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diff --git a/48579-0.txt b/48579-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..756308f --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2049 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 48579 *** + + BIRDS AND NATURE. + + ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. + + VOL. VIII. NOVEMBER, 1900. NO. 4. + + + + + CONTENTS. + + + Page + SONNET--NOVEMBER. 145 + SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WESTERN WILLET. 146 + CRUEL TREATMENT OF BIRDS DEMANDED BY DAME FASHION. 150 + THE FALL MIGRATIONS. 151 + THE WAYS OF SOME BANTAMS. 152 + THE BUFFLE-HEAD. 155 + AN HOUR WITH AN ANT. 156 + SONG. 157 + THE AMERICAN EARED GREBE. 158 + THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES. 161 + THE LOUISIANA TANAGER. 167 + CHATTER OF A CHAT. 168 + THE LUNA AND POLYPHEMUS MOTHS. 170 + CASTLES IN THE AIR. 175 + THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE. 179 + PLANT PROTECTION. 182 + THE BIRTH OF A TREE. 187 + THE ALMOND. 188 + + + + +SONNET--NOVEMBER. + + + Yet one smile more, departing, distant sun, + One mellow smile through the soft vapory air, + Ere, o'er the frozen earth, the loud winds run, + Or snows are sifted o'er the meadow bare. + One smile on the brown hills and naked trees + And the dark rocks whose summer wreaths are cast, + And the blue Gentian flower, that, in the breeze, + Nods lonely, of her beauteous race the last. + Yet a few sunny days, in which the bee + Shall murmur by the hedge that skirts the way, + The cricket chirp upon the russet lea, + And man delight to linger in thy ray. + Yet one rich smile, and we will try to bear + The piercing winter frost, and winds, and darkened air. + --William Cullen Bryant. + + * * * * * + + Oh, Autumn! Why so soon + Depart the hues that make thy forests glad; + Thy gentle wind and thy fair sunny noon, + And leave thee wild and sad! + + Ah! 'twere a lot too blessed + Forever in thy colored shades to stray; + Amid the kisses of the soft southwest + To rove and dream for aye. + --William Cullen Bryant. + +Copyright, 1900, by A. W. Mumford. + + + + +SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WESTERN WILLET. + +(_Symphemia semipalmata inornata._) + + +The Western Willet is one of the largest of the Limicolae or Shore +Birds. The body is about the size of a common pigeon, the long neck, +legs and extent of wings making it appear much larger. The feet +are only about one-half webbed and only when great danger makes it +necessary will it go into the water beyond its depth. The bill is +straight and in summer the color of the bird is gray above, with many +small but rather distinct black marks. On the sides and breast these +marks are arrow-shaped. In the plumage of winter and of the young these +markings are absent. + +I am inclined to believe that this species has a more extended range +than any other of the order. It has become quite abundant of late +years in the Calumet Region in Northern Indiana, near Chicago. Mr. +E. W. Nelson, in the Natural History Survey of Illinois, says, that +in the seventies this species was a rare summer resident on the wet +prairies of Northwestern Illinois, although I can find no authentic +record of the taking of the nest and eggs. Captain Charles Bendire +found it abundant and resident in Southeastern Oregon when he procured +several sets of its eggs. It is said to breed from the coast of Texas +to Manitoba. Straggling flocks of from five to fifty may be found along +the shores of our larger fresh water lakes, particularly Lake Michigan, +during the fall migration, which takes place from about the fifteenth +of August to the last of September. + +This bird might well be called the clown of the Limicolae. I have often +been amused by the antics of a flock of Willets on the shore of Lake +Michigan. They would droop their necks and wings in an absurd fashion, +taking short runs and jumps as the waves rolled in upon them. I have +never seen a bird which at times could be so wary and hard to approach, +and again, if a number are shot from a flock, the remaining birds will +seem to lose their senses, and I have frequently walked within a few +feet of the survivors before they would take flight. This trait is +noticeable among a large number of shore birds and the terns, but more +especially so with the Willet. + +On the plains bordering the Brazos river, near the Gulf coast of +Texas, during the months of April and May, I have found the Willet +proper (Symphemia semipalmata), a smaller and darker form, breeding +in abundance. The Willets usually select for a nesting site a thick +tussock of salt marsh grass on the borders of a small pond, where +they can command a good view of the vicinity. In the center of this +they hollow out a space of about six or eight inches in diameter, and +simply line it with the grass they have matted down. In this nest are +laid four pyriform eggs of a greenish white, or a light olive brown +ground color, marked with large, irregular blotches or brownish black +and faint purple; the eggs are immense for the size of the bird, being +about two inches in length by one and one-half in width. + +The illustration faithfully portrays three birds taken at Miller's, +Indiana, on the beach of Lake Michigan. The color of the legs, which +are obscured by the shadow of the body, is a pale, slaty blue. + + [Illustration: THE WESTERN WILLET + (Symphemia semipalmata inornata.) + 1/4 Life-size. + FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +Though the Willets are restless and noisy birds, they are much less +so, and, indeed, quite unconscious of their surroundings when nesting. +Regarding their habits at this time, Dr. Coues has told us that if +they "become thoroughly alarmed by too open approach, particularly +if the setting bird be driven from her nest, there is a great +outcry, violent protest and tumult where there was quietude. Other +pairs, nesting near by, join their cries till the confusion becomes +general. But now, again, their actions are not those they would show +at other times; for, instead of flying off with the instinct of +self-preservation, to put distance between them and danger, they are +held by some fascination to the spot, and hover around, wheeling about, +flying in circles a little ways, to return again, with unremitting +clamor. They may be only too easily destroyed under such circumstances, +provided the ornithologist can lay aside his scruples and steel himself +against sympathy." + +It is to be hoped that all the States, frequented by the Willets, will +enact proper legislation which will amply protect these interesting +waders. + + Frank M. Woodruff. + + * * * * * + + Autumn once more begins to teach; + Sere leaves their annual sermon preach; + And with the southward-slipping sun + Another stage of life is done. + The day is of a paler hue, + The night is of a darker blue, + Just as it was a year ago; + For time runs fast, but grace is slow! + + Thou comest, autumn, to unlade + Thy wealthy freight of summer shade, + Still sorrowful as in past years, + Yet mild and sunny in thy tears, + Ripening and hardening all thy growth + Of solid wood, yet nothing loth + To waste upon the frolic breeze + Thy leaves, like flights of golden bees. + --Frederick William Faber. + + + + +CRUEL TREATMENT OF BIRDS DEMANDED BY DAME FASHION. + + +All of my readers probably know in a general way that Dame Fashion is +responsible for the destruction of the lives of many birds, but they +may not know to what extent this is true. + +Why do we say that any cruel treatment of the birds is chargeable to +fashion? It can hardly be necessary to remind ourselves that there is +in almost every boy's nature a touch of the savage instincts which find +expression in the desire to kill something. Traces of this instinct +do not entirely disappear with the development into manhood, but +show themselves there in the love of hunting and fishing. Let these +remnants of savagery be appealed to by the promise of gain and they are +immediately fanned into flame in the natures of those persons who are +naturally more strongly drawn to this primitive occupation of men. In +short, place before the professional hunter an easy means of profiting +by his skill as a hunter, and in far too many instances he will smother +any humane instincts which he may have for the sake of the gain. It is +the demands of fashion for plumes and feathers for hat trimmings which +place before these hunters the temptation to kill. Have we not a right, +therefore, to place the blame at the door of Fashion? + +But what are the practices which we call cruel? In the first place it +is cruelty to cause the destruction of life without good and sufficient +reason. Unnecessary sacrifice of life is cruelty. Certainly no one +will say that it is necessary to trim hats with feathers. Fashion +decrees that feathers must be worn, and presto! feathers are worn. In +the second place, it is cruel to kill birds who are feeding young ones +in the nest, leaving them to starvation. Yet this is just what has +happened and does happen every year. Plume hunters are no respecters +of times and seasons. With them there are no closed seasons. The birds +which they are after gather in large rookeries during the nesting +season and are therefore much easier to capture then than at other +times. + +Most of the herons and similar plume-bearing birds are hunted and +killed for the plumes alone, or, at most, for a very small part of the +whole plumage. The part wanted is taken and the rest left to waste, +while the bird's body is never used for anything. If nothing worse, it +is an unpardonable waste. In Florida alone whole rookeries of herons +and ibises numbering hundreds and even thousands of individuals have +been wholly destroyed. Now the insatiable plume hunter, in his effort +to supply the demands of a no less insatiable fashion, is pursuing the +unfortunate birds into the fastnesses of Mexico and South America. +There is but one way to stop this work of extermination, and that +is to take away the demand. This remedy lies wholly in the hands of +women. Unless they are willing to take a firm stand against the use +of feathers for purposes of ornament the birds are doomed. This may +seem like a strong statement, but a little reflection will prove it +true. When the birds which are now hunted for plumes and feathers are +gone, there will be a modification of the demand to include birds +of different plumage, just as the aigrette is giving place to the +quill. After the quill and the long-pointed wing will come the shorter +wing, and after that the plumage of the small birds, and the cycle of +destruction will be complete. + +Some one may ask why it is that the birds are so foolish as to allow +the hunter to kill hundreds in a single day from one rookery. Why don't +they leave the region when the shooting begins? The plume hunter has +learned cunning. He no longer uses a shot gun, but a small caliber +rifle or a wholly noiseless air gun. The rifle makes no more noise +than the snapping of a twig, and will therefore not frighten the +birds. By remaining concealed the hunter may kill every bird that is +within range. Since each bird is worth from twenty-five cents to five +dollars, according to the kind, a single day's work (or slaughter) +is profitable. The temptation is certainly great, and becomes almost +irresistible to him who loves hunting for its own sake. + +The most cruel part of the whole business I have already stated, but it +will bear repeating. It is the killing of the breeding birds before the +young are able to care for themselves. There is abundant evidence that +the breeding time is the favorite time for hunting among plume hunters, +because then the old birds are more easy to kill, and because then the +plumage is the most perfect, for then the wedding garments are put on. + +It should not be an impossible task to stop this whole cruel business. +But laws will not do it without a wholesome public sentiment behind +it. Women are notably foremost in all good works, and many of them +are doing nobly in this work, but it is painfully evident that many +are not. Let us make "a long pull and a strong pull and a pull all +together," and then we shall drag this growing evil back and down +forever. + + Lynds Jones. + + + + +THE FALL MIGRATIONS. + + + A rush of wings through the darkening night, + A sweep through the air in the distant height. + + Far off we hear them, cry answering cry: + 'Tis the voice of the birds as they southward fly. + + From sea to sea, as if marking the time, + Comes the beat of wings from the long, dark line. + + O strong, steady wing, with your rhythmic beat, + Flying from cold to the summertime heat; + + O, keen, glancing eye, that can see so far, + Do you guide your flight by the northern star? + + The birds from the North are crossing the moon, + And the southland knows they are coming soon. + + With gladness and freedom and music gone, + Another migration is passing on. + + No long, dark lines o'er the face of the moon; + No dip of wings in the southern lagoon. + + No sweet, low titter, no welcoming song; + These are birds of silence that sweep along. + + Lifeless and stiff, with the death mark on it, + This "Fall Migration" on hat and bonnet. + + And the crowd goes by, with so few to care + For this march of death of the "fowls of