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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/3794-h.zip b/3794-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..52bd848 --- /dev/null +++ b/3794-h.zip diff --git a/3794-h/3794-h.htm b/3794-h/3794-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..07b1453 --- /dev/null +++ b/3794-h/3794-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7672 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + L. Annaeus Seneca, on Benefits, by Seneca + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of L. Annaeus Seneca On Benefits, by Seneca + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: L. Annaeus Seneca On Benefits + +Author: Seneca + +Editor: Aubrey Stewart + +Release Date: December 3, 2009 [EBook #3794] +Last Updated: February 6, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK L. ANNAEUS SENECA ON BENEFITS *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Franks, Robert Rowe, David Widger, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + L. ANNAEUS SENECA, <br /><br />ON BENEFITS + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Seneca + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Edited by Aubrey Stewart + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + Seneca, the favourite classic of the early fathers of the church and of + the Middle Ages, whom Jerome, Tertullian, and Augustine speak of as + "Seneca noster," who was believed to have corresponded with St. Paul, and + upon whom [Footnote: On the "De Clementia," an odd subject for the man who + burned Servetus alive for differing with him.] Calvin wrote a commentary, + seems almost forgotten in modern times. Perhaps some of his popularity may + have been due to his being supposed to be the author of those tragedies + which the world has long ceased to read, but which delighted a period that + preferred Euripides to Aeschylus: while casuists must have found congenial + matter in an author whose fantastic cases of conscience are often worthy + of Sanchez or Escobar. Yet Seneca's morality is always pure, and from him + we gain, albeit at second hand, an insight into the doctrines of the Greek + philosophers, Zeno, Epicurus, Chrysippus, &c., whose precepts and + system of religious thought had in cultivated Roman society taken the + place of the old worship of Jupiter and Quirinus. + </p> + <p> + Since Lodge's edition (fol. 1614), no complete translation of Seneca has + been published in England, though Sir Roger L'Estrange wrote paraphrases + of several Dialogues, which seem to have been enormously popular, running + through more than sixteen editions. I think we may conjecture that + Shakespeare had seen Lodge's translation, from several allusions to + philosophy, to that impossible conception "the wise man," and especially + from a passage in "All's Well that ends Well," which seems to breathe the + very spirit of "De Beneficiis." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "'Tis pity— + That wishing well had not a body in it + Which might be felt: that we, the poorer born, + Whose baser stars do shut us up in wishes, + Might with effects of them follow our friends + And show what we alone must think; which never + Returns us thanks." + + "All's Well that ends Well," Act i. sc. 1. +</pre> + <p> + Though, if this will not fit the supposed date of that play, he may have + taken the idea from "The Woorke of Lucius Annaeus Seneca concerning + Benefyting, that is too say, the dooing, receyving, and requyting of good + turnes, translated out of Latin by A. Golding. J. Day, London, 1578." And + even during the Restoration, Pepys's ideal of virtuous and lettered + seclusion is a country house in whose garden he might sit on summer + afternoons with his friend, Sir W. Coventry, "it maybe, to read a chapter + of Seneca." In sharp contrast to this is Vahlen's preface to the minor + Dialogues, which he edited after the death of his friend Koch, who had + begun that work, in which he remarks that "he has read much of this + writer, in order to perfect his knowledge of Latin, for otherwise he + neither admires his artificial subtleties of thought, nor his childish + mannerisms of style" (Vahlen, preface, p. v., ed. 1879, Jena). + </p> + <p> + Yet by the student of the history of Rome under the Caesars, Seneca is not + to be neglected, because, whatever may be thought of the intrinsic merit + of his speculations, he represents, more perhaps even than Tacitus, the + intellectual characteristics of his age, and the tone of society in Rome—nor + could we well spare the gossiping stories which we find imbedded in his + graver dissertations. The following extract from Dean Merivale's "History + of the Romans under the Empire" will show the estimate of him which has + been formed by that accomplished writer:— + </p> + <p> + "At Rome, we, have no reason, to suppose that Christianity was only the + refuge of the afflicted and miserable; rather, if we may lay any stress on + the documents above referred to, it was first embraced by persons in a + certain grade of comfort and respectability; by persons approaching to + what we should call the MIDDLE CLASSES in their condition, their + education, and their moral views. Of this class Seneca himself was the + idol, the oracle; he was, so to speak, the favourite preacher of the more + intelligent and humane disciples of nature and virtue. Now the writings of + Seneca show, in their way, a real anxiety among this class to raise the + moral tone of mankind around them; a spirit of reform, a zeal for the + conversion of souls, which, though it never rose, indeed, under the + teaching of the philosophers, to boiling heat, still simmered with genial + warmth on the surface of society. Far different as was their social + standing-point, far different as were the foundations and the presumed + sanctions of their teaching respectively, Seneca and St. Paul were both + moral reformers; both, be it said with reverence, were fellow-workers in + the cause of humanity, though the Christian could look beyond the + proximate aims of morality and prepare men for a final development on + which the Stoic could not venture to gaze. Hence there is so much in their + principles, so much even in their language, which agrees together, so that + the one has been thought, though it must be allowed without adequate + reason, to have borrowed directly from the other. [Footnote: It is hardly + necessary to refer to the pretended letters between St. Paul and Seneca. + Besides the evidence from style, some of the dates they contain are quite + sufficient to condemn them as clumsy forgeries. They are mentioned, but + with no expression of belief in their genuineness, by Jerome and + Augustine. See Jones, "On the Canon," ii. 80.] + </p> + <p> + "But the philosopher, be it remembered, discoursed to a large and not + inattentive audience, and surely the soil was not all unfruitful on which + his seed was scattered when he proclaimed that God dwells not in temples + of wood and stone, nor wants the ministrations of human hands;[Footnote: + Sen., Ep. 95, and in Lactantius, Inst. vi.] that He has no delight in the + blood of victims:[Footnote: Ep. 116: "Colitur Deus non tauris sed pia et + recta voluntate."] that He is near to all His creatures:[Footnote: Ep. 41, + 73.] that His Spirit resides in men's hearts:[Footnote: Ep. 46: "Sacer + intra nos spiritus sedet."] that all men are truly His + offspring:[Footnote: "De Prov," i.] that we are members of one body, which + is God or Nature;[Footnote: Ep. 93, 95: "Membra sumus magni corporis."] + that men must believe in God before they can approach Him:[Footnote: Ep. + 95: "Primus Deorum cultus est Deos credere."] that the true service of God + is to be like unto Him:[Footnote: Ep. 95: "Satis coluit quisquis imitatus + est."] that all men have sinned, and none performed all the works of the + law:[Footnote: Sen. de Ira. i. 14; ii. 27: "Quis est iste qui se + profitetur omnibus legibus innocentem?"] that God is no respecter of + nations, ranks, or conditions, but all, barbarian and Roman, bond and + free, are alike under His all-seeing Providence.[Footnote: "De Benef.," + iii. 18: "Virtus omnes admittit, libertinos, servos, reges." These and + many other passages are collected by Champagny, ii. 546, after Fabricius + and others, and compared with well-known texts of Scripture. The version + of the Vulgate shows a great deal of verbal correspondence. M. Troplong + remarks, after De Maistre, that Seneca has written a fine book on + Providence, for which there was not even a name at Rome in the time of + Cicero.—"L'Influence du Christianisme," &c., i., ch. 4.] + </p> + <p> + "St. Paul enjoined submission and obedience even to the tyranny of Nero, + and Seneca fosters no ideas subversive of political subjection. Endurance + is the paramount virtue of the Stoic. To forms of government the wise man + was wholly indifferent; they were among the external circumstances above + which his spirit soared in serene self-contemplation. We trace in Seneca + no yearning for a restoration of political freedom, nor does he even point + to the senate, after the manner of the patriots of the day, as a + legitimate check to the autocracy of the despot. The only mode, in his + view, of tempering tyranny is to educate the tyrant himself in virtue. His + was the self-denial of the Christians, but without their anticipated + compensation. It seems impossible to doubt that in his highest flights of + rhetoric—and no man ever recommended the unattainable with a finer + grace—Seneca must have felt that he was labouring to build up a + house without foundations; that his system, as Caius said of his style, + was sand without lime. He was surely not unconscious of the inconsistency + of his own position, as a public man and a minister, with the theories to + which he had wedded himself; and of the impossibility of preserving in it + the purity of his character as a philosopher or a man. He was aware that + in the existing state of society at Rome, wealth was necessary to men high + in station; wealth alone could retain influence, and a poor minister + became at once contemptible. The distributor of the Imperial favours must + have his banquets, his receptions, his slaves and freedmen; he must + possess the means of attracting if not of bribing; he must not seem too + virtuous, too austere, among an evil generation; in order to do good at + all he must swim with the stream, however polluted it might be. All this + inconsistency Seneca must have contemplated without blenching; and there + is something touching in the serenity he preserved amidst the conflict + that must have perpetually raged between his natural sense and his + acquired principles. Both Cicero and Seneca were men of many weaknesses, + and we remark them the more because both were pretenders to unusual + strength of character; but while Cicero lapsed into political errors, + Seneca cannot be absolved of actual crime. Nevertheless, if we may compare + the greatest masters of Roman wisdom together, the Stoic will appear, I + think, the more earnest of the two, the more anxious to do his duty for + its own sake, the more sensible of the claims of mankind upon him for such + precepts of virtuous living as he had to give. In an age of unbelief and + compromise he taught that Truth was positive and Virtue objective. He + conceived, what never entered Cicero's mind, the idea of improving his + fellow-creatures; he had, what Cicero had not, a heart for conversion to + Christianity." + </p> + <p> + To this eloquent account of Seneca's position and of the tendency of his + writings I have nothing to add. The main particulars of his life, his + Spanish extraction (like that of Lacan and Martial), his father's + treatises on Rhetoric, his mother Helvia, his brothers, his wealth, his + exile in Corsica, his outrageous flattery of Claudius and his satiric poem + on his death—"The Vision of Judgment," Merivale calls it, after Lord + Byron—his position as Nero's tutor, and his death, worthy at once of + a Roman and a Stoic, by the orders of that tyrant, may be read of in "The + History of the Romans under the Empire," or in the article "Seneca" in the + "Dictionary of Classical Biography," and need not be reproduced here: but + I cannot resist pointing out how entirely Grote's view of the "Sophists" + as a sort of established clergy, and Seneca's account of the various sects + of philosophers as representing the religious thought of the time, is + illustrated by his anecdote of Julia Augusta, the mother of Tiberius, + better known to English readers as Livia the wife of Augustus, who in her + first agony of grief at the loss of her first husband applied to his Greek + philosopher, Areus, as to a kind of domestic chaplain, for spiritual + consolation. ("Ad Marciam de Consolatione," ch. iv.) + </p> + <p> + I take this opportunity of expressing my gratitude to the Rev. J. E. B. + Mayor, Professor of Latin in the University of Cambridge, for his kindness + in finding time among his many and important literary labours for reading + and correcting the proofs of this work. + </p> + <p> + The text which I have followed for De Beneficiis is that of Gertz, Berlin + (1876.). + </p> + <p> + AUBREY STEWART + </p> + <p> + London, March, 1887. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + Contents + </h2> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_TOC"> DETAILED CONTENTS </a> + </p> + <br /> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> <b>L. A. SENECA, ON BENEFITS</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> BOOK I. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> BOOK II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> BOOK III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> BOOK IV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> BOOK V. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> BOOK VI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> BOOK VII. </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_TOC" id="link2H_TOC"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + DETAILED CONTENTS + </h2> + <blockquote> + <p> + BOOK I. The prevalence of ingratitude—How a benefit ought to be + <br /> bestowed—The three Graces—Benefits are the chief bond + of human <br /> society—What we owe in return for a benefit + received—A benefit <br /> consists not of a thing but of the wish + to do good—Socrates and <br /> Aeschines—What kinds of + benefits should be bestowed, and in what <br /> manner—Alexander + and the franchise of Corinth. <br /> BOOK II. Many men give through + weakness of character—We ought to give <br /> before our friends + ask—Many benefits are spoiled by the manner of <br /> the giver—Marius + Nepos and Tiberius—Some benefits should be given <br /> secretly—We + must not give what would harm the receiver—Alexander's <br /> gift + of a city—Interchange of benefits like a game of ball—From + <br /> whom ought one to receive a benefit?—Examples—How to + receive <br /> a benefit—Ingratitude caused by self-love, by greed, + or by <br /> jealousy—Gratitude and repayment not the same thing—Phidias + and the <br /> statue. <br /> BOOK III. Ingratitude—Is it worse to + be ungrateful for kindness or <br /> not even to remember it?—Should + ingratitude be punished by law?—Can <br /> a slave bestow a + benefit?—Can a son bestow a benefit upon his <br /> father?—Examples + <br /> BOOK IV. Whether the bestowal of benefits and the return of + gratitude <br /> for them are desirable objects in themselves? Does God + bestow <br /> benefits?—How to choose the man to be benefited—We + ought not to look <br /> for any return—True gratitude—Of + keeping one's promise—Philip and the <br /> soldier—Zeno + <br /> BOOK V. Of being worsted in a contest of benefits—Socrates + and <br /> Archelaus—Whether a man can be grateful to himself, or + can bestow <br /> a benefit upon himself—Examples of ingratitude—Dialogue + on <br /> ingratitude—Whether one should remind one's friends of + what one has <br /> done for them—Caesar and the soldier—Tiberius. + <br /> BOOK VI. Whether a benefit can be taken from one by force—Benefits + <br /> depend upon thought—We are not grateful for the advantages + which we <br /> receive from inanimate Nature, or from dumb animals—In + order to lay me <br /> under an obligation you must benefit me + intentionally—Cleanthes's story <br /> of the two slaves—Of + benefits given in a mercenary spirit—Physicians <br /> and teachers + bestow enormous benefits, yet are sufficiently paid by a <br /> moderate + fee—Plato and the ferryman—Are we under an obligation to the + <br /> sun and moon?—Ought we to wish that evil may befall our + benefactors, in <br /> order that we may show our gratitude by helping + them? <br /> BOOK VII. The cynic Demetrius—his rules of conduct—Of + the truly <br /> wise man—Whether one who has done everything in + his power to return <br /> a benefit has returned it—Ought one to + return a benefit to a bad <br /> man?—The Pythagorean, and the + shoemaker—How one ought to bear with the <br /> ungrateful. <br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + L. A. SENECA + </h2> + <h3> + ON BENEFITS. + </h3> + <p> + <br /> DEDICATED TO AEBUTIUS LIBERALIS. <a name="link2H_4_0003" + id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK I. + </h2> + <h3> + I. + </h3> + <p> + Among the numerous faults of those who pass their lives recklessly and + without due reflexion, my good friend Liberalis, I should say that there + is hardly any one so hurtful to society as this, that we neither know how + to bestow or how to receive a benefit. It follows from this that benefits + are badly invested, and become bad debts: in these cases it is too late to + complain of their not being returned, for they were thrown away when we + bestowed them. Nor need we wonder that while the greatest vices are + common, none is more common than ingratitude: for this I see is brought + about by various causes. The first of these is, that we do not choose + worthy persons upon whom to bestow our bounty, but although when we are + about to lend money we first make a careful enquiry into the means and + habits of life of our debtor, and avoid sowing seed in a worn-out or + unfruitful soil, yet without any discrimination we scatter our benefits at + random rather than bestow them. It is hard to say whether it is more + dishonourable for the receiver to disown a benefit, or for the giver to + demand a return of it: for a benefit is a loan, the repayment of which + depends merely upon the good feeling of the debtor. To misuse a benefit + like a spendthrift is most shameful, because we do not need our wealth but + only our intention to set us free from the obligation of it; for a benefit + is repaid by being acknowledged. Yet while they are to blame who do not + even show so much gratitude as to acknowledge their debt, we ourselves are + to blame no less. We find many men ungrateful, yet we make more men so, + because at one time we harshly and reproachfully demand some return for + our bounty, at another we are fickle and regret what we have given, at + another we are peevish and apt to find fault with trifles. By acting thus + we destroy all sense of gratitude, not only after we have given anything, + but while we are in the act of giving it. Who has ever thought it enough + to be asked for anything in an off-hand manner, or to be asked only once? + Who, when he suspected that he was going to be asked for any thing, has + not frowned, turned away his face, pretended to be busy, or purposely + talked without ceasing, in order not to give his suitor a chance of + preferring his request, and avoided by various tricks having to help his + friend in his pressing need? and when driven into a corner, has not either + put the matter off, that is, given a cowardly refusal, or promised his + help ungraciously, with a wry face, and with unkind words, of which he + seemed to grudge the utterance. Yet no one is glad to owe what he has not + so much received from his benefactor, as wrung out of him. Who can be + grateful for what has been disdainfully flung to him, or angrily cast at + him, or been given him out of weariness, to avoid further trouble? No one + need expect any return from those whom he has tired out with delays, or + sickened with expectation. A benefit is received in the same temper in + which it is given, and ought not, therefore, to be given carelessly, for a + man thanks himself for that which he receives without the knowledge of the + giver. Neither ought we to give after long delay, because in all good + offices the will of the giver counts for much, and he who gives tardily + must long have been unwilling to give at all. Nor, assuredly, ought we to + give in offensive manner, because human nature is so constituted that + insults sink deeper than kindnesses; the remembrance of the latter soon + passes away, while that of the former is treasured in the memory; so what + can a man expect who insults while he obliges? All the gratitude which he + deserves is to be forgiven for helping us. On the other hand, the number + of the ungrateful ought not to deter us from earning men's gratitude; for, + in the first place, their number is increased by our own acts. Secondly, + the sacrilege and indifference to religion of some men does not prevent + even the immortal gods from continuing to shower their benefits upon us: + for they act according to their divine nature and help all alike, among + them even those who so ill appreciate their bounty. Let us take them for + our guides as far as the weakness of our mortal nature permits; let us + bestow benefits, not put them out at interest. The man who while he gives + thinks of what he will get in return, deserves to be deceived. But what if + the benefit turns out ill? Why, our wives and our children often + disappoint our hopes, yet we marry—and bring up children, and are so + obstinate in the face of experience that we fight after we have been + beaten, and put to sea after we have been shipwrecked. How much more + constancy ought we to show in bestowing benefits! If a man does not bestow + benefits because he has not received any, he must have bestowed them in + order to receive them in return, and he justifies ingratitude, whose + disgrace lies in not returning benefits when able to do so. How many are + there who are unworthy of the light of day? and nevertheless the sun + rises. How many complain because they have been born? yet Nature is ever + renewing our race, and even suffers men to live who wish that they had + never lived. It is the property of a great and good mind to covet, not the + fruit of good deeds, but good deeds themselves, and to seek for a good man + even after having met with bad men. If there were no rogues, what glory + would there be in doing good to many? As it is, virtue consists in + bestowing benefits for which we are not certain of meeting with any + return, but whose fruit is at once enjoyed by noble minds. So little + influence ought this to have in restraining us from doing good actions, + that even though I were denied the hope of meeting with a grateful man, + yet the fear of not having my benefits returned would not prevent my + bestowing them, because he who does not give, forestalls the vice of him + who is ungrateful. I will explain what I mean. He who does not repay a + benefit, sins more, but he who does not bestow one, sins earlier. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "If thou at random dost thy bounties waste, + Much must be lost, for one that's rightly placed." +</pre> + <p> + II. In the former verse you may blame two things, for one should not cast + them at random, and it is not right to waste anything, much less benefits; + for unless they be given with judgement, they cease to be benefits, and, + may be called by any other name you please. The meaning of the latter + verse is admirable, that one benefit rightly bestowed makes amends for the + loss of many that have been lost. See, I pray you, whether it be not truer + and more worthy of the glory of the giver, that we should encourage him to + give, even though none of his gifts should be worthily placed. "Much must + be lost." Nothing is lost because he who loses had counted the cost + before. The book-keeping of benefits is simple: it is all expenditure; if + any one returns it, that is clear gain; if he does not return it, it is + not lost, I gave it for the sake of giving. No one writes down his gifts + in a ledger, or like a grasping creditor demands repayment to the day and + hour. A good man never thinks of such matters, unless reminded of them by + some one returning his gifts; otherwise they become like debts owing to + him. It is a base usury to regard a benefit as an investment. Whatever may + have been the result of your former benefits, persevere in bestowing + others upon other men; they will be all the better placed in the hands of + the ungrateful, whom shame, or a favourable opportunity, or imitation of + others may some day cause to be grateful. Do not grow weary, perform your + duty, and act as becomes a good man. Help one man with money, another with + credit, another with your favour; this man with good advice, that one with + sound maxims. Even wild beasts feel kindness, nor is there any animal so + savage that good treatment will not tame it and win love from it. The + mouths of lions are handled by their keepers with impunity; to obtain + their food fierce elephants become as docile as slaves: so that constant + unceasing kindness wins the hearts even of creatures who, by their nature, + cannot comprehend or weigh the value of a benefit. Is a man ungrateful for + one benefit? perhaps he will not be so after receiving a second. Has he + forgotten two kindnesses? perhaps by a third he may be brought to remember + the former ones also. + </p> + <p> + III. He who is quick to believe that he has thrown away his benefits, does + really throw them away; but he who presses on and adds new benefits to his + former ones, forces out gratitude even from a hard and forgetful breast. + In the face of many kindnesses, your friend will not dare to raise his + eyes; let him see you whithersoever he turns himself to escape from his + remembrance of you; encircle him with your benefits. As for the power and + property of these, I will explain it to you if first you will allow me to + glance at a matter which does not belong to our subject, as to why the + Graces are three in number, why they are sisters, why hand in hand, and + why they are smiling and young, with a loose and transparent dress. Some + writers think that there is one who bestows a benefit, one who receives + it, and a third who returns it; others say that they represent the three + sorts of benefactors, those who bestow, those who repay, and those who + both receive and repay them. But take whichever you please to be true; + what will this knowledge profit us? What is the meaning of this dance of + sisters in a circle, hand in hand? It means that the course of a benefit + is from hand to hand, back to the giver; that the beauty of the whole + chain is lost if a single link fails, and that it is fairest when it + proceeds in unbroken regular order. In the dance there is one, esteemed + beyond the others, who represents the givers of benefits. Their faces are + cheerful, as those of men who give or receive benefits are wont to be. + They are young, because the memory of benefits ought not to grow old. They + are virgins, because benefits are pure and untainted, and held holy by + all; in benefits there should be no strict or binding conditions, + therefore the Graces wear loose flowing tunics, which are transparent, + because benefits love to be seen. People who are not under the influence + of Greek literature may say that all this is a matter of course; but there + can be no one who would think that the names which Hesiod has given them + bear upon our subject. He named the eldest Aglaia, the middle one + Euphrosyne, the third Thalia. Every one, according to his own ideas, + twists the meaning of these names, trying to reconcile them with some + system, though Hesiod merely gave his maidens their names from his own + fancy. So Homer altered the name of one of them, naming her Pasithea, and + betrothed her to a husband, in order that you may know that they are not + vestal virgins. [Footnote: i.e. not vowed to chastity.] + </p> + <p> + I could find another poet, in whose writings they are girded, and wear + thick or embroidered Phrygian robes. Mercury stands with them for the same + reason, not because argument or eloquence commends benefits, but because + the painter chose to do so. Also Chrysippus, that man of piercing + intellect who saw to the very bottom of truth, who speaks only to the + point, and makes use of no more words than are necessary to express his + meaning, fills his whole treatise with these puerilities, insomuch that he + says but very little about the duties of giving, receiving, and returning + a benefit, and has not so much inserted fables among these subjects, as he + has inserted these subjects among a mass of fables. For, not to mention + what Hecaton borrows from him, Chrysippus tells us that the three Graces + are the daughters of Jupiter and Eurynome, that they are younger than the + Hours, and rather more beautiful, and that on that account they are + assigned as companions to Venus. He also thinks that the name of their + mother bears upon the subject, and that she is named Eurynome because to + distribute benefits requires a wide inheritance; as if the mother usually + received her name after her daughters, or as if the names given by poets + were true. In truth, just as with a 'nomenclator' audacity supplies the + place of memory, and he invents a name for every one whose name he cannot + recollect, so the poets think that it is of no importance to speak the + truth, but are either forced by the exigencies of metre, or attracted by + sweetness of sound, into calling every one by whatever name runs neatly + into verse. Nor do they suffer for it if they introduce another name into + the list, for the next poet makes them bear what name he pleases. That you + may know that this is so, for instance Thalia, our present subject of + discourse, is one of the Graces in Hesiod's poems, while in those of Homer + she is one of the Muses. + </p> + <p> + IV. But lest I should do the very thing which I am blaming, I will pass + over all these matters, which are so far from the subject that they are + not even connected with it. Only do you protect me, if any one attacks me + for putting down Chrysippus, who, by Hercules, was a great man, but yet a + Greek, whose intellect, too sharply pointed, is often bent and turned back + upon itself; even when it seems to be in earnest it only pricks, but does + not pierce. Here, however, what occasion is there for subtlety? We are to + speak of benefits, and to define a matter which is the chief bond of human + society; we are to lay down a rule of life, such that neither careless + openhandedness may commend itself to us under the guise of goodness of + heart, and yet that our circumspection, while it moderates, may not quench + our generosity, a quality in which we ought neither to exceed nor to fall + short. Men must be taught to be willing to give, willing to receive, + willing to return; and to place before themselves the high aim, not merely + of equalling, but even of surpassing those to whom they are indebted, both + in good offices and in good feeling; because the man whose duty it is to + repay, can never do so unless he out-does his benefactor; [Footnote: That + is, he never comes up to his benefactor unless he leaves him behind: he + can only make a dead heat of it by getting a start.] the one class must be + taught to look for no return, the other to feel deeper gratitude. In this + noblest of contests to outdo benefits by benefits, Chrysippus encourages + us by bidding us beware lest, as the Graces are the daughters of Jupiter, + to act ungratefully may not be a sin against them, and may not wrong those + beauteous maidens. Do thou teach me how I may bestow more good things, and + be more grateful to those who have earned my gratitude, and how the minds + of both parties may vie with one another, the giver in forgetting, the + receiver in remembering his debt. As for those other follies, let them be + left to the poets, whose purpose is merely to charm the ear and to weave a + pleasing story; but let those who wish to purify men's minds, to retain + honour in their dealings, and to imprint on their minds gratitude for + kindnesses, let them speak in sober earnest and act with all their + strength; unless you imagine, perchance, that by such flippant and + mythical talk, and such old wives' reasoning, it is possible for us to + prevent that most ruinous consummation, the repudiation of benefits. + </p> + <p> + V. However, while I pass over what is futile and irrelevant I must point + out that the first thing which we have to learn is, what we owe in return + for a benefit received. One man says that he owes the money which he has + received, another that he owes a consulship, a priesthood, a province, and + so on. These, however, are but the outward signs of kindnesses, not the + kindnesses themselves. A benefit is not to be felt and handled, it is a + thing which exists only in the mind. There is a great difference between + the subject-matter of a benefit, and the benefit itself. Wherefore neither + gold, nor silver, nor any of those things which are most highly esteemed, + are benefits, but the benefit lies in the goodwill of him who gives them. + The ignorant take notice only of that which comes before their eyes, and + which can be owned and passed from hand to hand, while they disregard that + which gives these things their value. The things which we hold in our + hands, which we see with our eyes, and which our avarice hugs, are + transitory, they may be taken from us by ill luck or by violence; but a + kindness lasts even after the loss of that by means of which it was + bestowed; for it is a good deed, which no violence can undo. For instance, + suppose that I ransomed a friend from pirates, but another pirate has + caught him and thrown him into prison. The pirate has not robbed him of my + benefit, but has only robbed him of the enjoyment of it. Or suppose that I + have saved a man's children from a shipwreck or a fire, and that + afterwards disease or accident has carried them off; even when they are no + more, the kindness which was done by means of them remains. All those + things, therefore, which improperly assume the name of benefits, are means + by which kindly feeling manifests itself. In other cases also, we find a + distinction between the visible symbol and the matter itself, as when a + general bestows collars of gold, or civic or mural crowns upon any one. + What value has the crown in itself? or the purple-bordered robe? or the + fasces? or the judgment-seat and car of triumph? None of these things is + in itself an honour, but is an emblem of honour. In like manner, that + which is seen is not a benefit—it is but the trace and mark of a + benefit. + </p> + <p> + VI. What, then, is a benefit? It is the art of doing a kindness which both + bestows pleasure and gains it by bestowing it, and which does its office + by natural and spontaneous impulse. It is not, therefore, the thing which + is done or given, but the spirit in which it is done or given, that must + be considered, because a benefit exists, not in that which is done or + given, but in the mind of the doer or giver. How great the distinction + between them is, you may perceive from this, that while a benefit is + necessarily good, yet that which is done or given is neither good nor bad. + The spirit in which they are given can exalt small things, can glorify + mean ones, and can discredit great and precious ones; the objects + themselves which are sought after have a neutral nature, neither good nor + bad; all depends upon the direction given them by the guiding spirit from + which things receive their shape. That which is paid or handed over is not + the benefit itself, just as the honour which we pay to the gods lies not + in the victims themselves, although they be fat and glittering with gold, + [Footnote: Alluding to the practice of gilding the horns of the victims.] + but in the pure and holy feelings of the worshippers. + </p> + <p> + Thus good men are religious, though their offering be meal and their + vessels of earthenware; whilst bad men will not escape from their impiety, + though they pour the blood of many victims upon the altars. + </p> + <p> + VII. If benefits consisted of things, and not of the wish to benefit, then + the more things we received the greater the benefit would be. But this is + not true, for sometimes we feel more gratitude to one who gives us trifles + nobly, who, like Virgil's poor old soldier, "holds himself as rich as + kings," if he has given us ever so little with a good will a man who + forgets his own need when he sees mine, who has not only a wish but a + longing to help, who thinks that he receives a benefit when he bestows + one, who gives as though he would receive no return, receives a repayment + as though he had originally given nothing, and who watches for and seizes + an opportunity of being useful. On the other hand, as I said before, those + gifts which are hardly wrung from the giver, or which drop unheeded from + his hands, claim no gratitude from us, however great they may appear and + may be. We prize much more what comes from a willing hand, than what comes + from a full one. This man has given me but little, yet more he could not + afford, while what that one has given is much indeed, but he hesitated, he + put it off, he grumbled when he gave it, he gave it haughtily, or he + proclaimed it aloud, and did it to please others, not to please the person + to whom he gave it; he offered it to his own pride, not to me. + </p> + <p> + VIII. As the pupils of Socrates, each in proportion to his means, gave him + large presents, Aeschines, a poor pupil, said, "I can find nothing to give + you which is worthy of you; I feel my poverty in this respect alone. + Therefore I present you with the only thing I possess, myself. I pray that + you may take this my present, such as it is, in good part, and may + remember that the others, although they gave you much, yet left for + themselves more than they gave." Socrates answered, "Surely you have + bestowed a great present upon me, unless perchance you set a small value + upon yourself. I will accordingly take pains to restore you to yourself a + better man than when I received you." By this present Aeschines outdid + Alcibiades, whose mind was as great as his Wealth, and all the splendour + of the most wealthy youths of Athens. + </p> + <p> + IX. You see how the mind even in the straitest circumstances finds the + means of generosity. Aeschines seems to me to have said, "Fortune, it is + in vain that you have made me poor; in spite of this I will find a worthy + present for this man. Since I can give him nothing of yours, I will give + him something of my own." Nor need you suppose that he held himself cheap; + he made himself his own price. By a stroke of genius this youth discovered + a means of presenting Socrates to himself. We must not consider how great + presents are, but in what spirit they are given. + </p> + <p> + A rich man is well spoken of if he is clever enough to render himself easy + of access to men of immoderate ambition, and although he intends to do + nothing to help them, yet encourages their unconscionable hopes; but he is + thought the worse of if he be sharp of tongue, sour in appearance, and + displays his wealth in an invidious fashion. For men respect and yet + loathe a fortunate man, and hate him for doing what, if they had the + chance, they would do themselves. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * * * * * * * +</pre> + <p> + Men nowadays no longer secretly, but openly outrage the wives of others, + and allow to others access to their own wives. A match is thought + countrified, uncivilized, in bad style, and to be protested against by all + matrons, if the husband should forbid his wife to appear in public in a + litter, and to be carried about exposed to the gaze of all observers. If a + man has not made himself notorious by a LIAISON with some mistress, if he + does not pay an annuity to some one else's wife, married women speak of + him as a poor-spirited creature, a man given to low vice, a lover of + servant girls. Soon adultery becomes the most respectable form of + marriage, and widowhood and celibacy are commonly practised. No one takes + a wife unless he takes her away from some one else. Now men vie with one + another in wasting what they have stolen, and in collecting together what + they have wasted with the keenest avarice; they become utterly reckless, + scorn poverty in others, fear personal injury more than anything else, + break the peace by their riots, and by violence and terror domineer over + those who are weaker than themselves. No wonder that they plunder + provinces and offer the seat of judgment for sale, knocking it down after + an auction to the highest bidder, since it is the law of nations that you + may sell what you have bought. + </p> + <p> + X. However, my enthusiasm has carried me further than I intended, the + subject being an inviting one. Let me, then, end by pointing out that the + disgrace of these crimes does not belong especially to our own time. Our + ancestors before us have lamented, and our children after us will lament, + as we do, the ruin, of morality, the prevalence of vice, and the gradual + deterioration of mankind; yet these things are really stationary, only + moved slightly to and fro like the waves which at one time a rising tide + washes further over the land, and at another an ebbing one restrains + within a lower water mark. At one time the chief vice will be adultery, + and licentiousness will exceed all bounds; at another time a rage for + feasting will be in vogue, and men will waste their inheritance in the + most shameful of all ways, by the kitchen; at another, excessive care for + the body, and a devotion to personal beauty which implies ugliness of + mind; at another time, injudiciously granted liberty will show itself in + wanton recklessness and defiance of authority; sometimes there will be a + reign of cruelty both in public and private, and the madness of the civil + wars will come upon us, which destroy all that is holy and inviolable. + Sometimes even drunkenness will be held in honour, and it will be a virtue + to swallow most wine. Vices do not lie in wait for us in one place alone, + but hover around us in changeful forms, sometimes even at variance one + with another, so that in turn they win and lose the field; yet we shall + always be obliged to pronounce the same verdict upon ourselves, that we + are and always were evil, and, I unwillingly add, that we always shall be. + There always will be homicides, tyrants, thieves, adulterers, ravishers, + sacrilegious, traitors: worse than all these is the ungrateful man, except + we consider that all these crimes flow from ingratitude, without which + hardly any great wickedness has ever grown to full stature. Be sure that + you guard against this as the greatest of crimes in yourself, but pardon + it as the least of crimes in another. For all the injury which you suffer + is this: you have lost the subject-matter of a benefit, not the benefit + itself, for you possess unimpaired the best part of it, in that you have + given it. Though we ought to be careful to bestow our benefits by + preference upon those who are likely to show us gratitude for them, yet we + must sometimes do what we have little hope will turn out well, and bestow + benefits upon those who we not only think will prove ungrateful, but who + we know have been so. For instance, if I should be able to save a man's + children from a great danger with no risk to myself, I should not hesitate + to do so. If a man be worthy I would defend him even with my blood, and + would share his perils; if he be unworthy, and yet by merely crying for + help I can rescue him from robbers, I would without reluctance raise the + shout which would save a fellow-creature. + </p> + <p> + XI. The next point to be defined is, what kind of benefits are to be + given, and in what manner. First let us give what is necessary, next what + is useful, and then what is pleasant, provided that they be lasting. We + must begin with what is necessary, for those things which support life + affect the mind very differently from, those which adorn and improve it. A + man may be nice, and hard to please, in things which he can easily do + without, of which he can say, "Take them back; I do not want them, I am + satisfied with what I have." Sometimes, we wish not only to, return what + we have received, but even to throw it away. Of necessary things, the + first class consists of things without which we cannot live; the second, + of things without which we ought not to live; and the third, of things + without which we should not care to live. The first class are, to be saved + from the hands of the enemy, from the anger of tyrants, from proscription, + and the various other perils which beset human life. By averting any one + of these, we shall earn gratitude proportionate to the greatness of the + danger, for when men think of the greatness of the misery from which they + have been saved, the terror which they have gone through enhances the + value of our services. Yet we ought not to delay rescuing any one longer + than we are obliged, solely in order to make his fears add weight to our + services. Next come those things without which we can indeed live, but in + such a manner that it would be better to die, such as liberty, chastity, + or a good conscience. After these are what we have come to hold dear by + connexion and relationship and long use and custom, such as our wives and + children, our household gods, and so on, to which the mind so firmly + attaches itself that separation from them seems worse than death. + </p> + <p> + After these come useful things, which form a very wide and varied class; + in which will be money, not in excess, but enough for living in a moderate + style; public office, and, for the ambitious, due advancement to higher + posts; for nothing can be more useful to a man than to be placed in a + position in which he can benefit himself. All benefits beyond these are + superfluous, and are likely to spoil those who receive them. In giving + these we must be careful to make them acceptable by giving them at the + appropriate time, or by giving things which are not common, but such as + few people possess, or at any rate few possess in our times; or again, by + giving things in such a manner, that though not naturally valuable, they + become so by the time and place at which they are given. We must reflect + what present will produce the most pleasure, what will most frequently + come under the notice of the possessor of it, so that whenever he is with + it he may be with us also; and in all cases we must be careful not to send + useless presents, such as hunting weapons to a woman or old man, or books + to a rustic, or nets to catch wild animals to a quiet literary man. On the + other hand, we ought to be careful, while we wish to send what will + please, that we do not send what will insultingly remind our friends of + their failings, as, for example, if we send wine to a hard drinker or + drugs to an invalid, for a present which contains an allusion to the + shortcomings of the receiver, becomes an outrage. + </p> + <p> + XII. If we have a free choice as to what to give, we should above all + choose lasting presents, in order that our gift may endure as long as + possible; for few are so grateful as to think of what they have received, + even when they do not see it. Even the ungrateful remember us by our + gifts, when they are always in their sight and do not allow themselves to + be forgotten, but constantly obtrude and stamp upon the mind the memory of + the giver. As we never ought to remind men of what we have given them, we + ought all the more to choose presents that will be permanent; for the + things themselves will prevent the remembrance of the giver from fading + away. I would more willingly give a present of plate than of coined money, + and would more willingly give statues than clothes or other things which + are soon worn out. Few remain grateful after the present is gone: many + more remember their presents only while they make use of them. If + possible, I should like my present not to be consumed; let it remain in + existence, let it stick to my friend and share his life. No one is so + foolish as to need to be told not to send gladiators or wild beasts to one + who has just given a public show, or not to send summer clothing in winter + time, or winter clothing in summer. Common sense must guide our benefits; + we must consider the time and the place, and the character of the + receiver, which are the weights in the scale, which cause our gifts to be + well or ill received. How far more acceptable a present is, if we give a + man what he has not, than if we give him what he has plenty of! if we give + him what he has long been searching for in vain, rather than what he sees + everywhere! Let us make presents of things which are rare and scarce + rather than costly, things which even a rich man will be glad of, just as + common fruits, such as we tire of after a few days, please us if they have + ripened before the usual season. People will also esteem things which no + one else has given to them, or which we have given to no one else. + </p> + <p> + XIII. When the conquest of the East had flattered Alexander of Macedon + into believing himself to be more than man, the people of Corinth sent an + embassy to congratulate him, and presented him with the franchise of their + city. When Alexander smiled at this form of courtesy, one of the + ambassadors said, "We have never enrolled any stranger among our citizens + except Hercules and yourself." Alexander willingly accepted the proffered + honour, invited the ambassadors to his table, and showed them other + courtesies. He did not think of who offered the citizenship, but to whom + they had granted it; and being altogether the slave of glory, though he + knew neither its true nature or its limits, had followed in the footsteps + of Hercules and Bacchus, and had not even stayed his march where they + ceased; so that he glanced aside from the givers of this honour to him + with whom he shared it, and fancied that the heaven to which his vanity + aspired was indeed opening before him when he was made equal to Hercules. + In what indeed did that frantic youth, whose only merit was his lucky + audacity, resemble Hercules? Hercules conquered nothing for himself; he + travelled throughout the world, not coveting for himself but liberating + the countries which he conquered, an enemy to bad men, a defender of the + good, a peacemaker both by sea and land; whereas the other was from his + boyhood a brigand and desolator of nations, a pest to his friends and + enemies alike, whose greatest joy was to be the terror of all mankind, + forgetting that men fear not only the fiercest but also the most cowardly + animals, because of their evil and venomous nature. + </p> + <p> + XIV. Let us now return to our subject. He who bestows a benefit without + discrimination, gives what pleases no one; no one considers himself to be + under any obligation to the landlord of a tavern, or to be the guest of + any one with whom he dines in such company as to be able to say, "What + civility has he shown to me? no more than he has shown to that man, whom + he scarcely knows, or to that other, who is both his personal enemy and a + man of infamous character. Do you suppose that he wished to do me any + honour? not so, he merely wished to indulge his own vice of profusion." If + you wish men to be grateful for anything, give it but seldom; no one can + bear to receive what you give to all the world. Yet let no one gather from + this that I wish to impose any bonds upon generosity; let her go to what + lengths she will, so that she go a steady course, not at random. It is + possible to bestow gifts in such a manner that each of those who receive + them, although he shares them with many others, may yet feel himself to be + distinguished from the common herd. Let each man have some peculiarity + about his gift which may make him consider himself more highly favoured + than the rest. He may say, "I received the same present that he did, but I + never asked for it." "I received the same present, but mine was given me + after a few days, whereas he had earned it by long service." "Others have + the same present, but it was not given to them with the same courtesy and + gracious words with which it was given to me." "That man got it because he + asked for it; I did not ask." "That man received it as well as I, but then + he could easily return it; one has great expectations from a rich man, old + and childless, as he is; whereas in giving the same present to me he + really gave more, because he gave it without the hope of receiving any + return for it." Just as a courtesan divides her favours among many men, so + that no one of her friends is without some proof of her affection, so let + him who wishes his benefits to be prized consider how he may at the same + time gratify many men, and nevertheless give each one of them some + especial mark of favour to distinguish him from the rest. + </p> + <p> + XV. I am no advocate of slackness in giving benefits: the more and the + greater they are, the more praise they will bring to the giver. Yet let + them be given with discretion; for what is given carelessly and recklessly + can please no one. Whoever, therefore, supposes that in giving this advice + I wish to restrict benevolence and to confine it to narrower limits, + entirely mistakes the object of my warning. What virtue do we admire more + than benevolence? Which do we encourage more? Who ought to applaud it more + than we Stoics, who preach the brotherhood of the human race? What then is + it? Since no impulse of the human mind can be approved of, even though it + springs from a right feeling, unless it be made into a virtue by + discretion, I forbid generosity to degenerate into extravagance. It is, + indeed, pleasant to receive a benefit with open arms, when reason bestows + it upon the worthy, not when it is flung hither or thither thoughtlessly + and at random; this alone we care to display and claim as our own. Can you + call anything a benefit, if you feel ashamed to mention the person who + gave it you? How far more grateful is a benefit, how far more deeply does + it impress itself upon the mind, never to be forgotten, when we rejoice to + think not so much of what it is, as from whom we have received it! Crispus + Passienus was wont to say that some men's advice was to be preferred to + their presents, some men's presents to their advice; and he added as an + example, "I would rather have received advice from Augustus than a + present; I would rather receive a present from Claudius than advice." I, + however, think that one ought not to wish for a benefit from any man whose + judgement is worthless. What then? Ought we not to receive what Claudius + gives? We ought; but we ought to regard it as obtained from fortune, which + may at any moment turn against us. Why do we separate this which naturally + is connected? That is not a benefit, to which the best part of a benefit, + that it be bestowed with judgment, is wanting: a really great sum of + money, if it be given neither with discernment nor with good will, is no + more a benefit than if it remained hoarded. There are, however, many + things which we ought not to reject, yet for which we cannot feel + indebted. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK II. + </h2> + <h3> + I. + </h3> + <p> + Let us consider, most excellent Liberalis, what still remains of the + earlier part of the subject; in what way a benefit should be bestowed. I + think that I can point out the shortest way to this; let us give in the + way in which we ourselves should like to receive. Above all we should give + willingly, quickly, and without any hesitation; a benefit commands no + gratitude if it has hung for a long time in the hands of the giver, if he + seems unwilling to part with it, and gives it as though he were being + robbed of it. Even though some delay should intervene, let us by all means + in our power strive not to seem to have been in two minds about giving it + at all. To hesitate is the next thing to refusing to give, and destroys + all claim to gratitude. For just as the sweetest part of a benefit is the + kindly feeling of the giver, it follows that one who has by his very delay + proved that he gives unwillingly, must be regarded not as having given + anything, but as having been unable to keep it from an importunate suitor. + Indeed, many men are made generous by want of firmness. The most + acceptable benefits are those which are waiting for us to take them, which + are easy to be received, and offer themselves to us, so that the only + delay is caused by the modesty of the receiver. The best thing of all is + to anticipate a person's wishes; the next, to follow them; the former is + the better course, to be beforehand with our friends by giving them what + they want before they ask us for it, for the value of a gift is much + enhanced by sparing an honest man the misery of asking for it with + confusion and blushes. He who gets what he asked for does not get it for + nothing, for indeed, as our austere ancestors thought, nothing is so dear + as that which is bought by prayers. Men would be much more modest in their + petitions to heaven, if these had to be made publicly; so that even when + addressing the gods, before whom we can with all honour bend our knees, we + prefer to pray silently and within ourselves. + </p> + <p> + II. It is unpleasant, burdensome, and covers one with shame to have to + say, "Give me." You should spare your friends, and those whom you wish to + make your friends, from having to do this; however quick he may be, a man + gives too late who gives what he has been asked for. We ought, therefore, + to divine every man's wishes, and when we have discovered them, to set him + free from the hard necessity of asking; you may be sure that a benefit + which comes unasked will be delightful and will not be forgotten. If we do + not succeed in anticipating our friends, let us at any rate cut them short + when they ask us for anything, so that we may appear to be reminded of + what we meant to do, rather than to have been asked to do it. Let us + assent at once, and by our promptness make it appear that we meant to do + so even before we were solicited. As in dealing with sick persons much + depends upon when food is given, and plain water given at the right moment + sometimes acts as a remedy, so a benefit, however slight and commonplace + it may be, if it be promptly given without losing a moment of time, gains + enormously in importance, and wins our gratitude more than a far more + valuable present given after long waiting and deliberation. One who gives + so readily must needs give with good will; he therefore gives cheerfully + and shows his disposition in his countenance. + </p> + <p> + III. Many who bestow immense benefits spoil them by their silence or + slowness of speech, which gives them an air of moroseness, as they say + "yes" with a face which seems to say "no." How much better is it to join + kind words to kind actions, and to enhance the value of our gifts by a + civil and gracious commendation of them! To cure your friend of being slow + to ask a favour of you, you may join to your gift the familiar rebuke, "I + am angry with you for not having long ago let me know what you wanted, for + having asked for it so formally, or for having made interest with a third + party." "I congratulate myself that you have been pleased to make trial of + me; hereafter, if you want anything, ask for it as your right; however, + for this time I pardon your want of manners." By so doing you will cause + him to value your friendship more highly than that, whatever it may have + been, which he came to ask of you. The goodness and kindness of a + benefactor never appears so great as when on leaving him one says, "I have + to-day gained much; I am more pleased at finding him so kind than if I had + obtained many times more of this, of which I was speaking, by some other + means; I never can make any adequate return to this man for his goodness." + </p> + <p> + IV. Many, however, there are who, by harsh words and contemptuous manner, + make their very kindnesses odious, for by speaking and acting disdainfully + they make us sorry that they have granted our requests. Various delays + also take place after we have obtained a promise; and nothing is more + heartbreaking than to be forced to beg for the very thing which you + already have been promised. Benefits ought to be bestowed at once, but + from some persons it is easier to obtain the promise of them than to get + them. One man has to be asked to remind our benefactor of his purpose; + another, to bring it into effect; and thus a single present is worn away + in passing through many hands, until hardly any gratitude is left for the + original promiser, since whoever we are forced to solicit after the giving + of the promise receives some of the gratitude which we owe to the giver. + Take care, therefore, if you wish your gifts to be esteemed, that they + reach those to whom they are promised entire, and, as the saying is, + without any deduction. Let no one intercept them or delay them; for no one + can take any share of the gratitude due for your gifts without robbing you + of it. + </p> + <p> + V. Nothing is more bitter than long uncertainty; some can bear to have + their hopes extinguished better than to have them deferred. Yet many men + are led by an unworthy vanity into this fault of putting off the + accomplishment of their promises, merely in order to swell the crowd of + their suitors, like the ministers of royalty, who delight in prolonging + the display of their own arrogance, hardly thinking themselves possessed + of power unless they let each man see for a long time how powerful they + are. They do nothing promptly, or at one sitting; they are indeed swift to + do mischief, but slow to do good. Be sure that the comic poet speaks the + most absolute truth in the verses:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Know you not this? If you your gifts delay, + You take thereby my gratitude away." +</pre> + <p> + And the following lines, the expression of virtuous pain—a + high-spirited man's misery,— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "What thou doest, do quickly;" +</pre> + <p> + and:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Nothing in the world + Is worth this trouble; I had rather you + Refused it to me now." +</pre> + <p> + When the mind begins through weariness to hate the promised benefit, or + while it is wavering in expectation of it, how can it feel grateful for + it? As the most refined cruelty is that which prolongs the torture, while + to kill the victim at once is a kind of mercy, since the extremity of + torture brings its own end with it—the interval is the worst part of + the execution—so the shorter time a benefit hangs in the balance, + the more grateful it is to the receiver. It is possible to look forward + with anxious disquietude even to good things, and, seeing that most + benefits consist in a release from some form of misery, a man destroys the + value of the benefit which he confers, if he has the power to relieve us, + and yet allows us to suffer or to lack pleasure longer than we need. + Kindness always eager to do good, and one who acts by love naturally acts + at once; he who does us good, but does it tardily and with long delays, + does not do so from the heart. Thus he loses two most important things: + time, and the proof of his good will to us; for a lingering consent is but + a form of denial. + </p> + <p> + VI. The manner in which things are said or done, my Liberalis, forms a + very important part of every transaction. We gain much by quickness, and + lose much by slowness. Just as in darts, the strength of the iron head + remains the same, but there is an immeasureable difference between the + blow of one hurled with the full swing of the arm and one which merely + drops from the hand, and the same sword either grazes or pierces according + as the blow is delivered; so, in like manner, that which is given is the + same, but the manner in which it is given makes the difference. How sweet, + how precious is a gift, when he who gives does not permit himself to be + thanked, and when while he gives he forgets that he has given! To reproach + a man at the very moment that you are doing him a service is sheer + madness; it is to mix insult with your favours. We ought not to make our + benefits burdensome, or to add any bitterness to them. Even if there be + some subject upon which you wish to warn your friend, choose some other + time for doing so. + </p> + <p> + VII. Fabius Verrucosus used to compare a benefit bestowed by a harsh man + in an offensive manner to a gritty loaf of bread, which a hungry man is + obliged to receive, but which is painful to eat. When Marius Nepos of the + praetorian guard asked Tiberius Caesar for help to pay his debts, Tiberius + asked him for a list of his creditors; this is calling a meeting of + creditors, not paying debts. When the list was made out, Tiberius wrote to + Nepos telling him that he had ordered the money to be paid, and adding + some offensive reproaches. The result of this was that Nepos owed no + debts, yet received no kindness; Tiberius, indeed, relieved him from his + creditors, but laid him under no obligation. Tiberius, however, had some + design in doing so; I imagine he did not wish more of his friends to come + to him with the same request. His mode of proceeding was, perhaps, + successful in restraining men's extravagant desires by shame, but he who + wishes to confer benefits must follow quite a different path. In all ways + you should make your benefit as acceptable as possible by presenting it in + the most attractive form; but the method of Tiberius