feet above sea level. + +The daily life of this interesting animal is thus described by +Canfield, who made an exhaustive study of them and who also kept +them in captivity: "From the first of September to the first of +March one always sees them in larger groups composed of bucks, does +and yearlings. Shortly afterward the does individually retire from +these herds and give birth to their young. After a short interval +they again unite with other suckling does and their little calves, +possibly with a view to common defense against the wolf and coyotes. +The adult bucks roam about singly or two together, leaving the mothers +with their latest progeny to their fate, the young Prong-horns in the +meantime gathering in groups of their own apart from the older animals. +Apparently tired of the world and bored by society the old bucks +wander about for one or two months, frequenting localities in which +they are not ordinarily seen. Two or three months subsequently the +adolescent bucks again join the old does and their calves, and finally +the old bucks also put in an appearance, so that one can observe herds, +numbering hundreds, or sometimes even thousands, after the first of +September. A herd never leaves its native locality or roams over more +than a few miles of range. In dry summer weather they seek water and go +to drink regularly once a day or twice in three days; but if the grass +is fresh and green, as is the case during the greater part of the year, +the Prong-horns do not drink at all." + +The food of the antelope consists to a great extent of the short, +succulent herbage of the prairie, of moss, and also, to a limited +extent, of the young and tender branches of trees. Like many other +ruminants, this animal is passionately fond of salt and they will +remain about saline deposits for many hours, satisfying themselves by +licking the salty ground. + +The antelope is the swiftest runner of any animal in North America, +though perhaps less agile and speedy than some of its relatives in the +old world. It has been said by competent observers that so swiftly do +they run that it is absolutely impossible to distinguish their limbs. + +The senses of the antelope are unusually developed. Their sight is +exceedingly keen and their hearing very acute. Their sense of smell +is so well developed that no danger can possibly approach from the +windward side. When a herd is feeding, sentinels are placed on the +outskirts to scent any impending danger, and to give due warning to the +herd. Their curiosity is one of their most peculiar qualities and seems +to overshadow every other sense. + +For a number of years this graceful animal has been considered royal +game for the sportsman and a good round-up of antelopes is considered a +great achievement among hunters. Mr. G. O. Shields, in his interesting +book, "Hunting in the Great West," very vividly describes a hunt for +antelopes, and we cannot better illustrate the peculiarities of the +animal than by giving his pen sketch: + +"We had heard from some ranchmen along the way that the buffalo herd +was at this time grazing about fifteen to twenty miles up the Big +Porcupine, and knowing that antelopes are nearly always found hanging +on the outskirts of every large herd of bison, we were on the look-out +for them, for it would not seem at all strange to find them near the +stage trail on which we were traveling. We scanned the country closely +with the field glass and were finally rewarded by seeing a number +of small white spots on the dead grass away up the Porcupine, that +seemed to be moving. We rode toward them at a lively trot for perhaps a +mile, and then stopped to reconnoitre again. From this point we could +plainly distinguish them, though they looked to be about the size of +jack rabbits. We again put the rowels to our donkeys and rode rapidly +up to within about a mile of them, when we picketed our animals in a +low swale, took out our antelope flag--a piece of scarlet calico about +half a yard square--attached it to the end of my wiping stick, and were +ready to interview the antelopes. + +"I crawled to the top of a ridge within plain view of the game, and +planted my flag. The breeze spread it out, kept it fluttering, and +it soon attracted their attention. They were then near the bank of +the river, grazing quietly, but this bit of colored rag excited their +curiosity to a degree that rendered them restive, anxious, uneasy, and +they seemed at once to be seized with an insatiable desire to find out +what it was. An antelope has as much curiosity as a woman, and when +they see any object that they don't quite understand, they will travel +miles and run themselves into all kinds of danger to find out what it +is. They have been known to follow an emigrant or freight wagon with +a white cover several miles, and an Indian brings them within reach +of his arrow by standing in plain view wrapped in his red blanket. +Some hunters "flag" them by lying down on their back, holding one foot +as high as possible, and swinging it to and fro. A piece of bright +tin or a mirror answers the same purpose on a clear day. Almost any +conspicuous or strange-looking object will attract them, but the most +convenient, as well as the most reliable at all times, is the little +red flag, such as we employed in this instance. + +"Huffman went to the top of another ridge, to my right and some +distance in advance, and Jack crawled into a hollow on the left, and +well in advance, we three forming a half circle, into which it was our +intention if possible to decoy the game. When they first discovered +our flag they moved rapidly toward it, sometimes breaking into a trot, +but when they had covered half the distance between us and their +starting point, they began to grow suspicious and stopped. They circled +around, turned back, walked a few steps, and then paused and looked +back at the, to them, mysterious apparition. But they could not resist +its magic influence. Again they turned and came toward it, stopped, +and gazed curiously at it. The old buck who led the herd stamped +impatiently, as if annoyed at being unable to solve the mystery. Then +they walked cautiously toward us again, down an incline into a valley, +which took them out of our sight, and out of sight of the flag. This +of course rendered them still more impatient, and when they again came +in sight on the next ridge, they were running. But as soon as their +leader caught sight of the flag, he stopped, as did the others in +their turn when they reached the top of the ridge. There were seven in +the herd, two bucks, three does and two fawns. They were now not more +than a hundred yards from me, and still less from the other two of our +party. Their position was everything we could wish, and though we might +possibly have brought them a few yards nearer, there was a possibility +of their scenting us, even across the wind, which, of course, we had +arranged to have in our favor, and I decided that rather than run the +risk of this and the consequent stampede, I would shoot while I had a +good chance. It had been arranged that I was to open the ball, so I +drew my peep and globe sights down very finely, taking the white breast +of the old buck for my bull's-eye, and pulled. Huffman's Kennedy and +Jack's carbine paid their compliments to the pretty visitors at almost +the same instant, and for about two or three minutes thereafter we +fanned them about as vigorously as ever a herd got fanned under similar +circumstances. The air was full of leaden missiles; the dry dust raised +under and around the fleeing herd as it does when a team trots over a +dusty road. Clouds of smoke hung over us, and the distant hills echoed +the music of our artillery until the last white rump disappeared in the +cottonwoods on the river bank. + +"When the smoke of battle cleared away, and we looked over the field, +we found that we had not burned our powder in vain. Five of the little +fellows, the two bucks and three does, had fallen victims to their +curiosity. The two fawns had, strangely enough, escaped, probably only +because they, so much smaller than their parents, were less exposed." + +The antelope have a curious way of protecting their young, when on the +open prairie. This is accomplished by placing a ring of sharp-pointed +cacti about a spot which has been beaten smooth by their hoofs. Inside +this ample protection the animal cares for its young and secures +ingress and egress for itself by jumping over the ring of cacti. This +serves to protect them from the majority of their foes, which inhabit +the open country. + +The antelope does not thrive well in captivity, the older ones soon +killing themselves in their attempts to escape. The young taken soon +after their birth generally die early, unless very special care is +bestowed upon them, and even if they survive the juvenile state, they +are very likely to die when three or four months old, from pyaemic +sores or inflammation of the limbs. + + + + +PLANT PROTECTION. + + +In the last number of this journal it was shown how plants seek to +avoid the visits of unsuitable insects to their flowers. This is one +means of protection, but there are many others which are even more +striking and vital. It is supposed by many that plants are helpless +beings, which must submit to all sorts of unfavorable conditions which +come upon them. This is far from true, for while plants as a rule are +fixed and unable to escape from danger by flight, still they have very +many ways of helping themselves. + +Prominent among the dangers which come to active green plants are +those which arise from too intense light, which may destroy the +delicate working substances. Since the leaves are the great working +organs in the manufacture of food, they are especially equipped for +protection. Those leaves which must work in exposed places have many +details of structure which are evidently for guarding them against +the ill effects of too intense light. The most striking adaptations, +however, are those which have to do with protective positions. Under +ordinary circumstances leaves are placed so that their flat faces are +exposed to the most intense light. In some cases this is so great a +danger that the leaves are set edgewise, the edges being directed +upwards and downwards. When a plant assumes this habit, the leaves are +said to be in a profile position, and the plants are sometimes called +"compass plants." The latter name has come from the fact that such +leaves usually point north or south, and once it was assumed that this +position was in response to some mysterious magnetic influence. It is +found, however, that it is merely an effort on the part of the plant +to protect its leaves from the intense light of midday, and at the +same time to expose them to the morning and evening rays of much less +intensity. If a leaf is to be placed with its edge upwards and its flat +faces east and west, it follows of necessity that it will point either +north or south. + +Some leaves, however, have the power of shifting their position +according to their needs, directing their flat surfaces toward the +light, or more or less inclining them according to the danger. +Perhaps the most completely adapted leaves of this kind are those +of the "sensitive plants," whose leaves respond to various external +influences by changing their positions. The sensitive plants abound +in dry and hot regions, and one of the best known is represented in +our illustration. It will be noticed that the leaves of this Mimosa +are divided into very numerous small leaflets, which stretch in pairs +along the leaf branches. When the time of intense light and dryness +approaches some of the pairs of leaflets fold together, slightly +reducing the surface exposure. As the unfavorable condition continues, +more leaflets fold together, then still others, until finally all the +leaflets may be folded together, and the leaves themselves may bend +against the stem. It is like a sailing vessel gradually taking in sail +as a storm approaches, until finally nothing is exposed, and the vessel +weathers the storm by presenting only bare poles. These are but a few +illustrations of the very numerous devices for escaping too intense +light and the dangers which accompany it. + + [Illustration: SENSITIVE PLANT. + Awake. (Mimosa pudica.) Asleep. + PLANTS PRESENTED BY LINCOLN PARK COMMISSIONERS. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +One common danger in temperate regions comes from the lowering of the +temperature each night, which sometimes may chill the living substances +to the danger point. This is particularly dangerous to seedlings, whose +tender structures have not yet developed the ordinary protective +coats. In the spring the seed leaves of numerous seedlings may be seen +at the approach of night to rise upward and come together, just as the +palms of the hand may be placed together over one's head. This reduces +the surface of exposure and the danger of chill at least one-half. +Darwin experimented upon these seedlings, and discovered that by +preventing some of the seed leaves from moving, the seedlings were +seriously injured. The leaves of very many plants assume a peculiar +night position which tends to meet the danger of loss of heat. Often +the three leaflets of the common clover, if growing in an exposed +place, may be observed to fold together into a sort of tent-like +arrangement. + +Many plants are also observed to protect themselves against rain, as +it is necessary for leaves to avoid becoming wet. If the water is +allowed to soak in, the work of the leaves is at once interfered with. +Hence it will be noticed that most leaves are able to shed water, +partly by their position, partly by their structure. In many plants +the leaves are so arranged that the water runs off toward the stem; in +other plants the rain is shed outwards as from the eaves of a house. +Some of the structures which prevent the rain from soaking in are a +smooth epidermis, layers of cuticle, hairy coverings, etc. Interesting +experiments may be performed with different leaves to test their power +of shedding water. If a gentle spray be allowed to play upon different +plants it will be observed that the water glances off at once from the +surfaces of some leaves, runs off more slightly from others, and may be +more or less retained by others. + +Perhaps the most general preparation for protection in our region is +that which is made for the coming of the winter's cold. In many cases +plants do not attempt to protect their delicate structures from the +severity of winter, but disappear entirely, leaving only well-protected +seeds to carry them over into the next growing season. This results in +the so-called "annual habit," which has been learned by many plants +in order to escape a season of danger. Other plants do not disappear +so completely, but everything above the surface of the ground dies, +while the plant continues in the form of underground bulbs, tubers, +or various thickened structures. This habit of seeking a subterranean +retreat at the approach of some dangerous season is a very good one, +and is found in many of our early spring plants. This subterranean +habit has a great advantage over the annual habit, since a seed is very +slow in bringing the plant back again, while a bulb can produce its +plant very rapidly. + +Still other plants preserve more of their structures than either the +annuals or the ground-loving plants. For example, most of our trees +have cultivated what is known as the deciduous habit, that is, they +merely drop their leaves, which are the endangered structures, at the +approach of the unfavorable season, and renew them again when the +favorable conditions return. It should be remarked that these leaves +do not fall because they are broken off, but that in a certain sense +it is a process of growing off, which is carefully prepared for. One +of the most prominent features associated with the deciduous habit is +the autumnal coloration. The vivid colors which appear in the leaves of +many trees just before the time of falling have attracted a great deal +of attention, but although it is so prominent, the causes for it are +very obscure. It will be noticed that this autumnal coloration consists +in the development of various shades of two typical colors, yellow and +red. It is known that the yellow is due to the breaking down of the +green substances, so that it simply indicates a post mortem change, as +may be noticed in connection with the blanching of celery in which the +leaves and upper part of the stem may be green, the green may shade +gradually into yellow, and finally into the pure white of complete +blanching. The red coloring matter, however, is very different. Certain +experiments upon plant colors have indicated that the presence of the +red slightly increases the temperature by absorbing more heat. It is +suggested that the red color may be a slight protection to the living +substance which is ceasing to work, and which is in danger of exposure +to cold. If this be true, it may be that the same explanation will +cover the case of the red flush so conspicuous in buds and young leaves +in early spring. It must not be supposed that the need of protection +has developed the coloring, but since it is developed it may be of some +such service to the plant. Even the conditions which determine autumnal +coloration have not been made out certainly. + +It is instructive to notice how differently the so-called evergreens, +as pines, spruces, etc., have answered the problem of protection +against the cold of winter. The evergreens, instead of dropping their +leaves, have undertaken to protect them, giving them a small surface +and very heavy walls. In this way protection has been secured at the +expense of working power during the season of work. Reduced surface and +thick walls are both obstacles to leaf work. On the other hand, the +deciduous trees have developed the working power of their leaves to the +greatest extent, giving them large surface exposure and comparatively +delicate walls. It is out of the question to protect such an amount +of surface during the winter, and hence the deciduous habit. The +evergreens are saved the annual renewal of leaves, but lose in working +power; the deciduous trees must renew their leaves annually, but gain +greatly in working power. + +To obtain the most striking instances of protection, however, one must +examine plants which belong to permanently dry regions, such as may be +found in the United States along the Mexican border, or in the regions +of tropical deserts. In the first place, it will be noticed that the +plants in general produce smaller leaves than in other regions. That +this holds a direct relation to the dry conditions is evident from +the fact that the same plant often produces smaller leaves in dry +conditions than in moist. One of the most striking features of an arid +country is the absence of large leaves. These reduced leaves are of +various forms, such as the needle leaves of pines, or the thread-like +leaves of certain sedges and grasses, or the narrow leaves with +inrolled margins such as is common in many heath plants. The extreme of +leaf reduction has been reached by the Cactus plants, whose leaves, so +far as foliage is concerned, have disappeared entirely, and the leaf +work is done by the surface of the globular, cylindrical, or flattened +stems. A covering of hairs is an effective sun screen, and it is very +common to find plants of dry regions characteristically hairy. In +such regions it is to be observed also that dwarf growths prevail, so +that the plant, as a whole, does not present such an exposure to the +drouth as in regions of greater moisture. One of the most prominent +measures of protection in dry regions is the organization of what are +known as water reservoirs. Nearly all plants of such regions have +leaves which are known as fleshy, that is, they are thick and juicy, +being reservoirs of stored up moisture which is doled out cautiously +according to the needs of the plant, without any wastefulness. + +The whole subject of plant protection is an immense one, and the +illustrations given above are merely intended to suggest that there is +such a subject, and to lead to some observation of the various schemes +of protection which are to be seen plainly on every hand. + + John Merle Coulter. + + * * * * * + + Nature is but a name for an effect + Whose cause is God. + --Cowper, "The Task." + + + + +THE BIRTH OF A TREE. + + + Once I lay 'neath quilt of green, + All unthought of, all unseen; + Little thinking of the world + Out of which I had been hurled. + + By and by, when quilt grew hot, + Mother Nature touched my cot, + Whispered softly in my ear, + "Higher, higher, higher, dear." + + Painted lovely scenes for me, + Saying, "Child, climb up and see." + I was lazy, so I said, + "Please, ma'am, let me stay in bed." + + Something whispered, "Child, I fear + Life will be but meager here." + Golden sunbeams bade me start, + And a purpose filled my heart. + + I would leave my bed of ease, + I would join the forest trees; + Shelter travelers passing by, + Hide squirrels in the branches high. + + Purpose, mighty power, led, + Ever, ever on ahead, + Till I grew up here so high, + Near the sunlight and the sky. + + Mother Nature, mother dear, + I am glad you called me here. + Thus the mighty forest oak + From his wooded homeland spoke. + + And I thought a lesson this-- + We, to reach the highest bliss, + Must arise from beds of ease, + Growing like the forest trees. + Lucia Belle Cook. + + + + +THE ALMOND. + +(_Amygdalus communis L._) + +And it came to pass that on the morrow Moses went into the tabernacle +of witness; and behold, the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was +budded, and brought forth buds, and blossomed blossoms, and yielded +_almonds_.--Numbers 17:8. + + +The almond is the fruit of a small tree (Amygdalus communis) belonging +to the Rose family (Rosaceae). The plant is believed to be a native of +northern Africa, Persia and Turkestan. It occurs wild in Sicily and +Greece and is cultivated throughout temperate Europe, including England. + +The leaves of the almond tree are simple, broadly lanceolate, margins +serrate, bright green and stalked. The flowers are nearly sessile, +mostly solitary, petals bright pink; otherwise similar to the flowers +of the rose family as seen in the apple blossom, cherry blossom and +the wild rose. The fruit is a drupe or stone fruit, resembling the +peach in its general structural characters. It is, however, much +smaller, measuring about one and one-half inch in length. As in the +peach the outer portion of the fruit coat (sarcocarp) is fleshy, the +inner portion (endocarp or putamen) is hard and encloses the kernel or +seed to which the term almond is usually applied. The plant is very +ornamental, producing its beautiful flowers in March before the leaves +are developed. + +Two natural varieties of almonds are quite universally recognized, the +sweet (A. communis var dulcis) and the bitter (A. communis var amara). +They resemble each other so closely in general appearance that it is +practically impossible to distinguish between them. The principal +difference lies in the chemistry of the kernels or seeds themselves. +In the bitter variety amygdalin is found, which is practically wanting +in the sweet variety. Some botanists describe quite a number of +varieties. Karsten, for instance, describes five varieties of A. +communis, namely, dulcis, amara, fragilis, macrocarpa and persicoides. +Boissier in his Flora Orientalis describes as many as seventeen +distinct species. + +The almond tree is one of the oldest of the cultivated plants. It +was a great garden favorite in and about Palestine. It is frequently +mentioned in the books of Moses. In Exodus 25:34, we find that the +"candlestick shall have four bowls made like unto almonds." As +explained in the 8th verse of chapter 17 of Numbers the blossoming +rod of Aaron was from an almond tree. Even to this day Jews carry +rods bearing almond blossoms to the synagogues on great festival +days. The Romans designated the almonds (the kernels or seeds with +the hard endocarp or shell) Nuces graecae (Greek nuts), from which it +is concluded that the almond tree was brought to Italy from Greece. +Almond oil was known to the ancient Greek and Roman writers. Plinius +and Dioscorides make reference to the gum which exudes from the bark. +Karl der Grosse (Charlemagne) recommended the cultivation of almonds +in Germany. In view of the fact that some authorities state that the +sweet variety is a product of cultivation, it is interesting to note +that the two varieties have been known equally long. The bitter variety +was described by Scribonius Largus and Plinius. Alexander Trallianus +described the medicinal virtues of the oil of bitter almonds. +Palladinus gave directions how to convert the bitter variety into the +sweet variety by methods of cultivation. Later experiments have, +however, proven this to be a false conclusion. + + [Illustration: ALMOND. + FROM KOEHLER'S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN. + CHICAGO: + A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER.] + +Description of Plate:--A, B, branch with flowers and fruit; 1, 1a, +flowers from different trees; 2, 2a, petals; 3, stamens; 4, pollen; 5, +stamen; 6, 7, ovary; 8, 9, seed with shell; 10, seed without shell; 11, +12, sections of seed. + +The fruit and seeds of several other plants are known as almonds. The +seeds of the African shrub Brabejum stellatifolium are known as African +almonds. Country almonds is a name given to the fruit of the East +Indian tree Terminalia Catappa. The fruit of Canarium commune is known +as Java almonds. + +At the present time the sweet almond is extensively cultivated in +northern Africa, southern Europe and in the warmer parts of the +United States, particularly in California. Climatic conditions and +cultivation have a great influence upon the quality of the almonds and +we have as a result quite a number of commercial varieties, just as +we have commercial varieties of coffee, tea, oranges, etc. The more +important commercial varieties are the Jordan, Valencia, Barbary and +California almonds. These vary somewhat in size, form and thickness +of the kernel and the hardness and thickness of the shell (endocarp). +The Jordan almonds are imported from Malaga (Spain) and are said to be +the finest. They differ from the others in the greater length of the +kernel (seed), for which reason they are also known as long almonds. +These are official in the English Pharmacopoeia because they are not +readily confused with other sweet varieties and the bitter almond. The +Valencia almonds come from the Balearic islands (Majorca); they are +characterized by a comparatively soft shell and are less highly prized +than the Jordan or the California almonds. The Barbary almonds from +northern Africa are quite small and unsightly and for those reasons +have comparatively little commercial value. In the United States the +principal commercial variety is the California almond. The kernel is +shorter and flatter than that of the Jordan almond, but almost equal to +it in quality. It is extensively cultivated, about one hundred trees +being planted to the acre. The trees attain a height of fifteen to +twenty feet and begin to yield when three years old. In California it +is customary to bleach the almonds by exposing them to the vapor of +burning sulphur, which also destroys insect parasites which attack +almonds very readily. + +Other less important sweet commercial varieties are the Provence +almonds of southern France, the Florence and Ambrosia almonds of +Sicily, the Pitti almonds of Portugal and the small Puglia almonds of +Italy. + +The bitter almond seeds are as a rule somewhat shorter, broader and +thinner than those of the larger, sweet varieties. Those found upon the +market are largely from northern Africa, Sicily and southern France. + +The principal constituents of sweet almonds are a fixed oil, sugar, +some albuminoid substances, and perhaps a small quantity of amygdalin +or a substance akin to it. The purified fixed oil from both varieties +of almonds is a bland, thin, pale yellow liquid, having a faint taste +and odor of the almond. When exposed to the air it becomes rancid +quite readily. Medicinally it finds use as an emollient in external +applications. Taken internally in small doses it is nutritious; in +large doses laxative. Mixed with mucilage or yolk of eggs and sugar it +is found useful in allaying troublesome coughs due to irritation of the +throat. It also finds a table use similar to that of olive oil. + +Bitter almonds contain a very poisonous volatile oil in addition to +the fixed oil just described. In small quantities this oil finds a use +for flavoring by the cook and confectioner, and by the perfumer for +scenting toilet soaps and for other purposes. This oil is obtained by +distillation after the fixed oil has been expressed. It is the product +of the decomposition of amygdalin under the influence of emulsin and +water. The poisonous properties of this oil are due to the hydrocyanic +acid which is present. This acid may be removed and the oil is then +known as purified oil of bitter almonds. Even the purified oil is not +safe, as it decomposes quite readily unless all of the water is removed +by the use of fused chloride of lime. + +The symptoms of poisoning from the oil of bitter almonds, or from +a quantity of the bitter almonds, are the same as from a dose of +hydrocyanic acid. Medicinally the oil is used like hydrocyanic acid +in various disorders of nervous origin, as whooping cough, spasmodic +troubles, etc. + +Sweet almonds are variously employed. Roasted and salted almonds are +very much liked by everybody. Almonds for the table must first be +"blanched," that is, the outer, reddish brown, thin seed coat must be +removed, as it contains irritant properties. They are used in making +cake and other pastry. Cake or bread made from almond meal has been +recommended as a substitute for ordinary bread in the treatment of +diabetes, as it is free from starch, a food substance which proves +harmful in this disease. Almond cake is a term applied to the crushed +seeds from which the oil has been expressed. Finely-powdered this +is used for washing hands and face. Almond paste is a cosmetic made +from powdered bitter almonds, white of egg, rose water and rectified +spirits. It is used to soften the skin and prevent chapping of hands. +An emulsion of sweet almonds is also used as a substitute for milk in +feeding infants. + + Albert Schneider. + + * * * * * + + Nature, the Vicar of the Almightie Lord. + --Chaucer, "The Assembly of Foules." + + + All Nature is but art, unknown to thee; + All chance, direction, which thou canst not see; + All discord, harmony not understood; + All partial evil, universal good; + And, spite of pride, in erring reason's spite, + One truth is clear, whatever is, is right. + --Pope, "Essay on Man." + + + Nature is a frugal mother, and never gives without measure. + --Emerson, "Essays." + + + But who can paint + Like Nature! Can imagination boast + Amid its gay creations hues like hers? + --Thompson, "Seasons." + + + + + +----------------------------------------------------------------- + + | Transcriber's Note: | + | | + | Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. | + | | + | Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant | + | form was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. | + | | + | Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. | + | | + | Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs | + | and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that | + | references them. | + | | + | Italicized words are surrounded by underline characters, | + | _like this_. | + | | + | The Contents table was added by the transcriber. | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Birds and Nature, Vol. VIII, No. 4, +November 1900, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 48579 *** diff --git a/48579-h/48579-h.htm b/48579-h/48579-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..71b8f73 --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-h/48579-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3484 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Birds and Nature + Vol. VIII, No. 4, November 1900, by Various. + </title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> + <style type="text/css"> + +/* PAGE DIMENSIONS */ +body { margin-left:10%; 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} + .volumeleft { float: left; width: 33%; text-align: left; } + .volumeright { float: right; width: 33%; text-align: right; } + .pagenum { display:none; } + .transnote { page-break-before:always; margin-left:2%; margin-right:2%; + margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; padding:.5em; } +} + </style> + + </head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 48579 ***</div> + +<h1 style="margin-bottom:2em;"><a name="BIRDS_AND_NATURE"></a>BIRDS AND NATURE<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller">ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.</span></h1> + +<div class="vlouter"> + <div class="volumeline"> + <div class="volumeleft"><span class="sc">Vol. VIII.</span></div> + <div class="volumeright"><span class="sc">No. 4.</span></div> + <div class="ac">NOVEMBER, 1900.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2 style="margin-top:2em;"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<table class="toctable" id="TOC"> + <tr> + <td class="c1"> </td> + <td class="c2"><span class="sc">Page</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#SONNET_NOVEMBER">SONNET—NOVEMBER.</a></td> + <td class="c2">145</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#SOME_FACTS_ABOUT_THE_WESTERN_WILLET"> + SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WESTERN WILLET.</a></td> + <td class="c2">146</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#CRUEL_TREATMENT_OF_BIRDS_DEMANDED_BY_DAME"> + CRUEL TREATMENT OF BIRDS DEMANDED BY DAME FASHION.</a></td> + <td class="c2">150</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_FALL_MIGRATIONS">THE FALL MIGRATIONS.</a></td> + <td class="c2">151</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_WAYS_OF_SOME_BANTAMS">THE WAYS OF SOME BANTAMS.</a></td> + <td class="c2">152</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_BUFFLE-HEAD">THE BUFFLE-HEAD.</a></td> + <td class="c2">155</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#AN_HOUR_WITH_AN_ANT">AN HOUR WITH AN ANT.</a></td> + <td class="c2">156</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#SONG">SONG.</a></td> + <td class="c2">157</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_AMERICAN_EARED_GREBE">THE AMERICAN EARED GREBE.</a></td> + <td class="c2">158</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_GEOGRAPHICAL_DISTRIBUTION_OF_FISHES"> + THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES.</a></td> + <td class="c2">161</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_LOUISIANA_TANAGER">THE LOUISIANA TANAGER.</a></td> + <td class="c2">167</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#CHATTER_OF_A_CHAT">CHATTER OF A CHAT.</a></td> + <td class="c2">168</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_LUNA_AND_POLYPHEMUS_MOTHS"> + THE LUNA AND POLYPHEMUS MOTHS.</a></td> + <td class="c2">170</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#CASTLES_IN_THE_AIR">CASTLES IN THE AIR.</a></td> + <td class="c2">175</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_PRONG-HORNED_ANTELOPE">THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE.</a></td> + <td class="c2">179</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#PLANT_PROTECTION">PLANT PROTECTION.</a></td> + <td class="c2">182</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_BIRTH_OF_A_TREE">THE BIRTH OF A TREE.</a></td> + <td class="c2">187</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_ALMOND">THE ALMOND.</a></td> + <td class="c2">188</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="SONNET_NOVEMBER" id="SONNET_NOVEMBER"></a>SONNET—NOVEMBER.</h2> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse">Yet one smile more, departing, distant sun,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">One mellow smile through the soft vapory air,</div> + <div class="verse">Ere, o'er the frozen earth, the loud winds run,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Or snows are sifted o'er the meadow bare.</div> + <div class="verse">One smile on the brown hills and naked trees</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">And the dark rocks whose summer wreaths are cast,</div> + <div class="verse">And the blue Gentian flower, that, in the breeze,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Nods lonely, of her beauteous race the last.</div> + <div class="verse">Yet a few sunny days, in which the bee</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Shall murmur by the hedge that skirts the way,</div> + <div class="verse">The cricket chirp upon the russet lea,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">And man delight to linger in thy ray.</div> + <div class="verse">Yet one rich smile, and we will try to bear</div> + <div class="verse">The piercing winter frost, and winds, and darkened air.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—William Cullen Bryant.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent-2">Oh, Autumn! Why so soon</div> + <div class="verse">Depart the hues that make thy forests glad;</div> + <div class="verse">Thy gentle wind and thy fair sunny noon,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">And leave thee wild and sad!</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent-2">Ah! 'twere a lot too blessed</div> + <div class="verse">Forever in thy colored shades to stray;</div> + <div class="verse">Amid the kisses of the soft southwest</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">To rove and dream for aye.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—William Cullen Bryant.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="x-smaller">Copyright, 1900, by A. W. Mumford.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="SOME_FACTS_ABOUT_THE_WESTERN_WILLET" id="SOME_FACTS_ABOUT_THE_WESTERN_WILLET"></a> + SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WESTERN WILLET.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Symphemia semipalmata inornata.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>The Western Willet is one of the +largest of the Limicolae or Shore Birds. +The body is about the size of a common +pigeon, the long neck, legs and extent +of wings making it appear much larger. +The feet are only about one-half webbed +and only when great danger makes it +necessary will it go into the water beyond +its depth. The bill is straight and +in summer the color of the bird is gray +above, with many small but rather distinct +black marks. On the sides and +breast these marks are arrow-shaped. +In the plumage of winter and of the +young these markings are absent.</p> + +<p>I am inclined to believe that this species +has a more extended range than any +other of the order. It has become quite +abundant of late years in the Calumet Region +in Northern Indiana, near Chicago. +Mr. E. W. Nelson, in the Natural History +Survey of Illinois, says, that in the +seventies this species was a rare summer +resident on the wet prairies of Northwestern +Illinois, although I can find no +authentic record of the taking of the nest +and eggs. Captain Charles Bendire found +it abundant and resident in Southeastern +Oregon when he procured several sets of +its eggs. It is said to breed from the +coast of Texas to Manitoba. Straggling +flocks of from five to fifty may be found +along the shores of our larger fresh water +lakes, particularly Lake Michigan, during +the fall migration, which takes place +from about the fifteenth of August to the +last of September.</p> + +<p>This bird might well be called the +clown of the Limicolae. I have often +been amused by the antics of a flock of +Willets on the shore of Lake Michigan. +They would droop their necks and wings +in an absurd fashion, taking short runs +and jumps as the waves rolled in upon +them. I have never seen a bird which at +times could be so wary and hard to approach, +and again, if a number are shot +from a flock, the remaining birds will +seem to lose their senses, and I have frequently +walked within a few feet of the +survivors before they would take flight. +This trait is noticeable among a large +number of shore birds and the terns, but +more especially so with the Willet.</p> + +<p>On the plains bordering the Brazos +river, near the Gulf coast of Texas, during +the months of April and May, I have +found the Willet proper (Symphemia +semipalmata), a smaller and darker form, +breeding in abundance. The Willets usually +select for a nesting site a thick tussock +of salt marsh grass on the borders +of a small pond, where they can command +a good view of the vicinity. In the +center of this they hollow out a space of +about six or eight inches in diameter, and +simply line it with the grass they have +matted down. In this nest are laid four +pyriform eggs of a greenish white, or a +light olive brown ground color, marked +with large, irregular blotches or brownish +black and faint purple; the eggs are +immense for the size of the bird, being +about two inches in length by one and +one-half in width.</p> + +<p>The illustration faithfully portrays +three birds taken at Miller's, Indiana, on +the beach of Lake Michigan. The color +of the legs, which are obscured by the +shadow of the body, is a pale, slaty blue.</p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="THE WESTERN WILLET."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_005.jpg" id="i_005.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_005.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">THE WESTERN WILLET<br /> + (Symphemia semipalmata inornata.)<br /> + ¼ Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>Though the Willets are restless and +noisy birds, they are much less so, and, +indeed, quite unconscious of their surroundings +when nesting. Regarding +their habits at this time, Dr. Coues has +told us that if they "become thoroughly +alarmed by too open approach, particularly +if the setting bird be driven from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +her nest, there is a great outcry, violent +protest and tumult where there was +quietude. Other pairs, nesting near by, +join their cries till the confusion becomes +general. But now, again, their actions +are not those they would show at other +times; for, instead of flying off with the +instinct of self-preservation, to put distance +between them and danger, they are +held by some fascination to the spot, and +hover around, wheeling about, flying in +circles a little ways, to return again, with +unremitting clamor. They may be only +too easily destroyed under such circumstances, +provided the ornithologist can +lay aside his scruples and steel himself +against sympathy."</p> + +<p>It is to be hoped that all the States, +frequented by the Willets, will enact +proper legislation which will amply protect +these interesting waders.</p> + +<p class="ar">Frank M. Woodruff.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Autumn once more begins to teach;</div> + <div class="verse">Sere leaves their annual sermon preach;</div> + <div class="verse">And with the southward-slipping sun</div> + <div class="verse">Another stage of life is done.</div> + <div class="verse">The day is of a paler hue,</div> + <div class="verse">The night is of a darker blue,</div> + <div class="verse">Just as it was a year ago;</div> + <div class="verse">For time runs fast, but grace is slow!</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Thou comest, autumn, to unlade</div> + <div class="verse">Thy wealthy freight of summer shade,</div> + <div class="verse">Still sorrowful as in past years,</div> + <div class="verse">Yet mild and sunny in thy tears,</div> + <div class="verse">Ripening and hardening all thy growth</div> + <div class="verse">Of solid wood, yet nothing loth</div> + <div class="verse">To waste upon the frolic breeze</div> + <div class="verse">Thy leaves, like flights of golden bees.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Frederick William Faber.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="CRUEL_TREATMENT_OF_BIRDS_DEMANDED_BY_DAME" + id="CRUEL_TREATMENT_OF_BIRDS_DEMANDED_BY_DAME"></a> + CRUEL TREATMENT OF BIRDS DEMANDED BY DAME FASHION.</h2> + +<p>All of my readers probably know in a +general way that Dame Fashion is responsible +for the destruction of the lives +of many birds, but they may not know to +what extent this is true.</p> + +<p>Why do we say that any cruel treatment +of the birds is chargeable to fashion? +It can hardly be necessary to remind +ourselves that there is in almost +every boy's nature a touch of the savage +instincts which find expression in the desire +to kill something. Traces of this instinct +do not entirely disappear with the +development into manhood, but show +themselves there in the love of hunting +and fishing. Let these remnants of savagery +be appealed to by the promise of +gain and they are immediately fanned into +flame in the natures of those persons +who are naturally more strongly drawn +to this primitive occupation of men. In +short, place before the professional hunter +an easy means of profiting by his skill +as a hunter, and in far too many instances +he will smother any humane instincts +which he may have for the sake of the +gain. It is the demands of fashion for +plumes and feathers for hat trimmings +which place before these hunters the +temptation to kill. Have we not a right, +therefore, to place the blame at the door +of Fashion?</p> + +<p>But what are the practices which we +call cruel? In the first place it is cruelty +to cause the destruction of life without +good and sufficient reason. Unnecessary +sacrifice of life is cruelty. Certainly +no one will say that it is necessary to +trim hats with feathers. Fashion decrees +that feathers must be worn, and presto! +feathers are worn. In the second place, +it is cruel to kill birds who are feeding +young ones in the nest, leaving them to +starvation. Yet this is just what has happened +and does happen every year. +Plume hunters are no respecters of times +and seasons. With them there are no +closed seasons. The birds which they +are after gather in large rookeries during +the nesting season and are therefore +much easier to capture then than at other +times.</p> + +<p>Most of the herons and similar plume-bearing +birds are hunted and killed for +the plumes alone, or, at most, for a very +small part of the whole plumage. The +part wanted is taken and the rest left to +waste, while the bird's body is never used +for anything. If nothing worse, it is an +unpardonable waste. In Florida alone +whole rookeries of herons and ibises +numbering hundreds and even thousands +of individuals have been wholly destroyed. +Now the insatiable plume hunter, +in his effort to supply the demands of +a no less insatiable fashion, is pursuing +the unfortunate birds into the fastnesses +of Mexico and South America. There is +but one way to stop this work of extermination, +and that is to take away the +demand. This remedy lies wholly in the +hands of women. Unless they are willing +to take a firm stand against the use of +feathers for purposes of ornament the +birds are doomed. This may seem like a +strong statement, but a little reflection +will prove it true. When the birds which +are now hunted for plumes and feathers +are gone, there will be a modification of +the demand to include birds of different +plumage, just as the aigrette is giving +place to the quill. After the quill and the +long-pointed wing will come the shorter +wing, and after that the plumage of the +small birds, and the cycle of destruction +will be complete.</p> + +<p>Some one may ask why it is that the +birds are so foolish as to allow the hunter +to kill hundreds in a single day from one +rookery. Why don't they leave the region +when the shooting begins? The +plume hunter has learned cunning. He +no longer uses a shot gun, but a small +caliber rifle or a wholly noiseless air gun. +The rifle makes no more noise than the +snapping of a twig, and will therefore not +frighten the birds. By remaining concealed +the hunter may kill every bird that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +is within range. Since each bird is worth +from twenty-five cents to five dollars, according +to the kind, a single day's work +(or slaughter) is profitable. The temptation +is certainly great, and becomes almost +irresistible to him who loves hunting +for its own sake.