the air." + --Mary Drummond, in the Chicago Times-Herald. + + + + +THE WAYS OF SOME BANTAMS. + + +Last summer, when I was out in the country, I made the acquaintance +of a kind-hearted little bantam rooster, who was as funny as he was +kind-hearted. + +An old speckled hen, who looked as if she might be a good mother, but +wasn't, had brought up a family of chickens to that stage where their +legs had grown long and their down all turned to pin-feathers. + +Very ugly they were; there was no doubt of it. Perhaps this queer +mother thought so. At any rate, she turned the poor things adrift and +pecked them cruelly whenever they came near her. + +Little "Banty" saw this unkind behavior. He was small, but his heart +was big, and he set Madam Speckle an example which ought to have made +her hide her head in the darkest corner of the hen-house for shame. + +He adopted those chickens! + +Each one of them was about half the size of "Banty," and to see that +loving little father-bird standing on tiptoe with his wings spread, +trying in vain to cover all eight of his adopted children, was a +pathetic as well as a ludicrous sight. + +They loved him and believed in him fully. They followed him all day +long, and seemed to see nothing amusing when he choked down a crow to +cluck over the food he found for them, and at night they quarreled over +the privilege of being nearest to him. + +I think bantams perhaps are more interesting than other fowls. When I +was a little girl father brought three of them home. Dandy and his two +little wives were all pure white and very small. + +We had other fowls, the aristocratic Spanish kind, each as large as two +or three of Dandy, and the Spanish rooster hinted very strongly that +Dandy's presence in that barnyard could be dispensed with. But Dandy +was a brave little fighter, and he soon settled it once for all with +Grandee as to what the rights of the former and his family were. + +In a month or so one of the little hens was missing. After a long time +we found her, and in such a queer, cozy place! Upon the foundations +of the old red farmhouse where we lived, rested great squared beams. +An end of one of these beams had decayed, out of sight, under the +clapboards on the south side of the house, until there was a large, +soft-lined hollow. Here the little hen had stolen her nest, and when +we found her she was just ready to lead off twenty-one tiny white +fluff-balls of chickens, every egg having hatched. + +Dandy's bravery saved his little life one day, and made him forever +famous in the annals of our pets. On this most eventful day of his +life, a shadow flitted over the barnyard, and a wail went up from us +children as a chicken-hawk swooped down upon our beloved Dandy and +carried him off before our indignant and tearful eyes. + +Up they went! But in a moment or two we saw that the thief was having +trouble, as somehow Dandy had managed to turn in those wicked talons, +and the little fellow was using his sharp beak and spurs with all his +might. + +The battle was brief, and then Dandy dropped at our feet. He was +bleeding and had lost the sight of one of his eyes, but otherwise +he was little hurt. All the rest of his days Dandy carried himself +proudly, as one who has been tried as a hero and not found wanting. + + May H. Prentice. + + + + + [Illustration: BUFFLE-HEAD. + (Charitonetta albeola.) + Nearly 1/2 Life-size. + FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +THE BUFFLE-HEAD. + +(_Charitonetta albeola._) + + +This small and wonderfully beautiful duck is a native of North America, +wintering in the latitude of Cuba and Mexico and breeding from Maine to +Montana and northward. It is said that a favorite place for its nesting +is along the banks of the Yukon river, and other streams of the boreal +regions, yet it is reported that the young have been captured in the +Adirondack mountains. Though classed with the "sea ducks" (Fuligulinae) +it is one of the most common of our fresh-water forms, and, like many +other animals, as well as vegetable forms, of wide distribution, it is +the recipient of numerous popular names, nearly all of them being more +or less suggestive of its characteristics or habits. In the North it +is frequently called the Butter-ball, the Butter-box, the Butter duck, +the Spirit duck and the Dipper. In the South some of the same names are +heard, but perhaps more often the Marionette, the Scotch dipper, or +duck, the Scotch teal and the Wool-head. However, no more appropriate +name could be selected than that of Buffle-head, having reference to +the showy, ruffled or puffed plumage of the head. The technical name, +albeola, meaning whitish, was given this species by Linnaeus in 1758, +on account of the pure white on the side of the head. + +The adult males vary but little. The plumage of the head is puffy and, +with that of the upper half of the neck, is a "rich silky, metallic +green, violet purple and greenish bronze, the last prevailing on the +lower part of the neck, the green on the anterior part of the head, the +purple on the cheeks and crown." A beautiful pure white patch extends +from the eyes, meeting on the top of the head. The lower portion of the +neck and nearly all the feathers of the under side of the body, as well +as the wing coverts, are also showy white. The lining of the wings is +dark, and the upper side of the body is black. + +The head of the female is less puffy and of a brownish or dark gray +color. The white head patch is not so prominent or pure and the plumage +of the under side of the body is more or less tinged with gray. In both +sexes the iris is dark brown, the bill bluish or lead color, and the +legs and feet pinkish. + +There are few birds that are more expert in diving or swimming, while +on land, owing to their larger feet and shorter legs, they are more +awkward and waddle more than many of the ordinary ducks. Their graceful +attitude while floating on the water, moving apparently without any +motion of the body and scarcely causing a ripple on even a placid +surface, has given them the name Spirit duck. + +The Buffle-head, like nearly all the sea ducks, feeds on mollusks and +other animal-forms found in the water. As a result, their flesh is +usually coarse and quite too rank for use as a food. The canvas-back is +a notable exception, for during the winter months it feeds on the wild +celery (Vallisneria) of the Middle Atlantic coast, and thus its flesh +receives the flavor so appreciated by those who relish game food. + + + + +AN HOUR WITH AN ANT. + + +If you want to know how to accomplish a hard task, come with me and +watch a little ant for an hour. + +She was a small, black ant, and, seeing a brown worm eight times as +large as herself, she was seized with the ambition to take it home in +triumph. + +Now will you tell me how she knew that she could have no power over +the worm while he was on his ten feet, that stuck to the sidewalk like +glue? Before she attempted anything, she fastened her mandibles into +his side and turned him over on his back just as you see Bridget turn +the mattress. Then running to his head she again fastened her mandibles +and dragged him for a couple of inches. While pausing to get her +breath, the worm took the opportunity to get on his feet once more. The +ant did not seem to notice the change in position till she tried again +to drag the body. As soon as she felt it sticking, around she ran to +the side, over went the worm in a trice, and once more the two started +on their journey. Now they were close to a crack in the broad sidewalk, +and I, thinking to help the little worker, in whom by this time I was +quite interested, lifted the worm across the crack. + +Did you ever try to help some one and find too late you had done +exactly the wrong thing? Then you know how I felt when that little ant +began rushing around as if she were crazy, and when she got hold of the +worm again, began to drag it back across the very crack I had lifted it +over. Can you guess why? She was taking a bee-line to her house, and I +had changed the direction. But how was she to get that big body across +a crack that could swallow them both? That was what I waited anxiously +to see. Soon the worm felt himself going down, down into a dark abyss, +and of course caught hold of the side to save himself, and when he once +felt he had a hold on life how he did hold on! The ant was not to be +daunted; balancing herself on the edge, and holding on by her feet, she +reached down her mandibles and dragged him by main force straight up +the perpendicular wall to the top; nor did she stop till he was carried +far enough from the edge not to get down again. + +In this way three cracks were safely crossed, and it was plain to see +the worm was losing heart, although every time the ant paused for +breath he would get over on his feet and have to be tossed back again. + +And now a new difficulty arose. The worm had been dragged about +eighteen inches over the boards. Fourteen inches more would bring them +to the ant's house, or, rather, hill. But the way was now off from the +sidewalk, and no sooner did the worm feel the stubble under him than +he gathered all his strength, turned over on his feet, and held on to +every spear of grass for dear life. + +Indeed, it was his last chance, and I felt tempted to snatch him +from the certain death awaiting him, but curiosity to see how this +new obstacle would be overcome induced me to wait. The ant now felt +justified in calling for assistance, and soon a dozen ants had come to +help. Only five could work to advantage, so the rest, for ants never +like to do the "heavy looking on," left to find other employment. + +The first thing to be done was to get the worm on his back, and this +proved no easy task. He could fasten his feet just as fast as the ants +could unfasten them. At last two ants went to one end and two to the +other. Each one of the four seized a foot in her strong mandibles and +held it out as far as possible, while the fifth one turned the captive. +It was the funniest sight! It was easy now to drag him two or three +inches, but breath had to be taken, and again the worm fastened. In +vain they tugged and pulled. He had evidently learned their tactics +and knew how to defend himself. Suddenly his body moved along an inch +and a half, as if by magic. Was it magic? Not at all. One little ant +had run up on an overhanging blade of grass, and, reaching down, +holding on by the wonderful feet spoken of before, and grabbed the poor +creature in the middle, raised it right up from the ground, and keeping +hold, ran along overhead till the end of the spear of grass was reached. + +This was the last struggle of any importance. The worm gave up +discouraged; it was only now a question of time till they had dragged +him through the stubble up to the door of the house in the hill, and +I saw only a faint quiver as of dread as his body passed through the +mysterious opening. I could not help wondering if the ant who started +the capture received all the praise she deserved, or if the other four +took the glory to themselves. + +At any rate, no one could take away her own satisfaction in overcoming +and winning in the struggle. + + Harriet Woodbridge. + + + + +SONG. + + + Day is dying! Float, O song, + Down the westward river, + Requiem chanting to the Day-- + Day, the mighty Giver. + + Pierced by shafts of Time he bleeds, + Melted rubies sending + Through the river and the sky, + Earth and heaven blending; + + All the long-drawn earthly banks + Up to cloud-land lifting: + Slow between them drifts the swan, + 'Twixt two heavens drifting. + + Wings half open, like a flow'r, + Inly deeper flushing, + Neck and breast as Virgin's pure-- + Virgin proudly blushing. + + Day is dying! Float, O swan, + Down the ruby river; + Follow, song, in requiem + To the mighty Giver. + --George Eliot, in the Spanish Gypsy. + + + + +THE AMERICAN EARED GREBE. + +(_Colymbus nigricollis californicus._) + + +The American Eared Grebe belongs to the order of Diving Birds +(Podicipedes) and the family of Grebes (Podicipidae). The order also +includes the loons and auks, having in all about thirty-six species +that frequent North America. Closely related to the loons, the Grebes +differ from them in having the head incompletely feathered near the +nostrils, which are not lobed. The feet also are not completely webbed, +as are those of the loons. + +Owing to the inadequately developed wings, the Grebes are poorly +provided with means for protracted flight. Locomotion on land is +equally difficult, due to their short legs and the fact that they are +inserted far back on the body, necessitating a partially erect position +in walking. However, they are expert swimmers and divers and will, when +alarmed, sink quietly back into the water, swimming long distances +with only the bill above the surface of the water. The popular name +"Hell-diver," by which these birds are frequently known, has reference +to the rapidity with which they dive. + +The apparent lack of a tail and the ruffs, frequently composed of +variously colored feathers, give the grebes a peculiarly characteristic +appearance. The plumage of the breeding season differs greatly from +that of the adult in winter and that of the young. + +The grebes are abundant throughout the world, seemingly preferring +lakes and rivers as a foraging ground rather than