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diff --git a/48579-h/48579-h.htm b/48579-h/48579-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..71b8f73 --- /dev/null +++ b/48579-h/48579-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3484 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Birds and Nature + Vol. VIII, No. 4, November 1900, by Various. + </title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> + <style type="text/css"> + +/* PAGE DIMENSIONS */ +body { margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; } + +/* HEADINGS */ +h1, h2 { text-align:center; clear:both; } + +/*PARAGRAPHS */ +p { margin-top:.75em; text-align:justify; margin-bottom:.75em; } +div.chapter {page-break-before:always; } + +/* TEXT ALIGNMENT AND MARGINS */ +.ac { text-align:center;} 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height:auto; } +.figcenter { clear:both; margin:auto; text-align:center; padding-top:1em; + max-width:100%; } + +/* VERSES */ +.poetry { margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align:left; + max-width:30em; display:inline-block; } +.poetry .stanza { margin:1em 0em 1em 0em; } +.poetry .verse { padding-left:3em; text-indent:-3em; font-size:smaller; } +.poetry-container { text-align:center; } +.poetry .indent-2 { text-indent:-2em; } +.poetry .indent4 { text-indent:4em; } + +/* PAGINATION */ +.pagenum { position:absolute; right:4px; text-indent:0em; + text-align:right; font-size:70%; font-weight:normal; + font-variant:normal; font-style:normal; letter-spacing:normal; + line-height:normal; color:#acacac; border:1px solid #acacac; + background:#ffffff; padding:1px 2px; } + +/* VOLUME DESCRIPTION */ +.vlouter { width: 100%; border-top: 1.4px black solid; + border-bottom: 1.4px black solid; padding-top: 0.25em; + padding-bottom: 0.25em; } +.volumeline { width: 100%; border-top: 1.4px black 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margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; padding:.5em; } +} + </style> + + </head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 48579 ***</div> + +<h1 style="margin-bottom:2em;"><a name="BIRDS_AND_NATURE"></a>BIRDS AND NATURE<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller">ILLUSTRATED BY COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.</span></h1> + +<div class="vlouter"> + <div class="volumeline"> + <div class="volumeleft"><span class="sc">Vol. VIII.</span></div> + <div class="volumeright"><span class="sc">No. 4.</span></div> + <div class="ac">NOVEMBER, 1900.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2 style="margin-top:2em;"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<table class="toctable" id="TOC"> + <tr> + <td class="c1"> </td> + <td class="c2"><span class="sc">Page</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#SONNET_NOVEMBER">SONNET—NOVEMBER.</a></td> + <td class="c2">145</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#SOME_FACTS_ABOUT_THE_WESTERN_WILLET"> + SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WESTERN WILLET.</a></td> + <td class="c2">146</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#CRUEL_TREATMENT_OF_BIRDS_DEMANDED_BY_DAME"> + CRUEL TREATMENT OF BIRDS DEMANDED BY DAME FASHION.</a></td> + <td class="c2">150</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_FALL_MIGRATIONS">THE FALL MIGRATIONS.</a></td> + <td class="c2">151</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_WAYS_OF_SOME_BANTAMS">THE WAYS OF SOME BANTAMS.</a></td> + <td class="c2">152</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_BUFFLE-HEAD">THE BUFFLE-HEAD.</a></td> + <td class="c2">155</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#AN_HOUR_WITH_AN_ANT">AN HOUR WITH AN ANT.</a></td> + <td class="c2">156</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#SONG">SONG.</a></td> + <td class="c2">157</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_AMERICAN_EARED_GREBE">THE AMERICAN EARED GREBE.</a></td> + <td class="c2">158</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_GEOGRAPHICAL_DISTRIBUTION_OF_FISHES"> + THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES.</a></td> + <td class="c2">161</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_LOUISIANA_TANAGER">THE LOUISIANA TANAGER.</a></td> + <td class="c2">167</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#CHATTER_OF_A_CHAT">CHATTER OF A CHAT.</a></td> + <td class="c2">168</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_LUNA_AND_POLYPHEMUS_MOTHS"> + THE LUNA AND POLYPHEMUS MOTHS.</a></td> + <td class="c2">170</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#CASTLES_IN_THE_AIR">CASTLES IN THE AIR.</a></td> + <td class="c2">175</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_PRONG-HORNED_ANTELOPE">THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE.</a></td> + <td class="c2">179</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#PLANT_PROTECTION">PLANT PROTECTION.</a></td> + <td class="c2">182</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_BIRTH_OF_A_TREE">THE BIRTH OF A TREE.</a></td> + <td class="c2">187</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="c1"><a href="#THE_ALMOND">THE ALMOND.</a></td> + <td class="c2">188</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="SONNET_NOVEMBER" id="SONNET_NOVEMBER"></a>SONNET—NOVEMBER.</h2> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse">Yet one smile more, departing, distant sun,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">One mellow smile through the soft vapory air,</div> + <div class="verse">Ere, o'er the frozen earth, the loud winds run,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Or snows are sifted o'er the meadow bare.</div> + <div class="verse">One smile on the brown hills and naked trees</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">And the dark rocks whose summer wreaths are cast,</div> + <div class="verse">And the blue Gentian flower, that, in the breeze,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Nods lonely, of her beauteous race the last.</div> + <div class="verse">Yet a few sunny days, in which the bee</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Shall murmur by the hedge that skirts the way,</div> + <div class="verse">The cricket chirp upon the russet lea,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">And man delight to linger in thy ray.</div> + <div class="verse">Yet one rich smile, and we will try to bear</div> + <div class="verse">The piercing winter frost, and winds, and darkened air.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—William Cullen Bryant.</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent-2">Oh, Autumn! Why so soon</div> + <div class="verse">Depart the hues that make thy forests glad;</div> + <div class="verse">Thy gentle wind and thy fair sunny noon,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">And leave thee wild and sad!</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent-2">Ah! 'twere a lot too blessed</div> + <div class="verse">Forever in thy colored shades to stray;</div> + <div class="verse">Amid the kisses of the soft southwest</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">To rove and dream for aye.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—William Cullen Bryant.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<p class="x-smaller">Copyright, 1900, by A. W. Mumford.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="SOME_FACTS_ABOUT_THE_WESTERN_WILLET" id="SOME_FACTS_ABOUT_THE_WESTERN_WILLET"></a> + SOME FACTS ABOUT THE WESTERN WILLET.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Symphemia semipalmata inornata.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>The Western Willet is one of the +largest of the Limicolae or Shore Birds. +The body is about the size of a common +pigeon, the long neck, legs and extent +of wings making it appear much larger. +The feet are only about one-half webbed +and only when great danger makes it +necessary will it go into the water beyond +its depth. The bill is straight and +in summer the color of the bird is gray +above, with many small but rather distinct +black marks. On the sides and +breast these marks are arrow-shaped. +In the plumage of winter and of the +young these markings are absent.</p> + +<p>I am inclined to believe that this species +has a more extended range than any +other of the order. It has become quite +abundant of late years in the Calumet Region +in Northern Indiana, near Chicago. +Mr. E. W. Nelson, in the Natural History +Survey of Illinois, says, that in the +seventies this species was a rare summer +resident on the wet prairies of Northwestern +Illinois, although I can find no +authentic record of the taking of the nest +and eggs. Captain Charles Bendire found +it abundant and resident in Southeastern +Oregon when he procured several sets of +its eggs. It is said to breed from the +coast of Texas to Manitoba. Straggling +flocks of from five to fifty may be found +along the shores of our larger fresh water +lakes, particularly Lake Michigan, during +the fall migration, which takes place +from about the fifteenth of August to the +last of September.</p> + +<p>This bird might well be called the +clown of the Limicolae. I have often +been amused by the antics of a flock of +Willets on the shore of Lake Michigan. +They would droop their necks and wings +in an absurd fashion, taking short runs +and jumps as the waves rolled in upon +them. I have never seen a bird which at +times could be so wary and hard to approach, +and again, if a number are shot +from a flock, the remaining birds will +seem to lose their senses, and I have frequently +walked within a few feet of the +survivors before they would take flight. +This trait is noticeable among a large +number of shore birds and the terns, but +more especially so with the Willet.</p> + +<p>On the plains bordering the Brazos +river, near the Gulf coast of Texas, during +the months of April and May, I have +found the Willet proper (Symphemia +semipalmata), a smaller and darker form, +breeding in abundance. The Willets usually +select for a nesting site a thick tussock +of salt marsh grass on the borders +of a small pond, where they can command +a good view of the vicinity. In the +center of this they hollow out a space of +about six or eight inches in diameter, and +simply line it with the grass they have +matted down. In this nest are laid four +pyriform eggs of a greenish white, or a +light olive brown ground color, marked +with large, irregular blotches or brownish +black and faint purple; the eggs are +immense for the size of the bird, being +about two inches in length by one and +one-half in width.</p> + +<p>The illustration faithfully portrays +three birds taken at Miller's, Indiana, on +the beach of Lake Michigan. The color +of the legs, which are obscured by the +shadow of the body, is a pale, slaty blue.</p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="THE WESTERN WILLET."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_005.jpg" id="i_005.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_005.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">THE WESTERN WILLET<br /> + (Symphemia semipalmata inornata.)<br /> + ¼ Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>Though the Willets are restless and +noisy birds, they are much less so, and, +indeed, quite unconscious of their surroundings +when nesting. Regarding +their habits at this time, Dr. Coues has +told us that if they "become thoroughly +alarmed by too open approach, particularly +if the setting bird be driven from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +her nest, there is a great outcry, violent +protest and tumult where there was +quietude. Other pairs, nesting near by, +join their cries till the confusion becomes +general. But now, again, their actions +are not those they would show at other +times; for, instead of flying off with the +instinct of self-preservation, to put distance +between them and danger, they are +held by some fascination to the spot, and +hover around, wheeling about, flying in +circles a little ways, to return again, with +unremitting clamor. They may be only +too easily destroyed under such circumstances, +provided the ornithologist can +lay aside his scruples and steel himself +against sympathy."</p> + +<p>It is to be hoped that all the States, +frequented by the Willets, will enact +proper legislation which will amply protect +these interesting waders.</p> + +<p class="ar">Frank M. Woodruff.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Autumn once more begins to teach;</div> + <div class="verse">Sere leaves their annual sermon preach;</div> + <div class="verse">And with the southward-slipping sun</div> + <div class="verse">Another stage of life is done.</div> + <div class="verse">The day is of a paler hue,</div> + <div class="verse">The night is of a darker blue,</div> + <div class="verse">Just as it was a year ago;</div> + <div class="verse">For time runs fast, but grace is slow!</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Thou comest, autumn, to unlade</div> + <div class="verse">Thy wealthy freight of summer shade,</div> + <div class="verse">Still sorrowful as in past years,</div> + <div class="verse">Yet mild and sunny in thy tears,</div> + <div class="verse">Ripening and hardening all thy growth</div> + <div class="verse">Of solid wood, yet nothing loth</div> + <div class="verse">To waste upon the frolic breeze</div> + <div class="verse">Thy leaves, like flights of golden bees.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Frederick William Faber.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="CRUEL_TREATMENT_OF_BIRDS_DEMANDED_BY_DAME" + id="CRUEL_TREATMENT_OF_BIRDS_DEMANDED_BY_DAME"></a> + CRUEL TREATMENT OF BIRDS DEMANDED BY DAME FASHION.</h2> + +<p>All of my readers probably know in a +general way that Dame Fashion is responsible +for the destruction of the lives +of many birds, but they may not know to +what extent this is true.</p> + +<p>Why do we say that any cruel treatment +of the birds is chargeable to fashion? +It can hardly be necessary to remind +ourselves that there is in almost +every boy's nature a touch of the savage +instincts which find expression in the desire +to kill something. Traces of this instinct +do not entirely disappear with the +development into manhood, but show +themselves there in the love of hunting +and fishing. Let these remnants of savagery +be appealed to by the promise of +gain and they are immediately fanned into +flame in the natures of those persons +who are naturally more strongly drawn +to this primitive occupation of men. In +short, place before the professional hunter +an easy means of profiting by his skill +as a hunter, and in far too many instances +he will smother any humane instincts +which he may have for the sake of the +gain. It is the demands of fashion for +plumes and feathers for hat trimmings +which place before these hunters the +temptation to kill. Have we not a right, +therefore, to place the blame at the door +of Fashion?</p> + +<p>But what are the practices which we +call cruel? In the first place it is cruelty +to cause the destruction of life without +good and sufficient reason. Unnecessary +sacrifice of life is cruelty. Certainly +no one will say that it is necessary to +trim hats with feathers. Fashion decrees +that feathers must be worn, and presto! +feathers are worn. In the second place, +it is cruel to kill birds who are feeding +young ones in the nest, leaving them to +starvation. Yet this is just what has happened +and does happen every year. +Plume hunters are no respecters of times +and seasons. With them there are no +closed seasons. The birds which they +are after gather in large rookeries during +the nesting season and are therefore +much easier to capture then than at other +times.