</p> + +<p>The most cruel part of the whole business +I have already stated, but it will bear +repeating. It is the killing of the breeding +birds before the young are able to +care for themselves. There is abundant +evidence that the breeding time is the favorite +time for hunting among plume +hunters, because then the old birds are +more easy to kill, and because then the +plumage is the most perfect, for then the +wedding garments are put on.</p> + +<p>It should not be an impossible task to +stop this whole cruel business. But laws +will not do it without a wholesome public +sentiment behind it. Women are notably +foremost in all good works, and many +of them are doing nobly in this work, but +it is painfully evident that many are not. +Let us make "a long pull and a strong +pull and a pull all together," and then we +shall drag this growing evil back and +down forever.</p> + +<p class="ar">Lynds Jones.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_FALL_MIGRATIONS" id="THE_FALL_MIGRATIONS"></a>THE FALL MIGRATIONS.</h2> + + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">A rush of wings through the darkening night,</div> + <div class="verse">A sweep through the air in the distant height.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Far off we hear them, cry answering cry:</div> + <div class="verse">'Tis the voice of the birds as they southward fly.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">From sea to sea, as if marking the time,</div> + <div class="verse">Comes the beat of wings from the long, dark line.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">O strong, steady wing, with your rhythmic beat,</div> + <div class="verse">Flying from cold to the summertime heat;</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">O, keen, glancing eye, that can see so far,</div> + <div class="verse">Do you guide your flight by the northern star?</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">The birds from the North are crossing the moon,</div> + <div class="verse">And the southland knows they are coming soon.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">With gladness and freedom and music gone,</div> + <div class="verse">Another migration is passing on.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">No long, dark lines o'er the face of the moon;</div> + <div class="verse">No dip of wings in the southern lagoon.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">No sweet, low titter, no welcoming song;</div> + <div class="verse">These are birds of silence that sweep along.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Lifeless and stiff, with the death mark on it,</div> + <div class="verse">This "Fall Migration" on hat and bonnet.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">And the crowd goes by, with so few to care</div> + <div class="verse">For this march of death of the "fowls of the air."</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Mary Drummond, in the Chicago Times-Herald.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_WAYS_OF_SOME_BANTAMS" id="THE_WAYS_OF_SOME_BANTAMS"></a> + THE WAYS OF SOME BANTAMS.</h2> + +<p>Last summer, when I was out in the +country, I made the acquaintance of a +kind-hearted little bantam rooster, who +was as funny as he was kind-hearted.</p> + +<p>An old speckled hen, who looked as if +she might be a good mother, but wasn't, +had brought up a family of chickens to +that stage where their legs had grown +long and their down all turned to pin-feathers.</p> + +<p>Very ugly they were; there was no +doubt of it. Perhaps this queer mother +thought so. At any rate, she turned the +poor things adrift and pecked them cruelly +whenever they came near her.</p> + +<p>Little "Banty" saw this unkind behavior. +He was small, but his heart was +big, and he set Madam Speckle an example +which ought to have made her hide +her head in the darkest corner of the hen-house +for shame.</p> + +<p>He adopted those chickens!</p> + +<p>Each one of them was about half the +size of "Banty," and to see that loving +little father-bird standing on tiptoe with +his wings spread, trying in vain to cover +all eight of his adopted children, was a +pathetic as well as a ludicrous sight.</p> + +<p>They loved him and believed in him +fully. They followed him all day long, +and seemed to see nothing amusing when +he choked down a crow to cluck over the +food he found for them, and at night they +quarreled over the privilege of being +nearest to him.</p> + +<p>I think bantams perhaps are more interesting +than other fowls. When I was +a little girl father brought three of them +home. Dandy and his two little wives +were all pure white and very small.</p> + +<p>We had other fowls, the aristocratic +Spanish kind, each as large as two or +three of Dandy, and the Spanish rooster +hinted very strongly that Dandy's presence +in that barnyard could be dispensed +with. But Dandy was a brave little fighter, +and he soon settled it once for all +with Grandee as to what the rights of the +former and his family were.</p> + +<p>In a month or so one of the little hens +was missing. After a long time we found +her, and in such a queer, cozy place! Upon +the foundations of the old red farmhouse +where we lived, rested great +squared beams. An end of one of these +beams had decayed, out of sight, under +the clapboards on the south side of the +house, until there was a large, soft-lined +hollow. Here the little hen had stolen +her nest, and when we found her she was +just ready to lead off twenty-one tiny +white fluff-balls of chickens, every egg +having hatched.</p> + +<p>Dandy's bravery saved his little life +one day, and made him forever famous +in the annals of our pets. On this most +eventful day of his life, a shadow flitted +over the barnyard, and a wail went up +from us children as a chicken-hawk +swooped down upon our beloved Dandy +and carried him off before our indignant +and tearful eyes.</p> + +<p>Up they went! But in a moment or +two we saw that the thief was having +trouble, as somehow Dandy had managed +to turn in those wicked talons, and the +little fellow was using his sharp beak and +spurs with all his might.</p> + +<p>The battle was brief, and then Dandy +dropped at our feet. He was bleeding +and had lost the sight of one of his eyes, +but otherwise he was little hurt. All the +rest of his days Dandy carried himself +proudly, as one who has been tried as a +hero and not found wanting.</p> + +<p class="ar">May H. Prentice.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="BUFFLE-HEAD."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_020.jpg" id="i_020.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_020.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">BUFFLE-HEAD.<br /> + (Charitonetta albeola.)<br /> + Nearly ½ Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_BUFFLE-HEAD" id="THE_BUFFLE-HEAD"></a>THE BUFFLE-HEAD.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Charitonetta albeola.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>This small and wonderfully beautiful +duck is a native of North America, wintering +in the latitude of Cuba and Mexico +and breeding from Maine to Montana +and northward. It is said that a favorite +place for its nesting is along the banks of +the Yukon river, and other streams of +the boreal regions, yet it is reported that +the young have been captured in the Adirondack +mountains. Though classed with +the "sea ducks" (Fuligulinae) it is one of +the most common of our fresh-water +forms, and, like many other animals, as +well as vegetable forms, of wide distribution, +it is the recipient of numerous popular +names, nearly all of them being more +or less suggestive of its characteristics or +habits. In the North it is frequently +called the Butter-ball, the Butter-box, the +Butter duck, the Spirit duck and the Dipper. +In the South some of the same +names are heard, but perhaps more often +the Marionette, the Scotch dipper, or +duck, the Scotch teal and the Wool-head. +However, no more appropriate name +could be selected than that of Buffle-head, +having reference to the showy, ruffled +or puffed plumage of the head. The +technical name, albeola, meaning whitish, +was given this species by Linnaeus +in 1758, on account of the pure white on +the side of the head.</p> + +<p>The adult males vary but little. The +plumage of the head is puffy and, with +that of the upper half of the neck, is a +"rich silky, metallic green, violet purple +and greenish bronze, the last prevailing +on the lower part of the neck, the green +on the anterior part of the head, the purple +on the cheeks and crown." A beautiful +pure white patch extends from the +eyes, meeting on the top of the head. The +lower portion of the neck and nearly all +the feathers of the under side of the body, +as well as the wing coverts, are also +showy white. The lining of the wings is +dark, and the upper side of the body is +black.</p> + +<p>The head of the female is less puffy +and of a brownish or dark gray color. +The white head patch is not so prominent +or pure and the plumage of the under +side of the body is more or less tinged +with gray. In both sexes the iris is dark +brown, the bill bluish or lead color, and +the legs and feet pinkish.</p> + +<p>There are few birds that are more expert +in diving or swimming, while on land, +owing to their larger feet and shorter +legs, they are more awkward and waddle +more than many of the ordinary ducks. +Their graceful attitude while floating on +the water, moving apparently without any +motion of the body and scarcely causing +a ripple on even a placid surface, has +given them the name Spirit duck.</p> + +<p>The Buffle-head, like nearly all the +sea ducks, feeds on mollusks and other +animal-forms found in the water. As a +result, their flesh is usually coarse and +quite too rank for use as a food. The +canvas-back is a notable exception, for +during the winter months it feeds on the +wild celery (Vallisneria) of the Middle +Atlantic coast, and thus its flesh receives +the flavor so appreciated by those who +relish game food.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="AN_HOUR_WITH_AN_ANT" id="AN_HOUR_WITH_AN_ANT"></a>AN HOUR WITH AN ANT.</h2> + +<p>If you want to know how to accomplish +a hard task, come with me and +watch a little ant for an hour.</p> + +<p>She was a small, black ant, and, seeing +a brown worm eight times as large as herself, +she was seized with the ambition to +take it home in triumph.</p> + +<p>Now will you tell me how she knew +that she could have no power over the +worm while he was on his ten feet, that +stuck to the sidewalk like glue? Before +she attempted anything, she fastened her +mandibles into his side and turned him +over on his back just as you see Bridget +turn the mattress. Then running to his +head she again fastened her mandibles +and dragged him for a couple of inches. +While pausing to get her breath, the +worm took the opportunity to get on his +feet once more. The ant did not seem to +notice the change in position till she tried +again to drag the body. As soon as she +felt it sticking, around she ran to the +side, over went the worm in a trice, and +once more the two started on their journey. +Now they were close to a crack in +the broad sidewalk, and I, thinking to +help the little worker, in whom by this +time I was quite interested, lifted the +worm across the crack.</p> + +<p>Did you ever try to help some one and +find too late you had done exactly the +wrong thing? Then you know how I felt +when that little ant began rushing around +as if she were crazy, and when she got +hold of the worm again, began to drag it +back across the very crack I had lifted it +over. Can you guess why? She was +taking a bee-line to her house, and I had +changed the direction. But how was she +to get that big body across a crack that +could swallow them both? That was +what I waited anxiously to see. Soon the +worm felt himself going down, down into +a dark abyss, and of course caught hold +of the side to save himself, and when he +once felt he had a hold on life how he did +hold on! The ant was not to be daunted; +balancing herself on the edge, and holding +on by her feet, she reached down her +mandibles and dragged him by main +force straight up the perpendicular wall +to the top; nor did she stop till he was +carried far enough from the edge not to +get down again.</p> + +<p>In this way three cracks were safely +crossed, and it was plain to see the worm +was losing heart, although every time the +ant paused for breath he would get over +on his feet and have to be tossed back +again.</p> + +<p>And now a new difficulty arose. The +worm had been dragged about eighteen +inches over the boards. Fourteen inches +more would bring them to the ant's +house, or, rather, hill. But the way was +now off from the sidewalk, and no sooner +did the worm feel the stubble under +him than he gathered all his strength, +turned over on his feet, and held on to +every spear of grass for dear life.</p> + +<p>Indeed, it was his last chance, and I +felt tempted to snatch him from the certain +death awaiting him, but curiosity to +see how this new obstacle would be overcome +induced me to wait. The ant now +felt justified in calling for assistance, and +soon a dozen ants had come to help. Only +five could work to advantage, so the rest, +for ants never like to do the "heavy looking +on," left to find other employment.</p> + +<p>The first thing to be done was to get +the worm on his back, and this proved no +easy task. He could fasten his feet just +as fast as the ants could unfasten them. +At last two ants went to one end and two +to the other. Each one of the four seized +a foot in her strong mandibles and held +it out as far as possible, while the fifth +one turned the captive. It was the funniest +sight! It was easy now to drag +him two or three inches, but breath had +to be taken, and again the worm fastened. +In vain they tugged and pulled. He had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +evidently learned their tactics and knew +how to defend himself. Suddenly his +body moved along an inch and a half, as +if by magic. Was it magic? Not at all. +One little ant had run up on an overhanging +blade of grass, and, reaching down, +holding on by the wonderful feet spoken +of before, and grabbed the poor creature +in the middle, raised it right up from the +ground, and keeping hold, ran along +overhead till the end of the spear of grass +was reached.</p> + +<p>This was the last struggle of any importance. +The worm gave up discouraged; +it was only now a question of time +till they had dragged him through the +stubble up to the door of the house in the +hill, and I saw only a faint quiver as of +dread as his body passed through the +mysterious opening. I could not help +wondering if the ant who started the +capture received all the praise she deserved, +or if the other four took the glory +to themselves.</p> + +<p>At any rate, no one could take away +her own satisfaction in overcoming and +winning in the struggle.</p> + +<p class="ar">Harriet Woodbridge.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="SONG" id="SONG"></a>SONG.</h2> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Day is dying! Float, O song,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Down the westward river,</div> + <div class="verse">Requiem chanting to the Day—</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Day, the mighty Giver.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Pierced by shafts of Time he bleeds,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Melted rubies sending</div> + <div class="verse">Through the river and the sky,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Earth and heaven blending;</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">All the long-drawn earthly banks</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Up to cloud-land lifting:</div> + <div class="verse">Slow between them drifts the swan,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">'Twixt two heavens drifting.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Wings half open, like a flow'r,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Inly deeper flushing,</div> + <div class="verse">Neck and breast as Virgin's pure—</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Virgin proudly blushing.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Day is dying! Float, O swan,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Down the ruby river;</div> + <div class="verse">Follow, song, in requiem</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">To the mighty Giver.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—George Eliot, in the Spanish Gypsy.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_AMERICAN_EARED_GREBE" id="THE_AMERICAN_EARED_GREBE"></a> + THE AMERICAN EARED GREBE.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Colymbus nigricollis californicus.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>The American Eared Grebe belongs to +the order of Diving Birds (Podicipedes) +and the family of Grebes (Podicipidae). +The order also includes the loons and +auks, having in all about thirty-six species +that frequent North America. Closely +related to the loons, the Grebes differ +from them in having the head incompletely +feathered near the nostrils, which +are not lobed. The feet also are not completely +webbed, as are those of the loons.</p> + +<p>Owing to the inadequately developed +wings, the Grebes are poorly provided +with means for protracted flight. Locomotion +on land is equally difficult, due to +their short legs and the fact that they +are inserted far back on the body, necessitating +a partially erect position in walking. +However, they are expert swimmers +and divers and will, when alarmed, +sink quietly back into the water, swimming +long distances with only the bill +above the surface of the water. The popular +name "Hell-diver," by which these +birds are frequently known, has reference +to the rapidity with which they dive.</p> + +<p>The apparent lack of a tail and the +ruffs, frequently composed of variously +colored feathers, give the grebes a peculiarly +characteristic appearance. The +plumage of the breeding season differs +greatly from that of the adult in winter +and that of the young.</p> + +<p>The grebes are abundant throughout +the world, seemingly preferring lakes +and rivers as a foraging ground rather +than the seacoast.</p> + +<p>The American Eared Grebe has an extensive +range, including that part of +North America west of the Mississippi +Valley and from the Great Slave Lake +south to Guatemala. It breeds in nearly +all parts of this territory.</p> + +<p>A few years since Professor Henshaw +published in the American Naturalist +some very interesting facts concerning +the nesting habits of this bird, and they +especially well illustrate some of its +characteristics. He says, "In a series of +alkali lakes, about thirty miles northward +of Fort Garland, Southern Colorado, I +found this species common and breeding. +A colony of perhaps a dozen pairs +had established themselves in a small +pond four or five acres in extent. In the +middle of this, in a bed of reeds, were +found upwards of a dozen nests. These +in each case merely consisted of a slightly +hollowed pile of decaying weeds and +rushes, four or five inches in diameter, +and scarcely raised above the surface of +the water upon which they floated. In a +number of instances they were but a few +feet distant from the nests of the coot +(Fulica Americana) which abounded. +Every Grebe's nest discovered contained +three eggs, which in most instances were +fresh, but in some nests were considerably +advanced. These vary but little in +shape, are considerably elongated, one +end being slightly more pointed than the +other. The color is a faint yellowish or +bluish white, usually much stained from +contact with the nest. The texture is generally +quite smooth, in some instances +roughened by a chalky deposit. The eggs +were wholly concealed from view by a +pile of weeds and other vegetable material +laid across. That they were thus +carefully covered merely for concealment +I cannot think, since, in the isolated position +in which the nests are usually found, +the bird has no enemy against which such +precaution would avail. On first approaching +the locality, the Grebes all congregated +at the further end of the pond, +and shortly betook themselves through +an opening to the neighboring slough; +nor, so far as I could ascertain, did they +again approach the nests during my stay +of three days. Is it not, then, possible +that they are more or less dependent for +the hatching of their eggs upon artificial +heat induced by the decaying vegetable +substances of which the nests are +wholly composed?"</p> + +<p>The food of the Grebe consists of fish +to a great extent, which are dexterously +caught while swimming under water. +They also feed upon the insects floating +upon the surface, and will, when other +food is lacking, feed upon mollusks.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="AMERICAN EARED GREBE."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_033.jpg" id="i_033.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_033.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">AMERICAN EARED GREBE.<br /> + (Colymbus nigricollis californicus.)<br /> + ½ Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_GEOGRAPHICAL_DISTRIBUTION_OF_FISHES" + id="THE_GEOGRAPHICAL_DISTRIBUTION_OF_FISHES"></a>THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES.</h2> + +<p>There are known at the present about +twenty thousand species of fishes, which +are distributed throughout the creeks, +rivers, lakes, seas and oceans of the +world. A few species of the open sea are +cosmopolitan; the others are more or +less restricted in their range. Northern +Asia, Europe and North America have +in common a few species of fresh water +fishes. There are many others of close +relationship, which indicates a somewhat +common origin of the fish faunas. The +same is largely true of the salt water +shore fishes, which live well to the north. +The fresh water fishes of South America, +Africa and Australia are all different from +each other, none being even closely related +as are those we find in the countries +of the northern hemisphere.</p> + +<p>The fishes of our Atlantic coast are +different from those of the Pacific, very +few species being common to both coasts. +The fishes of the Ohio river are entirely +different from those of the Columbia, not +a single species being common to both +streams. The fishes of the Missouri river +are very different from the Ohio, many +of the larger species, as catfishes, buffalo +fishes, black basses, and some of the +sun fishes are common to both rivers. +The difference between the fishes of these +two rivers is chiefly in the smaller kinds, +which do not migrate to any great extent, +and is greater as you go toward their +sources, or confine yourself to their +smaller tributaries.</p> + +<p>There are many reasons why the fishes +of one region are not the same as those +we find in another. Some of these reasons +we may learn by making a careful +study of the fishes of each region, and +their environment. In addition we must +learn all we can about the past history of +the country, finding which streams were +formed first, and how they became inhabited +from the old ancient fish faunas +of our earlier geological periods. If you +visit streams in the Alleghanies, the +Ozarks and the Black Hills you will find +them much alike. All have clear, cool +water, flowing over sand or gravel. The +black bass, speckled trout, channel cat, +and the eastern pickerel will live quite as +well in streams of each locality. If you +spend a day at each place collecting +fishes all your catch will not be the same +species. In the Alleghany region you +will obtain about forty species, and a like +number in the Ozarks. Of these quite +one-fourth, or one-fifth, will be the same +species, and the others closely related. A +large portion will consist of sunfishes and +very small, perch-like fishes, which are +called darters. These are spiny-rayed +fishes; that is, nearly all of the fins are +made partly of strong, sharp spines, such +as you find on the back of sunfishes, +black bass and the like. In the streams +of the Black Hills you will not find more +than fifteen species, and not more than +one or two, if any, will be the same as in +either of the other two catches. There +are none of the spiny-rayed fishes in the +Black Hills, and no trout, though the +streams seem in every way well suited for +them. The fishes of the Black Hills consist +of two catfishes, four suckers, eight +minnows, and one member of the cod +family. Why are there no spiny-rayed +fishes? If you examine a map you will +find that the Black Hills is an isolated region, +about seventy-five by one hundred +miles in extent. It is covered with heavy +pine forests and drained by a dozen or +more good-sized creeks, which find, +through the north and south forks of the +Cheyenne, an outlet into the Missouri +river. Surrounding the Black Hills is a +broad plain one hundred or two hundred +miles in width. It has no forests, and +only a scant vegetation. Its streams are +alkali and contain much solid matter in +suspension. None of these streams flow +over rocky or gravelly beds. Like all the +streams of the great plains they are overloaded +with sediment. All the streams +can do with this sediment is to deposit it +in places during falling or low water, and +in time of freshets, pick it up, shift it +about and redeposit it farther down the +stream. Such streams are like the Platte, +narrow and deep in a few places, but +mostly wide and shallow, with a bottom +of quicksand. The streams of the plains +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +have in them but few species of fishes; especially +is this true of the upper Missouri, +and these are such species as we find in +the Black Hills. It is thus evident that +the fishes of this region migrated there, +and only such fishes as were able or willing +to live in the muddy, alkaline streams +of the great plains could have ever +reached the Black Hills. The minnows +and suckers are ever preyed upon by sunfishes, +bass and the like, and to escape +them evidently sought retreat in the alkaline +water, which was too much disliked +by their enemies for them to follow. +Once there and accustomed to such water +they would migrate farther up stream until +they reached the clear, cool streams of +the Black Hills. If we compare the fishes +of two rivers whose mouths are near each +other, as the Ohio and the Missouri, those +fishes found near the mouths will be the +same species and the two river faunas +will differ most as you go toward their +sources. On the other hand, if you select +two rivers whose sources are near each +other, as the James and tributaries of the +Ohio, then the fish faunas will differ most +as you go towards their mouths. The +same is true of the Missouri and the Columbia. +In such cases it often happens +that during high water some fishes are +able to pass from the head waters of one +river basin to the other, just as we see +the trout from the Columbia at the present +time colonizing the upper Yellowstone +through the Two Ocean Pass. +Near the head waters of many mountain +streams there is usually a pass, which +contains a strip of meadow land where +the small streams from mountains unite, +forming the sources of two great rivers +flowing in opposite directions. This is +the case both at the Two Ocean Pass, +the source of the Missouri and the Columbia, +and at the point where the Canadian +Pacific Railroad crosses the divide, +forming the source of the Frazier and +Saskatchewan rivers.</p> + +<p>Many mountain streams whose sources +are at present in no way connected may +have been so at no very remote period. +All of our streams which have their +sources within the glaciated area were no +doubt connected as the ice receded. The +drainage of Lake Champlain and the +lakes in central New York was southward +at the close of the glacial epoch. It +is said that in times of high water one +may pass in a skiff from the head waters +of the Mississippi to the Red River of the +North. With such facts before us we can +easily understand why the fishes of two +rivers whose sources are near each other +should be most nearly alike nearest the +divide. If the two rivers were formed +about the same time, as no doubt were +the James and the Ohio, they would naturally +have several species in common. +In other words, the two fish faunas will +resemble each other throughout their +whole extent. In the case of the Missouri +and the Columbia, the former is +much the older stream, and while their +sources have fishes common to both +streams, in the lower parts of the rivers +the fish faunas are entirely different. The +upper Missouri river and its tributaries +are for the most part inhabited by Rocky +Mountain fishes, practically the same +fauna as we find in the Columbia, but few +species characteristic of the Mississippi +valley have been able to even cross the +great plains and none have ever passed +the Rocky Mountain divide.</p> + +<p>In the study of the geographical distribution +of our fresh water fishes, we are +able to make a few generalizations as follows: +Two rivers in the same latitude, +and belonging to the same great drainage +basin, and draining similar areas, will +have similar fish faunas. Thus we find a +great similarity in the fishes of the Washita +and the Tennessee rivers, a much +greater similarity than we do in the fishes +of the Washita and the Cedar rivers. If +the stream is a large one, the fishes near +its source will be much unlike those near +its mouth. The fishes of Minnesota differ +greatly from those of Louisiana, +though the drainage of these two States +is in the Mississippi river basin. Limestone +streams have in them more species +of fishes than do sandstone. All things +being equal, the larger of two or more +streams will contain the most species of +fishes. There are few, if any, rivers as +rich in species as the Mississippi river +and its tributaries. It drains one slope +of each of our two great mountain systems, +besides an immense area of wood-land +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +and prairie, and numerous swamps +and marshes. Its upper course and many +of its upper tributaries lie in the region +once covered by glaciers, though now +traversed by great moraines. Its fishes are +as diversified as the area it drains. In its +mountain streams we find such fishes as +the trout, darters, minnows and suckers. +In the upland streams are darters, shiners, +suckers, sunfishes and small-mouthed +black bass. In the channels of the +larger tributaries are found the large +suckers, buffalo fishes, gar pike, channel +catfish, drum, pike and pickerel. The +lowland streams contain the dogfish, pirate +perch, some sunfishes, the large-mouthed +black bass, some suckers, +catfishes and other species. Minnows, +darters, suckers and sunfishes +are found in lowland, upland and +mountain streams, though not the same +species in each. These fishes belong to +families which are made up of many species, +some being strictly upland, +others strictly lowland, each having a +limited range. In the same way we have +fresh water fishes and salt water fishes; +some fishes, as the trout and salmon and +eel, live in both salt and fresh water. +Many other fishes, as the killifishes, +thrive best in brackish water. Each species +of fishes is best fitted for a particular +region into which it has been forced to +live, either to escape its enemies or to be +able to get a living easiest. In its migrations +it has moved along lines of least resistance, +and has colonized those streams +where Mother Nature has been able to +do the most for it. The darters are small, +perch-like fishes, which seldom exceed a +length of six inches, the average being +about three. All are active and swift +swimmers and well suited for a life +among the rocks and swift water of our +smaller streams. All countries have +small, swift, rocky streams, but few have +darters. In their stead we find loaches, +gobies, characins, sculpins, and the like. +These fishes have "become dwarfed and +concentrated, taking the place in their +respective habitats which the darters occupy +in the waters of the Mississippi valley. +By the same process of 'analogous +variation' the cichlids of South America +parallel the sunfishes of the United +States, although in structure and in origin +the two groups are diverse."</p> + +<p>Dr. Jordan tells us that the trout of the +Pacific coast came to America from +Asia, and gradually spread eastward and +southward until now it is found in all the +streams of the Rocky Mountains, the +Sierra Nevada, the Cascades and the +Coast range. It is but a short distance +from Kamchatka to Alaska, and this distance +is traveled by trout to this day; +once over, a fish able to spend much of its +time in salt water could easily colonize +all our coast streams. Whether or not all +of our Pacific trout are descendants of +one species, the cut-throat trout, is more +or less uncertain, though it is quite certain +that all have descended from not +more than two or three species. In many +places they have been able to pass from +the head waters of one river to that of +another, just as they now pass from the +head waters of the Columbia to the Missouri +by the way of Two Ocean Pass. +The ancient lakes, Lahontan and Bonneville, +no doubt assisted them in their migrations. +Since these have disappeared +each colony has had to remain more or +less isolated. In time they have become +somewhat changed, to better adapt themselves +to their new environment. These +changes have developed certain peculiar +characters, by means of which we +can distinguish one kind of trout from +another, just as the farmer distinguishes +his Berkshire from his Poland China. +Spread, as the trout are, over such a large +area, in such an immense variety of +streams and lakes, and with a vertical +range of over one thousand feet, we +would certainly expect as large a number +of species and varieties of trout to be developed +as we find at present in the +streams of our west coast.</p> + +<p>Fishes are found in the deepest parts +of the ocean. Some of these are peculiar +to the deep waters, none of the shore +fishes resembling them. On the other +hand, many deep sea fishes belong to +families well represented in the shallow +water. The flounders are found in water +at all depths, and the same is true of the +bat fishes, rock fishes and other shore +fishes. It is easy to understand how +these fishes have found their way to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +deep water. It was either to escape their +enemies or to extend their range for +some reason; as Mr. Garman puts it, +"They have slid down," as it were to the +bottom of the ocean.</p> + +<p>In general, animals migrating will always +move along lines of least resistance. +Some deep-sea fishes have a considerable +vertical range. It is thought that some +move into shallower water to deposit +their eggs or place their young in warmer +water, and where the peculiar kind of +food they need early in life is the most +abundant. To study deep sea fishes is +difficult, and so little has been done that +we not only know them imperfectly but +also know very little concerning their life +histories.</p> + +<p>In February, March and April of 1891 +the United States Fish Commission +steamer Albatross explored a portion of +the region between the coasts of Mexico +and Central America and the Galapagos +Archipelago. Besides obtaining a large +number of shore fishes, about nine hundred +specimens of fishes were secured, +ranging from a depth of one hundred to +twenty-two hundred and twenty-three +fathoms. This collection was carefully +studied by Professor Garman, of Harvard. +He found the collection to contain +one hundred and eighty species, eighty-five +per cent. of which were new to +science. The bottoms of the oceans are +far from level, and each deep basin has +its own peculiar fauna. The shallower +parts of the sea prevent migration of the +deep water forms and no doubt living as +they do in eternal darkness and in a temperature +near the freezing point, there is +little to induce them to much activity. +The fact that they are easily captured in +nets of comparatively small size would +indicate that they move about slowly.</p> + +<p>Dr. Jenkins, who has lately studied the +fishes of the Sandwich Islands, informs +me that less than five per cent. are found +on our American coast, while a large per +cent. is found all the way to the Red sea. +In other words, the fishes of the Sandwich +Islands are East Indian rather than +American. This is no doubt caused from +the fact that the deep water between the +islands of the American coast forms a +barrier which has always prevented the +two fish faunas from mingling with each +other. Between Africa and the Sandwich +Islands this has not been the case. +A recent study of the fishes of the Galapagos +Archipelago shows its fauna to be +American, though in what respect its +fishes differ from those of our west coast +they resemble all the more the fishes of +the Sandwich Islands. Two fish faunas +will usually differ from each other if separated +by an impassable barrier; especially +is this true if the barrier be older +than the two faunas.</p> + +<p>Any barrier which prevents or hinders +fishes in their movements from one body +of water to another will separate two +more or less well-marked fish faunas. +These barriers may be mountains, or +shallow water, as in the case of deep sea +fishes; deep water, as in case of shore +fishes; muddy or alkaline water, or water +of different temperature. Temperature +no doubt has far more influence in governing +the movement of fishes than is +generally believed. It plays an important +part in guiding salmon up stream to +their spawning beds. It explains why +they reach the head waters of some +streams and spawn earlier than in similar +streams not far distant, but of different +temperature. If you would know to what +extent fishes of one region differ from +those of another, study well the barriers +between the two regions, learn to what +extent and how long they have existed, +consider the age geologically of the two +regions, and how fishes may have migrated +to one or the other, and in a general +way you will have the key to the situation, +which a careful study of the fishes +is quite sure to verify.</p> + +<p class="ar">Seth E. Meek.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="LOUISIANA TANAGER."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_045.jpg" id="i_045.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">LOUISIANA TANAGER.<br /> + (Piranga ludoviciana.)<br /> + Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_LOUISIANA_TANAGER" id="THE_LOUISIANA_TANAGER"></a>THE LOUISIANA TANAGER.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Piranga ludoviciana.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>The family of Tanagers is remarkable +for the number of species, the gaudy coloring +of many and the interesting fact +that they are confined to the Americas +and the adjacent islands. Dr. Ridgway +says, "that the five families of Neotropical +birds, which are represented by the +greatest number of species, are absolutely +peculiar to America, these families being +the Tanagers, Tyrant Flycatchers, +Wood-hewers, Ant Thrushes and Humming-birds. +None of these families have +even true representatives in any part of +the Old World."</p> + +<p>The family of Tanagers includes approximately +three hundred and eighty +species, of which not more than ten per +cent. have a range extending as far north +as Southern Mexico, and only four, or at +the most five, species are known to the +United States. Of these only two, the +Scarlet Tanager and the Summer Red-bird, +are generally known as far north as +Canada.</p> + +<p>The Tanagers make their home in the +trees, and, being of a retiring disposition, +are more numerous within the bounds of +the forest. During the breeding season +they retire still further into the interior. +No wonder that they are more numerous +in tropical regions, where the luxuriant +foliage of the forests furnishes them with +a safe retreat, and where there is an abundance +of food suited to their taste. This +tendency to avoid the society of man has +made the study of their habits much more +difficult, and but little has been recorded +except that which pertains to the more +northern forms.</p> + +<p>The food is chiefly insects, especially in +the larval form, and berries. To some +extent they also feed upon the buds of +flowers. Mr. Chapman tells us that "the +tropical species are of a roving disposition, +and wander through the forests in +search of certain trees bearing ripe fruit, +near which they may always be found in +numbers." Their nests are shallow and +the eggs, usually three to five in number, +are greenish-blue in color, speckled with +brown and purple.</p> + +<p>The Louisiana Tanager is a Western +species, ranging from British Columbia +on the north to Guatemala on the south, +and from the Missouri river to the Pacific +coast. Our illustration well represents +the male. The female, like its sister +tanagers, is plainly colored, but still beautiful. +It is olive green, with the underside +yellowish. The feathers of the wings +and tail are brown, edged with olive. It +resembles the female Scarlet Tanager. +The young are at first like the female. +Then appears the black of the back, +mixed with some olive and a slight tinge +of red on the head.</p> + +<p>It would seem that its name is a misnomer, +as it is not found in the State of +Louisiana.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="CHATTER_OF_A_CHAT" id="CHATTER_OF_A_CHAT"></a>CHATTER OF A CHAT.</h2> + +<p>I'm the "Chat." You've heard me if +you haven't seen me. But there isn't a +better lookin' bird in our wood, either. +My olive-green coat is a beauty. My yellow +satin vest would dazzle your eyes. +And my white china spectacles are heirlooms +in our family. My wife dresses +just as handsome as I do. I'm a prey to +high spirits. Some folk call me a "wag." +Don't know what that is, but I don't see +the use in bein' doleful. Why, when I +get back from Mexico, I feel obliged to +holler. So I just holler. The way old +Mother Earth rigs up in the Spring +makes me full of life. I get down and +cool my legs in the deep grass. It brings +my appetite back a-whizzin'. My! If I +don't eat a thousand bugs a day. "Juicy" +don't describe 'em. Then I climb a tree-top +and holler. If I eat a thousand bugs +seems like I have to give two thousand +hollers. I holler straight through a +moonlight night. You see, I hate to let +old Whippoorwill think he's the only bird +alive. Mornin' after folks stop talkin' +'bout how bad they slept and say, +"What's that?" somebody says, "That's +the Chat." Then they always laugh. And +I laugh, too—a very Falstaffian laugh, as +if I'se shakin' great fat sides out of their +accordion plaits. Then I give a beautiful +whistle. And they say, "Now, what's +that?" The fellow I know says, "That's +the Chat." Then I give a surprised whistle, +just as if you stepped on a tack or +took a drink of red-hot coffee. And they +say, "And what's that?" And the wise +man says, "That's the Chat again." +Well, says the other fellow, "I'll never +know that bird." But the bad sleeper +says, "Well, you would if he kept you +awake all last night as he did me. He +never knows when to stop." But even +that fellow will never know when I've +said my last word!</p> + +<p>These rag folks are awful stupids, anyhow. +I call 'em "blunderers." Do more +harm than good wherever they're at. My +wife knits our house among thorns just +to plague 'em. They hate to get their +rags torn. Then they'd better keep +scarce of our door. If it ain't in blackberry +jungles it's in catbrier tangles. I +could yarn from sun-up to sundown +'bout how rag folks come blunderin' +round interferin'. Barrin' o cat's, they've +got the most meddlesome forefeet I ever +saw. But it ain't often they find us. Cause +why? We keep still. Our next-door +neighbor's Dame Indigo. Can't a body +go by she don't pop up scoldin' like a +house afire. Then they blunder round +till they find her nest-eggs, too! Lots of +other feather-heads just like her! There's +Topknot Cardnal makes such a fuss anybody'd +know he's got something to hide. +Sure enough, he's had such lots of kin +behind the bars it makes him scary. But +I'd show more pluck, anyhow.</p> + +<p>Once this summer a blunderer smarter'n +common came along by us. We had +a nice place, too, in a dreadful blackberry +tangle. A small sassafras threw a +nice shadow over it when the sun got +hot. Well, I shut up quick, I tell you. +Was just tellin' Mrs. Chat a few things +while she kep' an eye on our four eggs +like. We kep' still as mice. But didn't +that blunderin' rags march right up to +our door and push and scratch till she +saw what we had? Had a little rag blunderer +with her. An' she held her up to +look in, too. Every single feather we had +stood on end! It was good riddance +when they went along. Couldn't believe +my specs when I saw they had left our +eggs alone. Seven suns after, big rags +came back. We're in a peck o' trouble. +Our four bairns just out the shell. We +both had to scratch round with all our +toes to feed and keep 'em breathin'. Been +rainin' for a solid week. Dame Chat said +she just knew they'd get a chill and die. +But the blunderin' party didn't stay long.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p> + +<p>Well, sir, we hadn't got rid of that +blunderer yet. The nex' time she brought +another, bigger one, along. Both crowded +up and looked in our door. You +never saw such beauties as our bairns +that day. Just gettin' so plump and +featherin' right along. But it meant a +sight o' work for us. They just sat and +took in every mouthful we could rake and +scrape. They kep' us busy. Well, when +these blunderin' rags shook the house the +bairns all up and spread their jaws wide +open. Rags thought it was awful cute, +but I'm thankful they didn't offer to feed +'em anything. Did bad enough, anyhow. +Big one said, "Why don't you take their +picture?" First rags said she couldn't. +Second rags said she'd try, anyhow. With +that, first rags began to snap off our best +defenses—without so much as by your +leave. They scratched her good, anyhow; +for she said so. Well, she put some +kind of square black gun right up to our +door. Dame Chat went into hysterics +and those little Chats just boiled over +like a teakettle and went out the nest in +four different directions! The two blunderers +went off in a hurry, both talkin' at +once and one suckin' her paw. Thankful +to say ain't ever seen 'em since. But +Dame Chat's a nervous wreck from the +fright they gave her; and I'm worked to +skin and bone takin' care of the little +Chats. I just wish all the town's fenced +in so's blunderers couldn't get loose to +meddle round in their bunglin', elephant, +rhinoceros way!</p> + +<p class="ar">Elizabeth Nunemacher.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">He comes—he comes—the Frost Spirit comes! You may trace his footsteps now</div> + <div class="verse">On the naked woods and the blasted fields, and the brown hill's withered brow.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">He has smitten the leaves of the gray old trees where their pleasant green came forth,</div> + <div class="verse">And the winds, which follow wherever he goes, have shaken them down to earth.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—John Greenleaf Whittier.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_LUNA_AND_POLYPHEMUS_MOTHS" id="THE_LUNA_AND_POLYPHEMUS_MOTHS"></a> + THE LUNA AND POLYPHEMUS MOTHS.</h2> + +<p>The two silk-worm moths which we +figure this month both possess a point of +excellence far in advance of any other of +our native silk-worm moths; Luna on account +of its graceful form and delicate +colors, and Polyphemus for the silk of +its cocoons.