the seacoast. + +The American Eared Grebe has an extensive range, including that part +of North America west of the Mississippi Valley and from the Great +Slave Lake south to Guatemala. It breeds in nearly all parts of this +territory. + +A few years since Professor Henshaw published in the American +Naturalist some very interesting facts concerning the nesting habits +of this bird, and they especially well illustrate some of its +characteristics. He says, "In a series of alkali lakes, about thirty +miles northward of Fort Garland, Southern Colorado, I found this +species common and breeding. A colony of perhaps a dozen pairs had +established themselves in a small pond four or five acres in extent. In +the middle of this, in a bed of reeds, were found upwards of a dozen +nests. These in each case merely consisted of a slightly hollowed pile +of decaying weeds and rushes, four or five inches in diameter, and +scarcely raised above the surface of the water upon which they floated. +In a number of instances they were but a few feet distant from the +nests of the coot (Fulica Americana) which abounded. Every Grebe's nest +discovered contained three eggs, which in most instances were fresh, +but in some nests were considerably advanced. These vary but little in +shape, are considerably elongated, one end being slightly more pointed +than the other. The color is a faint yellowish or bluish white, usually +much stained from contact with the nest. The texture is generally quite +smooth, in some instances roughened by a chalky deposit. The eggs were +wholly concealed from view by a pile of weeds and other vegetable +material laid across. That they were thus carefully covered merely for +concealment I cannot think, since, in the isolated position in which +the nests are usually found, the bird has no enemy against which such +precaution would avail. On first approaching the locality, the Grebes +all congregated at the further end of the pond, and shortly betook +themselves through an opening to the neighboring slough; nor, so far +as I could ascertain, did they again approach the nests during my stay +of three days. Is it not, then, possible that they are more or less +dependent for the hatching of their eggs upon artificial heat induced +by the decaying vegetable substances of which the nests are wholly +composed?" + +The food of the Grebe consists of fish to a great extent, which are +dexterously caught while swimming under water. They also feed upon +the insects floating upon the surface, and will, when other food is +lacking, feed upon mollusks. + + [Illustration: AMERICAN EARED GREBE. + (Colymbus nigricollis californicus.) + 1/2 Life-size. + FROM COL CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + + + + +THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES. + + +There are known at the present about twenty thousand species of fishes, +which are distributed throughout the creeks, rivers, lakes, seas and +oceans of the world. A few species of the open sea are cosmopolitan; +the others are more or less restricted in their range. Northern Asia, +Europe and North America have in common a few species of fresh water +fishes. There are many others of close relationship, which indicates a +somewhat common origin of the fish faunas. The same is largely true of +the salt water shore fishes, which live well to the north. The fresh +water fishes of South America, Africa and Australia are all different +from each other, none being even closely related as are those we find +in the countries of the northern hemisphere. + +The fishes of our Atlantic coast are different from those of the +Pacific, very few species being common to both coasts. The fishes of +the Ohio river are entirely different from those of the Columbia, not a +single species being common to both streams. The fishes of the Missouri +river are very different from the Ohio, many of the larger species, as +catfishes, buffalo fishes, black basses, and some of the sun fishes are +common to both rivers. The difference between the fishes of these two +rivers is chiefly in the smaller kinds, which do not migrate to any +great extent, and is greater as you go toward their sources, or confine +yourself to their smaller tributaries. + +There are many reasons why the fishes of one region are not the same as +those we find in another. Some of these reasons we may learn by making +a careful study of the fishes of each region, and their environment. +In addition we must learn all we can about the past history of the +country, finding which streams were formed first, and how they became +inhabited from the old ancient fish faunas of our earlier geological +periods. If you visit streams in the Alleghanies, the Ozarks and the +Black Hills you will find them much alike. All have clear, cool water, +flowing over sand or gravel. The black bass, speckled trout, channel +cat, and the eastern pickerel will live quite as well in streams of +each locality. If you spend a day at each place collecting fishes all +your catch will not be the same species. In the Alleghany region you +will obtain about forty species, and a like number in the Ozarks. Of +these quite one-fourth, or one-fifth, will be the same species, and +the others closely related. A large portion will consist of sunfishes +and very small, perch-like fishes, which are called darters. These are +spiny-rayed fishes; that is, nearly all of the fins are made partly of +strong, sharp spines, such as you find on the back of sunfishes, black +bass and the like. In the streams of the Black Hills you will not find +more than fifteen species, and not more than one or two, if any, will +be the same as in either of the other two catches. There are none of +the spiny-rayed fishes in the Black Hills, and no trout, though the +streams seem in every way well suited for them. The fishes of the Black +Hills consist of two catfishes, four suckers, eight minnows, and one +member of the cod family. Why are there no spiny-rayed fishes? If you +examine a map you will find that the Black Hills is an isolated region, +about seventy-five by one hundred miles in extent. It is covered with +heavy pine forests and drained by a dozen or more good-sized creeks, +which find, through the north and south forks of the Cheyenne, an +outlet into the Missouri river. Surrounding the Black Hills is a broad +plain one hundred or two hundred miles in width. It has no forests, and +only a scant vegetation. Its streams are alkali and contain much solid +matter in suspension. None of these streams flow over rocky or gravelly +beds. Like all the streams of the great plains they are overloaded +with sediment. All the streams can do with this sediment is to deposit +it in places during falling or low water, and in time of freshets, +pick it up, shift it about and redeposit it farther down the stream. +Such streams are like the Platte, narrow and deep in a few places, +but mostly wide and shallow, with a bottom of quicksand. The streams +of the plains have in them but few species of fishes; especially is +this true of the upper Missouri, and these are such species as we find +in the Black Hills. It is thus evident that the fishes of this region +migrated there, and only such fishes as were able or willing to live +in the muddy, alkaline streams of the great plains could have ever +reached the Black Hills. The minnows and suckers are ever preyed upon +by sunfishes, bass and the like, and to escape them evidently sought +retreat in the alkaline water, which was too much disliked by their +enemies for them to follow. Once there and accustomed to such water +they would migrate farther up stream until they reached the clear, cool +streams of the Black Hills. If we compare the fishes of two rivers +whose mouths are near each other, as the Ohio and the Missouri, those +fishes found near the mouths will be the same species and the two river +faunas will differ most as you go toward their sources. On the other +hand, if you select two rivers whose sources are near each other, as +the James and tributaries of the Ohio, then the fish faunas will differ +most as you go towards their mouths. The same is true of the Missouri +and the Columbia. In such cases it often happens that during high water +some fishes are able to pass from the head waters of one river basin to +the other, just as we see the trout from the Columbia at the present +time colonizing the upper Yellowstone through the Two Ocean Pass. Near +the head waters of many mountain streams there is usually a pass, which +contains a strip of meadow land where the small streams from mountains +unite, forming the sources of two great rivers flowing in opposite +directions. This is the case both at the Two Ocean Pass, the source +of the Missouri and the Columbia, and at the point where the Canadian +Pacific Railroad crosses the divide, forming the source of the Frazier +and Saskatchewan rivers. + +Many mountain streams whose sources are at present in no way connected +may have been so at no very remote period. All of our streams which +have their sources within the glaciated area were no doubt connected +as the ice receded. The drainage of Lake Champlain and the lakes in +central New York was southward at the close of the glacial epoch. It +is said that in times of high water one may pass in a skiff from the +head waters of the Mississippi to the Red River of the North. With such +facts before us we can easily understand why the fishes of two rivers +whose sources are near each other should be most nearly alike nearest +the divide. If the two rivers were formed about the same time, as no +doubt were the James and the Ohio, they would naturally have several +species in common. In other words, the two fish faunas will resemble +each other throughout their whole extent. In the case of the Missouri +and the Columbia, the former is much the older stream, and while their +sources have fishes common to both streams, in the lower parts of the +rivers the fish faunas are entirely different. The upper Missouri river +and its tributaries are for the most part inhabited by Rocky Mountain +fishes, practically the same fauna as we find in the Columbia, but few +species characteristic of the Mississippi valley have been able to even +cross the great plains and none have ever passed the Rocky Mountain +divide. + +In the study of the geographical distribution of our fresh water +fishes, we are able to make a few generalizations as follows: Two +rivers in the same latitude, and belonging to the same great drainage +basin, and draining similar areas, will have similar fish faunas. +Thus we find a great similarity in the fishes of the Washita and the +Tennessee rivers, a much greater similarity than we do in the fishes +of the Washita and the Cedar rivers. If the stream is a large one, +the fishes near its source will be much unlike those near its mouth. +The fishes of Minnesota differ greatly from those of Louisiana, +though the drainage of these two States is in the Mississippi river +basin. Limestone streams have in them more species of fishes than do +sandstone. All things being equal, the larger of two or more streams +will contain the most species of fishes. There are few, if any, rivers +as rich in species as the Mississippi river and its tributaries. It +drains one slope of each of our two great mountain systems, besides +an immense area of wood-land and prairie, and numerous swamps and +marshes. Its upper course and many of its upper tributaries lie in +the region once covered by glaciers, though now traversed by great +moraines. Its fishes are as diversified as the area it drains. In its +mountain streams we find such fishes as the trout, darters, minnows +and suckers. In the upland streams are darters, shiners, suckers, +sunfishes and small-mouthed black bass. In the channels of the larger +tributaries are found the large suckers, buffalo fishes, gar pike, +channel catfish, drum, pike and pickerel. The lowland streams contain +the dogfish, pirate perch, some sunfishes, the large-mouthed black +bass, some suckers, catfishes and other species. Minnows, darters, +suckers and sunfishes are found in lowland, upland and mountain +streams, though not the same species in each. These fishes belong to +families which are made up of many species, some being strictly upland, +others strictly lowland, each having a limited range. In the same way +we have fresh water fishes and salt water fishes; some fishes, as the +trout and salmon and eel, live in both salt and fresh water. Many +other fishes, as the killifishes, thrive best in brackish water. Each +species of fishes is best fitted for a particular region into which it +has been forced to live, either to escape its enemies or to be able to +get a living easiest. In its migrations it has moved along lines of +least resistance, and has colonized those streams where Mother Nature +has been able to do the most for it. The darters are small, perch-like +fishes, which seldom exceed a length of six inches, the average being +about three. All are active and swift swimmers and well suited for +a life among the rocks and swift water of our smaller streams. All +countries have small, swift, rocky streams, but few have darters. In +their stead we find loaches, gobies, characins, sculpins, and the like. +These fishes have "become dwarfed and concentrated, taking the place in +their respective habitats which the darters