</p> + +<p>Most of the herons and similar plume-bearing +birds are hunted and killed for +the plumes alone, or, at most, for a very +small part of the whole plumage. The +part wanted is taken and the rest left to +waste, while the bird's body is never used +for anything. If nothing worse, it is an +unpardonable waste. In Florida alone +whole rookeries of herons and ibises +numbering hundreds and even thousands +of individuals have been wholly destroyed. +Now the insatiable plume hunter, +in his effort to supply the demands of +a no less insatiable fashion, is pursuing +the unfortunate birds into the fastnesses +of Mexico and South America. There is +but one way to stop this work of extermination, +and that is to take away the +demand. This remedy lies wholly in the +hands of women. Unless they are willing +to take a firm stand against the use of +feathers for purposes of ornament the +birds are doomed. This may seem like a +strong statement, but a little reflection +will prove it true. When the birds which +are now hunted for plumes and feathers +are gone, there will be a modification of +the demand to include birds of different +plumage, just as the aigrette is giving +place to the quill. After the quill and the +long-pointed wing will come the shorter +wing, and after that the plumage of the +small birds, and the cycle of destruction +will be complete.</p> + +<p>Some one may ask why it is that the +birds are so foolish as to allow the hunter +to kill hundreds in a single day from one +rookery. Why don't they leave the region +when the shooting begins? The +plume hunter has learned cunning. He +no longer uses a shot gun, but a small +caliber rifle or a wholly noiseless air gun. +The rifle makes no more noise than the +snapping of a twig, and will therefore not +frighten the birds. By remaining concealed +the hunter may kill every bird that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +is within range. Since each bird is worth +from twenty-five cents to five dollars, according +to the kind, a single day's work +(or slaughter) is profitable. The temptation +is certainly great, and becomes almost +irresistible to him who loves hunting +for its own sake.</p> + +<p>The most cruel part of the whole business +I have already stated, but it will bear +repeating. It is the killing of the breeding +birds before the young are able to +care for themselves. There is abundant +evidence that the breeding time is the favorite +time for hunting among plume +hunters, because then the old birds are +more easy to kill, and because then the +plumage is the most perfect, for then the +wedding garments are put on.</p> + +<p>It should not be an impossible task to +stop this whole cruel business. But laws +will not do it without a wholesome public +sentiment behind it. Women are notably +foremost in all good works, and many +of them are doing nobly in this work, but +it is painfully evident that many are not. +Let us make "a long pull and a strong +pull and a pull all together," and then we +shall drag this growing evil back and +down forever.</p> + +<p class="ar">Lynds Jones.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_FALL_MIGRATIONS" id="THE_FALL_MIGRATIONS"></a>THE FALL MIGRATIONS.</h2> + + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">A rush of wings through the darkening night,</div> + <div class="verse">A sweep through the air in the distant height.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Far off we hear them, cry answering cry:</div> + <div class="verse">'Tis the voice of the birds as they southward fly.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">From sea to sea, as if marking the time,</div> + <div class="verse">Comes the beat of wings from the long, dark line.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">O strong, steady wing, with your rhythmic beat,</div> + <div class="verse">Flying from cold to the summertime heat;</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">O, keen, glancing eye, that can see so far,</div> + <div class="verse">Do you guide your flight by the northern star?</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">The birds from the North are crossing the moon,</div> + <div class="verse">And the southland knows they are coming soon.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">With gladness and freedom and music gone,</div> + <div class="verse">Another migration is passing on.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">No long, dark lines o'er the face of the moon;</div> + <div class="verse">No dip of wings in the southern lagoon.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">No sweet, low titter, no welcoming song;</div> + <div class="verse">These are birds of silence that sweep along.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Lifeless and stiff, with the death mark on it,</div> + <div class="verse">This "Fall Migration" on hat and bonnet.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">And the crowd goes by, with so few to care</div> + <div class="verse">For this march of death of the "fowls of the air."</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Mary Drummond, in the Chicago Times-Herald.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_WAYS_OF_SOME_BANTAMS" id="THE_WAYS_OF_SOME_BANTAMS"></a> + THE WAYS OF SOME BANTAMS.</h2> + +<p>Last summer, when I was out in the +country, I made the acquaintance of a +kind-hearted little bantam rooster, who +was as funny as he was kind-hearted.</p> + +<p>An old speckled hen, who looked as if +she might be a good mother, but wasn't, +had brought up a family of chickens to +that stage where their legs had grown +long and their down all turned to pin-feathers.</p> + +<p>Very ugly they were; there was no +doubt of it. Perhaps this queer mother +thought so. At any rate, she turned the +poor things adrift and pecked them cruelly +whenever they came near her.</p> + +<p>Little "Banty" saw this unkind behavior. +He was small, but his heart was +big, and he set Madam Speckle an example +which ought to have made her hide +her head in the darkest corner of the hen-house +for shame.</p> + +<p>He adopted those chickens!</p> + +<p>Each one of them was about half the +size of "Banty," and to see that loving +little father-bird standing on tiptoe with +his wings spread, trying in vain to cover +all eight of his adopted children, was a +pathetic as well as a ludicrous sight.</p> + +<p>They loved him and believed in him +fully. They followed him all day long, +and seemed to see nothing amusing when +he choked down a crow to cluck over the +food he found for them, and at night they +quarreled over the privilege of being +nearest to him.</p> + +<p>I think bantams perhaps are more interesting +than other fowls. When I was +a little girl father brought three of them +home. Dandy and his two little wives +were all pure white and very small.</p> + +<p>We had other fowls, the aristocratic +Spanish kind, each as large as two or +three of Dandy, and the Spanish rooster +hinted very strongly that Dandy's presence +in that barnyard could be dispensed +with. But Dandy was a brave little fighter, +and he soon settled it once for all +with Grandee as to what the rights of the +former and his family were.</p> + +<p>In a month or so one of the little hens +was missing. After a long time we found +her, and in such a queer, cozy place! Upon +the foundations of the old red farmhouse +where we lived, rested great +squared beams. An end of one of these +beams had decayed, out of sight, under +the clapboards on the south side of the +house, until there was a large, soft-lined +hollow. Here the little hen had stolen +her nest, and when we found her she was +just ready to lead off twenty-one tiny +white fluff-balls of chickens, every egg +having hatched.</p> + +<p>Dandy's bravery saved his little life +one day, and made him forever famous +in the annals of our pets. On this most +eventful day of his life, a shadow flitted +over the barnyard, and a wail went up +from us children as a chicken-hawk +swooped down upon our beloved Dandy +and carried him off before our indignant +and tearful eyes.</p> + +<p>Up they went! But in a moment or +two we saw that the thief was having +trouble, as somehow Dandy had managed +to turn in those wicked talons, and the +little fellow was using his sharp beak and +spurs with all his might.</p> + +<p>The battle was brief, and then Dandy +dropped at our feet. He was bleeding +and had lost the sight of one of his eyes, +but otherwise he was little hurt. All the +rest of his days Dandy carried himself +proudly, as one who has been tried as a +hero and not found wanting.</p> + +<p class="ar">May H. Prentice.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="BUFFLE-HEAD."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_020.jpg" id="i_020.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_020.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">BUFFLE-HEAD.<br /> + (Charitonetta albeola.)<br /> + Nearly ½ Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_BUFFLE-HEAD" id="THE_BUFFLE-HEAD"></a>THE BUFFLE-HEAD.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Charitonetta albeola.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>This small and wonderfully beautiful +duck is a native of North America, wintering +in the latitude of Cuba and Mexico +and breeding from Maine to Montana +and northward. It is said that a favorite +place for its nesting is along the banks of +the Yukon river, and other streams of +the boreal regions, yet it is reported that +the young have been captured in the Adirondack +mountains. Though classed with +the "sea ducks" (Fuligulinae) it is one of +the most common of our fresh-water +forms, and, like many other animals, as +well as vegetable forms, of wide distribution, +it is the recipient of numerous popular +names, nearly all of them being more +or less suggestive of its characteristics or +habits. In the North it is frequently +called the Butter-ball, the Butter-box, the +Butter duck, the Spirit duck and the Dipper. +In the South some of the same +names are heard, but perhaps more often +the Marionette, the Scotch dipper, or +duck, the Scotch teal and the Wool-head. +However, no more appropriate name +could be selected than that of Buffle-head, +having reference to the showy, ruffled +or puffed plumage of the head. The +technical name, albeola, meaning whitish, +was given this species by Linnaeus +in 1758, on account of the pure white on +the side of the head.</p> + +<p>The adult males vary but little. The +plumage of the head is puffy and, with +that of the upper half of the neck, is a +"rich silky, metallic green, violet purple +and greenish bronze, the last prevailing +on the lower part of the neck, the green +on the anterior part of the head, the purple +on the cheeks and crown." A beautiful +pure white patch extends from the +eyes, meeting on the top of the head. The +lower portion of the neck and nearly all +the feathers of the under side of the body, +as well as the wing coverts, are also +showy white. The lining of the wings is +dark, and the upper side of the body is +black.</p> + +<p>The head of the female is less puffy +and of a brownish or dark gray color. +The white head patch is not so prominent +or pure and the plumage of the under +side of the body is more or less tinged +with gray. In both sexes the iris is dark +brown, the bill bluish or lead color, and +the legs and feet pinkish.</p> + +<p>There are few birds that are more expert +in diving or swimming, while on land, +owing to their larger feet and shorter +legs, they are more awkward and waddle +more than many of the ordinary ducks. +Their graceful attitude while floating on +the water, moving apparently without any +motion of the body and scarcely causing +a ripple on even a placid surface, has +given them the name Spirit duck.</p> + +<p>The Buffle-head, like nearly all the +sea ducks, feeds on mollusks and other +animal-forms found in the water. As a +result, their flesh is usually coarse and +quite too rank for use as a food. The +canvas-back is a notable exception, for +during the winter months it feeds on the +wild celery (Vallisneria) of the Middle +Atlantic coast, and thus its flesh receives +the flavor so appreciated by those who +relish game food.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="AN_HOUR_WITH_AN_ANT" id="AN_HOUR_WITH_AN_ANT"></a>AN HOUR WITH AN ANT.</h2> + +<p>If you want to know how to accomplish +a hard task, come with me and +watch a little ant for an hour.</p> + +<p>She was a small, black ant, and, seeing +a brown worm eight times as large as herself, +she was seized with the ambition to +take it home in triumph.</p> + +<p>Now will you tell me how she knew +that she could have no power over the +worm while he was on his ten feet, that +stuck to the sidewalk like glue? Before +she attempted anything, she fastened her +mandibles into his side and turned him +over on his back just as you see Bridget +turn the mattress. Then running to his +head she again fastened her mandibles +and dragged him for a couple of inches. +While pausing to get her breath, the +worm took the opportunity to get on his +feet once more. The ant did not seem to +notice the change in position till she tried +again to drag the body. As soon as she +felt it sticking, around she ran to the +side, over went the worm in a trice, and +once more the two started on their journey. +Now they were close to a crack in +the broad sidewalk, and I, thinking to +help the little worker, in whom by this +time I was quite interested, lifted the +worm across the crack.</p> + +<p>Did you ever try to help some one and +find too late you had done exactly the +wrong thing? Then you know how I felt +when that little ant began rushing around +as if she were crazy, and when she got +hold of the worm again, began to drag it +back across the very crack I had lifted it +over. Can you guess why? She was +taking a bee-line to her house, and I had +changed the direction. But how was she +to get that big body across a crack that +could swallow them both? That was +what I waited anxiously to see. Soon the +worm felt himself going down, down into +a dark abyss, and of course caught hold +of the side to save himself, and when he +once felt he had a hold on life how he did +hold on! The ant was not to be daunted; +balancing herself on the edge, and holding +on by her feet, she reached down her +mandibles and dragged him by main +force straight up the perpendicular wall +to the top; nor did she stop till he was +carried far enough from the edge not to +get down again.</p> + +<p>In this way three cracks were safely +crossed, and it was plain to see the worm +was losing heart, although every time the +ant paused for breath he would get over +on his feet and have to be tossed back +again.</p> + +<p>And now a new difficulty arose. The +worm had been dragged about eighteen +inches over the boards. Fourteen inches +more would bring them to the ant's +house, or, rather, hill. But the way was +now off from the sidewalk, and no sooner +did the worm feel the stubble under +him than he gathered all his strength, +turned over on his feet, and held on to +every spear of grass for dear life.