is not to confer + benefits, but to reproach. + </p> + <p> + VIII. Moreover, if incidentally I should say what I think of this part of + the subject, I do not consider that it is becoming even to an emperor to + give merely in order to cover a man with shame. "And yet," we are told, + "Tiberius did not even by this means attain his object; for after this a + good many persons were found to make the same request. He ordered all of + them to explain the reasons of their indebtedness before the senate, and + when they did so, granted them certain definite sums of money." This is + not an act of generosity, but a reprimand. You may call it a subsidy, or + an imperial contribution; it is not a benefit, for the receiver cannot + think of it without shame. I was summoned before a judge, and had to be + tried at bar before I obtained what I asked for. + </p> + <p> + IX. Accordingly, all writers on ethical philosophy tell us that some + benefits ought to be given in secret, others in public. Those things which + it is glorious to receive, such as military decorations or public offices, + and whatever else gains in value the more widely it is known, should be + conferred in public; on the other hand, when they do not promote a man or + add to his social standing, but help him when in weakness, in want, or in + disgrace, they should be given silently, and so as to be known only to + those who profit by them. + </p> + <p> + X. Sometimes even the person who is assisted must be deceived, in order + that he may receive our bounty without knowing the source from whence it + flows. It is said that Arcesilaus had a friend who was poor, but concealed + his poverty; who was ill, yet tried to hide his disorder, and who had not + money for the necessary expenses of existence. Without his knowledge, + Arcesilaus placed a bag of money under his pillow, in order that this + victim of false shame might rather seem to find what he wanted than to + receive. "What," say you, "ought he not to know from whom he received it?" + Yes; let him not know it at first, if it be essential to your kindness + that he should not; afterwards I will do so much for him, and give him so + much that he will perceive who was the giver of the former benefit; or, + better still, let him not know that he has received any thing, provided I + know that I have given it. "This," you say, "is to get too little return + for one's goodness." True, if it be an investment of which you are + thinking; but if a gift, it should be given in the way which will be of + most service to the receiver. You should be satisfied with the approval of + your own conscience; if not, you do not really delight in doing good, but + in being seen to do good. "For all that," say you, "I wish him to know + it." Is it a debtor that you seek for? "For all that, I wish him to know + it." What! though it be more useful, more creditable, more pleasant for + him not to know his benefactor, will you not consent to stand aside? "I + wish him to know." So, then, you would not save a man's life in the dark? + I do not deny that, whenever the matter admits of it, one ought to take + into consideration the pleasure which we receive from the joy of the + receiver of our kindness; but if he ought to have help and is ashamed to + receive it—if what we bestow upon him pains him unless it be + concealed—I forbear to make my benefits public. Why should I not + refrain from hinting at my having given him anything, when the first and + most essential rule is, never to reproach a man with what you have done + for him, and not even to remind him of it. The rule for the giver and + receiver of a benefit is, that the one should straightway forget that he + has given, the other should never forget that he has received it. + </p> + <p> + XI. A constant reference to one's own services wounds our friend's + feelings. Like the man who was saved from the proscription under the + triumvirate by one of Caesar's friends, and afterwards found it impossible + to endure his preserver's arrogance, they wish to cry, "Give me back to + Caesar." How long will you go on saying, "I saved you, I snatched you from + the jaws of death?" This is indeed life, if I remember it by my own will, + but death if I remember it at yours; I owe you nothing, if you saved me + merely in order to have some one to point at. How long do you mean to lead + me about? how long do you mean to forbid me to forget my adventure? If I + had been a defeated enemy, I should have been led in triumph but once. We + ought not to speak of the benefits which we have conferred; to remind men + of them is to ask them to return them. We should not obtrude them, or + recall the memory of them; you should only remind a man of what you have + given him by giving him something else. We ought not even to tell others + of our good deeds. He who confers a benefit should be silent, it should be + told by the receiver; for otherwise you may receive the retort which was + made to one who was everywhere boasting of the benefit which he had + conferred: "You will not deny," said his victim, "that you have received a + return for it?" "When?" asked he. "Often," said the other, "and in many + places, that is, wherever and whenever you have told the story." What need + is there for you to speak, and to take the place which belongs to another? + There is a man who can tell the story in a way much more to your credit, + and thus you will gain glory for not telling it your self. You would think + me ungrateful if, through your own silence, no one is to know of your + benefit. So far from doing this, even if any one tells the story in our + presence, we ought to make answer, "He does indeed deserve much more than + this, and I am aware that I have not hitherto done any great things for + him, although I wish to do so." This should not be said jokingly, nor yet + with that air by which some persons repel those whom they especially wish + to attract. In addition to this, we ought to act with the greatest + politeness towards such persons. If the farmer ceases his labours after he + has put in the seed, he will lose what he has sown; it is only by great + pains that seeds are brought to yield a crop; no plant will bear fruit + unless it be tended with equal care from first to last, and the same rule + is true of benefits. Can any benefits be greater than those which children + receive from their parents? Yet these benefits are useless if they be + deserted while young, if the pious care of the parents does not for a long + time watch over the gift which they have bestowed. So it is with other + benefits; unless you help them, you will lose them; to give is not enough, + you must foster what you have given. If you wish those whom you lay under + an obligation to be grateful to you, you must not merely confer benefits + upon them, but you must also love them. Above all, as I said before, spare + their ears; you will weary them if you remind them of your goodness, if + you reproach them with it you will make them hate you. Pride ought above + all things to be avoided when you confer a benefit. What need have you for + disdainful airs, or swelling phrases? the act itself will exalt you. Let + us shun vain boasting: let us be silent, and let our deeds speak for us. A + benefit conferred with haughtiness not only wins no gratitude, but causes + dislike. + </p> + <p> + XII. Gaius Caesar granted Pompeius Pennus his life, that is, if not to + take away life be to grant it; then, when Pompeius was set free and + returning thanks to him, he stretched out his left foot to be kissed. + Those who excuse this action, and say that it was not done through + arrogance, say that he wished to show him a gilded, nay a golden slipper + studded with pearls. "Well," say they, "what disgrace can there be in a + man of consular rank kissing gold and pearls, and what part of Caesar's + whole body was it less pollution to kiss?" So, then, that man, the object + of whose life was to change a free state into a Persian despotism, was not + satisfied when a senator, an aged man, a man who had filled the highest + offices in the state, prostrated himself before him in the presence of all + the nobles, just as the vanquished prostrate themselves before their + conqueror! He discovered a place below his knees down to which he might + thrust liberty. What is this but trampling upon the commonwealth, and + that, too, with the left foot, though you may say that this point does not + signify? It was not a sufficiently foul and frantic outrage for the + emperor to sit at the trial of a consular for his life wearing slippers, + he must needs push his shoes into a senator's face. + </p> + <p> + XIII. O pride, the silliest fault of great good fortune! how pleasant it + is to take nothing from thee! how dost thou turn all benefits into + outrages! how dost thou delight in all excess! how ill all things become + thee! The higher thou risest the lower thou art, and provest that the good + things by which thou art so puffed up profit thee not; thou spoilest all + that thou givest. It is worth while to inquire why it is that pride thus + swaggers and changes the form and appearance of her countenance, so that + she prefers a mask to her own face. It is pleasant to receive gifts when + they are conferred in a kindly and gentle manner, when a superior in + giving them does not exalt himself over me, but shows as much good feeling + as possible, placing himself on a level with me, giving without parade, + and choosing a time when I am glad of his help, rather than waiting till I + am in the bitterest need. The only way by which you can prevail upon proud + men not to spoil their gifts by their arrogance is by proving to them that + benefits do not appear greater because they are bestowed with great pomp + and circumstance; that no one will think them greater men for so doing, + and that excessive pride is a mere delusion which leads men to hate even + what they ought to love. + </p> + <p> + XIV. There are some things which injure those who receive them, things + which it is not a benefit to give but to withhold; we should therefore + consider the usefulness of our gift rather than the wish of the petitioner + to receive it; for we often long for hurtful things, and are unable to + discern how ruinous they are, because our judgment is biassed by our + feelings; when, however, the longing is past, when that frenzied impulse + which masters our good sense has passed away, we abhor those who have + given us hurtful gifts. As we refuse cold water to the sick, or swords to + the grief-stricken or remorseful, and take from the insane whatever they + might in their delirium use to their own destruction, so must we persist + in refusing to give anything whatever that is hurtful, although our + friends earnestly and humbly, nay, sometimes even most piteously beg for + it. We ought to look at the end of our benefits as well as the beginning, + and not merely to give what men are glad to receive, but what they will + hereafter be glad to have received. There are many who say, "I know that + this will do him no good, but what am I to do? he begs for it, I cannot + withstand his entreaties. Let him see to it; he will blame himself, not + me." Not so: you he will blame, and deservedly; when he comes to his right + mind, when the frenzy which now excites him has left him, how can he help + hating the man who has assisted him to harm and to endanger himself? It is + a cruel kindness to allow one's self to be won over into granting that + which injures those who beg for it. Just as it is the noblest of acts to + save men from harm against their will, so it is but hatred, under the mask + of civility, to grant what is harmful to those who ask for it. Let us + confer benefits of such a kind, that the more they are made use of the + better they please, and which never can turn into injuries. I never will + give money to a man if I know that he will pay it to an adulteress, nor + will I be found in connexion with any wicked act or plan; if possible, I + will restrain men from crime; if not, at least I will never assist them in + it. Whether my friend be driven into doing wrong by anger, or seduced from + the path of safety by the heat of ambition, he shall never gain the means + of doing mischief except from himself, nor will I enable him one day to + say, "He ruined me out of love for me." Our friends often give us what our + enemies wish us to receive; we are driven by the unseasonable fondness of + the former into the ruin which the latter hope will befall us. Yet, often + as it is the case, what can be more shameful than that there should be no + difference between a benefit and hatred? + </p> + <p> + XV. Let us never bestow gifts which may recoil upon us to our shame. As + the sum total of friendship consists in making our friends equal to + ourselves, we ought to consider the interests of both parties; I must give + to him that wants, yet so that I do not want myself; I must help him who + is perishing, yet so that I do not perish myself, unless by so doing I can + save a great man or a great cause. I must give no benefit which it would + disgrace me to ask for. I ought not to make a small benefit appear a great + one, nor allow great benefits to be regarded as small; for although it + destroys all feeling of gratitude to treat what you give like a creditor, + yet you do not reproach a man, but merely set off your gift to the best + advantage by letting him know what it is worth. Every man must consider + what his resources and powers are, so that we may not give either more or + less than we are able. We must also consider the character and position of + the person to whom we give, for some men are too great to give small + gifts, while others are too small to receive great ones. Compare, + therefore, the character both of the giver and the receiver, and weigh + that which you give between the two, taking care that what is given be + neither too burdensome nor too trivial for the one to give, nor yet such + as the receiver will either treat with disdain as too small, or think too + great for him to deal with. + </p> + <p> + XVI. Alexander, who was of unsound mind, and always full of magnificent + ideas, presented somebody with a city. When the man to whom he gave it had + reflected upon the scope of his own powers, he wished to avoid the + jealousy which so great a present would excite, saying that the gift did + not suit a man of his position. "I do not ask," replied Alexander, "what + is becoming for you to receive, but what is becoming for me to give." This + seems a spirited and kingly speech, yet really it is a most foolish one. + Nothing is by itself a becoming gift for any one: all depends upon who + gives it, to whom he gives it, when, for what reason, where, and so forth, + without which details it is impossible to argue about it. Inflated + creature! if it did not become him to receive this gift, it could not + become thee to give it. There should be a proportion between men's + characters and the offices which they fill; and as virtue in all cases + should be our measure, he who gives too much acts as wrongly as he who + gives too little. Even granting that fortune has raised you so high, that, + where other men give cups, you give cities (which it would show a greater + mind in you not to take than to take and squander), still there must be + some of your friends who are not strong enough to put a city in their + pockets. + </p> + <p> + XVII. A certain cynic asked Antigonus for a talent. Antigonus answered + that this was too much for a cynic to ask for. After this rebuff he asked + for a penny. Antigonus answered that this was too little for a king to + give. "This kind of hair-splitting" (you say) "is contemptible: he found + the means of giving neither. In the matter of the penny he thought of the + king, in that of the talent he thought of the cynic, whereas with respect + to the cynic it would have been right to receive the penny, with respect + to the king it would have been right to give the talent. Though there may + be things which are too great for a cynic to receive, yet nothing is so + small, that it does not become a gracious king to bestow it." If you ask + me, I applaud Antigonus; for it is not to be endured that a man who + despises money should ask for it. Your cynic has publicly proclaimed his + hatred of money, and assumed the character of one who despises it: let him + act up to his professions. It is most inconsistent for him to earn money + by glorifying his poverty. I wish to use Chrysippus's simile of the game + of ball, in which the ball must certainly fall by the fault either of the + thrower or of the catcher; it only holds its course when it passes between + the hands of two persons who each throw it and catch it suitably. It is + necessary, however, for a good player to send the ball in one way to a + comrade at a long distance, and in another to one at a short distance. So + it is with a benefit: unless it be suitable both for the giver and the + receiver, it will neither leave the one nor reach the other as it ought. + If we have to do with a practised and skilled player, we shall throw the + ball more recklessly, for however it may come, that quick and agile hand + will send it back again; if we are playing with an unskilled novice, we + shall not throw it so hard, but far more gently, guiding it straight into + his very hands, and we shall run to meet it when it returns to us. This is + just what we ought to do in conferring benefits; let us teach some men how + to do so, and be satisfied if they attempt it, if they have the courage + and the will to do so. For the most part, however, we make men ungrateful, + and encourage them, to be so, as if our benefits were only great when we + cannot receive any gratitude for them; just as some spiteful ball-players + purposely put out their companion, of course to the ruin of the game, + which cannot be carried on without entire agreement Many men are of so + depraved a nature that they had rather lose the presents which they make + than be thought to have received a return for them, because they are + proud, and like to lay people under obligations: yet how much better and + more kindly would it be if they tried to enable the others also to perform + their parts, if they encouraged them in returning gratitude, put the best + construction upon all their acts, received one who wished to thank them + just as cordially as if he came to repay what he had received, and easily + lent themselves to the belief that those whom they have laid under an + obligation wish to repay it. We blame usurers equally when they press + harshly for payment, and when they delay and make difficulties about + taking back the money which they have lent; in the same way, it is just as + right that a benefit should be returned, as it is wrong to ask any one to + return it. The best man is he who gives readily, never asks for any + return, and is delighted when the return is made, because, having really + and truly forgotten what he gave, he receives it as though it were a + present. + </p> + <p> + XVIII. Some men not only give, but even receive benefit haughtily, a + mistake into which we ought not to fall: for now let us cross over to the + other side of the subject, and consider how men should behave when they + receive benefits. Every function which is performed by two persons makes + equal demands upon both: after you have considered what a father ought to + be, you will perceive that there remains an equal task, that of + considering what a son ought to be: a husband has certain duties, but + those of a wife are no less important. Each of these give and take + equally, and each require a similar rule of life, which, as Hecaton + observes, is hard to follow: indeed, it is difficult for us to attain to + virtue, or even to anything that comes near virtue: for we ought not only + to act virtuously but to do so upon principle. We ought to follow this + guide throughout our lives, and to do everything great and small according + to its dictates: according as virtue prompts us we ought both to give and + to receive. Now she will declare at the outset that we ought not to + receive benefits from every man. "From whom, then, ought we to receive + them?" To answer you briefly, I should say, from those to whom we have + given them. Let us consider whether we ought not to be even more careful + in choosing to whom we should owe than to whom we should give. For even + supposing that no unpleasantness should result (and very much always + does), still it is a great misery to be indebted to a man to whom you do + not wish to be under an obligation; whereas it is most delightful to + receive a benefit from one whom you can love even after he has wronged + you, and when the pleasure which you feel in his friendship is justified + by the grounds on which it is based. Nothing is more wretched for a modest + and honourable man than to feel it to be his duty to love one whom it does + not please him to love. I must constantly remind you that I do not speak + of wise men, who take pleasure in everything that is their duty, who have + their feelings under command, and are able to lay down whatever law they + please to themselves and keep it, but that I speak of imperfect beings + struggling to follow the right path, who often have trouble in bending + their passions to their will. I must therefore choose the man from whom I + will accept a benefit; indeed, I ought to be more careful in the choice of + my creditor for a benefit than for money; for I have only to pay the + latter as much as I received of him, land when I have paid it I am free + from all obligation; but to the other I must both repay more, and even + when I have repaid his kindness we remain connected, for when I have paid + my debt I ought again to renew it, while our friendship endures unbroken. + Thus, as I ought not to make an unworthy man my friend, so I ought not to + admit an unworthy man into that most holy bond of gratitude for benefits, + from which friendship arises. You reply, "I cannot always say 'No': + sometimes I must receive a benefit even against my will. Suppose I were + given something by a cruel and easily offended tyrant, who would take it + as an affront if his bounty were slighted? am I not to accept it? Suppose + it were offered by a pirate, or a brigand, or a king of the temper of a + pirate or brigand. What ought I to do? Such a man is not a worthy object + for me to owe a benefit to." When I say that you ought to choose, I except + vis major and fear, which destroy all power of choice. If you are free, if + it lies with you to decide whether you will or not, then you will turn + over in your own mind whether you will take a gift from a man or not; but + if your position makes it impossible for you to choose, then be assured + that you do not receive a gift, you merely obey orders. No one incurs any + obligation by receiving what it was not in his power to refuse; if you + want to know whether I wish to take it, arrange matters so that I have the + power of saying 'No.' "Yet suppose he gave you your life." It does not + matter what the gift was, unless it be given and received with good will: + you are not my preserver because you have saved my life. Poison sometimes + acts as a medicine, yet it is not on that account regarded as wholesome. + Some things benefit us but put us under no obligation: for instance a man + who intended to kill a tyrant, cut with his sword a tumour from which he + suffered: yet the tyrant did not show him gratitude because by wounding + him he had healed a disease which surgeons had feared to meddle with. + </p> + <p> + XIX. You see that the actual thing itself is not of much importance, + because it is not regarded as a benefit at all, if you do good when you + intended to do evil; in such a case the benefit is done by chance, the man + did harm. I have seen a lion in the amphitheatre, who recognized one of + the men who fought with wild beasts, who once had been his keeper, and + protected him against the attacks of the other animals. Are we, then, to + say that this assistance of the brute was a benefit? By no means, because + it did not intend to do it, and did not do it with kindly intentions. You + may class the lion and your tyrant together: each of them saved a man's + life, yet neither conferred a benefit. Because it is not a benefit to be + forced to receive one, neither is it a benefit to be under an obligation + to a man to whom we do not wish to be indebted. You must first give me + personal freedom of decision, and then your benefit. + </p> + <p> + XX. The question has been raised, whether Marcus Brutus ought to have + received his life from the hands of Julius Caesar, who, he had decided, + ought to be put to death. + </p> + <p> + As to the grounds upon which he put him to death, I shall discuss them + elsewhere; for to my mind, though he was in other respects a great man, in + this he seems to have been entirely wrong, and not to have followed the + maxims of the Stoic philosophy. He must either have feared the name of + "King," although a state thrives best under a good king, or he must have + hoped that liberty could exist in a state where some had so much to gain + by reigning, and others had so much to gain by becoming slaves. Or, again, + he must have supposed that it would be possible to restore the ancient + constitution after all the ancient manners had been lost, and that + citizens could continue to possess equal rights, or laws remain inviolate, + in a state in which he had seen so many thousands of men fighting to + decide, not whether they should be slaves or free, but which master they + should serve. How forgetful he seems to have been, both of human nature + and of the history of his own country, in supposing that when one despot + was destroyed another of the same temper would not take his place, though, + after so many kings had perished by lightning and the sword, a Tarquin was + found to reign! Yet Brutus did right in receiving his life from Caesar, + though he was not bound thereby to regard Caesar as his father, since it + was by a wrong that Caesar had come to be in a position to bestow this + benefit. A man does not save your life who does not kill you; nor does he + confer a benefit, but merely gives you your discharge. [The 'discharge' + alluded to is that which was granted to the beaten one of a pair of + gladiators, when their duel was not to the death.] + </p> + <p> + XXI. It seems to offer more opportunity for debate to consider what a + captive ought to do, if a man of abominable vices offers him the price of + his ransom? Shall I permit myself to be saved by a wretch? When safe, what + recompense can I make to him? Am I to live with an infamous person? Yet, + am I not to live with my preserver? I will tell you my opinion. I would + accept money, even from such a person, if it were to save my life; yet I + would only accept it as a loan, not as a benefit. I would repay him the + money, and if I were ever able to preserve him from danger I would do so. + As for friendship, which can only exist between equals, I would not + condescend to be such a man's friend; nor would I regard him as my + preserver, but merely as a money-lender, to whom I am only bound to repay + what I borrowed from him. + </p> + <p> + A man may be a worthy person for me to receive a benefit from, but it will + hurt him to give it. For this reason I will not receive it, because he is + ready to help me to his own prejudice, or even danger. Suppose that he is + willing to plead for me in court, but by so doing will make the king his + enemy. I should be his enemy, if, when he is willing to risk himself for + me, if I were not to risk myself without him, which moreover is easier for + me to do. + </p> + <p> + As an instance of this, Hecaton calls the case of Arcesilaus silly, and + not to the purpose. Arcesilaus, he says, refused to receive a large sum of + money which was offered to him by a son, lest the son should offend his + penurious father. What did he do deserving of praise, in not receiving + stolen goods, in choosing not to receive them, instead of returning them? + What proof of self-restraint is there in refusing to receive another man's + property. If you want an instance of magnanimity, take the case of Julius + Graecinus, whom Caius Caesar put to death merely on the ground that he was + a better man than it suited a tyrant for anyone to be. This man, when he + was receiving subscriptions from many of his friends to cover his expenses + in exhibiting public games, would not receive a large sum which was sent + him by Fabius Persicus; and when he was blamed for rejecting it by those + who think more of what is given than of who gives it, he answered, "Am I + to accept a present from a man when I would not accept his offer to drink + a glass of wine with him?" + </p> + <p> + When a consular named Rebilius, a man of equally bad character, sent a yet + larger sum to Graecinus, and pressed him to receive it. "I must beg," + answered he, "that you will excuse me. I did not take money from Persicus + either." Ought we to call this receiving presents, or rather taking one's + pick of the senate? + </p> + <p> + XXII. When we have decided to accept, let us accept with cheerfulness, + showing pleasure, and letting the giver see it, so that he may at once + receive some return for his goodness: for as it is a good reason for + rejoicing to see our friend happy, it is a better one to have made him so. + Let us, therefore, show how acceptable a gift is by loudly expressing our + gratitude for it; and let us do so, not only in the hearing of the giver, + but everywhere. He who receives a benefit with gratitude, repays the first + instalment of it. + </p> + <p> + XXIII. There are some, who only like to receive benefits privately: they + dislike having any witnesses and confidants. Such men, we may believe, + have no good intentions. As a giver is justified in dwelling upon those + qualities of his gift which will please the receiver, so a man, when he + receives, should do so publicly; you should not take from a man what you + are ashamed to owe him. Some return thanks to one stealthily, in a corner, + in a whisper. This is not modesty, but a kind of denying of the debt: it + is the part of an ungrateful man not to express his gratitude before + witnesses. Some object to any accounts being kept between them and their + benefactors, and wish no brokers to be employed or witnesses to be called, + but merely to give their own signature to a receipt. Those men do the + like, who take care to let as few persons as possible know of the benefits + which they have received. They fear to receive them in public, in order + that their success may be attributed rather to their own talents than to + the help of others: they are very seldom to be found in attendance upon + those to whom they owe their lives and their fortunes, and thus, while + avoiding the imputation of servility, they incur that of ingratitude. + </p> + <p> + XXIV. Some men speak in the most offensive terms of those to whom they owe + most. There are men whom it is safer to affront than to serve, for their + dislike leads them to assume the airs of persons who are not indebted to + us: although nothing more is expected of them than that they should + remember what they owe us, refreshing their memory from time to time, + because no one can be grateful who forgets a kindness, and he who + remembers it, by so doing proves his gratitude. We ought neither to + receive benefits with a fastidious air, nor yet with a slavish humility: + for if a man does not care for a benefit when it is freshly bestowed—a + time at which all presents please us most—what will he do when its + first charms have gone off? Others receive with an air of disdain, as much + as to say. "I do not want it; but as you wish it so very much, I will + allow you to give it to me." Others take benefits languidly, and leave the + giver in doubt as to whether they know that they have received them; + others barely open their lips in thanks, and would be less offensive if + they said nothing. One ought to proportion one's thanks to the importance + of the benefit received, and to use the phrases, "You have laid more of us + than you think under an obligation," for everyone likes to find his good + actions extend further than he expected. "You do not know what it is that + you have done for me; but you ought to know how much more important it is + than you imagine." It is in itself an expression of gratitude to speak of + one's self as overwhelmed by kindness; or "I shall never be able to thank + you sufficiently; but, at any rate, I will never cease to express + everywhere my inability to thank you." + </p> + <p> + XXV. By nothing did Furnius gain greater credit with Augustus, and make it + easy for him to obtain anything else for which he might ask, than by + merely saying, when at his request Augustus pardoned his father for having + taken Antonius's side, "One wrong alone I have received at your hands, + Caesar; you have forced me to live and to die owing you a greater debt of + gratitude than I can ever repay." What can prove gratitude so well as that + a man should never be satisfied, should never even entertain the hope of + making any adequate return for what he has received? By these and similar + expressions we must try not to conceal our gratitude, but to display it as + clearly as possible. No words need be used; if we only feel as we ought, + our thankfulness will be shown in our countenances. He who intends to be + grateful, let him think how he shall repay a kindness while he is + receiving it. Chrysippus says that such a man must watch for his + opportunity, and spring forward whenever it offers, like one who has been + entered for a race, and who stands at the starting-point waiting for the + barriers to be thrown open; and even then he must use great exertions and + great swiftness to catch the other, who has a start of him. + </p> + <p> + XXVI. We must now consider what is the main cause of ingratitude. It is + caused by excessive self-esteem, by that fault innate in all mortals, of + taking a partial view of ourselves and our own acts, by greed, or by + jealousy. + </p> + <p> + Let us begin with the first of these. Every one is prejudiced in his own + favour, from which it follows that he believes himself to have earned all + that he receives, regards it as payment for his services, and does not + think that he has been appraised at a valuation sufficiently near his own. + "He has given me this," says he, "but how late, after how much toil? how + much more might I have earned if I had attached myself to So and so, or to + So and so? I did not expect this; I have been treated like one of the + herd; did he really think that I only deserved so little? why, it would + have been less insulting to have passed me over altogether." + </p> + <p> + XXVII. The augur Cnaeus Lentulus, who, before his freedmen reduced him to + poverty, was one of the richest of men, who saw himself in possession of a + fortune of four hundred millions—I say advisedly, "saw," for he + never did more than see it—was as barren and contemptible in + intellect as he was in spirit. Though very avaricious, yet he was so poor + a speaker that he found it easier to give men coins than words. This man, + who owed all his prosperity to the late Emperor Augustus, to whom he had + brought only poverty, encumbered with a noble name, when he had risen to + be the chief man in Rome, both in wealth and influence, used sometimes to + complain that Augustus had interrupted his legal studies, observing that + he had not received anything like what he had lost by giving up the study + of eloquence. Yet the truth was that Augustus, besides loading him with + other gifts, had set him free from the necessity of making himself + ridiculous by labouring at a profession in which he never could succeed. + </p> + <p> + Greed does not permit any one to be grateful; for what is given is never + equal to its base desires, and the more we receive the more we covet, for + avarice is much more eager when it has to deal with great accumulations of + wealth, just as the power of a flame is enormously greater in proportion + to the size of the conflagration from which it springs. Ambition in like + manner suffers no man to rest satisfied with that measure of public + honours, to gain which was once the limit of his wildest hope; no one is + thankful for becoming tribune, but grumbles at not being at once promoted + to the post of praetor; nor is he grateful for this if the consulship does + not follow; and even this does not satisfy him if he be consul but once. + His greed ever stretches itself out further, and he does not understand + the greatness of his success because he always looks forward to the point + at which he aims, and never back towards that from which he started. + </p> + <p> + XXVIII. A more violent and distressing vice than any of these is jealousy + which disturbs us by suggesting comparisons. "He gave me this, but he gave + more to that man, and he gave it to him before me;" after which he + sympathises with no one, but pushes his own claims to the prejudice of + every one else. How much more straightforward and modest is it to make the + most of what we have received, knowing that no man is valued so highly by + any one else as by his own, self! "I ought to have received more, but it + was not easy for him to give more; he was obliged to distribute his + liberality among many persons. This is only the beginning; let me be + contented, and by my gratitude encourage him to show me more favour; he + has not done as much as he ought, but he will do so the more frequently; + he certainly preferred that man to me, but he has preferred me before many + others; that man is not my equal either in virtue or in services, but he + has some charm of his own: by complaining I shall not make myself deserve + to receive more, but shall become unworthy of what I have received. More + has been given to those most villainous men than has been given to me; + well, what is that to the purpose? how seldom does Fortune show judgment + in her choice? We complain every day of the success of bad men; very often + the hail passes over the estates of the greatest villains and strikes down + the crops of the best of men; every man has to take his chance, in + friendship as well as in everything else." There is no benefit so great + that spitefulness can pick no holes in it, none so paltry that it cannot + be made more of by friendly interpretation. We shall never want a subject + for complaint if we look at benefits on their wrong side. + </p> + <p> + XXIX. See how unjustly the gifts of heaven are valued even by some who + profess themselves philosophers, who complain that we are not as big as + elephants, as swift as stags, as light as birds, as strong as bulls; that + the skins of seals are stronger, of hinds prettier, of bears thicker, of + beavers softer than ours; that dogs excel us in delicacy of scent, eagles + in keenness of sight, crows in length of days, and many beasts in ease of + swimming. And although nature itself does not allow some qualities, as for + example strength and swiftness, to be combined in the same person, yet + they call it a monstrous thing that men are not compounded of different + and inconsistent good qualities, and call the gods neglectful of us + because we have not been given health which even our vices cannot destroy, + or knowledge of the future. They scarcely refrain from rising to such a + pitch of impudence as to hate nature because we are below the gods, and + not on an equality with them. How much better is it to turn to the + contemplation of so many great blessings, and to be thankful that the gods + have been pleased to give us a place second only to themselves in this + most beautiful abode, and that they have appointed us to be the lords of + the earth! Can any one compare us with the animals over whom we rule? + Nothing has been denied us except what could not have been granted. In + like manner, thou that takest an unfair view of the lot of mankind, think + what blessings our Father has bestowed upon us, how far more powerful + animals than ourselves we have broken to harness, how we catch those which + are far swifter, how nothing that has life is placed beyond the reach of + our weapons! We have received so many excellencies, so many crafts, above + all our mind, which can pierce at once whatever it is directed against, + which is swifter than the stars in their courses, for it arrives before + them at the place which they will reach after many ages; and besides this, + so many fruits of the earth, so much treasure, such masses of various + things piled one upon another. You may go through the whole order of + nature, and since you find no entire creature which you would prefer to + be, you may choose from each, the special qualities which you would like + to be given to yourself; then, if you rightly appreciate the partiality of + nature for you, you cannot but confess yourself to be her spoiled child. + So it is; the immortal gods have unto this day always held us most dear, + and have bestowed upon us the greatest possible honour, a place nearest to + themselves. We have indeed received great things, yet not too great. + </p> + <p> + XXX. I have thought it necessary, my friend Liberalis, to state these + facts, both because when speaking of small benefits one ought to make some + mention of the greatest, and because also this shameless and hateful vice + (of ingratitude), starting with these, transfers itself from them to all + the rest. If a man scorn these, the greatest of all benefits, to whom will + he feel gratitude, what gift will he regard as valuable or deserving to be + returned: to whom will he be grateful for his safety or his life, if he + denies that he has received from the gods that existence which he begs + from them daily? He, therefore, who teaches men to be grateful, pleads the + cause not only of men, but even of the gods, for though they, being placed + above all desires, cannot be in want of anything, yet we can nevertheless + offer them our gratitude. + </p> + <p> + No one is justified in seeking an excuse for ingratitude in his own + weakness or poverty, or in saying, "What am I to do, and how? When can I + repay my debt to my superiors the lords of heaven and earth?" Avaricious + as you are, it is easy for you to give them thanks, without expense; lazy + though you be, you can do it without labour. At the same instant at which + you received your debt towards them, if you wish to repay it, you have + done as much as any one can do, for he returns a benefit who receives it + with good will. + </p> + <p> + XXXI. This paradox of the Stoic philosophy, that he returns a benefit who + receives it with good will, is, in my opinion, either far from admirable, + or else it is incredible. For if we look at everything merely from the + point of view of our intentions, every man has done as much as he chose to + do; and since filial piety, good faith, justice, and in short every virtue + is complete within itself, a man may be grateful in intention even though + he may not be able to lift a hand to prove his gratitude. Whenever a man + obtains what he aimed at, he receives the fruit of his labour. When a man + bestows a benefit, at what does he aim? clearly to be of service and + afford pleasure to him upon whom he bestows it. If he does what he wishes, + if his purpose reaches me and fills us each with joy, he has gained his + object. He does not wish anything to be given to him in return, or else it + becomes an exchange of commodities, not a bestowal of benefits. A man + steers well who reaches the port for which he started: a dart hurled by a + steady hand performs its duty if it hits the mark; one who bestows a + benefit wishes it to be received with gratitude; he gets what he wanted if + it be well received. "But," you say, "he hoped for some profit also." Then + it was not a benefit, the property of which is to think nothing of any + repayment. I receive what was given me in the same spirit in which it was + given: then I have repaid it. If this be not true, then this best of deeds + has this worst of conditions attached to it, that it depends entirely upon + fortune whether I am grateful or not, for if my fortune is adverse I can + make no repayment. The intention is enough. What then? am I not to do + whatever I may be able to repay it, and ought I not ever to be on the + watch for an opportunity of filling the bosom [Footnote: Sinus, the fold + of the toga over the breast, used as a pocket by the Romans. The great + French actor Talma, when dressed for the first time in correct classical + costume, indignantly asked where he was to put his snuff-box.] of him from + whom I have received any kindness? True; but a benefit is in an evil + plight if we cannot be grateful for it even when we are empty-handed. + </p> + <p> + XXXII. "A man," it is argued, "who has received a benefit, however + gratefully he may have received it, has not yet accomplished all his duty, + for there remains the part of repayment; just as in playing at ball it is + something to catch the ball cleverly and carefully, but a man is not + called a good player unless he can handily and quickly send back the ball + which he has caught." This analogy is imperfect; and why? Because to do + this creditably depends upon the movement and activity of the body, and + not upon the mind: and an act of which we judge entirely by the eye, ought + to be all clearly displayed. But if a man caught the ball as he ought to + do, I should not call him a bad player for not returning it, if his delay + in returning it was not caused by his own fault. "Yet," say you, "although + the player is not wanting in skill, because he did one part of his duty, + and was able to do the other part, yet in such a case the game is + imperfect, for its perfection lies in sending the ball backwards and + forwards." I am unwilling to expose this fallacy further; let us think + that it is the game, not the player that is imperfect: so likewise in the + subject which we are discussing, the thing which is given lacks something, + because another equal thing ought to be returned for it, but the mind of + the giver lacks nothing, because it has found another mind equal to + itself, and as far as intentions go, has effected what it wished. + </p> + <p> + XXXIII. A man bestows a benefit upon me: I receive it just as he wished it + to be received: then he gets at once what he wanted, and the only thing + which he wanted, and therefore I have proved myself grateful. After this + it remains for me to enjoy my own resources, with the addition of an + advantage conferred upon me by one whom I have obliged; this advantage is + not the remainder of an imperfect service, but an addition to a perfected + service. [Footnote: Nothing is wanted to make a benefit, conferred from + good motives, perfect: if it is returned, the gratitude is to be counted + as net profit.] For example, Phidias makes a statue. Now the product of an + art is one thing, and that of a trade is another. It is the business of + the art to make the thing which he wished to make, and that of the trade + to make it with a profit. Phidias has completed his work, even though he + does not sell it. The product, therefore, of his work is threefold: there + is the consciousness of having made it, which he receives when his work is + completed; there is the fame which he receives; and thirdly, the advantage + which he obtains by it, in influence, or by selling it, or otherwise. In + like manner the first fruit of a benefit is the consciousness of it, which + we feel when we have bestowed it upon the person whom we chose; secondly + and thirdly there is the credit which we gain by doing so, and there are + those things which we may receive in exchange for it. So when a benefit + has been graciously received, the giver has already received gratitude, + but has not yet received recompense for it: that which we owe in return is + therefore something apart from the benefit itself, for we have paid for + the benefit itself when we accept it in a grateful spirit. + </p> + <p> + XXXIV. "What," say you, "can a man repay a benefit, though he does + nothing?" He has taken the first step, he has offered you a good thing + with good feeling, and, which is the characteristic of friendship, has + placed you both on the same footing. In the next place, a benefit is not + repaid in the same manner as a loan: you have no reason for expecting me + to offer you any payment; the account between us depends upon the feelings + alone. What I say will not appear difficult, although it may not at first + accord with your ideas, if you will do me the favour to remember that + there are more things than there are words to express them. There is an + enormous mass of things without names, which we do not speak of under + distinctive names of their own, but by the names of other things + transferred to them. We speak of our own foot, of the foot of a couch, of + a sail, or of a poem; we apply the word 'dog' to a hound, a fish, and a + star. Because we have not enough words to assign a separate name to each + thing, we borrow a name whenever we want one. Bravery is the virtue which + rightly despises danger, or the science of repelling, sustaining, or + inviting dangers: yet we call a brave man a gladiator, and we use the same + word for a good-for-nothing slave, who is led by rashness to defy death. + Economy is the science of avoiding unnecessary expenditure, or the art of + using one's income with moderation: yet we call a man of mean and narrow + mind, most economical, although there is an immeasurable distance between + moderation and meanness. These things are naturally distinct, yet the + poverty of our language compels us to call both these men economical, just + as he who views slight accidents with rational contempt, and he who + without reason runs into danger are alike called brave. Thus a benefit is + both a beneficent action, and also is that which is bestowed by that + action, such as money, a house, an office in the state: there is but one + name for them both, though their force and power are widely different. + </p> + <p> + XXXV. Wherefore, give me your attention, and you will soon perceive that I + say nothing to which you can object. That benefit which consists of the + action is repaid when we receive it graciously; that other, which consists + of something material, we have not then repaid, but we hope to do so. The + debt of goodwill has been discharged by a return of goodwill; the material + debt demands a material return. Thus, although we may declare that he who + has received a benefit with good-will has returned the favour, yet we + counsel him to return to the giver something of the same kind as that + which he has received. Some part of what we have said departs from the + conventional line of thought, and then rejoins it by another path. We + declare that a wise man cannot receive an injury; yet, if a man hits him + with his fist, that man will be found guilty of doing him an injury. We + declare that a fool can possess nothing; yet if a man stole anything from + a fool, we should find that man guilty of theft. We declare that all men + are mad, yet we do not dose all men with hellebore; but we put into the + hands of these very persons, whom we call madmen, both the right of voting + and of pronouncing judgment. Similarly, we say that a man who has received + a benefit with good-will has returned the favour, yet we leave him in debt + nevertheless—bound to repay it even though he has repaid it. This is + not to disown benefits, but is an encouragement to us neither to fear to + receive benefits, nor to faint under the too great burden of them. "Good + things have been given to me; I have been preserved from starving; I have + been saved from the misery of abject poverty; my life, and what is dearer + than life, my liberty, has been preserved. How shall I be able to repay + these favours? When will the day come upon which I can prove my gratitude + to him?" When a man speaks thus, the day has already come. Receive a + benefit, embrace it, rejoice, not that you have received it, but that you + have to owe it and return it; then you will never be in peril of the great + sin of being rendered ungrateful by mischance. I will not enumerate any + difficulties to you, lest you should despair, and faint at the prospect of + a long and laborious servitude. I do not refer you to the future; do it + with what means you have at hand. You never will be grateful unless you + are so straightway. What, then, will you do? You need not take up arms, + yet perhaps you may have to do so; you need not cross the seas, yet it may + be that you will pay your debt, even when the wind threatens to blow a + gale. Do you wish to return the benefit? Then receive it graciously; you + have then returned the favour—not, indeed, so that you can think + yourself to have repaid it, but so that you can owe it with a quieter + conscience. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK III. + </h2> + <h3> + I. + </h3> + <p> + Not to return gratitude for benefits, my AEbutius Liberalis, is both base + in itself, and is thought base by all men; wherefore even ungrateful men + complain of ingratitude, and yet what all condemn is at the same time + rooted in all; and so far do men sometimes run into the other extreme that + some of them become our bitterest enemies, not merely after receiving + benefits from us, but because they have received them. I cannot deny that + some do this out of sheer badness of nature; but more do so because lapse + of time destroys their remembrance, for time gradually effaces what they + felt vividly at the moment. I remember having had an argument with you + about this class of persons, whom you wished to call forgetful rather than + ungrateful, as if that which caused a man to be ungrateful was any excuse + for his being so, or as if the fact of this happening to a man prevented + his being ungrateful, when we know that it only happens to ungrateful men. + There are many classes of the ungrateful, as there are of thieves or of + homicides, who all have the same fault, though there is a great variety in + its various forms. The man is ungrateful who denies that he has received a + benefit; who pretends that he has not received it; who does not return it. + The most ungrateful man of all is he who forgets it. The others, though + they do not repay it, yet feel their debt, and possess some traces of + worth, though obstructed by their bad conscience. They may by some means + and at some time be brought to show their gratitude, if, for instance, + they be pricked by shame, if they conceive some noble ambition such as + occasionally rises even in the breasts of the wicked, if some easy + opportunity of doing so offers; but the man from whom all recollection of + the benefit has passed away can never become grateful. Which of the two do + you call the worse—he who is ungrateful for kindness, or he who does + not even remember it? The eyes which fear to look at the light are + diseased, but those which cannot see it are blind. It is filial impiety + not to love one's parents, but not to recognise them is madness. + </p> + <p> + II. Who is so ungrateful as he who has so completely laid aside and cast + away that which ought to be in the forefront of his mind and ever before + him, that he knows it not? It is clear that if forgetfulness of a benefit + steals over a man, he cannot have often thought about repaying it. + </p> + <p> + In short, repayment requires gratitude, time, opportunity, and the help of + fortune; whereas, he who remembers a benefit is grateful for it, and that + too without expenditure. Since gratitude demands neither labour, wealth, + nor good fortune, he who fails to render it has no excuse behind which to + shelter himself; for he who places a benefit so far away that it is out of + his sight, never could have meant to be grateful for it. Just as those + tools which are kept in use, and are daily touched by the hand, are never + in danger of growing rusty, while those which are not brought before our + eyes, and lie as if superfluous, not being required for common use, + collect dirt by the mere lapse of time, so likewise that which our + thoughts frequently turn over and renew never passes from our memory, + which only loses those things to which it seldom directs its eyes. + </p> + <p> + III. Besides this, there are other causes which at times erase the + greatest services from our minds. The first and most powerful of these is + that, being always intent upon new objects of desire, we think, not of + what we have, but of what we are striving to obtain. Those whose mind is + fixed entirely upon what they hope to gain, regard with contempt all that + is their own already. It follows that since men's eagerness for something + new makes them undervalue whatever they have received, they do not esteem + those from whom they have received it. As long as we are satisfied with + the position we have gained, we love our benefactor, we look up to him, + and declare that we owe our position entirely to him; then we begin to + entertain other aspirations, and hurry forward to attain them after the + manner of human beings, who when they have gained much always covet more; + straightway all that we used to regard as benefits slip from our memory, + and we no longer consider the advantages which we enjoy over others, but + only the insolent prosperity of those who have outstripped us. Now no one + can at the same time be both jealous and grateful, because those who are + jealous are querulous and sad, while the grateful are joyous. In the next + place, since none of us think of any time but the present, and but few + turn back their thoughts to the past, it results that we forget our + teachers, and all the benefits which we have obtained from them, because + we have altogether left our childhood behind us: thus, all that was done + for us in our youth perishes unremembered, because our youth itself is + never reviewed. What has been is regarded by every one, not only as past, + but as gone; and for the same reason, our memory is weak for what is about + to happen in the future. + </p> + <p> + IV. Here I must do Epicurus the justice to say that he constantly + complains of our ingratitude for past benefits, because we cannot bring + back again, or count among our present pleasures, those good things which + we have received long ago, although no pleasures can be more undeniable + than those which cannot be taken from us. Present good is not yet + altogether complete, some mischance may interrupt it; the future is in + suspense, and uncertain; but what is past is laid up in safety. How can + any man feel gratitude for benefits, if he skips through his whole life + entirely engrossed with the present and the future? It is remembrance that + mates men grateful; and the more men hope, the less they remember. + </p> + <p> + V. In the same way, my Liberalis, as some things remain in our memory as + soon as they are learned, while to know others it is not enough to have + learned them, for our knowledge slips away from us unless it be kept up—I + allude to geometry and astronomy, and such other sciences as are Hard to + remember because of their intricacy—so the greatness of some + benefits prevents their being forgotten, while others, individually less, + though many more in number, and bestowed at different times, pass from our + minds, because, as I have stated above, we do not constantly think about + them, and do not willingly recognize how much we owe to each of our + benefactors. Listen to the words of those who ask for favours. There is + not one of them who does not declare that his remembrance will be eternal, + who does not vow himself your devoted servant and slave, or find, if he + can, some even greater expression of humility with which to pledge + himself. After a brief space of time these same men avoid their former + expressions, thinking them abject, and scarcely befitting free-born men; + afterwards they arrive at the same point to which, as I suppose, the worst + and most ungrateful of men come—that is, they forget. So little does + forgetfulness excuse ingratitude, that even the remembrance of a benefit + may leave us ungrateful. + </p> + <p> + VI. The question has been raised, whether this most odious vice ought to + go unpunished; and whether the law commonly made use of in the schools, by + which we can proceed against a man for ingratitude, ought to be adopted by + the State also, since all men agree that it is just. "Why not?" you may + say, "seeing that even cities cast in each other's teeth the services + which they have performed to one another, and demand from the children + some return for benefits conferred upon their fathers?" On the other hand, + our ancestors, who were most admirable men, made demands upon their + enemies alone, and both gave and lost their benefits with magnanimity. + With the exception of Macedonia, no nation has ever established an action + at law for ingratitude. And this is a strong argument against its being + established, because all agree in blaming crime; and homicide, poisoning, + parricide, and sacrilege are visited with different penalties in different + countries, but everywhere with some penalty; whereas this most common vice + is nowhere punished, though it is everywhere blamed. We do not acquit it; + but as it would be most difficult to reckon accurately the penalty for so + varying a matter, we condemn it only to be hated, and place it upon the + list of those crimes which we refer for judgment to the gods. + </p> + <p> + VII. Many arguments occur to me which prove that this vice ought not to + come under the action of the law. First of all, the best part of a benefit + is lost if the benefit can be sued for at law, as in the case of a loan, + or of letting and hiring. Indeed, the finest part of a benefit is that we + have given it without considering whether we shall lose it or not, that we + have left all this to the free choice of him who receives it: if I call + him before a judge, it begins to be not a benefit, but a loan. Next, + though it is a most honourable thing to show gratitude, it ceases to be + honourable if it be forced, for in that case no one will praise a grateful + man any more than he praises him who restores the money which was + deposited in his keeping, or who pays what he borrowed without the + intervention of a judge. We should therefore spoil the two finest things + in human life,—a grateful man and a beneficent man; for what is + there admirable in one who does not give but merely lends a benefit, or in + one who repays it, not because he wishes, but because he is forced to do + so? There is no credit in being grateful, unless it is safe to be + ungrateful. Besides this, all the courts would hardly be enough for the + action of this one law. Who would not plead under it? Who would not be + pleaded against? for every one exalts his own merits, every one magnifies + even the smallest matters which he has bestowed upon another. Besides + this, those things which form the subject of a judicial inquiry can be + distinctly defined, and cannot afford unlimited licence to the judge; + wherefore a good cause is in a better position if it before a judge than + before an arbitrator, because the words of the law tie down a judge and + define certain limits beyond which he may not pass, whereas the conscience + of an arbitrator is free and not fettered by any rules, so that he can + either give or take away, and can arrange his decision, not according to + the precepts of law and justice, but just as his own kindly feeling or + compassion may prompt him. An action for ingratitude would not bind a + judge, but would place him in the position of an autocrat. It cannot be + known what or how great a benefit is; all that would be really important + would be, how indulgently the judge might interpret it. No law defines an + ungrateful person, often, indeed, one who repays what he has received is + ungrateful, and one who has not returned it is grateful. Even an + unpractised judge can give his vote upon some matters; for instance, when + the thing to be determined is whether something has or has not been done, + when a dispute is terminated by the parties giving written bonds, or when + the casting up of accounts decides between the disputants. When, however, + motives have to be guessed at, when matters upon which wisdom alone can + decide, are brought into court, they cannot be tried by a judge taken at + random from the list of "select judges," [Footnote: See Smith's "Dict. of + Antiq.," s. v] whom property and the inheritance of an equestrian fortune + [Footnote: 400,000 sesterces] has placed upon the roll. + </p> + <p> + VIII. Ingratitude, therefore, is not only matter unfit to be brought into + court, but no judge could be found fit to try it; and this you will not be + surprised at, if you examine the difficulties of any one who should + attempt to prosecute a man upon such a charge. One man may have given a + large sum of money, but he is rich and would not feel it; another may have + given it at the cost of his entire inheritance. The sum given is the same + in each case, but the benefit conferred is not the same. Add another + instance: suppose that to redeem a debtor from slavery one man paid money + from his own private means, while another man paid the same sum, but had + to borrow it or beg for it, and allow himself to be laid under a great + obligation to some one; would you rank the man who so easily bestowed his + benefit on an equality with him who was obliged to receive a benefit + himself before he could bestow it? Some benefits are great, not because of + their amount, but because of the time at which they are bestowed; it is a + benefit to give an estate whose fertility can bring down the price of + corn, and it is a benefit to give a loaf of bread in time of famine; it is + a benefit to give provinces through which flow vast navigable rivers, and + it is a benefit, when men are parched with thirst, and can scarcely draw + breath through their dry throats, to show them a spring of water. Who will + compare these cases with one another, or weigh one against the other? It + is hard to give a decision when it is not the thing given, but its + meaning, which has to be considered; though