occupy in the waters of the +Mississippi valley. By the same process of 'analogous variation' the +cichlids of South America parallel the sunfishes of the United States, +although in structure and in origin the two groups are diverse." + +Dr. Jordan tells us that the trout of the Pacific coast came to America +from Asia, and gradually spread eastward and southward until now it is +found in all the streams of the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, the +Cascades and the Coast range. It is but a short distance from Kamchatka +to Alaska, and this distance is traveled by trout to this day; once +over, a fish able to spend much of its time in salt water could easily +colonize all our coast streams. Whether or not all of our Pacific trout +are descendants of one species, the cut-throat trout, is more or less +uncertain, though it is quite certain that all have descended from not +more than two or three species. In many places they have been able to +pass from the head waters of one river to that of another, just as they +now pass from the head waters of the Columbia to the Missouri by the +way of Two Ocean Pass. The ancient lakes, Lahontan and Bonneville, no +doubt assisted them in their migrations. Since these have disappeared +each colony has had to remain more or less isolated. In time they +have become somewhat changed, to better adapt themselves to their new +environment. These changes have developed certain peculiar characters, +by means of which we can distinguish one kind of trout from another, +just as the farmer distinguishes his Berkshire from his Poland China. +Spread, as the trout are, over such a large area, in such an immense +variety of streams and lakes, and with a vertical range of over one +thousand feet, we would certainly expect as large a number of species +and varieties of trout to be developed as we find at present in the +streams of our west coast. + +Fishes are found in the deepest parts of the ocean. Some of these +are peculiar to the deep waters, none of the shore fishes resembling +them. On the other hand, many deep sea fishes belong to families well +represented in the shallow water. The flounders are found in water at +all depths, and the same is true of the bat fishes, rock fishes and +other shore fishes. It is easy to understand how these fishes have +found their way to the deep water. It was either to escape their +enemies or to extend their range for some reason; as Mr. Garman puts +it, "They have slid down," as it were to the bottom of the ocean. + +In general, animals migrating will always move along lines of least +resistance. Some deep-sea fishes have a considerable vertical range. It +is thought that some move into shallower water to deposit their eggs or +place their young in warmer water, and where the peculiar kind of food +they need early in life is the most abundant. To study deep sea fishes +is difficult, and so little has been done that we not only know them +imperfectly but also know very little concerning their life histories. + +In February, March and April of 1891 the United States Fish Commission +steamer Albatross explored a portion of the region between the +coasts of Mexico and Central America and the Galapagos Archipelago. +Besides obtaining a large number of shore fishes, about nine hundred +specimens of fishes were secured, ranging from a depth of one hundred +to twenty-two hundred and twenty-three fathoms. This collection was +carefully studied by Professor Garman, of Harvard. He found the +collection to contain one hundred and eighty species, eighty-five +per cent. of which were new to science. The bottoms of the oceans +are far from level, and each deep basin has its own peculiar fauna. +The shallower parts of the sea prevent migration of the deep water +forms and no doubt living as they do in eternal darkness and in a +temperature near the freezing point, there is little to induce them +to much activity. The fact that they are easily captured in nets of +comparatively small size would indicate that they move about slowly. + +Dr. Jenkins, who has lately studied the fishes of the Sandwich Islands, +informs me that less than five per cent. are found on our American +coast, while a large per cent. is found all the way to the Red sea. +In other words, the fishes of the Sandwich Islands are East Indian +rather than American. This is no doubt caused from the fact that the +deep water between the islands of the American coast forms a barrier +which has always prevented the two fish faunas from mingling with each +other. Between Africa and the Sandwich Islands this has not been the +case. A recent study of the fishes of the Galapagos Archipelago shows +its fauna to be American, though in what respect its fishes differ from +those of our west coast they resemble all the more the fishes of the +Sandwich Islands. Two fish faunas will usually differ from each other +if separated by an impassable barrier; especially is this true if the +barrier be older than the two faunas. + +Any barrier which prevents or hinders fishes in their movements from +one body of water to another will separate two more or less well-marked +fish faunas. These barriers may be mountains, or shallow water, as in +the case of deep sea fishes; deep water, as in case of shore fishes; +muddy or alkaline water, or water of different temperature. Temperature +no doubt has far more influence in governing the movement of fishes +than is generally believed. It plays an important part in guiding +salmon up stream to their spawning beds. It explains why they reach the +head waters of some streams and spawn earlier than in similar streams +not far distant, but of different temperature. If you would know to +what extent fishes of one region differ from those of another, study +well the barriers between the two regions, learn to what extent and +how long they have existed, consider the age geologically of the two +regions, and how fishes may have migrated to one or the other, and in +a general way you will have the key to the situation, which a careful +study of the fishes is quite sure to verify. + + Seth E. Meek. + + + + + [Illustration: LOUISIANA TANAGER. + (Piranga ludoviciana.) + Life-size. + FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +THE LOUISIANA TANAGER. + +(_Piranga ludoviciana._) + + +The family of Tanagers is remarkable for the number of species, the +gaudy coloring of many and the interesting fact that they are confined +to the Americas and the adjacent islands. Dr. Ridgway says, "that +the five families of Neotropical birds, which are represented by the +greatest number of species, are absolutely peculiar to America, these +families being the Tanagers, Tyrant Flycatchers, Wood-hewers, Ant +Thrushes and Humming-birds. None of these families have even true +representatives in any part of the Old World." + +The family of Tanagers includes approximately three hundred and eighty +species, of which not more than ten per cent. have a range extending +as far north as Southern Mexico, and only four, or at the most five, +species are known to the United States. Of these only two, the Scarlet +Tanager and the Summer Red-bird, are generally known as far north as +Canada. + +The Tanagers make their home in the trees, and, being of a retiring +disposition, are more numerous within the bounds of the forest. During +the breeding season they retire still further into the interior. No +wonder that they are more numerous in tropical regions, where the +luxuriant foliage of the forests furnishes them with a safe retreat, +and where there is an abundance of food suited to their taste. This +tendency to avoid the society of man has made the study of their +habits much more difficult, and but little has been recorded except +that which pertains to the more northern forms. + +The food is chiefly insects, especially in the larval form, and +berries. To some extent they also feed upon the buds of flowers. +Mr. Chapman tells us that "the tropical species are of a roving +disposition, and wander through the forests in search of certain trees +bearing ripe fruit, near which they may always be found in numbers." +Their nests are shallow and the eggs, usually three to five in number, +are greenish-blue in color, speckled with brown and purple. + +The Louisiana Tanager is a Western species, ranging from British +Columbia on the north to Guatemala on the south, and from the Missouri +river to the Pacific coast. Our illustration well represents the +male. The female, like its sister tanagers, is plainly colored, but +still beautiful. It is olive green, with the underside yellowish. +The feathers of the wings and tail are brown, edged with olive. It +resembles the female Scarlet Tanager. The young are at first like the +female. Then appears the black of the back, mixed with some olive and a +slight tinge of red on the head. + +It would seem that its name is a misnomer, as it is not found in the +State of Louisiana. + + + + +CHATTER OF A CHAT. + + +I'm the "Chat." You've heard me if you haven't seen me. But there +isn't a better lookin' bird in our wood, either. My olive-green coat +is a beauty. My yellow satin vest would dazzle your eyes. And my white +china spectacles are heirlooms in our family. My wife dresses just +as handsome as I do. I'm a prey to high spirits. Some folk call me +a "wag." Don't know what that is, but I don't see the use in bein' +doleful. Why, when I get back from Mexico, I feel obliged to holler. So +I just holler. The way old Mother Earth rigs up in the Spring makes me +full of life. I get down and cool my legs in the deep grass. It brings +my appetite back a-whizzin'. My! If I don't eat a thousand bugs a day. +"Juicy" don't describe 'em. Then I climb a tree-top and holler. If I +eat a thousand bugs seems like I have to give two thousand hollers. +I holler straight through a moonlight night. You see, I hate to let +old Whippoorwill think he's the only bird alive. Mornin' after folks +stop talkin' 'bout how bad they slept and say, "What's that?" somebody +says, "That's the Chat." Then they always laugh. And I laugh, too--a +very Falstaffian laugh, as if I'se shakin' great fat sides out of their +accordion plaits. Then I give a beautiful whistle. And they say, "Now, +what's that?" The fellow I know says, "That's the Chat." Then I give a +surprised whistle, just as if you stepped on a tack or took a drink of +red-hot coffee. And they say, "And what's that?" And the wise man says, +"That's the Chat again." Well, says the other fellow, "I'll never know +that bird." But the bad sleeper says, "Well, you would if he kept you +awake all last night as he did me. He never knows when to stop." But +even that fellow will never know when I've said my last word! + +These rag folks are awful stupids, anyhow. I call 'em "blunderers." +Do more harm than good wherever they're at. My wife knits our house +among thorns just to plague 'em. They hate to get their rags torn. +Then they'd better keep scarce of our door. If it ain't in blackberry +jungles it's in catbrier tangles. I could yarn from sun-up to sundown +'bout how rag folks come blunderin' round interferin'. Barrin' o cat's, +they've got the most meddlesome forefeet I ever saw. But it ain't +often they find us. Cause why? We keep still. Our next-door neighbor's +Dame Indigo. Can't a body go by she don't pop up scoldin' like a house +afire. Then they blunder round till they find her nest-eggs, too! Lots +of other feather-heads just like her! There's Topknot Cardnal makes +such a fuss anybody'd know he's got something to hide. Sure enough, +he's had such lots of kin behind the bars it makes him scary. But I'd +show more pluck, anyhow. + +Once this summer a blunderer smarter'n common came along by us. We had +a nice place, too, in a dreadful blackberry tangle. A small sassafras +threw a nice shadow over it when the sun got hot. Well, I shut up +quick, I tell you. Was just tellin' Mrs. Chat a few things while she +kep' an eye on our four eggs like. We kep' still as mice. But didn't +that blunderin' rags march right up to our door and push and scratch +till she saw what we had? Had a little rag blunderer with her. An' she +held her up to look in, too. Every single feather we had stood on end! +It was good riddance when they went along. Couldn't believe my specs +when I saw they had left our eggs alone. Seven suns after, big rags +came back. We're in a peck o' trouble. Our four bairns just out the +shell. We both had to scratch round with all our toes to feed and keep +'em breathin'. Been rainin' for a solid week. Dame Chat said she just +knew they'd get a chill and die. But the blunderin' party didn't stay +long. + +Well, sir, we hadn't got rid of that blunderer yet. The nex' time she +brought another, bigger one, along. Both crowded up and looked in +our door. You never saw such beauties as our bairns that day. Just +gettin' so plump and featherin' right along. But it meant a sight o' +work for us. They just sat and took in every mouthful we could rake +and scrape. They kep' us busy. Well, when these blunderin' rags shook +the house the bairns all up and spread their jaws wide open. Rags +thought it was awful cute, but I'm thankful they didn't offer to feed +'em anything. Did bad enough, anyhow. Big one said, "Why don't you +take their picture?" First rags said she couldn't. Second rags said +she'd try, anyhow. With that, first rags began to snap off