</p> + +<p>Indeed, it was his last chance, and I +felt tempted to snatch him from the certain +death awaiting him, but curiosity to +see how this new obstacle would be overcome +induced me to wait. The ant now +felt justified in calling for assistance, and +soon a dozen ants had come to help. Only +five could work to advantage, so the rest, +for ants never like to do the "heavy looking +on," left to find other employment.</p> + +<p>The first thing to be done was to get +the worm on his back, and this proved no +easy task. He could fasten his feet just +as fast as the ants could unfasten them. +At last two ants went to one end and two +to the other. Each one of the four seized +a foot in her strong mandibles and held +it out as far as possible, while the fifth +one turned the captive. It was the funniest +sight! It was easy now to drag +him two or three inches, but breath had +to be taken, and again the worm fastened. +In vain they tugged and pulled. He had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +evidently learned their tactics and knew +how to defend himself. Suddenly his +body moved along an inch and a half, as +if by magic. Was it magic? Not at all. +One little ant had run up on an overhanging +blade of grass, and, reaching down, +holding on by the wonderful feet spoken +of before, and grabbed the poor creature +in the middle, raised it right up from the +ground, and keeping hold, ran along +overhead till the end of the spear of grass +was reached.</p> + +<p>This was the last struggle of any importance. +The worm gave up discouraged; +it was only now a question of time +till they had dragged him through the +stubble up to the door of the house in the +hill, and I saw only a faint quiver as of +dread as his body passed through the +mysterious opening. I could not help +wondering if the ant who started the +capture received all the praise she deserved, +or if the other four took the glory +to themselves.</p> + +<p>At any rate, no one could take away +her own satisfaction in overcoming and +winning in the struggle.</p> + +<p class="ar">Harriet Woodbridge.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="SONG" id="SONG"></a>SONG.</h2> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Day is dying! Float, O song,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Down the westward river,</div> + <div class="verse">Requiem chanting to the Day—</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Day, the mighty Giver.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Pierced by shafts of Time he bleeds,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Melted rubies sending</div> + <div class="verse">Through the river and the sky,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Earth and heaven blending;</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">All the long-drawn earthly banks</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Up to cloud-land lifting:</div> + <div class="verse">Slow between them drifts the swan,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">'Twixt two heavens drifting.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Wings half open, like a flow'r,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Inly deeper flushing,</div> + <div class="verse">Neck and breast as Virgin's pure—</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Virgin proudly blushing.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Day is dying! Float, O swan,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Down the ruby river;</div> + <div class="verse">Follow, song, in requiem</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">To the mighty Giver.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—George Eliot, in the Spanish Gypsy.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_AMERICAN_EARED_GREBE" id="THE_AMERICAN_EARED_GREBE"></a> + THE AMERICAN EARED GREBE.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Colymbus nigricollis californicus.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>The American Eared Grebe belongs to +the order of Diving Birds (Podicipedes) +and the family of Grebes (Podicipidae). +The order also includes the loons and +auks, having in all about thirty-six species +that frequent North America. Closely +related to the loons, the Grebes differ +from them in having the head incompletely +feathered near the nostrils, which +are not lobed. The feet also are not completely +webbed, as are those of the loons.</p> + +<p>Owing to the inadequately developed +wings, the Grebes are poorly provided +with means for protracted flight. Locomotion +on land is equally difficult, due to +their short legs and the fact that they +are inserted far back on the body, necessitating +a partially erect position in walking. +However, they are expert swimmers +and divers and will, when alarmed, +sink quietly back into the water, swimming +long distances with only the bill +above the surface of the water. The popular +name "Hell-diver," by which these +birds are frequently known, has reference +to the rapidity with which they dive.</p> + +<p>The apparent lack of a tail and the +ruffs, frequently composed of variously +colored feathers, give the grebes a peculiarly +characteristic appearance. The +plumage of the breeding season differs +greatly from that of the adult in winter +and that of the young.</p> + +<p>The grebes are abundant throughout +the world, seemingly preferring lakes +and rivers as a foraging ground rather +than the seacoast.</p> + +<p>The American Eared Grebe has an extensive +range, including that part of +North America west of the Mississippi +Valley and from the Great Slave Lake +south to Guatemala. It breeds in nearly +all parts of this territory.</p> + +<p>A few years since Professor Henshaw +published in the American Naturalist +some very interesting facts concerning +the nesting habits of this bird, and they +especially well illustrate some of its +characteristics. He says, "In a series of +alkali lakes, about thirty miles northward +of Fort Garland, Southern Colorado, I +found this species common and breeding. +A colony of perhaps a dozen pairs +had established themselves in a small +pond four or five acres in extent. In the +middle of this, in a bed of reeds, were +found upwards of a dozen nests. These +in each case merely consisted of a slightly +hollowed pile of decaying weeds and +rushes, four or five inches in diameter, +and scarcely raised above the surface of +the water upon which they floated. In a +number of instances they were but a few +feet distant from the nests of the coot +(Fulica Americana) which abounded. +Every Grebe's nest discovered contained +three eggs, which in most instances were +fresh, but in some nests were considerably +advanced. These vary but little in +shape, are considerably elongated, one +end being slightly more pointed than the +other. The color is a faint yellowish or +bluish white, usually much stained from +contact with the nest. The texture is generally +quite smooth, in some instances +roughened by a chalky deposit. The eggs +were wholly concealed from view by a +pile of weeds and other vegetable material +laid across. That they were thus +carefully covered merely for concealment +I cannot think, since, in the isolated position +in which the nests are usually found, +the bird has no enemy against which such +precaution would avail. On first approaching +the locality, the Grebes all congregated +at the further end of the pond, +and shortly betook themselves through +an opening to the neighboring slough; +nor, so far as I could ascertain, did they +again approach the nests during my stay +of three days. Is it not, then, possible +that they are more or less dependent for +the hatching of their eggs upon artificial +heat induced by the decaying vegetable +substances of which the nests are +wholly composed?"</p> + +<p>The food of the Grebe consists of fish +to a great extent, which are dexterously +caught while swimming under water. +They also feed upon the insects floating +upon the surface, and will, when other +food is lacking, feed upon mollusks.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="AMERICAN EARED GREBE."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_033.jpg" id="i_033.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_033.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">AMERICAN EARED GREBE.<br /> + (Colymbus nigricollis californicus.)<br /> + ½ Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_GEOGRAPHICAL_DISTRIBUTION_OF_FISHES" + id="THE_GEOGRAPHICAL_DISTRIBUTION_OF_FISHES"></a>THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES.</h2> + +<p>There are known at the present about +twenty thousand species of fishes, which +are distributed throughout the creeks, +rivers, lakes, seas and oceans of the +world. A few species of the open sea are +cosmopolitan; the others are more or +less restricted in their range. Northern +Asia, Europe and North America have +in common a few species of fresh water +fishes. There are many others of close +relationship, which indicates a somewhat +common origin of the fish faunas. The +same is largely true of the salt water +shore fishes, which live well to the north. +The fresh water fishes of South America, +Africa and Australia are all different from +each other, none being even closely related +as are those we find in the countries +of the northern hemisphere.</p> + +<p>The fishes of our Atlantic coast are +different from those of the Pacific, very +few species being common to both coasts. +The fishes of the Ohio river are entirely +different from those of the Columbia, not +a single species being common to both +streams. The fishes of the Missouri river +are very different from the Ohio, many +of the larger species, as catfishes, buffalo +fishes, black basses, and some of the +sun fishes are common to both rivers. +The difference between the fishes of these +two rivers is chiefly in the smaller kinds, +which do not migrate to any great extent, +and is greater as you go toward their +sources, or confine yourself to their +smaller tributaries.</p> + +<p>There are many reasons why the fishes +of one region are not the same as those +we find in another. Some of these reasons +we may learn by making a careful +study of the fishes of each region, and +their environment. In addition we must +learn all we can about the past history of +the country, finding which streams were +formed first, and how they became inhabited +from the old ancient fish faunas +of our earlier geological periods. If you +visit streams in the Alleghanies, the +Ozarks and the Black Hills you will find +them much alike. All have clear, cool +water, flowing over sand or gravel. The +black bass, speckled trout, channel cat, +and the eastern pickerel will live quite as +well in streams of each locality. If you +spend a day at each place collecting +fishes all your catch will not be the same +species. In the Alleghany region you +will obtain about forty species, and a like +number in the Ozarks. Of these quite +one-fourth, or one-fifth, will be the same +species, and the others closely related. A +large portion will consist of sunfishes and +very small, perch-like fishes, which are +called darters. These are spiny-rayed +fishes; that is, nearly all of the fins are +made partly of strong, sharp spines, such +as you find on the back of sunfishes, +black bass and the like. In the streams +of the Black Hills you will not find more +than fifteen species, and not more than +one or two, if any, will be the same as in +either of the other two catches. There +are none of the spiny-rayed fishes in the +Black Hills, and no trout, though the +streams seem in every way well suited for +them. The fishes of the Black Hills consist +of two catfishes, four suckers, eight +minnows, and one member of the cod +family. Why are there no spiny-rayed +fishes? If you examine a map you will +find that the Black Hills is an isolated region, +about seventy-five by one hundred +miles in extent. It is covered with heavy +pine forests and drained by a dozen or +more good-sized creeks, which find, +through the north and south forks of the +Cheyenne, an outlet into the Missouri +river. Surrounding the Black Hills is a +broad plain one hundred or two hundred +miles in width. It has no forests, and +only a scant vegetation. Its streams are +alkali and contain much solid matter in +suspension. None of these streams flow +over rocky or gravelly beds. Like all the +streams of the great plains they are overloaded +with sediment. All the streams +can do with this sediment is to deposit it +in places during falling or low water, and +in time of freshets, pick it up, shift it +about and redeposit it farther down the +stream. Such streams are like the Platte, +narrow and deep in a few places, but +mostly wide and shallow, with a bottom +of quicksand. The streams of the plains +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +have in them but few species of fishes; especially +is this true of the upper Missouri, +and these are such species as we find in +the Black Hills. It is thus evident that +the fishes of this region migrated there, +and only such fishes as were able or willing +to live in the muddy, alkaline streams +of the great plains could have ever +reached the Black Hills. The minnows +and suckers are ever preyed upon by sunfishes, +bass and the like, and to escape +them evidently sought retreat in the alkaline +water, which was too much disliked +by their enemies for them to follow. +Once there and accustomed to such water +they would migrate farther up stream until +they reached the clear, cool streams of +the Black Hills. If we compare the fishes +of two rivers whose mouths are near each +other, as the Ohio and the Missouri, those +fishes found near the mouths will be the +same species and the two river faunas +will differ most as you go toward their +sources. On the other hand, if you select +two rivers whose sources are near each +other, as the James and tributaries of the +Ohio, then the fish faunas will differ most +as you go towards their mouths. The +same is true of the Missouri and the Columbia. +In such cases it often happens +that during high water some fishes are +able to pass from the head waters of one +river basin to the other, just as we see +the trout from the Columbia at the present +time colonizing the upper Yellowstone +through the Two Ocean Pass. +Near the head waters of many mountain +streams there is usually a pass, which +contains a strip of meadow land where +the small streams from mountains unite, +forming the sources of two great rivers +flowing in opposite directions. This is +the case both at the Two Ocean Pass, +the source of the Missouri and the Columbia, +and at the point where the Canadian +Pacific Railroad crosses the divide, +forming the source of the Frazier and +Saskatchewan rivers.</p> + +<p>Many mountain streams whose sources +are at present in no way connected may +have been so at no very remote period. +All of our streams which have their +sources within the glaciated area were no +doubt connected as the ice receded. The +drainage of Lake Champlain and the +lakes in central New York was southward +at the close of the glacial epoch. It +is said that in times of high water one +may pass in a skiff from the head waters +of the Mississippi to the Red River of the +North. With such facts before us we can +easily understand why the fishes of two +rivers whose sources are near each other +should be most nearly alike nearest the +divide. If the two rivers were formed +about the same time, as no doubt were +the James and the Ohio, they would naturally +have several species in common. +In other words, the two fish faunas will +resemble each other throughout their +whole extent. In the case of the Missouri +and the Columbia, the former is +much the older stream, and while their +sources have fishes common to both +streams, in the lower parts of the rivers +the fish faunas are entirely different. The +upper Missouri river and its tributaries +are for the most part inhabited by Rocky +Mountain fishes, practically the same +fauna as we find in the Columbia, but few +species characteristic of the Mississippi +valley have been able to even cross the +great plains and none have ever passed +the Rocky Mountain divide.