</p> + +<p>It seems that most persons who speak +of the Luna moth (Tropaea luna) feel +called upon to give a more or less poetic +description of it. This, I hope, has been +rendered unnecessary by the colored +plate, so that it will suffice simply to mention +that the beautiful shade of green is +of very rare occurrence among our larger +moths, and that no other has the long, +graceful "tails" on the hind wings, a +characteristic which adds greatly to the +beauty of this insect.</p> + +<p>This moth does not seem to be very +abundant anywhere, but when once seen +will long be remembered on account of +its great beauty. The green and yellow +colors are evidently very closely related, +because either one may, to a greater or +less degree, replace the other, so that +some of the moths have quite a strong, +yellowish tinge. One of our common +swallow-tail butterflies (Iphiclides ajax) +possesses a very similar green color in its +wings, but does not seem to show this +tendency to replace the green by yellow. +On the wings are four eyespots which are +also found in Polyphemus. These are +remarkable in that they are transparent +in the center. This clear area in Luna is +quite small, while in Polyphemus it is +about as large as the entire eye spot of +Luna. The legs are brown and colored +like the front edge of the fore wings. The +hairs on the body and at the base of the +wing are very long and are white or yellow. +The wing expanse ranges from +three and three-fourths to five and one-half +inches.</p> + +<p>During April or May the mother moth +lays her dark-brown or chocolate-colored +eggs upon hickory, walnut, beech, oak, +and a few others of our forest trees. The +limited number of food plants is doubtless +one reason for the rarity of the +moths, as compared with such a common +and almost omnivorous larva as Cecropia. +A single moth may lay about +one hundred eggs, which are smaller than +those of Polyphemus. These hatch in +about ten or fifteen days, the larva making +its escape by eating a circular hole in +the shell. Occasionally a young larva +may be seen crawling about for a short +time, carrying upon its head or tail the +empty shell.</p> + +<p>The adult larva is about three inches +long, of a delicate pale green, a color very +difficult to preserve in the dead larva. +Those on the plate have lost this delicate +green and have become yellow, but show +the form perfectly. This larva is very +much like that of Polyphemus, but may +be distinguished from it by possessing a +longitudinal pale yellow lateral line, +which is not found in Polyphemus. Since +the cocoon is quite thin and contains but +little silk, it is considered of but little +value. This cocoon is spun among two or +three weaves, and is about two inches +long. Some authors claim that the cocoon +falls to the ground with the autumnal falling +of the leaves; others that it transforms +on the ground among the fallen leaves. +The cocoon is quite similar to that of +Polyphemus, but not so firmly attached +when fixed to a stem. The moths emerge +in April and May, there being only a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +single brood in the north, while there are +two in the south.</p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="LUNA MOTH."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_058.jpg" id="i_058.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">LUNA MOTH.<br /> + (Tropaea luna.)</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Adult Male.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">Pupa.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Adult Female</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30"></td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">POLYPHEMUS MOTH.<br /> + (Telea polyphemus.)</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30"></td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Adult Male.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">Eggs on Maple Leaf.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Adult Female.</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Larva.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">About ½ Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Cocoon.</td> +</tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>The color of the cocoon seems to be influenced +in some way by the kind of food +eaten by the larva. Cocoons made by +larva which have been fed on hickory +leaves have a darker color. In the true +silk worm moth this same influence has +been noticed; larvae fed upon the vine +producing red cocoons, on lettuce emerald +green cocoons, while those fed upon +white nettle produce yellow, green or violet +cocoons. It is necessary in order to +procure these results, that the larvae be +fed upon the mulberry till about twenty +days before the formation of the cocoon.</p> + +<p>Polyphemus. The life history of this +native silk worm (Telea polyphemus) is +by far the best known, because many +years ago it was very carefully studied +with the hope that it would prove an important +silk insect. This hope unfortunately +has not been realized.</p> + +<p>The moths, as shown by the plate, are +really beautiful; the large eye spots on +the hind wings contributing much towards +this effect. The transparent, window-like +centers in the eye spot are also +of quite rare occurrence among our +moths. These transparent areas do not +possess the very minute scales found on +the other parts of the wing. Almost all +of the wonderful variety of colors found +in the wings of butterflies and moths are +due either to coloring matter in these +scales, or to the breaking up of the white +light by minute lines on these scales, such +as are seen in the play of colors on a +soap-bubble. These fine lines on the +scales are only on the upper side, and are +about one-sixteen-thousandth of an inch +apart.</p> + +<p>The eggs of Polyphemus are very +much flattened, about the size of those of +Cecropia, and are deposited on leaves and +twigs singly or in small groups. These +hatch in about ten days and usually in the +morning. The young larva often devours +the shell which a few moments before afforded +it shelter. This larva feeds upon +oak, hickory, apple, maple, elm and a variety +of other trees, and thus has a larger +range of food plants than the Luna larva. +The rate of growth is prodigious, as has +been shown by Mr. Trovelot. When the +larva hatches it weighs about one-twentieth +of a grain; in ten days it weighs one-half +of a grain, or ten times its original +weight; in twenty days it weighs three +grains, or sixty times its original weight; +when a month old it weighs thirty-one +grains, or six hundred and twenty times +its original weight, and has consumed +about ninety grains of food; after fifty +days it weighs two hundred and seven +grains, or over four thousand times the +original weight. At fifty-six days the +larva has eaten eighty-six thousand times +its original weight in food! It is therefore +not surprising that these larvae can +often be easily detected upon trees by the +large number of leaves which they have +devoured.</p> + +<p>To provide for this great change in +size, the larva moults five times, but the +time between these moults is not always +the same; there is usually about ten days +between the first four moults and about +twenty between the fourth and fifth. The +larva stops eating a day before the moult, +spins a few threads upon the leaf to which +it attaches its hind legs, and waits for the +transformation, which usually takes place +in the afternoon. The larva, when mature +and ready to spin its cocoon, is about +three inches long. It is sometimes influenced +in its color by the food plant; +the normal larva being of a golden green, +although it has been known to show more +yellow coloring when found on red +maple.</p> + +<p>A short time before beginning its +cocoon the larva ceases to eat and selects +a place for its cocoon. These cocoons are +usually found upon the ground among +the leaves, but are frequently attached to +twigs. After about a half day's work the +larva spreads over the inside of the +cocoon a gummy, resinous substance, +which binds together the threads. After +four or five days more of almost continuous +work, another coating is smeared +over the inside, which renders the cocoon +practically air-tight. The silk fibres become +considerably finer as the cocoon +nears completion and the supply of silk +begins to run low. For this reason the +inner layers of the cocoon are only about +half as strong as the outer ones. The +larva, as the supply of silk diminishes in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +the silk glands, becomes perceptibly reduced +in size. It has been estimated that +the larva, in attaching the continuous +thread of its cocoon, makes two hundred +and fifty-four thousand back and forward +movements. The cocoons are very +strong and dense, of a dirty white color +and generally coated with a white powder, +the female being the larger.</p> + +<p>There is but a single brood in the +north, while in the south there are two.</p> + +<p>In order to see if the pupa needed air, +Mr. Trovelot sealed up some cocoons +over winter in shellac, but the moths +emerged in due time after being in an air-tight +space for nine months. He also delayed +the emergence of the moth till +twenty-one months after entering the +cocoon by placing it upon ice.</p> + +<p>The silk in the spinning glands before +it is spun is a clear, transparent fluid. +These glands seem to be of excessive size +when compared with that of the larva, +since, when fully expanded, they reach +the great length of twenty-five inches, or +about eight times the length of the full-grown +larva. These glands are paired, +one being found on each side of the body, +are considerably folded and taper at each +end. The ducts leading from the anterior +end of the glands unite to form a single +duct which opens below the mouth. The +thread is double, being really composed +of two different fibres, one from each +gland, as may be shown by separating +them. The silk in these glands is prepared +and sold as silk "gut" to anglers. +On account of its transparency when in +water, it becomes invisible and thus aids +in deluding the wary fish, who does not +see any connection between the line and +the baited hook. The "gut" is prepared +as follows: Larvae which are ready to +spin their cocoons are cut open and +placed in strong vinegar for eighteen +hours; the glands are then taken out, +stretched and dried in the shade.</p> + +<p>Six or eight days after beginning the +cocoon, the larval skin is moulted and the +real chrysalic or pupal stage begins. This +stage normally lasts till the following +spring or summer. A few days before +the time of emergence a pair of glands +which open into the mouth become very +active and secrete an acidulated fluid +which escapes and wets the fore end of +the cocoon, causing the resinous material +binding together the fibres to become +soft. Even cocoons sealed up in shellac +and starch have been dissolved by this +fluid, and thus the moths have been able +to escape. When the cocoon has become +sufficiently soft, the moth pushes its way +between the fibres, but in doing so often +breaks some of the threads, thus making +the silk of such cocoons useless for commercial +purposes. The moth at the time +of emergence, with its folded and crumpled +wings, is quite a forlorn-looking object. +These wilted wings soon begin to +fill up with fluids from the body, which +is very large at this time. In some cases, +the fluid is driven into the wings with so +much force that they swell up, and if such +a wing is punctured, thus allowing some +of the fluid to escape, the mature wing +will be of a smaller size than one from +which no fluid has been lost. It must be +remembered that it is possible to inflate a +butterfly or moth's wing, because the +wings of insects are not composed of a +single layer, but are sacs of two layers +which are closely applied. It is thus possible +to split the wing into upper and +lower halves, but this can only be done at +the time of emergence, when these two +layers are not so firmly cemented together +as they are in a few hours after emergence.</p> + +<p>The enemies of Polyphemus are numerous. +Birds prey upon the larvae, in +addition to numerous parasitic insects +which are very similar to those which destroy +Cecropia. The cocoon itself is not +a complete protection because rats and +squirrels plunder them. We thus see +that the life of even an insect is full of +dangers, and that it is really a wonder +that so many are able to become mature +and reproduce.</p> + +<p>The silk-worm moths are excellent illustrations +of what is called complete +metamorphosis in insects. An insect like +the grasshopper, when it hatches from +the egg, is very much like the adult insect +in its general form and appearance; +the most evident difference being the lack +of wings. An insect which shows such +slight changes in its growth to maturity +is said to have an incomplete metamorphosis. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +It is incomplete in the sense that +the change is not of a very radical nature. +But in the case of the silk worm moths, +and moths and butterflies in general, the +larva which hatches from the eggs has +not even the most superficial resemblance +to the adult insect, the fully-developed +moth. This necessitates a complete +change or metamorphosis in the form +and structure of the insect before it can +become mature. This great change is accomplished +during the quiet pupal stage +in the cocoon. Because the pupa is apparently +passive when viewed from the +exterior, one must not conclude that it is +so internally; far from it; the digestive +organs of the larva must be completely +made over from those of a chewing leaf +eater to those of a moth which can only +take liquid food.</p> + +<p class="ar">Charles Christopher Adams.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="CASTLES_IN_THE_AIR" id="CASTLES_IN_THE_AIR"></a>CASTLES IN THE AIR.</h2> + +<p>In a little bend of the San Joaquin +River, where the current, attempting +to straighten its course, has left a bank +a few feet wide, there is a small grove +of tall cottonwood trees, perhaps a +dozen in number, whose branches lean +far over the stream and whose tops +reach almost to the level of the bluff +or rather the floor of the valley 250 +feet above, for this swift river has, in +the course of ages, cut thus deep a +channel for itself.</p> + +<p>The place is not easy of access, for +the shore narrows above and below the +bend to a few inches where one with +difficulty keeps from crumbling away +the sand with his feet and falling into +the water, and the cliff is so nearly +perpendicular that in many places it is +inaccessible to a climber, being of soft +sand whose different stratas are clearly +defined where they have been sliced +off by the cutting stream.</p> + +<p>The valley above is a vast grainfield +out almost to the edge of the bluff, and +along the edge and face of the bluff, +wherever root can cling or tendril hold, +grow beautiful wild flowers in the +early spring days—their last refuge +between the cultivation and the deep +sea, or rather, river.</p> + +<p>In the tops of the cottonwoods live +a number of baronial families in castles +huge, gray and ugly, overlooking the +sweep of the stream. They are the +Great Blue Herons whose Latin title, +(Ardea herodias), gives one some idea +of their ancient lineage. They claim to +be older than the storks of Egypt, and +indeed, they look older as they stand +humpbacked and sleepy on one leg by +the side of their nests, the long fringe +of light-speckled neck feathers underneath +looking like a long gray beard +sweeping over their recurved neck and +breast. There is a wise look about +them, too, for the black markings of the +head sweep back over the eye and prolong +into the appearance of a quill extending +behind their ears.</p> + +<p>Though they are almost four feet +long and spread their wings to six feet +and over, the herons' large blue-grey +bodies are often almost indistinguishable +from the bark of the cottonwood +branches and the blue of the sky +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +against which they are silhouetted so +oddly. One's eyes open with astonishment +when these sticks or excrescences +of the tree-tops slowly unfold an +enormous sweep of sail and, extending +their long stilts behind them, flap off +across the stream with a creaking +sound like the pulleys of a vessel when +the halliards are running through them. +Standing or flapping they are not +handsome birds and one who comes +suddenly upon a large heron for the +first time as he stands in the shallow +water of the brookside, will be convulsed +with laughter, for if there is an +utterly clumsy and awkward form or +motion in bird-life it belongs to this +heron.</p> + +<p>Their homes are big baskets of nests +made of twigs as large as a man's +finger, closely intermeshed. From year +to year they use the same nest or build +over it until it has two or three stories +or more and is bigger than a bushel +basket. There are probably two dozen +nests in the dozen cottonwood trees, +some of the larger trees having three +or four or even six away up in their +tops where the branches seem scarcely +strong enough to bear such heavy burdens. +From the top of the bluff one +can look down into the nests and in +early March see the big blue eggs, almost +as large as hens' eggs, reposing +like amethysts in their rough brown +setting. Some authors state that not +over three eggs are laid, but I have +seen four about as often as three and, +on one occasion, five in a nest.</p> + +<p>From their high-placed towers the +herons watch the small fry in the river +below and make forays among the +young trout, pike and catfish and the +frogs. They listen to the complaining +voices in the twilight and in the morning +give them cause for still further +complainings. They keep in terror the +big wood rats whose homes in the +clumps of elder berries below surpass +in size those of the herons. And the +gophers and field mice of the grain +fields never know at what moment an +ungainly shadow shall fall upon them +and end their harvestings. There was +a conceited young frog who sang loud +and shrill at sunset on the edge of the +river and who had an ambition to be, +not an ox like the one in the fable, but +a Patti. And she had her wish after a +fashion, for that connoisseur, the heron +who dwelt on the farthest branch over +the water, attracted by her vocal abilities, +sought her out, and the little herons +thought her the nicest <i>paté de foie +gras</i> they had ever eaten.</p> + +<p>There they dwell, this ancient race +of high-born philosophers, stalking the +shallows of sunny baylets, or dreaming +in the breeze of the tree-tops of traditions +old as the sequoias. What an +authority would you and I be if we +could read the unwritten history of +their race!</p> + +<p class="ar"> +Charles Elmer Jenny.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse">Boughs are daily rifled</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">By the gusty thieves,</div> + <div class="verse">And the Book of Nature</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Getteth short of leaves.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Hood, "The Seasons."</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_073.jpg" id="i_073.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_073.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE.<br /> + (Antilocapra americana.)<br /> + Greatly reduced.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> +</tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_PRONG-HORNED_ANTELOPE" id="THE_PRONG-HORNED_ANTELOPE"></a> + THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Antilocapra americana.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>The antelope family comprises many of +the most beautiful and graceful species +among horned animals. When we behold +the curiously twisted horns of the +sasin, the long, sharp horns of the pasan, +the large, spiral horns of the koodoo +and the shorter horns of the eland, not to +mention the graceful bodies and limbs +of these animals, we are led to wonder at +the extravagance of nature in furnishing +such a variety of appendages to these +creatures.</p> + +<p>By far the larger number of species of +this family live in Africa and Asia, where +they have reached the highest development +of structure. They are not, like +some families of mammals, confined to +any one particular locality, but are +found on the plains and high up on the +mountains; in a country sparsely covered +with vegetation and in the thick forests; +in marshes and bogs. In fact, they seem +to inhabit all varieties of country. While +the family is thus diversified in habitat, +the different species are by no means so +widely distributed, for while some species, +like the sasin, live only on the open +plains, others, like the chamois, live high +up on the mountains, frequently above +the snow-line.</p> + +<p>The subject of our sketch, the Prong-horned +antelope (Antilocapra americana), +is not as large nor so strikingly +horned as the other animals which have +been mentioned. In fact, so different is +its structure, having hollow, pronged +horns which do not increase by continuous +growth, as do those of the true antelopes, +but are shed like those of the deer +family, and having a somewhat different +structure of feet and different texture of +hair, that a family has been made for it +known as Antilocapridae.</p> + +<p>The Prong-horn ranges throughout +the western part of North America from +the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean, +and from the Saskatchewan river south +to the Rio Grande. It is not confined to +the plains, but has been found in the wild +valleys of the Rocky mountains to a +height of over eight thousand feet above +sea level.</p> + +<p>The daily life of this interesting animal +is thus described by Canfield, who made +an exhaustive study of them and who +also kept them in captivity: "From the +first of September to the first of March +one always sees them in larger groups +composed of bucks, does and yearlings. +Shortly afterward the does individually +retire from these herds and give birth +to their young. After a short interval +they again unite with other suckling does +and their little calves, possibly with a view +to common defense against the wolf and +coyotes. The adult bucks roam about +singly or two together, leaving the mothers +with their latest progeny to their fate, +the young Prong-horns in the meantime +gathering in groups of their own apart +from the older animals. Apparently tired +of the world and bored by society the old +bucks wander about for one or two +months, frequenting localities in which +they are not ordinarily seen. Two or +three months subsequently the adolescent +bucks again join the old does and +their calves, and finally the old bucks also +put in an appearance, so that one can observe +herds, numbering hundreds, or +sometimes even thousands, after the first +of September. A herd never leaves its +native locality or roams over more than a +few miles of range. In dry summer +weather they seek water and go to drink +regularly once a day or twice in three +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +days; but if the grass is fresh and green, +as is the case during the greater part of +the year, the Prong-horns do not drink +at all."</p> + +<p>The food of the antelope consists to a +great extent of the short, succulent herbage +of the prairie, of moss, and also, to a +limited extent, of the young and tender +branches of trees. Like many other ruminants, +this animal is passionately fond of +salt and they will remain about saline deposits +for many hours, satisfying themselves +by licking the salty ground.</p> + +<p>The antelope is the swiftest runner of +any animal in North America, though +perhaps less agile and speedy than some +of its relatives in the old world. It has +been said by competent observers that so +swiftly do they run that it is absolutely +impossible to distinguish their limbs.</p> + +<p>The senses of the antelope are unusually +developed. Their sight is exceedingly +keen and their hearing very acute. +Their sense of smell is so well developed +that no danger can possibly approach +from the windward side. When a herd is +feeding, sentinels are placed on the outskirts +to scent any impending danger, +and to give due warning to the herd. +Their curiosity is one of their most peculiar +qualities and seems to overshadow +every other sense.</p> + +<p>For a number of years this graceful +animal has been considered royal game +for the sportsman and a good round-up +of antelopes is considered a great achievement +among hunters. Mr. G. O. Shields, +in his interesting book, "Hunting in the +Great West," very vividly describes a +hunt for antelopes, and we cannot better +illustrate the peculiarities of the animal +than by giving his pen sketch:</p> + +<p>"We had heard from some ranchmen +along the way that the buffalo herd was +at this time grazing about fifteen to twenty +miles up the Big Porcupine, and knowing +that antelopes are nearly always +found hanging on the outskirts of every +large herd of bison, we were on the look-out +for them, for it would not seem at all +strange to find them near the stage trail +on which we were traveling. We scanned +the country closely with the field glass +and were finally rewarded by seeing a +number of small white spots on the dead +grass away up the Porcupine, that +seemed to be moving. We rode toward +them at a lively trot for perhaps a mile, +and then stopped to reconnoitre again. +From this point we could plainly distinguish +them, though they looked to be +about the size of jack rabbits. We again +put the rowels to our donkeys and rode +rapidly up to within about a mile of them, +when we picketed our animals in a low +swale, took out our antelope flag—a piece +of scarlet calico about half a yard square—attached +it to the end of my wiping +stick, and were ready to interview the antelopes.</p> + +<p>"I crawled to the top of a ridge within +plain view of the game, and planted my +flag. The breeze spread it out, kept it +fluttering, and it soon attracted their attention. +They were then near the bank +of the river, grazing quietly, but this bit +of colored rag excited their curiosity to +a degree that rendered them restive, anxious, +uneasy, and they seemed at once to +be seized with an insatiable desire to find +out what it was. An antelope has as +much curiosity as a woman, and when +they see any object that they don't quite +understand, they will travel miles and run +themselves into all kinds of danger to +find out what it is. They have been +known to follow an emigrant or freight +wagon with a white cover several miles, +and an Indian brings them within reach +of his arrow by standing in plain view +wrapped in his red blanket. Some hunters +"flag" them by lying down on their +back, holding one foot as high as possible, +and swinging it to and fro. A piece +of bright tin or a mirror answers the +same purpose on a clear day. Almost +any conspicuous or strange-looking object +will attract them, but the most convenient, +as well as the most reliable at +all times, is the little red flag, such as we +employed in this instance.</p> + +<p>"Huffman went to the top of another +ridge, to my right and some distance in +advance, and Jack crawled into a hollow +on the left, and well in advance, we three +forming a half circle, into which it was +our intention if possible to decoy the +game. When they first discovered our +flag they moved rapidly toward it, sometimes +breaking into a trot, but when they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +had covered half the distance between us +and their starting point, they began to +grow suspicious and stopped. They circled +around, turned back, walked a few +steps, and then paused and looked back +at the, to them, mysterious apparition. +But they could not resist its magic influence. +Again they turned and came toward +it, stopped, and gazed curiously at +it. The old buck who led the herd +stamped impatiently, as if annoyed at being +unable to solve the mystery. Then +they walked cautiously toward us again, +down an incline into a valley, which took +them out of our sight, and out of sight +of the flag. This of course rendered +them still more impatient, and when they +again came in sight on the next ridge, +they were running. But as soon as their +leader caught sight of the flag, he +stopped, as did the others in their turn +when they reached the top of the ridge. +There were seven in the herd, two bucks, +three does and two fawns. They were +now not more than a hundred yards from +me, and still less from the other two of +our party. Their position was everything +we could wish, and though we +might possibly have brought them a few +yards nearer, there was a possibility of +their scenting us, even across the wind, +which, of course, we had arranged to +have in our favor, and I decided that +rather than run the risk of this and the +consequent stampede, I would shoot +while I had a good chance. It had been +arranged that I was to open the ball, so I +drew my peep and globe sights down +very finely, taking the white breast of the +old buck for my bull's-eye, and pulled. +Huffman's Kennedy and Jack's carbine +paid their compliments to the pretty visitors +at almost the same instant, and for +about two or three minutes thereafter we +fanned them about as vigorously as ever +a herd got fanned under similar circumstances. +The air was full of leaden missiles; +the dry dust raised under and +around the fleeing herd as it does when +a team trots over a dusty road. Clouds +of smoke hung over us, and the distant +hills echoed the music of our artillery +until the last white rump disappeared in +the cottonwoods on the river bank.</p> + +<p>"When the smoke of battle cleared +away, and we looked over the field, we +found that we had not burned our powder +in vain. Five of the little fellows, the +two bucks and three does, had fallen victims +to their curiosity. The two fawns +had, strangely enough, escaped, probably +only because they, so much smaller than +their parents, were less exposed."</p> + +<p>The antelope have a curious way of +protecting their young, when on the open +prairie. This is accomplished by placing +a ring of sharp-pointed cacti about a spot +which has been beaten smooth by their +hoofs. Inside this ample protection the +animal cares for its young and secures ingress +and egress for itself by jumping +over the ring of cacti. This serves to protect +them from the majority of their foes, +which inhabit the open country.</p> + +<p>The antelope does not thrive well in +captivity, the older ones soon killing +themselves in their attempts to escape. +The young taken soon after their birth +generally die early, unless very special +care is bestowed upon them, and even if +they survive the juvenile state, they are +very likely to die when three or four +months old, from pyaemic sores or inflammation +of the limbs.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="PLANT_PROTECTION" id="PLANT_PROTECTION"></a>PLANT PROTECTION.</h2> + +<p>In the <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/48540/48540-h/48540-h.htm#Page_119"> +last number</a> of this journal it +was shown how plants seek to avoid the +visits of unsuitable insects to their flowers. +This is one means of protection, but +there are many others which are even +more striking and vital. It is supposed +by many that plants are helpless beings, +which must submit to all sorts of unfavorable +conditions which come upon +them. This is far from true, for while +plants as a rule are fixed and unable to +escape from danger by flight, still they +have very many ways of helping themselves.</p> + +<p>Prominent among the dangers which +come to active green plants are those +which arise from too intense light, which +may destroy the delicate working substances. +Since the leaves are the great +working organs in the manufacture of +food, they are especially equipped for +protection. Those leaves which must +work in exposed places have many details +of structure which are evidently for +guarding them against the ill effects of +too intense light. The most striking +adaptations, however, are those which +have to do with protective positions. Under +ordinary circumstances leaves are +placed so that their flat faces are exposed +to the most intense light. In some cases +this is so great a danger that the leaves +are set edgewise, the edges being directed +upwards and downwards. When a +plant assumes this habit, the leaves are +said to be in a profile position, and the +plants are sometimes called "compass +plants." The latter name has come from +the fact that such leaves usually point +north or south, and once it was assumed +that this position was in response to +some mysterious magnetic influence. It +is found, however, that it is merely an effort +on the part of the plant to protect its +leaves from the intense light of midday, +and at the same time to expose them to +the morning and evening rays of much +less intensity. If a leaf is to be placed +with its edge upwards and its flat faces +east and west, it follows of necessity that +it will point either north or south.</p> + +<p>Some leaves, however, have the power +of shifting their position according to +their needs, directing their flat surfaces +toward the light, or more or less inclining +them according to the danger. Perhaps +the most completely adapted leaves of +this kind are those of the "sensitive +plants," whose leaves respond to various +external influences by changing their positions. +The sensitive plants abound in +dry and hot regions, and one of the best +known is represented in our illustration. +It will be noticed that the leaves of this +Mimosa are divided into very numerous +small leaflets, which stretch in pairs along +the leaf branches. When the time of intense +light and dryness approaches some +of the pairs of leaflets fold together, +slightly reducing the surface exposure. +As the unfavorable condition continues, +more leaflets fold together, then still +others, until finally all the leaflets may be +folded together, and the leaves themselves +may bend against the stem. It is +like a sailing vessel gradually taking in +sail as a storm approaches, until finally +nothing is exposed, and the vessel weathers +the storm by presenting only bare +poles. These are but a few illustrations +of the very numerous devices for escaping +too intense light and the dangers +which accompany it.</p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="SENSITIVE PLANT."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_084.jpg" id="i_084.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">PLANTS PRESENTED BY LINCOLN PARK COMMISSIONERS.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">SENSITIVE PLANT.<br /> + (Mimosa pudica.)</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Awake.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40"></td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Asleep</td> +</tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>One common danger in temperate regions +comes from the lowering of the +temperature each night, which sometimes +may chill the living substances to the +danger point. This is particularly dangerous +to seedlings, whose tender structures +have not yet developed the ordinary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +protective coats. In the spring the +seed leaves of numerous seedlings may +be seen at the approach of night to rise +upward and come together, just as the +palms of the hand may be placed together +over one's head. This reduces the surface +of exposure and the danger of chill +at least one-half. Darwin experimented +upon these seedlings, and discovered that +by preventing some of the seed leaves +from moving, the seedlings were seriously +injured. The leaves of very many +plants assume a peculiar night position +which tends to meet the danger of loss of +heat. Often the three leaflets of the common +clover, if growing in an exposed +place, may be observed to fold together +into a sort of tent-like arrangement.</p> + +<p>Many plants are also observed to protect +themselves against rain, as it is necessary +for leaves to avoid becoming wet. +If the water is allowed to soak in, the +work of the leaves is at once interfered +with. Hence it will be noticed that most +leaves are able to shed water, partly by +their position, partly by their structure. +In many plants the leaves are so arranged +that the water runs off toward the stem; +in other plants the rain is shed outwards +as from the eaves of a house. Some of the +structures which prevent the rain from +soaking in are a smooth epidermis, layers +of cuticle, hairy coverings, etc. Interesting +experiments may be performed +with different leaves to test their power +of shedding water. If a gentle spray be +allowed to play upon different plants it +will be observed that the water glances +off at once from the surfaces of some +leaves, runs off more slightly from others, +and may be more or less retained by +others.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most general preparation +for protection in our region is that which +is made for the coming of the winter's +cold. In many cases plants do not attempt +to protect their delicate structures +from the severity of winter, but disappear +entirely, leaving only well-protected +seeds to carry them over into the next +growing season. This results in the so-called +"annual habit," which has been +learned by many plants in order to escape +a season of danger. Other plants +do not disappear so completely, but everything +above the surface of the ground +dies, while the plant continues in the +form of underground bulbs, tubers, or +various thickened structures. This habit +of seeking a subterranean retreat at +the approach of some dangerous season +is a very good one, and is found in +many of our early spring plants. This +subterranean habit has a great advantage +over the annual habit, since a seed is very +slow in bringing the plant back again, +while a bulb can produce its plant very +rapidly.</p> + +<p>Still other plants preserve more of +their structures than either the annuals +or the ground-loving plants. For example, +most of our trees have cultivated +what is known as the deciduous habit, +that is, they merely drop their leaves, +which are the endangered structures, at +the approach of the unfavorable season, +and renew them again when the favorable +conditions return. It should be remarked +that these leaves do not fall because +they are broken off, but that in a certain +sense it is a process of growing off, which +is carefully prepared for. One of the +most prominent features associated with +the deciduous habit is the autumnal coloration. +The vivid colors which appear +in the leaves of many trees just before the +time of falling have attracted a great deal +of attention, but although it is so prominent, +the causes for it are very obscure. +It will be noticed that this autumnal coloration +consists in the development of +various shades of two typical colors, yellow +and red. It is known that the yellow +is due to the breaking down of the green +substances, so that it simply indicates a +post mortem change, as may be noticed +in connection with the blanching of celery +in which the leaves and upper part of +the stem may be green, the green may +shade gradually into yellow, and finally +into the pure white of complete blanching. +The red coloring matter, however, +is very different. Certain experiments +upon plant colors have indicated that the +presence of the red slightly increases the +temperature by absorbing more heat. It +is suggested that the red color may be a +slight protection to the living substance +which is ceasing to work, and which is in +danger of exposure to cold. If this be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +true, it may be that the same explanation +will cover the case of the red flush so conspicuous +in buds and young leaves in +early spring. It must not be supposed +that the need of protection has developed +the coloring, but since it is developed it +may be of some such service to the plant. +Even the conditions which determine autumnal +coloration have not been made +out certainly.</p> + +<p>It is instructive to notice how differently +the so-called evergreens, as pines, +spruces, etc., have answered the problem +of protection against the cold of winter. +The evergreens, instead of dropping their +leaves, have undertaken to protect them, +giving them a small surface and very +heavy walls. In this way protection has +been secured at the expense of working +power during the season of work. Reduced +surface and thick walls are both +obstacles to leaf work. On the other +hand, the deciduous trees have developed +the working power of their leaves to +the greatest extent, giving them large +surface exposure and comparatively delicate +walls. It is out of the question to +protect such an amount of surface during +the winter, and hence the deciduous habit. +The evergreens are saved the annual +renewal of leaves, but lose in working +power; the deciduous trees must renew +their leaves annually, but gain greatly in +working power.</p> + +<p>To obtain the most striking instances +of protection, however, one must examine +plants which belong to permanently +dry regions, such as may be found in the +United States along the Mexican border, +or in the regions of tropical deserts. In +the first place, it will be noticed that the +plants in general produce smaller leaves +than in other regions. That this holds a +direct relation to the dry conditions is +evident from the fact that the same plant +often produces smaller leaves in dry conditions +than in moist. One of the most +striking features of an arid country is the +absence of large leaves. These reduced +leaves are of various forms, such as the +needle leaves of pines, or the thread-like +leaves of certain sedges and grasses, or +the narrow leaves with inrolled margins +such as is common in many heath plants. +The extreme of leaf reduction has been +reached by the Cactus plants, whose +leaves, so far as foliage is concerned, have +disappeared entirely, and the leaf work is +done by the surface of the globular, cylindrical, +or flattened stems. A covering of +hairs is an effective sun screen, and it is +very common to find plants of dry regions +characteristically hairy. In such +regions it is to be observed also that +dwarf growths prevail, so that the plant, +as a whole, does not present such an exposure +to the drouth as in regions of +greater moisture. One of the most prominent +measures of protection in dry regions +is the organization of what are +known as water reservoirs. Nearly all +plants of such regions have leaves which +are known as fleshy, that is, they are +thick and juicy, being reservoirs of stored +up moisture which is doled out cautiously +according to the needs of the plant, without +any wastefulness.</p> + +<p>The whole subject of plant protection +is an immense one, and the illustrations +given above are merely intended to suggest +that there is such a subject, and to +lead to some observation of the various +schemes of protection which are to be +seen plainly on every hand.</p> + +<p class="ar">John Merle Coulter.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse">Nature is but a name for an effect</div> + <div class="verse">Whose cause is God.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Cowper, "The Task."</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_BIRTH_OF_A_TREE" id="THE_BIRTH_OF_A_TREE"></a>THE BIRTH OF A TREE.</h2> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Once I lay 'neath quilt of green,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">All unthought of, all unseen;</div> + <div class="verse">Little thinking of the world</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Out of which I had been hurled.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">By and by, when quilt grew hot,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Mother Nature touched my cot,</div> + <div class="verse">Whispered softly in my ear,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">"Higher, higher, higher, dear."</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Painted lovely scenes for me,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Saying, "Child, climb up and see."</div> + <div class="verse">I was lazy, so I said,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">"Please, ma'am, let me stay in bed."</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Something whispered, "Child, I fear</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Life will be but meager here."</div> + <div class="verse">Golden sunbeams bade me start,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">And a purpose filled my heart.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">I would leave my bed of ease,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">I would join the forest trees;</div> + <div class="verse">Shelter travelers passing by,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Hide squirrels in the branches high.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Purpose, mighty power, led,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Ever, ever on ahead,</div> + <div class="verse">Till I grew up here so high,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Near the sunlight and the sky.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Mother Nature, mother dear,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">I am glad you called me here.</div> + <div class="verse">Thus the mighty forest oak</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">From his wooded homeland spoke.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">And I thought a lesson this—</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">We, to reach the highest bliss,</div> + <div class="verse">Must arise from beds of ease,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Growing like the forest trees.</div> + <div class="verse ar">Lucia Belle Cook.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_ALMOND" id="THE_ALMOND"></a>THE ALMOND.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Amygdalus communis L..</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p class="bq">And it came to pass that on the morrow Moses went into the tabernacle of witness; +and behold, the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was budded, and brought forth buds, +and blossomed blossoms, and yielded <i>almonds</i>.—Numbers 17:8.</p> + +<p>The almond is the fruit of a small tree +(Amygdalus communis) belonging to +the Rose family (Rosaceae). The plant is +believed to be a native of northern Africa, +Persia and Turkestan. It occurs wild +in Sicily and Greece and is cultivated +throughout temperate Europe, including +England.</p> + +<p>The leaves of the almond tree are simple, +broadly lanceolate, margins serrate, +bright green and stalked. The flowers +are nearly sessile, mostly solitary, petals +bright pink; otherwise similar to the +flowers of the rose family as seen in the +apple blossom, cherry blossom and the +wild rose. The fruit is a drupe or stone +fruit, resembling the peach in its general +structural characters. It is, however, +much smaller, measuring about one and +one-half inch in length. As in the peach +the outer portion of the fruit coat (sarcocarp) +is fleshy, the inner portion (endocarp +or putamen) is hard and encloses the +kernel or seed to which the term almond +is usually applied. The plant is very ornamental, +producing its beautiful flowers +in March before the leaves are developed.</p> + +<p>Two natural varieties of almonds are +quite universally recognized, the sweet +(A. communis var dulcis) and the bitter +(A. communis var amara). They resemble +each other so closely in general appearance +that it is practically impossible +to distinguish between them. The principal +difference lies in the chemistry of +the kernels or seeds themselves. In the +bitter variety amygdalin is found, which +is practically wanting in the sweet variety. +Some botanists describe quite a +number of varieties. Karsten, for instance, +describes five varieties of A. communis, +namely, dulcis, amara, fragilis, +macrocarpa and persicoides. Boissier +in his Flora Orientalis describes as many +as seventeen distinct species.