our best +defenses--without so much as by your leave. They scratched her good, +anyhow; for she said so. Well, she put some kind of square black gun +right up to our door. Dame Chat went into hysterics and those little +Chats just boiled over like a teakettle and went out the nest in four +different directions! The two blunderers went off in a hurry, both +talkin' at once and one suckin' her paw. Thankful to say ain't ever +seen 'em since. But Dame Chat's a nervous wreck from the fright they +gave her; and I'm worked to skin and bone takin' care of the little +Chats. I just wish all the town's fenced in so's blunderers couldn't +get loose to meddle round in their bunglin', elephant, rhinoceros way! + + Elizabeth Nunemacher. + + * * * * * + + He comes--he comes--the Frost Spirit comes! You may trace his + footsteps now + On the naked woods and the blasted fields, and the brown hill's + withered brow. + + He has smitten the leaves of the gray old trees where their + pleasant green came forth, + And the winds, which follow wherever he goes, have shaken them down + to earth. + --John Greenleaf Whittier. + + + + +THE LUNA AND POLYPHEMUS MOTHS. + + +The two silk-worm moths which we figure this month both possess a point +of excellence far in advance of any other of our native silk-worm +moths; Luna on account of its graceful form and delicate colors, and +Polyphemus for the silk of its cocoons. + +It seems that most persons who speak of the Luna moth (Tropaea luna) +feel called upon to give a more or less poetic description of it. This, +I hope, has been rendered unnecessary by the colored plate, so that it +will suffice simply to mention that the beautiful shade of green is of +very rare occurrence among our larger moths, and that no other has the +long, graceful "tails" on the hind wings, a characteristic which adds +greatly to the beauty of this insect. + +This moth does not seem to be very abundant anywhere, but when once +seen will long be remembered on account of its great beauty. The green +and yellow colors are evidently very closely related, because either +one may, to a greater or less degree, replace the other, so that some +of the moths have quite a strong, yellowish tinge. One of our common +swallow-tail butterflies (Iphiclides ajax) possesses a very similar +green color in its wings, but does not seem to show this tendency to +replace the green by yellow. On the wings are four eyespots which +are also found in Polyphemus. These are remarkable in that they are +transparent in the center. This clear area in Luna is quite small, +while in Polyphemus it is about as large as the entire eye spot of +Luna. The legs are brown and colored like the front edge of the fore +wings. The hairs on the body and at the base of the wing are very +long and are white or yellow. The wing expanse ranges from three and +three-fourths to five and one-half inches. + +During April or May the mother moth lays her dark-brown or +chocolate-colored eggs upon hickory, walnut, beech, oak, and a few +others of our forest trees. The limited number of food plants is +doubtless one reason for the rarity of the moths, as compared with such +a common and almost omnivorous larva as Cecropia. A single moth may lay +about one hundred eggs, which are smaller than those of Polyphemus. +These hatch in about ten or fifteen days, the larva making its escape +by eating a circular hole in the shell. Occasionally a young larva may +be seen crawling about for a short time, carrying upon its head or tail +the empty shell. + +The adult larva is about three inches long, of a delicate pale green, a +color very difficult to preserve in the dead larva. Those on the plate +have lost this delicate green and have become yellow, but show the form +perfectly. This larva is very much like that of Polyphemus, but may be +distinguished from it by possessing a longitudinal pale yellow lateral +line, which is not found in Polyphemus. Since the cocoon is quite thin +and contains but little silk, it is considered of but little value. +This cocoon is spun among two or three weaves, and is about two inches +long. Some authors claim that the cocoon falls to the ground with +the autumnal falling of the leaves; others that it transforms on the +ground among the fallen leaves. The cocoon is quite similar to that of +Polyphemus, but not so firmly attached when fixed to a stem. The moths +emerge in April and May, there being only a single brood in the +north, while there are two in the south. + + [Illustration: LUNA MOTH. + (Tropaea luna.) + Adult Male. Pupa. Adult Female. + Larva. Cocoon. + + POLYPHEMUS MOTH. + (Telea polyphemus.) + Pupa. + Adult Male. Eggs on Maple Leaf. Adult Female. + About 1/2 Life-size. + Larva. Cocoon. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +The color of the cocoon seems to be influenced in some way by the kind +of food eaten by the larva. Cocoons made by larva which have been fed +on hickory leaves have a darker color. In the true silk worm moth this +same influence has been noticed; larvae fed upon the vine producing +red cocoons, on lettuce emerald green cocoons, while those fed upon +white nettle produce yellow, green or violet cocoons. It is necessary +in order to procure these results, that the larvae be fed upon the +mulberry till about twenty days before the formation of the cocoon. + +Polyphemus. The life history of this native silk worm (Telea +polyphemus) is by far the best known, because many years ago it was +very carefully studied with the hope that it would prove an important +silk insect. This hope unfortunately has not been realized. + +The moths, as shown by the plate, are really beautiful; the large eye +spots on the hind wings contributing much towards this effect. The +transparent, window-like centers in the eye spot are also of quite rare +occurrence among our moths. These transparent areas do not possess the +very minute scales found on the other parts of the wing. Almost all +of the wonderful variety of colors found in the wings of butterflies +and moths are due either to coloring matter in these scales, or to +the breaking up of the white light by minute lines on these scales, +such as are seen in the play of colors on a soap-bubble. These +fine lines on the scales are only on the upper side, and are about +one-sixteen-thousandth of an inch apart. + +The eggs of Polyphemus are very much flattened, about the size of those +of Cecropia, and are deposited on leaves and twigs singly or in small +groups. These hatch in about ten days and usually in the morning. The +young larva often devours the shell which a few moments before afforded +it shelter. This larva feeds upon oak, hickory, apple, maple, elm and a +variety of other trees, and thus has a larger range of food plants than +the Luna larva. The rate of growth is prodigious, as has been shown by +Mr. Trovelot. When the larva hatches it weighs about one-twentieth of +a grain; in ten days it weighs one-half of a grain, or ten times its +original weight; in twenty days it weighs three grains, or sixty times +its original weight; when a month old it weighs thirty-one grains, or +six hundred and twenty times its original weight, and has consumed +about ninety grains of food; after fifty days it weighs two hundred +and seven grains, or over four thousand times the original weight. +At fifty-six days the larva has eaten eighty-six thousand times its +original weight in food! It is therefore not surprising that these +larvae can often be easily detected upon trees by the large number of +leaves which they have devoured. + +To provide for this great change in size, the larva moults five times, +but the time between these moults is not always the same; there is +usually about ten days between the first four moults and about twenty +between the fourth and fifth. The larva stops eating a day before the +moult, spins a few threads upon the leaf to which it attaches its hind +legs, and waits for the transformation, which usually takes place in +the afternoon. The larva, when mature and ready to spin its cocoon, is +about three inches long. It is sometimes influenced in its color by the +food plant; the normal larva being of a golden green, although it has +been known to show more yellow coloring when found on red maple. + +A short time before beginning its cocoon the larva ceases to eat and +selects a place for its cocoon. These cocoons are usually found upon +the ground among the leaves, but are frequently attached to twigs. +After about a half day's work the larva spreads over the inside of the +cocoon a gummy, resinous substance, which binds together the threads. +After four or five days more of almost continuous work, another coating +is smeared over the inside, which renders the cocoon practically +air-tight. The silk fibres become considerably finer as the cocoon +nears completion and the supply of silk begins to run low. For this +reason the inner layers of the cocoon are only about half as strong as +the outer ones. The larva, as the supply of silk diminishes in the +silk glands, becomes perceptibly reduced in size. It has been estimated +that the larva, in attaching the continuous thread of its cocoon, makes +two hundred and fifty-four thousand back and forward movements. The +cocoons are very strong and dense, of a dirty white color and generally +coated with a white powder, the female being the larger. + +There is but a single brood in the north, while in the south there are +two. + +In order to see if the pupa needed air, Mr. Trovelot sealed up some +cocoons over winter in shellac, but the moths emerged in due time +after being in an air-tight space for nine months. He also delayed the +emergence of the moth till twenty-one months after entering the cocoon +by placing it upon ice. + +The silk in the spinning glands before it is spun is a clear, +transparent fluid. These glands seem to be of excessive size when +compared with that of the larva, since, when fully expanded, they reach +the great length of twenty-five inches, or about eight times the length +of the full-grown larva. These glands are paired, one being found on +each side of the body, are considerably folded and taper at each end. +The ducts leading from the anterior end of the glands unite to form a +single duct which opens below the mouth. The thread is double, being +really composed of two different fibres, one from each gland, as may +be shown by separating them. The silk in these glands is prepared and +sold as silk "gut" to anglers. On account of its transparency when in +water, it becomes invisible and thus aids in deluding the wary fish, +who does not see any connection between the line and the baited hook. +The "gut" is prepared as follows: Larvae which are ready to spin their +cocoons are cut open and placed in strong vinegar for eighteen hours; +the glands are then taken out, stretched and dried in the shade. + +Six or eight days after beginning the cocoon, the larval skin is +moulted and the real chrysalic or pupal stage begins. This stage +normally lasts till the following spring or summer. A few days before +the time of emergence a pair of glands which open into the mouth become +very active and secrete an acidulated fluid which escapes and wets +the fore end of the cocoon, causing the resinous material binding +together the fibres to become soft. Even cocoons sealed up in shellac +and starch have been dissolved by this fluid, and thus the moths have +been able to escape. When the cocoon has become sufficiently soft, the +moth pushes its way between the fibres, but in doing so often breaks +some of the threads, thus making the silk of such cocoons useless for +commercial purposes. The moth at the time of emergence, with its folded +and crumpled wings, is quite a forlorn-looking object. These wilted +wings soon begin to fill up with fluids from the body, which is very +large at this time. In some cases, the fluid is driven into the wings +with so much force that they swell up, and if such a wing is punctured, +thus allowing some of the fluid to escape, the mature wing will be of +a smaller size than one from which no fluid has been lost. It must be +remembered that it is possible to inflate a butterfly or moth's wing, +because the wings of insects are not composed of a single layer, but +are sacs of two layers which are closely applied. It is thus possible +to split the wing into upper and lower halves, but this can only be +done at the time of emergence, when these two layers are not so firmly +cemented together as they are in a few hours after emergence. + +The enemies of Polyphemus are numerous. Birds prey upon the larvae, in +addition to numerous parasitic insects which are very similar to those +which destroy Cecropia. The cocoon itself is not a complete protection +because rats and squirrels plunder them. We thus see that the life of +even an insect is full of dangers, and that it is really a wonder that +so many are able to become mature and reproduce. + +The silk-worm moths are excellent illustrations of what is called +complete metamorphosis in insects. An insect like the grasshopper, when +it hatches from the egg, is very much like the adult insect in its +general form and appearance; the most evident difference being the lack +of wings. An insect which shows such slight changes in its growth to +maturity is said to have an incomplete metamorphosis. It is incomplete +in the sense that the change