</p> + +<p>In the study of the geographical distribution +of our fresh water fishes, we are +able to make a few generalizations as follows: +Two rivers in the same latitude, +and belonging to the same great drainage +basin, and draining similar areas, will +have similar fish faunas. Thus we find a +great similarity in the fishes of the Washita +and the Tennessee rivers, a much +greater similarity than we do in the fishes +of the Washita and the Cedar rivers. If +the stream is a large one, the fishes near +its source will be much unlike those near +its mouth. The fishes of Minnesota differ +greatly from those of Louisiana, +though the drainage of these two States +is in the Mississippi river basin. Limestone +streams have in them more species +of fishes than do sandstone. All things +being equal, the larger of two or more +streams will contain the most species of +fishes. There are few, if any, rivers as +rich in species as the Mississippi river +and its tributaries. It drains one slope +of each of our two great mountain systems, +besides an immense area of wood-land +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +and prairie, and numerous swamps +and marshes. Its upper course and many +of its upper tributaries lie in the region +once covered by glaciers, though now +traversed by great moraines. Its fishes are +as diversified as the area it drains. In its +mountain streams we find such fishes as +the trout, darters, minnows and suckers. +In the upland streams are darters, shiners, +suckers, sunfishes and small-mouthed +black bass. In the channels of the +larger tributaries are found the large +suckers, buffalo fishes, gar pike, channel +catfish, drum, pike and pickerel. The +lowland streams contain the dogfish, pirate +perch, some sunfishes, the large-mouthed +black bass, some suckers, +catfishes and other species. Minnows, +darters, suckers and sunfishes +are found in lowland, upland and +mountain streams, though not the same +species in each. These fishes belong to +families which are made up of many species, +some being strictly upland, +others strictly lowland, each having a +limited range. In the same way we have +fresh water fishes and salt water fishes; +some fishes, as the trout and salmon and +eel, live in both salt and fresh water. +Many other fishes, as the killifishes, +thrive best in brackish water. Each species +of fishes is best fitted for a particular +region into which it has been forced to +live, either to escape its enemies or to be +able to get a living easiest. In its migrations +it has moved along lines of least resistance, +and has colonized those streams +where Mother Nature has been able to +do the most for it. The darters are small, +perch-like fishes, which seldom exceed a +length of six inches, the average being +about three. All are active and swift +swimmers and well suited for a life +among the rocks and swift water of our +smaller streams. All countries have +small, swift, rocky streams, but few have +darters. In their stead we find loaches, +gobies, characins, sculpins, and the like. +These fishes have "become dwarfed and +concentrated, taking the place in their +respective habitats which the darters occupy +in the waters of the Mississippi valley. +By the same process of 'analogous +variation' the cichlids of South America +parallel the sunfishes of the United +States, although in structure and in origin +the two groups are diverse."</p> + +<p>Dr. Jordan tells us that the trout of the +Pacific coast came to America from +Asia, and gradually spread eastward and +southward until now it is found in all the +streams of the Rocky Mountains, the +Sierra Nevada, the Cascades and the +Coast range. It is but a short distance +from Kamchatka to Alaska, and this distance +is traveled by trout to this day; +once over, a fish able to spend much of its +time in salt water could easily colonize +all our coast streams. Whether or not all +of our Pacific trout are descendants of +one species, the cut-throat trout, is more +or less uncertain, though it is quite certain +that all have descended from not +more than two or three species. In many +places they have been able to pass from +the head waters of one river to that of +another, just as they now pass from the +head waters of the Columbia to the Missouri +by the way of Two Ocean Pass. +The ancient lakes, Lahontan and Bonneville, +no doubt assisted them in their migrations. +Since these have disappeared +each colony has had to remain more or +less isolated. In time they have become +somewhat changed, to better adapt themselves +to their new environment. These +changes have developed certain peculiar +characters, by means of which we +can distinguish one kind of trout from +another, just as the farmer distinguishes +his Berkshire from his Poland China. +Spread, as the trout are, over such a large +area, in such an immense variety of +streams and lakes, and with a vertical +range of over one thousand feet, we +would certainly expect as large a number +of species and varieties of trout to be developed +as we find at present in the +streams of our west coast.</p> + +<p>Fishes are found in the deepest parts +of the ocean. Some of these are peculiar +to the deep waters, none of the shore +fishes resembling them. On the other +hand, many deep sea fishes belong to +families well represented in the shallow +water. The flounders are found in water +at all depths, and the same is true of the +bat fishes, rock fishes and other shore +fishes. It is easy to understand how +these fishes have found their way to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +deep water. It was either to escape their +enemies or to extend their range for +some reason; as Mr. Garman puts it, +"They have slid down," as it were to the +bottom of the ocean.</p> + +<p>In general, animals migrating will always +move along lines of least resistance. +Some deep-sea fishes have a considerable +vertical range. It is thought that some +move into shallower water to deposit +their eggs or place their young in warmer +water, and where the peculiar kind of +food they need early in life is the most +abundant. To study deep sea fishes is +difficult, and so little has been done that +we not only know them imperfectly but +also know very little concerning their life +histories.</p> + +<p>In February, March and April of 1891 +the United States Fish Commission +steamer Albatross explored a portion of +the region between the coasts of Mexico +and Central America and the Galapagos +Archipelago. Besides obtaining a large +number of shore fishes, about nine hundred +specimens of fishes were secured, +ranging from a depth of one hundred to +twenty-two hundred and twenty-three +fathoms. This collection was carefully +studied by Professor Garman, of Harvard. +He found the collection to contain +one hundred and eighty species, eighty-five +per cent. of which were new to +science. The bottoms of the oceans are +far from level, and each deep basin has +its own peculiar fauna. The shallower +parts of the sea prevent migration of the +deep water forms and no doubt living as +they do in eternal darkness and in a temperature +near the freezing point, there is +little to induce them to much activity. +The fact that they are easily captured in +nets of comparatively small size would +indicate that they move about slowly.</p> + +<p>Dr. Jenkins, who has lately studied the +fishes of the Sandwich Islands, informs +me that less than five per cent. are found +on our American coast, while a large per +cent. is found all the way to the Red sea. +In other words, the fishes of the Sandwich +Islands are East Indian rather than +American. This is no doubt caused from +the fact that the deep water between the +islands of the American coast forms a +barrier which has always prevented the +two fish faunas from mingling with each +other. Between Africa and the Sandwich +Islands this has not been the case. +A recent study of the fishes of the Galapagos +Archipelago shows its fauna to be +American, though in what respect its +fishes differ from those of our west coast +they resemble all the more the fishes of +the Sandwich Islands. Two fish faunas +will usually differ from each other if separated +by an impassable barrier; especially +is this true if the barrier be older +than the two faunas.</p> + +<p>Any barrier which prevents or hinders +fishes in their movements from one body +of water to another will separate two +more or less well-marked fish faunas. +These barriers may be mountains, or +shallow water, as in the case of deep sea +fishes; deep water, as in case of shore +fishes; muddy or alkaline water, or water +of different temperature. Temperature +no doubt has far more influence in governing +the movement of fishes than is +generally believed. It plays an important +part in guiding salmon up stream to +their spawning beds. It explains why +they reach the head waters of some +streams and spawn earlier than in similar +streams not far distant, but of different +temperature. If you would know to what +extent fishes of one region differ from +those of another, study well the barriers +between the two regions, learn to what +extent and how long they have existed, +consider the age geologically of the two +regions, and how fishes may have migrated +to one or the other, and in a general +way you will have the key to the situation, +which a careful study of the fishes +is quite sure to verify.</p> + +<p class="ar">Seth E. Meek.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="LOUISIANA TANAGER."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_045.jpg" id="i_045.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">LOUISIANA TANAGER.<br /> + (Piranga ludoviciana.)<br /> + Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> + </tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_LOUISIANA_TANAGER" id="THE_LOUISIANA_TANAGER"></a>THE LOUISIANA TANAGER.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Piranga ludoviciana.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>The family of Tanagers is remarkable +for the number of species, the gaudy coloring +of many and the interesting fact +that they are confined to the Americas +and the adjacent islands. Dr. Ridgway +says, "that the five families of Neotropical +birds, which are represented by the +greatest number of species, are absolutely +peculiar to America, these families being +the Tanagers, Tyrant Flycatchers, +Wood-hewers, Ant Thrushes and Humming-birds. +None of these families have +even true representatives in any part of +the Old World."</p> + +<p>The family of Tanagers includes approximately +three hundred and eighty +species, of which not more than ten per +cent. have a range extending as far north +as Southern Mexico, and only four, or at +the most five, species are known to the +United States. Of these only two, the +Scarlet Tanager and the Summer Red-bird, +are generally known as far north as +Canada.</p> + +<p>The Tanagers make their home in the +trees, and, being of a retiring disposition, +are more numerous within the bounds of +the forest. During the breeding season +they retire still further into the interior. +No wonder that they are more numerous +in tropical regions, where the luxuriant +foliage of the forests furnishes them with +a safe retreat, and where there is an abundance +of food suited to their taste. This +tendency to avoid the society of man has +made the study of their habits much more +difficult, and but little has been recorded +except that which pertains to the more +northern forms.</p> + +<p>The food is chiefly insects, especially in +the larval form, and berries. To some +extent they also feed upon the buds of +flowers. Mr. Chapman tells us that "the +tropical species are of a roving disposition, +and wander through the forests in +search of certain trees bearing ripe fruit, +near which they may always be found in +numbers." Their nests are shallow and +the eggs, usually three to five in number, +are greenish-blue in color, speckled with +brown and purple.</p> + +<p>The Louisiana Tanager is a Western +species, ranging from British Columbia +on the north to Guatemala on the south, +and from the Missouri river to the Pacific +coast. Our illustration well represents +the male. The female, like its sister +tanagers, is plainly colored, but still beautiful. +It is olive green, with the underside +yellowish. The feathers of the wings +and tail are brown, edged with olive. It +resembles the female Scarlet Tanager. +The young are at first like the female. +Then appears the black of the back, +mixed with some olive and a slight tinge +of red on the head.</p> + +<p>It would seem that its name is a misnomer, +as it is not found in the State of +Louisiana.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="CHATTER_OF_A_CHAT" id="CHATTER_OF_A_CHAT"></a>CHATTER OF A CHAT.</h2> + +<p>I'm the "Chat." You've heard me if +you haven't seen me. But there isn't a +better lookin' bird in our wood, either. +My olive-green coat is a beauty. My yellow +satin vest would dazzle your eyes. +And my white china spectacles are heirlooms +in our family. My wife dresses +just as handsome as I do. I'm a prey to +high spirits. Some folk call me a "wag." +Don't know what that is, but I don't see +the use in bein' doleful. Why, when I +get back from Mexico, I feel obliged to +holler. So I just holler. The way old +Mother Earth rigs up in the Spring +makes me full of life. I get down and +cool my legs in the deep grass. It brings +my appetite back a-whizzin'. My! If I +don't eat a thousand bugs a day. "Juicy" +don't describe 'em. Then I climb a tree-top +and holler. If I eat a thousand bugs +seems like I have to give two thousand +hollers. I holler straight through a +moonlight night. You see, I hate to let +old Whippoorwill think he's the only bird +alive. Mornin' after folks stop talkin' +'bout how bad they slept and say, +"What's that?" somebody says, "That's +the Chat." Then they always laugh. And +I laugh, too—a very Falstaffian laugh, as +if I'se shakin' great fat sides out of their +accordion plaits. Then I give a beautiful +whistle. And they say, "Now, what's +that?" The fellow I know says, "That's +the Chat." Then I give a surprised whistle, +just as if you stepped on a tack or +took a drink of red-hot coffee. And they +say, "And what's that?" And the wise +man says, "That's the Chat again." +Well, says the other fellow, "I'll never +know that bird." But the bad sleeper +says, "Well, you would if he kept you +awake all last night as he did me. He +never knows when to stop." But even +that fellow will never know when I've +said my last word!</p> + +<p>These rag folks are awful stupids, anyhow. +I call 'em "blunderers." Do more +harm than good wherever they're at. My +wife knits our house among thorns just +to plague 'em. They hate to get their +rags torn. Then they'd better keep +scarce of our door. If it ain't in blackberry +jungles it's in catbrier tangles. I +could yarn from sun-up to sundown +'bout how rag folks come blunderin' +round interferin'. Barrin' o cat's, they've +got the most meddlesome forefeet I ever +saw. But it ain't often they find us. Cause +why? We keep still. Our next-door +neighbor's Dame Indigo. Can't a body +go by she don't pop up scoldin' like a +house afire. Then they blunder round +till they find her nest-eggs, too! Lots of +other feather-heads just like her! There's +Topknot Cardnal makes such a fuss anybody'd +know he's got something to hide. +Sure enough, he's had such lots of kin +behind the bars it makes him scary. But +I'd show more pluck, anyhow.