</p> + +<p>The almond tree is one of the oldest +of the cultivated plants. It was a great +garden favorite in and about Palestine. +It is frequently mentioned in the books +of Moses. In Exodus 25:34, we find +that the "candlestick shall have four +bowls made like unto almonds." As explained +in the 8th verse of chapter 17 of +Numbers the blossoming rod of Aaron +was from an almond tree. Even to this +day Jews carry rods bearing almond blossoms +to the synagogues on great festival +days. The Romans designated the almonds +(the kernels or seeds with the hard +endocarp or shell) Nuces graecae (Greek +nuts), from which it is concluded that the +almond tree was brought to Italy from +Greece. Almond oil was known to the +ancient Greek and Roman writers. Plinius +and Dioscorides make reference to +the gum which exudes from the bark. +Karl der Grosse (Charlemagne) recommended +the cultivation of almonds in +Germany. In view of the fact that some +authorities state that the sweet variety is +a product of cultivation, it is interesting +to note that the two varieties have been +known equally long. The bitter variety +was described by Scribonius Largus and +Plinius. Alexander Trallianus described +the medicinal virtues of the oil of bitter +almonds. Palladinus gave directions +how to convert the bitter variety into the +sweet variety by methods of cultivation. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +Later experiments have, however, proven +this to be a false conclusion.</p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="ALMOND."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_096.jpg" id="i_096.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_096.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM KŒHLER'S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">ALMOND.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">CHICAGO:<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER.</td> +</tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>Description of Plate:—A, B, branch +with flowers and fruit; 1, 1a, flowers from +different trees; 2, 2a, petals; 3, stamens; +4, pollen; 5, stamen; 6, 7, ovary; 8, 9, +seed with shell; 10, seed without shell; +11, 12, sections of seed.</p> + +<p>The fruit and seeds of several other +plants are known as almonds. The seeds +of the African shrub Brabejum stellatifolium +are known as African almonds. +Country almonds is a name given to the +fruit of the East Indian tree Terminalia +Catappa. The fruit of Canarium commune +is known as Java almonds.</p> + +<p>At the present time the sweet almond +is extensively cultivated in northern Africa, +southern Europe and in the warmer +parts of the United States, particularly in +California. Climatic conditions and cultivation +have a great influence upon the +quality of the almonds and we have as a +result quite a number of commercial varieties, +just as we have commercial varieties +of coffee, tea, oranges, etc. The more +important commercial varieties are the +Jordan, Valencia, Barbary and California +almonds. These vary somewhat in size, +form and thickness of the kernel and the +hardness and thickness of the shell (endocarp). +The Jordan almonds are imported +from Malaga (Spain) and are said +to be the finest. They differ from the +others in the greater length of the kernel +(seed), for which reason they are also +known as long almonds. These are official +in the English Pharmacopoeia because +they are not readily confused with +other sweet varieties and the bitter almond. +The Valencia almonds come from +the Balearic islands (Majorca); they are +characterized by a comparatively soft +shell and are less highly prized than the +Jordan or the California almonds. The +Barbary almonds from northern Africa +are quite small and unsightly and for +those reasons have comparatively little +commercial value. In the United States +the principal commercial variety is the +California almond. The kernel is shorter +and flatter than that of the Jordan almond, +but almost equal to it in quality. +It is extensively cultivated, about one +hundred trees being planted to the acre. +The trees attain a height of fifteen to +twenty feet and begin to yield when three +years old. In California it is customary +to bleach the almonds by exposing them +to the vapor of burning sulphur, which +also destroys insect parasites which attack +almonds very readily.</p> + +<p>Other less important sweet commercial +varieties are the Provence almonds of +southern France, the Florence and Ambrosia +almonds of Sicily, the Pitti almonds +of Portugal and the small Puglia +almonds of Italy.</p> + +<p>The bitter almond seeds are as a rule +somewhat shorter, broader and thinner +than those of the larger, sweet varieties. +Those found upon the market are largely +from northern Africa, Sicily and southern +France.</p> + +<p>The principal constituents of sweet almonds +are a fixed oil, sugar, some albuminoid +substances, and perhaps a +small quantity of amygdalin or a substance +akin to it. The purified fixed oil +from both varieties of almonds is a bland, +thin, pale yellow liquid, having a faint +taste and odor of the almond. When exposed +to the air it becomes rancid quite +readily. Medicinally it finds use as an +emollient in external applications. Taken +internally in small doses it is nutritious; +in large doses laxative. Mixed with mucilage +or yolk of eggs and sugar it is +found useful in allaying troublesome +coughs due to irritation of the throat. It +also finds a table use similar to that of +olive oil.</p> + +<p>Bitter almonds contain a very poisonous +volatile oil in addition to the fixed +oil just described. In small quantities +this oil finds a use for flavoring by the +cook and confectioner, and by the perfumer +for scenting toilet soaps and for +other purposes. This oil is obtained by +distillation after the fixed oil has been expressed. +It is the product of the decomposition +of amygdalin under the influence +of emulsin and water. The poisonous +properties of this oil are due to the +hydrocyanic acid which is present. This +acid may be removed and the oil is then +known as purified oil of bitter almonds. +Even the purified oil is not safe, as it decomposes +quite readily unless all of the +water is removed by the use of fused +chloride of lime.</p> + +<p>The symptoms of poisoning from the +oil of bitter almonds, or from a quantity +of the bitter almonds, are the same as from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +a dose of hydrocyanic acid. Medicinally +the oil is used like hydrocyanic acid in +various disorders of nervous origin, as +whooping cough, spasmodic troubles, +etc.</p> + +<p>Sweet almonds are variously employed. +Roasted and salted almonds are very +much liked by everybody. Almonds for +the table must first be "blanched," that +is, the outer, reddish brown, thin seed +coat must be removed, as it contains irritant +properties. They are used in making +cake and other pastry. Cake or bread +made from almond meal has been recommended +as a substitute for ordinary bread +in the treatment of diabetes, as it is free +from starch, a food substance which +proves harmful in this disease. Almond +cake is a term applied to the crushed +seeds from which the oil has been expressed. +Finely-powdered this is used +for washing hands and face. Almond +paste is a cosmetic made from powdered +bitter almonds, white of egg, rose water +and rectified spirits. It is used to soften +the skin and prevent chapping of hands. +An emulsion of sweet almonds is also +used as a substitute for milk in feeding +infants.</p> + +<p class="ar">Albert Schneider.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="ac">Nature, the Vicar of the Almightie Lord.</div> + <div class="ar">—Chaucer, "The Assembly of Foules."</div> + +<div class="poetry-container p1"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse">All Nature is but art, unknown to thee;</div> + <div class="verse">All chance, direction, which thou canst not see;</div> + <div class="verse">All discord, harmony not understood;</div> + <div class="verse">All partial evil, universal good;</div> + <div class="verse">And, spite of pride, in erring reason's spite,</div> + <div class="verse">One truth is clear, whatever is, is right.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Pope, "Essay on Man."</div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="p1">Nature is a frugal mother, and never gives without measure.</div> +<div class="ar">—Emerson, "Essays."</div> + +<div class="poetry-container p1"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent4">But who can paint</div> + <div class="verse">Like Nature! Can imagination boast</div> + <div class="verse">Amid its gay creations hues like hers?</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Thompson, "Seasons."</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<div class="transnote"> + +<h2><span class="smaller">Transcriber's Note:</span></h2> + <ul> + <li>Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note.</li> + <li>Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant form was + found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</li> + <li>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.</li> + <li>Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs + and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that references them.</li> + <li>The Contents table was added by the transcriber.</li> + </ul> +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 48579 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/48579-h/images/cover.jpg b/48579-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0052d84 --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/48579-h/images/i_005.jpg b/48579-h/images/i_005.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0768402 --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-h/images/i_005.jpg diff --git a/48579-h/images/i_020.jpg b/48579-h/images/i_020.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fe8a3ae --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-h/images/i_020.jpg diff --git a/48579-h/images/i_033.jpg b/48579-h/images/i_033.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..255ce48 --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-h/images/i_033.jpg diff --git a/48579-h/images/i_045.jpg b/48579-h/images/i_045.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..975f42b --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-h/images/i_045.jpg diff --git a/48579-h/images/i_058.jpg b/48579-h/images/i_058.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f62b508 --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-h/images/i_058.jpg diff --git a/48579-h/images/i_073.jpg b/48579-h/images/i_073.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0300ad6 --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-h/images/i_073.jpg diff --git a/48579-h/images/i_084.jpg b/48579-h/images/i_084.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..32c8420 --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-h/images/i_084.jpg diff --git a/48579-h/images/i_096.jpg b/48579-h/images/i_096.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..49e76fb --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-h/images/i_096.jpg diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..eb0df1a --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #48579 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/48579) diff --git a/old/48579-8.txt b/old/48579-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0019d74 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/48579-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2447 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Birds and Nature, Vol. VIII, No. 4, +November 1900, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most +other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + +Title: Birds and Nature, Vol. VIII, No. 4, November 1900 + Illustrated by Color Photography + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 25, 2015 [EBook #48579] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BIRDS AND NATURE, NOVEMBER 1900 *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Christian +Boissonnas, The Internet Archive for some images and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + BIRDS AND NATURE. + + ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. + + VOL. VIII. NOVEMBER, 1900. NO. 4. + + + + + CONTENTS. + + + Page + SONNET--NOVEMBER. 145 + SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WESTERN WILLET. 146 + CRUEL TREATMENT OF BIRDS DEMANDED BY DAME FASHION. 150 + THE FALL MIGRATIONS. 151 + THE WAYS OF SOME BANTAMS. 152 + THE BUFFLE-HEAD. 155 + AN HOUR WITH AN ANT. 156 + SONG. 157 + THE AMERICAN EARED GREBE. 158 + THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES. 161 + THE LOUISIANA TANAGER. 167 + CHATTER OF A CHAT. 168 + THE LUNA AND POLYPHEMUS MOTHS. 170 + CASTLES IN THE AIR. 175 + THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE. 179 + PLANT PROTECTION. 182 + THE BIRTH OF A TREE. 187 + THE ALMOND. 188 + + + + +SONNET--NOVEMBER. + + + Yet one smile more, departing, distant sun, + One mellow smile through the soft vapory air, + Ere, o'er the frozen earth, the loud winds run, + Or snows are sifted o'er the meadow bare. + One smile on the brown hills and naked trees + And the dark rocks whose summer wreaths are cast, + And the blue Gentian flower, that, in the breeze, + Nods lonely, of her beauteous race the last. + Yet a few sunny days, in which the bee + Shall murmur by the hedge that skirts the way, + The cricket chirp upon the russet lea, + And man delight to linger in thy ray. + Yet one rich smile, and we will try to bear + The piercing winter frost, and winds, and darkened air. + --William Cullen Bryant. + + * * * * * + + Oh, Autumn! Why so soon + Depart the hues that make thy forests glad; + Thy gentle wind and thy fair sunny noon, + And leave thee wild and sad! + + Ah! 'twere a lot too blessed + Forever in thy colored shades to stray; + Amid the kisses of the soft southwest + To rove and dream for aye. + --William Cullen Bryant. + +Copyright, 1900, by A. W. Mumford. + + + + +SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WESTERN WILLET. + +(_Symphemia semipalmata inornata._) + + +The Western Willet is one of the largest of the Limicolae or Shore +Birds. The body is about the size of a common pigeon, the long neck, +legs and extent of wings making it appear much larger. The feet +are only about one-half webbed and only when great danger makes it +necessary will it go into the water beyond its depth. The bill is +straight and in summer the color of the bird is gray above, with many +small but rather distinct black marks. On the sides and breast these +marks are arrow-shaped. In the plumage of winter and of the young these +markings are absent. + +I am inclined to believe that this species has a more extended range +than any other of the order. It has become quite abundant of late +years in the Calumet Region in Northern Indiana, near Chicago. Mr. +E. W. Nelson, in the Natural History Survey of Illinois, says, that +in the seventies this species was a rare summer resident on the wet +prairies of Northwestern Illinois, although I can find no authentic +record of the taking of the nest and eggs. Captain Charles Bendire +found it abundant and resident in Southeastern Oregon when he procured +several sets of its eggs. It is said to breed from the coast of Texas +to Manitoba. Straggling flocks of from five to fifty may be found along +the shores of our larger fresh water lakes, particularly Lake Michigan, +during the fall migration, which takes place from about the fifteenth +of August to the last of September. + +This bird might well be called the clown of the Limicolae. I have often +been amused by the antics of a flock of Willets on the shore of Lake +Michigan. They would droop their necks and wings in an absurd fashion, +taking short runs and jumps as the waves rolled in upon them. I have +never seen a bird which at times could be so wary and hard to approach, +and again, if a number are shot from a flock, the remaining birds will +seem to lose their senses, and I have frequently walked within a few +feet of the survivors before they would take flight. This trait is +noticeable among a large number of shore birds and the terns, but more +especially so with the Willet. + +On the plains bordering the Brazos river, near the Gulf coast of +Texas, during the months of April and May, I have found the Willet +proper (Symphemia semipalmata), a smaller and darker form, breeding +in abundance. The Willets usually select for a nesting site a thick +tussock of salt marsh grass on the borders of a small pond, where +they can command a good view of the vicinity. In the center of this +they hollow out a space of about six or eight inches in diameter, and +simply line it with the grass they have matted down. In this nest are +laid four pyriform eggs of a greenish white, or a light olive brown +ground color, marked with large, irregular blotches or brownish black +and faint purple; the eggs are immense for the size of the bird, being +about two inches in length by one and one-half in width. + +The illustration faithfully portrays three birds taken at Miller's, +Indiana, on the beach of Lake Michigan. The color of the legs, which +are obscured by the shadow of the body, is a pale, slaty blue. + + [Illustration: THE WESTERN WILLET + (Symphemia semipalmata inornata.) + 1/4 Life-size. + FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +Though the Willets are restless and noisy birds, they are much less +so, and, indeed, quite unconscious of their surroundings when nesting. +Regarding their habits at this time, Dr. Coues has told us that if +they "become thoroughly alarmed by too open approach, particularly +if the setting bird be driven from her nest, there is a great +outcry, violent protest and tumult where there was quietude. Other +pairs, nesting near by, join their cries till the confusion becomes +general. But now, again, their actions are not those they would show +at other times; for, instead of flying off with the instinct of +self-preservation, to put distance between them and danger, they are +held by some fascination to the spot, and hover around, wheeling about, +flying in circles a little ways, to return again, with unremitting +clamor. They may be only too easily destroyed under such circumstances, +provided the ornithologist can lay aside his scruples and steel himself +against sympathy." + +It is to be hoped that all the States, frequented by the Willets, will +enact proper legislation which will amply protect these interesting +waders. + + Frank M. Woodruff. + + * * * * * + + Autumn once more begins to teach; + Sere leaves their annual sermon preach; + And with the southward-slipping sun + Another stage of life is done. + The day is of a paler hue, + The night is of a darker blue, + Just as it was a year ago; + For time runs fast, but grace is slow! + + Thou comest, autumn, to unlade + Thy wealthy freight of summer shade, + Still sorrowful as in past years, + Yet mild and sunny in thy tears, + Ripening and hardening all thy growth + Of solid wood, yet nothing loth + To waste upon the frolic breeze + Thy leaves, like flights of golden bees. + --Frederick William Faber. + + + + +CRUEL TREATMENT OF BIRDS DEMANDED BY DAME FASHION. + + +All of my readers probably know in a general way that Dame Fashion is +responsible for the destruction of the lives of many birds, but they +may not know to what extent this is true. + +Why do we say that any cruel treatment of the birds is chargeable to +fashion? It can hardly be necessary to remind ourselves that there is +in almost every boy's nature a touch of the savage instincts which find +expression in the desire to kill something. Traces of this instinct +do not entirely disappear with the development into manhood, but +show themselves there in the love of hunting and fishing. Let these +remnants of savagery be appealed to by the promise of gain and they are +immediately fanned into flame in the natures of those persons who are +naturally more strongly drawn to this primitive occupation of men. In +short, place before the professional hunter an easy means of profiting +by his skill as a hunter, and in far too many instances he will smother +any humane instincts which he may have for the sake of the gain. It is +the demands of fashion for plumes and feathers for hat trimmings which +place before these hunters the temptation to kill. Have we not a right, +therefore, to place the blame at the door of Fashion? + +But what are the practices which we call cruel? In the first place it +is cruelty to cause the destruction of life without good and sufficient +reason. Unnecessary sacrifice of life is cruelty. Certainly no one +will say that it is necessary to trim hats with feathers. Fashion +decrees that feathers must be worn, and presto! feathers are worn. In +the second place, it is cruel to kill birds who are feeding young ones +in the nest, leaving them to starvation. Yet this is just what has +happened and does happen every year. Plume hunters are no respecters +of times and seasons. With them there are no closed seasons. The birds +which they are after gather in large rookeries during the nesting +season and are therefore much easier to capture then than at other +times. + +Most of the herons and similar plume-bearing birds are hunted and +killed for the plumes alone, or, at most, for a very small part of the +whole plumage. The part wanted is taken and the rest left to waste, +while the bird's body is never used for anything. If nothing worse, it +is an unpardonable waste. In Florida alone whole rookeries of herons +and ibises numbering hundreds and even thousands of individuals have +been wholly destroyed. Now the insatiable plume hunter, in his effort +to supply the demands of a no less insatiable fashion, is pursuing the +unfortunate birds into the fastnesses of Mexico and South America. +There is but one way to stop this work of extermination, and that +is to take away the demand. This remedy lies wholly in the hands of +women. Unless they are willing to take a firm stand against the use +of feathers for purposes of ornament the birds are doomed. This may +seem like a strong statement, but a little reflection will prove it +true. When the birds which are now hunted for plumes and feathers are +gone, there will be a modification of the demand to include birds +of different plumage, just as the aigrette is giving place to the +quill. After the quill and the long-pointed wing will come the shorter +wing, and after that the plumage of the small birds, and the cycle of +destruction will be complete. + +Some one may ask why it is that the birds are so foolish as to allow +the hunter to kill hundreds in a single day from one rookery. Why don't +they leave the region when the shooting begins? The plume hunter has +learned cunning. He no longer uses a shot gun, but a small caliber +rifle or a wholly noiseless air gun. The rifle makes no more noise +than the snapping of a twig, and will therefore not frighten the +birds. By remaining concealed the hunter may kill every bird that is +within range. Since each bird is worth from twenty-five cents to five +dollars, according to the kind, a single day's work (or slaughter) +is profitable. The temptation is certainly great, and becomes almost +irresistible to him who loves hunting for its own sake. + +The most cruel part of the whole business I have already stated, but it +will bear repeating. It is the killing of the breeding birds before the +young are able to care for themselves. There is abundant evidence that +the breeding time is the favorite time for hunting among plume hunters, +because then the old birds are more easy to kill, and because then the +plumage is the most perfect, for then the wedding garments are put on. + +It should not be an impossible task to stop this whole cruel business. +But laws will not do it without a wholesome public sentiment behind +it. Women are notably foremost in all good works, and many of them +are doing nobly in this work, but it is painfully evident that many +are not. Let us make "a long pull and a strong pull and a pull all +together," and then we shall drag this growing evil back and down +forever. + + Lynds Jones. + + + + +THE FALL MIGRATIONS. + + + A rush of wings through the darkening night, + A sweep through the air in the distant height. + + Far off we hear them, cry answering cry: + 'Tis the voice of the birds as they southward fly. + + From sea to sea, as if marking the time, + Comes the beat of wings from the long, dark line. + + O strong, steady wing, with your rhythmic beat, + Flying from cold to the summertime heat; + + O, keen, glancing eye, that can see so far, + Do you guide your flight by the northern star? + + The birds from the North are crossing the moon, + And the southland knows they are coming soon. + + With gladness and freedom and music gone, + Another migration is passing on. + + No long, dark lines o'er the face of the moon; + No dip of wings in the southern lagoon. + + No sweet, low titter, no welcoming song; + These are birds of silence that sweep along. + + Lifeless and stiff, with the death mark on it, + This "Fall Migration" on hat and bonnet. + + And the crowd goes by, with so few to care + For this march of death of the "fowls of the air." + --Mary Drummond, in the Chicago Times-Herald. + + + + +THE WAYS OF SOME BANTAMS. + + +Last summer, when I was out in the country, I made the acquaintance +of a kind-hearted little bantam rooster, who was as funny as he was +kind-hearted. + +An old speckled hen, who looked as if she might be a good mother, but +wasn't, had brought up a family of chickens to that stage where their +legs had grown long and their down all turned to pin-feathers. + +Very ugly they were; there was no doubt of it. Perhaps this queer +mother thought so. At any rate, she turned the poor things adrift and +pecked them cruelly whenever they came near her. + +Little "Banty" saw this unkind behavior. He was small, but his heart +was big, and he set Madam Speckle an example which ought to have made +her hide her head in the darkest corner of the hen-house for shame. + +He adopted those chickens! + +Each one of them was about half the size of "Banty," and to see that +loving little father-bird standing on tiptoe with his wings spread, +trying in vain to cover all eight of his adopted children, was a +pathetic as well as a ludicrous sight. + +They loved him and believed in him fully. They followed him all day +long, and seemed to see nothing amusing when he choked down a crow to +cluck over the food he found for them, and at night they quarreled over +the privilege of being nearest to him. + +I think bantams perhaps are more interesting than other fowls. When I +was a little girl father brought three of them home. Dandy and his two +little wives were all pure white and very small. + +We had other fowls, the aristocratic Spanish kind, each as large as two +or three of Dandy, and the Spanish rooster hinted very strongly that +Dandy's presence in that barnyard could be dispensed with. But Dandy +was a brave little fighter, and he soon settled it once for all with +Grandee as to what the rights of the former and his family were. + +In a month or so one of the little hens was missing. After a long time +we found her, and in such a queer, cozy place! Upon the foundations +of the old red farmhouse where we lived, rested great squared beams. +An end of one of these beams had decayed, out of sight, under the +clapboards on the south side of the house, until there was a large, +soft-lined hollow. Here the little hen had stolen her nest, and when +we found her she was just ready to lead off twenty-one tiny white +fluff-balls of chickens, every egg having hatched. + +Dandy's bravery saved his little life one day, and made him forever +famous in the annals of our pets. On this most eventful day of his +life, a shadow flitted over the barnyard, and a wail went up from us +children as a chicken-hawk swooped down upon our beloved Dandy and +carried him off before our indignant and tearful eyes. + +Up they went! But in a moment or two we saw that the thief was having +trouble, as somehow Dandy had managed to turn in those wicked talons, +and the little fellow was using his sharp beak and spurs with all his +might. + +The battle was brief, and then Dandy dropped at our feet. He was +bleeding and had lost the sight of one of his eyes, but otherwise +he was little hurt. All the rest of his days Dandy carried himself +proudly, as one who has been tried as a hero and not found wanting. + + May H. Prentice. + + + + + [Illustration: BUFFLE-HEAD. + (Charitonetta albeola.) + Nearly 1/2 Life-size. + FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +THE BUFFLE-HEAD. + +(_Charitonetta albeola._) + + +This small and wonderfully beautiful duck is a native of North America, +wintering in the latitude of Cuba and Mexico and breeding from Maine to +Montana and northward. It is said that a favorite place for its nesting +is along the banks of the Yukon river, and other streams of the boreal +regions, yet it is reported that the young have been captured in the +Adirondack mountains. Though classed with the "sea ducks" (Fuligulinae) +it is one of the most common of our fresh-water forms, and, like many +other animals, as well as vegetable forms, of wide distribution, it is +the recipient of numerous popular names, nearly all of them being more +or less suggestive of its characteristics or habits. In the North it +is frequently called the Butter-ball, the Butter-box, the Butter duck, +the Spirit duck and the Dipper. In the South some of the same names are +heard, but perhaps more often the Marionette, the Scotch dipper, or +duck, the Scotch teal and the Wool-head. However, no more appropriate +name could be selected than that of Buffle-head, having reference to +the showy, ruffled or puffed plumage of the head. The technical name, +albeola, meaning whitish, was given this species by Linnaeus in 1758, +on account of the pure white on the side of the head. + +The adult males vary but little. The plumage of the head is puffy and, +with that of the upper half of the neck, is a "rich silky, metallic +green, violet purple and greenish bronze, the last prevailing on the +lower part of the neck, the green on the anterior part of the head, the +purple on the cheeks and crown." A beautiful pure white patch extends +from the eyes, meeting on the top of the head. The lower portion of the +neck and nearly all the feathers of the under side of the body, as well +as the wing coverts, are also showy white. The lining of the wings is +dark, and the upper side of the body is black. + +The head of the female is less puffy and of a brownish or dark gray +color. The white head patch is not so prominent or pure and the plumage +of the under side of the body is more or less tinged with gray. In both +sexes the iris is dark brown, the bill bluish or lead color, and the +legs and feet pinkish. + +There are few birds that are more expert in diving or swimming, while +on land, owing to their larger feet and shorter legs, they are more +awkward and waddle more than many of the ordinary ducks. Their graceful +attitude while floating on the water, moving apparently without any +motion of the body and scarcely causing a ripple on even a placid +surface, has given them the name Spirit duck. + +The Buffle-head, like nearly all the sea ducks, feeds on mollusks and +other animal-forms found in the water. As a result, their flesh is +usually coarse and quite too rank for use as a food. The canvas-back is +a notable exception, for during the winter months it feeds on the wild +celery (Vallisneria) of the Middle Atlantic coast, and thus its flesh +receives the flavor so appreciated by those who relish game food. + + + + +AN HOUR WITH AN ANT. + + +If you want to know how to accomplish a hard task, come with me and +watch a little ant for an hour. + +She was a small, black ant, and, seeing a brown worm eight times as +large as herself, she was seized with the ambition to take it home in +triumph. + +Now will you tell me how she knew that she could have no power over +the worm while he was on his ten feet, that stuck to the sidewalk like +glue? Before she attempted anything, she fastened her mandibles into +his side and turned him over on his back just as you see Bridget turn +the mattress. Then running to his head she again fastened her mandibles +and dragged him for a couple of inches. While pausing to get her +breath, the worm took the opportunity to get on his feet once more. The +ant did not seem to notice the change in position till she tried again +to drag the body. As soon as she felt it sticking, around she ran to +the side, over went the worm in a trice, and once more the two started +on their journey. Now they were close to a crack in the broad sidewalk, +and I, thinking to help the little worker, in whom by this time I was +quite interested, lifted the worm across the crack. + +Did you ever try to help some one and find too late you had done +exactly the wrong thing? Then you know how I felt when that little ant +began rushing around as if she were crazy, and when she got hold of the +worm again, began to drag it back across the very crack I had lifted it +over. Can you guess why? She was taking a bee-line to her house, and I +had changed the direction. But how was she to get that big body across +a crack that could swallow them both? That was what I waited anxiously +to see. Soon the worm felt himself going down, down into a dark abyss, +and of course caught hold of the side to save himself, and when he once +felt he had a hold on life how he did hold on! The ant was not to be +daunted; balancing herself on the edge, and holding on by her feet, she +reached down her mandibles and dragged him by main force straight up +the perpendicular wall to the top; nor did she stop till he was carried +far enough from the edge not to get down again. + +In this way three cracks were safely crossed, and it was plain to see +the worm was losing heart, although every time the ant paused for +breath he would get over on his feet and have to be tossed back again. + +And now a new difficulty arose. The worm had been dragged about +eighteen inches over the boards. Fourteen inches more would bring them +to the ant's house, or, rather, hill. But the way was now off from the +sidewalk, and no sooner did the worm feel the stubble under him than +he gathered all his strength, turned over on his feet, and held on to +every spear of grass for dear life. + +Indeed, it was his last chance, and I felt tempted to snatch him +from the certain death awaiting him, but curiosity to see how this +new obstacle would be overcome induced me to wait. The ant now felt +justified in calling for assistance, and soon a dozen ants had come to +help. Only five could work to advantage, so the rest, for ants never +like to do the "heavy looking on," left to find other employment. + +The first thing to be done was to get the worm on his back, and this +proved no easy task. He could fasten his feet just as fast as the ants +could unfasten them. At last two ants went to one end and two to the +other. Each one of the four seized a foot in her strong mandibles and +held it out as far as possible, while the fifth one turned the captive. +It was the funniest sight! It was easy now to drag him two or three +inches, but breath had to be taken, and again the worm fastened. In +vain they tugged and pulled. He had evidently learned their tactics +and knew how to defend himself. Suddenly his body moved along an inch +and a half, as if by magic. Was it magic? Not at all. One little ant +had run up on an overhanging blade of grass, and, reaching down, +holding on by the wonderful feet spoken of before, and grabbed the poor +creature in the middle, raised it right up from the ground, and keeping +hold, ran along overhead till the end of the spear of grass was reached. + +This was the last struggle of any importance. The worm gave up +discouraged; it was only now a question of time till they had dragged +him through the stubble up to the door of the house in the hill, and +I saw only a faint quiver as of dread as his body passed through the +mysterious opening. I could not help wondering if the ant who started +the capture received all the praise she deserved, or if the other four +took the glory to themselves. + +At any rate, no one could take away her own satisfaction in overcoming +and winning in the struggle. + + Harriet Woodbridge. + + + + +SONG. + + + Day is dying! Float, O song, + Down the westward river, + Requiem chanting to the Day-- + Day, the mighty Giver. + + Pierced by shafts of Time he bleeds, + Melted rubies sending + Through the river and the sky, + Earth and heaven blending; + + All the long-drawn earthly banks + Up to cloud-land lifting: + Slow between them drifts the swan, + 'Twixt two heavens drifting. + + Wings half open, like a flow'r, + Inly deeper flushing, + Neck and breast as Virgin's pure-- + Virgin proudly blushing. + + Day is dying! Float, O swan, + Down the ruby river; + Follow, song, in requiem + To the mighty Giver. + --George Eliot, in the Spanish Gypsy. + + + + +THE AMERICAN EARED GREBE. + +(_Colymbus nigricollis californicus._) + + +The American Eared Grebe belongs to the order of Diving Birds +(Podicipedes) and the family of Grebes (Podicipidae). The order also +includes the loons and auks, having in all about thirty-six species +that frequent North America. Closely related to the loons, the Grebes +differ from them in having the head incompletely feathered near the +nostrils, which are not lobed. The feet also are not completely webbed, +as are those of the loons. + +Owing to the inadequately developed wings, the Grebes are poorly +provided with means for protracted flight. Locomotion on land is +equally difficult, due to their short legs and the fact that they are +inserted far back on the body, necessitating a partially erect position +in walking. However, they are expert swimmers and divers and will, when +alarmed, sink quietly back into the water, swimming long distances +with only the bill above the surface of the water. The popular name +"Hell-diver," by which these birds are frequently known, has reference +to the rapidity with which they dive. + +The apparent lack of a tail and the ruffs, frequently composed of +variously colored feathers, give the grebes a peculiarly characteristic +appearance. The plumage of the breeding season differs greatly from +that of the adult in winter and that of the young. + +The grebes are abundant throughout the world, seemingly preferring +lakes and rivers as a foraging ground rather than the seacoast. + +The American Eared Grebe has an extensive range, including that part +of North America west of the Mississippi Valley and from the Great +Slave Lake south to Guatemala. It breeds in nearly all parts of this +territory. + +A few years since Professor Henshaw published in the American +Naturalist some very interesting facts concerning the nesting habits +of this bird, and they especially well illustrate some of its +characteristics. He says, "In a series of alkali lakes, about thirty +miles northward of Fort Garland, Southern Colorado, I found this +species common and breeding. A colony of perhaps a dozen pairs had +established themselves in a small pond four or five acres in extent. In +the middle of this, in a bed of reeds, were found upwards of a dozen +nests. These in each case merely consisted of a slightly hollowed pile +of decaying weeds and rushes, four or five inches in diameter, and +scarcely raised above the surface of the water upon which they floated. +In a number of instances they were but a few feet distant from the +nests of the coot (Fulica Americana) which abounded. Every Grebe's nest +discovered contained three eggs, which in most instances were fresh, +but in some nests were considerably advanced. These vary but little in +shape, are considerably elongated, one end being slightly more pointed +than the other. The color is a faint yellowish or bluish white, usually +much stained from contact with the nest. The texture is generally quite +smooth, in some instances roughened by a chalky deposit. The eggs were +wholly concealed from view by a pile of weeds and other vegetable +material laid across. That they were thus carefully covered merely for +concealment I cannot think, since, in the isolated position in which +the nests are usually found, the bird has no enemy against which such +precaution would avail. On first approaching the locality, the Grebes +all congregated at the further end of the pond, and shortly betook +themselves through an opening to the neighboring slough; nor, so far +as I could ascertain, did they again approach the nests during my stay +of three days. Is it not, then, possible that they are more or less +dependent for the hatching of their eggs upon artificial heat induced +by the decaying vegetable substances of which the nests are wholly +composed?" + +The food of the Grebe consists of fish to a great extent, which are +dexterously caught while swimming under water. They also feed upon +the insects floating upon the surface, and will, when other food is +lacking, feed upon mollusks. + + [Illustration: AMERICAN EARED GREBE. + (Colymbus nigricollis californicus.) + 1/2 Life-size. + FROM COL CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + + + + +THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES. + + +There are known at the present about twenty thousand species of fishes, +which are distributed throughout the creeks, rivers, lakes, seas and +oceans of the world. A few species of the open sea are cosmopolitan; +the others are more or less restricted in their range. Northern Asia, +Europe and North America have in common a few species of fresh water +fishes. There are many others of close relationship, which indicates a +somewhat common origin of the fish faunas. The same is largely true of +the salt water shore fishes, which live well to the north. The fresh +water fishes of South America, Africa and Australia are all different +from each other, none being even closely related as are those we find +in the countries of the northern hemisphere. + +The fishes of our Atlantic coast are different from those of the +Pacific, very few species being common to both coasts. The fishes of +the Ohio river are entirely different from those of the Columbia, not a +single species being common to both streams. The fishes of the Missouri +river are very different from the Ohio, many of the larger species, as +catfishes, buffalo fishes, black basses, and some of the sun fishes are +common to both rivers. The difference between the fishes of these two +rivers is chiefly in the smaller kinds, which do not migrate to any +great extent, and is greater as you go toward their sources, or confine +yourself to their smaller tributaries. + +There are many reasons why the fishes of one region are not the same as +those we find in another. Some of these reasons we may learn by making +a careful study of the fishes of each region, and their environment. +In addition we must learn all we can about the past history of the +country, finding which streams were formed first, and how they became +inhabited from the old ancient fish faunas of our earlier geological +periods. If you visit streams in the Alleghanies, the Ozarks and the +Black Hills you will find them much alike. All have clear, cool water, +flowing over sand or gravel. The black bass, speckled trout, channel +cat, and the eastern pickerel will live quite as well in streams of +each locality. If you spend a day at each place collecting fishes all +your catch will not be the same species. In the Alleghany region you +will obtain about forty species, and a like number in the Ozarks. Of +these quite one-fourth, or one-fifth, will be the same species, and +the others closely related. A large portion will consist of sunfishes +and very small, perch-like fishes, which are called darters. These are +spiny-rayed fishes; that is, nearly all of the fins are made partly of +strong, sharp spines, such as you find on the back of sunfishes, black +bass and the like. In the streams of the Black Hills you will not find +more than fifteen species, and not more than one or two, if any, will +be the same as in either of the other two catches. There are none of +the spiny-rayed fishes in the Black Hills, and no trout, though the +streams seem in every way well suited for them. The fishes of the Black +Hills consist of two catfishes, four suckers, eight minnows, and one +member of the cod family. Why are there no spiny-rayed fishes? If you +examine a map you will find that the Black Hills is an isolated region, +about seventy-five by one hundred miles in extent. It is covered with +heavy pine forests and drained by a dozen or more good-sized creeks, +which find, through the north and south forks of the Cheyenne, an +outlet into the Missouri river. Surrounding the Black Hills is a broad +plain one hundred or two hundred miles in width. It has no forests, and +only a scant vegetation. Its streams are alkali and contain much solid +matter in suspension. None of these streams flow over rocky or gravelly +beds. Like all the streams of the great plains they are overloaded +with sediment. All the streams can do with this sediment is to deposit +it in places during falling or low water, and in time of freshets, +pick it up, shift it about and redeposit it farther down the stream. +Such streams are like the Platte, narrow and deep in a few places, +but mostly wide and shallow, with a bottom of quicksand. The streams +of the plains have in them but few species of fishes; especially is +this true of the upper Missouri, and these are such species as we find +in the Black Hills. It is thus evident that the fishes of this region +migrated there, and only such fishes as were able or willing to live +in the muddy, alkaline streams of the great plains could have ever +reached the Black Hills. The minnows and suckers are ever preyed upon +by sunfishes, bass and the like, and to escape them evidently sought +retreat in the alkaline water, which was too much disliked by their +enemies for them to follow. Once there and accustomed to such water +they would migrate farther up stream until they reached the clear, cool +streams of the Black Hills. If we compare the fishes of two rivers +whose mouths are near each other, as the Ohio and the Missouri, those +fishes found near the mouths will be the same species and the two river +faunas will differ most as you go toward their sources. On the other +hand, if you select two rivers whose sources are near each other, as +the James and tributaries of the Ohio, then the fish faunas will differ +most as you go towards their mouths. The same is true of the Missouri +and the Columbia. In such cases it often happens that during high water +some fishes are able to pass from the head waters of one river basin to +the other, just as we see the trout from the Columbia at the present +time colonizing the upper Yellowstone through the Two Ocean Pass. Near +the head waters of many mountain streams there is usually a pass, which +contains a strip of meadow land where the small streams from mountains +unite, forming the sources of two great rivers flowing in opposite +directions. This is the case both at the Two Ocean Pass, the source +of the Missouri and the Columbia, and at the point where the Canadian +Pacific Railroad crosses the divide, forming the source of the Frazier +and Saskatchewan rivers. + +Many mountain streams whose sources are at present in no way connected +may have been so at no very remote period. All of our streams which +have their sources within the glaciated area were no doubt connected +as the ice receded. The drainage of Lake Champlain and the lakes in +central New York was southward at the close of the glacial epoch. It +is said that in times of high water one may pass in a skiff from the +head waters of the Mississippi to the Red River of the North. With such +facts before us we can easily understand why the fishes of two rivers +whose sources are near each other should be most nearly alike nearest +the divide. If the two rivers were formed about the same time, as no +doubt were the James and the Ohio, they would naturally have several +species in common. In other words, the two fish faunas will resemble +each other throughout their whole extent. In the case of the Missouri +and the Columbia, the