is not of a very radical nature. But +in the case of the silk worm moths, and moths and butterflies in +general, the larva which hatches from the eggs has not even the most +superficial resemblance to the adult insect, the fully-developed moth. +This necessitates a complete change or metamorphosis in the form and +structure of the insect before it can become mature. This great change +is accomplished during the quiet pupal stage in the cocoon. Because +the pupa is apparently passive when viewed from the exterior, one must +not conclude that it is so internally; far from it; the digestive +organs of the larva must be completely made over from those of a +chewing leaf eater to those of a moth which can only take liquid food. + + Charles Christopher Adams. + + + + +CASTLES IN THE AIR. + + +In a little bend of the San Joaquin River, where the current, +attempting to straighten its course, has left a bank a few feet wide, +there is a small grove of tall cottonwood trees, perhaps a dozen in +number, whose branches lean far over the stream and whose tops reach +almost to the level of the bluff or rather the floor of the valley 250 +feet above, for this swift river has, in the course of ages, cut thus +deep a channel for itself. + +The place is not easy of access, for the shore narrows above and below +the bend to a few inches where one with difficulty keeps from crumbling +away the sand with his feet and falling into the water, and the cliff +is so nearly perpendicular that in many places it is inaccessible to a +climber, being of soft sand whose different stratas are clearly defined +where they have been sliced off by the cutting stream. + +The valley above is a vast grainfield out almost to the edge of the +bluff, and along the edge and face of the bluff, wherever root can +cling or tendril hold, grow beautiful wild flowers in the early spring +days--their last refuge between the cultivation and the deep sea, or +rather, river. + +In the tops of the cottonwoods live a number of baronial families in +castles huge, gray and ugly, overlooking the sweep of the stream. They +are the Great Blue Herons whose Latin title, (Ardea herodias), gives +one some idea of their ancient lineage. They claim to be older than the +storks of Egypt, and indeed, they look older as they stand humpbacked +and sleepy on one leg by the side of their nests, the long fringe of +light-speckled neck feathers underneath looking like a long gray beard +sweeping over their recurved neck and breast. There is a wise look +about them, too, for the black markings of the head sweep back over the +eye and prolong into the appearance of a quill extending behind their +ears. + +Though they are almost four feet long and spread their wings to six +feet and over, the herons' large blue-grey bodies are often almost +indistinguishable from the bark of the cottonwood branches and the +blue of the sky against which they are silhouetted so oddly. One's +eyes open with astonishment when these sticks or excrescences of the +tree-tops slowly unfold an enormous sweep of sail and, extending their +long stilts behind them, flap off across the stream with a creaking +sound like the pulleys of a vessel when the halliards are running +through them. Standing or flapping they are not handsome birds and +one who comes suddenly upon a large heron for the first time as he +stands in the shallow water of the brookside, will be convulsed with +laughter, for if there is an utterly clumsy and awkward form or motion +in bird-life it belongs to this heron. + +Their homes are big baskets of nests made of twigs as large as a man's +finger, closely intermeshed. From year to year they use the same nest +or build over it until it has two or three stories or more and is +bigger than a bushel basket. There are probably two dozen nests in the +dozen cottonwood trees, some of the larger trees having three or four +or even six away up in their tops where the branches seem scarcely +strong enough to bear such heavy burdens. From the top of the bluff one +can look down into the nests and in early March see the big blue eggs, +almost as large as hens' eggs, reposing like amethysts in their rough +brown setting. Some authors state that not over three eggs are laid, +but I have seen four about as often as three and, on one occasion, +five in a nest. + +From their high-placed towers the herons watch the small fry in the +river below and make forays among the young trout, pike and catfish and +the frogs. They listen to the complaining voices in the twilight and in +the morning give them cause for still further complainings. They keep +in terror the big wood rats whose homes in the clumps of elder berries +below surpass in size those of the herons. And the gophers and field +mice of the grain fields never know at what moment an ungainly shadow +shall fall upon them and end their harvestings. There was a conceited +young frog who sang loud and shrill at sunset on the edge of the river +and who had an ambition to be, not an ox like the one in the fable, but +a Patti. And she had her wish after a fashion, for that connoisseur, +the heron who dwelt on the farthest branch over the water, attracted by +her vocal abilities, sought her out, and the little herons thought her +the nicest _paté de foie gras_ they had ever eaten. + +There they dwell, this ancient race of high-born philosophers, stalking +the shallows of sunny baylets, or dreaming in the breeze of the +tree-tops of traditions old as the sequoias. What an authority would +you and I be if we could read the unwritten history of their race! + + Charles Elmer Jenny. + + * * * * * + + Boughs are daily rifled + By the gusty thieves, + And the Book of Nature + Getteth short of leaves. + --Hood, "The Seasons." + + + + + [Illustration: PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE. + (Antilocapra americana.) + Greatly reduced. + FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE. + +(_Antilocapra americana._) + + +The antelope family comprises many of the most beautiful and graceful +species among horned animals. When we behold the curiously twisted +horns of the sasin, the long, sharp horns of the pasan, the large, +spiral horns of the koodoo and the shorter horns of the eland, not to +mention the graceful bodies and limbs of these animals, we are led to +wonder at the extravagance of nature in furnishing such a variety of +appendages to these creatures. + +By far the larger number of species of this family live in Africa and +Asia, where they have reached the highest development of structure. +They are not, like some families of mammals, confined to any one +particular locality, but are found on the plains and high up on the +mountains; in a country sparsely covered with vegetation and in the +thick forests; in marshes and bogs. In fact, they seem to inhabit all +varieties of country. While the family is thus diversified in habitat, +the different species are by no means so widely distributed, for while +some species, like the sasin, live only on the open plains, others, +like the chamois, live high up on the mountains, frequently above the +snow-line. + +The subject of our sketch, the Prong-horned antelope (Antilocapra +americana), is not as large nor so strikingly horned as the other +animals which have been mentioned. In fact, so different is its +structure, having hollow, pronged horns which do not increase by +continuous growth, as do those of the true antelopes, but are shed like +those of the deer family, and having a somewhat different structure of +feet and different texture of hair, that a family has been made for it +known as Antilocapridae. + +The Prong-horn ranges throughout the western part of North America from +the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean, and from the Saskatchewan +river south to the Rio Grande. It is not confined to the plains, but +has been found in the wild valleys of the Rocky mountains to a height +of over eight thousand feet above sea level. + +The daily life of this interesting animal is thus described by +Canfield, who made an exhaustive study of them and who also kept +them in captivity: "From the first of September to the first of +March one always sees them in larger groups composed of bucks, does +and yearlings. Shortly afterward the does individually retire from +these herds and give birth to their young. After a short interval +they again unite with other suckling does and their little calves, +possibly with a view to common defense against the wolf and coyotes. +The adult bucks roam about singly or two together, leaving the mothers +with their latest progeny to their fate, the young Prong-horns in the +meantime gathering in groups of their own apart from the older animals. +Apparently tired of the world and bored by society the old bucks +wander about for one or two months, frequenting localities in which +they are not ordinarily seen. Two or three months subsequently the +adolescent bucks again join the old does and their calves, and finally +the old bucks also put in an appearance, so that one can observe herds, +numbering hundreds, or sometimes even thousands, after the first of +September. A herd never leaves its native locality or roams over more +than a few miles of range. In dry summer weather they seek water and go +to drink regularly once a day or twice in three days; but if the grass +is fresh and green, as is the case during the greater part of the year, +the Prong-horns do not drink at all." + +The food of the antelope consists to a great extent of the short, +succulent herbage of the prairie, of moss, and also, to a limited +extent, of the young and tender branches of trees. Like many other +ruminants, this animal is passionately fond of salt and they will +remain about saline deposits for many hours, satisfying themselves by +licking the salty ground. + +The antelope is the swiftest runner of any animal in North America, +though perhaps less agile and speedy than some of its relatives in the +old world. It has been said by competent observers that so swiftly do +they run that it is absolutely impossible to distinguish their limbs. + +The senses of the antelope are unusually developed. Their sight is +exceedingly keen and their hearing very acute. Their sense of smell +is so well developed that no danger can possibly approach from the +windward side. When a herd is feeding, sentinels are placed on the +outskirts to scent any impending danger, and to give due warning to the +herd. Their curiosity is one of their most peculiar qualities and seems +to overshadow every other sense. + +For a number of years this graceful animal has been considered royal +game for the sportsman and a good round-up of antelopes is considered a +great achievement among hunters. Mr. G. O. Shields, in his interesting +book, "Hunting in the Great West," very vividly describes a hunt for +antelopes, and we cannot better illustrate the peculiarities of the +animal than by giving his pen sketch: + +"We had heard from some ranchmen along the way that the buffalo herd +was at this time grazing about fifteen to twenty miles up the Big +Porcupine, and knowing that antelopes are nearly always found hanging +on the outskirts of every large herd of bison, we were on the look-out +for them, for it would not seem at all strange to find them near the +stage trail on which we were traveling. We scanned the country closely +with the field glass and were finally rewarded by seeing a number +of small white spots on the dead grass away up the Porcupine, that +seemed to be moving. We rode toward them at a lively trot for perhaps a +mile, and then stopped to reconnoitre again. From this point we could +plainly distinguish them, though they looked to be about the size of +jack rabbits. We again put the rowels to our donkeys and rode rapidly +up to within about a mile of them, when we picketed our animals in a +low swale, took out our antelope flag--a piece of scarlet calico about +half a yard square--attached it to the end of my wiping stick, and were +ready to interview the antelopes. + +"I crawled to the top of a ridge within plain view of the game, and +planted my flag. The breeze spread it out, kept it fluttering, and +it soon attracted their attention. They were then near the bank of +the river, grazing quietly, but this bit of colored rag excited their +curiosity to a degree that rendered them restive, anxious, uneasy, and +they seemed at once to be seized with an insatiable desire to find out +what it was. An antelope has as much curiosity as a woman, and when +they see any object that they don't quite understand, they will travel +miles and run themselves into all kinds of danger to find out what it +is. They have been known to follow an emigrant or freight wagon with +a white cover several miles, and an Indian brings them within reach +of his arrow by standing in plain view wrapped in his red blanket. +Some hunters "flag" them by lying down on their back, holding one foot +as high as possible, and swinging it to and fro. A piece of bright +tin or a mirror answers the same purpose on a clear day. Almost any +conspicuous or strange-looking object will attract them, but the most +convenient, as well as the most reliable at all times, is the little +red flag, such as we employed in this instance. + +"Huffman went to the top of another ridge, to my right and some +distance in advance, and Jack crawled into a hollow on