</p> + +<p>Once this summer a blunderer smarter'n +common came along by us. We had +a nice place, too, in a dreadful blackberry +tangle. A small sassafras threw a +nice shadow over it when the sun got +hot. Well, I shut up quick, I tell you. +Was just tellin' Mrs. Chat a few things +while she kep' an eye on our four eggs +like. We kep' still as mice. But didn't +that blunderin' rags march right up to +our door and push and scratch till she +saw what we had? Had a little rag blunderer +with her. An' she held her up to +look in, too. Every single feather we had +stood on end! It was good riddance +when they went along. Couldn't believe +my specs when I saw they had left our +eggs alone. Seven suns after, big rags +came back. We're in a peck o' trouble. +Our four bairns just out the shell. We +both had to scratch round with all our +toes to feed and keep 'em breathin'. Been +rainin' for a solid week. Dame Chat said +she just knew they'd get a chill and die. +But the blunderin' party didn't stay long.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p> + +<p>Well, sir, we hadn't got rid of that +blunderer yet. The nex' time she brought +another, bigger one, along. Both crowded +up and looked in our door. You +never saw such beauties as our bairns +that day. Just gettin' so plump and +featherin' right along. But it meant a +sight o' work for us. They just sat and +took in every mouthful we could rake and +scrape. They kep' us busy. Well, when +these blunderin' rags shook the house the +bairns all up and spread their jaws wide +open. Rags thought it was awful cute, +but I'm thankful they didn't offer to feed +'em anything. Did bad enough, anyhow. +Big one said, "Why don't you take their +picture?" First rags said she couldn't. +Second rags said she'd try, anyhow. With +that, first rags began to snap off our best +defenses—without so much as by your +leave. They scratched her good, anyhow; +for she said so. Well, she put some +kind of square black gun right up to our +door. Dame Chat went into hysterics +and those little Chats just boiled over +like a teakettle and went out the nest in +four different directions! The two blunderers +went off in a hurry, both talkin' at +once and one suckin' her paw. Thankful +to say ain't ever seen 'em since. But +Dame Chat's a nervous wreck from the +fright they gave her; and I'm worked to +skin and bone takin' care of the little +Chats. I just wish all the town's fenced +in so's blunderers couldn't get loose to +meddle round in their bunglin', elephant, +rhinoceros way!</p> + +<p class="ar">Elizabeth Nunemacher.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">He comes—he comes—the Frost Spirit comes! You may trace his footsteps now</div> + <div class="verse">On the naked woods and the blasted fields, and the brown hill's withered brow.</div> + </div> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">He has smitten the leaves of the gray old trees where their pleasant green came forth,</div> + <div class="verse">And the winds, which follow wherever he goes, have shaken them down to earth.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—John Greenleaf Whittier.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_LUNA_AND_POLYPHEMUS_MOTHS" id="THE_LUNA_AND_POLYPHEMUS_MOTHS"></a> + THE LUNA AND POLYPHEMUS MOTHS.</h2> + +<p>The two silk-worm moths which we +figure this month both possess a point of +excellence far in advance of any other of +our native silk-worm moths; Luna on account +of its graceful form and delicate +colors, and Polyphemus for the silk of +its cocoons.</p> + +<p>It seems that most persons who speak +of the Luna moth (Tropaea luna) feel +called upon to give a more or less poetic +description of it. This, I hope, has been +rendered unnecessary by the colored +plate, so that it will suffice simply to mention +that the beautiful shade of green is +of very rare occurrence among our larger +moths, and that no other has the long, +graceful "tails" on the hind wings, a +characteristic which adds greatly to the +beauty of this insect.</p> + +<p>This moth does not seem to be very +abundant anywhere, but when once seen +will long be remembered on account of +its great beauty. The green and yellow +colors are evidently very closely related, +because either one may, to a greater or +less degree, replace the other, so that +some of the moths have quite a strong, +yellowish tinge. One of our common +swallow-tail butterflies (Iphiclides ajax) +possesses a very similar green color in its +wings, but does not seem to show this +tendency to replace the green by yellow. +On the wings are four eyespots which are +also found in Polyphemus. These are +remarkable in that they are transparent +in the center. This clear area in Luna is +quite small, while in Polyphemus it is +about as large as the entire eye spot of +Luna. The legs are brown and colored +like the front edge of the fore wings. The +hairs on the body and at the base of the +wing are very long and are white or yellow. +The wing expanse ranges from +three and three-fourths to five and one-half +inches.</p> + +<p>During April or May the mother moth +lays her dark-brown or chocolate-colored +eggs upon hickory, walnut, beech, oak, +and a few others of our forest trees. The +limited number of food plants is doubtless +one reason for the rarity of the +moths, as compared with such a common +and almost omnivorous larva as Cecropia. +A single moth may lay about +one hundred eggs, which are smaller than +those of Polyphemus. These hatch in +about ten or fifteen days, the larva making +its escape by eating a circular hole in +the shell. Occasionally a young larva +may be seen crawling about for a short +time, carrying upon its head or tail the +empty shell.</p> + +<p>The adult larva is about three inches +long, of a delicate pale green, a color very +difficult to preserve in the dead larva. +Those on the plate have lost this delicate +green and have become yellow, but show +the form perfectly. This larva is very +much like that of Polyphemus, but may +be distinguished from it by possessing a +longitudinal pale yellow lateral line, +which is not found in Polyphemus. Since +the cocoon is quite thin and contains but +little silk, it is considered of but little +value. This cocoon is spun among two or +three weaves, and is about two inches +long. Some authors claim that the cocoon +falls to the ground with the autumnal falling +of the leaves; others that it transforms +on the ground among the fallen leaves. +The cocoon is quite similar to that of +Polyphemus, but not so firmly attached +when fixed to a stem. The moths emerge +in April and May, there being only a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +single brood in the north, while there are +two in the south.</p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="LUNA MOTH."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_058.jpg" id="i_058.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">LUNA MOTH.<br /> + (Tropaea luna.)</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Adult Male.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">Pupa.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Adult Female</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30"></td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">POLYPHEMUS MOTH.<br /> + (Telea polyphemus.)</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30"></td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Adult Male.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">Eggs on Maple Leaf.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Adult Female.</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Larva.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">About ½ Life-size.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Cocoon.</td> +</tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>The color of the cocoon seems to be influenced +in some way by the kind of food +eaten by the larva. Cocoons made by +larva which have been fed on hickory +leaves have a darker color. In the true +silk worm moth this same influence has +been noticed; larvae fed upon the vine +producing red cocoons, on lettuce emerald +green cocoons, while those fed upon +white nettle produce yellow, green or violet +cocoons. It is necessary in order to +procure these results, that the larvae be +fed upon the mulberry till about twenty +days before the formation of the cocoon.</p> + +<p>Polyphemus. The life history of this +native silk worm (Telea polyphemus) is +by far the best known, because many +years ago it was very carefully studied +with the hope that it would prove an important +silk insect. This hope unfortunately +has not been realized.</p> + +<p>The moths, as shown by the plate, are +really beautiful; the large eye spots on +the hind wings contributing much towards +this effect. The transparent, window-like +centers in the eye spot are also +of quite rare occurrence among our +moths. These transparent areas do not +possess the very minute scales found on +the other parts of the wing. Almost all +of the wonderful variety of colors found +in the wings of butterflies and moths are +due either to coloring matter in these +scales, or to the breaking up of the white +light by minute lines on these scales, such +as are seen in the play of colors on a +soap-bubble. These fine lines on the +scales are only on the upper side, and are +about one-sixteen-thousandth of an inch +apart.</p> + +<p>The eggs of Polyphemus are very +much flattened, about the size of those of +Cecropia, and are deposited on leaves and +twigs singly or in small groups. These +hatch in about ten days and usually in the +morning. The young larva often devours +the shell which a few moments before afforded +it shelter. This larva feeds upon +oak, hickory, apple, maple, elm and a variety +of other trees, and thus has a larger +range of food plants than the Luna larva. +The rate of growth is prodigious, as has +been shown by Mr. Trovelot. When the +larva hatches it weighs about one-twentieth +of a grain; in ten days it weighs one-half +of a grain, or ten times its original +weight; in twenty days it weighs three +grains, or sixty times its original weight; +when a month old it weighs thirty-one +grains, or six hundred and twenty times +its original weight, and has consumed +about ninety grains of food; after fifty +days it weighs two hundred and seven +grains, or over four thousand times the +original weight. At fifty-six days the +larva has eaten eighty-six thousand times +its original weight in food! It is therefore +not surprising that these larvae can +often be easily detected upon trees by the +large number of leaves which they have +devoured.</p> + +<p>To provide for this great change in +size, the larva moults five times, but the +time between these moults is not always +the same; there is usually about ten days +between the first four moults and about +twenty between the fourth and fifth. The +larva stops eating a day before the moult, +spins a few threads upon the leaf to which +it attaches its hind legs, and waits for the +transformation, which usually takes place +in the afternoon. The larva, when mature +and ready to spin its cocoon, is about +three inches long. It is sometimes influenced +in its color by the food plant; +the normal larva being of a golden green, +although it has been known to show more +yellow coloring when found on red +maple.</p> + +<p>A short time before beginning its +cocoon the larva ceases to eat and selects +a place for its cocoon. These cocoons are +usually found upon the ground among +the leaves, but are frequently attached to +twigs. After about a half day's work the +larva spreads over the inside of the +cocoon a gummy, resinous substance, +which binds together the threads. After +four or five days more of almost continuous +work, another coating is smeared +over the inside, which renders the cocoon +practically air-tight. The silk fibres become +considerably finer as the cocoon +nears completion and the supply of silk +begins to run low. For this reason the +inner layers of the cocoon are only about +half as strong as the outer ones. The +larva, as the supply of silk diminishes in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +the silk glands, becomes perceptibly reduced +in size. It has been estimated that +the larva, in attaching the continuous +thread of its cocoon, makes two hundred +and fifty-four thousand back and forward +movements. The cocoons are very +strong and dense, of a dirty white color +and generally coated with a white powder, +the female being the larger.</p> + +<p>There is but a single brood in the +north, while in the south there are two.</p> + +<p>In order to see if the pupa needed air, +Mr. Trovelot sealed up some cocoons +over winter in shellac, but the moths +emerged in due time after being in an air-tight +space for nine months. He also delayed +the emergence of the moth till +twenty-one months after entering the +cocoon by placing it upon ice.</p> + +<p>The silk in the spinning glands before +it is spun is a clear, transparent fluid. +These glands seem to be of excessive size +when compared with that of the larva, +since, when fully expanded, they reach +the great length of twenty-five inches, or +about eight times the length of the full-grown +larva. These glands are paired, +one being found on each side of the body, +are considerably folded and taper at each +end. The ducts leading from the anterior +end of the glands unite to form a single +duct which opens below the mouth. The +thread is double, being really composed +of two different fibres, one from each +gland, as may be shown by separating +them. The silk in these glands is prepared +and sold as silk "gut" to anglers. +On account of its transparency when in +water, it becomes invisible and thus aids +in deluding the wary fish, who does not +see any connection between the line and +the baited hook. The "gut" is prepared +as follows: Larvae which are ready to +spin their cocoons are cut open and +placed in strong vinegar for eighteen +hours; the glands are then taken out, +stretched and dried in the shade.</p> + +<p>Six or eight days after beginning the +cocoon, the larval skin is moulted and the +real chrysalic or pupal stage begins. This +stage normally lasts till the following +spring or summer. A few days before +the time of emergence a pair of glands +which open into the mouth become very +active and secrete an acidulated fluid +which escapes and wets the fore end of +the cocoon, causing the resinous material +binding together the fibres to become +soft. Even cocoons sealed up in shellac +and starch have been dissolved by this +fluid, and thus the moths have been able +to escape. When the cocoon has become +sufficiently soft, the moth pushes its way +between the fibres, but in doing so often +breaks some of the threads, thus making +the silk of such cocoons useless for commercial +purposes. The moth at the time +of emergence, with its folded and crumpled +wings, is quite a forlorn-looking object. +These wilted wings soon begin to +fill up with fluids from the body, which +is very large at this time. In some cases, +the fluid is driven into the wings with so +much force that they swell up, and if such +a wing is punctured, thus allowing some +of the fluid to escape, the mature wing +will be of a smaller size than one from +which no fluid has been lost. It must be +remembered that it is possible to inflate a +butterfly or moth's wing, because the +wings of insects are not composed of a +single layer, but are sacs of two layers +which are closely applied. It is thus possible +to split the wing into upper and +lower halves, but this can only be done at +the time of emergence, when these two +layers are not so firmly cemented together +as they are in a few hours after emergence.