former is much the older stream, and while their +sources have fishes common to both streams, in the lower parts of the +rivers the fish faunas are entirely different. The upper Missouri river +and its tributaries are for the most part inhabited by Rocky Mountain +fishes, practically the same fauna as we find in the Columbia, but few +species characteristic of the Mississippi valley have been able to even +cross the great plains and none have ever passed the Rocky Mountain +divide. + +In the study of the geographical distribution of our fresh water +fishes, we are able to make a few generalizations as follows: Two +rivers in the same latitude, and belonging to the same great drainage +basin, and draining similar areas, will have similar fish faunas. +Thus we find a great similarity in the fishes of the Washita and the +Tennessee rivers, a much greater similarity than we do in the fishes +of the Washita and the Cedar rivers. If the stream is a large one, +the fishes near its source will be much unlike those near its mouth. +The fishes of Minnesota differ greatly from those of Louisiana, +though the drainage of these two States is in the Mississippi river +basin. Limestone streams have in them more species of fishes than do +sandstone. All things being equal, the larger of two or more streams +will contain the most species of fishes. There are few, if any, rivers +as rich in species as the Mississippi river and its tributaries. It +drains one slope of each of our two great mountain systems, besides +an immense area of wood-land and prairie, and numerous swamps and +marshes. Its upper course and many of its upper tributaries lie in +the region once covered by glaciers, though now traversed by great +moraines. Its fishes are as diversified as the area it drains. In its +mountain streams we find such fishes as the trout, darters, minnows +and suckers. In the upland streams are darters, shiners, suckers, +sunfishes and small-mouthed black bass. In the channels of the larger +tributaries are found the large suckers, buffalo fishes, gar pike, +channel catfish, drum, pike and pickerel. The lowland streams contain +the dogfish, pirate perch, some sunfishes, the large-mouthed black +bass, some suckers, catfishes and other species. Minnows, darters, +suckers and sunfishes are found in lowland, upland and mountain +streams, though not the same species in each. These fishes belong to +families which are made up of many species, some being strictly upland, +others strictly lowland, each having a limited range. In the same way +we have fresh water fishes and salt water fishes; some fishes, as the +trout and salmon and eel, live in both salt and fresh water. Many +other fishes, as the killifishes, thrive best in brackish water. Each +species of fishes is best fitted for a particular region into which it +has been forced to live, either to escape its enemies or to be able to +get a living easiest. In its migrations it has moved along lines of +least resistance, and has colonized those streams where Mother Nature +has been able to do the most for it. The darters are small, perch-like +fishes, which seldom exceed a length of six inches, the average being +about three. All are active and swift swimmers and well suited for +a life among the rocks and swift water of our smaller streams. All +countries have small, swift, rocky streams, but few have darters. In +their stead we find loaches, gobies, characins, sculpins, and the like. +These fishes have "become dwarfed and concentrated, taking the place in +their respective habitats which the darters occupy in the waters of the +Mississippi valley. By the same process of 'analogous variation' the +cichlids of South America parallel the sunfishes of the United States, +although in structure and in origin the two groups are diverse." + +Dr. Jordan tells us that the trout of the Pacific coast came to America +from Asia, and gradually spread eastward and southward until now it is +found in all the streams of the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, the +Cascades and the Coast range. It is but a short distance from Kamchatka +to Alaska, and this distance is traveled by trout to this day; once +over, a fish able to spend much of its time in salt water could easily +colonize all our coast streams. Whether or not all of our Pacific trout +are descendants of one species, the cut-throat trout, is more or less +uncertain, though it is quite certain that all have descended from not +more than two or three species. In many places they have been able to +pass from the head waters of one river to that of another, just as they +now pass from the head waters of the Columbia to the Missouri by the +way of Two Ocean Pass. The ancient lakes, Lahontan and Bonneville, no +doubt assisted them in their migrations. Since these have disappeared +each colony has had to remain more or less isolated. In time they +have become somewhat changed, to better adapt themselves to their new +environment. These changes have developed certain peculiar characters, +by means of which we can distinguish one kind of trout from another, +just as the farmer distinguishes his Berkshire from his Poland China. +Spread, as the trout are, over such a large area, in such an immense +variety of streams and lakes, and with a vertical range of over one +thousand feet, we would certainly expect as large a number of species +and varieties of trout to be developed as we find at present in the +streams of our west coast. + +Fishes are found in the deepest parts of the ocean. Some of these +are peculiar to the deep waters, none of the shore fishes resembling +them. On the other hand, many deep sea fishes belong to families well +represented in the shallow water. The flounders are found in water at +all depths, and the same is true of the bat fishes, rock fishes and +other shore fishes. It is easy to understand how these fishes have +found their way to the deep water. It was either to escape their +enemies or to extend their range for some reason; as Mr. Garman puts +it, "They have slid down," as it were to the bottom of the ocean. + +In general, animals migrating will always move along lines of least +resistance. Some deep-sea fishes have a considerable vertical range. It +is thought that some move into shallower water to deposit their eggs or +place their young in warmer water, and where the peculiar kind of food +they need early in life is the most abundant. To study deep sea fishes +is difficult, and so little has been done that we not only know them +imperfectly but also know very little concerning their life histories. + +In February, March and April of 1891 the United States Fish Commission +steamer Albatross explored a portion of the region between the +coasts of Mexico and Central America and the Galapagos Archipelago. +Besides obtaining a large number of shore fishes, about nine hundred +specimens of fishes were secured, ranging from a depth of one hundred +to twenty-two hundred and twenty-three fathoms. This collection was +carefully studied by Professor Garman, of Harvard. He found the +collection to contain one hundred and eighty species, eighty-five +per cent. of which were new to science. The bottoms of the oceans +are far from level, and each deep basin has its own peculiar fauna. +The shallower parts of the sea prevent migration of the deep water +forms and no doubt living as they do in eternal darkness and in a +temperature near the freezing point, there is little to induce them +to much activity. The fact that they are easily captured in nets of +comparatively small size would indicate that they move about slowly. + +Dr. Jenkins, who has lately studied the fishes of the Sandwich Islands, +informs me that less than five per cent. are found on our American +coast, while a large per cent. is found all the way to the Red sea. +In other words, the fishes of the Sandwich Islands are East Indian +rather than American. This is no doubt caused from the fact that the +deep water between the islands of the American coast forms a barrier +which has always prevented the two fish faunas from mingling with each +other. Between Africa and the Sandwich Islands this has not been the +case. A recent study of the fishes of the Galapagos Archipelago shows +its fauna to be American, though in what respect its fishes differ from +those of our west coast they resemble all the more the fishes of the +Sandwich Islands. Two fish faunas will usually differ from each other +if separated by an impassable barrier; especially is this true if the +barrier be older than the two faunas. + +Any barrier which prevents or hinders fishes in their movements from +one body of water to another will separate two more or less well-marked +fish faunas. These barriers may be mountains, or shallow water, as in +the case of deep sea fishes; deep water, as in case of shore fishes; +muddy or alkaline water, or water of different temperature. Temperature +no doubt has far more influence in governing the movement of fishes +than is generally believed. It plays an important part in guiding +salmon up stream to their spawning beds. It explains why they reach the +head waters of some streams and spawn earlier than in similar streams +not far distant, but of different temperature. If you would know to +what extent fishes of one region differ from those of another, study +well the barriers between the two regions, learn to what extent and +how long they have existed, consider the age geologically of the two +regions, and how fishes may have migrated to one or the other, and in +a general way you will have the key to the situation, which a careful +study of the fishes is quite sure to verify. + + Seth E. Meek. + + + + + [Illustration: LOUISIANA TANAGER. + (Piranga ludoviciana.) + Life-size. + FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +THE LOUISIANA TANAGER. + +(_Piranga ludoviciana._) + + +The family of Tanagers is remarkable for the number of species, the +gaudy coloring of many and the interesting fact that they are confined +to the Americas and the adjacent islands. Dr. Ridgway says, "that +the five families of Neotropical birds, which are represented by the +greatest number of species, are absolutely peculiar to America, these +families being the Tanagers, Tyrant Flycatchers, Wood-hewers, Ant +Thrushes and Humming-birds. None of these families have even true +representatives in any part of the Old World." + +The family of Tanagers includes approximately three hundred and eighty +species, of which not more than ten per cent. have a range extending +as far north as Southern Mexico, and only four, or at the most five, +species are known to the United States. Of these only two, the Scarlet +Tanager and the Summer Red-bird, are generally known as far north as +Canada. + +The Tanagers make their home in the trees, and, being of a retiring +disposition, are more numerous within the bounds of the forest. During +the breeding season they retire still further into the interior. No +wonder that they are more numerous in tropical regions, where the +luxuriant foliage of the forests furnishes them with a safe retreat, +and where there is an abundance of food suited to their taste. This +tendency to avoid the society of man has made the study of their +habits much more difficult, and but little has been recorded except +that which pertains to the more northern forms. + +The food is chiefly insects, especially in the larval form, and +berries. To some extent they also feed upon the buds of flowers. +Mr. Chapman tells us that "the tropical species are of a roving +disposition, and wander through the forests in search of certain trees +bearing ripe fruit, near which they may always be found in numbers." +Their nests are shallow and the eggs, usually three to five in number, +are greenish-blue in color, speckled with brown and purple. + +The Louisiana Tanager is a Western species, ranging from British +Columbia on the north to Guatemala on the south, and from the Missouri +river to the Pacific coast. Our illustration well represents the +male. The female, like its sister tanagers, is plainly colored, but +still beautiful. It is olive green, with the underside yellowish. +The feathers of the wings and tail are brown, edged with olive. It +resembles the female Scarlet Tanager. The young are at first like the +female. Then appears the black of the back, mixed with some olive and a +slight tinge of red on the head. + +It would seem that its name is a misnomer, as it is not found in the +State of Louisiana. + + + + +CHATTER OF A CHAT. + + +I'm the "Chat." You've heard me if you haven't seen me. But there +isn't a better lookin' bird in our wood, either. My olive-green coat +is a beauty. My yellow satin vest would dazzle your eyes. And my white +china spectacles are heirlooms in our family. My wife dresses just +as handsome as I do. I'm a prey to high spirits. Some folk call me +a "wag." Don't know what that is, but I don't see the use in bein' +doleful. Why, when I get back from Mexico, I feel obliged to holler. So +I just holler. The way old Mother Earth rigs up in the Spring makes me +full of life. I get down and cool my legs in the deep grass. It brings +my appetite back a-whizzin'. My! If I don't eat a thousand bugs a day. +"Juicy" don't describe 'em. Then I climb a tree-top and holler. If I +eat a thousand bugs seems like I have to give two thousand hollers. +I holler straight through a moonlight night. You see, I hate to let +old Whippoorwill think he's the only bird alive. Mornin' after folks +stop talkin' 'bout how bad they slept and say, "What's that?" somebody +says, "That's the Chat." Then they always laugh. And I laugh, too--a +very Falstaffian laugh, as if I'se shakin' great fat sides out of their +accordion plaits. Then I give a beautiful whistle. And they say, "Now, +what's that?" The fellow I know says, "That's the Chat." Then I give a +surprised whistle, just as if you stepped on a tack or took a drink of +red-hot coffee. And they say, "And what's that?" And the wise man says, +"That's the Chat again." Well, says the other fellow, "I'll never know +that bird." But the bad sleeper says, "Well, you would if he kept you +awake all last night as he did me. He never knows when to stop." But +even that fellow will never know when I've said my last word! + +These rag folks are awful stupids, anyhow. I call 'em "blunderers." +Do more harm than good wherever they're at. My wife knits our house +among thorns just to plague 'em. They hate to get their rags torn. +Then they'd better keep scarce of our door. If it ain't in blackberry +jungles it's in catbrier tangles. I could yarn from sun-up to sundown +'bout how rag folks come blunderin' round interferin'. Barrin' o cat's, +they've got the most meddlesome forefeet I ever saw. But it ain't +often they find us. Cause why? We keep still. Our next-door neighbor's +Dame Indigo. Can't a body go by she don't pop up scoldin' like a house +afire. Then they blunder round till they find her nest-eggs, too! Lots +of other feather-heads just like her! There's Topknot Cardnal makes +such a fuss anybody'd know he's got something to hide. Sure enough, +he's had such lots of kin behind the bars it makes him scary. But I'd +show more pluck, anyhow. + +Once this summer a blunderer smarter'n common came along by us. We had +a nice place, too, in a dreadful blackberry tangle. A small sassafras +threw a nice shadow over it when the sun got hot. Well, I shut up +quick, I tell you. Was just tellin' Mrs. Chat a few things while she +kep' an eye on our four eggs like. We kep' still as mice. But didn't +that blunderin' rags march right up to our door and push and scratch +till she saw what we had? Had a little rag blunderer with her. An' she +held her up to look in, too. Every single feather we had stood on end! +It was good riddance when they went along. Couldn't believe my specs +when I saw they had left our eggs alone. Seven suns after, big rags +came back. We're in a peck o' trouble. Our four bairns just out the +shell. We both had to scratch round with all our toes to feed and keep +'em breathin'. Been rainin' for a solid week. Dame Chat said she just +knew they'd get a chill and die. But the blunderin' party didn't stay +long. + +Well, sir, we hadn't got rid of that blunderer yet. The nex' time she +brought another, bigger one, along. Both crowded up and looked in +our door. You never saw such beauties as our bairns that day. Just +gettin' so plump and featherin' right along. But it meant a sight o' +work for us. They just sat and took in every mouthful we could rake +and scrape. They kep' us busy. Well, when these blunderin' rags shook +the house the bairns all up and spread their jaws wide open. Rags +thought it was awful cute, but I'm thankful they didn't offer to feed +'em anything. Did bad enough, anyhow. Big one said, "Why don't you +take their picture?" First rags said she couldn't. Second rags said +she'd try, anyhow. With that, first rags began to snap off our best +defenses--without so much as by your leave. They scratched her good, +anyhow; for she said so. Well, she put some kind of square black gun +right up to our door. Dame Chat went into hysterics and those little +Chats just boiled over like a teakettle and went out the nest in four +different directions! The two blunderers went off in a hurry, both +talkin' at once and one suckin' her paw. Thankful to say ain't ever +seen 'em since. But Dame Chat's a nervous wreck from the fright they +gave her; and I'm worked to skin and bone takin' care of the little +Chats. I just wish all the town's fenced in so's blunderers couldn't +get loose to meddle round in their bunglin', elephant, rhinoceros way! + + Elizabeth Nunemacher. + + * * * * * + + He comes--he comes--the Frost Spirit comes! You may trace his + footsteps now + On the naked woods and the blasted fields, and the brown hill's + withered brow. + + He has smitten the leaves of the gray old trees where their + pleasant green came forth, + And the winds, which follow wherever he goes, have shaken them down + to earth. + --John Greenleaf Whittier. + + + + +THE LUNA AND POLYPHEMUS MOTHS. + + +The two silk-worm moths which we figure this month both possess a point +of excellence far in advance of any other of our native silk-worm +moths; Luna on account of its graceful form and delicate colors, and +Polyphemus for the silk of its cocoons. + +It seems that most persons who speak of the Luna moth (Tropaea luna) +feel called upon to give a more or less poetic description of it. This, +I hope, has been rendered unnecessary by the colored plate, so that it +will suffice simply to mention that the beautiful shade of green is of +very rare occurrence among our larger moths, and that no other has the +long, graceful "tails" on the hind wings, a characteristic which adds +greatly to the beauty of this insect. + +This moth does not seem to be very abundant anywhere, but when once +seen will long be remembered on account of its great beauty. The green +and yellow colors are evidently very closely related, because either +one may, to a greater or less degree, replace the other, so that some +of the moths have quite a strong, yellowish tinge. One of our common +swallow-tail butterflies (Iphiclides ajax) possesses a very similar +green color in its wings, but does not seem to show this tendency to +replace the green by yellow. On the wings are four eyespots which +are also found in Polyphemus. These are remarkable in that they are +transparent in the center. This clear area in Luna is quite small, +while in Polyphemus it is about as large as the entire eye spot of +Luna. The legs are brown and colored like the front edge of the fore +wings. The hairs on the body and at the base of the wing are very +long and are white or yellow. The wing expanse ranges from three and +three-fourths to five and one-half inches. + +During April or May the mother moth lays her dark-brown or +chocolate-colored eggs upon hickory, walnut, beech, oak, and a few +others of our forest trees. The limited number of food plants is +doubtless one reason for the rarity of the moths, as compared with such +a common and almost omnivorous larva as Cecropia. A single moth may lay +about one hundred eggs, which are smaller than those of Polyphemus. +These hatch in about ten or fifteen days, the larva making its escape +by eating a circular hole in the shell. Occasionally a young larva may +be seen crawling about for a short time, carrying upon its head or tail +the empty shell. + +The adult larva is about three inches long, of a delicate pale green, a +color very difficult to preserve in the dead larva. Those on the plate +have lost this delicate green and have become yellow, but show the form +perfectly. This larva is very much like that of Polyphemus, but may be +distinguished from it by possessing a longitudinal pale yellow lateral +line, which is not found in Polyphemus. Since the cocoon is quite thin +and contains but little silk, it is considered of but little value. +This cocoon is spun among two or three weaves, and is about two inches +long. Some authors claim that the cocoon falls to the ground with +the autumnal falling of the leaves; others that it transforms on the +ground among the fallen leaves. The cocoon is quite similar to that of +Polyphemus, but not so firmly attached when fixed to a stem. The moths +emerge in April and May, there being only a single brood in the +north, while there are two in the south. + + [Illustration: LUNA MOTH. + (Tropaea luna.) + Adult Male. Pupa. Adult Female. + Larva. Cocoon. + + POLYPHEMUS MOTH. + (Telea polyphemus.) + Pupa. + Adult Male. Eggs on Maple Leaf. Adult Female. + About 1/2 Life-size. + Larva. Cocoon. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +The color of the cocoon seems to be influenced in some way by the kind +of food eaten by the larva. Cocoons made by larva which have been fed +on hickory leaves have a darker color. In the true silk worm moth this +same influence has been noticed; larvae fed upon the vine producing +red cocoons, on lettuce emerald green cocoons, while those fed upon +white nettle produce yellow, green or violet cocoons. It is necessary +in order to procure these results, that the larvae be fed upon the +mulberry till about twenty days before the formation of the cocoon. + +Polyphemus. The life history of this native silk worm (Telea +polyphemus) is by far the best known, because many years ago it was +very carefully studied with the hope that it would prove an important +silk insect. This hope unfortunately has not been realized. + +The moths, as shown by the plate, are really beautiful; the large eye +spots on the hind wings contributing much towards this effect. The +transparent, window-like centers in the eye spot are also of quite rare +occurrence among our moths. These transparent areas do not possess the +very minute scales found on the other parts of the wing. Almost all +of the wonderful variety of colors found in the wings of butterflies +and moths are due either to coloring matter in these scales, or to +the breaking up of the white light by minute lines on these scales, +such as are seen in the play of colors on a soap-bubble. These +fine lines on the scales are only on the upper side, and are about +one-sixteen-thousandth of an inch apart. + +The eggs of Polyphemus are very much flattened, about the size of those +of Cecropia, and are deposited on leaves and twigs singly or in small +groups. These hatch in about ten days and usually in the morning. The +young larva often devours the shell which a few moments before afforded +it shelter. This larva feeds upon oak, hickory, apple, maple, elm and a +variety of other trees, and thus has a larger range of food plants than +the Luna larva. The rate of growth is prodigious, as has been shown by +Mr. Trovelot. When the larva hatches it weighs about one-twentieth of +a grain; in ten days it weighs one-half of a grain, or ten times its +original weight; in twenty days it weighs three grains, or sixty times +its original weight; when a month old it weighs thirty-one grains, or +six hundred and twenty times its original weight, and has consumed +about ninety grains of food; after fifty days it weighs two hundred +and seven grains, or over four thousand times the original weight. +At fifty-six days the larva has eaten eighty-six thousand times its +original weight in food! It is therefore not surprising that these +larvae can often be easily detected upon trees by the large number of +leaves which they have devoured. + +To provide for this great change in size, the larva moults five times, +but the time between these moults is not always the same; there is +usually about ten days between the first four moults and about twenty +between the fourth and fifth. The larva stops eating a day before the +moult, spins a few threads upon the leaf to which it attaches its hind +legs, and waits for the transformation, which usually takes place in +the afternoon. The larva, when mature and ready to spin its cocoon, is +about three inches long. It is sometimes influenced in its color by the +food plant; the normal larva being of a golden green, although it has +been known to show more yellow coloring when found on red maple. + +A short time before beginning its cocoon the larva ceases to eat and +selects a place for its cocoon. These cocoons are usually found upon +the ground among the leaves, but are frequently attached to twigs. +After about a half day's work the larva spreads over the inside of the +cocoon a gummy, resinous substance, which binds together the threads. +After four or five days more of almost continuous work, another coating +is smeared over the inside, which renders the cocoon practically +air-tight. The silk fibres become considerably finer as the cocoon +nears completion and the supply of silk begins to run low. For this +reason the inner layers of the cocoon are only about half as strong as +the outer ones. The larva, as the supply of silk diminishes in the +silk glands, becomes perceptibly reduced in size. It has been estimated +that the larva, in attaching the continuous thread of its cocoon, makes +two hundred and fifty-four thousand back and forward movements. The +cocoons are very strong and dense, of a dirty white color and generally +coated with a white powder, the female being the larger. + +There is but a single brood in the north, while in the south there are +two. + +In order to see if the pupa needed air, Mr. Trovelot sealed up some +cocoons over winter in shellac, but the moths emerged in due time +after being in an air-tight space for nine months. He also delayed the +emergence of the moth till twenty-one months after entering the cocoon +by placing it upon ice. + +The silk in the spinning glands before it is spun is a clear, +transparent fluid. These glands seem to be of excessive size when +compared with that of the larva, since, when fully expanded, they reach +the great length of twenty-five inches, or about eight times the length +of the full-grown larva. These glands are paired, one being found on +each side of the body, are considerably folded and taper at each end. +The ducts leading from the anterior end of the glands unite to form a +single duct which opens below the mouth. The thread is double, being +really composed of two different fibres, one from each gland, as may +be shown by separating them. The silk in these glands is prepared and +sold as silk "gut" to anglers. On account of its transparency when in +water, it becomes invisible and thus aids in deluding the wary fish, +who does not see any connection between the line and the baited hook. +The "gut" is prepared as follows: Larvae which are ready to spin their +cocoons are cut open and placed in strong vinegar for eighteen hours; +the glands are then taken out, stretched and dried in the shade. + +Six or eight days after beginning the cocoon, the larval skin is +moulted and the real chrysalic or pupal stage begins. This stage +normally lasts till the following spring or summer. A few days before +the time of emergence a pair of glands which open into the mouth become +very active and secrete an acidulated fluid which escapes and wets +the fore end of the cocoon, causing the resinous material binding +together the fibres to become soft. Even cocoons sealed up in shellac +and starch have been dissolved by this fluid, and thus the moths have +been able to escape. When the cocoon has become sufficiently soft, the +moth pushes its way between the fibres, but in doing so often breaks +some of the threads, thus making the silk of such cocoons useless for +commercial purposes. The moth at the time of emergence, with its folded +and crumpled wings, is quite a forlorn-looking object. These wilted +wings soon begin to fill up with fluids from the body, which is very +large at this time. In some cases, the fluid is driven into the wings +with so much force that they swell up, and if such a wing is punctured, +thus allowing some of the fluid to escape, the mature wing will be of +a smaller size than one from which no fluid has been lost. It must be +remembered that it is possible to inflate a butterfly or moth's wing, +because the wings of insects are not composed of a single layer, but +are sacs of two layers which are closely applied. It is thus possible +to split the wing into upper and lower halves, but this can only be +done at the time of emergence, when these two layers are not so firmly +cemented together as they are in a few hours after emergence. + +The enemies of Polyphemus are numerous. Birds prey upon the larvae, in +addition to numerous parasitic insects which are very similar to those +which destroy Cecropia. The cocoon itself is not a complete protection +because rats and squirrels plunder them. We thus see that the life of +even an insect is full of dangers, and that it is really a wonder that +so many are able to become mature and reproduce. + +The silk-worm moths are excellent illustrations of what is called +complete metamorphosis in insects. An insect like the grasshopper, when +it hatches from the egg, is very much like the adult insect in its +general form and appearance; the most evident difference being the lack +of wings. An insect which shows such slight changes in its growth to +maturity is said to have an incomplete metamorphosis. It is incomplete +in the sense that the change is not of a very radical nature. But +in the case of the silk worm moths, and moths and butterflies in +general, the larva which hatches from the eggs has not even the most +superficial resemblance to the adult insect, the fully-developed moth. +This necessitates a complete change or metamorphosis in the form and +structure of the insect before it can become mature. This great change +is accomplished during the quiet pupal stage in the cocoon. Because +the pupa is apparently passive when viewed from the exterior, one must +not conclude that it is so internally; far from it; the digestive +organs of the larva must be completely made over from those of a +chewing leaf eater to those of a moth which can only take liquid food. + + Charles Christopher Adams. + + + + +CASTLES IN THE AIR. + + +In a little bend of the San Joaquin River, where the current, +attempting to straighten its course, has left a bank a few feet wide, +there is a small grove of tall cottonwood trees, perhaps a dozen in +number, whose branches lean far over the stream and whose tops reach +almost to the level of the bluff or rather the floor of the valley 250 +feet above, for this swift river has, in the course of ages, cut thus +deep a channel for itself. + +The place is not easy of access, for the shore narrows above and below +the bend to a few inches where one with difficulty keeps from crumbling +away the sand with his feet and falling into the water, and the cliff +is so nearly perpendicular that in many places it is inaccessible to a +climber, being of soft sand whose different stratas are clearly defined +where they have been sliced off by the cutting stream. + +The valley above is a vast grainfield out almost to the edge of the +bluff, and along the edge and face of the bluff, wherever root can +cling or tendril hold, grow beautiful wild flowers in the early spring +days--their last refuge between the cultivation and the deep sea, or +rather, river. + +In the tops of the cottonwoods live a number of baronial families in +castles huge, gray and ugly, overlooking the sweep of the stream. They +are the Great Blue Herons whose Latin title, (Ardea herodias), gives +one some idea of their ancient lineage. They claim to be older than the +storks of Egypt, and indeed, they look older as they stand humpbacked +and sleepy on one leg by the side of their nests, the long fringe of +light-speckled neck feathers underneath looking like a long gray beard +sweeping over their recurved neck and breast. There is a wise look +about them, too, for the black markings of the head sweep back over the +eye and prolong into the appearance of a quill extending behind their +ears. + +Though they are almost four feet long and spread their wings to six +feet and over, the herons' large blue-grey bodies are often almost +indistinguishable from the bark of the cottonwood branches and the +blue of the sky against which they are silhouetted so oddly. One's +eyes open with astonishment when these sticks or excrescences of the +tree-tops slowly unfold an enormous sweep of sail and, extending their +long stilts behind them, flap off across the stream with a creaking +sound like the pulleys of a vessel when the halliards are running +through them. Standing or flapping they are not handsome birds and +one who comes suddenly upon a large heron for the first time as he +stands in the shallow water of the brookside, will be convulsed with +laughter, for if there is an utterly clumsy and awkward form or motion +in bird-life it belongs to this heron. + +Their homes are big baskets of nests made of twigs as large as a man's +finger, closely intermeshed. From year to year they use the same nest +or build over it until it has two or three stories or more and is +bigger than a bushel basket. There are probably two dozen nests in the +dozen cottonwood trees, some of the larger trees having three or four +or even six away up in their tops where the branches seem scarcely +strong enough to bear such heavy burdens. From the top of the bluff one +can look down into the nests and in early March see the big blue eggs, +almost as large as hens' eggs, reposing like amethysts in their rough +brown setting. Some authors state that not over three eggs are laid, +but I have seen four about as often as three and, on one occasion, +five in a nest. + +From their high-placed towers the herons watch the small fry in the +river below and make forays among the young trout, pike and catfish and +the frogs. They listen to the complaining voices in the twilight and in +the morning give them cause for still further complainings. They keep +in terror the big wood rats whose homes in the clumps of elder berries +below surpass in size those of the herons. And the gophers and field +mice of the grain fields never know at what moment an ungainly shadow +shall fall upon them and end their harvestings. There was a conceited +young frog who sang loud and shrill at sunset on the edge of the river +and who had an ambition to be, not an ox like the one in the fable, but +a Patti. And she had her wish after a fashion, for that connoisseur, +the heron who dwelt on the farthest branch over the water, attracted by +her vocal abilities, sought her out, and the little herons thought her +the nicest _paté de foie gras_ they had ever eaten. + +There they dwell, this ancient race of high-born philosophers, stalking +the shallows of sunny baylets, or dreaming in the breeze of the +tree-tops of traditions old as the sequoias. What an authority would +you and I be if we could read the unwritten history of their race! + + Charles Elmer Jenny. + + * * * * * + + Boughs are daily rifled + By the gusty thieves, + And the Book of Nature + Getteth short of leaves. + --Hood, "The Seasons." + + + + + [Illustration: PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE. + (Antilocapra americana.) + Greatly reduced. + FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE. + +(_Antilocapra americana._) + + +The antelope family comprises many of the most beautiful and graceful +species among horned animals. When we behold the curiously twisted +horns of the sasin, the long, sharp horns of the pasan, the large, +spiral horns of the koodoo and the shorter horns of the eland, not to +mention the graceful bodies and limbs of these animals, we are led to +wonder at the extravagance of nature in furnishing such a variety of +appendages to these creatures. + +By far the larger number of species of this family live in Africa and +Asia, where they have reached the highest development of structure. +They are not, like some families of mammals, confined to any one +particular locality, but are found on the plains and high up on the +mountains; in a country sparsely covered with vegetation and in the +thick forests; in marshes and bogs. In fact, they seem to inhabit all +varieties of country. While the family is thus diversified in habitat, +the different species are by no means so widely distributed, for while +some species, like the sasin, live only on the open plains, others, +like the chamois, live high up on the mountains, frequently above the +snow-line. + +The subject of our sketch, the Prong-horned antelope (Antilocapra +americana), is not as large nor so strikingly horned as the other +animals which have been mentioned. In fact, so different is its +structure, having hollow, pronged horns which do not increase by +continuous growth, as do those of the true antelopes, but are shed like +those of the deer family, and having a somewhat different structure of +feet and different texture of hair, that a family has been made for it +known as Antilocapridae. + +The Prong-horn ranges throughout the western part of North America from +the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean, and from the Saskatchewan +river south to the Rio Grande. It is not confined to the plains, but +has been found in the wild valleys of the Rocky mountains to a height +of over eight thousand feet above sea level. + +The daily life of this interesting animal is thus described by +Canfield, who made an exhaustive study of them and who also kept +them in captivity: "From the first of September to the first of +March one always sees them in larger groups composed of bucks, does +and yearlings. Shortly afterward the does individually retire from +these herds and give birth to their young. After a short interval +they again unite with other suckling does and their little calves, +possibly with a view to common defense against the wolf and coyotes. +The adult bucks roam about singly or two together, leaving the mothers +with their latest progeny to their fate, the young Prong-horns in the +meantime gathering in groups of their own apart from the older animals. +Apparently tired of the world and bored by society the old bucks +wander about for one or two months, frequenting localities in which +they are not ordinarily seen. Two or three months subsequently the +adolescent bucks again join the old does and their calves, and finally +the old bucks also put in an appearance, so that one can observe herds, +numbering hundreds, or sometimes even thousands, after the first of +September. A herd never leaves its native locality or roams over more +than a few miles of range. In dry summer weather they seek water and go +to drink regularly once a day or twice in three days; but if the grass +is fresh and green, as is the case during the greater part of the year, +the Prong-horns do not drink at all." + +The food of the antelope consists to a great extent of the short, +succulent herbage of the prairie, of moss, and also, to a limited +extent, of the young and tender branches of trees. Like many other +ruminants, this animal is passionately fond of salt and they will +remain about saline deposits for many hours, satisfying themselves by +licking the salty ground. + +The antelope is the swiftest runner of any animal in North America, +though perhaps less agile and speedy than some of its relatives in the +old world. It has been said by competent observers that so swiftly do +they run that it is absolutely impossible to distinguish their limbs. + +The senses of the antelope are unusually developed. Their sight is +exceedingly keen and their hearing very acute. Their sense of smell +is so well developed that no danger can possibly approach from the +windward side. When a herd is feeding, sentinels are placed on the +outskirts to scent any impending danger, and to give due warning to the +herd. Their curiosity is one of their most peculiar qualities and seems +to overshadow every other sense. + +For a number of years this graceful animal has been considered royal +game for the sportsman and a good round-up of antelopes is considered a +great achievement among hunters. Mr. G. O. Shields, in his interesting +book, "Hunting in the Great West," very vividly describes a hunt for +antelopes, and we cannot better illustrate the peculiarities of the +animal than by giving his pen sketch: + +"We had heard from some ranchmen along the way that the buffalo herd +was at this time grazing about fifteen to twenty miles up the Big +Porcupine, and knowing that antelopes are nearly always found hanging +on the outskirts of every large herd of bison, we were on the look-out +for them, for it would not seem at all strange to find them near the +stage trail on which we were traveling. We scanned the country closely +with the field glass and were finally rewarded by seeing a number +of small white spots on the dead grass away up the Porcupine, that +seemed to be moving. We rode toward them at a lively trot for perhaps a +mile, and then stopped to reconnoitre again. From this point we could +plainly distinguish them, though they looked to be about the size of +jack rabbits. We again put the rowels to our donkeys and rode rapidly +up to within about a mile of them, when we picketed our animals in a +low swale, took out our antelope flag--a piece of scarlet calico about +half a yard square--attached it to the end of my wiping stick, and were +ready to interview the antelopes. + +"I crawled to the top of a ridge within plain view of the game, and +planted my flag. The breeze spread it out, kept it fluttering, and +it soon attracted their attention. They were then near the bank of +the river, grazing quietly, but this bit of colored rag excited their +curiosity to a degree that rendered them restive, anxious, uneasy, and +they seemed at once to be seized with an insatiable desire to find out +what it was. An antelope has as much curiosity as a woman, and when +they see any object that they don't quite understand, they will travel +miles and run themselves into all kinds of danger to find out what it +is. They have been known to follow an emigrant or freight wagon with +a white cover several miles, and an Indian brings them within reach +of his arrow by standing in plain view wrapped in his red blanket. +Some hunters "flag" them by lying down on their back, holding one foot +as high as possible, and swinging it to and fro. A piece of bright +tin or a mirror answers the same purpose on a clear day. Almost any +conspicuous or strange-looking object will attract them, but the most +convenient, as well as the most reliable at all times, is the little +red flag, such as we employed in this instance. + +"Huffman went to the top of another ridge, to my right and some +distance in advance, and Jack crawled into a hollow on the left, and +well in advance, we three forming a half circle, into which it was our +intention if possible to decoy the game. When they first discovered +our flag they moved rapidly toward it, sometimes breaking into a trot, +but when they had covered half the distance between us and their +starting point, they began to grow suspicious and stopped. They circled +around, turned back, walked a few steps, and then paused and looked +back at the, to them, mysterious apparition. But they could not resist +its magic influence. Again they turned and came toward it, stopped, +and gazed curiously at it. The old buck who led the herd stamped +impatiently, as if annoyed at being unable to solve the mystery. Then +they walked cautiously toward us again, down an incline into a valley, +which took them out of our sight, and out of sight of the flag. This +of course rendered them still more impatient, and when they again came +in sight on the next ridge, they were running. But as soon as their +leader caught sight of the flag, he stopped, as did the others in +their turn when they reached the top of the ridge. There were seven in +the herd, two bucks, three does and two fawns. They were now not more +than a hundred yards from me, and still less from the other two of our +party. Their position was everything we could wish, and though we might +possibly have brought them a few yards nearer, there was a possibility +of their scenting us, even across the wind, which, of course, we had +arranged to have in our favor, and I decided that rather than run the +risk of this and the consequent stampede, I would shoot while I had a +good chance. It had been arranged that I was to open the ball, so I +drew my peep and globe sights down very finely, taking the white breast +of the old buck for my bull's-eye, and pulled. Huffman's Kennedy and +Jack's carbine paid their compliments to the pretty visitors at almost +the same instant, and for about two or three minutes thereafter we +fanned them about as vigorously as ever a herd got fanned under similar +circumstances. The air was full of leaden missiles; the dry dust raised +under and around the fleeing herd as it does when a team trots over a +dusty road. Clouds of smoke hung over us, and the distant hills echoed +the music of our artillery until the last white rump disappeared in the +cottonwoods on the river bank. + +"When the smoke of battle cleared away, and we looked over the field, +we found that we had not burned our powder in vain. Five of the little +fellows, the two bucks and three does, had fallen victims to their +curiosity. The two fawns had, strangely enough, escaped, probably only +because they, so much smaller than their parents, were less exposed." + +The antelope have a curious way of protecting their young, when on the +open prairie. This is accomplished by placing a ring of sharp-pointed +cacti about a spot which has been beaten smooth by their hoofs. Inside +this ample protection the animal cares for its young and secures +ingress and egress for itself by jumping over the ring of cacti. This +serves to protect them from the majority of their foes, which inhabit +the open country. + +The antelope does not thrive well in captivity, the older ones soon +killing themselves in their attempts to escape. The young taken soon +after their birth generally die early, unless very special care is +bestowed upon them, and even if they survive the juvenile state, they +are very likely to die when three or four months old, from pyaemic +sores or inflammation of the limbs. + + + + +PLANT PROTECTION. + + +In the last number of this journal it was shown how plants seek to +avoid the visits of unsuitable insects to their flowers. This is one +means of protection, but there are many others which are even more +striking and vital. It is supposed by many that plants are helpless +beings, which must submit to all sorts of unfavorable conditions which +come upon them. This is far from true, for while plants as a rule are +fixed and unable to escape from danger by flight, still they have very +many ways of helping themselves. + +Prominent among the dangers which come to active green plants are +those which arise from too intense light, which may destroy the +delicate working substances. Since the leaves are the great working +organs in the manufacture of food, they are especially equipped for +protection. Those leaves which must work in exposed places have many +details of structure which are evidently for guarding them against +the ill effects of too intense light. The most striking adaptations, +however, are those which have to do with protective positions. Under +ordinary circumstances leaves are placed so that their flat faces are +exposed to the most intense light. In some cases this is so great a +danger that the leaves are set edgewise, the edges being directed +upwards and downwards. When a plant assumes this habit, the leaves are +said to be in a profile position, and the plants are sometimes called +"compass plants." The latter name has come from the fact that such +leaves usually point north or south, and once it was assumed that this +position was in response to some mysterious magnetic influence. It is +found, however, that it is merely an effort on the part of the plant +to protect its leaves from the intense light of midday, and at the +same time to expose them to the morning and evening rays of much less +intensity. If a leaf is to be placed with its edge upwards and its flat +faces east and west, it follows of necessity that it will point either +north or south. + +Some leaves, however, have the power of shifting their position +according to their needs, directing their flat surfaces toward the +light, or more or less inclining them according to the danger. +Perhaps the most completely adapted leaves of this kind are those +of the "sensitive plants," whose leaves respond to various external +influences by changing their positions. The sensitive plants abound +in dry and hot regions, and one of the best known is represented in +our illustration. It will be noticed that the leaves of this Mimosa +are divided into very numerous small leaflets, which stretch in pairs +along the leaf branches. When the time of intense light and dryness +approaches some of the pairs of leaflets fold together, slightly +reducing the surface exposure. As the unfavorable condition continues, +more leaflets fold together, then still others, until finally all the +leaflets may be folded together, and the leaves themselves may bend +against the stem. It is like a sailing vessel gradually taking in sail +as a storm approaches, until finally nothing is exposed, and the vessel +weathers the storm by presenting only bare poles. These are but a few +illustrations of the very numerous devices for escaping too intense +light and the dangers which accompany it. + + [Illustration: SENSITIVE PLANT. + Awake. (Mimosa pudica.) Asleep. + PLANTS PRESENTED BY LINCOLN PARK COMMISSIONERS. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +One common danger in temperate regions comes from the lowering of the +temperature each night, which sometimes may chill the living substances +to the danger point. This is particularly dangerous to seedlings, whose +tender structures have not yet developed the ordinary protective +coats. In the spring the seed leaves of numerous seedlings may be seen +at the approach of night to rise upward and come together, just as the +palms of the hand may be placed together over one's head. This reduces +the surface of exposure and the danger of chill at least one-half. +Darwin experimented upon these seedlings, and discovered that by +preventing some of the seed leaves from moving, the seedlings were +seriously injured. The leaves of very many plants assume a peculiar +night position which tends to meet the danger of loss of heat. Often +the three leaflets of the common clover, if growing in an exposed +place, may be observed to fold together into a sort of tent-like +arrangement. + +Many plants are also observed to protect themselves against rain, as +it is necessary for leaves to avoid becoming wet. If the water is +allowed to soak in, the work of the leaves is at once interfered with. +Hence it will be noticed that most leaves are able to shed water, +partly by their position, partly by their structure. In many plants +the leaves are so arranged that the water runs off toward the stem; in +other plants the rain is shed outwards as from the eaves of a house. +Some of the structures which prevent the rain from soaking in are a +smooth epidermis, layers of cuticle, hairy coverings, etc. Interesting +experiments may be performed with different leaves to test their power +of shedding water. If a gentle spray be allowed to play upon different +plants it will be observed that the water glances off at once from the +surfaces of some leaves, runs off more slightly from others, and may be +more or less retained by others. + +Perhaps the most general preparation for protection in our region is +that which is made for the coming of the winter's cold. In many cases +plants do not attempt to protect their delicate structures from the +severity of winter, but disappear entirely, leaving only well-protected +seeds to carry them over into the next growing season. This results in +the so-called "annual habit," which has been learned by many plants +in order to escape a season of danger. Other plants do not disappear +so completely, but everything above the surface of the ground dies, +while the plant continues in the form of underground bulbs, tubers, +or various thickened structures. This habit of seeking a subterranean +retreat at the approach of some dangerous season is a very good one, +and is found in many of our early spring plants. This subterranean +habit has a great advantage over the annual habit, since a seed is very +slow in bringing the plant back again, while a bulb can produce its +plant very rapidly. + +Still other plants preserve more of their structures than either the +annuals or the ground-loving plants. For example, most of our trees +have cultivated what is known as the deciduous habit, that is, they +merely drop their leaves, which are the endangered structures, at the +approach of the unfavorable season, and renew them again when the +favorable conditions return. It should be remarked that these leaves +do not fall because they are broken off, but that in a certain sense +it is a process of growing off, which is carefully prepared for. One +of the most prominent features associated with the deciduous habit is +the autumnal coloration. The vivid colors which appear in the leaves of +many trees just before the time of falling have attracted a great deal +of attention, but although it is so prominent, the causes for it are +very obscure. It will be noticed that this autumnal coloration consists +in the development of various shades of two typical colors, yellow and +red. It is known that the yellow is due to the breaking down of the +green substances, so that it simply indicates a post mortem change, as +may be noticed in connection with the blanching of celery in which the +leaves and upper part of the stem may be green, the green may shade +gradually into yellow, and finally into the pure white of complete +blanching. The red coloring matter, however, is very different. Certain +experiments upon plant colors have indicated that the presence of the +red slightly increases the temperature by absorbing more heat. It is +suggested that the red color may be a slight protection to the living +substance which is ceasing to work, and which is in danger of exposure +to cold. If this be true, it may be that the same explanation will +cover the case of the red flush so conspicuous in buds and young leaves +in early spring. It must not be supposed that the need of protection +has developed the coloring, but since it is developed it may be of some +such service to the plant. Even the conditions which determine autumnal +coloration have not been made out certainly. + +It is instructive to notice how differently the so-called evergreens, +as pines, spruces, etc., have answered the problem of protection +against the cold of winter. The evergreens, instead of dropping their +leaves, have undertaken to protect them, giving them a small surface +and very heavy walls. In this way protection has been secured at the +expense of working power during the season of work. Reduced surface and +thick walls are both obstacles to leaf work. On the other hand, the +deciduous trees have developed the working power of their leaves to the +greatest extent, giving them large surface exposure and comparatively +delicate walls. It is out of the question to protect such an amount +of surface during the winter, and hence the deciduous habit. The +evergreens are saved the annual renewal of leaves, but lose in working +power; the deciduous trees must renew their leaves annually, but gain +greatly in working power. + +To obtain the most striking instances of protection, however, one must +examine plants which belong to permanently dry regions, such as may be +found in the United States along the Mexican border, or in the regions +of tropical deserts. In the first place, it will be noticed that the +plants in general produce smaller leaves than in other regions. That +this holds a direct relation to the dry conditions is evident from +the fact that the same plant often produces smaller leaves in dry +conditions than in moist. One of the most striking features of an arid +country is the absence of large leaves. These reduced leaves are of +various forms, such as the needle leaves of pines, or the thread-like +leaves of certain sedges and grasses, or the narrow leaves with +inrolled margins such as is common in many heath plants. The extreme of +leaf reduction has been reached by the Cactus plants, whose leaves, so +far as foliage is concerned, have disappeared entirely, and the leaf +work is done by the surface of the globular, cylindrical, or flattened +stems. A covering of hairs is an effective sun screen, and it is very +common to find plants of dry regions characteristically hairy. In +such regions it is to be observed also that dwarf growths prevail, so +that the plant, as a whole, does not present such an exposure to the +drouth as in regions of greater moisture. One of the most prominent +measures of protection in dry regions is the organization of what are +known as water reservoirs. Nearly all plants of such regions have +leaves which are known as fleshy, that is, they are thick and juicy, +being reservoirs of stored up moisture which is doled out cautiously +according to the needs of the plant, without any wastefulness. + +The whole subject of plant protection is an immense one, and the +illustrations given above are merely intended to suggest that there is +such a subject, and to lead to some observation of the various schemes +of protection which are to be seen plainly on every hand. + + John Merle Coulter. + + * * * * * + + Nature is but a name for an effect + Whose cause is God. + --Cowper, "The Task." + + + + +THE BIRTH OF A TREE. + + + Once I lay 'neath quilt of green, + All unthought of, all unseen; + Little thinking of the world + Out of which I had been hurled. + + By and by, when quilt grew hot, + Mother Nature touched my cot, + Whispered softly in my ear, + "Higher, higher, higher, dear." + + Painted lovely scenes for me, + Saying, "Child, climb up and see." + I was lazy, so I said, + "Please, ma'am, let me stay in bed." + + Something whispered, "Child, I fear + Life will be but meager here." + Golden sunbeams bade me start, + And a purpose filled my heart. + + I would leave my bed of ease, + I would join the forest trees; + Shelter travelers passing by, + Hide squirrels in the branches high. + + Purpose, mighty power, led, + Ever, ever on ahead, + Till I grew up here so high, + Near the sunlight and the sky. + + Mother Nature, mother dear, + I am glad you called me here. + Thus the mighty forest oak + From his wooded homeland spoke. + + And I thought a lesson this-- + We, to reach the highest bliss, + Must arise from beds of ease, + Growing like the forest trees. + Lucia Belle Cook. + + + + +THE ALMOND. + +(_Amygdalus communis L._) + +And it came to pass that on the morrow Moses went into the tabernacle +of witness; and behold, the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was +budded, and brought forth buds, and blossomed blossoms, and yielded +_almonds_.--Numbers 17:8. + + +The almond is the fruit of a small tree (Amygdalus communis) belonging +to the Rose family (Rosaceae). The plant is believed to be a native of +northern Africa, Persia and Turkestan. It occurs wild in Sicily and +Greece and is cultivated throughout temperate Europe, including England. + +The leaves of the almond tree are simple, broadly lanceolate, margins +serrate, bright green and stalked. The flowers are nearly sessile, +mostly solitary, petals bright pink; otherwise similar to the flowers +of the rose family as seen in the apple blossom, cherry blossom and +the wild rose. The fruit is a drupe or stone fruit, resembling the +peach in its general structural characters. It is, however, much +smaller, measuring about one and one-half inch in length. As in the +peach the outer portion of the fruit coat (sarcocarp) is fleshy, the +inner portion (endocarp or putamen) is hard and encloses the kernel or +seed to which the term almond is usually applied. The plant is very +ornamental, producing its beautiful flowers in March before the leaves +are developed. + +Two natural varieties of almonds are quite universally recognized, the +sweet (A. communis var dulcis) and the bitter (A. communis var amara). +They resemble each other so closely in general appearance that it is +practically impossible to distinguish between them. The principal +difference lies in the chemistry of the kernels or seeds themselves. +In the bitter variety amygdalin is found, which is practically wanting +in the sweet variety. Some botanists describe quite a number of +varieties. Karsten, for instance, describes five varieties of A. +communis, namely, dulcis, amara, fragilis, macrocarpa and persicoides. +Boissier in his Flora Orientalis describes as many as seventeen +distinct species. + +The almond tree is one of the oldest of the cultivated plants. It +was a great garden favorite in and about Palestine. It is frequently +mentioned in the books of Moses. In Exodus 25:34, we find that the +"candlestick shall have four bowls made like unto almonds." As +explained in the 8th verse of chapter 17 of Numbers the blossoming +rod of Aaron was from an almond tree. Even to this day Jews carry +rods bearing almond blossoms to the synagogues on great festival +days. The Romans designated the almonds (the kernels or seeds with +the hard endocarp or shell) Nuces graecae (Greek nuts), from which it +is concluded that the almond tree was brought to Italy from Greece. +Almond oil was known to the ancient Greek and Roman writers. Plinius +and Dioscorides make reference to the gum which exudes from the bark. +Karl der Grosse (Charlemagne) recommended the cultivation of almonds +in Germany. In view of the fact that some authorities state that the +sweet variety is a product of cultivation, it is interesting to note +that the two varieties have been known equally long. The bitter variety +was described by Scribonius Largus and Plinius. Alexander Trallianus +described the medicinal virtues of the oil of bitter almonds. +Palladinus gave directions how to convert the bitter variety into the +sweet variety by methods of cultivation. Later experiments have, +however, proven this to be a false conclusion. + + [Illustration: ALMOND. + FROM KOEHLER'S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN. + CHICAGO: + A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER.] + +Description of Plate:--A, B, branch with flowers and fruit; 1, 1a, +flowers from different trees; 2, 2a, petals; 3, stamens; 4, pollen; 5, +stamen; 6, 7, ovary; 8, 9, seed with shell; 10, seed without shell; 11, +12, sections of seed. + +The fruit and seeds of several other plants are known as almonds. The +seeds of the African shrub Brabejum stellatifolium are known as African +almonds. Country almonds is a name given to the fruit of the East +Indian tree Terminalia Catappa. The fruit of Canarium commune is known +as Java almonds. + +At the present time the sweet almond is extensively cultivated in +northern Africa, southern Europe and in the warmer parts of the +United States, particularly in California. Climatic conditions and +cultivation have a great influence upon the quality of the almonds and +we have as a result quite a number of commercial varieties, just as +we have commercial varieties of coffee, tea, oranges, etc. The more +important commercial varieties are the Jordan, Valencia, Barbary and +California almonds. These vary somewhat in size, form and thickness +of the kernel and the hardness and thickness of the shell (endocarp). +The Jordan almonds are imported from Malaga (Spain) and are said to be +the finest. They differ from the others in the greater length of the +kernel (seed), for which reason they are also known as long almonds. +These are official in the English Pharmacopoeia because they are not +readily confused with other sweet varieties and the bitter almond. The +Valencia almonds come from the Balearic islands (Majorca); they are +characterized by a comparatively soft shell and are less highly prized +than the Jordan or the California almonds. The Barbary almonds from +northern Africa are quite small and unsightly and for those reasons +have comparatively little commercial value. In the United States the +principal commercial variety is the California almond. The kernel is +shorter and flatter than that of the Jordan almond, but almost equal to +it in quality. It is extensively cultivated, about one hundred trees +being planted to the acre. The trees attain a height of fifteen to +twenty feet and begin to yield when three years old. In California it +is customary to bleach the almonds by exposing them to the vapor of +burning sulphur, which also destroys insect parasites which attack +almonds very readily. + +Other less important sweet commercial varieties are the Provence +almonds of southern France, the Florence and Ambrosia almonds of +Sicily, the Pitti almonds of Portugal and the small Puglia almonds of +Italy. + +The bitter almond seeds are as a rule somewhat shorter, broader and +thinner than those of the larger, sweet varieties. Those found upon the +market are largely from northern Africa, Sicily and southern France. + +The principal constituents of sweet almonds are a fixed oil, sugar, +some albuminoid substances, and perhaps a small quantity of amygdalin +or a substance akin to it. The purified fixed oil from both varieties +of almonds is a bland, thin, pale yellow liquid, having a faint taste +and odor of the almond. When exposed to the air it becomes rancid +quite readily. Medicinally it finds use as an emollient in external +applications. Taken internally in small doses it is nutritious; in +large doses laxative. Mixed with mucilage or yolk of eggs and sugar it +is found useful in allaying troublesome coughs due to irritation of the +throat. It also finds a table use similar to that of olive oil. + +Bitter almonds contain a very poisonous volatile oil in addition to +the fixed oil just described. In small quantities this oil finds a use +for flavoring by the cook and confectioner, and by the perfumer for +scenting toilet soaps and for other purposes. This oil is obtained by +distillation after the fixed oil has been expressed. It is the product +of the decomposition of amygdalin under the influence of emulsin and +water. The poisonous properties of this oil are due to the hydrocyanic +acid which is present. This acid may be removed and the oil is then +known as purified oil of bitter almonds. Even the purified oil is not +safe, as it decomposes quite readily unless all of the water is removed +by the use of fused chloride of lime. + +The symptoms of poisoning from the oil of bitter almonds, or from +a quantity of the bitter almonds, are the same as from a dose of +hydrocyanic acid. Medicinally the oil is used like hydrocyanic acid +in various disorders of nervous origin, as whooping cough, spasmodic +troubles, etc. + +Sweet almonds are variously employed. Roasted and salted almonds are +very much liked by everybody. Almonds for the table must first be +"blanched," that is, the outer, reddish brown, thin seed coat must be +removed, as it contains irritant properties. They are used in making +cake and other pastry. Cake or bread made from almond meal has been +recommended as a substitute for ordinary bread in the treatment of +diabetes, as it is free from starch, a food substance which proves +harmful in this disease. Almond cake is a term applied to the crushed +seeds from which the oil has been expressed. Finely-powdered this +is used for washing hands and face. Almond paste is a cosmetic made +from powdered bitter almonds, white of egg, rose water and rectified +spirits. It is used to soften the skin and prevent chapping of hands. +An emulsion of sweet almonds is also used as a substitute for milk in +feeding infants. + + Albert Schneider. + + * * * * * + + Nature, the Vicar of the Almightie Lord. + --Chaucer, "The Assembly of Foules." + + + All Nature is but art, unknown to thee; + All chance, direction, which thou canst not see; + All discord, harmony not understood; + All partial evil, universal good; + And, spite of pride, in erring reason's spite, + One truth is clear, whatever is, is right. + --Pope, "Essay on Man." + + + Nature is a frugal mother, and never gives without measure. + --Emerson, "Essays." + + + But who can paint + Like Nature! Can imagination boast + Amid its gay creations hues like hers? + --Thompson, "Seasons." + + + + + +----------------------------------------------------------------- + + | Transcriber's Note: | + | | + | Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. | + | | + | Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant | + | form was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. | + | | + | Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. | + | | + | Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs | + | and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that | + | references them. | + | | + | Italicized words are surrounded by underline characters, | + | _like this_. | + | | + | The Contents table was added by the transcriber. | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Birds and Nature, Vol. VIII, No. 4, +November 1900, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BIRDS AND NATURE, NOVEMBER 1900 *** + +***** This file should be named 48579-8.txt or 48579-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/8/5/7/48579/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Christian +Boissonnas, The Internet Archive for some images and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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} + .volumeleft { float: left; width: 33%; text-align: left; } + .volumeright { float: right; width: 33%; text-align: right; } + .pagenum { display:none; } + .transnote { page-break-before:always; margin-left:2%; margin-right:2%; + margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; padding:.5em; } +} + </style> + + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Birds and Nature, Vol. VIII, No. 4, +November 1900, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most +other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + +Title: Birds and Nature, Vol. VIII, No. 4, November 1900 + Illustrated by Color Photography + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 25, 2015 [EBook #48579] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BIRDS AND NATURE, NOVEMBER 1900 *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Christian +Boissonnas, The Internet Archive for some images and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1 style="margin-bottom:2em;"><a name="BIRDS_AND_NATURE"></a>BIRDS AND NATURE<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller">ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.</span></h1> + +<div class="vlouter"> + <div class="volumeline"> + <div class="volumeleft"><span class="sc">Vol. VIII.</span></div> + <div class="volumeright"><span class="sc">No. 4.</span></div> + <div class="ac">NOVEMBER, 1900.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2 style="margin-top:2em;"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<table class="toctable" id="TOC"> + <tr> + <td class="c1"> </td> + <td class="c2"><span class="sc">Page</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#SONNET_NOVEMBER">SONNET—NOVEMBER.</a></td> + <td class="c2">145</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#SOME_FACTS_ABOUT_THE_WESTERN_WILLET"> + SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WESTERN WILLET.</a></td> + <td class="c2">146</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#CRUEL_TREATMENT_OF_BIRDS_DEMANDED_BY_DAME"> + CRUEL TREATMENT OF BIRDS DEMANDED BY DAME FASHION.</a></td> + <td class="c2">150</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_FALL_MIGRATIONS">THE FALL MIGRATIONS.</a></td> + <td class="c2">151</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_WAYS_OF_SOME_BANTAMS">THE WAYS OF SOME BANTAMS.</a></td> + <td class="c2">152</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_BUFFLE-HEAD">THE BUFFLE-HEAD.</a></td> + <td class="c2">155</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#AN_HOUR_WITH_AN_ANT">AN HOUR WITH AN ANT.</a></td> + <td class="c2">156</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#SONG">SONG.</a></td> + <td class="c2">157</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_AMERICAN_EARED_GREBE">THE AMERICAN EARED GREBE.</a></td> + <td class="c2">158</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_GEOGRAPHICAL_DISTRIBUTION_OF_FISHES"> + THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES.</a></td> + <td class="c2">161</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_LOUISIANA_TANAGER">THE LOUISIANA TANAGER.</a></td> + <td class="c2">167</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#CHATTER_OF_A_CHAT">CHATTER OF A CHAT.</a></td> + <td class="c2">168</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_LUNA_AND_POLYPHEMUS_MOTHS"> + THE LUNA AND POLYPHEMUS MOTHS.</a></td> + <td class="c2">170</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#CASTLES_IN_THE_AIR">CASTLES IN THE AIR.</a></td> + <td class="c2">175</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_PRONG-HORNED_ANTELOPE">THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE.</a></td> + <td class="c2">179</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#PLANT_PROTECTION">PLANT PROTECTION.</a></td> + <td class="c2">182</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_BIRTH_OF_A_TREE">THE BIRTH OF A TREE.</a></td> + <td class="c2">187</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_ALMOND">THE ALMOND.</a></td> + <td class="c2">188</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="SONNET_NOVEMBER" id="SONNET_NOVEMBER"></a>SONNET—NOVEMBER.</h2> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse">Yet one smile more, departing, distant sun,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">One mellow smile through the soft vapory air,</div> + <div class="verse">Ere, o'er the frozen earth, the loud winds run,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Or snows are sifted o'er the meadow bare.</div> + <div class="verse">One smile on the brown hills and naked trees</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">And the dark rocks whose summer wreaths are cast,</div> + <div class="verse">And the blue Gentian flower, that, in the breeze,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Nods lonely, of her beauteous race the last.</div> + <div class="verse">Yet a few sunny days, in which the bee</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Shall murmur by the hedge that skirts the way,</div> + <div class="verse">The cricket chirp upon the russet lea,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">And man delight to linger in thy ray.</div> + <div class="verse">Yet one rich smile, and we will try to bear</div> + <div class="verse">The piercing winter frost, and winds, and darkened air.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—William Cullen Bryant.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent-2">Oh, Autumn! Why so soon</div> + <div class="verse">Depart the hues that make thy forests glad;</div> + <div class="verse">Thy gentle wind and thy fair sunny noon,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">And leave thee wild and sad!</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent-2">Ah! 'twere a lot too blessed</div> + <div class="verse">Forever in thy colored shades to stray;</div> + <div class="verse">Amid the kisses of the soft southwest</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">To rove and dream for aye.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—William Cullen Bryant.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="x-smaller">Copyright, 1900, by A. W. Mumford.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="SOME_FACTS_ABOUT_THE_WESTERN_WILLET" id="SOME_FACTS_ABOUT_THE_WESTERN_WILLET"></a> + SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WESTERN WILLET.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Symphemia semipalmata inornata.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>The Western Willet is one of the +largest of the Limicolae or Shore Birds. +The body is about the size of a common +pigeon, the long neck, legs and extent +of wings making it appear much larger. +The feet are only about one-half webbed +and only when great danger makes it +necessary will it go into the water beyond +its depth. The bill is straight and +in summer the color of the bird is gray +above, with many small but rather distinct +black marks. On the sides and +breast these marks are arrow-shaped. +In the plumage of winter and of the +young these markings are absent.</p> + +<p>I am inclined to believe that this species +has a more extended range than any +other of the order. It has become quite +abundant of late years in the Calumet Region +in Northern Indiana, near Chicago. +Mr. E. W. Nelson, in the Natural History +Survey of Illinois, says, that in the +seventies this species was a rare summer +resident on the wet prairies of Northwestern +Illinois, although I can find no +authentic record of the taking of the nest +and eggs. Captain Charles Bendire found +it abundant and resident in Southeastern +Oregon when he procured several sets of +its eggs. It is said to breed from the +coast of Texas to Manitoba. Straggling +flocks of from five to fifty may be found +along the shores of our larger fresh water +lakes, particularly Lake Michigan, during +the fall migration, which takes place +from about the fifteenth of August to the +last of September.</p> + +<p>This bird might well be called the +clown of the Limicolae. I have often +been amused by the antics of a flock of +Willets on the shore of Lake Michigan. +They would droop their necks and wings +in an absurd fashion, taking short runs +and jumps as the waves rolled in upon +them. I have never seen a bird which at +times could be so wary and hard to approach, +and again, if a number are shot +from a flock, the remaining birds will +seem to lose their senses, and I have frequently +walked within a few feet of the +survivors before they would take flight. +This trait is noticeable among a large +number of shore birds and the terns, but +more especially so with the Willet.</p> + +<p>On the plains bordering the Brazos +river, near the Gulf coast of Texas, during +the months of April and May, I have +found the Willet proper (Symphemia +semipalmata), a smaller and darker form, +breeding in abundance. The Willets usually +select for a nesting site a thick tussock +of salt marsh grass on the borders +of a small pond, where they can command +a good view of the vicinity. In the +center of this they hollow out a space of +about six or eight inches in diameter, and +simply line it with the grass they have +matted down. In this nest are laid four +pyriform eggs of a greenish white, or a +light olive brown ground color, marked +with large, irregular blotches or brownish +black and faint purple; the eggs are +immense for the size of the bird, being +about two inches in length by one and +one-half in width.</p> + +<p>The illustration faithfully portrays +three birds taken at Miller's, Indiana, on +the beach of Lake Michigan. The color +of the legs, which are obscured by the +shadow of the body, is a pale, slaty blue.</p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="THE WESTERN WILLET."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_005.jpg" id="i_005.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_005.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">THE WESTERN WILLET<br /> + (Symphemia semipalmata inornata.)<br /> + ¼ Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>Though the Willets are restless and +noisy birds, they are much less so, and, +indeed, quite unconscious of their surroundings +when nesting. Regarding +their habits at this time, Dr. Coues has +told us that if they "become thoroughly +alarmed by too open approach, particularly +if the setting bird be driven from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +her nest, there is a great outcry, violent +protest and tumult where there was +quietude. Other pairs, nesting near by, +join their cries till the confusion becomes +general. But now, again, their actions +are not those they would show at other +times; for, instead of flying off with the +instinct of self-preservation, to put distance +between them and danger, they are +held by some fascination to the spot, and +hover around, wheeling about, flying in +circles a little ways, to return again, with +unremitting clamor. They may be only +too easily destroyed under such circumstances, +provided the ornithologist can +lay aside his scruples and steel himself +against sympathy."</p> + +<p>It is to be hoped that all the States, +frequented by the Willets, will enact +proper legislation which will amply protect +these interesting waders.</p> + +<p class="ar">Frank M. Woodruff.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Autumn once more begins to teach;</div> + <div class="verse">Sere leaves their annual sermon preach;</div> + <div class="verse">And with the southward-slipping sun</div> + <div class="verse">Another stage of life is done.</div> + <div class="verse">The day is of a paler hue,</div> + <div class="verse">The night is of a darker blue,</div> + <div class="verse">Just as it was a year ago;</div> + <div class="verse">For time runs fast, but grace is slow!</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Thou comest, autumn, to unlade</div> + <div class="verse">Thy wealthy freight of summer shade,</div> + <div class="verse">Still sorrowful as in past years,</div> + <div class="verse">Yet mild and sunny in thy tears,</div> + <div class="verse">Ripening and hardening all thy growth</div> + <div class="verse">Of solid wood, yet nothing loth</div> + <div class="verse">To waste upon the frolic breeze</div> + <div class="verse">Thy leaves, like flights of golden bees.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Frederick William Faber.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="CRUEL_TREATMENT_OF_BIRDS_DEMANDED_BY_DAME" + id="CRUEL_TREATMENT_OF_BIRDS_DEMANDED_BY_DAME"></a> + CRUEL TREATMENT OF BIRDS DEMANDED BY DAME FASHION.</h2> + +<p>All of my readers probably know in a +general way that Dame Fashion is responsible +for the destruction of the lives +of many birds, but they may not know to +what extent this is true.</p> + +<p>Why do we say that any cruel treatment +of the birds is chargeable to fashion? +It can hardly be necessary to remind +ourselves that there is in almost +every boy's nature a touch of the savage +instincts which find expression in the desire +to kill something. Traces of this instinct +do not entirely disappear with the +development into manhood, but show +themselves there in the love of hunting +and fishing. Let these remnants of savagery +be appealed to by the promise of +gain and they are immediately fanned into +flame in the natures of those persons +who are naturally more strongly drawn +to this primitive occupation of men. In +short, place before the professional hunter +an easy means of profiting by his skill +as a hunter, and in far too many instances +he will smother any humane instincts +which he may have for the sake of the +gain. It is the demands of fashion for +plumes and feathers for hat trimmings +which place before these hunters the +temptation to kill. Have we not a right, +therefore, to place the blame at the door +of Fashion?</p> + +<p>But what are the practices which we +call cruel? In the first place it is cruelty +to cause the destruction of life without +good and sufficient reason. Unnecessary +sacrifice of life is cruelty. Certainly +no one will say that it is necessary to +trim hats with feathers. Fashion decrees +that feathers must be worn, and presto! +feathers are worn. In the second place, +it is cruel to kill birds who are feeding +young ones in the nest, leaving them to +starvation. Yet this is just what has happened +and does happen every year. +Plume hunters are no respecters of times +and seasons. With them there are no +closed seasons. The birds which they +are after gather in large rookeries during +the nesting season and are therefore +much easier to capture then than at other +times.</p> + +<p>Most of the herons and similar plume-bearing +birds are hunted and killed for +the plumes alone, or, at most, for a very +small part of the whole plumage. The +part wanted is taken and the rest left to +waste, while the bird's body is never used +for anything. If nothing worse, it is an +unpardonable waste. In Florida alone +whole rookeries of herons and ibises +numbering hundreds and even thousands +of individuals have been wholly destroyed. +Now the insatiable plume hunter, +in his effort to supply the demands of +a no less insatiable fashion, is pursuing +the unfortunate birds into the fastnesses +of Mexico and South America. There is +but one way to stop this work of extermination, +and that is to take away the +demand. This remedy lies wholly in the +hands of women. Unless they are willing +to take a firm stand against the use of +feathers for purposes of ornament the +birds are doomed. This may seem like a +strong statement, but a little reflection +will prove it true. When the birds which +are now hunted for plumes and feathers +are gone, there will be a modification of +the demand to include birds of different +plumage, just as the aigrette is giving +place to the quill. After the quill and the +long-pointed wing will come the shorter +wing, and after that the plumage of the +small birds, and the cycle of destruction +will be complete.</p> + +<p>Some one may ask why it is that the +birds are so foolish as to allow the hunter +to kill hundreds in a single day from one +rookery. Why don't they leave the region +when the shooting begins? The +plume hunter has learned cunning. He +no longer uses a shot gun, but a small +caliber rifle or a wholly noiseless air gun. +The rifle makes no more noise than the +snapping of a twig, and will therefore not +frighten the birds. By remaining concealed +the hunter may kill every bird that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +is within range. Since each bird is worth +from twenty-five cents to five dollars, according +to the kind, a single day's work +(or slaughter) is profitable. The temptation +is certainly great, and becomes almost +irresistible to him who loves hunting +for its own sake.</p> + +<p>The most cruel part of the whole business +I have already stated, but it will bear +repeating. It is the killing of the breeding +birds before the young are able to +care for themselves. There is abundant +evidence that the breeding time is the favorite +time for hunting among plume +hunters, because then the old birds are +more easy to kill, and because then the +plumage is the most perfect, for then the +wedding garments are put on.</p> + +<p>It should not be an impossible task to +stop this whole cruel business. But laws +will not do it without a wholesome public +sentiment behind it. Women are notably +foremost in all good works, and many +of them are doing nobly in this work, but +it is painfully evident that many are not. +Let us make "a long pull and a strong +pull and a pull all together," and then we +shall drag this growing evil back and +down forever.</p> + +<p class="ar">Lynds Jones.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_FALL_MIGRATIONS" id="THE_FALL_MIGRATIONS"></a>THE FALL MIGRATIONS.</h2> + + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">A rush of wings through the darkening night,</div> + <div class="verse">A sweep through the air in the distant height.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Far off we hear them, cry answering cry:</div> + <div class="verse">'Tis the voice of the birds as they southward fly.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">From sea to sea, as if marking the time,</div> + <div class="verse">Comes the beat of wings from the long, dark line.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">O strong, steady wing, with your rhythmic beat,</div> + <div class="verse">Flying from cold to the summertime heat;</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">O, keen, glancing eye, that can see so far,</div> + <div class="verse">Do you guide your flight by the northern star?</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">The birds from the North are crossing the moon,</div> + <div class="verse">And the southland knows they are coming soon.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">With gladness and freedom and music gone,</div> + <div class="verse">Another migration is passing on.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">No long, dark lines o'er the face of the moon;</div> + <div class="verse">No dip of wings in the southern lagoon.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">No sweet, low titter, no welcoming song;</div> + <div class="verse">These are birds of silence that sweep along.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Lifeless and stiff, with the death mark on it,</div> + <div class="verse">This "Fall Migration" on hat and bonnet.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">And the crowd goes by, with so few to care</div> + <div class="verse">For this march of death of the "fowls of the air."</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Mary Drummond, in the Chicago Times-Herald.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_WAYS_OF_SOME_BANTAMS" id="THE_WAYS_OF_SOME_BANTAMS"></a> + THE WAYS OF SOME BANTAMS.</h2> + +<p>Last summer, when I was out in the +country, I made the acquaintance of a +kind-hearted little bantam rooster, who +was as funny as he was kind-hearted.</p> + +<p>An old speckled hen, who looked as if +she might be a good mother, but wasn't, +had brought up a family of chickens to +that stage where their legs had grown +long and their down all turned to pin-feathers.</p> + +<p>Very ugly they were; there was no +doubt of it. Perhaps this queer mother +thought so. At any rate, she turned the +poor things adrift and pecked them cruelly +whenever they came near her.</p> + +<p>Little "Banty" saw this unkind behavior. +He was small, but his heart was +big, and he set Madam Speckle an example +which ought to have made her hide +her head in the darkest corner of the hen-house +for shame.</p> + +<p>He adopted those chickens!</p> + +<p>Each one of them was about half the +size of "Banty," and to see that loving +little father-bird standing on tiptoe with +his wings spread, trying in vain to cover +all eight of his adopted children, was a +pathetic as well as a ludicrous sight.</p> + +<p>They loved him and believed in him +fully. They followed him all day long, +and seemed to see nothing amusing when +he choked down a crow to cluck over the +food he found for them, and at night they +quarreled over the privilege of being +nearest to him.</p> + +<p>I think bantams perhaps are more interesting +than other fowls. When I was +a little girl father brought three of them +home. Dandy and his two little wives +were all pure white and very small.</p> + +<p>We had other fowls, the aristocratic +Spanish kind, each as large as two or +three of Dandy, and the Spanish rooster +hinted very strongly that Dandy's presence +in that barnyard could be dispensed +with. But Dandy was a brave little fighter, +and he soon settled it once for all +with Grandee as to what the rights of the +former and his family were.</p> + +<p>In a month or so one of the little hens +was missing. After a long time we found +her, and in such a queer, cozy place! Upon +the foundations of the old red farmhouse +where we lived, rested great +squared beams. An end of one of these +beams had decayed, out of sight, under +the clapboards on the south side of the +house, until there was a large, soft-lined +hollow. Here the little hen had stolen +her nest, and when we found her she was +just ready to lead off twenty-one tiny +white fluff-balls of chickens, every egg +having hatched.</p> + +<p>Dandy's bravery saved his little life +one day, and made him forever famous +in the annals of our pets. On this most +eventful day of his life, a shadow flitted +over the barnyard, and a wail went up +from us children as a chicken-hawk +swooped down upon our beloved Dandy +and carried him off before our indignant +and tearful eyes.</p> + +<p>Up they went! But in a moment or +two we saw that the thief was having +trouble, as somehow Dandy had managed +to turn in those wicked talons, and the +little fellow was using his sharp beak and +spurs with all his might.</p> + +<p>The battle was brief, and then Dandy +dropped at our feet. He was bleeding +and had lost the sight of one of his eyes, +but otherwise he was little hurt. All the +rest of his days Dandy carried himself +proudly, as one who has been tried as a +hero and not found wanting.</p> + +<p class="ar">May H. Prentice.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="BUFFLE-HEAD."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_020.jpg" id="i_020.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_020.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">BUFFLE-HEAD.<br /> + (Charitonetta albeola.)<br /> + Nearly ½ Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_BUFFLE-HEAD" id="THE_BUFFLE-HEAD"></a>THE BUFFLE-HEAD.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Charitonetta albeola.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>This small and wonderfully beautiful +duck is a native of North America, wintering +in the latitude of Cuba and Mexico +and breeding from Maine to Montana +and northward. It is said that a favorite +place for its nesting is along the banks of +the Yukon river, and other streams of +the boreal regions, yet it is reported that +the young have been captured in the Adirondack +mountains. Though classed with +the "sea ducks" (Fuligulinae) it is one of +the most common of our fresh-water +forms, and, like many other animals, as +well as vegetable forms, of wide distribution, +it is the recipient of numerous popular +names, nearly all of them being more +or less suggestive of its characteristics or +habits. In the North it is frequently +called the Butter-ball, the Butter-box, the +Butter duck, the Spirit duck and the Dipper. +In the South some of the same +names are heard, but perhaps more often +the Marionette, the Scotch dipper, or +duck, the Scotch teal and the Wool-head. +However, no more appropriate name +could be selected than that of Buffle-head, +having reference to the showy, ruffled +or puffed plumage of the head. The +technical name, albeola, meaning whitish, +was given this species by Linnaeus +in 1758, on account of the pure white on +the side of the head.</p> + +<p>The adult males vary but little. The +plumage of the head is puffy and, with +that of the upper half of the neck, is a +"rich silky, metallic green, violet purple +and greenish bronze, the last prevailing +on the lower part of the neck, the green +on the anterior part of the head, the purple +on the cheeks and crown." A beautiful +pure white patch extends from the +eyes, meeting on the top of the head. The +lower portion of the neck and nearly all +the feathers of the under side of the body, +as well as the wing coverts, are also +showy white. The lining of the wings is +dark, and the upper side of the body is +black.</p> + +<p>The head of the female is less puffy +and of a brownish or dark gray color. +The white head patch is not so prominent +or pure and the plumage of the under +side of the body is more or less tinged +with gray. In both sexes the iris is dark +brown, the bill bluish or lead color, and +the legs and feet pinkish.</p> + +<p>There are few birds that are more expert +in diving or swimming, while on land, +owing to their larger feet and shorter +legs, they are more awkward and waddle +more than many of the ordinary ducks. +Their graceful attitude while floating on +the water, moving apparently without any +motion of the body and scarcely causing +a ripple on even a placid surface, has +given them the name Spirit duck.