the left, and +well in advance, we three forming a half circle, into which it was our +intention if possible to decoy the game. When they first discovered +our flag they moved rapidly toward it, sometimes breaking into a trot, +but when they had covered half the distance between us and their +starting point, they began to grow suspicious and stopped. They circled +around, turned back, walked a few steps, and then paused and looked +back at the, to them, mysterious apparition. But they could not resist +its magic influence. Again they turned and came toward it, stopped, +and gazed curiously at it. The old buck who led the herd stamped +impatiently, as if annoyed at being unable to solve the mystery. Then +they walked cautiously toward us again, down an incline into a valley, +which took them out of our sight, and out of sight of the flag. This +of course rendered them still more impatient, and when they again came +in sight on the next ridge, they were running. But as soon as their +leader caught sight of the flag, he stopped, as did the others in +their turn when they reached the top of the ridge. There were seven in +the herd, two bucks, three does and two fawns. They were now not more +than a hundred yards from me, and still less from the other two of our +party. Their position was everything we could wish, and though we might +possibly have brought them a few yards nearer, there was a possibility +of their scenting us, even across the wind, which, of course, we had +arranged to have in our favor, and I decided that rather than run the +risk of this and the consequent stampede, I would shoot while I had a +good chance. It had been arranged that I was to open the ball, so I +drew my peep and globe sights down very finely, taking the white breast +of the old buck for my bull's-eye, and pulled. Huffman's Kennedy and +Jack's carbine paid their compliments to the pretty visitors at almost +the same instant, and for about two or three minutes thereafter we +fanned them about as vigorously as ever a herd got fanned under similar +circumstances. The air was full of leaden missiles; the dry dust raised +under and around the fleeing herd as it does when a team trots over a +dusty road. Clouds of smoke hung over us, and the distant hills echoed +the music of our artillery until the last white rump disappeared in the +cottonwoods on the river bank. + +"When the smoke of battle cleared away, and we looked over the field, +we found that we had not burned our powder in vain. Five of the little +fellows, the two bucks and three does, had fallen victims to their +curiosity. The two fawns had, strangely enough, escaped, probably only +because they, so much smaller than their parents, were less exposed." + +The antelope have a curious way of protecting their young, when on the +open prairie. This is accomplished by placing a ring of sharp-pointed +cacti about a spot which has been beaten smooth by their hoofs. Inside +this ample protection the animal cares for its young and secures +ingress and egress for itself by jumping over the ring of cacti. This +serves to protect them from the majority of their foes, which inhabit +the open country. + +The antelope does not thrive well in captivity, the older ones soon +killing themselves in their attempts to escape. The young taken soon +after their birth generally die early, unless very special care is +bestowed upon them, and even if they survive the juvenile state, they +are very likely to die when three or four months old, from pyaemic +sores or inflammation of the limbs. + + + + +PLANT PROTECTION. + + +In the last number of this journal it was shown how plants seek to +avoid the visits of unsuitable insects to their flowers. This is one +means of protection, but there are many others which are even more +striking and vital. It is supposed by many that plants are helpless +beings, which must submit to all sorts of unfavorable conditions which +come upon them. This is far from true, for while plants as a rule are +fixed and unable to escape from danger by flight, still they have very +many ways of helping themselves. + +Prominent among the dangers which come to active green plants are +those which arise from too intense light, which may destroy the +delicate working substances. Since the leaves are the great working +organs in the manufacture of food, they are especially equipped for +protection. Those leaves which must work in exposed places have many +details of structure which are evidently for guarding them against +the ill effects of too intense light. The most striking adaptations, +however, are those which have to do with protective positions. Under +ordinary circumstances leaves are placed so that their flat faces are +exposed to the most intense light. In some cases this is so great a +danger that the leaves are set edgewise, the edges being directed +upwards and downwards. When a plant assumes this habit, the leaves are +said to be in a profile position, and the plants are sometimes called +"compass plants." The latter name has come from the fact that such +leaves usually point north or south, and once it was assumed that this +position was in response to some mysterious magnetic influence. It is +found, however, that it is merely an effort on the part of the plant +to protect its leaves from the intense light of midday, and at the +same time to expose them to the morning and evening rays of much less +intensity. If a leaf is to be placed with its edge upwards and its flat +faces east and west, it follows of necessity that it will point either +north or south. + +Some leaves, however, have the power of shifting their position +according to their needs, directing their flat surfaces toward the +light, or more or less inclining them according to the danger. +Perhaps the most completely adapted leaves of this kind are those +of the "sensitive plants," whose leaves respond to various external +influences by changing their positions. The sensitive plants abound +in dry and hot regions, and one of the best known is represented in +our illustration. It will be noticed that the leaves of this Mimosa +are divided into very numerous small leaflets, which stretch in pairs +along the leaf branches. When the time of intense light and dryness +approaches some of the pairs of leaflets fold together, slightly +reducing the surface exposure. As the unfavorable condition continues, +more leaflets fold together, then still others, until finally all the +leaflets may be folded together, and the leaves themselves may bend +against the stem. It is like a sailing vessel gradually taking in sail +as a storm approaches, until finally nothing is exposed, and the vessel +weathers the storm by presenting only bare poles. These are but a few +illustrations of the very numerous devices for escaping too intense +light and the dangers which accompany it. + + [Illustration: SENSITIVE PLANT. + Awake. (Mimosa pudica.) Asleep. + PLANTS PRESENTED BY LINCOLN PARK COMMISSIONERS. + COPYRIGHT 1900, BY + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.] + +One common danger in temperate regions comes from the lowering of the +temperature each night, which sometimes may chill the living substances +to the danger point. This is particularly dangerous to seedlings, whose +tender structures have not yet developed the ordinary protective +coats. In the spring the seed leaves of numerous seedlings may be seen +at the approach of night to rise upward and come together, just as the +palms of the hand may be placed together over one's head. This reduces +the surface of exposure and the danger of chill at least one-half. +Darwin experimented upon these seedlings, and discovered that by +preventing some of the seed leaves from moving, the seedlings were +seriously injured. The leaves of very many plants assume a peculiar +night position which tends to meet the danger of loss of heat. Often +the three leaflets of the common clover, if growing in an exposed +place, may be observed to fold together into a sort of tent-like +arrangement. + +Many plants are also observed to protect themselves against rain, as +it is necessary for leaves to avoid becoming wet. If the water is +allowed to soak in, the work of the leaves is at once interfered with. +Hence it will be noticed that most leaves are able to shed water, +partly by their position, partly by their structure. In many plants +the leaves are so arranged that the water runs off toward the stem; in +other plants the rain is shed outwards as from the eaves of a house. +Some of the structures which prevent the rain from soaking in are a +smooth epidermis, layers of cuticle, hairy coverings, etc. Interesting +experiments may be performed with different leaves to test their power +of shedding water. If a gentle spray be allowed to play upon different +plants it will be observed that the water glances off at once from the +surfaces of some leaves, runs off more slightly from others, and may be +more or less retained by others. + +Perhaps the most general preparation for protection in our region is +that which is made for the coming of the winter's cold. In many cases +plants do not attempt to protect their delicate structures from the +severity of winter, but disappear entirely, leaving only well-protected +seeds to carry them over into the next growing season. This results in +the so-called "annual habit," which has been learned by many plants +in order to escape a season of danger. Other plants do not disappear +so completely, but everything above the surface of the ground dies, +while the plant continues in the form of underground bulbs, tubers, +or various thickened structures. This habit of seeking a subterranean +retreat at the approach of some dangerous season is a very good one, +and is found in many of our early spring plants. This subterranean +habit has a great advantage over the annual habit, since a seed is very +slow in bringing the plant back again, while a bulb can produce its +plant very rapidly. + +Still other plants preserve more of their structures than either the +annuals or the ground-loving plants. For example, most of our trees +have cultivated what is known as the deciduous habit, that is, they +merely drop their leaves, which are the endangered structures, at the +approach of the unfavorable season, and renew them again when the +favorable conditions return. It should be remarked that these leaves +do not fall because they are broken off, but that in a certain sense +it is a process of growing off, which is carefully prepared for. One +of the most prominent features associated with the deciduous habit is +the autumnal coloration. The vivid colors which appear in the leaves of +many trees just before the time of falling have attracted a great deal +of attention, but although it is so prominent, the causes for it are +very obscure. It will be noticed that this autumnal coloration consists +in the development of various shades of two typical colors, yellow and +red. It is known that the yellow is due to the breaking down of the +green substances, so that it simply indicates a post mortem change, as +may be noticed in connection with the blanching of celery in which the +leaves and upper part of the stem may be green, the green may shade +gradually into yellow, and finally into the pure white of complete +blanching. The red coloring matter, however, is very different. Certain +experiments upon plant colors have indicated that the presence of the +red slightly increases the temperature by absorbing more heat. It is +suggested that the red color may be a slight protection to the living +substance which is ceasing to work, and which is in danger of exposure +to cold. If this be true, it may be that the same explanation will +cover the case of the red flush so conspicuous in buds and young leaves +in early spring. It must not be supposed that the need of protection +has developed the coloring, but since it is developed it may be of some +such service to the plant. Even the conditions which determine autumnal +coloration have not been made out certainly. + +It is instructive to notice how differently the so-called evergreens, +as pines, spruces, etc., have answered the problem of protection +against the cold of winter. The evergreens, instead of dropping their +leaves, have undertaken to protect them, giving them a small surface +and very heavy walls. In this way protection has been secured at the +expense of working power during the season of work. Reduced surface and +thick walls are both obstacles to leaf work. On the other hand, the +deciduous trees have developed the working power of their leaves to the +greatest extent, giving them large surface exposure and comparatively +delicate walls. It is out of the question to protect such an amount +of surface during the winter, and hence the deciduous habit. The +evergreens are saved the annual renewal of leaves, but lose in working +power; the deciduous trees must renew their leaves annually, but gain +greatly in working power. + +To obtain the most striking instances of protection, however, one must +examine plants which belong to permanently dry regions, such as may be +found in the United States along the Mexican border, or in the regions +of tropical deserts. In the first place, it will be noticed that the +plants in general produce smaller leaves than in other regions. That +this holds a direct relation to the dry