what is given is the same, yet + if it be given under different circumstances it has a different value. A + man may have bestowed a benefit upon me, but unwillingly; he may have + complained of having given it; he may have looked at me with greater + haughtiness than he was wont to do; he may have been so slow in giving it, + that he would have done me a greater service if he had promptly refused + it. How could a judge estimate the value of these things, when words, + hesitation, or looks can destroy all their claim to gratitude? + </p> + <p> + IX. What, again, could he do, seeing that some things are called benefits + because they are unduly coveted, whilst others are not benefits at all, + according to this common valuation, yet are of even greater value, though + not so showy? You call it a benefit to cause a man to be adopted as a + member of a powerful city, to get him enrolled among the knights, or to + defend one who is being tried for his life: what do you say of him who + gives useful advice? of him who holds you back when you would rush into + crime? of him who strikes the sword from the hands of the suicide? of him + who by his power of consolation brings back to the duties of life one who + was plunged in grief, and eager to follow those whom he had lost? of him + who sits at the bedside of the sick man, and who, when health and recovery + depend upon seizing the right moment, administers food in due season, + stimulates the failing veins with wine, or calls in the physician to the + dying man? Who can estimate the value of such services as these? who can + bid us weigh dissimilar benefits one with another? "I gave you a house," + says one. Yes, but I forewarned you that your own house would come down + upon your head. "I gave you an estate," says he. True, but I gave a plank + to you when shipwrecked. "I fought for you and received wounds for you," + says another. But I saved your life by keeping silence. Since a benefit is + both given and returned differently by different people, it is hard to + make them balance. + </p> + <p> + X. Besides this, no day is appointed for repayment of a benefit, as there + is for borrowed money; consequently he who has not yet repaid a benefit + may do so hereafter: for tell me, pray, within what time a man is to be + declared ungrateful? The greatest benefits cannot be proved by evidence; + they often lurk in the silent consciousness of two men only; are we to + introduce the rule of not bestowing benefits without witnesses? Next, what + punishment are we to appoint for the ungrateful? is there to be one only + for all, though the benefits which they have received are different? or + should the punishment be varying, greater or less according to the benefit + which each has received? Are our valuations to be restricted to pecuniary + fines? what are we to do, seeing that in some cases the benefit conferred + is life, and things dearer than life? What punishment is to be assigned to + ingratitude for these? One less than the benefit? That would be unjust. + One equal to it; death? What could be more inhuman than to cause benefits + to result in cruelty? + </p> + <p> + XI. It may be argued, "Parents have certain privileges: these are regarded + as exempt from the action of ordinary rules, and so also ought to be the + case with other beneficent persons." Nay; mankind has assigned a peculiar + sanctity to the position of parents, because it was advantageous that + children should be reared, and people had to be tempted into undergoing + the toil of doing so, because the issue of their experiment was doubtful. + One cannot say to them, as one does to others who bestow benefits, "Choose + the man to whom you give: you must only blame yourself if you are + deceived; help the deserving." In rearing children nothing depends upon + the judgment of those who rear them; it is a matter of hope: in order, + therefore, that people may be more willing to embark upon this lottery, it + was right that they should be given a certain authority; and since it is + useful for youth to be governed, we have placed their parents in the + position of domestic magistrates, under whose guardianship their lives may + be ruled. Moreover, the position of parents differs from that of other + benefactors, for their having given formerly to their children does not + stand in the way of their giving now and hereafter; and also, there is no + fear of their falsely asserting that they have given: with others one has + to inquire not only whether they have received, but whether they have + given; but the good deeds of parents are placed beyond doubt. In the next + place, one benefit bestowed by parents is the same for all, and might be + counted once for all; while the others which they bestow are of various + kinds, unlike one to another, differing from one another by the widest + possible intervals; they can therefore come under no regular rule, since + it would be more just to leave them all unrewarded than to give the same + reward to all. + </p> + <p> + XII. Some benefits cost much to the givers, some are of much value to the + receivers but cost the givers nothing. Some are bestowed upon friends, + others on strangers: now although that which is given be the same, yet it + becomes more when it is given to one with whom you are beginning to be + acquainted through the benefits which you have previously conferred upon + him. One man may give us help, another distinctions, a third consolation. + You may find one who thinks nothing pleasanter or more important than to + have some one to save him from distress; you may again find one who would + rather be helped to great place than to security; while some consider + themselves more indebted to those who save their lives than to those who + save their honour. Each of these services will be held more or less + important, according as the disposition of our judge inclines to one or + the other of them. Besides this, I choose my creditors for myself, whereas + I often receive benefits from those from whom I would not, and sometimes I + am laid under an obligation without my knowledge. What will you do in such + a case? When a man has received a benefit unknown to himself, and which, + had he known of it, he would have refused to receive, will you call him + ungrateful if he does not repay it, however he may have received it? + Suppose that some one has bestowed a benefit upon me, and that the same + man has afterwards done me some wrong; am I to be bound by his one bounty + to endure with patience any wrong that he may do me, or will it be the + same as if I had repaid it, because he himself has by the subsequent wrong + cancelled his own benefit? How, in that case, would you decide which was + the greater; the present which the man has received, or the injury which + has been done him? Time would fail me if I attempted to discuss all the + difficulties which would arise. + </p> + <p> + XIII. It may be argued that "we render men less willing to confer benefits + by not supporting the claim of those which have been bestowed to meet with + gratitude, and by not punishing those who repudiate them." But you would + find, on the other hand, that men would be far less willing to receive + benefits, if by so doing they were likely to incur the danger of having to + plead their cause in court, and having more difficulty in proving their + integrity. This legislation would also render us less willing to give: for + no one is willing to give to those who are unwilling to receive, but one + who is urged to acts of kindness by his own good nature and by the beauty + of charity, will give all the more freely to those who need make no return + unless they choose. It impairs the credit of doing a service, if in doing + it we are carefully protected from loss. + </p> + <p> + XIV. "Benefits, then, will be fewer, but more genuine: well, what harm is + there in restricting people from giving recklessly?" Even those who would + have no legislation upon the subject follow this rule, that we ought to be + somewhat careful in giving, and in choosing those upon whom we bestow + favours. Reflect over and over again to whom you are giving: you will have + no remedy at law, no means of enforcing repayment. You are mistaken if you + suppose that the judge will assist you: no law will make full restitution + to you, you must look only to the honour of the receiver. Thus only can + benefits retain their influence, and thus only are they admirable: you + dishonour them if you make them the grounds of litigation, "Pay what you + owe" is a most just proverb; and one which carries with it the sanction of + all nations; but in dealing with benefits it is most shameful. "Pay!" How + is a man to pay who owes his life, his position, his safety, or his reason + to another? None of the greatest benefits can be repaid. "Yet," it is + said, "you ought to give in return for them something of equal value." + This is just what I have been saying, that the grandeur of the act is + ruined if we make our benefits commercial transactions. We ought hot to + encourage ourselves in avarice, in discontent, or in quarrels; the human + mind is prone enough to these by nature. As far as we are able, let us + check it, and cut off the opportunities for which it seeks. + </p> + <p> + XV. Would that we could indeed persuade men to receive back money which + they have lent from those debtors only who are willing to pay! would that + no agreement ever bound the buyer to the seller, and that their interests + were not protected by sealed covenants and agreements, but rather by + honour and a sense of justice! However, men prefer what is needful to what + is truly best, and choose rather to force their creditors to keep faith + with them than to trust that they will do so. Witnesses are called on both + sides; the one, by calling in brokers, makes several names appear in his + accounts as his debtors instead of one; the other is not content with the + legal forms of question and answer unless he holds the other party by the + hand. What a shameful admission of the dishonesty and wickedness of + mankind! men trust more to our signet-rings than to our intentions. For + what are these respectable men summoned? for what do they impress their + seals? it is in order that the borrower may not deny that he has received + what he has received. You regard these men, I suppose, as above bribes, as + maintainers of the truth: well, these very men will not be entrusted with + money except on the same terms. Would it not, then, be more honourable to + be deceived by some than to suspect all men of dishonesty? To fill up the + measure of avarice one thing only is lacking, that we should bestow no + benefit without a surety. To help, to be of service, is the part of a + generous and noble mind; he who gives acts like a god, he who demands + repayment acts like a money-lender. Why then, by trying to protect the + rights of the former class, should we reduce them to the level of the + basest of mankind? + </p> + <p> + XVI. "More men," our opponent argues, "will be ungrateful, if no legal + remedy exists against ingratitude." Nay, fewer, because then benefits will + be bestowed with more discrimination, In the next place, it is not + advisable that it should be publicly known how many ungrateful men there + are: for the number of sinners will do away with the disgrace of the sin, + and a reproach which applies to all men will cease to be dishonourable. Is + any woman ashamed of being divorced, now that some noble ladies reckon the + years of their lives, not by the number of the consuls, but by that of + their husbands, now that they leave their homes in order to marry others, + and marry only in order to be divorced? Divorce was only dreaded as long + as it was unusual; now that no gazette appears without it, women learn to + do what they hear so much about. Can any one feel ashamed of adultery, now + that things have come to such a pass that no woman keeps a husband at all + unless it be to pique her lover? Chastity merely implies ugliness. Where + will you find any woman so abject, so repulsive, as to be satisfied with a + single pair of lovers, without having a different one for each hour of the + day; nor is the day long enough for all of them, unless she has taken her + airing in the grounds of one, and passes the night with another. A woman + is frumpish and old-fashioned if she does not know that "adultery with one + paramour is nick-named marriage." Just as all shame at these vices has + disappeared since the vice itself became so widely spread, so if you made + the ungrateful begin to count their own numbers, you would both make them + more numerous, and enable them to be ungrateful with greater impunity. + </p> + <p> + XVII. "What then? shall the ungrateful man go unpunished?" What then, I + answer, shall we punish the undutiful, the malicious, the avaricious, the + headstrong, and the cruel? Do you imagine that those things which are + loathed are not punished, or do you suppose that any punishment is greater + than the hate of all men? It is a punishment not to dare receive a benefit + from anyone, not to dare to bestow one, to be, or to fancy that you are a + mark for all men's eyes, and to lose all appreciation of so excellent and + pleasant a matter. Do you call a man unhappy who has lost his sight, or + whose hearing has been impaired by disease, and do you not call him + wretched who has lost the power of feeling benefits? He fears the gods, + the witnesses of all ingratitude; he is tortured by the thought of the + benefit which he has misapplied, and, in fine, he is sufficiently punished + by this great penalty, that, as I said before, he cannot enjoy the fruits + of this most delightful act. On the other hand, he who takes pleasure in + receiving a benefit, enjoys an unvarying and continuous happiness, which + he derives from consideration, not of the thing given, but of the + intention of the giver. A benefit gives perpetual joy to a grateful man, + but pleases an ungrateful one only for a moment. Can the lives of such men + be compared, seeing that the one is sad and gloomy—as it is natural + that a denier of his debts and a defrauder should be, a man who does not + give his parents, his nurses, or his teachers the honour which is their + due—while the other is joyous, cheerful, on the watch for an + opportunity of proving his gratitude, and gaining much pleasure from this + frame of mind itself? Such a man has no wish to become bankrupt, but only + to make the fullest and most copious return for benefits, and that not + only to parents and friends, but also to more humble persons; for even if + he receives a benefit from his own slave, he does not consider from whom + he receives it, but what he receives. + </p> + <p> + XVIII. It has, however, been doubted by Hecaton and some other writers, + whether a slave can bestow a benefit upon his master. Some distinguish + between benefits, duties, and services, calling those things benefits + which are bestowed by a stranger—that is, by one who could + discontinue them without blame—while duties are performed by our + children, our wives, and those whom relationship prompts and orders to + afford us help; and, thirdly, services are performed by slaves, whose + position is such that nothing which they do for their master can give them + any claim upon him.... + </p> + <p> + Besides this, he who affirms that a slave does not sometimes confer a + benefit upon his master is ignorant of the rights of man; for the question + is, not what the station in life of the giver may be, but what his + intentions are. The path of virtue is closed to no one, it lies open to + all; it admits and invites all, whether they be free-born men, slaves or + freed-men, kings or exiles; it requires no qualifications of family or of + property, it is satisfied with a mere man. What, indeed, should we have to + trust to for defence against sudden misfortunes, what could—a noble + mind promise to itself to keep unshaken, if virtue could be lost together + with prosperity? If a slave cannot confer a benefit upon his master, then + no subject can confer a benefit upon his king, and no soldier upon his + general; for so long as the man is subject to supreme authority, the form + of authority can make no difference. If main force, or the fear of death + and torture, can prevent a slave from gaining any title to his master's + gratitude, they will also prevent the subjects of a king, or the soldiers + of a general from doing so, for the same things may happen to either of + these classes of men, though under different names. + </p> + <p> + Yet men do bestow benefits upon their kings and their generals; therefore + slaves can bestow benefits upon their masters. A slave can be just, brave, + magnanimous; he can therefore bestow a benefit, for this is also the part + of a virtuous man. So true is it that slaves can bestow benefits upon + their masters, that the masters have often owed their lives to them. + </p> + <p> + XIX. There is no doubt that a slave can bestow a benefit upon anyone; why, + then, not upon his master? "Because," it is argued, "he cannot become his + master's creditor if he gives him money. If this be not so, he daily lays + his master under an obligation to him; he attends him when on a journey, + he nurses him when sick, he works most laboriously at the cultivation of + his estate; yet all these, which would be called benefits if done for us + by anyone else, are merely called service when done by a slave. A benefit + is that which some one bestows who has the option of withholding it:—now + a slave has no power to refuse, so that he does not afford us his help, + but obeys our orders, and cannot boast of having done what he could not + leave undone." Even under these conditions I shall win the day, and will + place a slave in such positions, that for many purposes he will be free; + in the meanwhile, tell me, if I give you an instance of a slave fighting + for his master's safety without regard to himself, pierced through with + wounds, yet spending the last drops of his blood, and gaining time for his + master to escape by the sacrifice of his life, will you say that this man + did not bestow a benefit upon his master because he was a slave? If I give + an instance of one who could not be bribed to betray his master's secrets + by any of the offers of a tyrant, who was not terrified by any threats, + nor overpowered by any tortures, but who, as far as he was able, placed + his questioners upon a wrong scent, and, paid for his loyalty with his + life; will you say that this man did not confer a benefit upon his master + because he was a slave? Consider, rather, whether an example of virtue in + a slave be not all the greater because it is rarer than in free men, and + whether it be not all the more gratifying that, although to be commanded + is odious, and all submission to authority is irksome, yet in some + particular cases love for a master has been more powerful than men's + general dislike to servitude. A benefit does not, therefore, cease to be a + benefit because it is bestowed by a slave, but is all the greater on that + account, because not even slavery could restrain him from bestowing it. + </p> + <p> + XX. It is a mistake to imagine that slavery pervades a man's whole being; + the better part of him is exempt from it: the body indeed is subjected and + in the power of a master, but the mind is independent, and indeed is so + free and wild, that it cannot be restrained even by this prison of the + body, wherein it is confined, from following its own impulses, dealing + with gigantic designs, and soaring into the infinite, accompanied by all + the host of heaven. It is, therefore, only the body which misfortune hands + over to a master, and which he buys and sells; this inward part cannot be + transferred as a chattel. Whatever comes from this, is free; indeed, we + are not allowed to order all things to be done, nor are slaves compelled + to obey us in all things; they will not carry out treasonable orders, or + lend their hands to an act of crime. + </p> + <p> + XXI. There are some things which the law neither enjoins nor forbids; it + is in these that a slave finds the means of bestowing benefits. As long as + we only receive what is generally demanded from a slave, that is mere + service; when more is given than a slave need afford us, it is a benefit; + as soon as what he does begins to partake of the affection of a friend, it + can no longer be called service. There are certain things with which a + master is bound to provide his slave, such as food and clothing; no one + calls this a benefit; but supposing that he indulges his slave, educates + him above his station, teaches him arts which free-born men learn, that is + a benefit. The converse is true in the case of the slave; anything which + goes beyond the rules of a slave's duty, which is done of his own free + will, and not in obedience to orders, is a benefit, provided it be of + sufficient importance to be called by such a name if bestowed by any other + person. + </p> + <p> + XXII. It has pleased Chrysippus to define a slave as "a hireling for + life." Just as a hireling bestows a benefit when he does more than he + engaged himself to do, so when a slave's love for his master raises him + above his condition and urges him to do something noble—something + which would be a credit even to men more fortunate by birth—he + surpasses the hopes of his master, and is a benefit found in the house. Do + you think it is just that we should be angry with our slaves when they do + less than their duty, and that we should not be grateful to them when they + do more? Do you wish to know when their service is not a benefit? When the + question can be asked, "What if he had refused to do it?" When he does + that which he might have refused to do, we must praise his good will. + Benefits and wrongs are opposites; a slave can bestow a benefit upon his + master, if he can receive a wrong from his master. Now an official has + been appointed to hear complaints of the wrongs done by masters to their + slaves, whose duty it is to restrain cruelty and lust, or avarice in + providing them with the necessaries of life. What follows, then? Is it the + master who receives a benefit from his slave? nay, rather, it is one man + who receives it from another. Lastly, he did all that lay in his power; he + bestowed a benefit upon his master; it lies in your power to receive or + not to receive it from a slave. Yet who is so exalted, that fortune may + not make him need the aid even of the lowliest? + </p> + <p> + XXIII. I shall now quote a number of instances of benefits, not all alike, + some even contradictory. Some slaves have given their master life, some + death; have saved him when perishing, or, as if that were not enough, have + saved him by their own death; others have helped their master to die, some + have saved his life by stratagem. Claudius Quadrigarius tells us in the + eighteenth book of his "Annals," that when Grumentum was being besieged, + and had been reduced to the greatest straits, two slaves deserted to the + enemy, and did valuable service. Afterwards, when the city was taken, and + the victors were rushing wildly in every direction, they ran before every + one else along the streets, which they well knew, to the house in which + they had been slaves, and drove their mistress before them; when they were + asked who she might be, they answered that she was their mistress, and a + most cruel one, and that they were leading her away for punishment. They + led her outside the walls, and concealed her with the greatest care until + the fighting was over; then, as the soldiery, satisfied with the sack of + the city, quickly resumed the manners of Romans, they also returned to + their own countrymen, and themselves restored their mistress to them. She + manumitted each of them on the spot, and was not ashamed to receive her + life from men over whom she had held the power of life and death. She + might, indeed, especially congratulate herself upon this; for had she been + saved otherwise, she would merely have received a common and hackneyed + piece of kindness, whereas, by being saved as she was, she became a + glorious legend, and an example to two cities. In the confusion of the + captured city, when every one was thinking only of his own safety, all + deserted her except these deserters; but they, that they might prove what + had been their intentions in effecting that desertion, deserted again from + the victors to the captive, wearing the masks of unnatural murderers. + </p> + <p> + They thought—and this was the greatest part of the service which + they rendered—they were content to seem to have murdered their + mistress, if thereby their mistress might be saved from murder. Believe + me, it is the mark of no slavish soul to purchase a noble deed by the + semblance of crime. + </p> + <p> + When Vettius, the praetor of the Marsi, was being led into the presence of + the Roman general, his slave snatched a sword from the soldier who was + dragging him along, and first slew his master. Then he said, "It is now + time for me to look to myself; I have already set my master free," and + with these words transfixed himself with one blow. Can you tell me of + anyone who saved his master more gloriously? + </p> + <p> + XXIV. When Caesar was besieging Corfinium, Domitius, who was shut up in + the city, ordered a slave of his own, who was also a physician, to give + him poison. Observing the man's hesitation, he said, "Why do you delay, as + though the whole business was in your power? I ask for death with arms in + my hands." Then the slave assented, and gave him a harmless drug to drink. + When Domitius fell asleep after drinking this, the slave went to his son, + and said, "Give orders for my being kept in custody until you learn from + the result whether I have given your father poison or no." Domitius lived, + and Caesar saved his life; but his slave had saved it before. + </p> + <p> + XXV. During the civil war, a slave hid his master, who had been + proscribed, put on his rings and clothes, met the soldiers who were + searching for him, and, after declaring that he would not stoop to entreat + them not to carry out their orders, offered his neck to their swords. What + a noble spirit it shows in a slave to have been willing to die for his + master, at a time when few were faithful enough to wish their master to + live! to be found kind when the state was cruel, faithful when it was + treacherous! to be eager for the reward of fidelity, though it was death, + at a time when such rich rewards were offered for treachery! + </p> + <p> + XXVI. I will not pass over the instances which our own age affords. In the + reign of Tiberius Caesar, there was a common and almost universal frenzy + for informing, which was more ruinous to the citizens of Rome than the + whole civil war; the talk of drunkards, the frankness of jesters, was + alike reported to the government; nothing was safe; every opportunity of + ferocious punishment was seized, and men no longer waited to hear the fate + of accused persons, since it was always the same. One Paulus, of the + Praetorian guard, was at an entertainment, wearing a portrait of Tiberius + Caesar engraved in relief upon a gem. It would be absurd for me to beat + about the bush for some delicate way of explaining that he took up a + chamber-pot, an action which was at once noticed by Maro, one of the most + notorious informers of that time, and the slave of the man who was about + to fall into the trap, who drew the ring from the finger of his drunken + master. When Maro called the guests to witness that Paulus had dishonoured + the portrait of the emperor, and was already drawing up an act of + accusation, the slave showed the ring upon his own finger. Such a man no + more deserves to be called a slave, than Maro deserved to be called a + guest. + </p> + <p> + XXVII. In the reign of Augustus men's own words were not yet able to ruin + them, yet they sometimes brought them into trouble. A senator named Rufus, + while at dinner, expressed a hope that Caesar would not return safe from a + journey for which he was preparing, and added that all bulls and calves + wished the same thing. Some of those present carefully noted these words. + At daybreak, the slave who had stood at his feet during the dinner, told + him what he had said in his cups, and urged him to be the first to go to + Caesar, and denounce himself. Rufus followed this advice, met Caesar as he + was going down to the forum, and, swearing that he was out of his mind the + day before, prayed that what he had said might fall upon his own head and + that of his children; he then begged Caesar pardon him, and to take him + back into favour. When Caesar said that he would do so, he added, "No one + will believe that you have taken me back into favour unless you make me a + present of something;" and he asked for and obtained a sum of money so + large, that it would have been a gift not to be slighted even if bestowed + by an unoffended prince. Caesar added: "In future I will take care never + to quarrel with you, for my own sake." Caesar acted honourably in + pardoning him, and in being liberal as well as forgiving; no one can hear + this anecdote without praising Caesar, but he must praise the slave first. + You need not wait for me to tell you that the slave who did his master + this service was set free; yet his master did not do this for nothing, for + Caesar had already paid him the price of the slave's liberty. + </p> + <p> + XXVIII. After so many instances, can we doubt that a master may sometimes + receive a benefit from a slave? Why need the person of the giver detract + from the thing which he gives? why should not the gift add rather to the + glory of the giver. All men descend from the same original stock; no one + is better born than another, except in so far as his disposition is nobler + and better suited for the performance of good actions. Those who display + portraits of their ancestors in their halls, and set up in the entrance to + their houses the pedigree of their family drawn out at length, with many + complicated collateral branches, are they not notorious rather than noble? + The universe is the one parent of all, whether they trace their descent + from this primary source through a glorious or a mean line of ancestors. + Be not deceived when men who are reckoning up their genealogy, wherever an + illustrious name is wanting, foist in that of a god in its place. You need + despise no one, even though he bears a commonplace name, and owes little + to fortune. Whether your immediate ancestors were freedmen, or slaves, or + foreigners, pluck up your spirits boldly, and leap over any intervening + disgraces of your pedigree; at its source, a noble origin awaits you. Why + should our pride inflate us to such a degree that we think it beneath us + to receive benefits from slaves, and think only of their position, + forgetting their good deeds? You, the slave of lust, of gluttony, of a + harlot, nay, who are owned as a joint chattel by harlots, can you call + anyone else a slave? Call a man a slave? why, I pray you, whither are you + being hurried by those bearers who carry your litter? whither are these + men with their smart military-looking cloaks carrying you? is it not to + the door of some door-keeper, or to the gardens of some one who has not + even a subordinate office? and then you, who regard the salute of another + man's slave as a benefit, declare that you cannot receive a benefit from + your own slave. What inconsistency is this? At the same time you despise + and fawn upon slaves, you are haughty and violent at home, while out of + doors you are meek, and as much despised as you despise your slaves; for + none abase themselves lower than those who unconscionably give themselves + airs, nor are anymore prepared to trample upon others than those who have + learned how to offer insults by having endured them. + </p> + <p> + XXIX. I felt it my duty to say this, in order to crush the arrogance of + men who are themselves at the mercy of fortune, and to claim the right of + bestowing a benefit for slaves, in order that I may claim it also for + sons. The question arises, whether children can ever bestow upon their + parents greater benefits than those which they have received from them. + </p> + <p> + It is granted that many sons become greater and more powerful than their + parents, and also that they are better men. If this be true, they may give + better gifts to their fathers than they have received from them, seeing + that their fortune and their good nature are alike greater than that of + their father. "Whatever a father receives from his son," our opponent will + urge, "must in any case be lees than what the son received from him, + because the son owes to his father the very power of giving. Therefore the + father can never be surpassed in the bestowal of benefits, because the + benefit which surpasses his own is really his." I answer, that some things + derive their first origin from others, yet are greater than those others; + and a thing may be greater than that from which it took its rise, although + without that thing to start from it never could have grown so great. All + things greatly outgrow their beginnings. Seeds are the causes of all + things, and yet are the smallest part of the things which they produce. + Look at the Rhine, or the Euphrates, or any other famous rivers; how small + they are, if you only view them at the place from whence they take their + rise? they gain all that makes them terrible and renowned as they flow + along. Look at the trees which are tallest if you consider their height, + and the broadest if you look at their thickness and the spread of their + branches; compared with all this, how small a part of them is contained in + the slender fibres of the root? Yet take away their roots, and no more + groves will arise, nor great mountains be clothed with trees. Temples and + cities are supported by their foundations; yet what is built as the + foundation of the entire building lies out of sight. So it is in other + matters; the subsequent greatness of a thing ever eclipses its origin. I + could never have obtained anything without having previously received the + boon of existence from my parents; yet it does not follow from this that + whatever I obtain is less than that without which I could not obtain it. + If my nurse had not fed me when I was a child, I should not have been able + to conduct any of those enterprises which I now carry on, both with my + head and with my hand, nor should I ever have obtained the fame which is + due to my labours both in peace and war; would you on that account argue + that the services of a nurse were more valuable than the most important + undertakings? Yet is not the nurse as important as the father, since + without the benefits which I have received from each of them alike, I + should have been alike unable to effect anything? If I owe all that I now + can do to my original beginning, I cannot regard my father or my + grandfather as being this original beginning; there always will be a + spring further back, from which the spring next below is derived. Yet no + one will argue that I owe more to unknown and forgotten ancestors than to + my father; though really I do owe them more, if I owe it to my ancestors + that my father begat me. + </p> + <p> + XXX. "Whatever I have bestowed upon my father," says my opponent, "however + great it may be, yet is less valuable than what my father has bestowed + upon me, because if he had not begotten me, it never could have existed at + all." By this mode of reasoning, if a man has healed my father when ill, + and at the point of death, I shall not be able to bestow anything upon him + equivalent to what I have received from him; for had my father not been + healed, he could not have begotten me. Yet think whether it be not nearer + the truth to regard all that I can do, and all that I have done, as mine, + due to my own powers and my own will? Consider what the fact of my birth + is in itself; you will see that it is a small matter, the outcome of which + is dubious, and that it may lead equally to good or to evil; no doubt it + is the first step to everything, but because it is the first, it is not on + that account more important than all the others. Suppose that I have saved + my father's life, raised him to the highest honours, and made him the + chief man in his city, that I have not merely made him illustrious by my + own deeds, but have furnished him himself with an opportunity of + performing great exploits, which is at once important, easy, and safe, as + well as glorious; that I have loaded him with appointments, wealth, and + all that attracts men's minds; still, even when I surpass all others, I am + inferior to him. Now if you say, "You owe to your father the power of + doing all this," I shall answer, "Quite true, if to do all this it is only + necessary to be born; but if life is merely an unimportant factor in the + art of living well, and if you have bestowed upon me only that which I + have in common with wild beasts and the smallest, and some of the foulest + of creatures, do not claim for yourself what did not come into being in + consequence of the benefits which you bestowed, even though it could not + have come into being without them." + </p> + <p> + XXXI. Suppose, father, that I have saved your life, in return for the life + which I received from you: in this case also I have outdone your benefit, + because I have given life to one who understands what I have done, and + because I understood what I was doing, since I gave you your life not for + the sake of, or by the means of my own pleasure; for just as it is less + terrible to die before one has time to fear death, so it is a much greater + boon to preserve one's life than to receive it. I have given life to one + who will at once enjoy it, you gave it to one who knew not if he should + ever live; I have given life to one who was in fear of death, your gift of + life merely enables me to die; I have given you a life complete, perfect; + you begat me without intelligence, a burden upon others. Do you wish to + know how far from a benefit it was to give life under such conditions? You + should have exposed me as a child, for you did me a wrong in begetting me. + What do I gather from this? That the cohabitation of a father and mother + is the very least of benefits to their child, unless in addition this + beginning of kindnesses be followed up by others, and confirmed by other + services. It is not a good thing to live, but to live well. "But," say + you, "I do live well." True, but I might have lived ill; so that your part + in me is merely this, that I live. If you claim merit to yourself for + giving me mere life, bare and helpless, and boast of it as a great boon, + reflect that this you claim merit for giving me is a boon which I possess + in common with flies and worms. In the next place, if I say no more than + that I have applied myself to honourable pursuits, and have guided the + course of my life along the path of rectitude, then you have received more + from your benefit than you gave; for you gave me to myself ignorant and + unlearned, and I have returned to you a son such as you would wish to have + begotten. + </p> + <p> + XXXII. My father supported me. If I repay this kindness, I give him more + than I received, because he has the pleasure, not only of being supported, + but of being supported by a son, and receives more delight from my filial + devotion than from the food itself, whereas the food which he used to give + me merely affected my body. What? if any man rises so high as to become + famous among nations for his eloquence, his justice, or his military + skill, if much of the splendour of his renown is shed upon his father + also, and by its clear light dispels the obscurity of his birth, does not + such a man confer an inestimable benefit upon his parents? Would anyone + have heard of Aristo and Gryllus except through Xenophon and Plato, their + sons? Socrates keeps alive the memory of Sophroniscus. It would take long + to recount the other men whose names survive for no other reason than that + the admirable qualities of their sons have handed them down to posterity. + Did the father of Marcus Agrippa, of whom nothing was known, even after + Agrippa became famous, confer the greater benefit upon his son, or was + that greater which Agrippa conferred upon his father when he gained the + glory, unique in the annals of war, of a naval crown, and when he raised + so many vast buildings in Rome, which not only surpassed all former + grandeur, but have been surpassed by none since? Did Octavius confer a + greater benefit upon his son, or the Emperor Augustus upon his father, + obscured as he was by the intervention of an adoptive father? What joy + would he have experienced, if, after the putting down of the civil war, he + had seen his son ruling the state in peace and security? He would not have + recognized the good which he had himself bestowed, and would hardly have + believed, when he looked back upon himself, that so great a man could have + been born in his house. Why should I go on to speak of others who would + now be forgotten, if the glory of their sons had not raised them from + obscurity, and kept them in the light until this day? In the next place, + as we are not considering what son may have given back to his father + greater benefits than he received from him, but whether a son can give + back greater benefits, even if the examples which I have quoted are not + sufficient, and such benefits do not outweigh the benefits bestowed by the + parents, if no age has produced. an actual example, still it is not in the + nature of things impossible. Though no solitary act can outweigh the + deserts of a parent, yet many such acts combined by one son may do so. + </p> + <p> + XXXIII. Scipio, while under seventeen years of age, rode among the enemy + in battle, and saved his father's life. Was it not enough, that in order + to reach his father he despised so many dangers when they were pressing + hardest upon the greatest generals, that he, a novice in his first battle, + made his way through so many obstacles, over the bodies of so many veteran + soldiers, and showed strength and courage beyond his years? Add to this, + that he also defended his father in court, and saved him from a plot of + his powerful enemies, that he heaped upon him a second and a third + consulship and other posts which were coveted even by consulars, that when + his father was poor he bestowed upon him the plunder which he took by + military licence, and that he made him rich with the spoils of the enemy, + which is the greatest honour of a soldier. If even this did not repay his + debt, add to it that he caused him to be constantly employed in the + government of provinces and in special commands, add, that after he had + destroyed the greatest cities, and became without a rival either in the + east or in the west, the acknowledged protector and second founder of the + Roman Empire, he bestowed upon one who was already of noble birth the + higher title of "the father of Scipio;" can we doubt that the commonplace + benefit of his birth was outdone by his exemplary conduct, and by the + valour which was at once the glory and the protection of his country? + Next, if this be not enough, suppose that a son were to rescue his father + from the torture, or to undergo it in his stead. You can suppose the + benefits returned by the son as great as you please, whereas the gift he + received from his father was of one sort only, was easily performed, and + was a pleasure to the giver; that he must necessarily have given the same + thing to many others, even to some to whom he knows not that he has given + it, that he had a partner in doing so, and that he had in view the law, + patriotism, the rewards bestowed upon fathers of families by the state, + the maintenance of his house and family: everything rather than him to + whom he was giving life. What? supposing that any one were to learn + philosophy and teach it to his father, could it be any longer disputed + that the son had given him something greater than he had received from + him, having returned to his father a happy life, whereas he had received + from him merely life? + </p> + <p> + XXXIV. "But," says our opponent, "whatever you do, whatever you are able + to give to your father, is part of his benefit bestowed upon you." So it + is the benefit of my teacher that I have become proficient in liberal + studies; yet we pass on from those who taught them to us, at any rate from + those who taught us the alphabet; and although no one can learn anything + without them, yet it does not follow that whatsoever success one + subsequently obtains, one is still inferior to those teachers. There is a + great difference between the beginning of a thing and its final + development; the beginning is not equal to the thing at its greatest, + merely upon the ground that, without the beginning, it could never have + become so great. + </p> + <p> + XXXV. It is now time for me to bring forth something, so to speak, from my + own mint. So long as there is something better than the benefit which a + man bestows, he may be outdone. A father gives life to his son; there is + something better than life; therefore a father may be outdone, because + there is something better than the benefit which he has bestowed. Still + further, he who has given any one his life, if he be more than once saved + from peril of death by him, has received a greater benefit than he + bestowed. Now, a father has given life to his son: if, therefore, he be + more than once saved from peril by his son, he can receive a greater + benefit than he gave. A benefit becomes greater to the receiver in + proportion to his need of it. Now he who is alive needs life more than he + who has not been born, seeing that such a one can have no need at all; + consequently a father, if his life is saved by his son, receives a greater + benefit than his son received from him by being born. It is said, "The + benefits conferred by fathers cannot be outdone by those returned by their + sons." Why? "Because the son received life from his father, and had he not + received it, he could not have returned any benefits at all." A father has + this in common with all those who have given any men their lives; it is + impossible that these men could repay the debt if they had not received + their life. Then I suppose one cannot overpay one's debt to a physician, + for a physician gives life as well as a father; or to a sailor who has + saved us when shipwrecked? Yet the benefits bestowed by these and by all + the others who give us life in whatever fashion, can be outdone: + consequently those of our fathers can be outdone. If any one bestows upon + me a benefit which requires the help of benefits from many other persons, + whereas I give him what requires no one to help it out, I have given more + than I have received; now a father gave to his son a life which, without + many accessories to preserve it, would perish; whereas a son, if he gives + life to his father, gives him a life which requires no assistance to make + it lasting; therefore the father who receives life from his son, receives + a greater benefit than he himself bestowed upon his son. + </p> + <p> + XXXVI. These considerations do not destroy the respect due to parents, or + make their children behave worse to them, nay, better; for virtue is + naturally ambitious, and wishes to outstrip those who are before it. + Filial piety will be all the more eager, if, in returning a father's + benefits, it can hope to outdo them; nor will this be against the will or + the pleasure of the father, since in many contests it is to our advantage + to be outdone. How does this contest become so desirable? How comes it to + be such happiness to parents that they should confess themselves outdone + by the benefits bestowed by their children? Unless we decide the matter + thus, we give children an excuse, and make them less eager to repay their + debt, whereas we ought to spur them on, saying, "Noble youths, give your + attention to this! You are invited to contend in an honourable strife + between parents and children, as to which party has received more than it + has given. Your fathers have not necessarily won the day because they are + first in the field: only take courage, as befits you, and do not give up + the contest; you will conquer if you wish to do so. In this honourable + warfare you will have no lack of leaders who will encourage you to perform + deeds like their own, and bid you follow in their footsteps upon a path by + which victory has often before now been won over parents." + </p> + <p> + XXXVII. AEneas conquered his father in well doing, for he himself had been + but a light and a safe burden for him when he was a child, yet he bore his + father, when heavy with age, through the midst of the enemy's lines and + the crash of the city which was falling around him, albeit the devout old + man, who bore the sacred images and the household gods in his hands, + pressed him with more than his own weight; nevertheless (what cannot + filial piety accomplish!) AEneas bore him safe through the blazing city, + and placed him in safety, to be worshipped as one of the founders of the + Roman Empire. Those Sicilian youths outdid their parents whom they bore + away safe, when Aetna, roused to unusual fury, poured fire over cities and + fields throughout a great part of the island. It is believed that the + fires parted, and that the flames retired on either side, so as to leave a + passage for these youths to pass through, who certainly deserved to + perform their daring task in safety. Antigonus outdid his father when, + after having conquered the enemy in a great battle, he transferred the + fruits of it to him, and handed over to him the empire of Cyprus. This is + true kingship, to choose not to be a king when you might. Manlius + conquered his father, imperious [Footnote: There is an allusion to the + surname of both the father and the son, "Imperiosus" given them on account + of their severity.] though he was, when, in spite of his having previously + been banished for a time by his father on, account of his dulness and + stupidity as a boy, he came to an interview which he had demanded with the + tribune of the people, who had filed an action against his father. The + tribune had granted him the interview, hoping that he would betray his + hated father, and believed that he had earned the gratitude of the youth, + having, amongst other matters, reproached old Manlius with sending him + into exile, treating it as a very serious accusation; but the youth, + having caught him alone, drew a sword which he had hidden in his robe, and + said, "Unless you swear to give up your suit against my father, I will run + you through with this sword. It is in your power to decide how my father + shall be freed from his prosecutor." The tribune swore, and kept his oath; + he related the reason of his abandonment of his action to an assembly at + the Rostra. No other man was ever permitted to put down a tribune with + impunity. + </p> + <p> + XXXVIII. There are instances without number of men who have saved their + parents from danger, have raised them from the lowest to the highest + station, and, taking them from the nameless mass of the lower classes, + have given them a name glorious throughout all ages. By no force of words, + by no power of genius, can one rightly express how desirable, how + admirable, how never to be erased from human memory it is to be able to + say, "I obeyed my parents, I gave way to them, I was submissive to their + authority whether it was just, or unjust and harsh; the only point in + which I resisted them was, not to be conquered by them in benefits." + Continue this struggle, I beg of you, and even though weary, yet re-form + your ranks. Happy are they who conquer, happy they who are conquered. What + can be more glorious than the youth who can say to himself—it would + not be right to say it to another—"I have conquered my father with + benefits"? What is more fortunate than that old man who declares + everywhere to everyone that he has been conquered in benefits by his son? + What, again, is more blissful than to be overcome in such a contest? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK IV. + </h2> + <h3> + I. + </h3> + <p> + Of all the matters which we have discussed, Aebutius Liberalis, there is + none more essential, or which, as Sallust says, ought to be stated with + more care than that which is now before us: whether the bestowal of + benefits and the return of gratitude for them are desirable objects in + themselves. Some men are found who act honourably from commercial motives, + and who do not care for unrewarded virtue, though it can confer no glory + if it brings any profit. What can be more base than for a man to consider + what it costs him to be a good man, when virtue neither allures by gain + nor deters by loss, and is so far from bribing any one with hopes and + promises, that on the other hand she bids them spend money upon herself, + and often consists in voluntary gifts? We must go to her, trampling what + is merely useful under our feet: whithersoever she may call us or send us + we must go, without any regard for our private fortunes, sometimes without + sparing even our own blood, nor must we ever refuse to obey any of her + commands. "What shall I gain," says my opponent, "if I do this bravely and + gratefully?" You will gain the doing of it—the deed itself is your + gain. Nothing beyond this is promised. If any advantage chances to accrue + to you, count it as something extra. The reward of honourable dealings + lies in themselves. If honour is to be sought after for itself, since a + benefit is honourable, it follows that because both of these are of the + same nature, their conditions must also be the same. Now it has frequently + and satisfactorily been proved, that honour ought to be sought after for + itself alone. + </p> + <p> + II. In this part of the subject we oppose the Epicureans, an effeminate + and dreamy sect who philosophize in their own paradise, amongst whom + virtue is the handmaid of pleasures, obeys them, is subject to them, and + regards them as superior to itself. You say, "there is no pleasure without + virtue." But wherefore is it superior to virtue? Do you imagine that the + matter in dispute between them is merely one of precedence? Nay, it is + virtue itself and its powers which are in question. It cannot be virtue if + it can follow; the place of virtue is first, she ought to lead, to + command, to stand in the highest rank; you bid her look for a cue to + follow. "What," asks our opponent, "does that matter to you? I also + declare that happiness is impossible without virtue. Without virtue I + disapprove of and condemn the very pleasures which I pursue, and to which + I have surrendered myself. The only matter in dispute is this, whether + virtue be the cause of the highest good, or whether it be itself the + highest good." Do you suppose, though this be the only point in question, + that it is a mere matter of precedence? It is a confusion and obvious + blindness to prefer the last to the first. I am not angry at virtue being + placed below pleasure, but at her being mixed up at all with pleasure, + which she despises, whose enemy she is, and from which she separates + herself as far as possible, being more at home with labour and sorrow, + which are manly troubles, than with your womanish good things. + </p> + <p> + III. It was necessary to insert this argument, my Liberalis, because it is + the part of virtue to bestow those benefits which we are now discussing, + and it is most disgraceful to bestow benefits for any other purpose than + that they should be free gifts. If we give with the hope of receiving a + return, we should give to the richest men, not to the most deserving: + whereas we prefer a virtuous poor man to an unmannerly rich one. That is + not a benefit, which takes into consideration the fortune of the receiver. + Moreover, if our only motive for benefiting others was our own advantage, + those who could most easily distribute benefits, such as rich and powerful + men, or kings, and persons who do not stand in need of the help of others, + ought never to do so at all; the gods would not bestow upon us the + countless blessings which they pour upon us unceasingly by night and by + day, for their own nature suffices them in all respects, and renders them + complete, safe, and beyond the reach of harm; they will, therefore, never + bestow a benefit upon any one, if self and self interest be the only cause + for the bestowal of benefits. To take thought, not where your benefit will + be best bestowed, but where it may be most profitably placed at interest, + from whence you will most easily get it back, is not bestowal of benefits, + but usury. Now the gods have nothing to do with usury; it follows, + therefore, that they cannot be liberal; for if the only reason for giving + is the advantage of the giver, since God cannot hope to receive any + advantages from us, there is no cause why God should give anything. + </p> + <p> + IV. I know what answer may be made to this. "True; therefore God does not + bestow benefits, but, free from care and unmindful of us, He turns away + from our world and either does something else, or else does nothing, which + Epicurus thought the greatest possible happiness, and He is not affected + either by benefits or by injuries." The man who says this cannot surely + hear the voices of worshippers, and of those who all around him are + raising their hands to heaven and praying for the success both of their + private affairs and those of the state; which certainly would not be the + case, all men would not agree in this madness of appealing to deaf and + helpless gods, unless we knew that their benefits are sometimes bestowed + upon us unasked, sometimes in answer to our prayers, and that they give us + both great and seasonable gifts, which shield us from the most terrible + dangers. Who is there so poor, so uncared for, born to sorrow by so unkind + a fate, as never to have felt the vast generosity of the Gods? Look even + at those who complain and are discontented with their lot; you will find + that they are not altogether without a share in the bounty of heaven, that + there is no one upon whom something has not been shed from that most + gracious fount. Is the gift which is bestowed upon all alike, at their + birth, not enough? However unequally the blessings of after life may be + dealt out to us, did nature give us too little when she gave us herself? + </p> + <p> + V. It is said, "God does not bestow benefits." Whence, then, comes all + that you possess, that you give or refuse to give, that you hoard or + steal? whence come these innumerable delights of our eyes, our ears, and + our minds? whence the plenty which provides us even with luxury—for + it is not our bare necessities alone against which provision is made; we + are loved so much as actually to be pampered—whence so many trees + bearing various fruits, so many wholesome herbs, so many different sorts + of food distributed throughout the year, so that even the slothful may + find sustenance in the chance produce of the earth? Then, too, whence come + the living creatures of all kinds, some inhabiting the dry land, others + the waters, others alighting from the sky, that every part of nature may + pay us some tribute; the rivers which encircle our meadows with most + beauteous bends, the others which afford a passage to merchant fleets as + they flow on, wide and navigable, some of which in summer time are subject + to extraordinary overflowings in order that lands lying parched under a + glowing sun may suddenly be watered by the rush of a midsummer torrent? + </p> + <p> + What of the fountains of medicinal waters? What of the bursting forth of + warm waters upon the seashore itself? Shall I + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Tell of the seas round Italy that flow, + Which laves her shore above, and which below; + Or of her lakes, unrivalled Larius, thee, + Or thee, Benacus, roaring like a sea?" +</pre> + <p> + VI. If any one gave you a few acres, you would say that you had received a + benefit; can you deny that the boundless extent of the earth is a benefit? + If any one gave you money, and filled your chest, since you think that so + important, you would call that a benefit. God has buried countless mines + in the earth, has poured out from the earth countless rivers, rolling + sands of gold; He has concealed in every place huge masses of silver, + copper and iron, and has bestowed upon you the means of discovering them, + placing upon the surface of the earth signs of the treasures hidden below; + and yet do you say that you have received no benefit? If a house were + given you, bright with marble, its roof beautifully painted with colours + and gilding, you would call it no small benefit. God has built for you a + huge mansion that fears no fire or ruin, in which you see no flimsy + veneers, thinner than the very saw with which they are cut, but vast + blocks of most precious stone, all composed of those various and different + substances whose paltriest fragments you admire so much; he has built a + roof which glitters in one fashion by day, and in another by night; and + yet do you say that you have received no benefit? When you so greatly + prize what you possess, do you act the part of an ungrateful man, and + think that there is no one to whom you are indebted for them? Whence comes + the breath which you draw? the light by which you arrange and perform all + the actions of your life? the blood by whose circulation your vital warmth + is maintained? those meats which excite your palate by their delicate + flavour after your hunger is appeased? those provocatives which rouse you + when wearied with pleasure? that repose in which you are rotting and + mouldering? Will you not, if you are grateful, say— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "'Tis to a god that this repose I owe, + For him I worship, as a god below. + Oft on his altar shall my firstlings bleed, + See, by his bounty here with rustic reed + I play the airs I love the livelong day, + The while my oxen round about me stray." +</pre> + <p> + The true God is he who has placed, not a few oxen, but all the herds on + their pastures throughout the world; who furnishes food to the flocks + wherever they wander; who has ordained the alternation of summer and + winter pasturage, and has taught us not merely to play upon a reed, and to + reduce to some order a rustic and artless song, but who has invented so + many arts and varieties of voice, so many notes to make music, some with + our own breath, some with instruments. You cannot call our inventions our + own any more than you call our growth our own, or the various bodily + functions which correspond to each stage of our lives; at one time comes + the loss of childhood's teeth, at another, when our age is advancing and + growing into robuster manhood, puberty and the last wisdom-tooth marks the + end of our youth. "We have implanted in us the seeds of all ages, of all + arts, and God our master brings forth our intellects from obscurity." + </p> + <p> + VII. "Nature," says my opponent, "gives me all this." Do you not perceive + when you say this that you merely speak of God under another name? for + what is nature but God and divine reason, which pervades the universe and + all its parts? You may address the author of our world by as many + different titles as you please; you may rightly call him Jupiter, Best and + Greatest, and the Thunderer, or the Stayer, so called, not because, as the + historians tell us, he stayed the flight of the Roman army in answer to + the prayer of Romulus, but because all things continue in their stay + through his goodness. If you were to call this same personage Fate, you + would not lie; for since fate is nothing more than a connected chain of + causes, he is the first cause of all upon which all the rest depend. You + will also be right in applying to him any names that you please which + express supernatural strength and power: he may have as many titles as he + has attributes. + </p> + <p> + VIII. Our school regards him as Father Liber, and Hercules, and Mercurius: + he is Father Liber because he is the parent of all, who first discovered + the power of seed, and our being led by pleasure to plant it; he is + Hercules, because his might is unconquered, and when it is wearied after + completing its labours, will retire into fire; he is Mercurius, because in + him is reasoning, and numbers, and system, and knowledge. Whither-soever + you turn yourself you will see him meeting you: nothing is void of him, he + himself fills his own work. Therefore, most ungrateful of mortals, it is + in vain that you declare yourself indebted, not to God, but to nature, + because there can be no God without nature, nor any nature without God; + they are both the same thing, differing only in their functions. If you + were to say that you owe to Annaeus or to Lucius what you received from + Seneca, you would not change your creditor, but only his name, because he + remains the same man whether you use his first, second, or third name. So + whether you speak of nature, fate, or fortune, these are all names of the + same God, using his power in different ways. So likewise justice, honesty, + discretion, courage, frugality, are all the good qualities of one and the + same mind; if you are pleased with any one of these, you are pleased with + that mind. + </p> + <p> + IX. However, not to drift aside into a distinct controversy, God bestows + upon us very many and very great benefits without hope of receiving any + return; since he does not require any offering from us, and we are not + capable of bestowing anything upon him: wherefore, a benefit is desirable + in itself. In it the advantage of the receiver is all that is taken into + consideration: we study this without regarding our own interests. "Yet," + argues our opponent, "you say that we ought to choose with care the + persons upon whom we bestow benefits, because neither do husbandmen sow + seed in the sand: now if this be true, we follow our own interest in + bestowing benefits, just