</p> + +<p>The Buffle-head, like nearly all the +sea ducks, feeds on mollusks and other +animal-forms found in the water. As a +result, their flesh is usually coarse and +quite too rank for use as a food. The +canvas-back is a notable exception, for +during the winter months it feeds on the +wild celery (Vallisneria) of the Middle +Atlantic coast, and thus its flesh receives +the flavor so appreciated by those who +relish game food.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="AN_HOUR_WITH_AN_ANT" id="AN_HOUR_WITH_AN_ANT"></a>AN HOUR WITH AN ANT.</h2> + +<p>If you want to know how to accomplish +a hard task, come with me and +watch a little ant for an hour.</p> + +<p>She was a small, black ant, and, seeing +a brown worm eight times as large as herself, +she was seized with the ambition to +take it home in triumph.</p> + +<p>Now will you tell me how she knew +that she could have no power over the +worm while he was on his ten feet, that +stuck to the sidewalk like glue? Before +she attempted anything, she fastened her +mandibles into his side and turned him +over on his back just as you see Bridget +turn the mattress. Then running to his +head she again fastened her mandibles +and dragged him for a couple of inches. +While pausing to get her breath, the +worm took the opportunity to get on his +feet once more. The ant did not seem to +notice the change in position till she tried +again to drag the body. As soon as she +felt it sticking, around she ran to the +side, over went the worm in a trice, and +once more the two started on their journey. +Now they were close to a crack in +the broad sidewalk, and I, thinking to +help the little worker, in whom by this +time I was quite interested, lifted the +worm across the crack.</p> + +<p>Did you ever try to help some one and +find too late you had done exactly the +wrong thing? Then you know how I felt +when that little ant began rushing around +as if she were crazy, and when she got +hold of the worm again, began to drag it +back across the very crack I had lifted it +over. Can you guess why? She was +taking a bee-line to her house, and I had +changed the direction. But how was she +to get that big body across a crack that +could swallow them both? That was +what I waited anxiously to see. Soon the +worm felt himself going down, down into +a dark abyss, and of course caught hold +of the side to save himself, and when he +once felt he had a hold on life how he did +hold on! The ant was not to be daunted; +balancing herself on the edge, and holding +on by her feet, she reached down her +mandibles and dragged him by main +force straight up the perpendicular wall +to the top; nor did she stop till he was +carried far enough from the edge not to +get down again.</p> + +<p>In this way three cracks were safely +crossed, and it was plain to see the worm +was losing heart, although every time the +ant paused for breath he would get over +on his feet and have to be tossed back +again.</p> + +<p>And now a new difficulty arose. The +worm had been dragged about eighteen +inches over the boards. Fourteen inches +more would bring them to the ant's +house, or, rather, hill. But the way was +now off from the sidewalk, and no sooner +did the worm feel the stubble under +him than he gathered all his strength, +turned over on his feet, and held on to +every spear of grass for dear life.</p> + +<p>Indeed, it was his last chance, and I +felt tempted to snatch him from the certain +death awaiting him, but curiosity to +see how this new obstacle would be overcome +induced me to wait. The ant now +felt justified in calling for assistance, and +soon a dozen ants had come to help. Only +five could work to advantage, so the rest, +for ants never like to do the "heavy looking +on," left to find other employment.</p> + +<p>The first thing to be done was to get +the worm on his back, and this proved no +easy task. He could fasten his feet just +as fast as the ants could unfasten them. +At last two ants went to one end and two +to the other. Each one of the four seized +a foot in her strong mandibles and held +it out as far as possible, while the fifth +one turned the captive. It was the funniest +sight! It was easy now to drag +him two or three inches, but breath had +to be taken, and again the worm fastened. +In vain they tugged and pulled. He had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +evidently learned their tactics and knew +how to defend himself. Suddenly his +body moved along an inch and a half, as +if by magic. Was it magic? Not at all. +One little ant had run up on an overhanging +blade of grass, and, reaching down, +holding on by the wonderful feet spoken +of before, and grabbed the poor creature +in the middle, raised it right up from the +ground, and keeping hold, ran along +overhead till the end of the spear of grass +was reached.</p> + +<p>This was the last struggle of any importance. +The worm gave up discouraged; +it was only now a question of time +till they had dragged him through the +stubble up to the door of the house in the +hill, and I saw only a faint quiver as of +dread as his body passed through the +mysterious opening. I could not help +wondering if the ant who started the +capture received all the praise she deserved, +or if the other four took the glory +to themselves.</p> + +<p>At any rate, no one could take away +her own satisfaction in overcoming and +winning in the struggle.</p> + +<p class="ar">Harriet Woodbridge.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="SONG" id="SONG"></a>SONG.</h2> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Day is dying! Float, O song,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Down the westward river,</div> + <div class="verse">Requiem chanting to the Day—</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Day, the mighty Giver.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Pierced by shafts of Time he bleeds,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Melted rubies sending</div> + <div class="verse">Through the river and the sky,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Earth and heaven blending;</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">All the long-drawn earthly banks</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Up to cloud-land lifting:</div> + <div class="verse">Slow between them drifts the swan,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">'Twixt two heavens drifting.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Wings half open, like a flow'r,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Inly deeper flushing,</div> + <div class="verse">Neck and breast as Virgin's pure—</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Virgin proudly blushing.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Day is dying! Float, O swan,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Down the ruby river;</div> + <div class="verse">Follow, song, in requiem</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">To the mighty Giver.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—George Eliot, in the Spanish Gypsy.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_AMERICAN_EARED_GREBE" id="THE_AMERICAN_EARED_GREBE"></a> + THE AMERICAN EARED GREBE.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Colymbus nigricollis californicus.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>The American Eared Grebe belongs to +the order of Diving Birds (Podicipedes) +and the family of Grebes (Podicipidae). +The order also includes the loons and +auks, having in all about thirty-six species +that frequent North America. Closely +related to the loons, the Grebes differ +from them in having the head incompletely +feathered near the nostrils, which +are not lobed. The feet also are not completely +webbed, as are those of the loons.</p> + +<p>Owing to the inadequately developed +wings, the Grebes are poorly provided +with means for protracted flight. Locomotion +on land is equally difficult, due to +their short legs and the fact that they +are inserted far back on the body, necessitating +a partially erect position in walking. +However, they are expert swimmers +and divers and will, when alarmed, +sink quietly back into the water, swimming +long distances with only the bill +above the surface of the water. The popular +name "Hell-diver," by which these +birds are frequently known, has reference +to the rapidity with which they dive.</p> + +<p>The apparent lack of a tail and the +ruffs, frequently composed of variously +colored feathers, give the grebes a peculiarly +characteristic appearance. The +plumage of the breeding season differs +greatly from that of the adult in winter +and that of the young.</p> + +<p>The grebes are abundant throughout +the world, seemingly preferring lakes +and rivers as a foraging ground rather +than the seacoast.</p> + +<p>The American Eared Grebe has an extensive +range, including that part of +North America west of the Mississippi +Valley and from the Great Slave Lake +south to Guatemala. It breeds in nearly +all parts of this territory.</p> + +<p>A few years since Professor Henshaw +published in the American Naturalist +some very interesting facts concerning +the nesting habits of this bird, and they +especially well illustrate some of its +characteristics. He says, "In a series of +alkali lakes, about thirty miles northward +of Fort Garland, Southern Colorado, I +found this species common and breeding. +A colony of perhaps a dozen pairs +had established themselves in a small +pond four or five acres in extent. In the +middle of this, in a bed of reeds, were +found upwards of a dozen nests. These +in each case merely consisted of a slightly +hollowed pile of decaying weeds and +rushes, four or five inches in diameter, +and scarcely raised above the surface of +the water upon which they floated. In a +number of instances they were but a few +feet distant from the nests of the coot +(Fulica Americana) which abounded. +Every Grebe's nest discovered contained +three eggs, which in most instances were +fresh, but in some nests were considerably +advanced. These vary but little in +shape, are considerably elongated, one +end being slightly more pointed than the +other. The color is a faint yellowish or +bluish white, usually much stained from +contact with the nest. The texture is generally +quite smooth, in some instances +roughened by a chalky deposit. The eggs +were wholly concealed from view by a +pile of weeds and other vegetable material +laid across. That they were thus +carefully covered merely for concealment +I cannot think, since, in the isolated position +in which the nests are usually found, +the bird has no enemy against which such +precaution would avail. On first approaching +the locality, the Grebes all congregated +at the further end of the pond, +and shortly betook themselves through +an opening to the neighboring slough; +nor, so far as I could ascertain, did they +again approach the nests during my stay +of three days. Is it not, then, possible +that they are more or less dependent for +the hatching of their eggs upon artificial +heat induced by the decaying vegetable +substances of which the nests are +wholly composed?"</p> + +<p>The food of the Grebe consists of fish +to a great extent, which are dexterously +caught while swimming under water. +They also feed upon the insects floating +upon the surface, and will, when other +food is lacking, feed upon mollusks.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="AMERICAN EARED GREBE."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_033.jpg" id="i_033.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_033.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">AMERICAN EARED GREBE.<br /> + (Colymbus nigricollis californicus.)<br /> + ½ Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_GEOGRAPHICAL_DISTRIBUTION_OF_FISHES" + id="THE_GEOGRAPHICAL_DISTRIBUTION_OF_FISHES"></a>THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES.</h2> + +<p>There are known at the present about +twenty thousand species of fishes, which +are distributed throughout the creeks, +rivers, lakes, seas and oceans of the +world. A few species of the open sea are +cosmopolitan; the others are more or +less restricted in their range. Northern +Asia, Europe and North America have +in common a few species of fresh water +fishes. There are many others of close +relationship, which indicates a somewhat +common origin of the fish faunas. The +same is largely true of the salt water +shore fishes, which live well to the north. +The fresh water fishes of South America, +Africa and Australia are all different from +each other, none being even closely related +as are those we find in the countries +of the northern hemisphere.</p> + +<p>The fishes of our Atlantic coast are +different from those of the Pacific, very +few species being common to both coasts. +The fishes of the Ohio river are entirely +different from those of the Columbia, not +a single species being common to both +streams. The fishes of the Missouri river +are very different from the Ohio, many +of the larger species, as catfishes, buffalo +fishes, black basses, and some of the +sun fishes are common to both rivers. +The difference between the fishes of these +two rivers is chiefly in the smaller kinds, +which do not migrate to any great extent, +and is greater as you go toward their +sources, or confine yourself to their +smaller tributaries.</p> + +<p>There are many reasons why the fishes +of one region are not the same as those +we find in another. Some of these reasons +we may learn by making a careful +study of the fishes of each region, and +their environment. In addition we must +learn all we can about the past history of +the country, finding which streams were +formed first, and how they became inhabited +from the old ancient fish faunas +of our earlier geological periods. If you +visit streams in the Alleghanies, the +Ozarks and the Black Hills you will find +them much alike. All have clear, cool +water, flowing over sand or gravel. The +black bass, speckled trout, channel cat, +and the eastern pickerel will live quite as +well in streams of each locality. If you +spend a day at each place collecting +fishes all your catch will not be the same +species. In the Alleghany region you +will obtain about forty species, and a like +number in the Ozarks. Of these quite +one-fourth, or one-fifth, will be the same +species, and the others closely related. A +large portion will consist of sunfishes and +very small, perch-like fishes, which are +called darters. These are spiny-rayed +fishes; that is, nearly all of the fins are +made partly of strong, sharp spines, such +as you find on the back of sunfishes, +black bass and the like. In the streams +of the Black Hills you will not find more +than fifteen species, and not more than +one or two, if any, will be the same as in +either of the other two catches. There +are none of the spiny-rayed fishes in the +Black Hills, and no trout, though the +streams seem in every way well suited for +them. The fishes of the Black Hills consist +of two catfishes, four suckers, eight +minnows, and one member of the cod +family. Why are there no spiny-rayed +fishes? If you examine a map you will +find that the Black Hills is an isolated region, +about seventy-five by one hundred +miles in extent. It is covered with heavy +pine forests and drained by a dozen or +more good-sized creeks, which find, +through the north and south forks of the +Cheyenne, an outlet into the Missouri +river. Surrounding the Black Hills is a +broad plain one hundred or two hundred +miles in width. It has no forests, and +only a scant vegetation. Its streams are +alkali and contain much solid matter in +suspension. None of these streams flow +over rocky or gravelly beds. Like all the +streams of the great plains they are overloaded +with sediment. All the streams +can do with this sediment is to deposit it +in places during falling or low water, and +in time of freshets, pick it up, shift it +about and redeposit it farther down the +stream. Such streams are like the Platte, +narrow and deep in a few places, but +mostly wide and shallow, with a bottom +of quicksand. The streams of the plains +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +have in them but few species of fishes; especially +is this true of the upper Missouri, +and these are such species as we find in +the Black Hills. It is thus evident that +the fishes of this region migrated there, +and only such fishes as were able or willing +to live in the muddy, alkaline streams +of the great plains could have ever +reached the Black Hills. The minnows +and suckers are ever preyed upon by sunfishes, +bass and the like, and to escape +them evidently sought retreat in the alkaline +water, which was too much disliked +by their enemies for them to follow. +Once there and accustomed to such water +they would migrate farther up stream until +they reached the clear, cool streams of +the Black Hills. If we compare the fishes +of two rivers whose mouths are near each +other, as the Ohio and the Missouri, those +fishes found near the mouths will be the +same species and the two river faunas +will differ most as you go toward their +sources. On the other hand, if you select +two rivers whose sources are near each +other, as the James and tributaries of the +Ohio, then the fish faunas will differ most +as you go towards their mouths. The +same is true of the Missouri and the Columbia. +In such cases it often happens +that during high water some fishes are +able to pass from the head waters of one +river basin to the other, just as we see +the trout from the Columbia at the present +time colonizing the upper Yellowstone +through the Two Ocean Pass. +Near the head waters of many mountain +streams there is usually a pass, which +contains a strip of meadow land where +the small streams from mountains unite, +forming the sources of two great rivers +flowing in opposite directions. This is +the case both at the Two Ocean Pass, +the source of the Missouri and the Columbia, +and at the point where the Canadian +Pacific Railroad crosses the divide, +forming the source of the Frazier and +Saskatchewan rivers.</p> + +<p>Many mountain streams whose sources +are at present in no way connected may +have been so at no very remote period. +All of our streams which have their +sources within the glaciated area were no +doubt connected as the ice receded. The +drainage of Lake Champlain and the +lakes in central New York was southward +at the close of the glacial epoch. It +is said that in times of high water one +may pass in a skiff from the head waters +of the Mississippi to the Red River of the +North. With such facts before us we can +easily understand why the fishes of two +rivers whose sources are near each other +should be most nearly alike nearest the +divide. If the two rivers were formed +about the same time, as no doubt were +the James and the Ohio, they would naturally +have several species in common. +In other words, the two fish faunas will +resemble each other throughout their +whole extent. In the case of the Missouri +and the Columbia, the former is +much the older stream, and while their +sources have fishes common to both +streams, in the lower parts of the rivers +the fish faunas are entirely different. The +upper Missouri river and its tributaries +are for the most part inhabited by Rocky +Mountain fishes, practically the same +fauna as we find in the Columbia, but few +species characteristic of the Mississippi +valley have been able to even cross the +great plains and none have ever passed +the Rocky Mountain divide.</p> + +<p>In the study of the geographical distribution +of our fresh water fishes, we are +able to make a few generalizations as follows: +Two rivers in the same latitude, +and belonging to the same great drainage +basin, and draining similar areas, will +have similar fish faunas. Thus we find a +great similarity in the fishes of the Washita +and the Tennessee rivers, a much +greater similarity than we do in the fishes +of the Washita and the Cedar rivers. If +the stream is a large one, the fishes near +its source will be much unlike those near +its mouth. The fishes of Minnesota differ +greatly from those of Louisiana, +though the drainage of these two States +is in the Mississippi river basin. Limestone +streams have in them more species +of fishes than do sandstone. All things +being equal, the larger of two or more +streams will contain the most species of +fishes. There are few, if any, rivers as +rich in species as the Mississippi river +and its tributaries. It drains one slope +of each of our two great mountain systems, +besides an immense area of wood-land +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +and prairie, and numerous swamps +and marshes. Its upper course and many +of its upper tributaries lie in the region +once covered by glaciers, though now +traversed by great moraines. Its fishes are +as diversified as the area it drains. In its +mountain streams we find such fishes as +the trout, darters, minnows and suckers. +In the upland streams are darters, shiners, +suckers, sunfishes and small-mouthed +black bass. In the channels of the +larger tributaries are found the large +suckers, buffalo fishes, gar pike, channel +catfish, drum, pike and pickerel. The +lowland streams contain the dogfish, pirate +perch, some sunfishes, the large-mouthed +black bass, some suckers, +catfishes and other species. Minnows, +darters, suckers and sunfishes +are found in lowland, upland and +mountain streams, though not the same +species in each. These fishes belong to +families which are made up of many species, +some being strictly upland, +others strictly lowland, each having a +limited range. In the same way we have +fresh water fishes and salt water fishes; +some fishes, as the trout and salmon and +eel, live in both salt and fresh water. +Many other fishes, as the killifishes, +thrive best in brackish water. Each species +of fishes is best fitted for a particular +region into which it has been forced to +live, either to escape its enemies or to be +able to get a living easiest. In its migrations +it has moved along lines of least resistance, +and has colonized those streams +where Mother Nature has been able to +do the most for it. The darters are small, +perch-like fishes, which seldom exceed a +length of six inches, the average being +about three. All are active and swift +swimmers and well suited for a life +among the rocks and swift water of our +smaller streams. All countries have +small, swift, rocky streams, but few have +darters. In their stead we find loaches, +gobies, characins, sculpins, and the like. +These fishes have "become dwarfed and +concentrated, taking the place in their +respective habitats which the darters occupy +in the waters of the Mississippi valley. +By the same process of 'analogous +variation' the cichlids of South America +parallel the sunfishes of the United +States, although in structure and in origin +the two groups are diverse."</p> + +<p>Dr. Jordan tells us that the trout of the +Pacific coast came to America from +Asia, and gradually spread eastward and +southward until now it is found in all the +streams of the Rocky Mountains, the +Sierra Nevada, the Cascades and the +Coast range. It is but a short distance +from Kamchatka to Alaska, and this distance +is traveled by trout to this day; +once over, a fish able to spend much of its +time in salt water could easily colonize +all our coast streams. Whether or not all +of our Pacific trout are descendants of +one species, the cut-throat trout, is more +or less uncertain, though it is quite certain +that all have descended from not +more than two or three species. In many +places they have been able to pass from +the head waters of one river to that of +another, just as they now pass from the +head waters of the Columbia to the Missouri +by the way of Two Ocean Pass. +The ancient lakes, Lahontan and Bonneville, +no doubt assisted them in their migrations. +Since these have disappeared +each colony has had to remain more or +less isolated. In time they have become +somewhat changed, to better adapt themselves +to their new environment. These +changes have developed certain peculiar +characters, by means of which we +can distinguish one kind of trout from +another, just as the farmer distinguishes +his Berkshire from his Poland China. +Spread, as the trout are, over such a large +area, in such an immense variety of +streams and lakes, and with a vertical +range of over one thousand feet, we +would certainly expect as large a number +of species and varieties of trout to be developed +as we find at present in the +streams of our west coast.</p> + +<p>Fishes are found in the deepest parts +of the ocean. Some of these are peculiar +to the deep waters, none of the shore +fishes resembling them. On the other +hand, many deep sea fishes belong to +families well represented in the shallow +water. The flounders are found in water +at all depths, and the same is true of the +bat fishes, rock fishes and other shore +fishes. It is easy to understand how +these fishes have found their way to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +deep water. It was either to escape their +enemies or to extend their range for +some reason; as Mr. Garman puts it, +"They have slid down," as it were to the +bottom of the ocean.</p> + +<p>In general, animals migrating will always +move along lines of least resistance. +Some deep-sea fishes have a considerable +vertical range. It is thought that some +move into shallower water to deposit +their eggs or place their young in warmer +water, and where the peculiar kind of +food they need early in life is the most +abundant. To study deep sea fishes is +difficult, and so little has been done that +we not only know them imperfectly but +also know very little concerning their life +histories.</p> + +<p>In February, March and April of 1891 +the United States Fish Commission +steamer Albatross explored a portion of +the region between the coasts of Mexico +and Central America and the Galapagos +Archipelago. Besides obtaining a large +number of shore fishes, about nine hundred +specimens of fishes were secured, +ranging from a depth of one hundred to +twenty-two hundred and twenty-three +fathoms. This collection was carefully +studied by Professor Garman, of Harvard. +He found the collection to contain +one hundred and eighty species, eighty-five +per cent. of which were new to +science. The bottoms of the oceans are +far from level, and each deep basin has +its own peculiar fauna. The shallower +parts of the sea prevent migration of the +deep water forms and no doubt living as +they do in eternal darkness and in a temperature +near the freezing point, there is +little to induce them to much activity. +The fact that they are easily captured in +nets of comparatively small size would +indicate that they move about slowly.</p> + +<p>Dr. Jenkins, who has lately studied the +fishes of the Sandwich Islands, informs +me that less than five per cent. are found +on our American coast, while a large per +cent. is found all the way to the Red sea. +In other words, the fishes of the Sandwich +Islands are East Indian rather than +American. This is no doubt caused from +the fact that the deep water between the +islands of the American coast forms a +barrier which has always prevented the +two fish faunas from mingling with each +other. Between Africa and the Sandwich +Islands this has not been the case. +A recent study of the fishes of the Galapagos +Archipelago shows its fauna to be +American, though in what respect its +fishes differ from those of our west coast +they resemble all the more the fishes of +the Sandwich Islands. Two fish faunas +will usually differ from each other if separated +by an impassable barrier; especially +is this true if the barrier be older +than the two faunas.</p> + +<p>Any barrier which prevents or hinders +fishes in their movements from one body +of water to another will separate two +more or less well-marked fish faunas. +These barriers may be mountains, or +shallow water, as in the case of deep sea +fishes; deep water, as in case of shore +fishes; muddy or alkaline water, or water +of different temperature. Temperature +no doubt has far more influence in governing +the movement of fishes than is +generally believed. It plays an important +part in guiding salmon up stream to +their spawning beds. It explains why +they reach the head waters of some +streams and spawn earlier than in similar +streams not far distant, but of different +temperature. If you would know to what +extent fishes of one region differ from +those of another, study well the barriers +between the two regions, learn to what +extent and how long they have existed, +consider the age geologically of the two +regions, and how fishes may have migrated +to one or the other, and in a general +way you will have the key to the situation, +which a careful study of the fishes +is quite sure to verify.</p> + +<p class="ar">Seth E. Meek.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="LOUISIANA TANAGER."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_045.jpg" id="i_045.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">LOUISIANA TANAGER.<br /> + (Piranga ludoviciana.)<br /> + Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_LOUISIANA_TANAGER" id="THE_LOUISIANA_TANAGER"></a>THE LOUISIANA TANAGER.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Piranga ludoviciana.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>The family of Tanagers is remarkable +for the number of species, the gaudy coloring +of many and the interesting fact +that they are confined to the Americas +and the adjacent islands. Dr. Ridgway +says, "that the five families of Neotropical +birds, which are represented by the +greatest number of species, are absolutely +peculiar to America, these families being +the Tanagers, Tyrant Flycatchers, +Wood-hewers, Ant Thrushes and Humming-birds. +None of these families have +even true representatives in any part of +the Old World."</p> + +<p>The family of Tanagers includes approximately +three hundred and eighty +species, of which not more than ten per +cent. have a range extending as far north +as Southern Mexico, and only four, or at +the most five, species are known to the +United States. Of these only two, the +Scarlet Tanager and the Summer Red-bird, +are generally known as far north as +Canada.</p> + +<p>The Tanagers make their home in the +trees, and, being of a retiring disposition, +are more numerous within the bounds of +the forest. During the breeding season +they retire still further into the interior. +No wonder that they are more numerous +in tropical regions, where the luxuriant +foliage of the forests furnishes them with +a safe retreat, and where there is an abundance +of food suited to their taste. This +tendency to avoid the society of man has +made the study of their habits much more +difficult, and but little has been recorded +except that which pertains to the more +northern forms.</p> + +<p>The food is chiefly insects, especially in +the larval form, and berries. To some +extent they also feed upon the buds of +flowers. Mr. Chapman tells us that "the +tropical species are of a roving disposition, +and wander through the forests in +search of certain trees bearing ripe fruit, +near which they may always be found in +numbers." Their nests are shallow and +the eggs, usually three to five in number, +are greenish-blue in color, speckled with +brown and purple.</p> + +<p>The Louisiana Tanager is a Western +species, ranging from British Columbia +on the north to Guatemala on the south, +and from the Missouri river to the Pacific +coast. Our illustration well represents +the male. The female, like its sister +tanagers, is plainly colored, but still beautiful. +It is olive green, with the underside +yellowish. The feathers of the wings +and tail are brown, edged with olive. It +resembles the female Scarlet Tanager. +The young are at first like the female. +Then appears the black of the back, +mixed with some olive and a slight tinge +of red on the head.</p> + +<p>It would seem that its name is a misnomer, +as it is not found in the State of +Louisiana.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="CHATTER_OF_A_CHAT" id="CHATTER_OF_A_CHAT"></a>CHATTER OF A CHAT.</h2> + +<p>I'm the "Chat." You've heard me if +you haven't seen me. But there isn't a +better lookin' bird in our wood, either. +My olive-green coat is a beauty. My yellow +satin vest would dazzle your eyes. +And my white china spectacles are heirlooms +in our family. My wife dresses +just as handsome as I do. I'm a prey to +high spirits. Some folk call me a "wag." +Don't know what that is, but I don't see +the use in bein' doleful. Why, when I +get back from Mexico, I feel obliged to +holler. So I just holler. The way old +Mother Earth rigs up in the Spring +makes me full of life. I get down and +cool my legs in the deep grass. It brings +my appetite back a-whizzin'. My! If I +don't eat a thousand bugs a day. "Juicy" +don't describe 'em. Then I climb a tree-top +and holler. If I eat a thousand bugs +seems like I have to give two thousand +hollers. I holler straight through a +moonlight night. You see, I hate to let +old Whippoorwill think he's the only bird +alive. Mornin' after folks stop talkin' +'bout how bad they slept and say, +"What's that?" somebody says, "That's +the Chat." Then they always laugh. And +I laugh, too—a very Falstaffian laugh, as +if I'se shakin' great fat sides out of their +accordion plaits. Then I give a beautiful +whistle. And they say, "Now, what's +that?" The fellow I know says, "That's +the Chat." Then I give a surprised whistle, +just as if you stepped on a tack or +took a drink of red-hot coffee. And they +say, "And what's that?" And the wise +man says, "That's the Chat again." +Well, says the other fellow, "I'll never +know that bird." But the bad sleeper +says, "Well, you would if he kept you +awake all last night as he did me. He +never knows when to stop." But even +that fellow will never know when I've +said my last word!</p> + +<p>These rag folks are awful stupids, anyhow. +I call 'em "blunderers." Do more +harm than good wherever they're at. My +wife knits our house among thorns just +to plague 'em. They hate to get their +rags torn. Then they'd better keep +scarce of our door. If it ain't in blackberry +jungles it's in catbrier tangles. I +could yarn from sun-up to sundown +'bout how rag folks come blunderin' +round interferin'. Barrin' o cat's, they've +got the most meddlesome forefeet I ever +saw. But it ain't often they find us. Cause +why? We keep still. Our next-door +neighbor's Dame Indigo. Can't a body +go by she don't pop up scoldin' like a +house afire. Then they blunder round +till they find her nest-eggs, too! Lots of +other feather-heads just like her! There's +Topknot Cardnal makes such a fuss anybody'd +know he's got something to hide. +Sure enough, he's had such lots of kin +behind the bars it makes him scary. But +I'd show more pluck, anyhow.</p> + +<p>Once this summer a blunderer smarter'n +common came along by us. We had +a nice place, too, in a dreadful blackberry +tangle. A small sassafras threw a +nice shadow over it when the sun got +hot. Well, I shut up quick, I tell you. +Was just tellin' Mrs. Chat a few things +while she kep' an eye on our four eggs +like. We kep' still as mice. But didn't +that blunderin' rags march right up to +our door and push and scratch till she +saw what we had? Had a little rag blunderer +with her. An' she held her up to +look in, too. Every single feather we had +stood on end! It was good riddance +when they went along. Couldn't believe +my specs when I saw they had left our +eggs alone. Seven suns after, big rags +came back. We're in a peck o' trouble. +Our four bairns just out the shell. We +both had to scratch round with all our +toes to feed and keep 'em breathin'. Been +rainin' for a solid week. Dame Chat said +she just knew they'd get a chill and die. +But the blunderin' party didn't stay long.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p> + +<p>Well, sir, we hadn't got rid of that +blunderer yet. The nex' time she brought +another, bigger one, along. Both crowded +up and looked in our door. You +never saw such beauties as our bairns +that day. Just gettin' so plump and +featherin' right along. But it meant a +sight o' work for us. They just sat and +took in every mouthful we could rake and +scrape. They kep' us busy. Well, when +these blunderin' rags shook the house the +bairns all up and spread their jaws wide +open. Rags thought it was awful cute, +but I'm thankful they didn't offer to feed +'em anything. Did bad enough, anyhow. +Big one said, "Why don't you take their +picture?" First rags said she couldn't. +Second rags said she'd try, anyhow. With +that, first rags began to snap off our best +defenses—without so much as by your +leave. They scratched her good, anyhow; +for she said so. Well, she put some +kind of square black gun right up to our +door. Dame Chat went into hysterics +and those little Chats just boiled over +like a teakettle and went out the nest in +four different directions! The two blunderers +went off in a hurry, both talkin' at +once and one suckin' her paw. Thankful +to say ain't ever seen 'em since. But +Dame Chat's a nervous wreck from the +fright they gave her; and I'm worked to +skin and bone takin' care of the little +Chats. I just wish all the town's fenced +in so's blunderers couldn't get loose to +meddle round in their bunglin', elephant, +rhinoceros way!</p> + +<p class="ar">Elizabeth Nunemacher.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">He comes—he comes—the Frost Spirit comes! You may trace his footsteps now</div> + <div class="verse">On the naked woods and the blasted fields, and the brown hill's withered brow.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">He has smitten the leaves of the gray old trees where their pleasant green came forth,</div> + <div class="verse">And the winds, which follow wherever he goes, have shaken them down to earth.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—John Greenleaf Whittier.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_LUNA_AND_POLYPHEMUS_MOTHS" id="THE_LUNA_AND_POLYPHEMUS_MOTHS"></a> + THE LUNA AND POLYPHEMUS MOTHS.</h2> + +<p>The two silk-worm moths which we +figure this month both possess a point of +excellence far in advance of any other of +our native silk-worm moths; Luna on account +of its graceful form and delicate +colors, and Polyphemus for the silk of +its cocoons.</p> + +<p>It seems that most persons who speak +of the Luna moth (Tropaea luna) feel +called upon to give a more or less poetic +description of it. This, I hope, has been +rendered unnecessary by the colored +plate, so that it will suffice simply to mention +that the beautiful shade of green is +of very rare occurrence among our larger +moths, and that no other has the long, +graceful "tails" on the hind wings, a +characteristic which adds greatly to the +beauty of this insect.</p> + +<p>This moth does not seem to be very +abundant anywhere, but when once seen +will long be remembered on account of +its great beauty. The green and yellow +colors are evidently very closely related, +because either one may, to a greater or +less degree, replace the other, so that +some of the moths have quite a strong, +yellowish tinge. One of our common +swallow-tail butterflies (Iphiclides ajax) +possesses a very similar green color in its +wings, but does not seem to show this +tendency to replace the green by yellow. +On the wings are four eyespots which are +also found in Polyphemus. These are +remarkable in that they are transparent +in the center. This clear area in Luna is +quite small, while in Polyphemus it is +about as large as the entire eye spot of +Luna. The legs are brown and colored +like the front edge of the fore wings. The +hairs on the body and at the base of the +wing are very long and are white or yellow. +The wing expanse ranges from +three and three-fourths to five and one-half +inches.</p> + +<p>During April or May the mother moth +lays her dark-brown or chocolate-colored +eggs upon hickory, walnut, beech, oak, +and a few others of our forest trees. The +limited number of food plants is doubtless +one reason for the rarity of the +moths, as compared with such a common +and almost omnivorous larva as Cecropia. +A single moth may lay about +one hundred eggs, which are smaller than +those of Polyphemus. These hatch in +about ten or fifteen days, the larva making +its escape by eating a circular hole in +the shell. Occasionally a young larva +may be seen crawling about for a short +time, carrying upon its head or tail the +empty shell.</p> + +<p>The adult larva is about three inches +long, of a delicate pale green, a color very +difficult to preserve in the dead larva. +Those on the plate have lost this delicate +green and have become yellow, but show +the form perfectly. This larva is very +much like that of Polyphemus, but may +be distinguished from it by possessing a +longitudinal pale yellow lateral line, +which is not found in Polyphemus. Since +the cocoon is quite thin and contains but +little silk, it is considered of but little +value. This cocoon is spun among two or +three weaves, and is about two inches +long. Some authors claim that the cocoon +falls to the ground with the autumnal falling +of the leaves; others that it transforms +on the ground among the fallen leaves. +The cocoon is quite similar to that of +Polyphemus, but not so firmly attached +when fixed to a stem. The moths emerge +in April and May, there being only a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +single brood in the north, while there are +two in the south.</p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="LUNA MOTH."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_058.jpg" id="i_058.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">LUNA MOTH.<br /> + (Tropaea luna.)</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Adult Male.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">Pupa.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Adult Female</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30"></td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">POLYPHEMUS MOTH.<br /> + (Telea polyphemus.)</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30"></td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Adult Male.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">Eggs on Maple Leaf.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Adult Female.</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Larva.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">About ½ Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Cocoon.</td> +</tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>The color of the cocoon seems to be influenced +in some way by the kind of food +eaten by the larva. Cocoons made by +larva which have been fed on hickory +leaves have a darker color. In the true +silk worm moth this same influence has +been noticed; larvae fed upon the vine +producing red cocoons, on lettuce emerald +green cocoons, while those fed upon +white nettle produce yellow, green or violet +cocoons. It is necessary in order to +procure these results, that the larvae be +fed upon the mulberry till about twenty +days before the formation of the cocoon.</p> + +<p>Polyphemus. The life history of this +native silk worm (Telea polyphemus) is +by far the best known, because many +years ago it was very carefully studied +with the hope that it would prove an important +silk insect. This hope unfortunately +has not been realized.</p> + +<p>The moths, as shown by the plate, are +really beautiful; the large eye spots on +the hind wings contributing much towards +this effect. The transparent, window-like +centers in the eye spot are also +of quite rare occurrence among our +moths. These transparent areas do not +possess the very minute scales found on +the other parts of the wing. Almost all +of the wonderful variety of colors found +in the wings of butterflies and moths are +due either to coloring matter in these +scales, or to the breaking up of the white +light by minute lines on these scales, such +as are seen in the play of colors on a +soap-bubble. These fine lines on the +scales are only on the upper side, and are +about one-sixteen-thousandth of an inch +apart.</p> + +<p>The eggs of Polyphemus are very +much flattened, about the size of those of +Cecropia, and are deposited on leaves and +twigs singly or in small groups. These +hatch in about ten days and usually in the +morning. The young larva often devours +the shell which a few moments before afforded +it shelter. This larva feeds upon +oak, hickory, apple, maple, elm and a variety +of other trees, and thus has a larger +range of food plants than the Luna larva. +The rate of growth is prodigious, as has +been shown by Mr. Trovelot. When the +larva hatches it weighs about one-twentieth +of a grain; in ten days it weighs one-half +of a grain, or ten times its original +weight; in twenty days it weighs three +grains, or sixty times its original weight; +when a month old it weighs thirty-one +grains, or six hundred and twenty times +its original weight, and has consumed +about ninety grains of food; after fifty +days it weighs two hundred and seven +grains, or over four thousand times the +original weight. At fifty-six days the +larva has eaten eighty-six thousand times +its original weight in food! It is therefore +not surprising that these larvae can +often be easily detected upon trees by the +large number of leaves which they have +devoured.</p> + +<p>To provide for this great change in +size, the larva moults five times, but the +time between these moults is not always +the same; there is usually about ten days +between the first four moults and about +twenty between the fourth and fifth. The +larva stops eating a day before the moult, +spins a few threads upon the leaf to which +it attaches its hind legs, and waits for the +transformation, which usually takes place +in the afternoon. The larva, when mature +and ready to spin its cocoon, is about +three inches long. It is sometimes influenced +in its color by the food plant; +the normal larva being of a golden green, +although it has been known to show more +yellow coloring when found on red +maple.</p> + +<p>A short time before beginning its +cocoon the larva ceases to eat and selects +a place for its cocoon. These cocoons are +usually found upon the ground among +the leaves, but are frequently attached to +twigs. After about a half day's work the +larva spreads over the inside of the +cocoon a gummy, resinous substance, +which binds together the threads. After +four or five days more of almost continuous +work, another coating is smeared +over the inside, which renders the cocoon +practically air-tight. The silk fibres become +considerably finer as the cocoon +nears completion and the supply of silk +begins to run low. For this reason the +inner layers of the cocoon are only about +half as strong as the outer ones. The +larva, as the supply of silk diminishes in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +the silk glands, becomes perceptibly reduced +in size. It has been estimated that +the larva, in attaching the continuous +thread of its cocoon, makes two hundred +and fifty-four thousand back and forward +movements. The cocoons are very +strong and dense, of a dirty white color +and generally coated with a white powder, +the female being the larger.</p> + +<p>There is but a single brood in the +north, while in the south there are two.</p> + +<p>In order to see if the pupa needed air, +Mr. Trovelot sealed up some cocoons +over winter in shellac, but the moths +emerged in due time after being in an air-tight +space for nine months. He also delayed +the emergence of the moth till +twenty-one months after entering the +cocoon by placing it upon ice.</p> + +<p>The silk in the spinning glands before +it is spun is a clear, transparent fluid. +These glands seem to be of excessive size +when compared with that of the larva, +since, when fully expanded, they reach +the great length of twenty-five inches, or +about eight times the length of the full-grown +larva. These glands are paired, +one being found on each side of the body, +are considerably folded and taper at each +end. The ducts leading from the anterior +end of the glands unite to form a single +duct which opens below the mouth. The +thread is double, being really composed +of two different fibres, one from each +gland, as may be shown by separating +them. The silk in these glands is prepared +and sold as silk "gut" to anglers. +On account of its transparency when in +water, it becomes invisible and thus aids +in deluding the wary fish, who does not +see any connection between the line and +the baited hook. The "gut" is prepared +as follows: Larvae which are ready to +spin their cocoons are cut open and +placed in strong vinegar for eighteen +hours; the glands are then taken out, +stretched and dried in the shade.