conditions is evident from +the fact that the same plant often produces smaller leaves in dry +conditions than in moist. One of the most striking features of an arid +country is the absence of large leaves. These reduced leaves are of +various forms, such as the needle leaves of pines, or the thread-like +leaves of certain sedges and grasses, or the narrow leaves with +inrolled margins such as is common in many heath plants. The extreme of +leaf reduction has been reached by the Cactus plants, whose leaves, so +far as foliage is concerned, have disappeared entirely, and the leaf +work is done by the surface of the globular, cylindrical, or flattened +stems. A covering of hairs is an effective sun screen, and it is very +common to find plants of dry regions characteristically hairy. In +such regions it is to be observed also that dwarf growths prevail, so +that the plant, as a whole, does not present such an exposure to the +drouth as in regions of greater moisture. One of the most prominent +measures of protection in dry regions is the organization of what are +known as water reservoirs. Nearly all plants of such regions have +leaves which are known as fleshy, that is, they are thick and juicy, +being reservoirs of stored up moisture which is doled out cautiously +according to the needs of the plant, without any wastefulness. + +The whole subject of plant protection is an immense one, and the +illustrations given above are merely intended to suggest that there is +such a subject, and to lead to some observation of the various schemes +of protection which are to be seen plainly on every hand. + + John Merle Coulter. + + * * * * * + + Nature is but a name for an effect + Whose cause is God. + --Cowper, "The Task." + + + + +THE BIRTH OF A TREE. + + + Once I lay 'neath quilt of green, + All unthought of, all unseen; + Little thinking of the world + Out of which I had been hurled. + + By and by, when quilt grew hot, + Mother Nature touched my cot, + Whispered softly in my ear, + "Higher, higher, higher, dear." + + Painted lovely scenes for me, + Saying, "Child, climb up and see." + I was lazy, so I said, + "Please, ma'am, let me stay in bed." + + Something whispered, "Child, I fear + Life will be but meager here." + Golden sunbeams bade me start, + And a purpose filled my heart. + + I would leave my bed of ease, + I would join the forest trees; + Shelter travelers passing by, + Hide squirrels in the branches high. + + Purpose, mighty power, led, + Ever, ever on ahead, + Till I grew up here so high, + Near the sunlight and the sky. + + Mother Nature, mother dear, + I am glad you called me here. + Thus the mighty forest oak + From his wooded homeland spoke. + + And I thought a lesson this-- + We, to reach the highest bliss, + Must arise from beds of ease, + Growing like the forest trees. + Lucia Belle Cook. + + + + +THE ALMOND. + +(_Amygdalus communis L._) + +And it came to pass that on the morrow Moses went into the tabernacle +of witness; and behold, the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was +budded, and brought forth buds, and blossomed blossoms, and yielded +_almonds_.--Numbers 17:8. + + +The almond is the fruit of a small tree (Amygdalus communis) belonging +to the Rose family (Rosaceae). The plant is believed to be a native of +northern Africa, Persia and Turkestan. It occurs wild in Sicily and +Greece and is cultivated throughout temperate Europe, including England. + +The leaves of the almond tree are simple, broadly lanceolate, margins +serrate, bright green and stalked. The flowers are nearly sessile, +mostly solitary, petals bright pink; otherwise similar to the flowers +of the rose family as seen in the apple blossom, cherry blossom and +the wild rose. The fruit is a drupe or stone fruit, resembling the +peach in its general structural characters. It is, however, much +smaller, measuring about one and one-half inch in length. As in the +peach the outer portion of the fruit coat (sarcocarp) is fleshy, the +inner portion (endocarp or putamen) is hard and encloses the kernel or +seed to which the term almond is usually applied. The plant is very +ornamental, producing its beautiful flowers in March before the leaves +are developed. + +Two natural varieties of almonds are quite universally recognized, the +sweet (A. communis var dulcis) and the bitter (A. communis var amara). +They resemble each other so closely in general appearance that it is +practically impossible to distinguish between them. The principal +difference lies in the chemistry of the kernels or seeds themselves. +In the bitter variety amygdalin is found, which is practically wanting +in the sweet variety. Some botanists describe quite a number of +varieties. Karsten, for instance, describes five varieties of A. +communis, namely, dulcis, amara, fragilis, macrocarpa and persicoides. +Boissier in his Flora Orientalis describes as many as seventeen +distinct species. + +The almond tree is one of the oldest of the cultivated plants. It +was a great garden favorite in and about Palestine. It is frequently +mentioned in the books of Moses. In Exodus 25:34, we find that the +"candlestick shall have four bowls made like unto almonds." As +explained in the 8th verse of chapter 17 of Numbers the blossoming +rod of Aaron was from an almond tree. Even to this day Jews carry +rods bearing almond blossoms to the synagogues on great festival +days. The Romans designated the almonds (the kernels or seeds with +the hard endocarp or shell) Nuces graecae (Greek nuts), from which it +is concluded that the almond tree was brought to Italy from Greece. +Almond oil was known to the ancient Greek and Roman writers. Plinius +and Dioscorides make reference to the gum which exudes from the bark. +Karl der Grosse (Charlemagne) recommended the cultivation of almonds +in Germany. In view of the fact that some authorities state that the +sweet variety is a product of cultivation, it is interesting to note +that the two varieties have been known equally long. The bitter variety +was described by Scribonius Largus and Plinius. Alexander Trallianus +described the medicinal virtues of the oil of bitter almonds. +Palladinus gave directions how to convert the bitter variety into the +sweet variety by methods of cultivation. Later experiments have, +however, proven this to be a false conclusion. + + [Illustration: ALMOND. + FROM KOEHLER'S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN. + CHICAGO: + A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER.] + +Description of Plate:--A, B, branch with flowers and fruit; 1, 1a, +flowers from different trees; 2, 2a, petals; 3, stamens; 4, pollen; 5, +stamen; 6, 7, ovary; 8, 9, seed with shell; 10, seed without shell; 11, +12, sections of seed. + +The fruit and seeds of several other plants are known as almonds. The +seeds of the African shrub Brabejum stellatifolium are known as African +almonds. Country almonds is a name given to the fruit of the East +Indian tree Terminalia Catappa. The fruit of Canarium commune is known +as Java almonds. + +At the present time the sweet almond is extensively cultivated in +northern Africa, southern Europe and in the warmer parts of the +United States, particularly in California. Climatic conditions and +cultivation have a great influence upon the quality of the almonds and +we have as a result quite a number of commercial varieties, just as +we have commercial varieties of coffee, tea, oranges, etc. The more +important commercial varieties are the Jordan, Valencia, Barbary and +California almonds. These vary somewhat in size, form and thickness +of the kernel and the hardness and thickness of the shell (endocarp). +The Jordan almonds are imported from Malaga (Spain) and are said to be +the finest. They differ from the others in the greater length of the +kernel (seed), for which reason they are also known as long almonds. +These are official in the English Pharmacopoeia because they are not +readily confused with other sweet varieties and the bitter almond. The +Valencia almonds come from the Balearic islands (Majorca); they are +characterized by a comparatively soft shell and are less highly prized +than the Jordan or the California almonds. The Barbary almonds from +northern Africa are quite small and unsightly and for those reasons +have comparatively little commercial value. In the United States the +principal commercial variety is the California almond. The kernel is +shorter and flatter than that of the Jordan almond, but almost equal to +it in quality. It is extensively cultivated, about one hundred trees +being planted to the acre. The trees attain a height of fifteen to +twenty feet and begin to yield when three years old. In California it +is customary to bleach the almonds by exposing them to the vapor of +burning sulphur, which also destroys insect parasites which attack +almonds very readily. + +Other less important sweet commercial varieties are the Provence +almonds of southern France, the Florence and Ambrosia almonds of +Sicily, the Pitti almonds of Portugal and the small Puglia almonds of +Italy. + +The bitter almond seeds are as a rule somewhat shorter, broader and +thinner than those of the larger, sweet varieties. Those found upon the +market are largely from northern Africa, Sicily and southern France. + +The principal constituents of sweet almonds are a fixed oil, sugar, +some albuminoid substances, and perhaps a small quantity of amygdalin +or a substance akin to it. The purified fixed oil from both varieties +of almonds is a bland, thin, pale yellow liquid, having a faint taste +and odor of the almond. When exposed to the air it becomes rancid +quite readily. Medicinally it finds use as an emollient in external +applications. Taken internally in small doses it is nutritious; in +large doses laxative. Mixed with mucilage or yolk of eggs and sugar it +is found useful in allaying troublesome coughs due to irritation of the +throat. It also finds a table use similar to that of olive oil. + +Bitter almonds contain a very poisonous volatile oil in addition to +the fixed oil just described. In small quantities this oil finds a use +for flavoring by the cook and confectioner, and by the perfumer for +scenting toilet soaps and for other purposes. This oil is obtained by +distillation after the fixed oil has been expressed. It is the product +of the decomposition of amygdalin under the influence of emulsin and +water. The poisonous properties of this oil are due to the hydrocyanic +acid which is present. This acid may be removed and the oil is then +known as purified oil of bitter almonds. Even the purified oil is not +safe, as it decomposes quite readily unless all of the water is removed +by the use of fused chloride of lime. + +The symptoms of poisoning from the oil of bitter almonds, or from +a quantity of the bitter almonds, are the same as from a dose of +hydrocyanic acid. Medicinally the oil is used like hydrocyanic acid +in various disorders of nervous origin, as whooping cough, spasmodic +troubles, etc. + +Sweet almonds are variously employed. Roasted and salted almonds are +very much liked by everybody. Almonds for the table must first be +"blanched," that is, the outer, reddish brown, thin seed coat must be +removed, as it contains irritant properties. They are used in making +cake and other pastry. Cake or bread made from almond meal has been +recommended as a substitute for ordinary bread in the treatment of +diabetes, as it is free from starch, a food substance which proves +harmful in this disease. Almond cake is a term applied to the crushed +seeds from which the oil has been expressed. Finely-powdered this +is used for washing hands and face. Almond paste is a cosmetic made +from powdered bitter almonds, white of egg, rose water and rectified +spirits. It is used to soften the skin and prevent chapping of hands. +An emulsion of sweet almonds is also used as a substitute for milk in +feeding infants. + + Albert Schneider. + + * * * * * + + Nature, the Vicar of the Almightie Lord. + --Chaucer, "The Assembly of Foules." + + + All Nature is but art, unknown to thee; + All chance, direction, which thou canst not see; + All discord, harmony not understood; + All partial evil, universal good; + And, spite of pride, in erring reason's spite, + One truth is clear, whatever is, is right. + --Pope, "Essay on Man." + + + Nature is a frugal mother, and never gives without measure. + --Emerson, "Essays." + + + But who can paint + Like Nature! Can imagination boast + Amid its gay creations hues like hers? + --Thompson, "Seasons." + + + + + +----------------------------------------------------------------- + + | Transcriber's Note: | + | | + | Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. | + | | + | Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant | + | form was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. | + | | + | Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. | + | | + | Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs | + | and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that | + | references them. | + | | + | Italicized words are surrounded by underline characters, | + | _like this_. | + | | + | The Contents table was added by the transcriber. | + +------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Birds and Nature, Vol. VIII, No. 4, +November 1900, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 48579 *** |