as much as in ploughing and sowing: for sowing is + not desirable in itself. Besides this you inquire where and how you ought + to bestow a benefit, which would not need to be done if the bestowal of a + benefit was desirable in itself: because in whatever place and whatever + manner it might be bestowed, it still would be a benefit." We seek to do + honourable acts, solely because they are honourable; yet even though we + need think of nothing else, we consider to whom we shall do them, and + when, and how; for in these points the act has its being. In like manner, + when I choose upon whom I shall bestow a benefit, and when I aim at making + it a benefit; because if it were bestowed upon a base person, it could + neither be a benefit nor an honourable action. + </p> + <p> + X. To restore what has been entrusted to one is desirable in itself; yet I + shall not always restore it, nor shall I do so in any place or at any time + you please. Sometimes it makes no difference whether I deny that I have + received it, or return it openly. I shall consider the interests of the + person to whom I am to return it, and shall deny that I have received a + deposit, which would injure him if returned. I shall act in the same + manner in bestowing a benefit: I shall consider when to give it, to whom, + in what manner, and on what grounds. Nothing ought to be done without a + reason: a benefit is not truly so, if it be bestowed without a reason, + since reason accompanies all honorable action. How often do we hear men + reproaching themselves for some thoughtless gift, and saying, "I had + rather have thrown it away than have given it to him!" What is + thoughtlessly given away is lost in the most discreditable manner, and it + is much worse to have bestowed a benefit badly than to have received no + return for it; that we receive no return is the fault of another; that we + did not choose upon whom we should bestow it, is our own. In choosing a + fit person, I shall not, as you expect, pay the least attention to whether + I am likely to get any return from him, for I choose one who will be + grateful, not one who will return my goodness, and it often happens that + the man who makes no return is grateful, while he who returns a benefit is + ungrateful for it. I value men by their hearts alone, and, therefore, I + shall pass over a rich man if he be unworthy, and give to a good man + though he be poor; for he will be grateful however destitute he may be, + since whatever he may lose, his heart will still be left him. + </p> + <p> + XI. I do not fish for gain, for pleasure, or for credit, by bestowing + benefits: satisfied in doing so with pleasing one man alone, I shall give + in order to do my duty. Duty, however, leaves one some choice; do you ask + me, how I am to choose? I shall choose an honest, plain, man, with a good + memory, and grateful for kindness; one who keeps his hands off other men's + goods, yet does not greedily hold to his own, and who is kind to others; + when I have chosen such a man, I shall have acted to my mind, although + fortune may have bestowed upon him no means of returning my kindness. If + my own advantage and mean calculation made me liberal, if I did no one any + service except in order that he might in turn do a service to me, I should + never bestow a benefit upon one who was setting out for distant and + foreign countries, never to return; I should not bestow a benefit upon one + who was so ill as to be past hope of recovery, nor should I do so when I + myself was failing, because I should not live long enough to receive any + return. Yet, that you may know that to do good is desirable in itself, we + afford help to strangers who put into our harbour only to leave it + straightway; we give a ship and fit it out for a shipwrecked stranger to + sail back in to his own country. He leaves us hardly knowing who it was + who saved him, and, as he will never return to our presence, he hands over + his debt of gratitude to the gods, and beseeches them to fulfil it for + him: in the meanwhile we rejoice in the barren knowledge that we have done + a good action. What? when we stand upon the extreme verge of life, and + make our wills, do we not assign to others benefits from which we + ourselves shall receive no advantage? How much time we waste, how long we + consider in secret how much property we are to leave, and to whom! What + then? does it make any difference to us to whom we leave our property, + seeing that we cannot expect any return from any one? Yet we never give + anything with more care, we never take such pains in deciding upon our + verdict, as when, without any views of personal advantage, we think only + of what is honourable, for we are bad judges of our duty as long as our + view of it is distorted by hope and fear, and that most indolent of vices, + pleasure: but when death has shut off all these, and brought us as + incorrupt judges to pronounce sentence, we seek for the most worthy men to + leave our property to, and we never take more scrupulous care than in + deciding what is to be done with what does not concern us. Yet, by + Hercules, then there steals over us a great satisfaction as we think, "I + shall make this man richer, and by bestowing wealth upon that man I shall + add lustre to his high position." Indeed, if we never give without + expecting some return, we must all die without making our wills. + </p> + <p> + XII. It may be said, "You define a benefit as a loan which cannot be + repaid: now a loan is not a desirable thing in itself." When we speak of a + loan, we make use of a figure, or comparison, just as we speak of law as; + the standard of right and wrong, although a standard is not a thing to be + desired for its own sake. I have adopted this phrase in order to + illustrate my subject: when I speak of a loan, I must be understood to + mean something resembling a loan. Do you wish to know how it differs from + one? I add the words "which cannot be repaid," whereas every loan both can + and ought to be repaid. It is so far from being right to bestow a benefit + for one's own advantage, that often, as I have explained, it is one's duty + to bestow it when it involves one's own loss and risk: for instance, if I + assist a man when beset by robbers, so that he gets away from them safely, + or help some victim of power, and bring upon myself the party spite of a + body of influential men, very, probably incurring myself the same disgrace + from which I saved him, although I might have taken the other side, and + looked on with safety at struggles with which I have nothing to do: if I + were to give bail for one who has been condemned, and when my friend's + goods were advertised for sale I were to give a bond to the effect that I + would make restitution to the creditors, if, in order to save a proscribed + person I myself run the risk of being proscribed. No one, when about to + buy a villa at Tusculum or Tibur, for a summer retreat, because of the + health of the locality, considers how many years' purchase he gives for + it; this must be looked to by the man who makes a profit by it. The same + is true with benefits; when you ask what return I get for them, I answer, + the consciousness of a good action. "What return does one get for + benefits?" Pray tell me what return one gets for righteousness, innocence, + magnanimity, chastity, temperance? If you wish for anything beyond these + virtues, you do not wish for the virtues themselves. For what does the + order of the universe bring round the seasons? for what does the sun make + the day now longer and now shorter? all these things are benefits, for + they take place for our good. As it is the duty of the universe to + maintain the round of the seasons, as it is the duty of the sun to vary + the points of his rising and setting, and to do all these things by which + we profit, without any reward, so is it the duty of man, amongst other + things, to bestow benefits. Wherefore then does he give? He gives for fear + that he should not give, lest he might lose an opportunity of doing a good + action. + </p> + <p> + XIII. You Epicureans take pleasure in making a study of dull torpidity, in + seeking for a repose which differs little from sound sleep, in lurking + beneath the thickest shade, in amusing with the feeblest possible trains + of thought that sluggish condition of your languid minds which you term + tranquil contemplation, and in stuffing with food and drink, in the + recesses of your gardens, your bodies which are pallid with want of + exercise; we Stoics, on the other hand, take pleasure in bestowing + benefits, even though they cost us labour, provided that they lighten the + labours of others; though they lead us into danger, provided that they + save others, though they straiten our means, if they alleviate the poverty + and distresses of others. What difference does it make to me whether I + receive benefits or not? even if I receive them, it is still my duty to + bestow them. A benefit has in view the advantage of him upon whom we + bestow it, not our own; otherwise we merely bestow it upon ourselves. Many + things, therefore, which are of the greatest possible use to others lose + all claim to gratitude by being paid for. Merchants are of use to cities, + physicians to invalids, dealers to slaves; yet all these have no claim to + the gratitude of those whom they benefit, because they seek their own + advantage through that of others. That which is bestowed with a view to + profit is not a benefit. "I will give this in order that I may get a + return for it" is the language of a broker. + </p> + <p> + XIV. I should not call a woman modest, if she rebuffed her lover in order + to increase his passion, or because she feared the law or her husband; as + Ovid says: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "She that denies, because she does not dare + To yield, in spirit grants her lover's prayer." +</pre> + <p> + Indeed, the woman who owes her chastity, not to her own virtue, but to + fear, may rightly be classed as a sinner. In the same manner, he who + merely gave in order that he might receive, cannot be said to have given. + Pray, do we bestow benefits upon animals when we feed them for our use or + for our table? do we bestow benefits upon trees when we tend them that + they may not suffer from drought or from hardness of ground? No one is + moved by righteousness and goodness of heart to cultivate an estate, or to + do any act in which the reward is something apart from the act itself; but + he is moved to bestow benefits, not by low and grasping motives, but by a + kind and generous mind, which even after it has given is willing to give + again, to renew its former bounties by fresh ones, which thinks only of + how much good it can do the man to whom it gives; whereas to do any one a + service because it is our interest to do so is a mean action, which + deserves no praise, no credit. What grandeur is there in loving oneself, + sparing oneself, gaining profit for oneself? The true love of giving calls + us away from all this, forcibly leads us to put up with loss, and foregoes + its own interest, deriving its greatest pleasure from the mere act of + doing good. + </p> + <p> + XV. Can we doubt that the converse of a benefit is an injury? As the + infliction of injuries is a thing to be avoided, so is the bestowal of + benefits to be desired for its own sake. In the former, the disgrace of + crime outweighs all the advantages which incite us to commit it; while we + are urged to the latter course by the appearance of honour, in itself a + powerful incentive to action, which attends it. + </p> + <p> + I should not lie if I were to affirm that every one takes pleasure in the + benefits which he has bestowed, that everyone loves best to see the man + whom he has most largely benefited. Who does not thinks that to have + bestowed one benefit is a reason for bestowing a second? and would this be + so, if the act of giving did not itself give us pleasure? How often you + may hear a man say, "I cannot bear to desert one whose life I have + preserved, whom I have saved from danger. True, he asks me to plead his + cause against men of great influence. I do not wish to do so, yet what am + I to do? I have already helped him once, nay twice." Do you not perceive + how very powerful this instinct must be, if it leads us to bestow benefits + first because it is right to do so, and afterwards because we have already + bestowed somewhat? Though at the outset a man may have had no claim upon + us, we yet continue to give to him because we have already given to him. + So untrue is it that we are urged to bestow benefits by our own interest, + that even when our benefits prove failures we continue to nurse them and + encourage them out of sheer love of benefiting, which has a natural + weakness even for what has been ill-bestowed, like that which we feel for + our vicious children. + </p> + <p> + XVI. These same adversaries of ours admit that they are grateful, yet not + because it is honourable, but because it is profitable to be so. This can + be proved to be untrue all the more easily, because it can be established + by the same arguments by which we have established that to bestow a + benefit is desirable for its own sake. All our arguments start from this + settled point, that honour is pursued for no reason except because it is + honour. Now, who will venture to raise the question whether it be + honourable to be grateful? who does not loathe the ungrateful man, useless + as he is even to himself? How do you feel when any one is spoken of as + being ungrateful for great benefits conferred upon him by a friend? Is it + as though he had done something base, or had merely neglected to do + something useful and likely to be profitable to himself? I imagine that + you think him a bad man, and one who deserves punishment, not one who + needs a guardian; and this would not be the case, unless gratitude were + desirable in itself and honourable. Other qualities, it may be, manifest + their importance less clearly, and require an explanation to prove whether + they be honourable or no; this is openly proved to be so in the sight of + all, and is too beautiful for anything to obscure or dim its glory. What + is more praiseworthy, upon what are all men more universally agreed, than + to return gratitude for good offices? + </p> + <p> + XVII. Pray tell me, what is it that urges us to do so? Is it profit? Why, + unless a man despises profit, he is not grateful. Is it ambition? why, + what is there to boast of in having paid what you owe? Is it fear? The + ungrateful man feels none, for against this one crime we have provided no + law, as though nature had taken sufficient precautions against it. Just as + there is no law which bids parents love and indulge their children, seeing + that it is superfluous to force us into the path which we naturally take, + just as no one needs to be urged to love himself, since self-love begins + to act upon him as soon as he is born, so there is no law bidding us to + seek that which is honourable in itself; for such things please us by + their very nature, and so attractive is virtue that the disposition even + of bad men leads them to approve of good rather than of evil. Who is there + who does not wish to appear beneficent, who does not even when steeped in + crime and wrong-doing strive after the appearance of goodness, does not + put some show of justice upon even his most intemperate acts, and + endeavour to seem to have conferred a benefit even upon those whom he has + injured? Consequently, men allow themselves to be thanked by those whom + they have ruined, and pretend to be good and generous, because they cannot + prove themselves so; and this they never would do were it not that a love + of honour for its own sake forces them to seek a reputation quite at + variance with their real character, and to conceal their baseness, a + quality whose fruits we covet, though we regard it itself with dislike and + shame. No one has ever so far rebelled against the laws of nature and put + off human feeling as to act basely for mere amusement. Ask any of those + who live by robbery whether he would not rather obtain what he steals and + plunders by honest means; the man whose trade is highway robbery and the + murder of travellers would rather find his booty than take it by force; + you will find no one who would not prefer to enjoy the fruits of + wickedness without acting wickedly. Nature bestows upon us all this + immense advantage, that the light of virtue shines into the minds of all + alike; even those who do not follow her, behold her. + </p> + <p> + XVIII. A proof that gratitude is desirable for itself lies in the fact + that ingratitude is to be avoided for itself, because no vice more + powerfully rends asunder and destroys the union of the human race. To what + do we trust for safety, if not in mutual good offices one to another? It + is by the interchange of benefits alone that we gain some measure of + protection for our lives, and of safety against sudden disasters. Taken + singly, what should we be? a prey and quarry for wild beasts, a luscious + and easy banquet; for while all other animals have sufficient strength to + protect themselves, and those which are born to a wandering solitary life + are armed, man is covered by a soft skin, has no powerful teeth or claws + with which to terrify other creatures, but weak and naked by himself is + made strong by union. + </p> + <p> + God has bestowed upon him two gifts, reason and union, which raise him + from weakness to the highest power; and so he, who if taken alone would be + inferior to every other creature, possesses supreme dominion. Union has + given him sovereignty over all animals; union has enabled a being born + upon the earth to assume power over a foreign element, and bids him be + lord of the sea also; it is union which has checked the inroads of + disease, provided supports for our old age, and given us relief from pain; + it is union which makes us strong, and to which we look for protection + against the caprices of fortune. Take away union, and you will rend + asunder the association by which the human race preserves its existence; + yet you will take it away if you succeed in proving that ingratitude is + not to be avoided for itself, but because something is to be feared for + it; for how many are there who can with safety be ungrateful? In fine, I + call every man ungrateful who is merely made grateful by fear. + </p> + <p> + XIX. No sane man fears the gods; for it is madness to fear what is + beneficial, and no man loves those whom he fears. You, Epicurus, ended by + making God unarmed; you stripped him of all weapons, of all power, and, + lest anyone should fear him, you banished him out of the world. There is + no reason why you should fear this being, cut off as he is, and separated + from the sight and touch of mortals by a vast and impassable wall; he has + no power either of rewarding or of injuring us; he dwells alone half-way + between our heaven and that of another world, without the society either + of animals, of men, or of matter, avoiding the crash of worlds as they + fall in ruins above and around him, but neither hearing our prayers nor + interested in us. Yet you wish to seem to worship this being just as a + father, with a mind, I suppose, full of gratitude; or, if you do not wish + to seem grateful, why should you worship him, since you have received no + benefit from him, but have been put together entirely at random and by + chance by those atoms and mites of yours? "I worship him," you answer, + "because of his glorious majesty and his unique nature." Granting that you + do this, you clearly do it without the attraction of any reward, or any + hope; there is therefore something which is desirable for itself, whose + own worth attracts you, that is, honour. Now what is more honourable than + gratitude? the means of practising this virtue are as extensive as life + itself. + </p> + <p> + XX. "Yet," argues he, "there is also a certain amount of profit inherent + in this virtue." In what virtue is there not? But that which we speak of + as desirable for itself is such, that although it may possess some + attendant advantages, yet it would be desirable even if stripped of all + these. It is profitable to be grateful; yet I will be grateful even though + it harm me. What is the aim of the grateful man? is it that his gratitude + may win for him more friends and more benefits? What then? If a man is + likely to meet with affronts by showing his gratitude, if he knows that + far from gaining anything by it, he must lose much even of what he has + already acquired, will he not cheerfully act to his own disadvantage? That + man is ungrateful who, in returning a kindness, looks forward to a second + gift—who hopes while he repays. I call him ungrateful who sits at + the bedside of a sick man because he is about to make a will, when he is + at leisure to think of inheritances and legacies. Though he may do + everything which a good and dutiful friend ought to do, yet, if any hope + of gain be floating in his mind, he is a mere legacy-hunter, and is + angling for an inheritance. Like the birds which feed upon carcases, which + come close to animals weakened by disease, and watch till they fall, so + these men are attracted by death and hover around a corpse. + </p> + <p> + XXI. A grateful mind is attracted only by a sense of the beauty of its + purpose. Do you wish to know this to be so, and that it is not bribed by + ideas of profit? There are two classes of grateful men: a man is called + grateful who has made some return for what he received; this man may very + possibly display himself in this character, he has something to boast of, + to refer to. We also call a man grateful who receives a benefit with + goodwill, and owes it to his benefactor with goodwill; yet this man's + gratitude lies concealed within his own mind. What profit can accrue to + him from this latent feeling? yet this man, even though he is not able to + do anything more than this, is grateful; he loves his benefactor, he feels + his debt to him, he longs to repay his kindness; whatever else you may + find wanting, there is nothing wanting in the man. He is like a workman + who has not the tools necessary for the practice of his craft, or like a + trained singer whose voice cannot be heard through the noise of those who + interrupt him. I wish to repay a kindness: after this there still remains + something for me to do, not in order that I may become grateful, but that + I may discharge my debt; for, in many cases, he who returns a kindness is + ungrateful for it, and he who does not return it is grateful. Like all + other virtues, the whole value of gratitude lies in the spirit in which it + is done; so, if this man's purpose be loyal, any shortcomings on his part + are due not to himself, but to fortune. A man who is silent may, + nevertheless, be eloquent; his hands may be folded or even bound, and he + may yet be strong; just as a pilot is a pilot even when upon dry land, + because his knowledge is complete, and there is nothing wanting to it, + though there may be obstacles which prevent his making use of it. In the + same way, a man is grateful who only wishes to be so, and who has no one + but himself who can bear witness to his frame of mind. I will go even + further than this: a man sometimes is grateful when he appears to be + ungrateful, when ill-judging report has declared him to be so. Such a man + can look to nothing but his own conscience, which can please him even when + overwhelmed by calumny, which contradicts the mob and common rumour, + relies only upon itself, and though it beholds a vast crowd of the other + way of thinking opposed to it, does not count heads, but wins by its own + vote alone. Should it see its own good faith meet with the punishment due + to treachery, it will not descend from its pedestal, and will remain + superior to its punishment. "I have," it says, "what I wished, what I + strove for. I do not regret it, nor shall I do so; nor shall fortune, + however unjust she may be, ever hear me say, 'What did I want? What now is + the use of having meant well?'" A good conscience is of value on the rack, + or in the fire; though fire be applied to each of our limbs, gradually + encircle our living bodies, and burst our heart, yet if our heart be + filled with a good conscience, it will rejoice in the fire which will make + its good faith shine before the world. + </p> + <p> + XXII. Now let that question also which has been already stated be again + brought forward; Why is it that we should wish to be grateful when we are + dying, that we should carefully weigh the various services rendered us by + different individuals, and carefully review our whole life, that we may + not seem to have forgotten any kindness? Nothing then remains for us to + hope for; yet when on the very threshold, we wish to depart from human + life as full of gratitude as possible. There is in truth an immense reward + for this thing merely in doing it, and what is honourable has great power + to attract men's minds, which are overwhelmed by its beauty and carried + off their balance, enchanted by its brilliancy and splendour. "Yet," + argues our adversary, "from it many advantages take their rise, and good + men obtain a safer life and love, and the good opinion of the better + class, while their days are spent in greater security when accompanied by + innocence and gratitude." + </p> + <p> + Indeed, nature would have been most unjust had she rendered this great + blessing miserable, uncertain, and fruitless. But consider this point, + whether you would make your way to that virtue, to which it is generally + safe and easy to attain, even though the path lay over rocks and + precipices, and were beset with fierce beasts and venomous serpents. A + virtue is none the less to be desired for its own sake, because it has + some adventitious profit connected with it: indeed, in most cases the + noblest virtues are accompanied by many extraneous advantages, but it is + the virtues that lead the way, and these merely follow in their train. + </p> + <p> + XXIII. Can we doubt that the climate of this abode of the human race is + regulated by the motion of the sun and moon in their orbits? that our + bodies are sustained, the hard earth loosened, excessive moisture reduced, + and the surly bonds of winter broken by the heat of the one, and that + crops are brought to ripeness by the effectual all-pervading warmth of the + other? that the fertility of the human race corresponds to the courses of + the moon? that the sun by its revolution marks out the year, and that the + moon, moving in a smaller orbit, marks out the months? Yet, setting aside + all this, would not the sun be a sight worthy to be contemplated and + worshipped, if he did no more than rise and set? would not the moon be + worth looking at, even if it passed uselessly through the heavens? Whose + attention is not arrested by the universe itself, when by night it pours + forth its fires and glitters with innumerable stars? Who, while he admires + them, thinks of their being of use to him? Look at that great company + gliding over our heads, how they conceal their swift motion under the + semblance of a fixed and immovable work. How much takes place in that + night which you make use of merely to mark and count your days! What a + mass of events is being prepared in that silence! What a chain of destiny + their unerring path is forming! Those which you imagine to be merely + strewn about for ornament are really one and all at work. Nor is there any + ground for your belief that only seven stars revolve, and that the rest + remain still: we understand the orbits of a few, but countless divinities, + further removed from our sight, come and go; while the greater part of + those whom our sight reaches move in a mysterious manner and by an unknown + path. + </p> + <p> + XXIV. What then? would you not be captivated by the sight of such a + stupendous work, even though it did not cover you, protect you, cherish + you, bring you into existence and penetrate you with its spirit? Though + these heavenly bodies are of the very first importance to us, and are, + indeed, essential to our life, yet we can think of nothing but their + glorious majesty, and similarly all virtue, especially that of gratitude, + though it confers great advantages upon us, does not wish to be loved for + that reason; it has something more in it than this, and he who merely + reckons it among useful things does not perfectly comprehend it. A man, + you say, is grateful because it is to his advantage to be so. If this be + the case, then his advantage will be the measure of his gratitude. Virtue + will not admit a covetous lover; men must approach her with open purse. + The ungrateful man thinks, "I did wish to be grateful, but I fear the + expense and danger and insults to which I should expose myself: I will + rather consult my own interest." Men cannot be rendered grateful and + ungrateful by the same line of reasoning: their actions are as distinct as + their purposes. The one is ungrateful, although it is wrong, because it is + his interest; the other is grateful, although it is not his interest, + because it is right. + </p> + <p> + XXV. It is our aim to live in harmony with the scheme of the universe, and + to follow the example of the gods. Yet in all their acts the gods have no + object in view other than the act itself, unless you suppose that they + obtain a reward for their work in the smoke of burnt sacrifices and the + scent of incense. See what great things they do every day, how much they + divide amongst us, with how great crops they fill the earth, how they move + the seas with convenient winds to carry us to all shores, how by the fall + of sudden showers they soften the ground, renew the dried-up springs of + fountains, and call them into new life by unseen supplies of water. All + this they do without reward, without any advantage accruing to themselves. + Let our line of conduct, if it would not depart from its model, preserve + this direction, and let us not act honourably because we are hired to do + so. We ought to feel ashamed that any benefit should have a price: we pay + nothing for the gods. + </p> + <p> + XXVI. "If," our adversary may say, "you wish to imitate the gods, then + bestow benefits upon the ungrateful as well as the grateful; for the sun + rises upon the wicked as well as the good, the seas are open even to + pirates." By this question he really asks whether a good man would bestow + a benefit upon an ungrateful person, knowing him to be ungrateful. Allow + me here to introduce a short explanation, that we may not be taken in by a + deceitful question. Understand that according to the system of the Stoics + there are two classes of ungrateful persons. One man is ungrateful because + he is a fool; a fool is a bad man; a man who is bad possesses every vice: + therefore he is ungrateful. In the same way we speak of all bad men as + dissolute, avaricious, luxurious, and spiteful, not because each man has + all these vices in any great or remarkable degree, but because he might + have them; they are in him, even though they be not seen. The second form + of ungrateful person is he who is commonly meant by the term, one who is + inclined by nature to this vice. In the case of him who has the vice of + ingratitude just as he has every other, a wise man will bestow a benefit, + because if he sets aside all such men there will be no one left for him to + bestow it on. As for the ungrateful man who habitually misapplies benefits + and acts so by choice, he will no more bestow a benefit upon him than he + would lend money to a spendthrift, or place a deposit in the hands of one + who had already often refused to many persons to give up the property with + which they had entrusted him. + </p> + <p> + XXVII. We call some men timid because they are fools: in this they are + like the bad men who are steeped in all vices without distinction. + Strictly speaking, we call those persons timid who are alarmed even at + unmeaning noises. A fool possesses all vices, but he is not equally + inclined by nature to all; one is prone to avarice, another to luxury, and + another to insolence. Those persons, therefore, are mistaken, who ask the + Stoics, "What do you say, then? is Achilles timid? Aristides, who received + a name for justice, is he unjust? Fabius, who 'by delays retrieved the + day,' is he rash? Does Decius fear death? Is Mucius a traitor? Camillus a + betrayer?" We do not mean that all vices are inherent in all men in the + same way in which some especial ones are noticeable in certain men, but we + declare that the bad man and the fool possess all vices; we do not even + acquit them of fear when they are rash, or of avarice when they are + extravagant. Just as a man has all his senses, yet all men have not on + that account as keen a sight as Lynceus, so a man that is a fool has not + all vices in so active and vigorous a form as some persons have spine of + them, yet he has them all. All vices exist in all of them, yet all are not + prominent in each individual. One man is naturally prone to avarice, + another is the slave of wine, a third of lust; or, if not yet enslaved by + these passions, he is so fashioned by nature that this is the direction in + which his character would probably lead him. Therefore, to return to my + original proposition, every bad man is ungrateful, because he has the + seeds of every villainy in him; but he alone is rightly so called who is + naturally inclined to this vice. Upon such a person as this, therefore, I + shall not bestow a benefit. One who betrothed his daughter to an + ill-tempered man from whom many women had sought a divorce, would be held + to have neglected her interests; a man would be thought a bad father if he + entrusted the care of his patrimony to one who had lost his own family + estate, and it would be the act of a madman to make a will naming as the + guardian of one's son a man who had already defrauded other wards. So will + that man be said to bestow benefits as badly as possible, who chooses + ungrateful persons, in whose hands they will perish. + </p> + <p> + XXVIII. "The gods," it may be said, "bestow much, even upon the + ungrateful." But what they bestow they had prepared for the good, and the + bad have their share as well, because they cannot be separated. It is + better to benefit the bad as well, for the sake of benefiting the good, + than to stint the good for fear of benefiting the bad. Therefore the gods + have created all that you speak of, the day, the sun, the alternations of + winter and summer, the transitions through spring and autumn from one + extreme to the other, showers, drinking fountains, and regularly blowing + winds for the use of all alike; they could not except individuals from the + enjoyment of them. A king bestows honours upon those who deserve them, but + he gives largesse to the undeserving as well. The thief, the bearer of + false witness, and the adulterer, alike receive the public grant of corn, + and all are placed on the register without any examination as to + character; good and bad men share alike in all the other privileges which + a man receives, because he is a citizen, not because he is a good man. God + likewise has bestowed certain gifts upon the entire human race, from which + no one is shut out. Indeed, it could not be arranged that the wind which + was fair for good men should be foul for bad ones, while it is for the + good of all men that the seas should be open for traffic and the kingdom + of mankind be enlarged; nor could any law be appointed for the showers, so + that they should not fall upon the fields of wicked and evil men. Some + things are given to all alike: cities are founded for good and bad men + alike; works of genius reach, by publication, even unworthy men; medicine + points out the means of health even to the wicked; no one has checked the + making up of wholesome remedies for fear that the undeserving should be + healed. You must seek for examination and preference of individuals in + such things as are bestowed separately upon those who are thought to + deserve them; not in these, which admit the mob to share them without + distinction. There is a great difference between not shutting a man out + and choosing him. Even a thief receives justice; even murderers enjoy the + blessings of peace; even those who have plundered others can recover their + own property; assassins and private bravoes are defended against the + common enemy by the city wall; the laws protect even those who have sinned + most deeply against them. There are some things which no man could obtain + unless they were given to all; you need not, therefore, cavil about those + matters in which all mankind is invited to share. As for things which men + receive or not at my discretion, I shall not bestow them upon one whom I + know to be ungrateful. + </p> + <p> + XXIX. "Shall we, then," argues he, "not give our advice to an ungrateful + man when he is at a loss, or refuse him a drink of water when he is + thirsty, or not show him the path when he has lost his way? or would you + do him these services and yet not give him anything?" Here I will draw a + distinction, or at any rate endeavour to do so. A benefit is a useful + service, yet all useful service is not a benefit; for some are so trifling + as not to claim the title of benefits. To produce a benefit two conditions + must concur. First, the importance of the thing given; for some things + fall short of the dignity of a benefit. Who ever called a hunch of bread a + benefit, or a farthing dole tossed to a beggar, or the means of lighting a + fire? yet sometimes these are of more value than the most costly benefits; + still their cheapness detracts from their value even when, by the exigency + of time, they are rendered essential. The next condition, which is the + most important of all, must necessarily be present, namely, that I should + confer the benefit for the sake of him whom I wish to receive it, that I + should judge him worthy of it, bestow it of my own free will, and receive + pleasure from my own gift, none of which conditions are present in the + cases of which we have just now spoken; for we do not bestow such things + as those upon these who are worthy of them, but we give them carelessly, + as trifles, and do not give them so much to a man as to humanity. + </p> + <p> + XXX. I shall not deny that sometimes I would give even to the unworthy, + out of respect for others; as, for instance, in competition for public + offices, some of the basest of men are preferred on account of their noble + birth, to industrious men of no family, and that for good reasons; for the + memory of great virtues is sacred, and more men will take pleasure in + being good, if the respect felt for good men does not cease with their + lives. What made Cicero's son a consul, except his father? What lately + brought Cinna [Footnote: See Seneca on "Clemency," book i., ch. ix.] out + of the camp of the enemy and raised him to the consulate? What made Sextus + Pompeius and the other Pompeii consuls, unless it was the greatness of one + man, who once was raised so high that, by his very fall, he sufficiently + exalted all his relatives. What lately made Fabius Persicus a member of + more than one college of priests, though even profligates avoided his + kiss? Was it not Verrucosus, and Allobrogicus, and the three hundred who + to serve their country blocked the invader's path with the force of a + single family? It is our duty to respect the virtuous, not only when + present with us, but also when removed from our sight: as they have made + it their study not to bestow their benefits upon one age alone, but to + leave them existing after they themselves have passed away, so let us not + confine our gratitude to a single age. If a man has begotten great men, he + deserves to receive benefits, whatever he himself may be: he has given us + worthy men. If a man descends from glorious ancestors, whatever he himself + may be, let him find refuge under the shadow of his ancestry. As mean + places are lighted up by the rays of the sun, so let the degenerate shine + in the light of their forefathers. + </p> + <p> + XXXI. In this place, my Liberalis, I wish to speak in defence of the gods. + We sometimes say, "What could Providence mean by placing an Arrhidaeus + upon the throne?" Do you suppose that the crown was given to Arrhidaeus? + nay, it was given to his father and his brother. Why did Heaven bestow the + empire of the world upon Caius Caesar, the most bloodthirsty of mankind, + who was wont to order blood to be shed in his presence as freely as if he + wished to drink of it? Why, do you suppose that it was given to him? It + was given to his father, Germanicus, to his grandfather, his great + grandfather, and to others before them, no less illustrious men, though + they lived as private citizens on a footing of equality with others. Why, + when you yourself were making Mamercus Scaurus consul, were you ignorant + of his vices? did he himself conceal them? did he wish to appear decent? + </p> + <p> + Did you admit a man who was so openly filthy to the fasces and the + tribunal? Yes, it was because you were thinking of the great old Scaurus, + the chief of the Senate, and were unwilling that his descendant should be + despised. + </p> + <p> + XXXII. It is probable that the gods act in the same manner, that they show + greater indulgence to some for the sake of their parents and their + ancestry, and to others for the sake of their children and grandchildren, + and a long line of descendants beyond them; for they know the whole course + of their works, and have constant access to the knowledge of all that + shall hereafter pass through their hands. These things come upon us from + the unknown future, and the gods have foreseen and are familiar with the + events by which we are startled. "Let these men," says Providence, "be + kings, because their ancestors were good kings, because they regarded + righteousness and temperance as the highest rule of life, because they did + not devote the state to themselves, but devoted themselves to the state. + Let these others reign, because some one of their ancestors before them + was a good man, who bore a soul superior to fortune, who preferred to be + conquered rather than to conquer in civil strife, because it was more to + the advantage of the state. [Footnote: Gertz, "Stud. Crit," p. 159, note.] + It was not possible to make a sufficient return to him for this during so + long a time; let this other, therefore, out of regard for him, be chief of + the people, not because he knows how, or is capable, but because the other + has earned it for him. This man is misshapen, loathsome to look upon, and + will disgrace the insignia of his office. Men will presently blame me, + calling me blind and reckless, not knowing upon whom I am conferring what + ought to be given to the greatest and noblest of men; but I know that, in + giving this dignity to one man, I am paying an old debt to another. How + should the men of to-day know that ancient hero, who so resolutely avoided + the glory which pressed upon him, who went into danger with the same look + which other men wear when they have escaped from danger, who never + regarded his own interest as apart from that of the commonwealth?" + "Where," you ask, "or who is he? whence does he come?" "You know him not; + it lies with me to balance the debit and credit account in such cases as + these; I know how much I owe to each man; I repay some after a long + interval, others beforehand, according as my opportunities and the + exigencies of my social system permit." I shall, therefore, sometimes + bestow somewhat upon an ungrateful man, though not for his own sake. + </p> + <p> + XXXIII. "What," argues he, "if you do not know whether your man be + ungrateful or grateful—will you wait until you know, or will you not + lose the opportunity of bestowing a benefit? To wait is a long business—for, + as Plato says, it is hard to form an opinion about the human mind,—not + to wait, is rash." To this objector we shall answer, that we never should + wait for absolute knowledge of the whole case, since the discovery of + truth is an arduous task, but should proceed in the direction in which + truth appeared to direct us. All our actions proceed in this direction: it + is thus that we sow seed, that we sail upon the sea, that we serve in the + army, marry, and bring up children. The result of all these actions is + uncertain, so we take that course from which we believe that good results + may be hoped for. Who can guarantee a harvest to the sower, a harbour to + the sailor, victory to the soldier, a modest wife to the husband, dutiful + children to the father? We proceed in the way in which reason, not + absolute truth, directs us. Wait, do nothing that will not turn out well, + form no opinion until you have searched but the truth, and your life will + pass in absolute in action. Since it is only the appearance of truth, not + truth itself, which leads me hither or thither, I shall confer benefits + upon the man who apparently will be grateful. + </p> + <p> + XXXIV. "Many circumstances," argues he, "may arise which may enable a bad + man to steal into the place of a good one, or may cause a good man to be + disliked as though he were a bad one; for appearances, to which we trust, + are deceptive." Who denies it? Yet I can find nothing else by which to + guide my opinion. I must follow these tracks in my search after truth, for + I have none more trustworthy than these; I will take pains to weigh the + value of these with all possible care, and will not hastily give my assent + to them. For instance, in a battle, it may happen that my hand may be + deceived by some mistake into turning my weapon against my comrade, and + sparing my enemy as though he were on my side; but this will not often + take place, and will not take place through any fault of mine, for my + object is to strike the enemy, and defend my countryman. If I know a man + to be ungrateful, I shall not bestow a benefit upon him. But the man has + passed himself off as a good man by some trick, and has imposed upon me. + Well, this is not at all the fault of the giver, who gave under the + impression that his friend was grateful. "Suppose," asks he, "that you + were to promise to bestow a benefit, and afterwards were to learn that + your man was ungrateful, would you bestow it or not? If you do, you do + wrong knowingly, for you give to one to whom you ought not; if you refuse, + you do wrong likewise, for you do not give to him to whom you promised to + give. This case upsets your consistency, and that proud assurance of yours + that the wise man never regrets his actions, or amends what he has done, + or alters his plans." The wise man never changes his plans while the + conditions under which he formed them remain the same; therefore, he never + feels regret, because at the time nothing better than what he did could + have been done, nor could any better decision have been arrived at than + that which was made; yet he begins everything with the saving clause, "If + nothing shall occur to the contrary." This is the reason why we say that + all goes well with him, and that nothing happens contrary to his + expectation, because he bears in mind the possibility of something + happening to prevent the realization of his projects. It is an imprudent + confidence to trust that fortune will be on our side. The wise man + considers both sides: he knows how great is the power of errors, how + uncertain human affairs are, how many obstacles there are to the success + of plans. Without committing himself, he awaits the doubtful and + capricious issue of events, and weighs certainty of purpose against + uncertainty of result. Here also, however, he is protected by that saving + clause, without which he decides upon nothing, and begins nothing. + </p> + <p> + XXXV. When I promise to bestow a benefit, I promise it, unless something + occurs which makes it my duty not to do so. What if, for example, my + country orders me to give to her what I had promised to my friend? or if a + law be passed forbidding any one to do what I had promised to do for him? + Suppose that I have promised you my daughter in marriage, that then you + turn out to be a foreigner, and that I have no right of intermarriage with + foreigners; in this case, the law, by which I am forbidden to fulfil my + promise, forms my defence. I shall be treacherous, and hear myself blamed + for inconsistency, only if I do not fulfil, my promise when all conditions + remain the same as when I made it; otherwise, any change makes me free to + reconsider the entire case, and absolves me from my promise. I may have + promised to plead a cause; afterwards it appears that this cause is + designed to form a precedent for an attack upon my father. I may have + promised to leave my country, and travel abroad; then news comes that the + road is beset with robbers. I was going to an appointment at some + particular place; but my son's illness, or my wife's confinement, + prevented me. All conditions must be the same as they were when I made the + promise, if you mean to hold me bound in honour to fulfil it. Now what + greater change can take place than that I should discover you to be a bad + and ungrateful man? I shall refuse to an unworthy man that which I had + intended to give him supposing him to be worthy, and I shall also have + reason to be angry with him for the trick which he has put upon me. + </p> + <p> + XXXVI. I shall nevertheless look into the matter, and consider what the + value of the thing promised may be. If it be trifling, I shall give it, + not because you are worthy of it, but because I promised it, and I shall + not give it as a present, but merely in order to make good my words and + give myself a twitch of the ear. I will punish my own rashness in + promising by the loss of what I gave. "See how grieved you are; mind you + take more care what you say in future." As the saying is, I will take + tongue money from you. If the matter be important, I will not, as Maecenas + said, let ten million sesterces reproach me. I will weigh the two sides of + the question one against the other: there is something in abiding by what + you have promised; on the other hand, there is a great deal in not + bestowing a benefit upon one who is unworthy of it. Now, how great is this + benefit? If it is a trifling one, let us wink and let it pass; but if it + will cause me much loss or much shame to give it, I had rather excuse + myself once for refusing it than have to do so ever after for giving it. + The whole point, I repeat, depends upon how much the thing given is worth: + let the terms of my promise be appraised. Not only shall I refuse to give + what I may have promised rashly, but I shall also demand back again what I + may have wrongly bestowed: a man must be mad who keeps a promise made + under a mistake. + </p> + <p> + XXXVII. Philip, king of the Macedonians, had a hardy soldier whose + services he had found useful in many campaigns. From time to time he made + this man presents of part of the plunder as the reward of his valour, and + used to excite his greedy spirit by his frequent gifts. This man was cast + by shipwreck upon the estate of a certain Macedonian, who as soon as he + heard the news hastened to him, restored his breath, removed him to his + own farmhouse, gave up his own bed to him, nursed him out of his weakened + and half-dead condition, took care of him at his own expense for thirty + days, restored him to health and gave him a sum of money for his journey, + as the man kept constantly saying, "If only I can see my chief, I will + repay your kindness." He told Philip of his shipwreck, said nothing about + the help which he had received, and at once demanded that a certain man's + estate should be given to him. The man was a friend of his: it was that + very man by whom he had been rescued and restored to health. Sometimes, + especially in time of war, kings bestow many gifts with their eyes shut. + One just man cannot deal with such a mass of armed selfishness. It is not + possible for any one to be at the same time a good man and a good general. + How are so many thousands of insatiable men to be satiated? What would + they have, if every man had his own? Thus Philip reasoned with himself + while he ordered the man to be put in possession of the property which he + asked for. However, the other, when driven out of his estate, did not, + like a peasant, endure his wrongs in silence, thankful that he himself was + not given away also, but sent a sharp and outspoken letter to Philip, who, + on reading it, was so much enraged that he straightway ordered Pausanias + to restore the property to its former owner, and to brand that wickedest + of soldiers, that most ungrateful of guests, that greediest of shipwrecked + men, with letters bearing witness to his ingratitude. He, indeed, deserved + to have the letters not merely branded but carved in his flesh, for having + reduced his host to the condition in which he himself had been when he lay + naked and shipwrecked upon the beach; still, let us see within what limits + one ought to keep in punishing him. Of course what he had so villainously + seized ought to be taken from him. But who would be affected by the + spectacle of his punishment? The crime which he had committed would + prevent his being pitied even by any humane person. + </p> + <p> + XXXVIII. Will Philip then give you a thing because he has promised to give + it, even though he ought not to do so, even though he will commit a wrong + by doing so, nay, a crime, even though by this one act he will make it + impossible for shipwrecked men to reach the shore? There is no + inconsistency in giving up an intention which we have discovered to be + wrong and have condemned as wrong; we ought candidly to admit, "I thought + that it was something different; I have been deceived." It is mere pride + and folly to persist, "what I once have said, be it what it may, shall + remain unaltered and settled." There is no disgrace in altering one's + plans according to circumstances. Now, if Philip had left this man in + possession of that seashore which he obtained by his shipwreck, would he + not have practically pronounced sentence of banishment against all + unfortunates for the future? "Rather," says Philip, "do thou carry upon + thy forehead of brass those letters, that they may be impressed upon the + eyes of all throughout my kingdom. Go, let men see how sacred a thing is + the table of hospitality; show them your face, that upon it they may read + the decree which prevents its being a capital crime to give refuge to the + unfortunate under one's roof. The order will be more certainly respected + by this means than if I had inscribed it upon tablets of brass." + </p> + <p> + XXXIX. "Why then," argues our adversary, "did your Stoic philosopher Zeno, + when he had promised a loan of five hundred denarii to some person, whom + he afterwards discovered to be of doubtful character, persist in lending + it, because of his promise, though his friends dissuaded him from doing + so?" In the first place a loan is on a different footing to a benefit. + Even when we have lent money to an undesirable person we can recall it; I + can demand payment upon a certain day, and if he becomes bankrupt, I can + obtain my share of his property; but a benefit is lost utterly and + instantly. Besides, the one is the act of a bad man, the other that of a + bad father of a family. In the next place, if the sum had been a larger + one, not even Zeno would have persisted in lending it. It was five hundred + denarii; the sort of sum of which one says, "May he spend it in sickness," + and it was worth paying so much to avoid breaking his promise. I shall go + out to supper, even though the weather be cold, because I have promised to + go; but I shall not if snow be falling. I shall leave my bed to go to a + betrothal feast, although I may be suffering from indigestion; but I shall + not do so if I am feverish. I will become bail for you, because I + promised; but not if you wish me to become bail in some transaction of + uncertain issue, if you expose me to forfeiting my money to the state. + There runs through all these cases, I argue, an implied exception; if I am + able, provided it is right for me to do so, if these things be so and so. + Make the position the same when you ask me to fulfil my promise, as it was + when I gave it, and it will be mere fickleness to disappoint you; but if + something new has taken place in the meanwhile, why should you wonder at + my intentions being changed when the conditions under which I gave the + promise are changed? Put everything back as it was, and I shall be the + same as I was. We enter into recognizances to appear, yet if we fail to do + so an action will not in all cases lie against us, for we are excused for + making default if forced to do so by a power which we cannot resist. + </p> + <p> + XL. You may take the same answer to the question as to whether we ought in + all cases to show gratitude for kindness, and whether a benefit ought in + all cases to be repaid. It is my duty to show a grateful mind, but in some + cases my own poverty, in others the prosperity of the friend to whom I owe + some return, will not permit me to give it. What, for instance, am I, a + poor man, to give to a king or a rich man in return for his kindness, + especially as some men regard it as a wrong to have their benefits repaid, + and are wont to pile one benefit upon another? In dealing with such + persons, what more can I do than wish to repay them? Yet I ought not to + refuse to receive a new benefit, because I have not repaid the former one. + I shall take it as freely as it is given, and will offer myself to my + friend as a wide field for the exercise of his good nature: he who is + unwilling to receive new benefits must be dissatisfied with what he has + already received. Do you say, "I shall not be able to return them?" What + is that to the purpose? I am willing enough to do so if opportunity or + means were given me. He gave it to me, of course, having both opportunity + and means: is he a good man or a bad one? if he is a good man, I have a + good case against him, and I will not plead if he be a bad one. Neither do + I think it right to insist on making repayment, even though it be against + the will of those whom we repay, and to press it upon them however + reluctant they may be; it is not repayment to force an unwilling man to + resume what you were once willing to take. Some people, if any trifling + present be sent to them, afterwards send back something else for no + particular reason, and then declare that they are under no obligation; to + send something back at once, and balance one present by another, is the + next thing to refusing to receive it. On some occasions I shall not return + a benefit, even though I be able to do so. When? When by so doing I shall + myself lose more than he will gain, or if he would not notice any + advantage to himself in receiving that which it would be a great loss to + me to return. The man who is always eager to repay under all + circumstances, has not the feeling of a grateful man, but of a debtor; + and, to put it shortly, he who is too eager to repay, is unwilling to be + in his friend's debt; he who is unwilling, and yet is in his friend's + debt, is ungrateful. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK V. + </h2> + <h3> + I. + </h3> + <p> + In the preceding books I seem to have accomplished the object which I + proposed to myself, since in them I have discussed how a benefit ought to + be bestowed, and how it ought to be received. These are the limits of this + action; when I dwell upon it further I am not obeying the orders, but the + caprices of my subject which ought to be followed whither it leads, not + whither it allures us to wander; for now and then something will arise, + which, although it is all but unconnected with the subject, instead of + being a necessary part of it, still thrills the mind with a certain charm. + However, since you wish it to be so, let us go on, after having completed + our discussion of the heads of the subject itself, to investigate those + matters which, if you wish for truth, I must call adjacent to it, not + actually connected with it; to examine which carefully is not one worth + one's while, and yet is not labour in vain. No praise, however, which I + can give to benefits does justice to you, Aebutius Liberalis, a man of + excellent disposition and naturally inclined to bestow them. Never have I + seen any one esteem even the most trifling services more kindly; indeed, + your good-nature goes so far as to regard whatever benefit is bestowed + upon anyone as bestowed upon yourself; you are prepared to pay even what + is owed by the ungrateful, that no one may regret having bestowed + benefits. You yourself are so far from any boastfulness, you are so eager + at once to free those whom you serve from any feeling of obligation to + you, that you like, when giving anything to any one, to seem not so much + to be giving a present as returning one; and therefore what you give in + this manner will all the more fully he repaid to you: for, as a rule, + benefits come to one who does not demand repayment of them; and just as + glory follows those who avoid it, so men receive a more plentiful harvest + in return for benefits bestowed upon those who had it in their power to be + ungrateful. With you there is no reason why those who have received + benefits from you should not ask for fresh ones; nor would you refuse to + bestow others, to overlook and conceal what you have given, and to add to + it more and greater gifts, since it is the aim of all the best men and the + noblest dispositions to bear with an ungrateful man until you make him + grateful. Be not deceived in pursuing this plan; vice, if you do not too + soon begin to hate it, will yield to virtue. + </p> + <p> + II. Thus it is that you are especially pleased with what you think the + grandly-sounding phrase, "It is disgraceful to be worsted in a contest of + benefits." Whether this be true or not deserves to be investigated, and it + means something quite different from what you imagine; for it is never + disgraceful to be worsted in any honourable contest, provided that you do + not throw down your arms, and that even when conquered you wish to + conquer. All men do not strive for a good object with the same strength, + resources, and good fortune, upon which depend at all events the issues of + the most admirable projects, though we ought to praise the will itself + which makes an effort in the right direction. Even though another passes + it by with swifter pace, yet the palm of victory does not, as in + publicly-exhibited races, declare which is the better man; though even in + the games chance frequently brings an inferior man to the front. As far as + loyalty of feeling goes, which each man wishes to be possessed in the + fullest measure on his own side, if one of the two be the more powerful, + if he have at his disposal all the resources which he wishes to use, and + be favoured by fortune in his most ambitious efforts, while the other, + although equally willing, can only return less than he receives, or + perhaps can make no return at all, but still wishes to do so and is + entirely devoted to this object; then the latter is no more conquered than + he who dies in arms, whom the enemy found it easier to slay than to turn + back. To be conquered, which you consider disgraceful, cannot happen to a + good man; for he will never surrender, never give up the contest, to the + last day of his life he will stand prepared and in that posture he will + die, testifying that though he has received much, yet that he had the will + to repay as much as he had received. + </p> + <p> + III. The Lacedaemonians forbid their young men to contend in the + pancratium, or with the caestus, in which games the defeated party has to + acknowledge himself beaten. The winner of a race is he who first reaches + the goal; he outstrips the others in swiftness, but not in courage. The + wrestler who has been thrown three times loses the palm of victory, but + does not yield it up. Since the Lacedaemonians thought it of great + importance that their countrymen should be invincible, they kept them away + from those contests in which victory is assigned, not by the judge, or by + the issue of the contest itself, but by the voice of the vanquished + begging the victor to spare him as he falls. This attribute of never being + conquered, which they so jealously guard among their citizens, can be + attained by all men through virtue and goodwill, because even when all + else is vanquished, the mind remains unconquered. For this cause no one + speaks of the three hundred Fabii as conquered, but slaughtered. Regulus + was taken captive by the Carthaginians, not conquered; and so were all + other men who have not yielded in spirit when overwhelmed by the strength + and weight of angry fortune. + </p> + <p> + So is it with benefits. A man may have received more than he gave, more + valuable ones, more frequently bestowed; yet is he not vanquished. It may + be that, if you compare the benefits with one another, those which he has + received will outweigh those which he has bestowed; but if you compare the + giver and the receiver, whose intentions also ought to be considered + apart, neither will prove the victor. It often happens that even when one + combatant is pierced with many wounds, while the other is only slightly + injured, yet they are said to have fought a drawn battle, although the + former may appear to be the worse man. + </p> + <p> + IV. No one, therefore, can be conquered in a contest of benefits, if he + knows how to owe a debt, if he wishes to make a return for what he has + received, and raises himself to the same level with his friend in spirit, + though he cannot do so in material gifts. As long as he remains in this + temper of mind, as long as he has the wish to declare by proofs that he + has a grateful mind, what difference does it make upon which side we can + count the greater number of presents? You are able to give much; I can do + nothing but receive. Fortune abides with you, goodwill alone with me; yet + I am as much on an equality with you as naked or lightly armed men are + with a large body armed to the teeth. No one, therefore, is worsted by + benefits, because each man's gratitude is to be measured by his will. If + it be disgraceful to be worsted in a contest of benefits, you ought not to + receive a benefit from very powerful men whose kindness you cannot return, + I mean such as princes and kings, whom fortune has placed in such a + station that they can give away much, and can only receive very little and + quite inadequate returns for what they give. I have spoken of kings and + princes, who alone can cause works to be accomplished, and whose + superlative power depends upon the obedience and services of inferiors; + but some there are, free from all earthly lusts, who are scarcely affected + by any human objects of desire, upon whom fortune herself could bestow + nothing. I must be worsted in a contest of benefits with Socrates, or with + Diogenes, who walked naked through the treasures of Macedonia, treading + the king's wealth under his feet. In good sooth, he must then rightly have + seemed, both to himself and to all others whose eyes were keen enough to + perceive the real truth, to be superior even to him at whose feet all the + world lay. He was far more powerful, far richer even than Alexander, who + then possessed everything; for there was more that Diogenes could refuse + to receive than that Alexander was able to give. + </p> + <p> + V. It is not disgraceful to be worsted by these men, for I am not the less + brave because you pit me against an invulnerable enemy, nor does fire not + burn because you throw into it something over which flames have no power, + nor does iron lose its power of cutting, though you may wish to cut up a + stone which is hard, impervious to blows, and of such a nature that hard + tools are blunted upon it. I give you the same answer about gratitude. A + man is not disgracefully worsted in a contest of benefits if he lays + himself under an obligation to such persons as these, whose enormous + wealth or admirable virtue shut out all possibility of their benefits + being returned. As a rule we are worsted by our parents; for while we have + them with us, we regard them as severe, and do not understand what they do + for us. When our age begins to bring us a little sense, and we gradually + perceive that they deserve our love for those very things which used to + prevent our loving them, their advice, their punishments, and the careful + watch which they used to keep over our youthful recklessness, they are + taken from us. Few live to reap any real fruit from children; most men + feel their sons only as a burden. Yet there is no disgrace in being + worsted by one's parent in bestowing benefits; how should there be, seeing + that there is no disgrace in being worsted by anyone. We are equal to some + men, and yet not equal; equal in intention, which is all that they care + for, which is all that we promise to be, but unequal in fortune. And if + fortune prevents any one from repaying a kindness, he need not, therefore, + blush, as though he were vanquished; there is no disgrace in failing to + reach your object, provided you attempt to reach it. It often is + necessary, that before making any return for the benefits which we have + received, we should ask for new ones; yet, if so, we shall not refrain + from asking for them, nor shall we do so as though disgraced by so doing, + because, even if we do not repay the debt, we shall owe it; because, even + if something from without befalls us to prevent our repaying it, it will + not be our fault if we are not grateful. We can neither be conquered in + intention, nor can we be disgraced by yielding to what is beyond our + strength to contend with. + </p> + <p> + VI. Alexander, the king of the Macedonians, used to boast that he had + never been worsted by anybody in a contest of benefits. If so, it was no + reason why, in the fulness of his pride, he should despise the + Macedonians, Greeks, Carians, Persians, and other tribes of whom his army + was composed, nor need he imagine that it was this that gave him an empire + reaching from a corner of Thrace to the shore of the unknown sea. Socrates + could make the same boast, and so could Diogenes, by whom Alexander was + certainly surpassed; for was he not surpassed on the day when, swelling as + he was beyond the limits of merely human pride, he beheld one to whom he + could give nothing, from whom he could take nothing? King Archelaus + invited Socrates to come to him. Socrates is reported to have answered + that he should be sorry to go to one who would bestow benefits upon him, + since he should not be able to make him an adequate return for them. In + the first place, Socrates was at liberty not to receive them; next, + Socrates himself would have been the first to bestow a benefit, for he + would have come when invited, and would have given to Archelaus that for + which Archelaus could have made no return to Socrates. Even if Archelaus + were to give Socrates gold and silver, if he learned in return for them to + despise gold and silver, would not Socrates be able to repay Archelaus? + Could Socrates receive from him as much value as he gave, in displaying to + him a man skilled in the knowledge of life and of death, comprehending the + true purpose of each? Suppose that he had found this king, as it were, + groping his way in the clear sunlight, and had taught him the secrets of + nature, of which he was so ignorant, that when there was an eclipse of the + sun, he up his palace, and shaved his son's head, [Footnote: Gertz very + reasonably conjectures that he shaved his own head which reading would + require a very trifling alteration of the text.] which men are wont to do + in times of mourning and distress. What a benefit it would have been if he + had dragged the terror-stricken king out of his hiding-place, and bidden + him be of good cheer, saying, "This is not a disappearance of the sun, but + a conjunction of two heavenly bodies; for the moon, which proceeds along a + lower path, has placed her disk beneath the sun, and hidden it by the + interposition of her own mass. Sometimes she only hides a small portion of + the sun's disk, because she only grazes it in passing; sometimes she hides + more, by placing more of herself before it; and sometimes she shuts it out + from our sight altogether, if she passes in an exactly even course between + the sun and the earth. Soon, however, their own swift motion will draw + these two bodies apart; soon the earth will receive back again the light + of day. And this system will continue throughout centuries, having certain + days, known beforehand, upon which the sun cannot display all rays, + because of the intervention of the moon. Wait only for a short time; he + will soon emerge, he will soon leave that seeming cloud, and freely shed + abroad his light without any hindrances." Could Socrates not have made an + adequate return to Archelaus, if he had taught him to reign? as though + Socrates would not benefit him sufficiently, merely by enabling him to + bestow a benefit upon Socrates. Why, then, did Socrates say this? Being a + joker and a speaker in parables—a man who turned all, especially the + great, into ridicule—he preferred giving him a satirical refusal, + rather than an obstinate or haughty one, and therefore said that he did + not wish to receive benefits from one to whom he could not return as much + as he received. He feared, perhaps, that he might be forced to receive + something which he did not wish, he feared that it might be something + unfit for Socrates to receive. Some one may say, "He ought to have said + that he did not wish to go." But by so doing he would have excited against + himself the anger of an arrogant king, who wished everything connected + with himself to be highly valued. It makes no difference to a king whether + you be unwilling to give anything to him or to accept anything from him; + he is equally incensed at either rebuff, and to be treated with disdain is + more bitter to a proud spirit than not to be feared. Do you wish to know + what Socrates really meant? He, whose freedom of speech could not be borne + even by a free state, was not willing of his own choice to become a slave. + </p> + <p> + VII. I think that we have sufficiently discussed this part of the subject, + whether it be disgraceful to be worsted in a contest of benefits. Whoever + asks this question must know that men are not wont to bestow benefits upon + themselves, for evidently it could not be disgraceful to be worsted by + oneself. Yet some of the Stoics debate this question, whether any one can + confer a benefit upon himself, and whether one ought to return one's own + kindness to oneself. This discussion has been raised in consequence of our + habit of saying, "I am thankful to myself," "I can complain of no one but + myself," "I am angry with myself," "I will punish myself," "I hate + myself," and many other phrases of the same sort, in which one speaks of + oneself as one would of some other person. "If," they argue, "I can injure + myself, why should I not be able also to bestow a benefit upon myself? + Besides this, why are those things not called benefits when I bestow them + upon myself which would be called benefits if I bestowed them upon + another? If to receive a certain thing from another would lay me under an + obligation to him, how is it that if I give it to myself, I do not + contract an obligation to myself? why should I be ungrateful to my own + self, which is no less disgraceful than it is to be mean to oneself, or + hard and cruel to oneself, or neglectful of oneself?" The procurer is + equally odious whether he prostitutes others or himself. We blame a + flatterer, and one who imitates another man's mode of speech, or is + prepared to give praise whether it be deserved or not; we ought equally to + blame one who humours himself and looks up to himself, and so to speak is + his own flatterer. Vices are not only hateful when outwardly practised, + but also when they are repressed within the mind. Whom would you admire + more than he who governs himself and has himself under command? It is + easier to rule savage nations, impatient of foreign control, than to + restrain one's own mind and keep it under one's own control. Plato, it is + argued, was grateful to Socrates for having been taught by him; why should + not Socrates be grateful to himself for having taught himself? Marcus Cato + said, "Borrow from yourself whatever you lack;" why, then, if I can lend + myself anything, should I be unable to give myself anything? The instances + in which usage divides us into two persons are innumerable; we are wont to + say, "Let me converse with myself," and, "I will give myself a twitch of + the ear;" [Footnote: See book iv. ch. xxxvi.] and if it be true that one + can do so, then a man ought to be grateful to himself, just as he is angry + with himself; as he blames himself, SO he ought to praise himself; since + he can impoverish himself, he can also enrich himself. Injuries and + benefits are the converse of one another: if we say of a man, 'he has done + himself an injury,' we can also say 'he has bestowed upon himself a + benefit?' + </p> + <p> + VIII. It is natural that a man should first incur an obligation, and then + that he should return gratitude for it; a debtor cannot exist without a + creditor, any more than a husband without a wife, or a son without a + father; someone must give in order that some one may receive. Just as no + one carries himself, although he moves his body and transports it from + place to place; as no one, though he may have made a speech in his own + defence, is said to have stood by himself, or erects a statue to himself + as his own patron; as no sick man, when by his own care he has regained + his health, asks himself for a fee; so in no transaction, even when a man + does what is useful to himself, need he return thanks to himself, because + there is no one to whom he can return them. Though I grant that a man can + bestow a benefit upon himself, yet at the same time that he gives it, he + also receives it; though I grant that a man may receive a benefit from + himself, yet he receives it at the same time that he gives it. The + exchange takes place within doors, as they say, and the transfer is made + at once, as though the debt were a fictitious one; for he who gives is not + a different person to he who receives, but one and the same. The word "to + owe" has no meaning except as between two persons; how then can it apply + to one man who incurs an obligation, and by the same act frees himself + from it? In a disk or a ball there is no top or bottom, no beginning or + end, because the relation of the parts is changed when it moves, what was + behind coming before, and what went down on one side coming up on the + other, so that all the parts, in whatever direction they may move, come + back to the same position. Imagine that the same thing takes place in a + man; into however many pieces you may divide him, he remains one. If he + strikes himself, he has no one to call to account for the insult; if he + binds himself and locks himself up, he cannot demand damages; if he + bestows a benefit upon himself, he straightway returns it to the giver. It + is said that there is no waste in nature, because everything which is + taken from nature returns to her again, and nothing can perish, because it + cannot fall out of nature, but goes round again to the point from whence + it started. You ask, "What connection has this illustration with the + subject?" I will tell you. Imagine yourself to be ungrateful, the benefit + bestowed upon you is not lost, he who gave it has it; suppose that you are + unwilling to receive it, it still belongs to you before it is returned. + You cannot lose anything, because what you take away from yourself, you + nevertheless gain yourself. The matter revolves in a circle within + yourself; by receiving you give, by giving you receive. + </p> + <p> + IX. "It is our duty," argues our adversary, "to bestow benefits upon + ourselves, therefore we ought also to be grateful to ourselves." The + original axiom, upon which the inference depends, is untrue, for no one + bestows benefits upon himself, but obeys the dictates of his nature, which + disposes him to affection for himself, and which makes him take the + greatest pains to avoid hurtful things, and to follow after those things + which are profitable to him. Consequently, the man who gives to himself is + not generous, nor is he who pardons himself forgiving, nor is he who is + touched by his own misfortunes tender-hearted; it is natural to do those + things to oneself which when done to others become generosity, clemency, + and tenderness of heart. A benefit is a voluntary act, but to do good to + oneself is an instinctive one. The more benefits a man bestows, the more + beneficent he is, yet who ever was praised for having been of service to + himself? or for having rescued himself from brigands? No one bestows a + benefit upon himself any more than he bestows hospitality upon himself; no + one gives himself anything, any more than he lends himself anything. If + each man bestows benefits upon himself, is always bestowing them, and + bestows them without any cessation, then it is impossible for him to make + any calculation of the number of his benefits; when then can he show his + gratitude, seeing that by the very act of doing so he would bestow a + benefit? for what distinction can you draw between giving himself a + benefit or receiving a benefit for himself, when the whole transaction + takes place in the mind of the same man? Suppose that I have freed myself + from danger, then I have bestowed a benefit upon myself; suppose I free + myself a second time, by so doing do I bestow or repay a benefit? In the + next place, even if I grant the primary axiom, that we can bestow benefits + upon ourselves, I do not admit that which follows; for even if we can do + so, we ought not to do so. Wherefore? Because we receive a return for them + at once. It is right for me to receive a benefit, then to lie under an + obligation, then to repay it; now here there is no time for remaining + under an obligation, because we receive the return without any delay. No + one really gives except to another, no one owes except to another, no one + repays except to another. An act which always requires two persons cannot + take place within the mind of one. + </p> + <p> + X. A benefit means the affording of something useful, and the word + AFFORDING implies other persons. Would not a man be thought mad if he said + that he had sold something to himself, because selling means alienation, + and the transferring of a thing and of one's rights in that thing to + another person? Yet giving, like selling anything, consists in making it + pass away from you, handing over what you yourself once owned into the + keeping of some one else. + </p> + <p> + If this be so, no one ever gave himself a benefit, because no one gives to + himself; if not, two opposites coalesce, so that it becomes the same thing + to give and to receive. Yet there is a great difference between giving and + receiving; how should there not be, seeing that these words are the + converse of one another? Still, if any one can give himself a benefit, + there can be no difference between giving and receiving. I said a little + before that some words apply only to other persons, and are so constituted + that their whole meaning lies apart from ourselves; for instance, I am a + brother, but a brother of some other man, for no one is his own brother; I + am an equal, but equal to somebody else, for who is equal to himself? A + thing which is compared to another thing is unintelligible without that + other thing; a thing which is joined to something else does not exist + apart from it; so that which is given does not exist without the other + person, nor can a benefit have any existence without another person. This + is clear from the very phrase which describes it, 'to do good,' yet no one + does good to himself, any more than he favours himself or is on his own + side. I might enlarge further upon this subject and give many examples. + Why should benefits not be included among those acts which require two + persons to perform them? Many honourable, most admirable and highly + virtuous acts cannot take place without a second person. Fidelity is + praised and held to be one of the chief blessings known among men, yet was + any one ever on that account said to have kept faith with himself? + </p> + <p> + XI. I come now to the last part of this subject. The man who returns a + kindness ought to expend something, just as he who repays expends money; + but the man who returns a kindness to himself expends nothing, just as he + who receives a benefit from himself gains nothing. A benefit and gratitude + for it must pass to and fro between two persons; their interchange cannot + take place within one man. He who returns a kindness does good in his turn + to him from whom he has received something; but the man who returns his + own kindness, to whom does he do good? To himself? Is there any one who + does not regard the returning of a kindness, and the bestowal of a + benefit, as distinct acts? 'He who returns a kindness to himself does good + to himself.' Was any man ever unwilling to do this, even though he were + ungrateful? nay, who ever was ungrateful from any other motive than this? + "If," it is argued, "we are right in thanking ourselves, we ought to + return our own kindness;" yet we say, "I am thankful to myself for having + refused to marry that woman," or "for having refused to join a partnership + with that man." When we speak thus, we are really praising ourselves, and + make use of the language of those who return thanks to approve our own + acts. A benefit is something which, when given, may or may not be + returned. Now, he who gives a benefit to himself must needs receive what + he gives; therefore, this is not a benefit. A benefit is received at one + time, and is returned at another; (but when a man bestows a benefit upon + himself, he both receives it and returns it at the same time). In a + benefit, too, what we commend and admire is, that a man has for the time + being forgotten his own interests, in order that he may do good to + another; that he has deprived himself of something, in order to bestow it + upon another. Now, he who bestows a benefit upon himself does not do this. + The bestowal of a benefit is an act of companionship—it wins some + man's friendship, and lays some man under an obligation; but to bestow it + upon oneself is no act of companionship—it wins no man's friendship, + lays no man under an obligation, raises no man's hopes, or leads him to + say, "This man must be courted; he bestowed a benefit upon that person, + perhaps he will bestow one upon me also." A benefit is a thing which one + gives not for one's own sake, but for the sake of him to whom it is given; + but he who bestows a benefit upon himself, does so for his own sake; + therefore, it is not a benefit. + </p> + <p> + XII. Now I seem to you not to have made good what I said at the beginning + of this book. You say that I am far from doing what is worth any one's + while; nay, that in real fact I have thrown away all my trouble. Wait, and + soon you will be able to say this more truly, for I shall lead you into + covert lurking-places, from which when you have escaped, you will have + gained nothing except that you will have freed yourself from difficulties + with which you need never have hampered yourself. What is the use of + laboriously untying knots which you yourself have tied, in order that you + might untie them? Yet, just as some knots are tied in fun and for + amusement, so that a tyro may find difficulty in untying them, which knots + he who tied them can loose without any trouble, because he knows the + joinings and the difficulties of them, and these nevertheless afford us + some pleasure, because they test the sharpness of our wits, and engross, + our attention; so also these questions, which seem subtle and tricky, + prevent our intellects becoming careless and lazy, for they ought at one + time to have a field given them to level, in order that they may wander + about it, and at another to have some dark and rough passage thrown in + their way for them to creep through, and make their way with caution. It + is said by our opponent that no one is ungrateful; and this is supported + by the following arguments: "A benefit is that which does good; but, as + you Stoics say, no one can do good to a bad man; therefore, a bad man does + not receive a benefit. (If he does not receive it, he need not return it; + therefore, no bad man is ungrateful.) Furthermore, a benefit is an + honourable and commendable thing. No honourable or commendable thing can + find any place with a bad man; therefore, neither can a benefit. If he + cannot receive one, he need not repay one; therefore, he does not become + ungrateful. Moreover, as you say, a good man does everything rightly; if + he does everything rightly, he cannot be ungrateful. A good man returns a + benefit, a bad man does not receive one. If this be so, no man, good or + bad, can be ungrateful. Therefore, there is no such thing in nature as an + ungrateful man: the word is meaningless." We Stoics have only one kind of + good, that which is honourable. This cannot come to a bad man, for he + would cease to be bad if virtue entered into him; but as long as he is + bad, no one can bestow a benefit upon him, because good and bad are + contraries, and cannot exist together. Therefore, no one can do good to + such a man, because whatever he receives is corrupted by his vicious way + of using it. Just as the stomach, when disordered by disease and secreting + bile, changes all the food which it receives, and turns every kind of + sustenance into a source of pain, so whatever you entrust to an + ill-regulated mind becomes to it a burden, an annoyance, and a source of + misery. Thus the most prosperous and the richest men have the most + trouble; and the more property they have to perplex them, the less likely + they are to find out what they really are. Nothing, therefore, can reach + bad men which would do them good; nay, nothing which would not do them + harm. They change whatever falls to their lot into their own evil nature; + and things which elsewhere would, if given to better men, be both + beautiful and profitable, are ruinous to them. They cannot, therefore, + bestow benefits, because no one can give what he does not possess, and, + therefore, they lack the pleasure of doing good to others. + </p> + <p> + XIII. But, though this be so, yet even a bad man can receive some things + which resemble benefits, and he will be ungrateful if he does not return + them. There are good things belonging to the mind, to the body, and to + fortune. A fool or a bad man is debarred from the first—those, that + is, of the mind; but he is admitted to a share in the two latter, and, if + he does not return them, he is ungrateful. Nor does this follow from our + (Stoic) system alone the Peripatetics, also, who widely extend the + boundaries of human happiness, declare that trifling benefits reach bad + men, and that he who does not return them is ungrateful. We therefore do + not agree that things which do not tend to improve the mind should be + called benefits, yet do not deny that these things are convenient and + desirable. Such things as these a bad man may bestow upon a good man, or + may receive from him—such, for example, as money, clothes, public + office, or life; and, if he makes no return for these, he will come under + the denomination of ungrateful. "But how can you call a man ungrateful for + not returning that which you say is not a benefit?" Some things, on + account of their similarity, are included under the same designation, + although they do not really deserve it. Thus we speak of a silver or + golden box; ["The original word is 'pyx,' which means a box made of + box-wood."] thus we call a man illiterate, although he may not be utterly + ignorant, but only not acquainted with the higher branches of literature; + thus, seeing a badly-dressed ragged man we say that we have seen a naked + man. These things of which we spoke are not benefits, but they possess the + appearance of benefits. "Then, just as they are quasi-benefits, so your + man is quasi-ungrateful, not really ungrateful." This is untrue, because + both he who gives and he who receives them speaks of them as benefits; so + he who fails to return the semblance of a real benefit is as much an + ungrateful man as he who mixes a sleeping draught, believing it to be + poison, is a poisoner. + </p> + <p> + XIV. Cleanthes speaks more impetuously than this. "Granted," says he, + "that what he received was not a benefit, yet he is ungrateful, because he + would not have returned a benefit if he had received one." So he who + carries deadly weapons and has intentions of robbing and murdering, is a + brigand even before he has dipped his hands in blood; his wickedness + consists and is shown in action, but does not begin thereby. Men are + punished for sacrilege, although no one's hands can reach to the gods. + "How," asks our opponent, "can any one be ungrateful to a bad man, since a + bad man cannot bestow a benefit?" In the same way, I answer, because that + which he received was not a benefit, but was called one; if any one + receives from a bad man any of those things which are valued by the + ignorant, and of which bad men often possess great store, it becomes his + duty to make a return in the same kind, and to give back as though they + were truly good those things which he received as though they were truly + good. A man is said to be in debt, whether he owes gold pieces or leather + marked with a state stamp, such as the Lacedaemonians used, which passes + for coined money. Pay your debts in that kind in which you incurred them. + You have nothing to do with the definition of benefits, or with the + question whether so great and noble a name ought to be degraded by + applying it to such vulgar and mean matters as these, nor do we seek for + truth that we may use it to the disadvantage of others; do you adjust your + minds to the semblance of truth, and while you are learning what is really + honourable, respect everything to which the name of honour is applied. + </p> + <p> + XV. "In the same way," argues our adversary, "that your school proves that + no one is ungrateful, you afterwards prove that all men are ungrateful. + For, as you say, all fools are bad men; he who has one vice has all vices; + all men are both fools and bad men; therefore all men are ungrateful." + Well, what then? Are they not? Is not this the universal reproach of the + human race? is there not a general complaint that benefits are thrown + away, and that there are very few men who do not requite their benefactors + with the basest ingratitude? Nor need you suppose that what we say is + merely the grumbling of men who think every act wicked and depraved which + falls short of an ideal standard of righteousness. Listen! I know not who + it is who speaks, yet the voice with which he condemns mankind proceeds, + not from the schools of philosophers, but from the midst of the crowd: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Host is not safe from guest; + Father-in-law from son; but seldom love + Exists 'twixt brothers; wives long to destroy + Their husbands; husbands long to slay their wives." +</pre> + <p> + This goes even further: according to this, crimes take the place of + benefits, and men do not shrink from shedding the blood of those for whom + they ought to shed their own; we requite benefits by steel and poison. We + call laying violent hands upon our own country, and putting down its + resistance by the fasces of its own lictors, gaining power and great + place; every man thinks himself to be in a mean and degraded position if + he has not raised himself above the constitution; the armies which are + received from the state are turned against her, and a general now says to + his men, "Fight against your wives, fight against your children, march in + arms against your altars, your hearths and homes!" Yes, [Footnote: I + believe, in spite of Gertz, that this is part of the speech of the Roman + general, and that the conjecture of Muretus, "without the command of the + senate," gives better sense.] you, who even when about to triumph ought + not to enter the city at the command of the senate, and who have often, + when bringing home a victorious army, been given an audience outside the + walls, you now, after slaughtering your countrymen, stained with the blood + of your kindred, march into the city with standards erect. "Let liberty," + say you, "be silent amidst the ensigns of war, and now that wars are + driven far away and no ground for terror remains, let that people which + conquered and civilized all nations be beleaguered within its own walls, + and shudder at the sight of its own eagles." + </p> + <p> + XVI. Coriolanus was ungrateful, and became dutiful late, and after + repenting of his crime; he did indeed lay down his arms, but only in the + midst of his unnatural warfare. Catilina was ungrateful; he was not + satisfied with taking his country captive without overturning it, without + despatching the hosts of the Allobroges against it, without bringing an + enemy from beyond the Alps to glut his old inborn hatred, and to offer + Roman generals as sacrifices which had been long owing to the tombs of the + Gaulish dead. Caius Marius was ungrateful, when, after being raised from + the ranks to the consulship, he felt that he would not have wreaked his + vengeance upon fortune, and would sink to his original obscurity, unless + he slaughtered Romans as freely as he had slaughtered the Cimbri, and not + merely gave the signal, but was himself the signal for civil disasters and + butcheries. Lucius Sulla was ungrateful, for he saved his country by using + remedies worse than the perils with which it was threatened, when he + marched through human blood all the way from the citadel of Praeneste to + the Colline Gate, fought more battles and caused more slaughter afterwards + within the city, and most cruelly after the victory was won, most wickedly + after quarter had been promised them, drove two legions into a corner and + put them to the sword, and, great gods! invented a proscription by which + he who slew a Roman citizen received indemnity, a sum of money, everything + but a civic crown! Cnaeus Pompeius was ungrateful, for the return which he + made to his country for three consulships, three triumphs, and the + innumerable public offices into most of which he thrust himself when under + age, was to lead others also to lay hands upon her under the pretext of + thus rendering his own power less odious; as though what no one ought to + do became right if more than one person did it. Whilst he was coveting + extraordinary commands, arranging the provinces so as to have his own + choice of them, and dividing the whole state with a third person, + [Footnote: Crassus.] in such a manner as to leave two-thirds of it in the + possession of his own family, [Footnote: Pompey was married to Caesar's + daughter. Cf. Virg., "Aen.," vi., 831, sq., and Lucan's beautiful verses, + "Phars.," i., 114.] he reduced the Roman people to such a condition that + they could only save themselves by submitting to slavery. The foe and + conqueror [Footnote: Seneca is careful to avoid the mention of Caesar's + name, which might have given offence to the emperors under whom he lived, + who used the name as a title.] of Pompeius was himself ungrateful; he + brought war from Gaul and Germany to Rome, and he, the friend of the + populace, the champion of the commons, pitched his camp in the Circus + Flaminus, nearer to the city than Porsena's camp had been. He did, indeed, + use the cruel privileges of victory with moderation; as was said at the + time, he protected his countrymen, and put to death no man who was not in + arms. Yet what credit is there in this? Others used their arms more + cruelly, but flung them away when glutted with blood, while he, though he + soon sheathed the sword, never laid it aside. Antonius was ungrateful to + his dictator, who he declared was rightly slain, and whose murderers he + allowed to depart to their commands in the provinces; as for his country, + after it had been torn to pieces by so many proscriptions, invasions, and + civil wars, he intended to subject it to kings, not even of Roman birth, + and to force that very state to pay tribute to eunuchs, [Footnote: The + allusion is to Antonius's connection with Cleopatra. Cf. Virg. "Aen.," + viii., 688.] which had itself restored sovereign rights, autonomy, and + immunities, to the Achaeans, the Rhodians, and the people of many other + famous cities. + </p> + <p> + XVII. The day would not be long enough for me to enumerate those who have + pushed their ingratitude so far as to ruin their native land. It would be + as vast a task to mention how often the state has been ungrateful to its + best and most devoted lovers, although it has done no less wrong than it + has suffered. It sent Camillus and Scipio into exile; even after the death + of Catiline it exiled Cicero, destroyed his house, plundered his property, + and did everything which Catiline would have done if victorious; Rutilius + found his virtue rewarded with a hiding-place in Asia; to Cato the Roman + people refused the praetorship, and persisted in refusing the consulship. + We are ungrateful in public matters; and if every man asks himself, you + will find that there is no one who has not some private ingratitude to + complain of. Yet it is impossible that all men should complain, unless all + were deserving of complaint, therefore all men are ungrateful. Are they + ungrateful alone? nay, they are also all covetous, all spiteful, and all + cowardly, especially those who appear daring; and, besides this, all men + fawn upon the great, and all are impious. Yet you need not be angry with + them; pardon them, for they are all mad. I do not wish to recall you to + what is not proved, or to say, "See how ungrateful is youth! what young + man, even if of innocent life, does not long for his father's death? even + if moderate in his desires, does not look forward to it? even if dutiful, + does not think about it? How few there are who fear the death even of the + best of wives, who do not even calculate the probabilities of it. Pray, + what litigant, after having been successfully defended, retains any + remembrance of so great a benefit for more than a few days?" All agree + that no one dies without complaining. Who on his last day dares to say, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "I've lived, I've done the task which Fortune set me." +</pre> + <p> + Who does not leave the world with reluctance, and with lamentations? Yet + it is the part of an ungrateful man not to be satisfied with the past. + Your days will always be few if you count them. Reflect that length of + time is not the greatest of blessings; make the best of your time, however + short it may be; even if the day of your death be postponed, your + happiness will not be increased, for life is merely made longer, not + pleasanter, by delay. How much better is it to be thankful for the + pleasures which one has received, not to reckon up the years of others, + but to set a high value upon one's own, and score them to one's credit, + saying, "God thought me worthy of this; I am satisfied with it; he might + have given me more, but this, too, is a benefit." Let us be grateful + towards both gods and men, grateful to those who have given us anything, + and grateful even to those who have given anything to our relatives. + </p> + <p> + XVIII. "You render me liable to an infinite debt of gratitude," says our + opponent, "when you say 'even to those who have given any thing to our + relations,' so fix some limit. He who bestows a benefit upon the son, + according to you, bestows it likewise upon the father: this is the first + question I wish to raise. In the next place I should like to have a clear + definition of whether a benefit, if it be bestowed upon your friend's + father as well as upon himself, is bestowed also upon his brother? or upon + his uncle? or his grandfather? or his wife and his father-in-law? tell me + where I am to stop, how far I am to follow out the pedigree of the + family?" + </p> + <p> + SENECA. If I cultivate your land, I bestow a benefit upon you; if I + extinguish your house when burning, or prop it so as to save it from + falling, I shall bestow a benefit upon you; if I heal your slave, I shall + charge it to you; if I save your son's life, will you not thereby receive + a benefit from me? + </p> + <p> + XIX. THE ADVERSARY. Your instances are not to the purpose, for he who + cultivates my land, does not benefit the land, but me; he who props my + house so that it does not fall, does this service to me, for the house + itself is without feeling, and as it has none, it is I who am indebted to + him; and he who cultivates my land does so because he wishes to oblige me, + not to oblige the land. I should say the same of a slave; he is a chattel + owned by me; he is saved for my advantage, therefore I am indebted for + him. My son is himself capable of receiving a benefit; so it is he who + receives it; I am gratified at a benefit which comes so near to myself, + but am not laid under any obligation. + </p> + <p> + SE. Still I should like you, who say that you are under no obligation, to + answer me this. The good health, the happiness, and the inheritance of a + son are connected with his father; his father will be more happy if he + keeps his son safe, and more unhappy if he loses him. What follows, then? + when a man is made happier by me and is freed from the greatest danger of + unhappiness, does he not receive a benefit? + </p> + <p> + AD. No, because there are some things which are bestowed upon others, and + yet flow from them so as to reach ourselves; yet we must ask the person + upon whom it was bestowed for repayment; as for example, money must be + sought from the man to whom it was lent, although it may, by some means, + have come into my hands. There is no benefit whose advantages do not + extend to the receiver's nearest friends, and sometimes even to those less + intimately connected with him; yet we do not enquire whither the benefit + has proceeded from him to whom it was first given, but where it was first + placed. You must demand repayment from the defendant himself personally. + </p> + <p> + SE. Well, but I pray you, do you not say, "you have preserved my son for + me; had he perished, I could not have survived him?" Do you not owe a + benefit for the life of one whose safety you value above your own? + Moreover, should I save your son's life, you would fall down before my + knees, and would pay vows to heaven as though you yourself had been saved; + you would say, "It makes no difference whether you have saved mine or me; + you have saved us both, yet me more than him." Why do you say this, if you + do not receive a benefit? + </p> + <p> + A.D. Because, if my son were to contract a loan, I should pay his + creditor, yet I should not, therefore, be indebted to him; or if my son + were taken in adultery, I should blush, yet I should not, therefore, be an + adulterer. I say that I am under an obligation to you for saving my son, + not because I really am, but because I am willing to constitute myself + your debtor of my own free will. On the other hand I have derived from his + safety the greatest possible pleasure and advantage, and I have escaped + that most dreadful blow, the loss of my child. True, but we are not now + discussing whether you have done me any good or not, but whether you have + bestowed a benefit upon me; for animals, stones, and herbs can do one + good, but do not bestow benefits, which can only be given by one who + wishes well to the receiver. Now you do not wish well to the father, but + only to the son; and sometimes you do not even know the father. So when + you have said, "Have I not bestowed a benefit upon the father by saving + the son?" you ought to meet this with, "Have I, then, bestowed a benefit + upon a father whom I do not know, whom I never thought of?" And what will + you say when, as is sometimes the case, you hate the father, and yet save + his son? Can you be thought to have bestowed a benefit upon one whom you + hated most bitterly while you were bestowing it? + </p> + <p> + However, if I were to lay aside the bickering of dialogue, and answer you + as a lawyer, I should say that you ought to consider the intention of the + giver, you must regard his benefit as bestowed upon the person upon whom + he meant to bestow it. If he did it in honour of the father, then the + father received the benefit; if he thought only of the son, then the + father is not laid under any obligation: by the benefit which was + conferred upon the son, even though the father derives pleasure from it. + Should he, however, have an opportunity, he will himself wish to give you + something, yet not as though he were forced to repay a debt, but rather as + if he had grounds for beginning an exchange of favours. No return for a + benefit ought to be demanded from the father of the receiver; if he does + you any kindness in return for it, he should be regarded as, a righteous + man, but not as a grateful one. For there is no end to it; if I bestow a + benefit on the receiver's father, do I likewise bestow it upon his mother, + his grandfather, his maternal uncle, his children, relations, friends, + slaves, and country? Where, then, does a benefit begin to stop? for there + follows it this endless chain of people, to whom it is hard to assign + bounds, because they join it by degrees, and are always creeping on + towards it. + </p> + <p> + XX. A common question is, "Two brothers are at variance. If I save the + life of one, do I confer a benefit upon the other, who will be sorry that + his hated brother did not perish?" There can be no doubt that it is a + benefit to do good to a man, even against that man's will, just as he, who + against his own will does a man good, does not bestow a benefit upon him. + "Do you," asks our adversary, "call that by which he is displeased and + hurt a benefit?" Yes; many benefits have a harsh and forbidding + appearance, such as cutting or burning to cure disease, or confining with + chains. We must not consider whether a man is grieved at receiving a + benefit, but whether he ought to rejoice: a coin is not bad because it is + refused by a savage who is unacquainted with its proper stamp. A man + receives a benefit even though he hates what is done, provided that it + does him good, and that the giver bestowed it in order to do him good. It + makes no difference if he receives a good thing in a bad spirit. Consider + the converse of this. Suppose that a man hates his brother, though it is + to his advantage to have a brother, and I kill this brother, this is not a + benefit, though he may say that it is, and be glad of it. Our most artful + enemies are those whom we thank for the wrongs which they do us. + </p> + <p> + "I understand; a thing which does good is a benefit, a thing which does + harm is not a benefit. Now I will suggest to you an act which neither does + good nor harm, and yet is a benefit. Suppose that I find the corpse of + some one's father in a wilderness, and bury it, then I certainly have done + him no good, for what difference could it make to him in what manner his + body decayed? Nor have I done any good to his son, for what advantage does + he gain by my act?" I will tell you what he gains. He has by my means + performed a solemn and necessary rite; I have performed a service for his + father which he would have wished, nay, which it would have been his duty + to have performed himself. Yet this act is not a benefit, if I merely + yielded to those feelings of pity and kindliness which would make me bury + any corpse whatever, but only if I recognized this body, and buried it, + with the thought in my mind that I was doing this service to the son; but, + by merely throwing earth over a dead stranger, I lay no one under an + obligation for an act performed on general principles of humanity. + </p> + <p> + It may be asked, "Why are you so careful in inquiring upon whom you bestow + benefits, as though some day you meant to demand repayment of them? Some + say that repayment should never be demanded; and they give the following + reasons. An unworthy man will not repay the benefit which he has received, + even if it be demanded of him, while a worthy man will do so of his own + accord. Consequently, if you have bestowed it upon a good man, wait; do + not outrage him by asking him for it, as though of his own accord he never + would repay it. If you have bestowed it upon a bad man, suffer for it, but + do not spoil your benefit by turning it into a loan. Moreover the law, by + not authorizing you, forbids you, by implication, to demand the repayment + of a benefit." All this is nonsense. As long as I am in no pressing need, + as long as I am not forced by poverty, I will lose my benefits rather than + ask for repayment; but if the lives of my children were at stake, if my + wife were in danger, if my regard for the welfare of my country and for my + own liberty were to force me to adopt a course which I disliked, I should + overcome my delicacy, and openly declare that I had done all that I could + to avoid the necessity of receiving help from an ungrateful man; the + necessity of obtaining repayment of one's benefit will in the end overcome + one's delicacy about asking for it. In the next place, when I bestow a + benefit upon a good man, I do so with the intention of never demanding + repayment, except in case of absolute necessity. + </p> + <p> + XXI. "But," argues he, "by not authorizing you, the law forbids you to + exact repayment." There are many things which are not enforced by any law + or process, but which the conventions of society, which are stronger than + any law, compel us to observe. There is no law forbidding us to divulge + our friend's secrets; there is no law which bids us keep faith even with + an enemy; pray what law is there which binds us to stand by what we have + promised? There is none. Nevertheless I should remonstrate with one who + did not keep a secret, and I should be indignant with one who pledged his + word and broke it. "But," he argues, "you are turning a benefit into a + loan." By no means, for I do not insist upon repayment, but only demand + it; nay, I do not even demand it, but remind my friend of it. Even the + direst need will not bring me to apply for help to one with whom I should + have to undergo a long struggle. + </p> + <p> + If there be any one so ungrateful that it is not sufficient to remind him + of his debt, I should pass him over, and think that he did not deserve to + be made grateful by force. A money-lender does not demand repayment from + his debtors if he knows they have become bankrupt, and, to their shame, + have nothing but shame left to lose; and I, like him, should pass over + those who are openly and obstinately ungrateful, and would demand + repayment only from those who were likely to give it me, not from those + from whom I should have to extort it by force. + </p> + <p> + XXII. There are many who cannot deny that they have received a benefit, + yet cannot return it—men who are not good enough to be termed + grateful, nor yet bad enough to be termed ungrateful; but who are dull and + sluggish, backward debtors, though not defaulters. Such men as these I + should not ask for repayment, but forcibly remind them of it, and, from a + state of indifference, bring them back to their duty. They would at once + reply, "Forgive me; I did not know, by Hercules, that you missed this, or + I would have offered it of my own accord, I beg that you will not think me + ungrateful; I remember your goodness to me." Why need I hesitate to make + such men as these better to themselves and to me? I would prevent any one + from doing wrong, if I were able; much more would I prevent a friend, both + lest he should do wrong, and lest he should do wrong to me in particular. + I bestow a second benefit upon him by not permitting him to be ungrateful; + and I should not reproach him harshly with what I had done for him, but + should speak as gently as I could. In order to afford him an opportunity + of returning my kindness, I should refresh his remembrance of it, and ask + for a benefit; he would understand that I was asking for repayment. + Sometimes I would make use of somewhat severe language, if I had any hope + that by it he might be amended; though I would not irritate a hopelessly + ungrateful man, for fear that I might turn him into an enemy. If we spare + the ungrateful even the affront of reminding them of their conduct, we + shall render them' more backward in returning benefits; and although some + might be cured of their evil ways, and be made into good men, if their + consciences were stung by remorse, yet we shall allow them to perish for + want of a word of warning, with which a father sometimes corrects his son, + a wife brings back to herself an erring husband, or a man stimulates the + wavering fidelity of his friend. + </p> + <p> + XXIII. To awaken some men, it is only necessary to stir them, not to + strike them; in like manner, with some men, the feeling of honour about + returning a benefit is not extinct, but slumbering. Let us rouse it. "Do + not," they will say, "make the kindness you have done me into a wrong: for + it is a wrong, if you do not demand some return from me, and so make me + ungrateful. What if I do not know what sort of repayment you wish for? if + I am so occupied by business, and my attention is so much diverted to + other subjects that I have not been able to watch for an opportunity of + serving you? Point out to me what I can do for you, what you wish me to + do. Why do you despair, before making a trial of me? Why are you in such + haste to lose both your benefit and your friend? How can you tell whether + I do not wish, or whether I do not know how to repay you: whether it be in + intention or in opportunity that I am wanting? Make a trial of me." I + would therefore remind him of what I had done, without bitterness, not in + public, or in a reproachful manner, but so that he may think that he + himself has remembered it rather than that it has been recalled to him. + </p> + <p> + XXIV. One of Julius Caesar's veterans was once pleading before him against + his neighbours, and the cause was going against him. "Do you remember, + general," said he, "that in Spain you dislocated your ankle near the river + Sucro [Footnote: Xucar]?" When Caesar said that he remembered it, he + continued, "Do you remember that when, during the excessive heat, you + wished to rest under a tree which afforded very little shade, as the + ground in which that solitary tree grew was rough and rocky, one of your + comrades spread his cloak under you?" Caesar answered, "Of course, I + remember; indeed, I was perishing with thirst; and since was unable to + walk to the nearest spring, I would have crawled thither on my hands and + knees, had not my comrade, a brave and active man, brought me water in his + helmet." "Could you, then, my general, recognize that man or that helmet?" + Caesar replied that he could not remember the helmet, but that he could + remember the man well; and he added, I fancy in anger at being led away to + this old story in the midst of a judicial enquiry, "At any rate, you are + not he." "I do not blame you, Caesar," answered the man, "for not + recognizing me; for when this took place, I was unwounded; but afterwards, + at the battle of Munda, my eye was struck out, and the bones of my skull + crushed. Nor would you recognize that helmet if you saw it, for it was + split by a Spanish sword." Caesar would not permit this man to be troubled + with lawsuits, and presented his old soldier with the fields through which + a village right of way had given rise to the dispute. + </p> + <p> + XXV. In this case, what ought he to have done? Because his commander's + memory was confused by a multitude of incidents, and because his position + as the leader of vast armies did not permit him to notice individual + soldiers, ought the man not to have asked for a return for the benefit + which he had conferred? To act as he did is not so much to ask for a + return as to take it when it lies in a convenient position ready for us, + although we have to stretch out our hands in order to receive it. I shall + therefore ask for the return of a benefit, whenever I am either reduced to + great straits, or where by doing so I shall act to the advantage of him + from whom I ask it. Tiberius Caesar, when some one addressed him with the + words, "Do you remember....?" answered, before the man could mention any + further proofs of former acquaintance, "I do not remember what I was." Why + should it not be forbidden to demand of this man repayment of former + favours? He had a motive for forgetting them: he denied all knowledge of + his friends and comrades, and wished men only to see, to think, and to + speak of him as emperor. He regarded his old friend as an impertinent + meddler. + </p> + <p> + We ought to be even more careful to choose a favorable opportunity when we + ask for a benefit to be repaid to us than when we ask for one to be + bestowed upon us. We must be temperate in our language, so that the + grateful may not take offence, or the ungrateful pretend to do so. If we + lived among wise men, it would be our duty to wait in silence until our + benefits were returned. Yet even to wise men it would be better to give + some hint of what our position required. We ask for help even from the + gods themselves, from whose knowledge nothing is hid, although our prayers + cannot alter their intentions towards us, but can only recall them to + their minds. Homer's priest, [Il. i. 39 sqq.] I say, recounts even to the + gods his duteous conduct and his pious care of their altars. The second + best form of virtue is to be willing and able to take advice.[Hes. Op. + 291.] A horse who is docile and prompt to obey can be guided hither and + thither by the slightest movement of the reins. Very few men are led by + their own reason: those who come next to the best are those who return to + the right path in consequence of advice; and these we must not deprive of + their guide. When our eyes are covered they still possess sight; but it is + the light of day which, when admitted to them, summons them to perform + their duty: tools lie idle, unless the workman uses them to take part in + his work. Similarly men's minds contain a good feeling, which, however, + lies torpid, either through luxury and disuse, or through ignorance of its + duties. This we ought to render useful, and not to get into a passion with + it, and leave it in its wrong doing, but bear with it patiently, just as + schoolmasters bear patiently with the blunders of forgetful scholars; for + as by the prompting of a word or two their memory is often recalled to the + text of the speech which they have to repeat, so men's goodwill can be + brought to return kindness by reminding them of it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK VI. + </h2> + <h3> + I. + </h3> + <p> + There are some things, my most excellent Liberalis, which lie completely + outside of our actual life, and which we only inquire into in order to + exercise our intellects, while others both give us pleasure while we are + discovering them, and are of use when discovered. I will place all these + in your hands; you, at your own discretion, may order them either to be + investigated thoroughly, or to be reserved, and be used as agreeable + interludes. Something will be gained even by those which you dismiss at + once, for it is advantageous even to know what subjects are not worth + learning. I shall be guided, therefore, by your face: according to its + expression, I shall deal with some questions at greater length, and drive + others out of court, and put an end to them at once. + </p> + <p> + II. It is a question whether a benefit can be taken away from one by + force. Some say that it cannot, because it is not a thing, but an act. A + gift is not the same as the act of giving, any more than a sailor is the + same as the act of sailing. A sick man and a disease are not the same + thing, although no one can be ill without disease; and, similarly, a + benefit itself is one thing, and what any of us receive through a benefit + is another. The benefit itself is incorporeal, and never becomes invalid; + but its subject-matter changes owners, and passes from hand to hand. So, + when you take away from anyone what you have given him, you take away the + subject-matter only of the benefit, not the benefit itself. Nature herself + cannot recall what she has given. She may cease to bestow benefits, but + cannot take them away: a man who dies, yet has lived; a man who becomes + blind, nevertheless has seen. She can cut off her blessings from us in the + future, but she cannot prevent our having enjoyed them in the past. We are + frequently not able to enjoy a benefit for long, but the benefit is not + thereby destroyed. Let Nature struggle as hard as she please, she cannot + give herself retrospective action. A man may lose his house, his money, + his property—everything to which the name of benefit can be given—yet + the benefit itself will remain firm and unmoved; no power can prevent his + benefactor's having bestowed them, or his having received them. + </p> + <p> + III. I think that a fine passage in Rabirius's poem, where M. Antonius, + seeing his fortune deserting him, nothing left him except the privilege of + dying, and even that only on condition that he used it promptly, exclaims, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "What I have given, that I now possess!" +</pre> + <p> + How much he might have possessed, had he chosen! These are riches to be + depended upon, which through all the turmoil of human life will remain + steadfast; and the greater they are, the less envy they will attract. Why + are you sparing of your property, as though it were your own? You are but + the manager of it. All those treasures, which make you swell with pride, + and soar above mere mortals, till you forget the weakness of your nature; + all that which you lock up in iron-grated treasuries, and guard in arms, + which you win from other men with their lives, and defend at the risk of + your own; for which you launch fleets to dye the sea with blood, and shake + the walls of cities, not knowing what arrows fortune may be preparing for + you behind your back; to gain which you have so often violated all the + ties of relationship, of friendship, and of colleagueship, till the whole + world lies crushed between the two combatants: all these are not yours; + they are a kind of deposit, which is on the point of passing into other + hands: your enemies, or your heirs, who are little better, will seize upon + them. "How," do you ask, "can you make them your own?" "By giving them + away." Do, then, what is best for your own interests, and gain a sure + enjoyment of them, which cannot be taken from you, making them at once + more certainly yours, and more honorable to you. That which you esteem so + highly, that by which you think that you are made rich and powerful, owns + but the shabby title of "house," "slave," or "money;" but when you have + given it away, it becomes a benefit. + </p> + <p> + IV. "You admit," says our adversary, "that we sometimes are under no + obligation to him from whom we have received a benefit. In that case it + has been taken by force." Nay, there are many things which would cause us + to cease to feel gratitude for a benefit, not because the benefit has been + taken from me, but because it has been spoiled. Suppose that a man has + defended me in a lawsuit, but has forcibly outraged my wife; he has not + taken away the benefit which he conferred upon me, but by balancing it + with an equivalent wrong, he has set me free from my debt; indeed, if he + has injured me more than he had previously benefited me, he not only puts + an end to my gratitude, but makes me free to revenge myself upon him, and + to complain of him, when the wrong outweighs the benefit; in such a case + the benefit is not taken away, but is overcome. Why, are not some fathers + so cruel and so wicked that it is right and proper for their sons to turn + away from them, and disown them? Yet, pray, have they taken away the life + which they gave? No, but their unnatural conduct in later years has + destroyed all the gratitude which was due to them for their original + benefit. In these cases it is not a benefit itself, but the gratitude + owing for a benefit which is taken away, and the result is, not that one + does not possess the benefit, but that one is not laid under any + obligation by it. It is as though a man were to lend me money, and then + burn my house down; the advantage of the loan is balanced by the damage + which he has caused: I do not repay him, and yet I am not in his debt. In + like manner any one who may have acted kindly and generously to me, and + who afterwards has shown himself haughty, insulting, and cruel, places me + in just the same position as though I never had received anything from + him: he has murdered his own benefits. Though the lease may remain in + force, still a man does not continue to be a tenant if his landlord + tramples down his crops, or cuts down his orchard; their contract is at an + end, not because the landlord has received the rent which was agreed upon, + but because he has made it impossible that he should receive it. So, too, + a creditor often has to pay money to his debtor, should he have taken more + property from him in other transactions than he claims as having lent him. + The judge does not sit merely to decide between debtor and creditor, when + he says, "You did lend the man money; but then, what followed? You have + driven away his cattle, you have murdered his slave, you have in your + possession plate which you have not paid for. After valuing what each has + received, I order you, who came to this court as a creditor, to leave it + as a debtor." In like manner a balance is struck between benefits and + injuries. In many cases, I repeat, a benefit is not taken away from him + who receives it, and yet it lays him under no obligation, if the giver has + repented of giving it, called himself unhappy because he gave it, sighed + or made a wry face while he gave it; if he thought that he was throwing it + away rather than giving it, if he gave it to please himself, or to please + any one except me, the receiver; if he persistently makes himself + offensive by boasting of what he has done, if he brags of his gift + everywhere, and makes it a misery to me, then indeed the benefit remains + in my hands, but I owe him nothing for it, just as sums of money to which + a creditor has no legal right are owed to him, but cannot be claimed by + him. + </p> + <p> + V. Though you have bestowed a benefit upon me, yet you have since done me + a wrong; the benefit demanded gratitude, the wrong required vengeance: the + result is that I do not owe you gratitude, nor do you owe me compensation—each + is cancelled by the other. When we say, "I returned him his benefit," we + do not mean that we restored to him the very thing which we had received, + but something else in its place. To return is to give back one thing + instead of another, because, of course, in all repayment it is not the + thing itself, but its equivalent which is returned. We are said to have + returned money even though we count out gold pieces instead of silver + ones, or even if no money passes between us, but the transaction be + effected verbally by the assignment of a debt. + </p> + <p> + I think I see you say, "You are wasting your time; of what use is it to me + to know whether what I do not owe to another still remains in my hands or + not? These are like the ingenious subtleties of the lawyers, who declare + that one cannot acquire an inheritance by prescription, but can only + acquire those things of which the inheritance consists, as though there + were any difference between the heritage and the things of which it + consists. Rather decide this point for me, which may be of use. If the + same man confers a benefit upon me, and afterwards does me a wrong, is it + my duty to return the benefit to him, and nevertheless to avenge myself + upon him, having, as it were, two distinct accounts open with him, or to + mix them both together, and do nothing, leaving the benefit to be wiped + out by the injury, the injury by the benefit? I see that the former course + is adopted by the law of the land; you know best what the law may be among + you Stoic philosophers in such a case. I suppose that you keep the action + which I bring against another distinct from that which he Strings against + me, and the two processes are not merged into one? For instance, if a man + entrusts me with money, and afterwards robs me, I shall bring an action + against him for theft, and he will bring one against me for unlawfully + detaining his property?" + </p> + <p> + VI. The cases which you have mentioned, my Liberalis, come under + well-established laws, which it is necessary for us to follow. One law + cannot be merged in another: each one proceeds its own way. There is a + particular action which deals with deposits just as there is one which + deals with theft. A benefit is subject to no law; it depends upon my own + arbitration. I am at liberty to contrast the amount of good or harm which + any one may have done me, and then to decide which of us is indebted to + the other. In legal processes we ourselves have no power, we must go + whither they lead us; in the case of a benefit the supreme power is mine, + I pronounce sentence. Consequently I do not separate or distinguish + between benefits and wrongs, but send them before the same judge. Unless I + did so, you would bid me love and hate, give thanks and make complaints at + the same time, which human nature does not admit of. I would rather + compare the benefit and the injury with one another, and see whether there + were any balance in my favour. If anybody puts lines of other writing upon + my manuscript he conceals, though he does not take away, the letters which + were there before, and in like manner a wrong coming after a benefit does + not allow it to be seen. + </p> + <p> + VII. Your face, by which I have agreed to be guided, now becomes wrinkled + with frowns, as though I were straying too widely from the subject. You + seem to say to me: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Why steer to seaward? + Hither bend thy course, + Hug close the shore..." +</pre> + <p> + I do hug it as close as possible. So now, if you think that we have dwelt + sufficiently upon this point, let us proceed to the consideration of the + next—that is, whether we are at all indebted to any one who does us + good without wishing to do so. I might have expressed this more clearly, + if it were not right that the question should be somewhat obscurely + stated, in order that by the distinction immediately following it may be + shown that we mean to investigate the case both of him who does us good + against his will, and that of him who does us good without knowing it. + That a man who does us good by acting under compulsion does not thereby + lay us under any obligation, is so clear, that no words are needed to + prove it. Both this question, and any other of the like character which + may be raised, can easily be settled if in each case we bear in mind that, + for anything to be a benefit, it must reach us in the first place through + some thought, and secondly through the thought of a friend and + well-wisher. Therefore we do not feel any gratitude towards rivers, albeit + they may bear large ships, afford an ample and unvarying stream for the + conveyance of merchandise, or flow beauteously and full of fish through + fertile fields. No one conceives himself to be indebted for a benefit to + the Nile, any more than he would owe it a grudge if its waters flooded his + fields to excess, and retired more slowly than usual; the wind does not + bestow benefits, gentle and favorable though it may be, nor does wholesome + and useful food; for he who would bestow a benefit upon me, must not only + do me good, but must wish to do so. No obligation can therefore be + incurred towards dumb animals; yet how many men have been saved from peril + by the swiftness of a horse!