</p> + +<p>Six or eight days after beginning the +cocoon, the larval skin is moulted and the +real chrysalic or pupal stage begins. This +stage normally lasts till the following +spring or summer. A few days before +the time of emergence a pair of glands +which open into the mouth become very +active and secrete an acidulated fluid +which escapes and wets the fore end of +the cocoon, causing the resinous material +binding together the fibres to become +soft. Even cocoons sealed up in shellac +and starch have been dissolved by this +fluid, and thus the moths have been able +to escape. When the cocoon has become +sufficiently soft, the moth pushes its way +between the fibres, but in doing so often +breaks some of the threads, thus making +the silk of such cocoons useless for commercial +purposes. The moth at the time +of emergence, with its folded and crumpled +wings, is quite a forlorn-looking object. +These wilted wings soon begin to +fill up with fluids from the body, which +is very large at this time. In some cases, +the fluid is driven into the wings with so +much force that they swell up, and if such +a wing is punctured, thus allowing some +of the fluid to escape, the mature wing +will be of a smaller size than one from +which no fluid has been lost. It must be +remembered that it is possible to inflate a +butterfly or moth's wing, because the +wings of insects are not composed of a +single layer, but are sacs of two layers +which are closely applied. It is thus possible +to split the wing into upper and +lower halves, but this can only be done at +the time of emergence, when these two +layers are not so firmly cemented together +as they are in a few hours after emergence.</p> + +<p>The enemies of Polyphemus are numerous. +Birds prey upon the larvae, in +addition to numerous parasitic insects +which are very similar to those which destroy +Cecropia. The cocoon itself is not +a complete protection because rats and +squirrels plunder them. We thus see +that the life of even an insect is full of +dangers, and that it is really a wonder +that so many are able to become mature +and reproduce.</p> + +<p>The silk-worm moths are excellent illustrations +of what is called complete +metamorphosis in insects. An insect like +the grasshopper, when it hatches from +the egg, is very much like the adult insect +in its general form and appearance; +the most evident difference being the lack +of wings. An insect which shows such +slight changes in its growth to maturity +is said to have an incomplete metamorphosis. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +It is incomplete in the sense that +the change is not of a very radical nature. +But in the case of the silk worm moths, +and moths and butterflies in general, the +larva which hatches from the eggs has +not even the most superficial resemblance +to the adult insect, the fully-developed +moth. This necessitates a complete +change or metamorphosis in the form +and structure of the insect before it can +become mature. This great change is accomplished +during the quiet pupal stage +in the cocoon. Because the pupa is apparently +passive when viewed from the +exterior, one must not conclude that it is +so internally; far from it; the digestive +organs of the larva must be completely +made over from those of a chewing leaf +eater to those of a moth which can only +take liquid food.</p> + +<p class="ar">Charles Christopher Adams.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="CASTLES_IN_THE_AIR" id="CASTLES_IN_THE_AIR"></a>CASTLES IN THE AIR.</h2> + +<p>In a little bend of the San Joaquin +River, where the current, attempting +to straighten its course, has left a bank +a few feet wide, there is a small grove +of tall cottonwood trees, perhaps a +dozen in number, whose branches lean +far over the stream and whose tops +reach almost to the level of the bluff +or rather the floor of the valley 250 +feet above, for this swift river has, in +the course of ages, cut thus deep a +channel for itself.</p> + +<p>The place is not easy of access, for +the shore narrows above and below the +bend to a few inches where one with +difficulty keeps from crumbling away +the sand with his feet and falling into +the water, and the cliff is so nearly +perpendicular that in many places it is +inaccessible to a climber, being of soft +sand whose different stratas are clearly +defined where they have been sliced +off by the cutting stream.</p> + +<p>The valley above is a vast grainfield +out almost to the edge of the bluff, and +along the edge and face of the bluff, +wherever root can cling or tendril hold, +grow beautiful wild flowers in the +early spring days—their last refuge +between the cultivation and the deep +sea, or rather, river.</p> + +<p>In the tops of the cottonwoods live +a number of baronial families in castles +huge, gray and ugly, overlooking the +sweep of the stream. They are the +Great Blue Herons whose Latin title, +(Ardea herodias), gives one some idea +of their ancient lineage. They claim to +be older than the storks of Egypt, and +indeed, they look older as they stand +humpbacked and sleepy on one leg by +the side of their nests, the long fringe +of light-speckled neck feathers underneath +looking like a long gray beard +sweeping over their recurved neck and +breast. There is a wise look about +them, too, for the black markings of the +head sweep back over the eye and prolong +into the appearance of a quill extending +behind their ears.</p> + +<p>Though they are almost four feet +long and spread their wings to six feet +and over, the herons' large blue-grey +bodies are often almost indistinguishable +from the bark of the cottonwood +branches and the blue of the sky +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +against which they are silhouetted so +oddly. One's eyes open with astonishment +when these sticks or excrescences +of the tree-tops slowly unfold an +enormous sweep of sail and, extending +their long stilts behind them, flap off +across the stream with a creaking +sound like the pulleys of a vessel when +the halliards are running through them. +Standing or flapping they are not +handsome birds and one who comes +suddenly upon a large heron for the +first time as he stands in the shallow +water of the brookside, will be convulsed +with laughter, for if there is an +utterly clumsy and awkward form or +motion in bird-life it belongs to this +heron.</p> + +<p>Their homes are big baskets of nests +made of twigs as large as a man's +finger, closely intermeshed. From year +to year they use the same nest or build +over it until it has two or three stories +or more and is bigger than a bushel +basket. There are probably two dozen +nests in the dozen cottonwood trees, +some of the larger trees having three +or four or even six away up in their +tops where the branches seem scarcely +strong enough to bear such heavy burdens. +From the top of the bluff one +can look down into the nests and in +early March see the big blue eggs, almost +as large as hens' eggs, reposing +like amethysts in their rough brown +setting. Some authors state that not +over three eggs are laid, but I have +seen four about as often as three and, +on one occasion, five in a nest.</p> + +<p>From their high-placed towers the +herons watch the small fry in the river +below and make forays among the +young trout, pike and catfish and the +frogs. They listen to the complaining +voices in the twilight and in the morning +give them cause for still further +complainings. They keep in terror the +big wood rats whose homes in the +clumps of elder berries below surpass +in size those of the herons. And the +gophers and field mice of the grain +fields never know at what moment an +ungainly shadow shall fall upon them +and end their harvestings. There was +a conceited young frog who sang loud +and shrill at sunset on the edge of the +river and who had an ambition to be, +not an ox like the one in the fable, but +a Patti. And she had her wish after a +fashion, for that connoisseur, the heron +who dwelt on the farthest branch over +the water, attracted by her vocal abilities, +sought her out, and the little herons +thought her the nicest <i>paté de foie +gras</i> they had ever eaten.</p> + +<p>There they dwell, this ancient race +of high-born philosophers, stalking the +shallows of sunny baylets, or dreaming +in the breeze of the tree-tops of traditions +old as the sequoias. What an +authority would you and I be if we +could read the unwritten history of +their race!</p> + +<p class="ar"> +Charles Elmer Jenny.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse">Boughs are daily rifled</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">By the gusty thieves,</div> + <div class="verse">And the Book of Nature</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Getteth short of leaves.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Hood, "The Seasons."</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_073.jpg" id="i_073.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_073.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE.<br /> + (Antilocapra americana.)<br /> + Greatly reduced.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> +</tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_PRONG-HORNED_ANTELOPE" id="THE_PRONG-HORNED_ANTELOPE"></a> + THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Antilocapra americana.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>The antelope family comprises many of +the most beautiful and graceful species +among horned animals. When we behold +the curiously twisted horns of the +sasin, the long, sharp horns of the pasan, +the large, spiral horns of the koodoo +and the shorter horns of the eland, not to +mention the graceful bodies and limbs +of these animals, we are led to wonder at +the extravagance of nature in furnishing +such a variety of appendages to these +creatures.</p> + +<p>By far the larger number of species of +this family live in Africa and Asia, where +they have reached the highest development +of structure. They are not, like +some families of mammals, confined to +any one particular locality, but are +found on the plains and high up on the +mountains; in a country sparsely covered +with vegetation and in the thick forests; +in marshes and bogs. In fact, they seem +to inhabit all varieties of country. While +the family is thus diversified in habitat, +the different species are by no means so +widely distributed, for while some species, +like the sasin, live only on the open +plains, others, like the chamois, live high +up on the mountains, frequently above +the snow-line.</p> + +<p>The subject of our sketch, the Prong-horned +antelope (Antilocapra americana), +is not as large nor so strikingly +horned as the other animals which have +been mentioned. In fact, so different is +its structure, having hollow, pronged +horns which do not increase by continuous +growth, as do those of the true antelopes, +but are shed like those of the deer +family, and having a somewhat different +structure of feet and different texture of +hair, that a family has been made for it +known as Antilocapridae.</p> + +<p>The Prong-horn ranges throughout +the western part of North America from +the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean, +and from the Saskatchewan river south +to the Rio Grande. It is not confined to +the plains, but has been found in the wild +valleys of the Rocky mountains to a +height of over eight thousand feet above +sea level.</p> + +<p>The daily life of this interesting animal +is thus described by Canfield, who made +an exhaustive study of them and who +also kept them in captivity: "From the +first of September to the first of March +one always sees them in larger groups +composed of bucks, does and yearlings. +Shortly afterward the does individually +retire from these herds and give birth +to their young. After a short interval +they again unite with other suckling does +and their little calves, possibly with a view +to common defense against the wolf and +coyotes. The adult bucks roam about +singly or two together, leaving the mothers +with their latest progeny to their fate, +the young Prong-horns in the meantime +gathering in groups of their own apart +from the older animals. Apparently tired +of the world and bored by society the old +bucks wander about for one or two +months, frequenting localities in which +they are not ordinarily seen. Two or +three months subsequently the adolescent +bucks again join the old does and +their calves, and finally the old bucks also +put in an appearance, so that one can observe +herds, numbering hundreds, or +sometimes even thousands, after the first +of September. A herd never leaves its +native locality or roams over more than a +few miles of range. In dry summer +weather they seek water and go to drink +regularly once a day or twice in three +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +days; but if the grass is fresh and green, +as is the case during the greater part of +the year, the Prong-horns do not drink +at all."</p> + +<p>The food of the antelope consists to a +great extent of the short, succulent herbage +of the prairie, of moss, and also, to a +limited extent, of the young and tender +branches of trees. Like many other ruminants, +this animal is passionately fond of +salt and they will remain about saline deposits +for many hours, satisfying themselves +by licking the salty ground.</p> + +<p>The antelope is the swiftest runner of +any animal in North America, though +perhaps less agile and speedy than some +of its relatives in the old world. It has +been said by competent observers that so +swiftly do they run that it is absolutely +impossible to distinguish their limbs.</p> + +<p>The senses of the antelope are unusually +developed. Their sight is exceedingly +keen and their hearing very acute. +Their sense of smell is so well developed +that no danger can possibly approach +from the windward side. When a herd is +feeding, sentinels are placed on the outskirts +to scent any impending danger, +and to give due warning to the herd. +Their curiosity is one of their most peculiar +qualities and seems to overshadow +every other sense.</p> + +<p>For a number of years this graceful +animal has been considered royal game +for the sportsman and a good round-up +of antelopes is considered a great achievement +among hunters. Mr. G. O. Shields, +in his interesting book, "Hunting in the +Great West," very vividly describes a +hunt for antelopes, and we cannot better +illustrate the peculiarities of the animal +than by giving his pen sketch:</p> + +<p>"We had heard from some ranchmen +along the way that the buffalo herd was +at this time grazing about fifteen to twenty +miles up the Big Porcupine, and knowing +that antelopes are nearly always +found hanging on the outskirts of every +large herd of bison, we were on the look-out +for them, for it would not seem at all +strange to find them near the stage trail +on which we were traveling. We scanned +the country closely with the field glass +and were finally rewarded by seeing a +number of small white spots on the dead +grass away up the Porcupine, that +seemed to be moving. We rode toward +them at a lively trot for perhaps a mile, +and then stopped to reconnoitre again. +From this point we could plainly distinguish +them, though they looked to be +about the size of jack rabbits. We again +put the rowels to our donkeys and rode +rapidly up to within about a mile of them, +when we picketed our animals in a low +swale, took out our antelope flag—a piece +of scarlet calico about half a yard square—attached +it to the end of my wiping +stick, and were ready to interview the antelopes.</p> + +<p>"I crawled to the top of a ridge within +plain view of the game, and planted my +flag. The breeze spread it out, kept it +fluttering, and it soon attracted their attention. +They were then near the bank +of the river, grazing quietly, but this bit +of colored rag excited their curiosity to +a degree that rendered them restive, anxious, +uneasy, and they seemed at once to +be seized with an insatiable desire to find +out what it was. An antelope has as +much curiosity as a woman, and when +they see any object that they don't quite +understand, they will travel miles and run +themselves into all kinds of danger to +find out what it is. They have been +known to follow an emigrant or freight +wagon with a white cover several miles, +and an Indian brings them within reach +of his arrow by standing in plain view +wrapped in his red blanket. Some hunters +"flag" them by lying down on their +back, holding one foot as high as possible, +and swinging it to and fro. A piece +of bright tin or a mirror answers the +same purpose on a clear day. Almost +any conspicuous or strange-looking object +will attract them, but the most convenient, +as well as the most reliable at +all times, is the little red flag, such as we +employed in this instance.</p> + +<p>"Huffman went to the top of another +ridge, to my right and some distance in +advance, and Jack crawled into a hollow +on the left, and well in advance, we three +forming a half circle, into which it was +our intention if possible to decoy the +game. When they first discovered our +flag they moved rapidly toward it, sometimes +breaking into a trot, but when they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +had covered half the distance between us +and their starting point, they began to +grow suspicious and stopped. They circled +around, turned back, walked a few +steps, and then paused and looked back +at the, to them, mysterious apparition. +But they could not resist its magic influence. +Again they turned and came toward +it, stopped, and gazed curiously at +it. The old buck who led the herd +stamped impatiently, as if annoyed at being +unable to solve the mystery. Then +they walked cautiously toward us again, +down an incline into a valley, which took +them out of our sight, and out of sight +of the flag. This of course rendered +them still more impatient, and when they +again came in sight on the next ridge, +they were running. But as soon as their +leader caught sight of the flag, he +stopped, as did the others in their turn +when they reached the top of the ridge. +There were seven in the herd, two bucks, +three does and two fawns. They were +now not more than a hundred yards from +me, and still less from the other two of +our party. Their position was everything +we could wish, and though we +might possibly have brought them a few +yards nearer, there was a possibility of +their scenting us, even across the wind, +which, of course, we had arranged to +have in our favor, and I decided that +rather than run the risk of this and the +consequent stampede, I would shoot +while I had a good chance. It had been +arranged that I was to open the ball, so I +drew my peep and globe sights down +very finely, taking the white breast of the +old buck for my bull's-eye, and pulled. +Huffman's Kennedy and Jack's carbine +paid their compliments to the pretty visitors +at almost the same instant, and for +about two or three minutes thereafter we +fanned them about as vigorously as ever +a herd got fanned under similar circumstances. +The air was full of leaden missiles; +the dry dust raised under and +around the fleeing herd as it does when +a team trots over a dusty road. Clouds +of smoke hung over us, and the distant +hills echoed the music of our artillery +until the last white rump disappeared in +the cottonwoods on the river bank.</p> + +<p>"When the smoke of battle cleared +away, and we looked over the field, we +found that we had not burned our powder +in vain. Five of the little fellows, the +two bucks and three does, had fallen victims +to their curiosity. The two fawns +had, strangely enough, escaped, probably +only because they, so much smaller than +their parents, were less exposed."</p> + +<p>The antelope have a curious way of +protecting their young, when on the open +prairie. This is accomplished by placing +a ring of sharp-pointed cacti about a spot +which has been beaten smooth by their +hoofs. Inside this ample protection the +animal cares for its young and secures ingress +and egress for itself by jumping +over the ring of cacti. This serves to protect +them from the majority of their foes, +which inhabit the open country.</p> + +<p>The antelope does not thrive well in +captivity, the older ones soon killing +themselves in their attempts to escape. +The young taken soon after their birth +generally die early, unless very special +care is bestowed upon them, and even if +they survive the juvenile state, they are +very likely to die when three or four +months old, from pyaemic sores or inflammation +of the limbs.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="PLANT_PROTECTION" id="PLANT_PROTECTION"></a>PLANT PROTECTION.</h2> + +<p>In the <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/48540/48540-h/48540-h.htm#Page_119"> +last number</a> of this journal it +was shown how plants seek to avoid the +visits of unsuitable insects to their flowers. +This is one means of protection, but +there are many others which are even +more striking and vital. It is supposed +by many that plants are helpless beings, +which must submit to all sorts of unfavorable +conditions which come upon +them. This is far from true, for while +plants as a rule are fixed and unable to +escape from danger by flight, still they +have very many ways of helping themselves.</p> + +<p>Prominent among the dangers which +come to active green plants are those +which arise from too intense light, which +may destroy the delicate working substances. +Since the leaves are the great +working organs in the manufacture of +food, they are especially equipped for +protection. Those leaves which must +work in exposed places have many details +of structure which are evidently for +guarding them against the ill effects of +too intense light. The most striking +adaptations, however, are those which +have to do with protective positions. Under +ordinary circumstances leaves are +placed so that their flat faces are exposed +to the most intense light. In some cases +this is so great a danger that the leaves +are set edgewise, the edges being directed +upwards and downwards. When a +plant assumes this habit, the leaves are +said to be in a profile position, and the +plants are sometimes called "compass +plants." The latter name has come from +the fact that such leaves usually point +north or south, and once it was assumed +that this position was in response to +some mysterious magnetic influence. It +is found, however, that it is merely an effort +on the part of the plant to protect its +leaves from the intense light of midday, +and at the same time to expose them to +the morning and evening rays of much +less intensity. If a leaf is to be placed +with its edge upwards and its flat faces +east and west, it follows of necessity that +it will point either north or south.</p> + +<p>Some leaves, however, have the power +of shifting their position according to +their needs, directing their flat surfaces +toward the light, or more or less inclining +them according to the danger. Perhaps +the most completely adapted leaves of +this kind are those of the "sensitive +plants," whose leaves respond to various +external influences by changing their positions. +The sensitive plants abound in +dry and hot regions, and one of the best +known is represented in our illustration. +It will be noticed that the leaves of this +Mimosa are divided into very numerous +small leaflets, which stretch in pairs along +the leaf branches. When the time of intense +light and dryness approaches some +of the pairs of leaflets fold together, +slightly reducing the surface exposure. +As the unfavorable condition continues, +more leaflets fold together, then still +others, until finally all the leaflets may be +folded together, and the leaves themselves +may bend against the stem. It is +like a sailing vessel gradually taking in +sail as a storm approaches, until finally +nothing is exposed, and the vessel weathers +the storm by presenting only bare +poles. These are but a few illustrations +of the very numerous devices for escaping +too intense light and the dangers +which accompany it.</p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="SENSITIVE PLANT."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_084.jpg" id="i_084.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">PLANTS PRESENTED BY LINCOLN PARK COMMISSIONERS.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">SENSITIVE PLANT.<br /> + (Mimosa pudica.)</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Awake.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40"></td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Asleep</td> +</tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>One common danger in temperate regions +comes from the lowering of the +temperature each night, which sometimes +may chill the living substances to the +danger point. This is particularly dangerous +to seedlings, whose tender structures +have not yet developed the ordinary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +protective coats. In the spring the +seed leaves of numerous seedlings may +be seen at the approach of night to rise +upward and come together, just as the +palms of the hand may be placed together +over one's head. This reduces the surface +of exposure and the danger of chill +at least one-half. Darwin experimented +upon these seedlings, and discovered that +by preventing some of the seed leaves +from moving, the seedlings were seriously +injured. The leaves of very many +plants assume a peculiar night position +which tends to meet the danger of loss of +heat. Often the three leaflets of the common +clover, if growing in an exposed +place, may be observed to fold together +into a sort of tent-like arrangement.</p> + +<p>Many plants are also observed to protect +themselves against rain, as it is necessary +for leaves to avoid becoming wet. +If the water is allowed to soak in, the +work of the leaves is at once interfered +with. Hence it will be noticed that most +leaves are able to shed water, partly by +their position, partly by their structure. +In many plants the leaves are so arranged +that the water runs off toward the stem; +in other plants the rain is shed outwards +as from the eaves of a house. Some of the +structures which prevent the rain from +soaking in are a smooth epidermis, layers +of cuticle, hairy coverings, etc. Interesting +experiments may be performed +with different leaves to test their power +of shedding water. If a gentle spray be +allowed to play upon different plants it +will be observed that the water glances +off at once from the surfaces of some +leaves, runs off more slightly from others, +and may be more or less retained by +others.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most general preparation +for protection in our region is that which +is made for the coming of the winter's +cold. In many cases plants do not attempt +to protect their delicate structures +from the severity of winter, but disappear +entirely, leaving only well-protected +seeds to carry them over into the next +growing season. This results in the so-called +"annual habit," which has been +learned by many plants in order to escape +a season of danger. Other plants +do not disappear so completely, but everything +above the surface of the ground +dies, while the plant continues in the +form of underground bulbs, tubers, or +various thickened structures. This habit +of seeking a subterranean retreat at +the approach of some dangerous season +is a very good one, and is found in +many of our early spring plants. This +subterranean habit has a great advantage +over the annual habit, since a seed is very +slow in bringing the plant back again, +while a bulb can produce its plant very +rapidly.</p> + +<p>Still other plants preserve more of +their structures than either the annuals +or the ground-loving plants. For example, +most of our trees have cultivated +what is known as the deciduous habit, +that is, they merely drop their leaves, +which are the endangered structures, at +the approach of the unfavorable season, +and renew them again when the favorable +conditions return. It should be remarked +that these leaves do not fall because +they are broken off, but that in a certain +sense it is a process of growing off, which +is carefully prepared for. One of the +most prominent features associated with +the deciduous habit is the autumnal coloration. +The vivid colors which appear +in the leaves of many trees just before the +time of falling have attracted a great deal +of attention, but although it is so prominent, +the causes for it are very obscure. +It will be noticed that this autumnal coloration +consists in the development of +various shades of two typical colors, yellow +and red. It is known that the yellow +is due to the breaking down of the green +substances, so that it simply indicates a +post mortem change, as may be noticed +in connection with the blanching of celery +in which the leaves and upper part of +the stem may be green, the green may +shade gradually into yellow, and finally +into the pure white of complete blanching. +The red coloring matter, however, +is very different. Certain experiments +upon plant colors have indicated that the +presence of the red slightly increases the +temperature by absorbing more heat. It +is suggested that the red color may be a +slight protection to the living substance +which is ceasing to work, and which is in +danger of exposure to cold. If this be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +true, it may be that the same explanation +will cover the case of the red flush so conspicuous +in buds and young leaves in +early spring. It must not be supposed +that the need of protection has developed +the coloring, but since it is developed it +may be of some such service to the plant. +Even the conditions which determine autumnal +coloration have not been made +out certainly.</p> + +<p>It is instructive to notice how differently +the so-called evergreens, as pines, +spruces, etc., have answered the problem +of protection against the cold of winter. +The evergreens, instead of dropping their +leaves, have undertaken to protect them, +giving them a small surface and very +heavy walls. In this way protection has +been secured at the expense of working +power during the season of work. Reduced +surface and thick walls are both +obstacles to leaf work. On the other +hand, the deciduous trees have developed +the working power of their leaves to +the greatest extent, giving them large +surface exposure and comparatively delicate +walls. It is out of the question to +protect such an amount of surface during +the winter, and hence the deciduous habit. +The evergreens are saved the annual +renewal of leaves, but lose in working +power; the deciduous trees must renew +their leaves annually, but gain greatly in +working power.</p> + +<p>To obtain the most striking instances +of protection, however, one must examine +plants which belong to permanently +dry regions, such as may be found in the +United States along the Mexican border, +or in the regions of tropical deserts. In +the first place, it will be noticed that the +plants in general produce smaller leaves +than in other regions. That this holds a +direct relation to the dry conditions is +evident from the fact that the same plant +often produces smaller leaves in dry conditions +than in moist. One of the most +striking features of an arid country is the +absence of large leaves. These reduced +leaves are of various forms, such as the +needle leaves of pines, or the thread-like +leaves of certain sedges and grasses, or +the narrow leaves with inrolled margins +such as is common in many heath plants. +The extreme of leaf reduction has been +reached by the Cactus plants, whose +leaves, so far as foliage is concerned, have +disappeared entirely, and the leaf work is +done by the surface of the globular, cylindrical, +or flattened stems. A covering of +hairs is an effective sun screen, and it is +very common to find plants of dry regions +characteristically hairy. In such +regions it is to be observed also that +dwarf growths prevail, so that the plant, +as a whole, does not present such an exposure +to the drouth as in regions of +greater moisture. One of the most prominent +measures of protection in dry regions +is the organization of what are +known as water reservoirs. Nearly all +plants of such regions have leaves which +are known as fleshy, that is, they are +thick and juicy, being reservoirs of stored +up moisture which is doled out cautiously +according to the needs of the plant, without +any wastefulness.</p> + +<p>The whole subject of plant protection +is an immense one, and the illustrations +given above are merely intended to suggest +that there is such a subject, and to +lead to some observation of the various +schemes of protection which are to be +seen plainly on every hand.</p> + +<p class="ar">John Merle Coulter.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse">Nature is but a name for an effect</div> + <div class="verse">Whose cause is God.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Cowper, "The Task."</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_BIRTH_OF_A_TREE" id="THE_BIRTH_OF_A_TREE"></a>THE BIRTH OF A TREE.</h2> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Once I lay 'neath quilt of green,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">All unthought of, all unseen;</div> + <div class="verse">Little thinking of the world</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Out of which I had been hurled.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">By and by, when quilt grew hot,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Mother Nature touched my cot,</div> + <div class="verse">Whispered softly in my ear,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">"Higher, higher, higher, dear."</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Painted lovely scenes for me,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Saying, "Child, climb up and see."</div> + <div class="verse">I was lazy, so I said,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">"Please, ma'am, let me stay in bed."</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Something whispered, "Child, I fear</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Life will be but meager here."</div> + <div class="verse">Golden sunbeams bade me start,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">And a purpose filled my heart.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">I would leave my bed of ease,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">I would join the forest trees;</div> + <div class="verse">Shelter travelers passing by,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Hide squirrels in the branches high.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Purpose, mighty power, led,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Ever, ever on ahead,</div> + <div class="verse">Till I grew up here so high,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Near the sunlight and the sky.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Mother Nature, mother dear,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">I am glad you called me here.</div> + <div class="verse">Thus the mighty forest oak</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">From his wooded homeland spoke.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">And I thought a lesson this—</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">We, to reach the highest bliss,</div> + <div class="verse">Must arise from beds of ease,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Growing like the forest trees.</div> + <div class="verse ar">Lucia Belle Cook.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_ALMOND" id="THE_ALMOND"></a>THE ALMOND.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Amygdalus communis L..</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p class="bq">And it came to pass that on the morrow Moses went into the tabernacle of witness; +and behold, the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was budded, and brought forth buds, +and blossomed blossoms, and yielded <i>almonds</i>.—Numbers 17:8.</p> + +<p>The almond is the fruit of a small tree +(Amygdalus communis) belonging to +the Rose family (Rosaceae). The plant is +believed to be a native of northern Africa, +Persia and Turkestan. It occurs wild +in Sicily and Greece and is cultivated +throughout temperate Europe, including +England.</p> + +<p>The leaves of the almond tree are simple, +broadly lanceolate, margins serrate, +bright green and stalked. The flowers +are nearly sessile, mostly solitary, petals +bright pink; otherwise similar to the +flowers of the rose family as seen in the +apple blossom, cherry blossom and the +wild rose. The fruit is a drupe or stone +fruit, resembling the peach in its general +structural characters. It is, however, +much smaller, measuring about one and +one-half inch in length. As in the peach +the outer portion of the fruit coat (sarcocarp) +is fleshy, the inner portion (endocarp +or putamen) is hard and encloses the +kernel or seed to which the term almond +is usually applied. The plant is very ornamental, +producing its beautiful flowers +in March before the leaves are developed.</p> + +<p>Two natural varieties of almonds are +quite universally recognized, the sweet +(A. communis var dulcis) and the bitter +(A. communis var amara). They resemble +each other so closely in general appearance +that it is practically impossible +to distinguish between them. The principal +difference lies in the chemistry of +the kernels or seeds themselves. In the +bitter variety amygdalin is found, which +is practically wanting in the sweet variety. +Some botanists describe quite a +number of varieties. Karsten, for instance, +describes five varieties of A. communis, +namely, dulcis, amara, fragilis, +macrocarpa and persicoides. Boissier +in his Flora Orientalis describes as many +as seventeen distinct species.</p> + +<p>The almond tree is one of the oldest +of the cultivated plants. It was a great +garden favorite in and about Palestine. +It is frequently mentioned in the books +of Moses. In Exodus 25:34, we find +that the "candlestick shall have four +bowls made like unto almonds." As explained +in the 8th verse of chapter 17 of +Numbers the blossoming rod of Aaron +was from an almond tree. Even to this +day Jews carry rods bearing almond blossoms +to the synagogues on great festival +days. The Romans designated the almonds +(the kernels or seeds with the hard +endocarp or shell) Nuces graecae (Greek +nuts), from which it is concluded that the +almond tree was brought to Italy from +Greece. Almond oil was known to the +ancient Greek and Roman writers. Plinius +and Dioscorides make reference to +the gum which exudes from the bark. +Karl der Grosse (Charlemagne) recommended +the cultivation of almonds in +Germany. In view of the fact that some +authorities state that the sweet variety is +a product of cultivation, it is interesting +to note that the two varieties have been +known equally long. The bitter variety +was described by Scribonius Largus and +Plinius. Alexander Trallianus described +the medicinal virtues of the oil of bitter +almonds. Palladinus gave directions +how to convert the bitter variety into the +sweet variety by methods of cultivation. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +Later experiments have, however, proven +this to be a false conclusion.</p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="ALMOND."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_096.jpg" id="i_096.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_096.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM KŒHLER'S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">ALMOND.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">CHICAGO:<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER.</td> +</tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>Description of Plate:—A, B, branch +with flowers and fruit; 1, 1a, flowers from +different trees; 2, 2a, petals; 3, stamens; +4, pollen; 5, stamen; 6, 7, ovary; 8, 9, +seed with shell; 10, seed without shell; +11, 12, sections of seed.</p> + +<p>The fruit and seeds of several other +plants are known as almonds. The seeds +of the African shrub Brabejum stellatifolium +are known as African almonds. +Country almonds is a name given to the +fruit of the East Indian tree Terminalia +Catappa. The fruit of Canarium commune +is known as Java almonds.</p> + +<p>At the present time the sweet almond +is extensively cultivated in northern Africa, +southern Europe and in the warmer +parts of the United States, particularly in +California. Climatic conditions and cultivation +have a great influence upon the +quality of the almonds and we have as a +result quite a number of commercial varieties, +just as we have commercial varieties +of coffee, tea, oranges, etc. The more +important commercial varieties are the +Jordan, Valencia, Barbary and California +almonds. These vary somewhat in size, +form and thickness of the kernel and the +hardness and thickness of the shell (endocarp). +The Jordan almonds are imported +from Malaga (Spain) and are said +to be the finest. They differ from the +others in the greater length of the kernel +(seed), for which reason they are also +known as long almonds. These are official +in the English Pharmacopoeia because +they are not readily confused with +other sweet varieties and the bitter almond. +The Valencia almonds come from +the Balearic islands (Majorca); they are +characterized by a comparatively soft +shell and are less highly prized than the +Jordan or the California almonds. The +Barbary almonds from northern Africa +are quite small and unsightly and for +those reasons have comparatively little +commercial value. In the United States +the principal commercial variety is the +California almond. The kernel is shorter +and flatter than that of the Jordan almond, +but almost equal to it in quality. +It is extensively cultivated, about one +hundred trees being planted to the acre. +The trees attain a height of fifteen to +twenty feet and begin to yield when three +years old. In California it is customary +to bleach the almonds by exposing them +to the vapor of burning sulphur, which +also destroys insect parasites which attack +almonds very readily.</p> + +<p>Other less important sweet commercial +varieties are the Provence almonds of +southern France, the Florence and Ambrosia +almonds of Sicily, the Pitti almonds +of Portugal and the small Puglia +almonds of Italy.</p> + +<p>The bitter almond seeds are as a rule +somewhat shorter, broader and thinner +than those of the larger, sweet varieties. +Those found upon the market are largely +from northern Africa, Sicily and southern +France.</p> + +<p>The principal constituents of sweet almonds +are a fixed oil, sugar, some albuminoid +substances, and perhaps a +small quantity of amygdalin or a substance +akin to it. The purified fixed oil +from both varieties of almonds is a bland, +thin, pale yellow liquid, having a faint +taste and odor of the almond. When exposed +to the air it becomes rancid quite +readily. Medicinally it finds use as an +emollient in external applications. Taken +internally in small doses it is nutritious; +in large doses laxative. Mixed with mucilage +or yolk of eggs and sugar it is +found useful in allaying troublesome +coughs due to irritation of the throat. It +also finds a table use similar to that of +olive oil.</p> + +<p>Bitter almonds contain a very poisonous +volatile oil in addition to the fixed +oil just described. In small quantities +this oil finds a use for flavoring by the +cook and confectioner, and by the perfumer +for scenting toilet soaps and for +other purposes. This oil is obtained by +distillation after the fixed oil has been expressed. +It is the product of the decomposition +of amygdalin under the influence +of emulsin and water. The poisonous +properties of this oil are due to the +hydrocyanic acid which is present. This +acid may be removed and the oil is then +known as purified oil of bitter almonds. +Even the purified oil is not safe, as it decomposes +quite readily unless all of the +water is removed by the use of fused +chloride of lime.</p> + +<p>The symptoms of poisoning from the +oil of bitter almonds, or from a quantity +of the bitter almonds, are the same as from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +a dose of hydrocyanic acid. Medicinally +the oil is used like hydrocyanic acid in +various disorders of nervous origin, as +whooping cough, spasmodic troubles, +etc.</p> + +<p>Sweet almonds are variously employed. +Roasted and salted almonds are very +much liked by everybody. Almonds for +the table must first be "blanched," that +is, the outer, reddish brown, thin seed +coat must be removed, as it contains irritant +properties. They are used in making +cake and other pastry. Cake or bread +made from almond meal has been recommended +as a substitute for ordinary bread +in the treatment of diabetes, as it is free +from starch, a food substance which +proves harmful in this disease. Almond +cake is a term applied to the crushed +seeds from which the oil has been expressed. +Finely-powdered this is used +for washing hands and face. Almond +paste is a cosmetic made from powdered +bitter almonds, white of egg, rose water +and rectified spirits. It is used to soften +the skin and prevent chapping of hands. +An emulsion of sweet almonds is also +used as a substitute for milk in feeding +infants.</p> + +<p class="ar">Albert Schneider.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="ac">Nature, the Vicar of the Almightie Lord.</div> + <div class="ar">—Chaucer, "The Assembly of Foules."</div> + +<div class="poetry-container p1"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse">All Nature is but art, unknown to thee;</div> + <div class="verse">All chance, direction, which thou canst not see;</div> + <div class="verse">All discord, harmony not understood;</div> + <div class="verse">All partial evil, universal good;</div> + <div class="verse">And, spite of pride, in erring reason's spite,</div> + <div class="verse">One truth is clear, whatever is, is right.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Pope, "Essay on Man."</div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="p1">Nature is a frugal mother, and never gives without measure.</div> +<div class="ar">—Emerson, "Essays."</div> + +<div class="poetry-container p1"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent4">But who can paint</div> + <div class="verse">Like Nature! Can imagination boast</div> + <div class="verse">Amid its gay creations hues like hers?</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Thompson, "Seasons."</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<div class="transnote"> + +<h2><span class="smaller">Transcriber's Note:</span></h2> + <ul> + <li>Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note.</li> + <li>Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant form was + found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</li> + <li>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.</li> + <li>Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs + and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that references them.</li> + <li>The Contents table was added by the transcriber.</li> + </ul> +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Birds and Nature, Vol. VIII, No. 4, +November 1900, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BIRDS AND NATURE, NOVEMBER 1900 *** + +***** This file should be named 48579-h.htm or 48579-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/8/5/7/48579/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Christian +Boissonnas, The Internet Archive for some images and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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