</p> + +<p>The enemies of Polyphemus are numerous. +Birds prey upon the larvae, in +addition to numerous parasitic insects +which are very similar to those which destroy +Cecropia. The cocoon itself is not +a complete protection because rats and +squirrels plunder them. We thus see +that the life of even an insect is full of +dangers, and that it is really a wonder +that so many are able to become mature +and reproduce.</p> + +<p>The silk-worm moths are excellent illustrations +of what is called complete +metamorphosis in insects. An insect like +the grasshopper, when it hatches from +the egg, is very much like the adult insect +in its general form and appearance; +the most evident difference being the lack +of wings. An insect which shows such +slight changes in its growth to maturity +is said to have an incomplete metamorphosis. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +It is incomplete in the sense that +the change is not of a very radical nature. +But in the case of the silk worm moths, +and moths and butterflies in general, the +larva which hatches from the eggs has +not even the most superficial resemblance +to the adult insect, the fully-developed +moth. This necessitates a complete +change or metamorphosis in the form +and structure of the insect before it can +become mature. This great change is accomplished +during the quiet pupal stage +in the cocoon. Because the pupa is apparently +passive when viewed from the +exterior, one must not conclude that it is +so internally; far from it; the digestive +organs of the larva must be completely +made over from those of a chewing leaf +eater to those of a moth which can only +take liquid food.</p> + +<p class="ar">Charles Christopher Adams.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="CASTLES_IN_THE_AIR" id="CASTLES_IN_THE_AIR"></a>CASTLES IN THE AIR.</h2> + +<p>In a little bend of the San Joaquin +River, where the current, attempting +to straighten its course, has left a bank +a few feet wide, there is a small grove +of tall cottonwood trees, perhaps a +dozen in number, whose branches lean +far over the stream and whose tops +reach almost to the level of the bluff +or rather the floor of the valley 250 +feet above, for this swift river has, in +the course of ages, cut thus deep a +channel for itself.</p> + +<p>The place is not easy of access, for +the shore narrows above and below the +bend to a few inches where one with +difficulty keeps from crumbling away +the sand with his feet and falling into +the water, and the cliff is so nearly +perpendicular that in many places it is +inaccessible to a climber, being of soft +sand whose different stratas are clearly +defined where they have been sliced +off by the cutting stream.</p> + +<p>The valley above is a vast grainfield +out almost to the edge of the bluff, and +along the edge and face of the bluff, +wherever root can cling or tendril hold, +grow beautiful wild flowers in the +early spring days—their last refuge +between the cultivation and the deep +sea, or rather, river.</p> + +<p>In the tops of the cottonwoods live +a number of baronial families in castles +huge, gray and ugly, overlooking the +sweep of the stream. They are the +Great Blue Herons whose Latin title, +(Ardea herodias), gives one some idea +of their ancient lineage. They claim to +be older than the storks of Egypt, and +indeed, they look older as they stand +humpbacked and sleepy on one leg by +the side of their nests, the long fringe +of light-speckled neck feathers underneath +looking like a long gray beard +sweeping over their recurved neck and +breast. There is a wise look about +them, too, for the black markings of the +head sweep back over the eye and prolong +into the appearance of a quill extending +behind their ears.</p> + +<p>Though they are almost four feet +long and spread their wings to six feet +and over, the herons' large blue-grey +bodies are often almost indistinguishable +from the bark of the cottonwood +branches and the blue of the sky +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +against which they are silhouetted so +oddly. One's eyes open with astonishment +when these sticks or excrescences +of the tree-tops slowly unfold an +enormous sweep of sail and, extending +their long stilts behind them, flap off +across the stream with a creaking +sound like the pulleys of a vessel when +the halliards are running through them. +Standing or flapping they are not +handsome birds and one who comes +suddenly upon a large heron for the +first time as he stands in the shallow +water of the brookside, will be convulsed +with laughter, for if there is an +utterly clumsy and awkward form or +motion in bird-life it belongs to this +heron.</p> + +<p>Their homes are big baskets of nests +made of twigs as large as a man's +finger, closely intermeshed. From year +to year they use the same nest or build +over it until it has two or three stories +or more and is bigger than a bushel +basket. There are probably two dozen +nests in the dozen cottonwood trees, +some of the larger trees having three +or four or even six away up in their +tops where the branches seem scarcely +strong enough to bear such heavy burdens. +From the top of the bluff one +can look down into the nests and in +early March see the big blue eggs, almost +as large as hens' eggs, reposing +like amethysts in their rough brown +setting. Some authors state that not +over three eggs are laid, but I have +seen four about as often as three and, +on one occasion, five in a nest.</p> + +<p>From their high-placed towers the +herons watch the small fry in the river +below and make forays among the +young trout, pike and catfish and the +frogs. They listen to the complaining +voices in the twilight and in the morning +give them cause for still further +complainings. They keep in terror the +big wood rats whose homes in the +clumps of elder berries below surpass +in size those of the herons. And the +gophers and field mice of the grain +fields never know at what moment an +ungainly shadow shall fall upon them +and end their harvestings. There was +a conceited young frog who sang loud +and shrill at sunset on the edge of the +river and who had an ambition to be, +not an ox like the one in the fable, but +a Patti. And she had her wish after a +fashion, for that connoisseur, the heron +who dwelt on the farthest branch over +the water, attracted by her vocal abilities, +sought her out, and the little herons +thought her the nicest <i>paté de foie +gras</i> they had ever eaten.</p> + +<p>There they dwell, this ancient race +of high-born philosophers, stalking the +shallows of sunny baylets, or dreaming +in the breeze of the tree-tops of traditions +old as the sequoias. What an +authority would you and I be if we +could read the unwritten history of +their race!</p> + +<p class="ar"> +Charles Elmer Jenny.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse">Boughs are daily rifled</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">By the gusty thieves,</div> + <div class="verse">And the Book of Nature</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Getteth short of leaves.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Hood, "The Seasons."</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_073.jpg" id="i_073.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_073.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE.<br /> + (Antilocapra americana.)<br /> + Greatly reduced.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> +</tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_PRONG-HORNED_ANTELOPE" id="THE_PRONG-HORNED_ANTELOPE"></a> + THE PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Antilocapra americana.</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p>The antelope family comprises many of +the most beautiful and graceful species +among horned animals. When we behold +the curiously twisted horns of the +sasin, the long, sharp horns of the pasan, +the large, spiral horns of the koodoo +and the shorter horns of the eland, not to +mention the graceful bodies and limbs +of these animals, we are led to wonder at +the extravagance of nature in furnishing +such a variety of appendages to these +creatures.</p> + +<p>By far the larger number of species of +this family live in Africa and Asia, where +they have reached the highest development +of structure. They are not, like +some families of mammals, confined to +any one particular locality, but are +found on the plains and high up on the +mountains; in a country sparsely covered +with vegetation and in the thick forests; +in marshes and bogs. In fact, they seem +to inhabit all varieties of country. While +the family is thus diversified in habitat, +the different species are by no means so +widely distributed, for while some species, +like the sasin, live only on the open +plains, others, like the chamois, live high +up on the mountains, frequently above +the snow-line.</p> + +<p>The subject of our sketch, the Prong-horned +antelope (Antilocapra americana), +is not as large nor so strikingly +horned as the other animals which have +been mentioned. In fact, so different is +its structure, having hollow, pronged +horns which do not increase by continuous +growth, as do those of the true antelopes, +but are shed like those of the deer +family, and having a somewhat different +structure of feet and different texture of +hair, that a family has been made for it +known as Antilocapridae.</p> + +<p>The Prong-horn ranges throughout +the western part of North America from +the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean, +and from the Saskatchewan river south +to the Rio Grande. It is not confined to +the plains, but has been found in the wild +valleys of the Rocky mountains to a +height of over eight thousand feet above +sea level.</p> + +<p>The daily life of this interesting animal +is thus described by Canfield, who made +an exhaustive study of them and who +also kept them in captivity: "From the +first of September to the first of March +one always sees them in larger groups +composed of bucks, does and yearlings. +Shortly afterward the does individually +retire from these herds and give birth +to their young. After a short interval +they again unite with other suckling does +and their little calves, possibly with a view +to common defense against the wolf and +coyotes. The adult bucks roam about +singly or two together, leaving the mothers +with their latest progeny to their fate, +the young Prong-horns in the meantime +gathering in groups of their own apart +from the older animals. Apparently tired +of the world and bored by society the old +bucks wander about for one or two +months, frequenting localities in which +they are not ordinarily seen. Two or +three months subsequently the adolescent +bucks again join the old does and +their calves, and finally the old bucks also +put in an appearance, so that one can observe +herds, numbering hundreds, or +sometimes even thousands, after the first +of September. A herd never leaves its +native locality or roams over more than a +few miles of range. In dry summer +weather they seek water and go to drink +regularly once a day or twice in three +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +days; but if the grass is fresh and green, +as is the case during the greater part of +the year, the Prong-horns do not drink +at all."</p> + +<p>The food of the antelope consists to a +great extent of the short, succulent herbage +of the prairie, of moss, and also, to a +limited extent, of the young and tender +branches of trees. Like many other ruminants, +this animal is passionately fond of +salt and they will remain about saline deposits +for many hours, satisfying themselves +by licking the salty ground.</p> + +<p>The antelope is the swiftest runner of +any animal in North America, though +perhaps less agile and speedy than some +of its relatives in the old world. It has +been said by competent observers that so +swiftly do they run that it is absolutely +impossible to distinguish their limbs.</p> + +<p>The senses of the antelope are unusually +developed. Their sight is exceedingly +keen and their hearing very acute. +Their sense of smell is so well developed +that no danger can possibly approach +from the windward side. When a herd is +feeding, sentinels are placed on the outskirts +to scent any impending danger, +and to give due warning to the herd. +Their curiosity is one of their most peculiar +qualities and seems to overshadow +every other sense.</p> + +<p>For a number of years this graceful +animal has been considered royal game +for the sportsman and a good round-up +of antelopes is considered a great achievement +among hunters. Mr. G. O. Shields, +in his interesting book, "Hunting in the +Great West," very vividly describes a +hunt for antelopes, and we cannot better +illustrate the peculiarities of the animal +than by giving his pen sketch:</p> + +<p>"We had heard from some ranchmen +along the way that the buffalo herd was +at this time grazing about fifteen to twenty +miles up the Big Porcupine, and knowing +that antelopes are nearly always +found hanging on the outskirts of every +large herd of bison, we were on the look-out +for them, for it would not seem at all +strange to find them near the stage trail +on which we were traveling. We scanned +the country closely with the field glass +and were finally rewarded by seeing a +number of small white spots on the dead +grass away up the Porcupine, that +seemed to be moving. We rode toward +them at a lively trot for perhaps a mile, +and then stopped to reconnoitre again. +From this point we could plainly distinguish +them, though they looked to be +about the size of jack rabbits. We again +put the rowels to our donkeys and rode +rapidly up to within about a mile of them, +when we picketed our animals in a low +swale, took out our antelope flag—a piece +of scarlet calico about half a yard square—attached +it to the end of my wiping +stick, and were ready to interview the antelopes.</p> + +<p>"I crawled to the top of a ridge within +plain view of the game, and planted my +flag. The breeze spread it out, kept it +fluttering, and it soon attracted their attention. +They were then near the bank +of the river, grazing quietly, but this bit +of colored rag excited their curiosity to +a degree that rendered them restive, anxious, +uneasy, and they seemed at once to +be seized with an insatiable desire to find +out what it was. An antelope has as +much curiosity as a woman, and when +they see any object that they don't quite +understand, they will travel miles and run +themselves into all kinds of danger to +find out what it is. They have been +known to follow an emigrant or freight +wagon with a white cover several miles, +and an Indian brings them within reach +of his arrow by standing in plain view +wrapped in his red blanket. Some hunters +"flag" them by lying down on their +back, holding one foot as high as possible, +and swinging it to and fro. A piece +of bright tin or a mirror answers the +same purpose on a clear day. Almost +any conspicuous or strange-looking object +will attract them, but the most convenient, +as well as the most reliable at +all times, is the little red flag, such as we +employed in this instance.