—nor yet towards trees—yet how + many sufferers from summer heat have been sheltered by the thick foliage + of a tree! What difference can it make, whether I have profited by the act + of one who did not know that he was doing me good, or one who could not + know it, when in each case the will to do me good was wanting? You might + as well bid me be grateful to a ship, a carriage, or a lance for saving me + from danger, as bid me be grateful to a man who may have done me good by + chance, but with no more intention of doing me good than those things + could have. + </p> + <p> + VIII. Some men may receive benefits without knowing it, but no man can + bestow them without knowing it. Many sick persons have been cured by + chance circumstances, which do not therefore become specific remedies; as, + for instance, one man was restored to health by falling into a river + during very cold weather, as another was set free from a quartan fever by + means of a flogging, because the sudden terror turned his attention into a + new channel, so that the dangerous hours passed unnoticed. Yet none of + these are remedies, even though they may have been successful; and in like + manner some men do us good, though they are unwilling—indeed, + because they are unwilling to do so—yet we need not feel grateful to + them as though we had received a benefit from them, because fortune has + changed the evil which they intended into good. Do you suppose that I am + indebted to a man who strikes my enemy with a blow which he aimed at me, + who would have injured me had he not missed his mark? It often happens + that by openly perjuring himself a man makes even trustworthy witnesses + disbelieved, and renders his intended victim an object of compassion, as + though he were being ruined by a conspiracy. Some have been saved by the + very power which was exerted to crush them, and judges who would have + condemned a man by law, have refused to condemn him by favour. Yet they + did not confer a benefit upon the accused, although they rendered him a + service, because we must consider at what the dart was aimed, not what it + hits, and a benefit is distinguished from an injury not by its result, but + by the spirit in which it was meant. By contradicting himself, by + irritating the judge by his arrogance, or by rashly allowing his whole + case to depend upon the testimony of one witness, my opponent may have + saved my cause. I do not consider whether his mistakes benefited me or + not, for he wished me ill. + </p> + <p> + IX. In order that I may be grateful, I must wish to do what my benefactor + must have wished in order that he might bestow a benefit. Can anything be + more unjust than to bear a grudge against a person who may have trodden + upon one's foot in a crowd, or splashed one, or pushed one the way which + one did not wish to go? Yet it was by his act that we were injured, and we + only refrain from complaining of him, because he did not know what he was + doing. The same reason makes it possible for men to do us good without + conferring benefits upon us, or to harm us without doing us wrong, because + it is intention which distinguishes our friends from our enemies. How many + have been saved from service in the army by sickness! Some men have been + saved from sharing the fall of their house, by being brought up upon their + recognizances to a court of law by their enemies; some have been saved by + ship-wreck from falling into the hands of pirates; yet we do not feel + grateful to such things, because chance has no feeling of the service it + renders, nor are we grateful to our enemy, though his lawsuit, while it + harassed and detained us, still saved our lives. Nothing can be a benefit + which does not proceed from good will, and which is not meant as such by + the giver. If any one does me a service, without knowing it, I am under no + obligation to him; should he do so, meaning to injure me, I shall imitate + his conduct. + </p> + <p> + X. Let us turn our attention to the first of these. Can you desire me to + do anything to express my gratitude to a man who did nothing in order to + confer a benefit upon me? Passing on to the next, do you wish me to show + my gratitude to such a man, and of my own will to return to him what I + received from him against his will? What am I to say of the third, he who, + meaning to do an injury, blunders into bestowing a benefit? That you + should have wished to confer a benefit upon me is not sufficient to render + me grateful; but that you should have wished not to do so is enough to set + me free from any obligation to you. A mere wish does not constitute a + benefit; and just as the best and heartiest wish is not a benefit when + fortune prevents its being carried into effect, neither is what fortune + bestows upon us a benefit, unless good wishes preceded it. In order to lay + me under an obligation, you must not merely do me a service, but you must + do so intentionally. + </p> + <p> + XI. Cleanthes makes use of the following example:—"I sent," says he, + "two slaves to look for Plato and bring him to me from the Academy. One of + them searched through the whole of the colonnade, and every other place in + which he thought that he was likely to be found, and returned home alike + weary and unsuccessful; the other sat down among the audience of a + mountebank close by, and, while amusing himself in the society of other + slaves like a careless vagabond as he was, found Plato, without seeking + for him, as he happened to pass that way. We ought," says he, "to praise + that slave who, as far as lay in his power, did what he was ordered, and + we ought to punish the other whose laziness turned out so fortunate." It + is goodwill alone which does one real service; let us then consider under + what conditions it lays us under obligations. It is not enough to wish a + man well, without doing him good; nor is it enough to do him good without + wishing him well. Suppose that some one wished to give me a present, but + did not give it; I have his good will, but I do not have his benefit, + which consists of subject matter and goodwill together. I owe nothing to + one who wished to lend me money but did not do so, and in like manner I + shall be the friend of one who wished but was not able to bestow a benefit + upon me, but I shall not be under any obligation to him. I also shall wish + to bestow something upon him, even as he did upon me; but if fortune be + more favorable to me than to him, and I succeed in bestowing something + upon him, my doing so will be a benefit bestowed upon him, not a repayment + out of gratitude for what he did for me. It will become his duty to be + grateful to me; I shall have begun the interchange of benefits; the series + must be counted from my act. + </p> + <p> + XII. I already understand what you wish to ask; there is no need for you + to say anything, your countenance speaks for you. "If any one does us good + for his own sake, are we," you ask, "under an obligation to him? I often + hear you complain that there are some things which men make use of + themselves, but which they put down to the account of others." I will tell + you, my Liberalis; but first let me distinguish between the two parts of + your question, and separate what is fair from what is unfair. It makes a + great difference whether any one bestows a benefit upon us for his own + sake, or whether he does so partly for his own sake and partly for ours. + He who looks only to his own interests, and who does us good because he + cannot otherwise make a profit for himself, seems to me to be like the + farmer who provides winter and summer fodder for his flocks, or like the + man who feeds up the captives whom he has bought in order that they may + fetch a better price in the slave market, or who crams and curry-combs fat + oxen for sale; or like the keeper of a school of arms, who takes great + pains in exercising and equipping his gladiators. As Cleanthes says, there + is a great difference between benefits and trade. + </p> + <p> + XIII. On the other hand, I am not so unjust as to feel no gratitude to a + man, because, while helping me, he helped himself also; for I do not + insist upon his consulting my interests to the exclusion of his own—nay, + I should prefer that the benefit which I receive may be of even greater + advantage to the giver, provided that he thought of us both when giving + it, and meant to divide it between me and himself. Even should he possess + the larger portion of it, still, if he admits me to a share, if he meant + it for both of us, I am not only unjust but ungrateful, if I do not + rejoice in what has benefited me benefiting him also. It is the essence of + spitefulness to say that nothing can be a benefit which does not cause + some inconvenience to the giver. + </p> + <p> + As for him who bestows a benefit for his own sake, I should say to him, + "You have made use of me, and how can you say that you have bestowed a + benefit upon me, rather than I upon you?" "Suppose," answers he, "that I + cannot obtain a public office except by ransoming ten citizens out of a + great number of captives, will you owe me nothing for setting you free + from slavery and bondage? Yet I shall do so for my own sake." To this I + should answer, "You do this partly for my sake, partly for your own. It is + for your own sake that you ransom captives, but it is for my sake that you + ransom me; for to serve your purpose it would be enough for you to ransom + any one. I am therefore your debtor, not for ransoming me but for choosing + me, since you might have attained the same result by ransoming some one + else instead of me. You divide the advantages of the act between yourself + and me, and you confer upon me a benefit by which both of us profit. What + you do entirely for my sake is, that you choose me in preference to + others. If therefore you were to be made praetor for ransoming ten + captives, and there were only ten of us captives, none of us would be + under any obligation to you, because there is nothing for which you can + ask any one of us to give you credit apart from your own advantage. I do + not regard a benefit jealously and wish it to be given to myself alone, + but I wish to have a share in it." + </p> + <p> + XIV. "Well, then," says he, "suppose that I were to order all your names + to be put into a ballot-box, and that your name was drawn among those who + were to be ransomed, would you owe me nothing?" Yes, I should owe you + something, but very little: how little, I will explain to you. By so doing + you do something for my sake, in that you grant me the chance of being + ransomed; I owe to fortune that my name was drawn, all I owe to you is + that my name could be drawn. You have given me the means of obtaining your + benefit. For the greater part of that benefit I am indebted to fortune; + that I could be so indebted, I owe to you. + </p> + <p> + I shall take no notice whatever of those whose benefits are bestowed in a + mercenary spirit, who do not consider to whom, but upon what terms they + give, whose benefits are entirely selfish. Suppose that some one sells me + corn; I cannot live unless I buy it; yet I do not owe my life to him + because I have bought it. I do not consider how essential it was to me, + and that I could not live without it; but how little thanks are due for + it, since I could not have had it without paying for it, and since the + merchant who imported it did not consider how much good he would do me, + but how much he would gain for himself, I owe nothing for what I have + bought and paid for. + </p> + <p> + XV. "According to this reasoning," says my opponent, "you would say that + you owe nothing to a physician beyond his paltry fee, nor to your teacher, + because you have paid him some money; yet these persons are all held very + dear, and are very much respected." In answer to this I should urge that + some things are of greater value than the price which we pay for them. You + buy of a physician life and good health, the value of which cannot be + estimated in money; from a teacher of the liberal sciences you buy the + education of a gentleman and mental culture; therefore you pay these + persons the price, not of what they give us, but of their trouble in + giving it; you pay them for devoting their attention to us, for + disregarding their own affairs to attend to us: they receive the price, + not of their services, but of the expenditure of their time. Yet this may + be more truly stated in another way, which I will at once lay before you, + having first pointed out how the above may be confuted. Our adversary + would say, "If some things are of greater value than the price which we + pay for them, then, though you may have bought them, you still owe me + something more for them." I answer, in the first place, what does their + real value matter, since the buyer and seller have settled the price + between them? Next, I did not buy it at it's own price, but at yours. "It + is," you say, "worth more than its sale price." True, but it cannot be + sold for more. The price of everything varies according to circumstances; + after you have well praised your wares, they are worth only the highest + price at which you can sell them; a man who buys things cheap is not on + that account under any obligation to the seller. In the next place, even + if they are worth more, there is no generosity in your letting them go for + less, since the price is settled by custom and the rate of the market, not + by the uses and powers of the merchandise. What would you state to be the + proper payment of a man who crosses the seas, holding a true course + through the midst of the waves after the land has sunk out of sight, who + foresees coming storms, and suddenly, when no one expects danger, orders + sails to be furled, yards to be lowered, and the crew to stand at their + posts ready to meet the fury of the unexpected gale? and yet the price of + such great skill is fully paid for by the passage money. At what sum can + you estimate the value of a lodging in a wilderness, of a shelter in the + rain, of a bath or fire in cold weather? Yet I know on what terms I shall + be supplied with these when I enter an inn. How much the man does for us + who props our house when it is about to fall, and who, with a skill beyond + belief, suspends in the air a block of building which has begun to crack + at the foundation; yet we can contract for underpinning at a fixed and + cheap rate. The city wall keeps us safe from our enemies, and from sudden + inroads of brigands; yet it is, well known how much a day a smith would + earn for erecting towers and scaffoldings [Footnote: See Viollet-le-Duc's + "Dictionnaire d'Architecture," articles "Architecture Militaire" and + "Hourds," for the probable meaning of "Propugnacula."]to provide for the + public safety. + </p> + <p> + XVI. I might go on for ever collecting instances to prove that valuable + things are sold at a low price. What then? why is it that I owe something + extra both to my physician and to my teacher, and that I do not acquit + myself of all obligation to them by paying them their fee? It is because + they pass from physicians and teachers into friends, and lay us under + obligations, not by the skill which they sell to us, but by kindly and + familiar good will. If my physician does no more than feel my pulse and + class me among those whom he sees in his daily rounds, pointing out what I + ought to do or to avoid without any personal interest, then I owe him no + more than his fee, because he views me with the eye not of a friend, but + of a commander. [Footnote: I read "Nbn tamquam amicus videt sed tamquam + imperator."] Neither have I any reason for loving my teacher, if he has + regarded me merely as one of the mass of his scholars, and has not thought + me worthy of taking especial pains with by myself, if he has never fixed + his attention upon me, and if when he discharged his knowledge on the + public, I might be said rather to have picked it up than to have learnt it + from him. What then is our reason for owing them much? It is, not that + what they have sold us is worth more than we paid for it, but that they + have given something to us personally. Suppose that my physician has spent + more consideration upon my case than was professionally necessary; that it + was for me, not for his own credit, that he feared: that he was not + satisfied with pointing out remedies, but himself applied them, that he + sat by my bedside among my anxious friends, and came to see me at the + crises of my disorder; that no service was too troublesome or too + disgusting for him to perform; that he did not hear my groans unmoved; + that among the numbers who called for him I was his favourite case; and + that he gave the others only so much time as his care of my health + permitted him: I should feel obliged to such a man not as to a physician, + but as to a friend. Suppose again that my teacher endured labour and + weariness in instructing me; that he taught me something more than is + taught by all masters alike; that he roused my better feelings by his + encouragement, and that at one time he would raise my spirits by praise, + and at another warn me to shake off slothfulness: that he laid his hand, + as it were, upon my latent and torpid powers of intellect and drew them + out into the light of day; that he did not stingily dole out to me what he + knew, in order that he might be wanted for a longer time, but was eager, + if possible, to pour all his learning into me; then I am ungrateful, if I + do not love him as much as I love my nearest relatives and my dearest + friends. + </p> + <p> + XVII. We give something additional even to those who teach the meanest + trades, if their efforts appear to be extraordinary; we bestow a gratuity + upon pilots, upon workmen who deal with the commonest materials and hire + themselves out by the day. In the noblest arts, however, those which + either preserve or beautify our lives, a man would be ungrateful who + thinks he owes the artist no more than he bargained for. Besides this, the + teaching of such learning as we have spoken of blends mind with mind; now + when this takes place, both in the case of the physician and of the + teacher the price of his work is paid, but that of his mind remains owing. + </p> + <p> + XVIII. Plato once crossed a river, and as the ferryman did not ask him for + anything, he supposed that he had let him pass free out of respect, and + said that the ferryman had laid Plato under an obligation. Shortly + afterwards, seeing the ferryman take one person after another across the + river with the same pains, and without charging anything, Plato declared + that the ferryman had not laid him under an obligation. If you wish me to + be grateful for what you give, you must not merely give it to me, but show + that you mean it specially for me; you cannot make any claim upon one for + having given him what you fling away broad-cast among the crowd. What + then? shall I owe you nothing for it? Nothing, as an individual; I will + pay, when the rest of mankind do, what I owe no more than they. + </p> + <p> + XIX. "Do you say," inquires my opponent, "that he who carries me gratis in + a boat across the river Po, does not bestow any benefit upon me?" I do. He + does me some good, but he does not bestow a benefit upon me; for he does + it for his own sake, or at any rate not for mine; in short, he himself + does not imagine that he is bestowing a benefit upon me, but does it for + the credit of the State, or of the neighbourhood, or of himself, and + expects some return for doing so, different from what he would receive + from individual passengers. "Well," asks my opponent, "if the emperor were + to grant the franchise to all the Gauls, or exemption, from taxes to all + the Spaniards, would each individual of them owe him nothing on that + account?" Of course he would: but he would be indebted to him, not as + having personally received a benefit intended for himself alone, but as a + partaker in one conferred upon his nation. He would argue, "The emperor + had no thought of me at the time when he benefited us all; he did not care + to give me the franchise separately, he did not fix his attention upon me; + why then should I be grateful to one who did not have me in his mind when + he was thinking of doing what he did? In answer to this, I say that when + he thought of doing good to all the Gauls, he thought of doing good to me + also, for I was a Gaul, and he included me under my national, if not under + my personal appellation. In like manner, I should feel grateful to him, + not as for a personal, but for a general benefit; being only one of the + people, I should regard the debt of gratitude as incurred, not by myself, + but by my country, and should not pay it myself, but only contribute my + share towards doing so. I do not call a man my creditor because he has + lent money to my country, nor should I include that money in a schedule of + my debts were I either a candidate for a public office, or a defendant in + the courts; yet I would pay my share towards extinguishing such a debt. + Similarly, I deny that I am laid under an obligation by a gift bestowed + upon my entire nation, because although the giver gave it to me, yet he + did not do so for my sake, but gave it without knowing whether he was + giving it to me or not: nevertheless I should feel that I owed something + for the gift, because it did reach me, though not directly. To lay me + under an obligation, a thing must be done for my sake alone." + </p> + <p> + XX. "According to this," argues our opponent, "you are under no obligation + to the sun or the moon; for they do not move for your sake alone." No, but + since they move with the object of preserving the balance of the universe, + they move for my sake also, seeing that I am a fraction of the universe. + Besides, our position and theirs is not the same, for he who does me good + in order that he may by my means do good to himself, does not bestow a + benefit upon me, because he merely makes use of me as an instrument for + his own advantage; whereas the sun and the moon, even if they do us good + for their own sakes, still cannot do good to us in order that by our means + they may do good to themselves, for what is there which we can bestow upon + them? + </p> + <p> + XXI. "I should be sure," replies he, "that the sun and the moon wished to + do us good, if they were able to refuse to do so; but they cannot help + moving as they do. In short, let them stop and discontinue their work." + </p> + <p> + See now, in how many ways this argument may be refuted. One who cannot + refuse to do a thing may nevertheless wish to do it; indeed there is no + greater proof of a fixed desire to do anything, than not to be able to + alter one's determination. A good man cannot leave undone what he does: + for unless he does it he will not be a good man. Is a good man, then, not + able to bestow a benefit, because he does what he ought to do, and is not + able not to do what he ought to do? Besides this, it makes a great + difference whether you say, "He is not able not to do this, because he is + forced to do it," or "He is not able to wish not to do it;" for, if he + could not help doing it, then I am not indebted for it to him, but to the + person who forced him to do it; if he could not help wishing for it + because he had nothing better to wish for, then it is he who forces + himself to do it, and in this case the debt which as acting under + compulsion he could not claim, is due to him as compelling himself. + </p> + <p> + "Let the sun and moon cease to wish to benefit us," says our adversary. I + answer, "Remember what has been said. Who can be so crazy as to refuse the + name of free-will to that which has no danger of ceasing to act, and of + adopting the opposite course, since, on the contrary, he whose will is + fixed for ever, must be thought to wish more earnestly than any one else. + Surely if he, who may at any moment change his mind, can be said to wish, + we must not deny the existence of will in a being whose nature does not + admit of change of mind." + </p> + <p> + XXII. "Well," says he "let them stop, if it be possible." What you say is + this:—"Let all those heavenly bodies, placed as they are at vast + distances from each other, and arranged to preserve the balance of the + universe, leave their appointed posts: let sudden confusion arise, so that + constellations may collide with constellations, that the established + harmony of all things may be destroyed and the works of God be shaken into + ruin; let the whole frame of the rapidly moving heavenly bodies abandon in + mid career those movements which we were assured would endure for ages, + and let those which now by their regular advance and retreat keep the + world at a moderate temperature, be instantly consumed by fire, so that + instead of the infinite variety of the seasons all may be reduced to one + uniform condition; let fire rage everywhere, followed by dull night, and + let the bottomless abyss swallow up all the gods." Is it worth while to + destroy all this merely in order to refute you? Even though you do not + wish it, they do you good, and they wheel in their courses for your sake, + though their motion may be due to some earlier and more important cause. + </p> + <p> + XXIII. Besides this, the gods act under no external constraint, but their + own will is a law to them for all time. They have established an order + which is not to be changed, and consequently it is impossible that they + should appear to be likely to do anything against their will, since they + wish to continue doing whatever they cannot cease from doing, and they + never regret their original decision, No doubt it is impossible for them + to stop short, or to desert to the other side, but it is so for no other + reason than that their own force holds them to their purpose. It is from + no weakness that they persevere; no, they have no mind to leave the best + course, and by this it is fated that they should proceed. When, at the + time of the original creation, they arranged the entire universe, they + paid attention to us as well as to the rest, and took thought about the + human race; and for this reason we cannot suppose that it is merely for + their own pleasure that they move in their orbits and display their work + since we also are a part of that work. We are, therefore; under an + obligation to the sun and moon and the rest of the heavenly host, because, + although they may rise in order to bestow more important benefits than + those which we receive from them, yet they do bestow these upon us as they + pass on their way to greater things. Besides this, they assist us of set + purpose, and, therefore, lay us under an obligation, because we do not in + their case stumble by chance upon a benefit bestowed by one who knew not + what he was doing, but they knew that we should receive from them the + advantages which we do; so that, though they may have some higher aim, + though the result of their movements may be something of greater + importance than the preservation of the human race, yet from the beginning + thought has been directed to our comforts, and the scheme of the world has + been arranged in a fashion which proves that our interests were neither + their least nor last concern. It is our duty to show filial love for our + parents, although many of them had no thought of children when they + married. Not so with the gods: they cannot but have known what they were + doing when they furnished mankind with food and comforts. Those for whose + advantage so much was created, could not have been created without design. + Nature conceived the idea of us before she formed us, and, indeed, we are + no such trifling piece of work as could have fallen from her hands + unheeded. See how great privileges she has bestowed upon us, how far + beyond the human race the empire of mankind extends; consider how widely + she allows us to roam, not having restricted us to the land alone, but + permitted us to traverse every part of herself; consider, too, the + audacity of our intellect, the only one which knows of the gods or seeks + for them, and how we can raise our mind high above the earth, and commune + with those divine influences: you will perceive that man is not a + hurriedly put together, or an unstudied piece of work. Among her noblest + products nature has none of which she can boast more than man, and + assuredly no other which can comprehend her boast. What madness is this, + to call the gods in question for their bounty? If a man declares that he + has received nothing when he is receiving all the while, and from those + who will always be giving without ever receiving anything in return, how + will he be grateful to those whose kindness cannot be returned without + expense? and how great a mistake is it not to be thankful to a giver, + because he is good even to him who disowns him, or to use the fact of his + bounty being poured upon us in an uninterrupted stream, as an argument to + prove that he cannot help bestowing it. Suppose that such men as these + say, "I do not want it," "Let him keep it to himself," "Who asks him for + it?" and so forth, with all the other speeches of insolent minds: still, + he whose bounty reaches you, although you say that it does not, lays you + under an obligation nevertheless; indeed, perhaps the greatest part of the + benefit which he bestows is that he is ready to give even when you are + complaining against him. + </p> + <p> + XXIV. Do you not see how parents force children during their infancy to + undergo what is useful for their health? Though the children cry and + struggle, they swathe them and bind their limbs straight lest premature + liberty should make them grow crooked, afterwards instill into them a + liberal education, threatening those who are unwilling to learn, and + finally, if spirited young men do not conduct themselves frugally, + modestly, and respectably, they compel them to do so. Force and harsh + measures are used even to youths who have grown up and are their own + masters, if they, either from fear or from insolence, refuse to take what + is good for them. Thus the greatest benefits that we receive, we receive + either without knowing it, or against our will, from our parents. + </p> + <p> + XXV. Those persons who are ungrateful and repudiate benefits, not because + they do not wish to receive them, but in order that they may not be laid + under an obligation for them, are like those who fall into the opposite + extreme, and are over grateful, who pray that some trouble or misfortune + may befall their benefactors to give them an opportunity of proving how + gratefully they remember the benefit which they have received. It is a + question whether they are right, and show a truly dutiful feeling; their + state of mind is morbid, like that of frantic lovers who long for their + mistress to be exiled, that they may accompany her when she leaves her + country forsaken by all her friends, or that she may be poor in order that + she may the more need what they give her, or who long that she may be ill + in order that they may sit by her bedside, and who, in short, out of sheer + love form the same wishes as her enemies would wish for her. Thus the + results of hatred and of frantic love are very nearly the same; and these + lovers are very like those who hope that their friends may meet with + difficulties which they may remove, and who thus do a wrong that they may + bestow a benefit, whereas it would have been much better for them to do + nothing, than by a crime to gain an opportunity of doing good service. + What should we say of a pilot who prayed to the gods for dreadful storms + and tempests, in order that danger might make his skill more highly + esteemed? what of a general who should pray that a vast number of the + enemy surround his camp, fill the ditches by a sudden charge, tear down + the rampart round his panic-stricken army, and plant its hostile standards + at the very gates, in order that he might gain more glory by restoring his + broken ranks and shattered fortunes? All such men confer their benefits + upon us by odious means, for they beg the gods to harm those whom they + mean to help, and wish them to be struck down before they raise them up; + it is a cruel feeling, brought about by a distorted sense of gratitude, to + wish evil to befall one whom one is bound in honour to succour. + </p> + <p> + XXVI. "My wish," argues our opponent, "does him no harm, because when I + wish for the danger I wish for the rescue at the same time." What you mean + by this is not that you do no wrong, but that you do less than if you + wished that the danger might befall him, without wishing for the rescue. + It is wicked to throw a man into the water in order that you may pull him + out, to throw him down that you may raise him up, or to shut him up that + you may release him. You do not bestow a benefit upon a man by ceasing to + wrong him, nor can it ever be a piece of good service to anyone to remove + from him a burden which you yourself imposed on him. True, you may cure + the hurt which you inflict, but I had rather that you did not hurt me at + all. You may gain my gratitude by curing me because I am wounded, but not + by wounding me in order that you may cure me: no man likes scars except as + compared with wounds, which he is glad to see thus healed, though he had + rather not have received them. It would be cruel to wish such things to + befall one from whom you had never received a kindness; how much more + cruel is it to wish that they may befall one in whose debt you are. + </p> + <p> + XXVII. "I pray," replies he, "at the same time, that I may be able to help + him." In the first place, if I stop you short in the middle of your + prayer, it shows at once that you are ungrateful: I have not yet heard + what you wish to do for him; I have heard what you wish him to suffer. You + pray that anxiety and fear and even worse evil than this may come upon + him. You desire that he may need aid: this is to his disadvantage; you + desire that he may need your aid: this is to your advantage. You do not + wish to help him, but to be set free from your obligation to him: for when + you are eager to repay your debt in such a way as this, you merely wish to + be set free from the debt, not to repay it. So the only part of your wish + that could be thought honourable proves to be the base and ungrateful + feeling of unwillingness to lie under an obligation: for what you wish for + is, not that you may have an opportunity of repaying his kindness, but + that he may be forced to beg you to do him a kindness. You make yourself + the superior, and you wickedly degrade beneath your feet the man who has + done you good service. How much better would it be to remain in his debt + in an honourable and friendly manner, than to seek to discharge the debt + by these evil means! You would be less to blame if you denied that you had + received it, for your benefactor would then lose nothing more than what he + gave you, whereas now you wish him to be rendered inferior to you, and + brought by the loss of his property and social position into a condition + below his own benefits. Do you think yourself grateful? Just utter your + wishes in the hearing of him to whom you wish to do good. Do you call that + a prayer for his welfare, which can be divided between his friend and his + enemy, which, if the last part were omitted, you would not doubt was + pronounced, by one who opposed and hated him? Enemies in war have + sometimes wished to capture certain towns in order to spare them, or to + conquer certain persons in order to pardon, them, yet these were the + wishes of enemies, and what was the kindest part of them began by cruelty. + Finally, what sort of prayers do you think those can be which he, on whose + behalf they are made, hopes more earnestly than any one else may not be + granted? In hoping that the gods may injure a man, and that you may help + him, you deal most dishonourably with him, and you do not treat the gods + themselves fairly, for you give them the odious part to play, and reserve + the generous one for yourself: the gods must do him wrong in order that + you may do him a service. If you were to suborn an informer to accuse a + man, and afterwards withdrew him, if you engaged a man in a law suit and + afterwards gave it up, no one would hesitate to call you a villain: what + difference does it make, whether you attempt to do this by chicanery or by + prayer, unless it be that by prayer you raise up more powerful enemies to + him than by the other means? You cannot say "Why, what harm do I do him?" + your prayer is either futile or harmful, indeed it is harmful even though + nothing comes of it. You do your friend wrong by wishing him harm: you + must thank the gods that you do him no harm. The fact of your wishing it + is enough: we ought to be just as angry with you as if you had effected + it. + </p> + <p> + XXVIII. "If," argues our adversary, "my prayers had any efficacy, they + would also have been efficacious to save him from danger." In the first + place, I reply, the danger into which you wish me to fall is certain, the + help which I should receive is uncertain. Or call them both certain; it is + that which injures me that comes first. Besides, YOU understand the terms + of your wish; <i>I</i> shall be tossed by the storm without being sure + that I have a haven of rest at hand. + </p> + <p> + Think what torture it must have been to me, even if I receive your help, + to have stood in need of it: if I escape safely, to have trembled for + myself; if I be acquitted, to have had to plead my cause. To escape from + fear, however great it may be, can never be so pleasant as to live in + sound unassailable safety. Pray that you may return my kindnesses when I + need their return, but do not pray that I may need them. You would have + done what you prayed for, had it been in your power. + </p> + <p> + XXIX. How far more honourable would a prayer of this sort be: "I pray that + he may remain in such a position as that he may always bestow benefits and + never need them: may he be attended by the means of giving and helping, of + which he makes such a bountiful use; may he never want benefits to bestow, + or be sorry for any which he has bestowed; may his nature, fitted as it is + for acts of pity, goodness, and clemency, be stimulated and brought out by + numbers of grateful persons, whom I trust he will find without needing to + make trial of their gratitude; may he refuse to be reconciled to no one, + and may no one require to be reconciled to him: may fortune so uniformly + continue to favour him that no one may be able to return his kindness in + any way except by feeling grateful to him." + </p> + <p> + How far more proper are such prayers as these, which do not put you off to + some distant opportunity, but express your gratitude at once? What is + there to prevent your returning your benefactor's kindness, even while he + is in prosperity? How many ways are there by which we can repay what we + owe even to the affluent—for instance, by honest advice, by constant + intercourse, by courteous conversation, pleasing him without flattering + him, by listening attentively to any subject which he may wish to discuss, + by keeping safe any secret that he may impart to us, and by social + intercourse. There is no one so highly placed by fortune as not to want a + friend all the more because he wants nothing. + </p> + <p> + XXX. The other is a melancholy opportunity, and one which we ought always + to pray may be kept far from us: must the gods be angry with a man in + order that you may prove your gratitude to him? Do you not perceive that + you are doing wrong, from the very fact that those to whom you are + ungrateful fare better? Call up before your mind dungeons, chains, + wretchedness, slavery, war, poverty: these are the opportunities for which + you pray; if any one has any dealings with you, it is by means of these + that you square your account. Why not rather wish that he to whom you owe + most may be powerful and happy? for, as I have just said, what is there to + prevent your returning the kindness even of those who enjoy the greatest + prosperity? to do which, ample and various opportunities will present + themselves to you, What! do you not know that a debt can be paid even to a + rich man? Nor will I trouble you with many instances of what you may do. + Though a man's riches and prosperity may prevent your making him any other + repayment, I will show you what the highest in the land stand in need of, + what is wanting to those who possess everything. They want a man to speak + the truth, to save them from the organized mass of falsehood by which they + are beset, which so bewilders them with lies that the habit of hearing + only what is pleasant instead of what is true, prevents their knowing what + truth really is. Do you not see how such persons are driven to ruin by the + want of candour among their friends, whose loyalty has degenerated into + slavish obsequiousness? No one, when giving them his advice, tells them + what he really thinks, but each vies with the other in flattery; and while + the man's friends make it their only object to see who can most pleasantly + deceive him, he himself is ignorant of his real powers, and, believing + himself to be as great a man as he is told that he is, plunges the State + in useless wars, which bring disasters upon it, breaks off a useful and + necessary peace, and, through a passion of anger which no one checks, + spills the blood of numbers of people, and at last sheds his own. Such + persons assert what has never been investigated as certain facts, consider + that to modify their opinion is as dishonourable as to be conquered, + believe that institutions which are just flickering out of existence will + last for ever, and, thus overturn great States, to the destruction of + themselves and all who are connected with them. Living as they do in a + fool's paradise, resplendent with unreal and short-lived advantages, they + forget that, as soon as they put it out of their power to hear the truth, + there is no limit to the misfortunes which they may expect. + </p> + <p> + XXXI. When Xerxes declared war against Greece, all his courtiers + encouraged his boastful temper, which forgot how unsubstantial his grounds + for confidence were. One declared that the Greeks would not endure to hear + the news of the declaration of war, and would take to flight at the first + rumour of his approach; another, that with such a vast army Greece could + not only be conquered, but utterly overwhelmed, and that it was rather to + be feared that they would find the Greek cities empty and abandoned, and + that the panic flight of the enemy would leave them only vast deserts, + where no use could be made of their enormous forces. Another told him that + the world was hardly large enough to contain him, that the seas were too + narrow for his fleets, the camps would not take in his armies, the plains + were not wide enough to deploy his cavalry in, and that the sky itself was + scarcely large enough to enable all his troops to hurl their darts at + once. While much boasting of this sort was going on around him, raising + his already overweening self-confidence to a frantic pitch, Demaratus, the + Lacedaemonian, alone told him that the disorganized and unwieldy multitude + in which he trusted, was in itself a danger to its chief, because it + possessed only weight without strength; for an army which is too large + cannot be governed, and one which cannot be governed, cannot long exist. + "The Lacedaemonians," said he, "will meet you upon the first mountain in + Greece, and will give you a taste of their quality. All these thousands of + nations of yours will be held in check by three hundred men: they will + stand firm at their posts, they will defend the passes entrusted to them + with their weapons, and block them up with their bodies: all Asia will not + force them to give way; few as they are, they will stop all this terrible + invasion, attempted though it be by nearly the whole human race. Though + the laws of nature may give way to you, and enable you to pass from Europe + to Asia, yet you will stop short in a bypath; consider what your losses + will be afterwards, when you have reckoned up the price which you have to + pay for the pass of Thermopylae; when you learn that your march can be + stayed, you will discover that you may be put to flight. The Greeks will + yield up many parts of their country to you, as if they were swept out of + them by the first terrible rush of a mountain torrent; afterwards they + will rise against you from all quarters and will crush you by means of + your own strength. What people say, that your warlike preparations are too + great to be contained in the countries which you intend to attack, is + quite true; but this is to our disadvantage. Greece will conquer you for + this very reason, that she cannot contain you; you cannot make use of the + whole of your force. Besides this, you will not be able to do what is + essential to victory—that is, to meet the manoeuvres of the enemy at + once, to support your own men if they give way, or to confirm and + strengthen them when their ranks are wavering; long before you know it, + you will be defeated. Moreover, you should not think that because your + army is so large that its own chief does not know its numbers, it is + therefore irresistible; there is nothing so great that it cannot perish; + nay, without any other cause, its own excessive size may prove its ruin." + What Demaratus predicted came to pass. He whose power gods and men obeyed, + and who swept away all that opposed him, was bidden to halt by three + hundred men, and the Persians, defeated in every part of Greece, learned + how great a difference there is between a mob and an army. Thus it came to + pass that Xerxes, who suffered more from the shame of his failure than + from the losses which he sustained, thanked Demaratus for having been the + only man who told him the truth, and permitted him to ask what boon he + pleased. He asked to be allowed to drive a chariot into Sardis, the + largest city in Asia, wearing a tiara erect upon his head, a privilege + which was enjoyed by kings alone. He deserved his reward before he asked + for it, but how wretched must the nation have been, in which there was no + one who would speak the truth to the king except one man who did not speak + it to himself. + </p> + <p> + XXXII. The late Emperor Augustus banished his daughter, whose conduct went + beyond the shame of ordinary immodesty, and made public the scandals of + the imperial house. + </p> + <p> + Led away by his passion, he divulged all these crimes which, as emperor, + he ought to have kept secret with as much care as he punished them, + because the shame of some deeds asperses even him who avenges them. + Afterwards, when by lapse of time shame took the place of anger in his + mind, he lamented that he had not kept silence about matters which he had + not learned until it was disgraceful to speak of them, and often used to + exclaim, "None of these things would have happened to me, if either + Agrippa or Maecenas had lived!" So hard was it for the master of so many + thousands of men to repair the loss of two. When his legions were + slaughtered, new ones were at once enrolled; when his fleet was wrecked, + within a few days another was afloat; when the public buildings were + consumed by fire, finer ones arose in their stead; but the places of + Agrippa and Maecenas remained unfilled throughout his life. What am I to + imagine? that there were not any men like these, who could take their + place, or that it was the fault of Augustus himself, who preferred + mourning for them to seeking for their likes? We have no reason for + supposing that it was the habit of Agrippa or Maecenas to speak the truth + to him; indeed, if they had lived they would have been as great + dissemblers as the rest. It is one of the habits of kings to insult their + present servants by praising those whom they have lost, and to attribute + the virtue of truthful speaking to those from whom there is no further + risk of hearing it. + </p> + <p> + XXXIII. However, to return to my subject, you see how easy it is to return + the kindness of the prosperous, and even of those who occupy the highest + places of all mankind. Tell them, not what they wish to hear, but what + they will wish that they always had heard; though their ears be stopped by + flatteries, yet sometimes truth may penetrate them; give them useful + advice. Do you ask what service you can render to a prosperous man? Teach + him not to rely upon his prosperity, and to understand that it ought to be + supported by the hands of many trusty friends. Will you not have done much + for him, if you take away his foolish belief that his influence will + endure for ever, and teach him that what we gain by chance passes away + soon, and at a quicker rate than it came; that we cannot fall by the same + stages by which we rose to the height of good fortune, but that frequently + between it and ruin there is but one step? You do not know how great is + the value of friendship, if you do not understand how much you give to him + to whom you give a friend, a commodity which is scarce not only in men's + houses, but in whole centuries, and which is nowhere scarcer than in the + places where it is thought to be most plentiful. Pray, do you suppose that + those books of names, which your nomenclator [Footnote: The nomenclator + was a slave who attended his master in canvassing and on similar + occasions, for the purpose of telling him the names of whom he met in the + street.] can hardly carry or remember, are those of friends? It is not + your friends who crowd to knock at your door, and who are admitted to your + greater or lesser levees. + </p> + <p> + XXXIV. To divide one's friends into classes is an old trick of kings and + their imitators; it shows great arrogance to think that to touch or to + pass one's threshold can be a valuable privilege, or to grant as an honour + that you should sit nearer one's front door than others, or enter house + before them, although within the house there are many more doors, which + shut out even those who have been admitted so far. With us Gaius Gracchus, + and shortly after him Livius Drusus, were the first to keep themselves + apart from the mass of their adherents, and to admit some to their + privacy, some to their more select, and others to their general + receptions. These men consequently had friends of the first and second + rank, and so on, but in none had they true friends. Can you apply the name + of friend to one who is admitted in his regular order to pay his respects + to you? or can you expect perfect loyalty from one who is forced to slip + into your presence through a grudgingly-opened door? How can a man arrive + at using bold freedom of speech with you, if he is only allowed in his + proper turn to make use of the common phrase, "Hail to you," which is used + by perfect strangers? Whenever you go to any of these great men, whose + levees interest the whole city, though you find all the streets beset with + throngs of people, and the passers-by hardly able to make their way + through the crowd, you may be sure that you have come to a place where + there are many men, but no friends of their patron. We must not seek our + friends in our entrance hall, but in our own breast; it is there that he + ought to be received, there retained, and hoarded up in our minds. Teach + this, and you will have repaid your debt of gratitude. + </p> + <p> + XXXV. If you are useful to your friend only when he is in distress, and + are superfluous when all goes well with him, you form a mean estimate of + your own value. As you can bear yourself wisely both in doubtful, in + prosperous, and in adverse circumstances, by showing prudence in doubtful + cases, courage in misfortune, and self-restraint in good fortune, so in + all circumstances you can make yourself useful to your friend. Do not + desert him in adversity, but do not wish that it may befall him: the + various incidents of human life will afford you many opportunities of + proving your loyalty to him without wishing him evil. He who prays that + another may become rich, in order that he may share his riches, really has + a view to his own advantage, although his prayers are ostensibly offered + in behalf of his friend; and similarly he who wishes that his friend may + get into some trouble from which his own friendly assistance may extricate + him—a most ungrateful wish—prefers himself to his friend, and + thinks it worthwhile that his friend should be unhappy, in order that he + may prove his gratitude. This very wish makes him ungrateful, for he + wishes to rid himself of his gratitude as though it were a heavy burden. + In returning a kindness it makes a great difference whether you are eager + to bestow a benefit, or merely to free yourself from a debt. He who wishes + to return a benefit will study his friend's interests, and will hope that + a suitable occasion will arise; he who only wishes to free himself from an + obligation will be eager to do so by any means whatever, which shows very + bad feeling. "Do you say," we may be asked, "that eagerness to repay + kindness belongs to a morbid feeling of gratitude?" I cannot explain my + meaning more clearly than by repeating what I have already said. You do + not want to repay, but to escape from the benefit which you have received. + You seem to say, "When shall I get free from this obligation? I must + strive by any means in my power to extinguish my debt to him." You would + be thought to be far from grateful, if you wished to pay a debt to him + with his own money; yet this wish of yours is even more unjust; for you + invoke curses upon him, and call down terrible imprecations upon the head + of one who ought to be held sacred by you. No one, I suppose, would have + any doubt of your wickedness if you were openly to pray that he might + suffer poverty, captivity, hunger, or fear; yet what is the difference + between openly praying for some of these things, and silently wishing for + them? for you do wish for some of these. Go, and enjoy your belief that + this is gratitude, to do what not even an ungrateful man would do, + supposing he confined himself to repudiating the benefit, and did not go + so far as to hate his benefactor. + </p> + <p> + XXXVI. Who would call Aeneas pious, if he wished that his native city + might be captured, in order that he might save his father from captivity? + Who would point to the Sicilian youths as good examples for his children, + if they had prayed that Aetna might flame with unusual heat and pour forth + a vast mass of fire in order to afford them an opportunity of displaying + their filial affection by rescuing their parents from the midst of the + conflagration? Rome owes Scipio nothing if he kept the Punic War alive in + order that he might have the glory of finishing it; she owes nothing to + the Decii if they prayed for public disasters, to give themselves an + opportunity of displaying their brave self-devotion. It is the greatest + scandal for a physician to make work for himself; and many who have + aggravated the diseases of their patients that they may have the greater + credit for curing them, have either failed to cure them, at all or have + done so at the cost of the most terrible suffering to their victims. + </p> + <p> + XXXVII. It is said (at any rate Hecaton tells us) that when Callistratus + with many others was driven into exile by his factious and licentiously + free country, some one prayed that such trouble might befall the Athenians + that they would be forced to recall the exiles, on hearing which, he + prayed that God might forbid his return upon such terms. When some one + tried to console our own countryman, Rutilius, for his exile, pointing out + that civil war was at hand, and that all exiles would soon be restored to + Rome, he answered with even greater spirit, "What harm have I done you, + that you should wish that I may return to my country more unhappily than I + quit it? My wish is, that my country should blush at my being banished, + rather than that she should mourn at my having returned." An exile, of + which every one is more ashamed than the sufferer, is not exile at all. + These two persons, who did not wish to be restored to their homes at the + cost of a public disaster, but preferred that two should suffer unjustly + than that all should suffer alike, are thought to have acted like good + citizens; and in like manner it does not accord with the character of a + grateful man, to wish that his benefactor may fall into troubles which he + may dispel; because, even though he may mean well to him, yet he wishes + him evil. To put out a fire which you yourself have lighted, will not even + gain acquittal for you, let alone credit. + </p> + <p> + XXXVIII. In some states an evil wish was regarded as a crime. It is + certain that at Athens Demades obtained a verdict against one who sold + furniture for funerals, by proving that he had prayed for great gains, + which he could not obtain without the death of many persons. Yet it is a + stock question whether he was rightly found guilty. Perhaps he prayed, not + that he might sell his wares to many persons, but that he might sell them + dear, or that he might procure what he was going to sell, cheaply. Since + his business consisted of buying and selling, why should you consider his + prayer to apply to one branch of it only, although he made profit from + both? Besides this, you might find every one of his trade guilty, for they + all wish, that is, secretly pray, as he did. You might, moreover, find a + great part of the human race guilty, for who is there who does not profit + by his neighbour's wants? A soldier, if he wishes for glory, must wish for + war; the farmer profits by corn being dear; a large number of litigants + raises the price of forensic eloquence; physicians make money by a sickly + season; dealers in luxuries are made rich by the effeminacy of youth; + suppose that no storms and no conflagrations injured our dwellings, the + builder's trade would be at a standstill. The prayer of one man was + detected, but it was just like the prayers of all other men. Do you + imagine that Arruntius and Haterius, and all other professional + legacy-hunters do not put up the same prayers as undertakers and + grave-diggers? though the latter know not whose death it is that they wish + for, while the former wish for the death of their dearest friends, from + whom, on account of their intimacy, they have most hopes of inheriting a + fortune. No one's life does the undertaker any harm, whereas these men + starve if their friends are long about dying; they do not, therefore, + merely wish for their deaths in order that they may receive what they have + earned by a disgraceful servitude, but in order that they may be set free + from a heavy tax. There can, therefore, be no doubt that such persons + repeat with even greater earnestness the prayer for which the undertaker + was condemned, for whoever is likely to profit such men by dying, does + them an injury by living. Yet the wishes of all these are alike well known + and unpunished. Lastly, let every man examine his own self, let him look + into the secret thoughts of his heart and consider what it is that he + silently hopes for; how many of his prayers he would blush to acknowledge, + even to himself; how few there are which we could repeat in the presence + of witnesses! + </p> + <p> + XXXIX. Yet we must not condemn every thing which we find worthy of blame, + as, for instance, this wish about our friends which we have been + discussing, arises from a misdirected feeling of affection, and falls into + the very error which it strives to avoid, for the man is ungrateful at the + very time when he hurries to prove his gratitude. He prays aloud, "May he + fall into my power, may he need my influence, may not be able to be safe + and respectable without my aid, may he be so unfortunate that whatever + return I make to him may be regarded as a benefit." To the gods alone he + adds, "May domestic treasons encompass him, which can be quelled by me + alone; may some powerful and virulent enemy, some excited and armed mob, + assail him; may he be set upon by a creditor or an informer." + </p> + <p> + XL. See, how just you are; you would never have wished any of these + misfortunes to befall him, if he had not bestowed a benefit upon you. Not + to speak of the graver guilt which you incur by returning evil for good, + you distinctly do wrong in not waiting for the fitting time for each + action, for it is as wrong to anticipate this as it is not to take it when + it comes. A benefit ought not always to be accepted, and ought not in all + cases to be returned. If you were to return it to me against my will, you + would be ungrateful, how much more ungrateful are you, if you force me to + wish for it? Wait patiently; why are you unwilling to let my bounty abide + with you? Why do you chafe at being laid under an obligation? why, as + though you were dealing with a harsh usurer, are you in such a hurry to + sign and seal an equivalent bond? Why do you wish me to get into trouble? + Why do you call upon the gods to ruin me? If this is your way of returning + a kindness, what would you do if you were exacting repayment of a debt? + </p> + <p> + XLI. Above all, therefore, my Liberalis, let us learn to live calmly under + an obligation to others, and watch for opportunities of repaying our debt + without manufacturing them. Let us remember that this anxiety to seize the + first opportunity of setting ourselves free shows ingratitude; for no one + repays with good will that which he is unwilling to owe, and his eagerness + to get it out of his hands shows that he regards it as a burden rather + than as a favour. How much better and more righteous is it to bear in mind + what we owe