</p> + +<p>"Huffman went to the top of another +ridge, to my right and some distance in +advance, and Jack crawled into a hollow +on the left, and well in advance, we three +forming a half circle, into which it was +our intention if possible to decoy the +game. When they first discovered our +flag they moved rapidly toward it, sometimes +breaking into a trot, but when they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +had covered half the distance between us +and their starting point, they began to +grow suspicious and stopped. They circled +around, turned back, walked a few +steps, and then paused and looked back +at the, to them, mysterious apparition. +But they could not resist its magic influence. +Again they turned and came toward +it, stopped, and gazed curiously at +it. The old buck who led the herd +stamped impatiently, as if annoyed at being +unable to solve the mystery. Then +they walked cautiously toward us again, +down an incline into a valley, which took +them out of our sight, and out of sight +of the flag. This of course rendered +them still more impatient, and when they +again came in sight on the next ridge, +they were running. But as soon as their +leader caught sight of the flag, he +stopped, as did the others in their turn +when they reached the top of the ridge. +There were seven in the herd, two bucks, +three does and two fawns. They were +now not more than a hundred yards from +me, and still less from the other two of +our party. Their position was everything +we could wish, and though we +might possibly have brought them a few +yards nearer, there was a possibility of +their scenting us, even across the wind, +which, of course, we had arranged to +have in our favor, and I decided that +rather than run the risk of this and the +consequent stampede, I would shoot +while I had a good chance. It had been +arranged that I was to open the ball, so I +drew my peep and globe sights down +very finely, taking the white breast of the +old buck for my bull's-eye, and pulled. +Huffman's Kennedy and Jack's carbine +paid their compliments to the pretty visitors +at almost the same instant, and for +about two or three minutes thereafter we +fanned them about as vigorously as ever +a herd got fanned under similar circumstances. +The air was full of leaden missiles; +the dry dust raised under and +around the fleeing herd as it does when +a team trots over a dusty road. Clouds +of smoke hung over us, and the distant +hills echoed the music of our artillery +until the last white rump disappeared in +the cottonwoods on the river bank.</p> + +<p>"When the smoke of battle cleared +away, and we looked over the field, we +found that we had not burned our powder +in vain. Five of the little fellows, the +two bucks and three does, had fallen victims +to their curiosity. The two fawns +had, strangely enough, escaped, probably +only because they, so much smaller than +their parents, were less exposed."</p> + +<p>The antelope have a curious way of +protecting their young, when on the open +prairie. This is accomplished by placing +a ring of sharp-pointed cacti about a spot +which has been beaten smooth by their +hoofs. Inside this ample protection the +animal cares for its young and secures ingress +and egress for itself by jumping +over the ring of cacti. This serves to protect +them from the majority of their foes, +which inhabit the open country.</p> + +<p>The antelope does not thrive well in +captivity, the older ones soon killing +themselves in their attempts to escape. +The young taken soon after their birth +generally die early, unless very special +care is bestowed upon them, and even if +they survive the juvenile state, they are +very likely to die when three or four +months old, from pyaemic sores or inflammation +of the limbs.</p> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="PLANT_PROTECTION" id="PLANT_PROTECTION"></a>PLANT PROTECTION.</h2> + +<p>In the <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/48540/48540-h/48540-h.htm#Page_119"> +last number</a> of this journal it +was shown how plants seek to avoid the +visits of unsuitable insects to their flowers. +This is one means of protection, but +there are many others which are even +more striking and vital. It is supposed +by many that plants are helpless beings, +which must submit to all sorts of unfavorable +conditions which come upon +them. This is far from true, for while +plants as a rule are fixed and unable to +escape from danger by flight, still they +have very many ways of helping themselves.</p> + +<p>Prominent among the dangers which +come to active green plants are those +which arise from too intense light, which +may destroy the delicate working substances. +Since the leaves are the great +working organs in the manufacture of +food, they are especially equipped for +protection. Those leaves which must +work in exposed places have many details +of structure which are evidently for +guarding them against the ill effects of +too intense light. The most striking +adaptations, however, are those which +have to do with protective positions. Under +ordinary circumstances leaves are +placed so that their flat faces are exposed +to the most intense light. In some cases +this is so great a danger that the leaves +are set edgewise, the edges being directed +upwards and downwards. When a +plant assumes this habit, the leaves are +said to be in a profile position, and the +plants are sometimes called "compass +plants." The latter name has come from +the fact that such leaves usually point +north or south, and once it was assumed +that this position was in response to +some mysterious magnetic influence. It +is found, however, that it is merely an effort +on the part of the plant to protect its +leaves from the intense light of midday, +and at the same time to expose them to +the morning and evening rays of much +less intensity. If a leaf is to be placed +with its edge upwards and its flat faces +east and west, it follows of necessity that +it will point either north or south.</p> + +<p>Some leaves, however, have the power +of shifting their position according to +their needs, directing their flat surfaces +toward the light, or more or less inclining +them according to the danger. Perhaps +the most completely adapted leaves of +this kind are those of the "sensitive +plants," whose leaves respond to various +external influences by changing their positions. +The sensitive plants abound in +dry and hot regions, and one of the best +known is represented in our illustration. +It will be noticed that the leaves of this +Mimosa are divided into very numerous +small leaflets, which stretch in pairs along +the leaf branches. When the time of intense +light and dryness approaches some +of the pairs of leaflets fold together, +slightly reducing the surface exposure. +As the unfavorable condition continues, +more leaflets fold together, then still +others, until finally all the leaflets may be +folded together, and the leaves themselves +may bend against the stem. It is +like a sailing vessel gradually taking in +sail as a storm approaches, until finally +nothing is exposed, and the vessel weathers +the storm by presenting only bare +poles. These are but a few illustrations +of the very numerous devices for escaping +too intense light and the dangers +which accompany it.</p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="SENSITIVE PLANT."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_084.jpg" id="i_084.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">PLANTS PRESENTED BY LINCOLN PARK COMMISSIONERS.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">SENSITIVE PLANT.<br /> + (Mimosa pudica.)</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">COPYRIGHT 1900, BY<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.</td> +</tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Awake.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40"></td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">Asleep</td> +</tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>One common danger in temperate regions +comes from the lowering of the +temperature each night, which sometimes +may chill the living substances to the +danger point. This is particularly dangerous +to seedlings, whose tender structures +have not yet developed the ordinary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +protective coats. In the spring the +seed leaves of numerous seedlings may +be seen at the approach of night to rise +upward and come together, just as the +palms of the hand may be placed together +over one's head. This reduces the surface +of exposure and the danger of chill +at least one-half. Darwin experimented +upon these seedlings, and discovered that +by preventing some of the seed leaves +from moving, the seedlings were seriously +injured. The leaves of very many +plants assume a peculiar night position +which tends to meet the danger of loss of +heat. Often the three leaflets of the common +clover, if growing in an exposed +place, may be observed to fold together +into a sort of tent-like arrangement.</p> + +<p>Many plants are also observed to protect +themselves against rain, as it is necessary +for leaves to avoid becoming wet. +If the water is allowed to soak in, the +work of the leaves is at once interfered +with. Hence it will be noticed that most +leaves are able to shed water, partly by +their position, partly by their structure. +In many plants the leaves are so arranged +that the water runs off toward the stem; +in other plants the rain is shed outwards +as from the eaves of a house. Some of the +structures which prevent the rain from +soaking in are a smooth epidermis, layers +of cuticle, hairy coverings, etc. Interesting +experiments may be performed +with different leaves to test their power +of shedding water. If a gentle spray be +allowed to play upon different plants it +will be observed that the water glances +off at once from the surfaces of some +leaves, runs off more slightly from others, +and may be more or less retained by +others.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most general preparation +for protection in our region is that which +is made for the coming of the winter's +cold. In many cases plants do not attempt +to protect their delicate structures +from the severity of winter, but disappear +entirely, leaving only well-protected +seeds to carry them over into the next +growing season. This results in the so-called +"annual habit," which has been +learned by many plants in order to escape +a season of danger. Other plants +do not disappear so completely, but everything +above the surface of the ground +dies, while the plant continues in the +form of underground bulbs, tubers, or +various thickened structures. This habit +of seeking a subterranean retreat at +the approach of some dangerous season +is a very good one, and is found in +many of our early spring plants. This +subterranean habit has a great advantage +over the annual habit, since a seed is very +slow in bringing the plant back again, +while a bulb can produce its plant very +rapidly.</p> + +<p>Still other plants preserve more of +their structures than either the annuals +or the ground-loving plants. For example, +most of our trees have cultivated +what is known as the deciduous habit, +that is, they merely drop their leaves, +which are the endangered structures, at +the approach of the unfavorable season, +and renew them again when the favorable +conditions return. It should be remarked +that these leaves do not fall because +they are broken off, but that in a certain +sense it is a process of growing off, which +is carefully prepared for. One of the +most prominent features associated with +the deciduous habit is the autumnal coloration. +The vivid colors which appear +in the leaves of many trees just before the +time of falling have attracted a great deal +of attention, but although it is so prominent, +the causes for it are very obscure. +It will be noticed that this autumnal coloration +consists in the development of +various shades of two typical colors, yellow +and red. It is known that the yellow +is due to the breaking down of the green +substances, so that it simply indicates a +post mortem change, as may be noticed +in connection with the blanching of celery +in which the leaves and upper part of +the stem may be green, the green may +shade gradually into yellow, and finally +into the pure white of complete blanching. +The red coloring matter, however, +is very different. Certain experiments +upon plant colors have indicated that the +presence of the red slightly increases the +temperature by absorbing more heat. It +is suggested that the red color may be a +slight protection to the living substance +which is ceasing to work, and which is in +danger of exposure to cold. If this be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +true, it may be that the same explanation +will cover the case of the red flush so conspicuous +in buds and young leaves in +early spring. It must not be supposed +that the need of protection has developed +the coloring, but since it is developed it +may be of some such service to the plant. +Even the conditions which determine autumnal +coloration have not been made +out certainly.</p> + +<p>It is instructive to notice how differently +the so-called evergreens, as pines, +spruces, etc., have answered the problem +of protection against the cold of winter. +The evergreens, instead of dropping their +leaves, have undertaken to protect them, +giving them a small surface and very +heavy walls. In this way protection has +been secured at the expense of working +power during the season of work. Reduced +surface and thick walls are both +obstacles to leaf work. On the other +hand, the deciduous trees have developed +the working power of their leaves to +the greatest extent, giving them large +surface exposure and comparatively delicate +walls. It is out of the question to +protect such an amount of surface during +the winter, and hence the deciduous habit. +The evergreens are saved the annual +renewal of leaves, but lose in working +power; the deciduous trees must renew +their leaves annually, but gain greatly in +working power.</p> + +<p>To obtain the most striking instances +of protection, however, one must examine +plants which belong to permanently +dry regions, such as may be found in the +United States along the Mexican border, +or in the regions of tropical deserts. In +the first place, it will be noticed that the +plants in general produce smaller leaves +than in other regions. That this holds a +direct relation to the dry conditions is +evident from the fact that the same plant +often produces smaller leaves in dry conditions +than in moist. One of the most +striking features of an arid country is the +absence of large leaves. These reduced +leaves are of various forms, such as the +needle leaves of pines, or the thread-like +leaves of certain sedges and grasses, or +the narrow leaves with inrolled margins +such as is common in many heath plants. +The extreme of leaf reduction has been +reached by the Cactus plants, whose +leaves, so far as foliage is concerned, have +disappeared entirely, and the leaf work is +done by the surface of the globular, cylindrical, +or flattened stems. A covering of +hairs is an effective sun screen, and it is +very common to find plants of dry regions +characteristically hairy. In such +regions it is to be observed also that +dwarf growths prevail, so that the plant, +as a whole, does not present such an exposure +to the drouth as in regions of +greater moisture. One of the most prominent +measures of protection in dry regions +is the organization of what are +known as water reservoirs. Nearly all +plants of such regions have leaves which +are known as fleshy, that is, they are +thick and juicy, being reservoirs of stored +up moisture which is doled out cautiously +according to the needs of the plant, without +any wastefulness.