to our friends, and to offer repayment, not to obtrude it, nor + to think ourselves too much indebted; because a benefit is a common bond + which connects two persons. Say "I do not delay to repay your kindness to + me; I hope that you will accept my gratitude cheerfully. If irresistible + fate hangs over either of us, and destiny rules either that you must + receive your benefit back again, or that I must receive a second benefit, + why then, of us two, let him give that was wont to give. I am ready to + receive it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "'Tis not the part of Turnus to delay." +</pre> + <p> + That is the spirit which I shall show whenever the time comes; in the + meanwhile the gods shall be my witnesses. + </p> + <p> + XLII. I have noted in you, my Liberalis, and as it were touched with my + hand a feeling of fussy anxiety not to be behindhand in doing what is your + duty. This anxiety is not suitable to a grateful mind, which, on the + contrary, produces the utmost confidence in oneself, and which drives away + all trouble by the consciousness of real affection towards one's + benefactor. To say "Take back what you gave me," is no less a reproach + than to say "You are in my debt." Let this be the first privilege of a + benefit, that he who bestowed it may choose the time when he will have it + returned. "But I fear that men may speak ill of me." You do wrong if you + are grateful only for the sake of your reputation, and not to satisfy your + conscience. You have in this matter two judges, your benefactor, whom you + ought not, and yourself, whom you cannot deceive. "But," say you, "if no + occasion of repayment offers, am I always to remain in his debt?" Yes; but + you should do so openly, and willingly, and should view with great + pleasure what he has entrusted to you. If you are vexed at not having yet + returned a benefit, you must be sorry that you ever received it; but if he + deserved that you should receive a benefit from him, why should he not + deserve that you should long remain in his debt? + </p> + <p> + XLIII. Those persons are much mistaken who regard it as a proof of a great + mind to make offers to give, and to fill many men's pockets and houses + with their presents, for sometimes these are due not to a great mind, but + to a great fortune; they do not know how far more great and more difficult + it sometimes is to receive than to lavish gifts. I must disparage neither + act; it is as proper to a noble heart to owe as to receive, for both are + of equal value when done virtuously; indeed, to owe is the more difficult, + because it requires more pains to keep a thing safe than to give it away. + We ought not therefore to be in a hurry to repay, nor need we seek to do + so out of due season, for to hasten to make repayment at the wrong time is + as bad as to be slow to do so at the right time. My benefactor has + entrusted his bounty to me: I ought not to have any fears either on his + behalf or on my own. He has a sufficient security; he cannot lose it + except he loses me—nay, not even if he loses me. I have returned + thanks to him for it—that is, I have requited him. He who thinks too + much about repaying a benefit must suppose that his friend thinks too much + about receiving repayment. Make no difficulty about either course. If he + wishes to receive his benefit back again, let us return it cheerfully; if + he prefers to leave it in our hands, why should we dig up his treasure? + why should we decline to be its guardians? he deserves to be allowed to do + whichever he pleases. As for fame and reputation, let us regard them as + matters which ought to accompany, but which ought not to direct our + actions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BOOK VII. + </h2> + <h3> + I. + </h3> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Be of good cheer, my Liberalis: + + "Our port is close, and I will not delay, + Nor by digressions wander from the way." +</pre> + <p> + This book collects together all that has been omitted, and in it, having + exhausted my subject, I shall consider not what I am to say, but what + there is which I have not yet said. If there be anything superfluous in + it, I pray you take it in good part, since it is for you that it is + superfluous. Had I wished to set off my work to the best advantage, I + ought to have added to it by degrees, and to have kept for the last that + part which would be eagerly perused even by a sated reader. However, + instead of this, I have collected together all that was essential in the + beginning; I am now collecting together whatever then escaped me; nor, by + Hercules, if you ask me, do I think that, after the rules which govern our + conduct have been stated, it is very much to the purpose to discuss the + other questions which have been raised more for the exercise of our + intellects than for the health of our minds. The cynic Demetrius, who in + my opinion was a great man even if compared with the greatest + philosophers, had an admirable saying about this, that one gained more by + having a few wise precepts ready and in common use than by learning many + without having them at hand. "The best wrestler," he would say, "is not he + who has learned thoroughly all the tricks and twists of the art, which are + seldom met with in actual wrestling, but he who has well and carefully + trained himself in one or two of them, and watches keenly for an + opportunity of practising them. It does not matter how many of them he + knows, if he knows enough to give him the victory; and so in this subject + of ours there are many points of interest, but few of importance. You need + not know what is the system of the ocean tides, why each seventh year + leaves its mark upon the human body, why the more distant parts of a long + portico do not keep their true proportion, but seem to approach one + another until at last the spaces between the columns disappear, how it can + be that twins are conceived separately, though they are born together, + whether both result from one, or each from a separate act, why those whose + birth was the same should have such different fates in life, and dwell at + the greatest possible distance from one another, although they were born + touching one another; it will not do you much harm to pass over matters + which we are not permitted to know, and which we should not profit by + knowing. Truths so obscure may be neglected with impunity. [Footnote: The + old saying, 'Truth lurks deep in a well (or abyss).'] Nor can we complain + that nature deals hardly with us, for there is nothing which is hard to + discover except those things by which we gain nothing beyond the credit of + having discovered them; whatever things tend to make us better or happier + are either obvious or easily discovered. Your mind can rise superior to + the accidents of life, if it can raise itself above fears and not greedily + covet boundless wealth, but has learned to seek for riches within itself; + if it has cast out the fear of men and gods, and has learned that it has + not much to fear from man, and nothing to fear from God; if by scorning + all those things which make life miserable while they adorn it, the mind + can soar to such a height as to see clearly that death cannot be the + beginning of any trouble, though it is the end of many; if it can dedicate + itself to righteousness and think any path easy which leads to it; if, + being a gregarious creature, and born for the common good, it regards the + world as the universal home, if it keeps its conscience clear towards God + and lives always as though in public, fearing itself more than other men, + then it avoids all storms, it stands on firm ground in fair daylight, and + has brought to perfection its knowledge of all that is useful and + essential. All that remains serves merely to amuse our leisure; yet, when + once anchored in safety, the mind may consider these matters also, though + it can derive no strength, but only culture from their discussion." + </p> + <p> + II. The above are the rules which my friend Demetrius bids him who would + make progress in philosophy to clutch with both hands, never to let go, + but to cling to them, and make them a part of himself, and by daily + meditation upon them to bring himself into such a state of mind, that + these wholesome maxims occur to him of their own accord, that wherever he + may be, they may straightway be ready for use when required, and that the + criterion of right and wrong may present itself to him without delay. Let + him know that nothing is evil except what is base, and nothing good except + what is honourable: let him guide his life by this rule: let him both act + and expect others to act in accordance with this law, and let him regard + those whose minds are steeped in indolence, and who are given up to lust + and gluttony, as the most pitiable of mankind, no matter how splendid + their fortunes may be. Let him say to himself, "Pleasure is uncertain, + short, apt to pall upon us, and the more eagerly we indulge in it, the + sooner we bring on a reaction of feeling against it; we must necessarily + afterwards blush for it, or be sorry for it, there is nothing grand about + it, nothing worthy of man's nature, little lower as it is than that of the + gods; pleasure is a low act, brought about by the agency of our inferior + and baser members, and shameful in its result. True pleasure, worthy of a + human being and of a man, is, not to stuff or swell his body with food and + drink, nor to excite lusts which are least hurtful when they are most + quiet, but to be free from all forms of mental disturbance, both those + which arise from men's ambitious struggles with one another, and those + which come from on high and are more difficult to deal with, which flow + from our taking the traditional view of the gods, and estimating them by + the analogy of our own vices." This equable, secure, uncloying pleasure is + enjoyed by the man now described; a man skilled, so to say, in the laws of + gods and men alike. Such a man enjoys the present without anxiety for the + future: for he who depends upon what is uncertain can rely confidently + upon nothing. Thus he is free from all those great troubles which unhinge + the mind, he neither hopes for, nor covets anything, and engages in no + uncertain adventures, being satisfied with what he has. Do not suppose + that he is satisfied with a little; for everything is his, and that not in + the sense in which all was Alexander's, who, though he reached the shore + of the Red Sea, yet wanted more territory than that through which he had + come. He did not even own those countries which he held or had conquered, + while Onesicritus, whom he had sent on before him to discover new + countries, was wandering about the ocean and engaging in war in unknown + seas. Is it clear that he who pushed his armies beyond the bounds of the + universe, who with reckless greed dashed headlong into a boundless and + unexplored sea, must in reality have been full of wants? It matters not + how many kingdoms he may have seized or given away, or how great a part of + the world may pay him tribute; such a man must be in need of as much as he + desires. + </p> + <p> + III. This was not the vice of Alexander alone, who followed with a + fortunate audacity in the footsteps of Bacchus and Hercules, but it is + common to all those whose covetousness is whetted rather than appeased by + good fortune. Look at Cyrus and Cambyses and all the royal house of + Persia: can you find one among them who thought his empire large enough, + or was not at the last gasp still aspiring after further conquests? We + need not wonder at this, for whatever is obtained by covetousness is + simply swallowed up and lost, nor does it matter how much is poured into + its insatiable maw. Only the wise man possesses everything without having + to struggle to retain it; he alone does not need to send ambassadors + across the seas, measure out camps upon hostile shores, place garrisons in + commanding forts, or manoeuvre legions and squadrons of cavalry. Like the + immortal gods, who govern their realm without recourse to arms, and from + their serene and lofty heights protect their own, so the wise man fulfils + his duties, however far-reaching they may be, without disorder, and looks + down upon the whole human race, because he himself is the greatest and + most powerful member thereof. You may laugh at him, but if you in your + mind survey the east and the west, reaching even to the regions separated + from us by vast wildernesses, if you think of all the creatures of the + earth, all the riches which the bounty of nature lavishes, it shows a + great spirit to be able to say, as though you were a god, "All these are + mine." Thus it is that he covets nothing, for there is nothing which is + not contained in everything, and everything is his. + </p> + <p> + IV. "This," say you, "is the very thing that I wanted! I have caught you! + I shall be glad to see how you will extricate yourself from the toils into + which you have fallen of your own accord. Tell me, if the wise man + possesses everything, how can one give anything to a wise man? for even + what you give him is his already. It is impossible, therefore, to bestow a + benefit upon a wise man, if whatever is given him comes from his own + store; yet you Stoics declare that it is possible to give to a wise man. I + make the same inquiry about friends as well: for you say that friends own + everything in common, and if so, no one can give anything to his friend, + for he gives what his friend owned already in common with himself." + </p> + <p> + There is nothing to prevent a thing belonging to a wise man, and yet being + the property of its legal owner. According to law everything in a state + belongs to the king, yet all that property over which the king has rights + of possession is parcelled out among individual owners, and each separate + thing belongs to somebody: and so one can give the king a house, a slave, + or a sum of money without being said to give him what was his already; for + the king has rights over all these things, while each citizen has the + ownership of them. We speak of the country of the Athenians, or of the + Campanians, though the inhabitants divide them amongst themselves into + separate estates; the whole region belongs to one state or another, but + each part of it belongs to its own individual proprietor; so that we are + able to give our lands to the state, although they are reckoned as + belonging to the state, because we and the state own them in different + ways. Can there be any doubt that all the private savings of a slave + belong to his master as well as he himself? yet he makes his master + presents. The slave does not therefore possess nothing, because if his + master chose he might possess nothing; nor does what he gives of his own + free will cease to be a present, because it might have been wrung from him + against his will. As for how we are to prove that the wise man possesses + all things, we shall see afterwards; for the present we are both agreed to + regard this as true; we must gather together something to answer the + question before us, which is, how any means remain of acting generously + towards one who already possesses all things? All things that a son has + belong to his father, yet who does not know that in spite of this a son + can make presents to his father? All things belong to the gods; yet we + make presents and bestow alms even upon the gods. What I have is not + necessarily not mine because it belongs to you; for the same thing may + belong both to me and to you. + </p> + <p> + "He to whom courtezans belong," argues our adversary, "must be a procurer: + now courtezans are included in all things, therefore courtezans belong to + the wise man. But he to whom courtezans belong is a procurer; therefore + the wise man is a procurer." Yes! by the same reasoning, our opponents + would forbid him to buy anything, arguing, "No man buys his own property. + Now all things are the property of the wise man; therefore the wise man + buys nothing." By the same reasoning they object to his borrowing, because + no one pays interest for the use of his own money. They raise endless + quibbles, although they perfectly well understand what we say. + </p> + <p> + V. For, when I say that the wise man possesses everything, I mean that he + does so without thereby impairing each man's individual rights in his own + property, in the same way as in a country ruled by a good king, everything + belongs to the king, by the right of his authority, and to the people by + their several rights of ownership. This I shall prove in its proper place; + in the mean time it is a sufficient answer to the question to declare that + I am able to give to the wise man that which is in one way mine, and in + another way his. Nor is it strange that I should be able to give anything + to one who possesses everything. Suppose I have hired a house from you: + some part of that house is mine, some is yours; the house itself is yours, + the use of your house belongs to me. Crops may ripen upon your land, but + you cannot touch them against the will of your tenant; and if corn be + dear, or at famine price, you will + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "In vain another's mighty store behold," +</pre> + <p> + grown upon your land, lying upon your land, and to be deposited in your + own barns. Though you be the landlord, you must not enter my hired house, + nor may you take away your own slave from me if I have contracted for his + services; nay, if I hire a carriage from you, I bestow a benefit by + allowing you to take your seat in it, although it is your own. You see, + therefore, that it is possible for a man to receive a present by accepting + what is his own. + </p> + <p> + VI. In all the cases which I have mentioned, each party is the owner of + the same thing. How is this? It is because the one owns the thing, the + other owns the use of the thing. We speak of the books of Cicero. Dorus, + the bookseller, calls these same books his own; the one claims them + because he wrote them, the other because he bought them; so that they may + quite correctly be spoken of as belonging to either of the two, for they + do belong to each, though in a different manner. Thus Titus Livius may + receive as a present, or may buy his own books from Dorus. Although the + wise man possesses everything, yet I can give him what I individually + possess; for though, king-like, he in his mind possesses everything, yet + the ownership of all things is divided among various individuals, so that + he can both receive a present and owe one; can buy, or hire things. + Everything belongs to Caesar; yet he has no private property beyond his + own privy purse; as Emperor all things are his, but nothing is his own + except what he inherits. It is possible, without treason, to discuss what + is and what is not his; for even what the court may decide not to be his, + from another point of view is his. In the same way the wise man in his + mind possesses everything, in actual right and ownership he possesses only + his own property. + </p> + <p> + VII. Bion is able to prove by argument at one time that everyone is + sacrilegious, at another that no one is. When he is in a mood for casting + all men down the Tarpeian rock, he says, "Whosoever touches that which + belongs to the gods, and consumes it or converts it to his own uses, is + sacrilegious; but all things belong to the gods, so that whatever thing + any one touches belongs to them to whom all belongs; whoever, therefore, + touches anything is sacrilegious." Again, when he bids men break open + temples and pillage the Capitol without fear of the wrath of heaven, he + declares that no one can be sacrilegious; because, whatever a man takes + away, he takes from one place which belongs to the gods into another place + which belongs to the gods. The answer to this is that all places do indeed + belong to the gods, but all are not consecrated to them, and that + sacrilege can only be done in places solemnly dedicated to heaven. Thus, + also, the whole world is a temple of the immortal gods, and, indeed, the + only one worthy of their greatness and splendour, and yet there is a + distinction between things sacred and profane; all things which it is + lawful to do under the sky and the stars are not lawful to do within + consecrated walls. The sacrilegious man cannot do God any harm, for He is + placed beyond his reach by His divine nature; yet he is punished because + he seems to have done Him harm: his punishment is demanded by our feeling + on the matter, and even by his own. In the same way, therefore, as he who + carries off any sacred things is regarded as sacrilegious, although that + which he stole is nevertheless within the limits of the world, so it is + possible to steal from a wise man: for in that case it will be some, not + of that universe which he possesses, but some of those things of which he + is the acknowledged owner, and which are severally his own property, which + will be stolen from him. The former of these possessions he will recognize + as his own, the latter he will be unwilling, even if he be able to + possess; he will say, as that Roman commander said, when, to reward his + courage and good service to the state, he was assigned as much land as he + could inclose in one day's ploughing. "You do not," said he, "want a + citizen who wants more than is enough for one citizen." Do you not think + that it required a much greater man to refuse this reward than to earn it? + for many have taken away the landmarks of other men's property, but no one + sets up limits to his own. + </p> + <p> + VIII. When, then, we consider that the mind of the truly wise man has + power over all things and pervades all things, we cannot help declaring + that everything is his, although, in the estimation of our common law, it + may chance that he may be rated as possessing no property whatever. It + makes a great difference whether we estimate what he owns by the greatness + of his mind, or by the public register. He would pray to be delivered from + that possession of everything of which you speak. I will not remind you of + Socrates, Chrysippus, Zeno, and other great men, all the greater, however, + because envy prevents no one from praising the ancients. But a short time + ago I mentioned Demetrius, who seems to have been placed by nature in our + times that he might prove that we could neither corrupt him nor be + corrected by him; a man of consummate wisdom, though he himself disclaimed + it, constant to the principles which he professed, of an eloquence worthy + to deal with the mightiest subjects, scorning mere prettinesses and verbal + niceties, but expressing with infinite spirit, the ideas which inspired + it. I doubt not that he was endowed by divine providence with so pure a + life and such power of speech in order that our age might neither be + without a model nor a reproach. Had some god wished to give all our wealth + to Demetrius on the fixed condition that he should not be permitted to + give it away, I am sure that he would have refused to accept it, and would + have said, + </p> + <p> + IX. "I do not intend to fasten upon my back a burden like this, of which I + never can rid myself, nor do I, nimble and lightly equipped as I am, mean + to hinder my progress by plunging into the deep morass of business + transactions. Why do you offer to me what is the bane of all nations? I + would not accept it even if I meant to give it away, for I see many things + which it would not become me to give. I should like to place before my + eyes the things which fascinate both kings and peoples, I wish to behold + the price of your blood and your lives. First bring before me the trophies + of Luxury, exhibiting them as you please, either in succession, or, which + is better, in one mass. I see the shell of the tortoise, a foul and + slothful brute, bought for immense sums and ornamented with the most + elaborate care, the contrast of colours which is admired in it being + obtained by the use of dyes resembling the natural tints. I see tables and + pieces of wood valued at the price of a senator's estate, which are all + the more precious, the more knots the tree has been twisted into by + disease. I see crystal vessels, whose price is enhanced by their + fragility, for among the ignorant the risk of losing things increases + their value instead of lowering it, as it ought. I see murrhine cups, for + luxury would be too cheap if men did not drink to one another out of + hollow gems the wine to be afterwards thrown up again. I see more than one + large pearl placed in each ear; for now our ears are trained to carry + burdens, pearls are hung from them in pairs, and each pair has other + single ones fastened above it. This womanish folly is not exaggerated + enough for the men of our time, unless they hang two or three estates upon + each ear. I see ladies' silk dresses, if those deserve to be called + dresses which can neither cover their body or their shame; when wearing + which, they can scarcely with a good conscience, swear that they are not + naked. These are imported at a vast expense from nations unknown even to + trade, in order that our matrons may show as much of their persons in + public as they do to their lovers in private." + </p> + <p> + X. What are you doing, Avarice? see how many things there are whose price + exceeds that of your beloved gold: all those which I have mentioned are + more highly esteemed and valued. I now wish to review your wealth, those + plates of gold and silver which dazzle our covetousness. By Hercules, the + very earth, while she brings forth upon the surface every thing that is of + use to us, has buried these, sunk them deep, and rests upon them with her + whole weight, regarding them as pernicious substances, and likely to prove + the ruin of mankind if brought into the light of day. I see that iron is + brought out of the same dark pits as gold and silver, in order that we may + lack neither the means nor the reward of murder. Thus far we have dealt + with actual substances; but some forms of wealth deceive our eyes and + minds alike. I see there letters of credit, promissory notes, and bonds, + empty phantoms of property, ghosts of sick Avarice, with which she + deceives our minds, which delight in unreal fancies; for what are these + things, and what are interest, and account books, and usury, except the + names of unnatural developments of human covetousness? I might complain of + nature for not having hidden gold and silver deeper, for not having laid + over it a weight too heavy to be removed: but what are your documents, + your sale of time, your blood-sucking twelve per cent. interest? these are + evils which we owe to our own will, which flow merely from our perverted + habit, having nothing about them which can be seen or handled, mere dreams + of empty avarice. Wretched is he who can take pleasure in the size of the + audit book of his estate, in great tracts of land cultivated by slaves in + chains, in huge flocks and herds which require provinces and kingdoms for + their pasture ground, in a household of servants, more in number than some + of the most warlike nations, or in a private house whose extent surpasses + that of a large city! After he has carefully reviewed all his wealth, in + what it is invested, and on what it is spent, and has rendered himself + proud by the thoughts of it, let him compare what he has with what he + wants: he becomes a poor man at once. "Let me go: restore me to those + riches of mine. I know the kingdom of wisdom, which is great and stable: I + possess every thing, and in such a manner that it belongs to all men + nevertheless." + </p> + <p> + XI. When, therefore, Gaius Caesar offered him two hundred thousand + sesterces, he laughingly refused it, thinking it unworthy of himself to + boast of having refused so small a sum. Ye gods and goddesses, what a mean + mind must the emperor have had, if he hoped either to honour or to corrupt + him. I must here repeat a proof of his magnanimity. I have heard that when + he was expressing his wonder at the folly of Gaius at supposing that he + could be influenced by such a bribe, he said, "If he meant to tempt me, he + ought to have tried to do so by offering his entire kingdom." + </p> + <p> + XII. It is possible, then, to give something to the wise man, although all + things belong to the wise man. Similarly, though we declare that friends + have all things in common, it is nevertheless possible to give something + to a friend: for I have not everything in common with a friend in the same + manner as with a partner, where one part belongs to him, and another to + me, but rather as a father and a mother possess their children in common + when they have two, not each parent possessing one child, but each + possessing both. First of all I will prove that any chance would-be + partner of mine has nothing in common with me: and why? Because this + community of goods can only exist between wise men, who are alone capable + of friendship: other men can neither be friends nor partners one to + another. In the next place, things may be owned in common in various ways. + The knights' seats in the theatre belong to all the Roman knights; yet of + these the seat which I occupy becomes my own, and if I yield it up to any + one, although I only yield him a thing which we own in common, still I + appear to have given him something. Some things belong to certain persons + under particular conditions. I have a place among the knights, not to + sell, or to let, or to dwell in, but simply to see the spectacle from, + wherefore I do not tell an untruth when I say that I have a place among + the knights' seats. Yet if, when I come into the theatre, the knights' + seats are full, I both have a seat there by right, because I have the + privilege of sitting there, and I have not a seat there, because my seat + is occupied by those who share my right to those places. Suppose that the + same thing takes place between friends; whatever our friend possesses, is + common to us, but is the property of him who owns it; I cannot make use of + it against his will. "You are laughing at me," say you; "if what belongs + to my friend is mine, I am able to sell it." You are not able; for you are + not able to sell your place among the knights' seats, and yet they are in + common between you and the other knights. Consequently, the fact that you + cannot sell a thing, or consume it, or exchange it for the better or the + worse does not prove that it is not yours; for that which is yours under + certain conditions is yours nevertheless. + </p> + <p> + XIII. I have received, but certainly not less. Not to detain you longer + than is necessary, a benefit can be no more than a benefit; but the means + employed to convey benefits may be both greater and more numerous. I mean + those things by which kindness expresses and gives vent to itself, like + lovers, whose many kisses and close embraces do not increase their love + but give it play. + </p> + <p> + XIV. The next question which arises has been thoroughly threshed out in + the former books, so here it shall only be touched on shortly; for the + arguments which have been used for other cases can be transferred to it. + </p> + <p> + The question is, whether one who has done everything in his power to + return a benefit, has returned it. "You may know," says our adversary, + "that he has not returned it, because he did everything in his power to + return it; it is evident, therefore, that he did not not do that which he + did not have an opportunity of doing. A man who searches everywhere for + his creditor without finding him does not thereby pay him what he owes." + Some are in such a position that it is their duty to effect something + material; in the case of others to have done all in their power to effect + it is as good as effecting it. If a physician has done all in his power to + heal his patient he has performed his duty; an advocate who employs his + whole powers of eloquence on his client's behalf, performs his duty even + though his client be convicted; the generalship even of a beaten commander + is praised if he has prudently, laboriously, and courageously exercised + his functions. Your friend has done all in his power to return your + kindness, but your good fortune stood in his way; no adversity befell you + in which he could prove the truth of his friendship; he could not give you + money when you were rich, or nurse you when you were in health, or help + you when you were succeeding; yet he repaid your kindness, even though you + did not receive a benefit from him. Moreover, this man, being always + eager, and on the watch for an opportunity of doing this, as he has + expended much anxiety and much trouble upon it, has really done more than + he who quickly had an opportunity of repaying your kindness. The case of a + debtor is not the same, for it is not enough for him to have tried to find + the money unless he pays it; in his case a harsh creditor stands over him + who will not let a single day pass without charging him interest; in yours + there is a most kind friend, who seeing you busy, troubled, and anxious + would say. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "'Dismiss this trouble from thy breast;' +</pre> + <p> + leave off disturbing yourself; I have received from you all that I wish; + you wrong me, if you suppose that I want anything further; you have fully + repaid me in intention." + </p> + <p> + "Tell me," says our adversary, "if he had repaid the benefit you would say + that he had returned your kindness: is, then, he who repays it in the same + position as he who does not repay it?" + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, consider this: if he had forgotten the benefit which he + had received, if he had not even attempted to be grateful, you would say + that he had not returned the kindness; but this man has laboured day and + night to the neglect of all his other duties in his devoted care to let no + opportunity of proving his gratitude escape him; is then he who took no + pains to return a kindness to be classed with this man who never ceased to + take pains? you are unjust, if you require a material payment from me when + you see that I am not wanting in intention. + </p> + <p> + XV. In short, suppose that when you are taken captive, I have borrowed + money, made over my property as security to my creditor, that I have + sailed in a stormy winter season along coasts swarming with pirates, that + I have braved all the perils which necessarily attend a voyage even on a + peaceful sea, that I have wandered through all wildernesses seeking for + those men whom all others flee from, and that when I have at length + reached the pirates, someone else has already ransomed you: will you say + that I have not returned your kindness? Even if during this voyage I have + lost by shipwreck the money that I had raised to save you, even if I + myself have fallen into the prison from which I sought to release you, + will you say that I have not returned your kindness? No, by Hercules! the + Athenians call Harmodius and Aristogiton, tyrannicides; the hand of Mucius + which he left on the enemy's altar was equivalent to the death of Porsena, + and valour struggling against fortune is always illustrious, even if it + falls short of accomplishing its design. He who watches each opportunity + as it passes, and tries to avail himself of one after another, does more + to show his gratitude than he whom the first opportunity enabled to be + grateful without any trouble whatever. "But," says our adversary, "he gave + you two things, material help and kindly feeling; you, therefore, owe him + two." You might justly say this to one who returns your kindly feeling + without troubling himself further; this man is really in your debt; but + you cannot say so of one who wishes to repay you, who struggles and leaves + no stone unturned to do so; for, as far as in him lies, he repays you in + both kinds; in the next place, counting is not always a true test, + sometimes one thing is equivalent to two; consequently so intense and + ardent a wish to repay takes the place of a material repayment. Indeed, if + a feeling of gratitude has no value in repaying a kindness without giving + something material, then no one can be grateful to the gods, whom we can + repay by gratitude alone. "We cannot," says our adversary, "give the gods + anything else." Well, but if I am not able to give this man, whose + kindness I am bound to return, anything beside my gratitude, why should + that which is all that I can bestow on a god be insufficient to prove my + gratitude towards a man? + </p> + <p> + XVI. If, however, you ask me what I really think, and wish me to give a + definite answer, I should say that the one party ought to consider his + benefit to have been returned, while the other ought to feel that he has + not returned it; the one should release his friend from the debt, the + other should hold himself bound to pay it; the one should say, "I have + received;" the other should answer, "I owe." In our whole investigation, + we ought to look entirely to the public good; we ought to prevent the + ungrateful having any excuses in which they can take refuge, and under + cover of which they can disown their debts. "I have done all in my power," + say you. Well, keep on doing so still. Do you suppose that our ancestors + were so foolish, as not to understand that it is most unjust that the man + who has wasted the money which he received from his creditor on + debauchery, or gambling, should be classed with one who has lost his own + property as well as that of others in a fire, by robbery, or some sadder + mischance? They would take no excuse, that men might understand that they + were always bound to keep their word; it was thought better that even a + good excuse should not be accepted from a few persons, than that all men + should be led to try to make excuses. You say that you have done all in + your power to repay your debt; this ought to be enough for your friend, + but not enough for you. He to whom you owe a kindness, is unworthy of + gratitude if he lets all your anxious care and trouble to repay it go for + nothing; and so, too, if your friend takes your good will as a repayment, + you are ungrateful if you are not all the more eager to feel the + obligation of the debt which he has forgiven you. Do not snap up his + receipt, or call witnesses to prove it; rather seek opportunities for + repaying not less than before; repay the one man because he asks for + repayment, the other because he forgives you your debt; the one because he + is good, the other because he is bad. You, need not, therefore, think that + you have anything to do with the question whether a man be bound to repay + the benefit which he has received from a wise man, if that man has ceased + to be wise and has turned into a bad man. You would return a deposit which + you had received from a wise man; you would return a loan even to a bad + man; what grounds have you for not returning a benefit also? Because he + has changed, ought he to change you? What? if you had received anything + from a man when healthy, would you not return it to him when he was sick, + though we always are more bound to treat our friends with more kindness + when they are ailing? So, too, this man is sick in his mind; we ought to + help him, and bear with him; folly is a disease of the mind. + </p> + <p> + XVII. I think here we ought to make a distinction, in order to render this + point more intelligible. Benefits are of two kinds: one, the perfect and + true benefit, which can only be bestowed by one wise man upon another; the + other, the common vulgar form which ignorant men like ourselves + interchange. With regard to the latter, there is no doubt that it is my + duty to repay it whether my friend turns out to be a murderer, a thief, or + an adulterer. Crimes have laws to punish them; criminals are better + reformed by judges than by ingratitude; a man ought not to make you bad by + being so himself. I will fling a benefit back to a bad man, I will return + it to a good man; I do so to the latter, because I owe it to him; to the + former, that I may not be in his debt. + </p> + <p> + XVIII. With regard to the other class of benefit, the question arises + whether if I was not able to take it without being a wise man, I am able + to return it, except to a wise man. For suppose I do return it to him, he + cannot receive it, he is not any longer able to receive such a thing, he + has lost the knowledge of how to use it. You would not bid me throw back + [Footnote: i.e. in the game of ball.] a ball to a man who has lost his + hand; it is folly to give any one what he cannot receive. If I am to begin + to reply to the last argument, I say that I should not give him what he is + unable to take; but I would return it, even though he is not able to + receive it. I cannot lay him under an obligation unless he takes my + bounty; but by returning it I can free myself from my obligations to him. + You say, "he will not be able to use it." Let him see to that; the fault + will lie with him, not with me. + </p> + <p> + XIX. "To return a thing," says our adversary, "is to hand it over to one + who can receive it. Why, if you owed some wine to any man, and he bade you + pour it into a net or a sieve, would you say that you had returned it? or + would you be willing to return it in such a way that in the act of + returning it was lost between you?" To return is to give that which you + owe back to its owner when he wishes for it. It is not my duty to perform + more than this; that he should possess what he has received from me is a + matter for further consideration; I do not owe him the safe-keeping of his + property, but the honourable payment of my debt, and it is much better + that he should not have it, than that I should not return it to him. I + would repay my creditor, even though he would at once take what I paid him + to the market; even if he deputed an adulteress to receive the money from + me, I would pay it to her; even if he were to pour the coins which he + receives into a loose fold of his cloak, I would pay it. It is my business + to return it to him, not to keep it and save it for him after I have + returned it; I am bound to take care of his bounty when I have received + it, but not when I have returned it to him. While it remains with me, it + must be kept safe; but when he asks for it again I must give it to him, + even though it slips out of his hands as he takes it. I will repay a good + man when it is convenient; I will repay a bad man when he asks me to do + so. + </p> + <p> + "You cannot," argues our adversary, "return him a benefit of the same kind + as that which you received; for you received it from a wise man, and you + are returning it to a fool." Do I not return to him such a benefit, as he + is now able to receive? It is not my fault if I return it to him worse + than I received it, the fault lies with him, and so, unless he regains his + former wisdom, I shall return it in such a form as he in his fallen + condition is able to receive. "But what," asks he, "if he become not only + bad, but savage and ferocious, like Apollodorus or Phalaris, would you + return even to such a man as this a benefit which you had received from + him?" I answer, Nature does not admit of so great a change in a wise man. + Men do not change from the best to the worst; even in becoming bad, he + would necessarily retain some traces of goodness; virtue is never so + utterly quenched as not to imprint on the mind marks which no degradation + can efface. If wild animals bred in captivity escape into the woods, they + still retain something of their original tameness, and are as remote from + the gentlest in the one extreme as they are in the other from those which + have always been wild, and have never endured to be touched by man's hand. + No one who has ever applied himself to philosophy ever becomes completely + wicked; his mind becomes so deeply coloured with it, that its tints can + never be entirely spoiled and blackened. In the next place, I ask whether + this man of yours be ferocious merely in intent, or whether he breaks out + into actual outrages upon mankind? You have instanced the tyrants + Apollodorus and Phalaris; if the bad man restrains their evil likeness + within himself, why should I not return his benefit to him, in order to + set myself free from any further dealings with him? If, however, he not + only delights in human blood, but feeds upon it; if he exercises his + insatiable cruelty in the torture of persons of all ages, and his fury is + not prompted by anger, but by a sort of delight in cruelty, if he cuts the + throats of children before the eyes of their parents; if, not satisfied + with merely killing his victims, he tortures them, and not only burns but + actually roasts them; if his castle is always wet with freshly shed blood; + then it is not enough not to return his benefits. All connexion between me + and such a man has been broken off by his destruction of the bonds of + human society. If he had bestowed something upon me, but were to invade my + native country, he would have lost all claim to my gratitude, and it would + be counted a crime to make him any return; if he does not attack my + country, but is the scourge of his own; if he has nothing to do with my + nation, but torments and cuts to pieces his own, then in the same manner + such depravity, though it does not render him my personal enemy, yet + renders him hateful to me, and the duty which I owe to the human race is + anterior to and more important than that which I owe to him as an + individual. + </p> + <p> + XX. However, although this be so, and although I am freed from all + obligation towards him, from the moment when, by outraging all laws, he + rendered it impossible for any man to do him a wrong, nevertheless, I + think I ought to make the following distinction in dealing with him. If my + repayment of his benefit will neither increase nor maintain his powers of + doing mischief to mankind, and is of such a character that I can return it + to him without disadvantage to the public, I would return it: for + instance, I would save the life of his infant child; for what harm can + this benefit do to any of those who suffer from his cruelty? But I would + not furnish him with money to pay his bodyguard. If he wishes for marbles, + or fine clothes, the trappings of his luxury will harm no one; but with + soldiers and arms I would not furnish him. If he demands, as a great boon, + actors and courtesans and such things as will soften his savage nature, I + would willingly bestow them upon him. I would not furnish him with + triremes and brass-beaked ships of war, but I would send him fast sailing + and luxuriously-fitted vessels, and all the toys of kings who take their + pleasure on the sea. If his health was altogether despaired of, I would by + the same act bestow a benefit on all men and return one to him; seeing + that for such characters death is the only remedy, and that he who never + will return to himself, had best leave himself. However, such wickedness + as this is uncommon, and is always regarded as a portent, as when the + earth opens, or when fires break forth from caves under the sea; so let us + leave it, and speak of those vices which we can hate without shuddering at + them. As for the ordinary bad man, whom I can find in the marketplace of + any town, who is feared only by individuals, I would return to him a + benefit which I had received from him. It is not right that I should + profit by his wickedness; let me return what is not mine to its owner. + Whether he be good or bad makes no difference; but I would consider the + matter most carefully, if I were not returning but bestowing it. + </p> + <p> + XXI. This point requires to be illustrated by a story. A certain + Pythagoraean bought a fine pair of shoes from a shoemaker; and as they + were an expensive piece of work, he did not pay ready money for them. Some + time afterwards he came to the shop to pay for them, and after he had long + been knocking at the closed door, some one said to him, "Why do you waste + your time? The shoemaker whom you seek has been carried out of his house + and buried; this is a grief to us who lose our friends for ever, but by no + means so to you, who know that he will be born again," jeering at the + Pythagoraean. Upon this our philosopher not unwillingly carried his three + or four denarii home again, shaking them every now and then; afterwards, + blaming himself for the pleasure which he had secretly felt at not paying + his debt, and perceiving that he enjoyed having made this trifling gain, + he returned to the shop, and saying, "the man lives for you, pay him what + you owe," he passed four denarii into the shop through the crack of the + closed door, and let them fall inside, punishing himself for his + unconscionable greediness that he might not form the habit of + appropriating that which is not his own. + </p> + <p> + XXII. If you owe anything, seek for some one to whom you may repay it, and + if no one demands it, dun your own self; whether the man be good or bad is + no concern of yours; repay him, and then blame him. You have forgotten, + how your several duties are divided: it is right for him to forget it, but + we have bidden you bear it in mind. When, however, we say that he who + bestows a benefit ought to forget it, it is a mistake to suppose that we + rob him of all recollection of the business, though it is most creditable + to him; some of our precepts are stated over strictly in order to reduce + them to their true proportions. When we say that he ought not to remember + it, we mean he ought not to speak publicly, or boast of it offensively. + There are some, who, when they have bestowed a benefit, tell it in all + societies, talk of it when sober, cannot be silent about it when drunk, + force it upon strangers, and communicate it to friends; it is to quell + this excessive and reproachful consciousness that we bid him who gave it + forget it, and by commanding him to do this, which is more than he is + able, encourage him to keep silence. + </p> + <p> + XXIII. When you distrust those whom you order to do anything, you ought to + command them to do more than enough in order that they may do what is + enough. The purpose of all exaggeration is to arrive at the truth by + falsehood. Consequently, he who spoke of horses as being: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Whiter than snows and swifter than the winds," +</pre> + <p> + said what could not possibly be in order that they might be thought to be + as much so as possible. And he who said: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "More firm than crags, more headlong than the stream," +</pre> + <p> + did not suppose that he should make any one believe that a man could ever + be as firm as a crag. Exaggeration never hopes all its daring flights to + be believed, but affirms what is incredible, that thereby it may convey + what is credible. When we say, "let the man who has bestowed a benefit, + forget it," what we mean is, "let him be as though he had forgotten it; + let not his remembrance of it appear or be seen." When we say that + repayment of a benefit ought not to be demanded, we do not utterly forbid + its being demanded; for repayment must often be extorted from bad men, and + even good men require to be reminded of it. Am I not to point out a means + of repayment to one who does not perceive it? Am I not to explain my wants + to one does not know them? Why should he (if a bad man) have the excuse, + or (if a good man) have the sorrow of not knowing them? Men ought + sometimes to be reminded of their debts, though with modesty, not in the + tone of one demanding a legal right. + </p> + <p> + XXIV. Socrates once said in the hearing of his friends: "I would have + bought a cloak, if I had had the money for it." He asked no one for money, + but he reminded them all to give it. There was a rivalry between them, as + to who should give it; and how should there not be? Was it not a small + thing which Socrates received? Yes, but it was a great thing to be the man + from whom Socrates received it. Could he blame them more gently? "I + would," said he, "have bought a cloak if I had had the money for it." + After this, however eager any one was to give, he gave too late; for he + had already been wanting in his duty to Socrates. Because some men harshly + demand repayment of debts, we forbid it, not in order that it may never be + done, but that it may be done sparingly. + </p> + <p> + XXV. Aristippus once, when enjoying a perfume, said: "Bad luck to those + effeminate persons who have brought so nice a thing into disrepute." We + also may say, "Bad luck to those base extortioners who pester us for a + fourfold return of their benefits, and have brought into disrepute so nice + a thing as reminding our friends of their duty." I shall nevertheless make + use of this right of friendship, and I shall demand the return of a + benefit from any man from whom I would not have scrupled to ask for one, + such a man as would regard the power of returning a benefit as equivalent + to receiving a second one. Never, not even when complaining of him, would + I say, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "A wretch forlorn upon the shore he lay, + His ship, his comrades, all were swept away; + Fool that I was, I pitied his despair, + And even gave him of my realm a share." +</pre> + <p> + This is not to remind, but to reproach; this is to make one's benefits + odious to enable him, or even to make him wish to be ungrateful. It is + enough, and more than enough, to remind him of it gently and familiarly: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "If aught of mine hath e'er deserved thy thanks." +</pre> + <p> + To this his answer would be, "Of course you have deserved my thanks; you + took me up, 'a wretch forlorn upon the shore.'" + </p> + <p> + XXVI. "But," says our adversary, "suppose that we gain nothing by this; + suppose that he pretends that he has forgotten it, what ought I to do?" + You now ask a very necessary question, and one which fitly concludes this + branch of the subject, how, namely, one ought to bear with the ungrateful. + I answer, calmly, gently, magnanimously. Never let any one's discourtesy, + forgetfulness, or ingratitude, enrage you so much that you do not feel any + pleasure at having bestowed a benefit upon him; never let your wrongs + drive you into saying, "I wish I had not done it." You ought to take + pleasure even in the ill-success of your benefit; he will always be sorry + for it, even though you are not even now sorry for it. You ought not to be + indignant, as if something strange had happened; you ought rather to be + surprised if it had not happened. Some are prevented by difficulties, some + by expense, and some by danger from returning your bounty; some are + hindered by a false shame, because by returning it, they would confess + that they had received it; with others ignorance of their duty, indolence, + or excess of business, stands in the way. Reflect upon the insatiability + of men's desires. You need not be surprised if no one repays you in a + world in which no one ever gains enough. What man is there of so firm and + trustworthy a mind that you can safely invest your benefits in him? One + man is crazed with lust, another is the slave of his belly, another gives + his whole soul to gain, caring nothing for the means by which he amasses + it; some men's minds are disturbed by envy, some blinded by ambition till + they are ready to fling themselves on the sword's point. In addition to + this, one must reckon sluggishness of mind and old age; and also the + opposites of these, restlessness and disturbance of mind, also excessive + self-esteem and pride in the very things for which a man ought to be + despised. I need not mention obstinate persistence in wrong-doing, or + frivolity which cannot remain constant to one point; besides all this, + there is headlong rashness, there is timidity which never gives us + trustworthy counsel, and the numberless errors with which we struggle, the + rashness of the most cowardly, the quarrels of our best friends, and that + most common evil of trusting in what is most uncertain, and of + undervaluing, when we have obtained it, that which we once never hoped to + possess. Amidst all these restless passions, how can you hope to find a + thing so full of rest as good faith? + </p> + <p> + XXVII. If a true picture of our life were to rise before your mental + vision, you would, I think, behold a scene like that of a town just taken + by storm, where decency and righteousness were no longer regarded, and no + advice is heard but that of force, as if universal confusion were the word + of command. Neither fire nor sword are spared; crime is unpunished by the + laws; even religion, which saves the lives of suppliants in the very midst + of armed enemies, does not check those who are rushing to secure plunder. + Some men rob private houses, some public buildings; all places, sacred or + profane, are alike stripped; some burst their way in, others climb over; + some open a wider path for themselves by overthrowing the walls that keep + them out, and make their way to their booty over ruins; some ravage + without murdering, others brandish spoils dripping with their owner's + blood; everyone carries off his neighbours' goods. In this greedy struggle + of the human race surely you forget the common lot of all mankind, if you + seek among these robbers for one who will return what he has got. If you + are indignant at men being ungrateful, you ought also to be indignant at + their being luxurious, avaricious and lustful; you might as well be + indignant with sick men for being ugly, or with old men for being pale. It + is, indeed, a serious vice, it is not to be borne, and sets men at + variance with one another; nay, it rends and destroys that union by which + alone our human weakness can be supported; yet it is so absolutely + universal, that even those who complain of it most are not themselves free + from it. + </p> + <p> + XXVIII. Consider within yourself, whether you have always shown gratitude + to those to whom you owe it, whether no one's kindness has ever been + wasted upon you, whether you constantly bear in mind all the benefits + which you have received. You will find that those which you received as a + boy were forgotten before you became a man; that those bestowed upon you + as a young man slipped from your memory when you became an old one. Some + we have lost, some we have thrown away, some have by degrees passed out of + our sight, to some we have wilfully shut our eyes. If I am to make excuses + for your weakness, I must say in the first place that human memory is a + frail vessel, and is not large enough to contain the mass of things placed + in it; the more it receives, the more it must necessarily lose; the oldest + things in it give way to the newest. Thus it comes to pass that your nurse + has hardly any influence with you, because the lapse of time has set the + kindness which you received from her at so great a distance; thus it is + that you no longer look upon your teacher with respect; and that now when + you are busy about your candidature for the consulate or the priesthood, + you forget those who supported you in your election to the quaestorship. + If you carefully examine yourself, perhaps you will find the vice of which + you complain in your own bosom; you are wrong in being angry with a + universal failing, and foolish also, for it is your own as well; you must + pardon others, that you may yourself be acquitted. You will make your + friend a better man by bearing with him, you will in all cases make him a + worse one by reproaching him. You can have no reason for rendering him + shameless; let him preserve any remnants of modesty which he may have. Too + loud reproaches have often dispelled a modesty which might have borne good + fruit. No man fears to be that which all men see that he is; when his + fault is made public, he loses his sense of shame. + </p> + <p> + XXIX. You say, "I have lost the benefit which I bestowed." Yet do we say + that we have lost what we consecrate to heaven, and a benefit well + bestowed, even though we get an ill return for it, is to be reckoned among + things consecrated. Our friend is not such a man as we hoped he was; + still, let us, unlike him, remain the same as we were. The loss did not + take place when he proved himself so; his ingratitude cannot be made + public without reflecting some shame upon us, since to complain of the + loss of a benefit is a sign that it was not well bestowed. As far as we + are able we ought to plead with ourselves on his behalf: "Perhaps he was + not able to return it, perhaps he did not know of it, perhaps he will + still do so." A wise and forbearing creditor prevents the loss of some + debts by encouraging his debtor and giving him time. We ought to do the + same, we ought to deal tenderly with a weakly sense of honour. + </p> + <p> + XXX. "I have lost," say you, "the benefit which I bestowed." You are a + fool, and do not understand when your loss took place; you have indeed + lost it, but you did so when you gave it, the fact has only now come to + light. Even in the case of those benefits which appear to be lost, + gentleness will do much good; the wounds of the mind ought to be handled + as tenderly as those of the body. The string, which might be disentangled + by patience, is often broken by a rough pull. What is the use of abuse, or + of complaints? why do you overwhelm him with reproaches? why do you set + him free from his obligation? even if he be ungrateful he owes you nothing + after this. What sense is there in exasperating a man on whom you have + conferred great favours, so as out of a doubtful friend to make a certain + enemy, and one, too, who will seek to support his own cause by defaming + you, or to make men say, "I do not know what the reason is that he cannot + endure a man to whom he owes so much; there must be something in the + background?" Any man can asperse, even if he does not permanently stain + the reputation of his betters by complaining of them; nor will any one be + satisfied with imputing small crimes to them, when it is only by the + enormity of his falsehood that he can hope to be believed. + </p> + <p> + XXXI. What a much better way is that by which the semblance of friendship, + and, indeed, if the other regains to his right mind, friendship itself is + preserved! Bad men are overcome by unwearying goodness, nor does any one + receive kindness in so harsh and hostile a spirit as not to love good men + even while he does them wrong, when they lay him under the additional + obligation of requiring no return for their kindness. Reflect, then, upon + this: you say, "My kindness has met with no return, what am I to do? I + ought to imitate the gods, those noblest disposers of all events, who + begin to bestow their benefits on those who know them not, and persist in + bestowing them on those who are ungrateful for them. Some reproach them + with neglect of us, some with injustice towards us; others place them + outside of their own world, in sloth and indifference, without light, and + without any functions; others declare that the sun itself, to whom we owe + the division of our times of labour and of rest, by whose means we are + saved from being plunged in the darkness of eternal night; who, by his + circuit, orders the seasons of the year, gives strength to our bodies, + brings forth our crops and ripens our fruits, is merely a mass of stone, + or a fortuitous collection of fiery particles, or anything rather than a + god. Yet, nevertheless, like the kindest of parents, who only smile at the + spiteful words of their children, the gods do not cease to heap benefits + upon those who doubt from what source their benefits are derived, but + continue impartially distributing their bounty among all the peoples and + nations of the earth. Possessing only the power of doing good, they + moisten the land with seasonable showers, they put the seas in movement by + the winds, they mark time by the course of the constellations, they temper + the extremes of heat and cold, of summer and winter, by breathing a milder + air upon us; and they graciously and serenely bear with the faults of our + erring spirits. Let us follow their example; let us give, even if much be + given to no purpose, let us, in spite of this, give to others; nay, even + to those upon whom our bounty has been wasted. No one is prevented by the + fall of a house from building another; when one home has been destroyed by + fire, we lay the foundations of another before the site has had time to + cool; we rebuild ruined cities more than once upon the same spots, so + untiring are our hopes of success. Men would undertake no works either on + land or sea if they were not willing to try again what they have failed in + once." + </p> + <p> + XXXII. Suppose a man is ungrateful, he does not injure me, but himself; I + had the enjoyment of my benefit when I bestowed it upon him. Because he is + ungrateful, I shall not be slower to give but more careful; what I have + lost with him, I shall receive back from others. But I will bestow a + second benefit upon this man himself, and will overcome him even as a good + husbandman overcomes the sterility of the soil by care and culture; if I + do not do so my benefit is lost to me, and he is lost to mankind. It is no + proof of a great mind to give and to throw away one's bounty; the true + test of a great mind is to throw away one's bounty and still to give. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of L. Annaeus Seneca On Benefits, by Seneca + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK L. 