</p> + +<p>The whole subject of plant protection +is an immense one, and the illustrations +given above are merely intended to suggest +that there is such a subject, and to +lead to some observation of the various +schemes of protection which are to be +seen plainly on every hand.</p> + +<p class="ar">John Merle Coulter.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse">Nature is but a name for an effect</div> + <div class="verse">Whose cause is God.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Cowper, "The Task."</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_BIRTH_OF_A_TREE" id="THE_BIRTH_OF_A_TREE"></a>THE BIRTH OF A TREE.</h2> + +<div class="poetry-container"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Once I lay 'neath quilt of green,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">All unthought of, all unseen;</div> + <div class="verse">Little thinking of the world</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Out of which I had been hurled.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">By and by, when quilt grew hot,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Mother Nature touched my cot,</div> + <div class="verse">Whispered softly in my ear,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">"Higher, higher, higher, dear."</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Painted lovely scenes for me,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Saying, "Child, climb up and see."</div> + <div class="verse">I was lazy, so I said,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">"Please, ma'am, let me stay in bed."</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Something whispered, "Child, I fear</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Life will be but meager here."</div> + <div class="verse">Golden sunbeams bade me start,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">And a purpose filled my heart.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">I would leave my bed of ease,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">I would join the forest trees;</div> + <div class="verse">Shelter travelers passing by,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Hide squirrels in the branches high.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Purpose, mighty power, led,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Ever, ever on ahead,</div> + <div class="verse">Till I grew up here so high,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Near the sunlight and the sky.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">Mother Nature, mother dear,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">I am glad you called me here.</div> + <div class="verse">Thus the mighty forest oak</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">From his wooded homeland spoke.</div> + </div> +<div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse">And I thought a lesson this—</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">We, to reach the highest bliss,</div> + <div class="verse">Must arise from beds of ease,</div> + <div class="verse indent-2">Growing like the forest trees.</div> + <div class="verse ar">Lucia Belle Cook.</div> + </div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<h2><a name="THE_ALMOND" id="THE_ALMOND"></a>THE ALMOND.<br /> + <span class="xx-smaller"><span style="font-weight:lighter;"> + (<i>Amygdalus communis L..</i>)</span></span></h2> + +<p class="bq">And it came to pass that on the morrow Moses went into the tabernacle of witness; +and behold, the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was budded, and brought forth buds, +and blossomed blossoms, and yielded <i>almonds</i>.—Numbers 17:8.</p> + +<p>The almond is the fruit of a small tree +(Amygdalus communis) belonging to +the Rose family (Rosaceae). The plant is +believed to be a native of northern Africa, +Persia and Turkestan. It occurs wild +in Sicily and Greece and is cultivated +throughout temperate Europe, including +England.</p> + +<p>The leaves of the almond tree are simple, +broadly lanceolate, margins serrate, +bright green and stalked. The flowers +are nearly sessile, mostly solitary, petals +bright pink; otherwise similar to the +flowers of the rose family as seen in the +apple blossom, cherry blossom and the +wild rose. The fruit is a drupe or stone +fruit, resembling the peach in its general +structural characters. It is, however, +much smaller, measuring about one and +one-half inch in length. As in the peach +the outer portion of the fruit coat (sarcocarp) +is fleshy, the inner portion (endocarp +or putamen) is hard and encloses the +kernel or seed to which the term almond +is usually applied. The plant is very ornamental, +producing its beautiful flowers +in March before the leaves are developed.</p> + +<p>Two natural varieties of almonds are +quite universally recognized, the sweet +(A. communis var dulcis) and the bitter +(A. communis var amara). They resemble +each other so closely in general appearance +that it is practically impossible +to distinguish between them. The principal +difference lies in the chemistry of +the kernels or seeds themselves. In the +bitter variety amygdalin is found, which +is practically wanting in the sweet variety. +Some botanists describe quite a +number of varieties. Karsten, for instance, +describes five varieties of A. communis, +namely, dulcis, amara, fragilis, +macrocarpa and persicoides. Boissier +in his Flora Orientalis describes as many +as seventeen distinct species.</p> + +<p>The almond tree is one of the oldest +of the cultivated plants. It was a great +garden favorite in and about Palestine. +It is frequently mentioned in the books +of Moses. In Exodus 25:34, we find +that the "candlestick shall have four +bowls made like unto almonds." As explained +in the 8th verse of chapter 17 of +Numbers the blossoming rod of Aaron +was from an almond tree. Even to this +day Jews carry rods bearing almond blossoms +to the synagogues on great festival +days. The Romans designated the almonds +(the kernels or seeds with the hard +endocarp or shell) Nuces graecae (Greek +nuts), from which it is concluded that the +almond tree was brought to Italy from +Greece. Almond oil was known to the +ancient Greek and Roman writers. Plinius +and Dioscorides make reference to +the gum which exudes from the bark. +Karl der Grosse (Charlemagne) recommended +the cultivation of almonds in +Germany. In view of the fact that some +authorities state that the sweet variety is +a product of cultivation, it is interesting +to note that the two varieties have been +known equally long. The bitter variety +was described by Scribonius Largus and +Plinius. Alexander Trallianus described +the medicinal virtues of the oil of bitter +almonds. Palladinus gave directions +how to convert the bitter variety into the +sweet variety by methods of cultivation. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +Later experiments have, however, proven +this to be a false conclusion.</p> + +<table class="sp2 mc w50" title="ALMOND."> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td colspan="3"><span class="ac w100 figcenter"> + <a name="i_096.jpg" id="i_096.jpg"> <img style="width:100%" + src="images/i_096.jpg" alt="" /></a></span> + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">FROM KŒHLER'S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN.</td> + <td class="x-smaller ac w40">ALMOND.</td> + <td class="xx-smaller ac w30">CHICAGO:<br /> + A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER.</td> +</tr> + </tbody> +</table> + +<p>Description of Plate:—A, B, branch +with flowers and fruit; 1, 1a, flowers from +different trees; 2, 2a, petals; 3, stamens; +4, pollen; 5, stamen; 6, 7, ovary; 8, 9, +seed with shell; 10, seed without shell; +11, 12, sections of seed.</p> + +<p>The fruit and seeds of several other +plants are known as almonds. The seeds +of the African shrub Brabejum stellatifolium +are known as African almonds. +Country almonds is a name given to the +fruit of the East Indian tree Terminalia +Catappa. The fruit of Canarium commune +is known as Java almonds.</p> + +<p>At the present time the sweet almond +is extensively cultivated in northern Africa, +southern Europe and in the warmer +parts of the United States, particularly in +California. Climatic conditions and cultivation +have a great influence upon the +quality of the almonds and we have as a +result quite a number of commercial varieties, +just as we have commercial varieties +of coffee, tea, oranges, etc. The more +important commercial varieties are the +Jordan, Valencia, Barbary and California +almonds. These vary somewhat in size, +form and thickness of the kernel and the +hardness and thickness of the shell (endocarp). +The Jordan almonds are imported +from Malaga (Spain) and are said +to be the finest. They differ from the +others in the greater length of the kernel +(seed), for which reason they are also +known as long almonds. These are official +in the English Pharmacopoeia because +they are not readily confused with +other sweet varieties and the bitter almond. +The Valencia almonds come from +the Balearic islands (Majorca); they are +characterized by a comparatively soft +shell and are less highly prized than the +Jordan or the California almonds. The +Barbary almonds from northern Africa +are quite small and unsightly and for +those reasons have comparatively little +commercial value. In the United States +the principal commercial variety is the +California almond. The kernel is shorter +and flatter than that of the Jordan almond, +but almost equal to it in quality. +It is extensively cultivated, about one +hundred trees being planted to the acre. +The trees attain a height of fifteen to +twenty feet and begin to yield when three +years old. In California it is customary +to bleach the almonds by exposing them +to the vapor of burning sulphur, which +also destroys insect parasites which attack +almonds very readily.</p> + +<p>Other less important sweet commercial +varieties are the Provence almonds of +southern France, the Florence and Ambrosia +almonds of Sicily, the Pitti almonds +of Portugal and the small Puglia +almonds of Italy.</p> + +<p>The bitter almond seeds are as a rule +somewhat shorter, broader and thinner +than those of the larger, sweet varieties. +Those found upon the market are largely +from northern Africa, Sicily and southern +France.</p> + +<p>The principal constituents of sweet almonds +are a fixed oil, sugar, some albuminoid +substances, and perhaps a +small quantity of amygdalin or a substance +akin to it. The purified fixed oil +from both varieties of almonds is a bland, +thin, pale yellow liquid, having a faint +taste and odor of the almond. When exposed +to the air it becomes rancid quite +readily. Medicinally it finds use as an +emollient in external applications. Taken +internally in small doses it is nutritious; +in large doses laxative. Mixed with mucilage +or yolk of eggs and sugar it is +found useful in allaying troublesome +coughs due to irritation of the throat. It +also finds a table use similar to that of +olive oil.</p> + +<p>Bitter almonds contain a very poisonous +volatile oil in addition to the fixed +oil just described. In small quantities +this oil finds a use for flavoring by the +cook and confectioner, and by the perfumer +for scenting toilet soaps and for +other purposes. This oil is obtained by +distillation after the fixed oil has been expressed. +It is the product of the decomposition +of amygdalin under the influence +of emulsin and water. The poisonous +properties of this oil are due to the +hydrocyanic acid which is present. This +acid may be removed and the oil is then +known as purified oil of bitter almonds. +Even the purified oil is not safe, as it decomposes +quite readily unless all of the +water is removed by the use of fused +chloride of lime.</p> + +<p>The symptoms of poisoning from the +oil of bitter almonds, or from a quantity +of the bitter almonds, are the same as from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +a dose of hydrocyanic acid. Medicinally +the oil is used like hydrocyanic acid in +various disorders of nervous origin, as +whooping cough, spasmodic troubles, +etc.</p> + +<p>Sweet almonds are variously employed. +Roasted and salted almonds are very +much liked by everybody. Almonds for +the table must first be "blanched," that +is, the outer, reddish brown, thin seed +coat must be removed, as it contains irritant +properties. They are used in making +cake and other pastry. Cake or bread +made from almond meal has been recommended +as a substitute for ordinary bread +in the treatment of diabetes, as it is free +from starch, a food substance which +proves harmful in this disease. Almond +cake is a term applied to the crushed +seeds from which the oil has been expressed. +Finely-powdered this is used +for washing hands and face. Almond +paste is a cosmetic made from powdered +bitter almonds, white of egg, rose water +and rectified spirits. It is used to soften +the skin and prevent chapping of hands. +An emulsion of sweet almonds is also +used as a substitute for milk in feeding +infants.</p> + +<p class="ar">Albert Schneider.</p> + +<hr class="sect" /> + +<div class="ac">Nature, the Vicar of the Almightie Lord.</div> + <div class="ar">—Chaucer, "The Assembly of Foules."</div> + +<div class="poetry-container p1"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse">All Nature is but art, unknown to thee;</div> + <div class="verse">All chance, direction, which thou canst not see;</div> + <div class="verse">All discord, harmony not understood;</div> + <div class="verse">All partial evil, universal good;</div> + <div class="verse">And, spite of pride, in erring reason's spite,</div> + <div class="verse">One truth is clear, whatever is, is right.</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Pope, "Essay on Man."</div> + </div> +</div> + +<div class="p1">Nature is a frugal mother, and never gives without measure.</div> +<div class="ar">—Emerson, "Essays."</div> + +<div class="poetry-container p1"> + <div class="poetry"> + <div class="verse indent4">But who can paint</div> + <div class="verse">Like Nature! Can imagination boast</div> + <div class="verse">Amid its gay creations hues like hers?</div> + <div class="verse ar">—Thompson, "Seasons."</div> + </div> +</div> + +<hr class="chap" /> + +<div class="chapter"></div> +<div class="transnote"> + +<h2><span class="smaller">Transcriber's Note:</span></h2> + <ul> + <li>Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note.</li> + <li>Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant form was + found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</li> + <li>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.</li> + <li>Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs + and some illustrations have been moved closer to the text that references them.</li> + <li>The Contents table was added by the transcriber.</li> + </ul> +</div> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 48579 ***</div> +</body> +</html> |