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Annaeus Seneca On Benefits + +Author: Seneca + +Editor: Aubrey Stewart + +Release Date: February, 2003 [Etext #3794] +Posting Date: December 3, 2009 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK L. ANNAEUS SENECA ON BENEFITS *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Franks, Robert Rowe and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + + + + + + +L. ANNAEUS SENECA, ON BENEFITS + +By Seneca + +Edited by Aubrey Stewart + + + + +PREFACE + +Seneca, the favourite classic of the early fathers of the church and +of the Middle Ages, whom Jerome, Tertullian, and Augustine speak of as +"Seneca noster," who was believed to have corresponded with St. Paul, +and upon whom [Footnote: On the "De Clementia," an odd subject for the +man who burned Servetus alive for differing with him.] Calvin wrote a +commentary, seems almost forgotten in modern times. Perhaps some of his +popularity may have been due to his being supposed to be the author +of those tragedies which the world has long ceased to read, but which +delighted a period that preferred Euripides to Aeschylus: while casuists +must have found congenial matter in an author whose fantastic cases of +conscience are often worthy of Sanchez or Escobar. Yet Seneca's morality +is always pure, and from him we gain, albeit at second hand, an +insight into the doctrines of the Greek philosophers, Zeno, Epicurus, +Chrysippus, &c., whose precepts and system of religious thought had in +cultivated Roman society taken the place of the old worship of Jupiter +and Quirinus. + +Since Lodge's edition (fol. 1614), no complete translation of Seneca has +been published in England, though Sir Roger L'Estrange wrote paraphrases +of several Dialogues, which seem to have been enormously popular, +running through more than sixteen editions. I think we may conjecture +that Shakespeare had seen Lodge's translation, from several allusions to +philosophy, to that impossible conception "the wise man," and especially +from a passage in "All's Well that ends Well," which seems to breathe +the very spirit of "De Beneficiis." + + "'Tis pity-- + That wishing well had not a body in it + Which might be felt: that we, the poorer born, + Whose baser stars do shut us up in wishes, + Might with effects of them follow our friends + And show what we alone must think; which never + Returns us thanks." + + "All's Well that ends Well," Act i. sc. 1. + +Though, if this will not fit the supposed date of that play, he may +have taken the idea from "The Woorke of Lucius Annaeus Seneca concerning +Benefyting, that is too say, the dooing, receyving, and requyting of +good turnes, translated out of Latin by A. Golding. J. Day, London, +1578." And even during the Restoration, Pepys's ideal of virtuous and +lettered seclusion is a country house in whose garden he might sit on +summer afternoons with his friend, Sir W. Coventry, "it maybe, to read a +chapter of Seneca." In sharp contrast to this is Vahlen's preface to the +minor Dialogues, which he edited after the death of his friend Koch, who +had begun that work, in which he remarks that "he has read much of this +writer, in order to perfect his knowledge of Latin, for otherwise he +neither admires his artificial subtleties of thought, nor his childish +mannerisms of style" (Vahlen, preface, p. v., ed. 1879, Jena). + +Yet by the student of the history of Rome under the Caesars, Seneca is +not to be neglected, because, whatever may be thought of the intrinsic +merit of his speculations, he represents, more perhaps even than +Tacitus, the intellectual characteristics of his age, and the tone of +society in Rome--nor could we well spare the gossiping stories which we +find imbedded in his graver dissertations. The following extract from +Dean Merivale's "History of the Romans under the Empire" will show the +estimate of him which has been formed by that accomplished writer:-- + +"At Rome, we, have no reason, to suppose that Christianity was only the +refuge of the afflicted and miserable; rather, if we may lay any stress +on the documents above referred to, it was first embraced by persons in +a certain grade of comfort and respectability; by persons approaching +to what we should call the MIDDLE CLASSES in their condition, their +education, and their moral views. Of this class Seneca himself was the +idol, the oracle; he was, so to speak, the favourite preacher of the +more intelligent and humane disciples of nature and virtue. Now the +writings of Seneca show, in their way, a real anxiety among this class +to raise the moral tone of mankind around them; a spirit of reform, a +zeal for the conversion of souls, which, though it never rose, indeed, +under the teaching of the philosophers, to boiling heat, still simmered +with genial warmth on the surface of society. Far different as was their +social standing-point, far different as were the foundations and the +presumed sanctions of their teaching respectively, Seneca and St. +Paul were both moral reformers; both, be it said with reverence, were +fellow-workers in the cause of humanity, though the Christian could +look beyond the proximate aims of morality and prepare men for a final +development on which the Stoic could not venture to gaze. Hence there +is so much in their principles, so much even in their language, which +agrees together, so that the one has been thought, though it must be +allowed without adequate reason, to have borrowed directly from the +other. [Footnote: It is hardly necessary to refer to the pretended +letters between St. Paul and Seneca. Besides the evidence from style, +some of the dates they contain are quite sufficient to condemn them as +clumsy forgeries. They are mentioned, but with no expression of belief +in their genuineness, by Jerome and Augustine. See Jones, "On the +Canon," ii. 80.] + +"But the philosopher, be it remembered, discoursed to a large and not +inattentive audience, and surely the soil was not all unfruitful on +which his seed was scattered when he proclaimed that God dwells not +in temples of wood and stone, nor wants the ministrations of human +hands;[Footnote: Sen., Ep. 95, and in Lactantius, Inst. vi.] that He has +no delight in the blood of victims:[Footnote: Ep. 116: "Colitur Deus +non tauris sed pia et recta voluntate."] that He is near to all His +creatures:[Footnote: Ep. 41, 73.] that His Spirit resides in men's +hearts:[Footnote: Ep. 46: "Sacer intra nos spiritus sedet."] that +all men are truly His offspring:[Footnote: "De Prov," i.] that we are +members of one body, which is God or Nature;[Footnote: Ep. 93, 95: +"Membra sumus magni corporis."] that men must believe in God before +they can approach Him:[Footnote: Ep. 95: "Primus Deorum cultus est +Deos credere."] that the true service of God is to be like unto +Him:[Footnote: Ep. 95: "Satis coluit quisquis imitatus est."] that all +men have sinned, and none performed all the works of the law:[Footnote: +Sen. de Ira. i. 14; ii. 27: "Quis est iste qui se profitetur omnibus +legibus innocentem?"] that God is no respecter of nations, ranks, or +conditions, but all, barbarian and Roman, bond and free, are alike under +His all-seeing Providence.[Footnote: "De Benef.," iii. 18: "Virtus omnes +admittit, libertinos, servos, reges." These and many other passages +are collected by Champagny, ii. 546, after Fabricius and others, and +compared with well-known texts of Scripture. The version of the Vulgate +shows a great deal of verbal correspondence. M. Troplong remarks, after +De Maistre, that Seneca has written a fine book on Providence, for which +there was not even a name at Rome in the time of Cicero.--"L'Influence +du Christianisme," &c., i., ch. 4.] + +"St. Paul enjoined submission and obedience even to the tyranny of +Nero, and Seneca fosters no ideas subversive of political subjection. +Endurance is the paramount virtue of the Stoic. To forms of government +the wise man was wholly indifferent; they were among the +external circumstances above which his spirit soared in serene +self-contemplation. We trace in Seneca no yearning for a restoration +of political freedom, nor does he even point to the senate, after +the manner of the patriots of the day, as a legitimate check to the +autocracy of the despot. The only mode, in his view, of tempering +tyranny is to educate the tyrant himself in virtue. His was the +self-denial of the Christians, but without their anticipated +compensation. It seems impossible to doubt that in his highest flights +of rhetoric--and no man ever recommended the unattainable with a finer +grace--Seneca must have felt that he was labouring to build up a house +without foundations; that his system, as Caius said of his style, was +sand without lime. He was surely not unconscious of the inconsistency of +his own position, as a public man and a minister, with the theories to +which he had wedded himself; and of the impossibility of preserving in +it the purity of his character as a philosopher or a man. He was aware +that in the existing state of society at Rome, wealth was necessary to +men high in station; wealth alone could retain influence, and a poor +minister became at once contemptible. The distributor of the Imperial +favours must have his banquets, his receptions, his slaves and freedmen; +he must possess the means of attracting if not of bribing; he must not +seem too virtuous, too austere, among an evil generation; in order to do +good at all he must swim with the stream, however polluted it might be. +All this inconsistency Seneca must have contemplated without blenching; +and there is something touching in the serenity he preserved amidst the +conflict that must have perpetually raged between his natural sense +and his acquired principles. Both Cicero and Seneca were men of many +weaknesses, and we remark them the more because both were pretenders to +unusual strength of character; but while Cicero lapsed into political +errors, Seneca cannot be absolved of actual crime. Nevertheless, if we +may compare the greatest masters of Roman wisdom together, the Stoic +will appear, I think, the more earnest of the two, the more anxious to +do his duty for its own sake, the more sensible of the claims of mankind +upon him for such precepts of virtuous living as he had to give. In an +age of unbelief and compromise he taught that Truth was positive and +Virtue objective. He conceived, what never entered Cicero's mind, the +idea of improving his fellow-creatures; he had, what Cicero had not, a +heart for conversion to Christianity." + +To this eloquent account of Seneca's position and of the tendency of his +writings I have nothing to add. The main particulars of his life, +his Spanish extraction (like that of Lacan and Martial), his father's +treatises on Rhetoric, his mother Helvia, his brothers, his wealth, his +exile in Corsica, his outrageous flattery of Claudius and his satiric +poem on his death--"The Vision of Judgment," Merivale calls it, after +Lord Byron--his position as Nero's tutor, and his death, worthy at once +of a Roman and a Stoic, by the orders of that tyrant, may be read of in +"The History of the Romans under the Empire," or in the article "Seneca" +in the "Dictionary of Classical Biography," and need not be reproduced +here: but I cannot resist pointing out how entirely Grote's view of the +"Sophists" as a sort of established clergy, and Seneca's account of the +various sects of philosophers as representing the religious thought of +the time, is illustrated by his anecdote of Julia Augusta, the mother of +Tiberius, better known to English readers as Livia the wife of Augustus, +who in her first agony of grief at the loss of her first husband applied +to his Greek philosopher, Areus, as to a kind of domestic chaplain, for +spiritual consolation. ("Ad Marciam de Consolatione," ch. iv.) + +I take this opportunity of expressing my gratitude to the Rev. J. E. +B. Mayor, Professor of Latin in the University of Cambridge, for his +kindness in finding time among his many and important literary labours +for reading and correcting the proofs of this work. + +The text which I have followed for De Beneficiis is that of Gertz, +Berlin (1876.). + +AUBREY STEWART + +London, March, 1887. + + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +BOOK I. The prevalence of ingratitude--How a benefit ought to be +bestowed--The three Graces--Benefits are the chief bond of human +society--What we owe in return for a benefit received--A benefit +consists not of a thing but of the wish to do good--Socrates and +Aeschines--What kinds of benefits should be bestowed, and in what +manner--Alexander and the franchise of Corinth. + +BOOK II. Many men give through weakness of character--We ought to give +before our friends ask--Many benefits are spoiled by the manner of +the giver--Marius Nepos and Tiberius--Some benefits should be given +secretly--We must not give what would harm the receiver--Alexander's +gift of a city--Interchange of benefits like a game of ball--From +whom ought one to receive a benefit?--Examples--How to receive +a benefit--Ingratitude caused by self-love, by greed, or by +jealousy--Gratitude and repayment not the same thing--Phidias and the +statue. + +BOOK III. Ingratitude--Is it worse to be ungrateful for kindness or +not even to remember it?--Should ingratitude be punished by law?--Can +a slave bestow a benefit?--Can a son bestow a benefit upon his +father?--Examples + +BOOK IV. Whether the bestowal of benefits and the return of gratitude +for them are desirable objects in themselves? Does God bestow +benefits?--How to choose the man to be benefited--We ought not to look +for any return--True gratitude--Of keeping one's promise--Philip and the +soldier--Zeno + +BOOK V. Of being worsted in a contest of benefits--Socrates and +Archelaus--Whether a man can be grateful to himself, or can bestow +a benefit upon himself--Examples of ingratitude--Dialogue on +ingratitude--Whether one should remind one's friends of what one has +done for them--Caesar and the soldier--Tiberius. + +BOOK VI. Whether a benefit can be taken from one by force--Benefits +depend upon thought--We are not grateful for the advantages which we +receive from inanimate Nature, or from dumb animals--In order to lay me +under an obligation you must benefit me intentionally--Cleanthes's story +of the two slaves--Of benefits given in a mercenary spirit--Physicians +and teachers bestow enormous benefits, yet are sufficiently paid by a +moderate fee--Plato and the ferryman--Are we under an obligation to the +sun and moon?--Ought we to wish that evil may befall our benefactors, in +order that we may show our gratitude by helping them? + +BOOK VII. The cynic Demetrius--his rules of conduct--Of the truly +wise man--Whether one who has done everything in his power to return +a benefit has returned it--Ought one to return a benefit to a bad +man?--The Pythagorean, and the shoemaker--How one ought to bear with the +ungrateful. + + + + + + +L. A. SENECA + +ON BENEFITS. + + +DEDICATED TO + +AEBUTIUS LIBERALIS. + + + + +BOOK I. + +I. + + +Among the numerous faults of those who pass their lives recklessly and +without due reflexion, my good friend Liberalis, I should say that there +is hardly any one so hurtful to society as this, that we neither know +how to bestow or how to receive a benefit. It follows from this that +benefits are badly invested, and become bad debts: in these cases it is +too late to complain of their not being returned, for they were thrown +away when we bestowed them. Nor need we wonder that while the greatest +vices are common, none is more common than ingratitude: for this I see +is brought about by various causes. The first of these is, that we do +not choose worthy persons upon whom to bestow our bounty, but although +when we are about to lend money we first make a careful enquiry into +the means and habits of life of our debtor, and avoid sowing seed in a +worn-out or unfruitful soil, yet without any discrimination we scatter +our benefits at random rather than bestow them. It is hard to say +whether it is more dishonourable for the receiver to disown a benefit, +or for the giver to demand a return of it: for a benefit is a loan, the +repayment of which depends merely upon the good feeling of the debtor. +To misuse a benefit like a spendthrift is most shameful, because we +do not need our wealth but only our intention to set us free from the +obligation of it; for a benefit is repaid by being acknowledged. Yet +while they are to blame who do not even show so much gratitude as to +acknowledge their debt, we ourselves are to blame no less. We find many +men ungrateful, yet we make more men so, because at one time we harshly +and reproachfully demand some return for our bounty, at another we are +fickle and regret what we have given, at another we are peevish and +apt to find fault with trifles. By acting thus we destroy all sense of +gratitude, not only after we have given anything, but while we are in +the act of giving it. Who has ever thought it enough to be asked for +anything in an off-hand manner, or to be asked only once? Who, when he +suspected that he was going to be asked for any thing, has not frowned, +turned away his face, pretended to be busy, or purposely talked without +ceasing, in order not to give his suitor a chance of preferring his +request, and avoided by various tricks having to help his friend in his +pressing need? and when driven into a corner, has not either put the +matter off, that is, given a cowardly refusal, or promised his help +ungraciously, with a wry face, and with unkind words, of which he seemed +to grudge the utterance. Yet no one is glad to owe what he has not +so much received from his benefactor, as wrung out of him. Who can be +grateful for what has been disdainfully flung to him, or angrily cast +at him, or been given him out of weariness, to avoid further trouble? No +one need expect any return from those whom he has tired out with delays, +or sickened with expectation. A benefit is received in the same temper +in which it is given, and ought not, therefore, to be given carelessly, +for a man thanks himself for that which he receives without the +knowledge of the giver. Neither ought we to give after long delay, +because in all good offices the will of the giver counts for much, and +he who gives tardily must long have been unwilling to give at all. Nor, +assuredly, ought we to give in offensive manner, because human nature is +so constituted that insults sink deeper than kindnesses; the remembrance +of the latter soon passes away, while that of the former is treasured in +the memory; so what can a man expect who insults while he obliges? All +the gratitude which he deserves is to be forgiven for helping us. On +the other hand, the number of the ungrateful ought not to deter us +from earning men's gratitude; for, in the first place, their number is +increased by our own acts. Secondly, the sacrilege and indifference +to religion of some men does not prevent even the immortal gods from +continuing to shower their benefits upon us: for they act according to +their divine nature and help all alike, among them even those who so ill +appreciate their bounty. Let us take them for our guides as far as the +weakness of our mortal nature permits; let us bestow benefits, not put +them out at interest. The man who while he gives thinks of what he will +get in return, deserves to be deceived. But what if the benefit turns +out ill? Why, our wives and our children often disappoint our hopes, +yet we marry--and bring up children, and are so obstinate in the face of +experience that we fight after we have been beaten, and put to sea after +we have been shipwrecked. How much more constancy ought we to show in +bestowing benefits! If a man does not bestow benefits because he has +not received any, he must have bestowed them in order to receive them +in return, and he justifies ingratitude, whose disgrace lies in not +returning benefits when able to do so. How many are there who are +unworthy of the light of day? and nevertheless the sun rises. How many +complain because they have been born? yet Nature is ever renewing our +race, and even suffers men to live who wish that they had never lived. +It is the property of a great and good mind to covet, not the fruit of +good deeds, but good deeds themselves, and to seek for a good man even +after having met with bad men. If there were no rogues, what glory would +there be in doing good to many? As it is, virtue consists in bestowing +benefits for which we are not certain of meeting with any return, but +whose fruit is at once enjoyed by noble minds. So little influence ought +this to have in restraining us from doing good actions, that even though +I were denied the hope of meeting with a grateful man, yet the fear of +not having my benefits returned would not prevent my bestowing them, +because he who does not give, forestalls the vice of him who is +ungrateful. I will explain what I mean. He who does not repay a benefit, +sins more, but he who does not bestow one, sins earlier. + + "If thou at random dost thy bounties waste, + Much must be lost, for one that's rightly placed." + +II. In the former verse you may blame two things, for one should not +cast them at random, and it is not right to waste anything, much less +benefits; for unless they be given with judgement, they cease to be +benefits, and, may be called by any other name you please. The meaning +of the latter verse is admirable, that one benefit rightly bestowed +makes amends for the loss of many that have been lost. See, I pray you, +whether it be not truer and more worthy of the glory of the giver, that +we should encourage him to give, even though none of his gifts should +be worthily placed. "Much must be lost." Nothing is lost because he +who loses had counted the cost before. The book-keeping of benefits +is simple: it is all expenditure; if any one returns it, that is clear +gain; if he does not return it, it is not lost, I gave it for the sake +of giving. No one writes down his gifts in a ledger, or like a grasping +creditor demands repayment to the day and hour. A good man never thinks +of such matters, unless reminded of them by some one returning his +gifts; otherwise they become like debts owing to him. It is a base usury +to regard a benefit as an investment. Whatever may have been the result +of your former benefits, persevere in bestowing others upon other men; +they will be all the better placed in the hands of the ungrateful, whom +shame, or a favourable opportunity, or imitation of others may some day +cause to be grateful. Do not grow weary, perform your duty, and act +as becomes a good man. Help one man with money, another with credit, +another with your favour; this man with good advice, that one with +sound maxims. Even wild beasts feel kindness, nor is there any animal +so savage that good treatment will not tame it and win love from it. The +mouths of lions are handled by their keepers with impunity; to obtain +their food fierce elephants become as docile as slaves: so that constant +unceasing kindness wins the hearts even of creatures who, by their +nature, cannot comprehend or weigh the value of a benefit. Is a man +ungrateful for one benefit? perhaps he will not be so after receiving +a second. Has he forgotten two kindnesses? perhaps by a third he may be +brought to remember the former ones also. + +III. He who is quick to believe that he has thrown away his benefits, +does really throw them away; but he who presses on and adds new benefits +to his former ones, forces out gratitude even from a hard and forgetful +breast. In the face of many kindnesses, your friend will not dare to +raise his eyes; let him see you whithersoever he turns himself to escape +from his remembrance of you; encircle him with your benefits. As for the +power and property of these, I will explain it to you if first you will +allow me to glance at a matter which does not belong to our subject, as +to why the Graces are three in number, why they are sisters, why hand in +hand, and why they are smiling and young, with a loose and transparent +dress. Some writers think that there is one who bestows a benefit, +one who receives it, and a third who returns it; others say that they +represent the three sorts of benefactors, those who bestow, those who +repay, and those who both receive and repay them. But take whichever +you please to be true; what will this knowledge profit us? What is the +meaning of this dance of sisters in a circle, hand in hand? It means +that the course of a benefit is from hand to hand, back to the giver; +that the beauty of the whole chain is lost if a single link fails, and +that it is fairest when it proceeds in unbroken regular order. In the +dance there is one, esteemed beyond the others, who represents the +givers of benefits. Their faces are cheerful, as those of men who give +or receive benefits are wont to be. They are young, because the memory +of benefits ought not to grow old. They are virgins, because benefits +are pure and untainted, and held holy by all; in benefits there should +be no strict or binding conditions, therefore the Graces wear loose +flowing tunics, which are transparent, because benefits love to be seen. +People who are not under the influence of Greek literature may say that +all this is a matter of course; but there can be no one who would think +that the names which Hesiod has given them bear upon our subject. He +named the eldest Aglaia, the middle one Euphrosyne, the third Thalia. +Every one, according to his own ideas, twists the meaning of these +names, trying to reconcile them with some system, though Hesiod merely +gave his maidens their names from his own fancy. So Homer altered +the name of one of them, naming her Pasithea, and betrothed her to a +husband, in order that you may know that they are not vestal virgins. +[Footnote: i.e. not vowed to chastity.] + +I could find another poet, in whose writings they are girded, and wear +thick or embroidered Phrygian robes. Mercury stands with them for the +same reason, not because argument or eloquence commends benefits, +but because the painter chose to do so. Also Chrysippus, that man of +piercing intellect who saw to the very bottom of truth, who speaks +only to the point, and makes use of no more words than are necessary to +express his meaning, fills his whole treatise with these puerilities, +insomuch that he says but very little about the duties of giving, +receiving, and returning a benefit, and has not so much inserted fables +among these subjects, as he has inserted these subjects among a mass of +fables. For, not to mention what Hecaton borrows from him, Chrysippus +tells us that the three Graces are the daughters of Jupiter and +Eurynome, that they are younger than the Hours, and rather more +beautiful, and that on that account they are assigned as companions +to Venus. He also thinks that the name of their mother bears upon the +subject, and that she is named Eurynome because to distribute benefits +requires a wide inheritance; as if the mother usually received her name +after her daughters, or as if the names given by poets were true. In +truth, just as with a 'nomenclator' audacity supplies the place of +memory, and he invents a name for every one whose name he cannot +recollect, so the poets think that it is of no importance to speak the +truth, but are either forced by the exigencies of metre, or attracted by +sweetness of sound, into calling every one by whatever name runs neatly +into verse. Nor do they suffer for it if they introduce another name +into the list, for the next poet makes them bear what name he pleases. +That you may know that this is so, for instance Thalia, our present +subject of discourse, is one of the Graces in Hesiod's poems, while in +those of Homer she is one of the Muses. + +IV. But lest I should do the very thing which I am blaming, I will pass +over all these matters, which are so far from the subject that they are +not even connected with it. Only do you protect me, if any one attacks +me for putting down Chrysippus, who, by Hercules, was a great man, but +yet a Greek, whose intellect, too sharply pointed, is often bent and +turned back upon itself; even when it seems to be in earnest it only +pricks, but does not pierce. Here, however, what occasion is there for +subtlety? We are to speak of benefits, and to define a matter which is +the chief bond of human society; we are to lay down a rule of life, such +that neither careless openhandedness may commend itself to us under the +guise of goodness of heart, and yet that our circumspection, while it +moderates, may not quench our generosity, a quality in which we ought +neither to exceed nor to fall short. Men must be taught to be willing +to give, willing to receive, willing to return; and to place before +themselves the high aim, not merely of equalling, but even of surpassing +those to whom they are indebted, both in good offices and in good +feeling; because the man whose duty it is to repay, can never do so +unless he out-does his benefactor; [Footnote: That is, he never comes up +to his benefactor unless he leaves him behind: he can only make a dead +heat of it by getting a start.] the one class must be taught to look +for no return, the other to feel deeper gratitude. In this noblest of +contests to outdo benefits by benefits, Chrysippus encourages us by +bidding us beware lest, as the Graces are the daughters of Jupiter, to +act ungratefully may not be a sin against them, and may not wrong those +beauteous maidens. Do thou teach me how I may bestow more good things, +and be more grateful to those who have earned my gratitude, and how the +minds of both parties may vie with one another, the giver in forgetting, +the receiver in remembering his debt. As for those other follies, let +them be left to the poets, whose purpose is merely to charm the ear and +to weave a pleasing story; but let those who wish to purify men's +minds, to retain honour in their dealings, and to imprint on their minds +gratitude for kindnesses, let them speak in sober earnest and act with +all their strength; unless you imagine, perchance, that by such flippant +and mythical talk, and such old wives' reasoning, it is possible for us +to prevent that most ruinous consummation, the repudiation of benefits. + +V. However, while I pass over what is futile and irrelevant I must +point out that the first thing which we have to learn is, what we owe in +return for a benefit received. One man says that he owes the money which +he has received, another that he owes a consulship, a priesthood, +a province, and so on. These, however, are but the outward signs of +kindnesses, not the kindnesses themselves. A benefit is not to be felt +and handled, it is a thing which exists only in the mind. There is +a great difference between the subject-matter of a benefit, and the +benefit itself. Wherefore neither gold, nor silver, nor any of those +things which are most highly esteemed, are benefits, but the benefit +lies in the goodwill of him who gives them. The ignorant take notice +only of that which comes before their eyes, and which can be owned and +passed from hand to hand, while they disregard that which gives these +things their value. The things which we hold in our hands, which we see +with our eyes, and which our avarice hugs, are transitory, they may +be taken from us by ill luck or by violence; but a kindness lasts even +after the loss of that by means of which it was bestowed; for it is +a good deed, which no violence can undo. For instance, suppose that I +ransomed a friend from pirates, but another pirate has caught him and +thrown him into prison. The pirate has not robbed him of my benefit, but +has only robbed him of the enjoyment of it. Or suppose that I have saved +a man's children from a shipwreck or a fire, and that afterwards disease +or accident has carried them off; even when they are no more, the +kindness which was done by means of them remains. All those things, +therefore, which improperly assume the name of benefits, are means by +which kindly feeling manifests itself. In other cases also, we find a +distinction between the visible symbol and the matter itself, as when a +general bestows collars of gold, or civic or mural crowns upon any one. +What value has the crown in itself? or the purple-bordered robe? or the +fasces? or the judgment-seat and car of triumph? None of these things +is in itself an honour, but is an emblem of honour. In like manner, +that which is seen is not a benefit--it is but the trace and mark of a +benefit. + +VI. What, then, is a benefit? It is the art of doing a kindness which +both bestows pleasure and gains it by bestowing it, and which does its +office by natural and spontaneous impulse. It is not, therefore, the +thing which is done or given, but the spirit in which it is done or +given, that must be considered, because a benefit exists, not in that +which is done or given, but in the mind of the doer or giver. How great +the distinction between them is, you may perceive from this, that +while a benefit is necessarily good, yet that which is done or given is +neither good nor bad. The spirit in which they are given can exalt small +things, can glorify mean ones, and can discredit great and precious +ones; the objects themselves which are sought after have a neutral +nature, neither good nor bad; all depends upon the direction given them +by the guiding spirit from which things receive their shape. That which +is paid or handed over is not the benefit itself, just as the honour +which we pay to the gods lies not in the victims themselves, although +they be fat and glittering with gold, [Footnote: Alluding to the +practice of gilding the horns of the victims.] but in the pure and holy +feelings of the worshippers. + +Thus good men are religious, though their offering be meal and their +vessels of earthenware; whilst bad men will not escape from their +impiety, though they pour the blood of many victims upon the altars. + +VII. If benefits consisted of things, and not of the wish to benefit, +then the more things we received the greater the benefit would be. But +this is not true, for sometimes we feel more gratitude to one who gives +us trifles nobly, who, like Virgil's poor old soldier, "holds himself as +rich as kings," if he has given us ever so little with a good will a man +who forgets his own need when he sees mine, who has not only a wish but +a longing to help, who thinks that he receives a benefit when he +bestows one, who gives as though he would receive no return, receives a +repayment as though he had originally given nothing, and who watches for +and seizes an opportunity of being useful. On the other hand, as I said +before, those gifts which are hardly wrung from the giver, or which drop +unheeded from his hands, claim no gratitude from us, however great they +may appear and may be. We prize much more what comes from a willing +hand, than what comes from a full one. This man has given me but little, +yet more he could not afford, while what that one has given is much +indeed, but he hesitated, he put it off, he grumbled when he gave it, +he gave it haughtily, or he proclaimed it aloud, and did it to please +others, not to please the person to whom he gave it; he offered it to +his own pride, not to me. + +VIII. As the pupils of Socrates, each in proportion to his means, gave +him large presents, Aeschines, a poor pupil, said, "I can find nothing +to give you which is worthy of you; I feel my poverty in this respect +alone. Therefore I present you with the only thing I possess, myself. I +pray that you may take this my present, such as it is, in good part, and +may remember that the others, although they gave you much, yet left for +themselves more than they gave." Socrates answered, "Surely you have +bestowed a great present upon me, unless perchance you set a small value +upon yourself. I will accordingly take pains to restore you to yourself +a better man than when I received you." By this present Aeschines outdid +Alcibiades, whose mind was as great as his Wealth, and all the splendour +of the most wealthy youths of Athens. + +IX. You see how the mind even in the straitest circumstances finds the +means of generosity. Aeschines seems to me to have said, "Fortune, it +is in vain that you have made me poor; in spite of this I will find a +worthy present for this man. Since I can give him nothing of yours, I +will give him something of my own." Nor need you suppose that he held +himself cheap; he made himself his own price. By a stroke of genius this +youth discovered a means of presenting Socrates to himself. We must not +consider how great presents are, but in what spirit they are given. + +A rich man is well spoken of if he is clever enough to render himself +easy of access to men of immoderate ambition, and although he intends to +do nothing to help them, yet encourages their unconscionable hopes; but +he is thought the worse of if he be sharp of tongue, sour in appearance, +and displays his wealth in an invidious fashion. For men respect and +yet loathe a fortunate man, and hate him for doing what, if they had the +chance, they would do themselves. + + * * * * * * * + +Men nowadays no longer secretly, but openly outrage the wives of others, +and allow to others access to their own wives. A match is thought +countrified, uncivilized, in bad style, and to be protested against by +all matrons, if the husband should forbid his wife to appear in +public in a litter, and to be carried about exposed to the gaze of all +observers. If a man has not made himself notorious by a LIAISON with +some mistress, if he does not pay an annuity to some one else's wife, +married women speak of him as a poor-spirited creature, a man given +to low vice, a lover of servant girls. Soon adultery becomes the most +respectable form of marriage, and widowhood and celibacy are commonly +practised. No one takes a wife unless he takes her away from some one +else. Now men vie with one another in wasting what they have stolen, and +in collecting together what they have wasted with the keenest avarice; +they become utterly reckless, scorn poverty in others, fear personal +injury more than anything else, break the peace by their riots, and by +violence and terror domineer over those who are weaker than themselves. +No wonder that they plunder provinces and offer the seat of judgment for +sale, knocking it down after an auction to the highest bidder, since it +is the law of nations that you may sell what you have bought. + +X. However, my enthusiasm has carried me further than I intended, the +subject being an inviting one. Let me, then, end by pointing out that +the disgrace of these crimes does not belong especially to our own time. +Our ancestors before us have lamented, and our children after us will +lament, as we do, the ruin, of morality, the prevalence of vice, and +the gradual deterioration of mankind; yet these things are really +stationary, only moved slightly to and fro like the waves which at +one time a rising tide washes further over the land, and at another an +ebbing one restrains within a lower water mark. At one time the chief +vice will be adultery, and licentiousness will exceed all bounds; at +another time a rage for feasting will be in vogue, and men will waste +their inheritance in the most shameful of all ways, by the kitchen; at +another, excessive care for the body, and a devotion to personal beauty +which implies ugliness of mind; at another time, injudiciously granted +liberty will show itself in wanton recklessness and defiance of +authority; sometimes there will be a reign of cruelty both in public +and private, and the madness of the civil wars will come upon us, which +destroy all that is holy and inviolable. Sometimes even drunkenness will +be held in honour, and it will be a virtue to swallow most wine. Vices +do not lie in wait for us in one place alone, but hover around us in +changeful forms, sometimes even at variance one with another, so that +in turn they win and lose the field; yet we shall always be obliged to +pronounce the same verdict upon ourselves, that we are and always were +evil, and, I unwillingly add, that we always shall be. There always will +be homicides, tyrants, thieves, adulterers, ravishers, sacrilegious, +traitors: worse than all these is the ungrateful man, except we consider +that all these crimes flow from ingratitude, without which hardly any +great wickedness has ever grown to full stature. Be sure that you guard +against this as the greatest of crimes in yourself, but pardon it as the +least of crimes in another. For all the injury which you suffer is this: +you have lost the subject-matter of a benefit, not the benefit itself, +for you possess unimpaired the best part of it, in that you have given +it. Though we ought to be careful to bestow our benefits by preference +upon those who are likely to show us gratitude for them, yet we must +sometimes do what we have little hope will turn out well, and bestow +benefits upon those who we not only think will prove ungrateful, but who +we know have been so. For instance, if I should be able to save a +man's children from a great danger with no risk to myself, I should not +hesitate to do so. If a man be worthy I would defend him even with my +blood, and would share his perils; if he be unworthy, and yet by +merely crying for help I can rescue him from robbers, I would without +reluctance raise the shout which would save a fellow-creature. + +XI. The next point to be defined is, what kind of benefits are to be +given, and in what manner. First let us give what is necessary, next +what is useful, and then what is pleasant, provided that they be +lasting. We must begin with what is necessary, for those things which +support life affect the mind very differently from, those which adorn +and improve it. A man may be nice, and hard to please, in things which +he can easily do without, of which he can say, "Take them back; I do not +want them, I am satisfied with what I have." Sometimes, we wish not +only to, return what we have received, but even to throw it away. Of +necessary things, the first class consists of things without which we +cannot live; the second, of things without which we ought not to live; +and the third, of things without which we should not care to live. The +first class are, to be saved from the hands of the enemy, from the anger +of tyrants, from proscription, and the various other perils which +beset human life. By averting any one of these, we shall earn gratitude +proportionate to the greatness of the danger, for when men think of +the greatness of the misery from which they have been saved, the terror +which they have gone through enhances the value of our services. Yet we +ought not to delay rescuing any one longer than we are obliged, solely +in order to make his fears add weight to our services. Next come those +things without which we can indeed live, but in such a manner that it +would be better to die, such as liberty, chastity, or a good conscience. +After these are what we have come to hold dear by connexion and +relationship and long use and custom, such as our wives and children, +our household gods, and so on, to which the mind so firmly attaches +itself that separation from them seems worse than death. + +After these come useful things, which form a very wide and varied +class; in which will be money, not in excess, but enough for living in +a moderate style; public office, and, for the ambitious, due advancement +to higher posts; for nothing can be more useful to a man than to be +placed in a position in which he can benefit himself. All benefits +beyond these are superfluous, and are likely to spoil those who receive +them. In giving these we must be careful to make them acceptable by +giving them at the appropriate time, or by giving things which are not +common, but such as few people possess, or at any rate few possess in +our times; or again, by giving things in such a manner, that though not +naturally valuable, they become so by the time and place at which they +are given. We must reflect what present will produce the most pleasure, +what will most frequently come under the notice of the possessor of it, +so that whenever he is with it he may be with us also; and in all cases +we must be careful not to send useless presents, such as hunting weapons +to a woman or old man, or books to a rustic, or nets to catch wild +animals to a quiet literary man. On the other hand, we ought to be +careful, while we wish to send what will please, that we do not send +what will insultingly remind our friends of their failings, as, for +example, if we send wine to a hard drinker or drugs to an invalid, for a +present which contains an allusion to the shortcomings of the receiver, +becomes an outrage. + +XII. If we have a free choice as to what to give, we should above all +choose lasting presents, in order that our gift may endure as long +as possible; for few are so grateful as to think of what they have +received, even when they do not see it. Even the ungrateful remember +us by our gifts, when they are always in their sight and do not allow +themselves to be forgotten, but constantly obtrude and stamp upon the +mind the memory of the giver. As we never ought to remind men of what we +have given them, we ought all the more to choose presents that will be +permanent; for the things themselves will prevent the remembrance of the +giver from fading away. I would more willingly give a present of plate +than of coined money, and would more willingly give statues than clothes +or other things which are soon worn out. Few remain grateful after the +present is gone: many more remember their presents only while they make +use of them. If possible, I should like my present not to be consumed; +let it remain in existence, let it stick to my friend and share his +life. No one is so foolish as to need to be told not to send gladiators +or wild beasts to one who has just given a public show, or not to send +summer clothing in winter time, or winter clothing in summer. Common +sense must guide our benefits; we must consider the time and the place, +and the character of the receiver, which are the weights in the +scale, which cause our gifts to be well or ill received. How far more +acceptable a present is, if we give a man what he has not, than if we +give him what he has plenty of! if we give him what he has long been +searching for in vain, rather than what he sees everywhere! Let us make +presents of things which are rare and scarce rather than costly, things +which even a rich man will be glad of, just as common fruits, such as +we tire of after a few days, please us if they have ripened before the +usual season. People will also esteem things which no one else has given +to them, or which we have given to no one else. + +XIII. When the conquest of the East had flattered Alexander of Macedon +into believing himself to be more than man, the people of Corinth sent +an embassy to congratulate him, and presented him with the franchise of +their city. When Alexander smiled at this form of courtesy, one of +the ambassadors said, "We have never enrolled any stranger among our +citizens except Hercules and yourself." Alexander willingly accepted the +proffered honour, invited the ambassadors to his table, and showed them +other courtesies. He did not think of who offered the citizenship, but +to whom they had granted it; and being altogether the slave of glory, +though he knew neither its true nature or its limits, had followed in +the footsteps of Hercules and Bacchus, and had not even stayed his march +where they ceased; so that he glanced aside from the givers of this +honour to him with whom he shared it, and fancied that the heaven to +which his vanity aspired was indeed opening before him when he was made +equal to Hercules. In what indeed did that frantic youth, whose only +merit was his lucky audacity, resemble Hercules? Hercules conquered +nothing for himself; he travelled throughout the world, not coveting for +himself but liberating the countries which he conquered, an enemy to bad +men, a defender of the good, a peacemaker both by sea and land; whereas +the other was from his boyhood a brigand and desolator of nations, a +pest to his friends and enemies alike, whose greatest joy was to be the +terror of all mankind, forgetting that men fear not only the fiercest +but also the most cowardly animals, because of their evil and venomous +nature. + +XIV. Let us now return to our subject. He who bestows a benefit without +discrimination, gives what pleases no one; no one considers himself to +be under any obligation to the landlord of a tavern, or to be the guest +of any one with whom he dines in such company as to be able to say, +"What civility has he shown to me? no more than he has shown to that +man, whom he scarcely knows, or to that other, who is both his personal +enemy and a man of infamous character. Do you suppose that he wished to +do me any honour? not so, he merely wished to indulge his own vice of +profusion." If you wish men to be grateful for anything, give it but +seldom; no one can bear to receive what you give to all the world. +Yet let no one gather from this that I wish to impose any bonds upon +generosity; let her go to what lengths she will, so that she go a steady +course, not at random. It is possible to bestow gifts in such a manner +that each of those who receive them, although he shares them with many +others, may yet feel himself to be distinguished from the common herd. +Let each man have some peculiarity about his gift which may make him +consider himself more highly favoured than the rest. He may say, "I +received the same present that he did, but I never asked for it." "I +received the same present, but mine was given me after a few days, +whereas he had earned it by long service." "Others have the same +present, but it was not given to them with the same courtesy and +gracious words with which it was given to me." "That man got it because +he asked for it; I did not ask." "That man received it as well as I, but +then he could easily return it; one has great expectations from a rich +man, old and childless, as he is; whereas in giving the same present to +me he really gave more, because he gave it without the hope of receiving +any return for it." Just as a courtesan divides her favours among +many men, so that no one of her friends is without some proof of her +affection, so let him who wishes his benefits to be prized consider how +he may at the same time gratify many men, and nevertheless give each one +of them some especial mark of favour to distinguish him from the rest. + +XV. I am no advocate of slackness in giving benefits: the more and the +greater they are, the more praise they will bring to the giver. Yet +let them be given with discretion; for what is given carelessly and +recklessly can please no one. Whoever, therefore, supposes that in +giving this advice I wish to restrict benevolence and to confine it to +narrower limits, entirely mistakes the object of my warning. What virtue +do we admire more than benevolence? Which do we encourage more? Who +ought to applaud it more than we Stoics, who preach the brotherhood of +the human race? What then is it? Since no impulse of the human mind can +be approved of, even though it springs from a right feeling, unless it +be made into a virtue by discretion, I forbid generosity to degenerate +into extravagance. It is, indeed, pleasant to receive a benefit with +open arms, when reason bestows it upon the worthy, not when it is flung +hither or thither thoughtlessly and at random; this alone we care to +display and claim as our own. Can you call anything a benefit, if +you feel ashamed to mention the person who gave it you? How far more +grateful is a benefit, how far more deeply does it impress itself upon +the mind, never to be forgotten, when we rejoice to think not so much of +what it is, as from whom we have received it! Crispus Passienus was wont +to say that some men's advice was to be preferred to their presents, +some men's presents to their advice; and he added as an example, "I +would rather have received advice from Augustus than a present; I would +rather receive a present from Claudius than advice." I, however, think +that one ought not to wish for a benefit from any man whose judgement +is worthless. What then? Ought we not to receive what Claudius gives? We +ought; but we ought to regard it as obtained from fortune, which may at +any moment turn against us. Why do we separate this which naturally is +connected? That is not a benefit, to which the best part of a benefit, +that it be bestowed with judgment, is wanting: a really great sum of +money, if it be given neither with discernment nor with good will, is +no more a benefit than if it remained hoarded. There are, however, +many things which we ought not to reject, yet for which we cannot feel +indebted. + + + + +BOOK II. + +I. + + +Let us consider, most excellent Liberalis, what still remains of the +earlier part of the subject; in what way a benefit should be bestowed. I +think that I can point out the shortest way to this; let us give in the +way in which we ourselves should like to receive. Above all we should +give willingly, quickly, and without any hesitation; a benefit commands +no gratitude if it has hung for a long time in the hands of the giver, +if he seems unwilling to part with it, and gives it as though he were +being robbed of it. Even though some delay should intervene, let us +by all means in our power strive not to seem to have been in two minds +about giving it at all. To hesitate is the next thing to refusing to +give, and destroys all claim to gratitude. For just as the sweetest part +of a benefit is the kindly feeling of the giver, it follows that one who +has by his very delay proved that he gives unwillingly, must be regarded +not as having given anything, but as having been unable to keep it from +an importunate suitor. Indeed, many men are made generous by want of +firmness. The most acceptable benefits are those which are waiting for +us to take them, which are easy to be received, and offer themselves to +us, so that the only delay is caused by the modesty of the receiver. +The best thing of all is to anticipate a person's wishes; the next, to +follow them; the former is the better course, to be beforehand with our +friends by giving them what they want before they ask us for it, for the +value of a gift is much enhanced by sparing an honest man the misery of +asking for it with confusion and blushes. He who gets what he asked +for does not get it for nothing, for indeed, as our austere ancestors +thought, nothing is so dear as that which is bought by prayers. Men +would be much more modest in their petitions to heaven, if these had to +be made publicly; so that even when addressing the gods, before whom +we can with all honour bend our knees, we prefer to pray silently and +within ourselves. + +II. It is unpleasant, burdensome, and covers one with shame to have to +say, "Give me." You should spare your friends, and those whom you wish +to make your friends, from having to do this; however quick he may be, +a man gives too late who gives what he has been asked for. We ought, +therefore, to divine every man's wishes, and when we have discovered +them, to set him free from the hard necessity of asking; you may be sure +that a benefit which comes unasked will be delightful and will not be +forgotten. If we do not succeed in anticipating our friends, let us at +any rate cut them short when they ask us for anything, so that we may +appear to be reminded of what we meant to do, rather than to have been +asked to do it. Let us assent at once, and by our promptness make it +appear that we meant to do so even before we were solicited. As in +dealing with sick persons much depends upon when food is given, and +plain water given at the right moment sometimes acts as a remedy, so +a benefit, however slight and commonplace it may be, if it be promptly +given without losing a moment of time, gains enormously in importance, +and wins our gratitude more than a far more valuable present given after +long waiting and deliberation. One who gives so readily must needs give +with good will; he therefore gives cheerfully and shows his disposition +in his countenance. + +III. Many who bestow immense benefits spoil them by their silence or +slowness of speech, which gives them an air of moroseness, as they say +"yes" with a face which seems to say "no." How much better is it to join +kind words to kind actions, and to enhance the value of our gifts by a +civil and gracious commendation of them! To cure your friend of being +slow to ask a favour of you, you may join to your gift the familiar +rebuke, "I am angry with you for not having long ago let me know what +you wanted, for having asked for it so formally, or for having made +interest with a third party." "I congratulate myself that you have been +pleased to make trial of me; hereafter, if you want anything, ask for it +as your right; however, for this time I pardon your want of manners." +By so doing you will cause him to value your friendship more highly +than that, whatever it may have been, which he came to ask of you. The +goodness and kindness of a benefactor never appears so great as when on +leaving him one says, "I have to-day gained much; I am more pleased at +finding him so kind than if I had obtained many times more of this, of +which I was speaking, by some other means; I never can make any adequate +return to this man for his goodness." + +IV. Many, however, there are who, by harsh words and contemptuous +manner, make their very kindnesses odious, for by speaking and acting +disdainfully they make us sorry that they have granted our requests. +Various delays also take place after we have obtained a promise; and +nothing is more heartbreaking than to be forced to beg for the very +thing which you already have been promised. Benefits ought to be +bestowed at once, but from some persons it is easier to obtain the +promise of them than to get them. One man has to be asked to remind our +benefactor of his purpose; another, to bring it into effect; and thus a +single present is worn away in passing through many hands, until hardly +any gratitude is left for the original promiser, since whoever we are +forced to solicit after the giving of the promise receives some of the +gratitude which we owe to the giver. Take care, therefore, if you +wish your gifts to be esteemed, that they reach those to whom they are +promised entire, and, as the saying is, without any deduction. Let no +one intercept them or delay them; for no one can take any share of the +gratitude due for your gifts without robbing you of it. + +V. Nothing is more bitter than long uncertainty; some can bear to have +their hopes extinguished better than to have them deferred. Yet many +men are led by an unworthy vanity into this fault of putting off the +accomplishment of their promises, merely in order to swell the crowd of +their suitors, like the ministers of royalty, who delight in prolonging +the display of their own arrogance, hardly thinking themselves possessed +of power unless they let each man see for a long time how powerful they +are. They do nothing promptly, or at one sitting; they are indeed swift +to do mischief, but slow to do good. Be sure that the comic poet speaks +the most absolute truth in the verses:-- + + "Know you not this? If you your gifts delay, + You take thereby my gratitude away." + +And the following lines, the expression of virtuous pain--a +high-spirited man's misery,-- + + "What thou doest, do quickly;" + +and:-- + + "Nothing in the world + Is worth this trouble; I had rather you + Refused it to me now." + +When the mind begins through weariness to hate the promised benefit, or +while it is wavering in expectation of it, how can it feel grateful +for it? As the most refined cruelty is that which prolongs the torture, +while to kill the victim at once is a kind of mercy, since the extremity +of torture brings its own end with it--the interval is the worst part of +the execution--so the shorter time a benefit hangs in the balance, the +more grateful it is to the receiver. It is possible to look forward with +anxious disquietude even to good things, and, seeing that most benefits +consist in a release from some form of misery, a man destroys the value +of the benefit which he confers, if he has the power to relieve us, +and yet allows us to suffer or to lack pleasure longer than we need. +Kindness always eager to do good, and one who acts by love naturally +acts at once; he who does us good, but does it tardily and with long +delays, does not do so from the heart. Thus he loses two most important +things: time, and the proof of his good will to us; for a lingering +consent is but a form of denial. + +VI. The manner in which things are said or done, my Liberalis, forms a +very important part of every transaction. We gain much by quickness, and +lose much by slowness. Just as in darts, the strength of the iron head +remains the same, but there is an immeasureable difference between the +blow of one hurled with the full swing of the arm and one which merely +drops from the hand, and the same sword either grazes or pierces +according as the blow is delivered; so, in like manner, that which +is given is the same, but the manner in which it is given makes the +difference. How sweet, how precious is a gift, when he who gives does +not permit himself to be thanked, and when while he gives he forgets +that he has given! To reproach a man at the very moment that you are +doing him a service is sheer madness; it is to mix insult with your +favours. We ought not to make our benefits burdensome, or to add any +bitterness to them. Even if there be some subject upon which you wish to +warn your friend, choose some other time for doing so. + +VII. Fabius Verrucosus used to compare a benefit bestowed by a harsh man +in an offensive manner to a gritty loaf of bread, which a hungry man is +obliged to receive, but which is painful to eat. When Marius Nepos of +the praetorian guard asked Tiberius Caesar for help to pay his debts, +Tiberius asked him for a list of his creditors; this is calling a +meeting of creditors, not paying debts. When the list was made out, +Tiberius wrote to Nepos telling him that he had ordered the money to be +paid, and adding some offensive reproaches. The result of this was +that Nepos owed no debts, yet received no kindness; Tiberius, indeed, +relieved him from his creditors, but laid him under no obligation. +Tiberius, however, had some design in doing so; I imagine he did not +wish more of his friends to come to him with the same request. His mode +of proceeding was, perhaps, successful in restraining men's extravagant +desires by shame, but he who wishes to confer benefits must follow quite +a different path. In all ways you should make your benefit as acceptable +as possible by presenting it in the most attractive form; but the method +of Tiberius is not to confer benefits, but to reproach. + +VIII. Moreover, if incidentally I should say what I think of this part +of the subject, I do not consider that it is becoming even to an emperor +to give merely in order to cover a man with shame. "And yet," we are +told, "Tiberius did not even by this means attain his object; for after +this a good many persons were found to make the same request. He ordered +all of them to explain the reasons of their indebtedness before the +senate, and when they did so, granted them certain definite sums of +money." This is not an act of generosity, but a reprimand. You may call +it a subsidy, or an imperial contribution; it is not a benefit, for +the receiver cannot think of it without shame. I was summoned before a +judge, and had to be tried at bar before I obtained what I asked for. + +IX. Accordingly, all writers on ethical philosophy tell us that some +benefits ought to be given in secret, others in public. Those things +which it is glorious to receive, such as military decorations or public +offices, and whatever else gains in value the more widely it is known, +should be conferred in public; on the other hand, when they do not +promote a man or add to his social standing, but help him when in +weakness, in want, or in disgrace, they should be given silently, and so +as to be known only to those who profit by them. + +X. Sometimes even the person who is assisted must be deceived, in order +that he may receive our bounty without knowing the source from whence +it flows. It is said that Arcesilaus had a friend who was poor, but +concealed his poverty; who was ill, yet tried to hide his disorder, and +who had not money for the necessary expenses of existence. Without his +knowledge, Arcesilaus placed a bag of money under his pillow, in order +that this victim of false shame might rather seem to find what he wanted +than to receive. "What," say you, "ought he not to know from whom he +received it?" Yes; let him not know it at first, if it be essential to +your kindness that he should not; afterwards I will do so much for him, +and give him so much that he will perceive who was the giver of the +former benefit; or, better still, let him not know that he has received +any thing, provided I know that I have given it. "This," you say, "is to +get too little return for one's goodness." True, if it be an investment +of which you are thinking; but if a gift, it should be given in the way +which will be of most service to the receiver. You should be satisfied +with the approval of your own conscience; if not, you do not really +delight in doing good, but in being seen to do good. "For all that," say +you, "I wish him to know it." Is it a debtor that you seek for? "For +all that, I wish him to know it." What! though it be more useful, more +creditable, more pleasant for him not to know his benefactor, will you +not consent to stand aside? "I wish him to know." So, then, you would +not save a man's life in the dark? I do not deny that, whenever the +matter admits of it, one ought to take into consideration the pleasure +which we receive from the joy of the receiver of our kindness; but if he +ought to have help and is ashamed to receive it--if what we bestow upon +him pains him unless it be concealed--I forbear to make my benefits +public. Why should I not refrain from hinting at my having given him +anything, when the first and most essential rule is, never to reproach +a man with what you have done for him, and not even to remind him of it. +The rule for the giver and receiver of a benefit is, that the one should +straightway forget that he has given, the other should never forget that +he has received it. + +XI. A constant reference to one's own services wounds our friend's +feelings. Like the man who was saved from the proscription under +the triumvirate by one of Caesar's friends, and afterwards found it +impossible to endure his preserver's arrogance, they wish to cry, "Give +me back to Caesar." How long will you go on saying, "I saved you, I +snatched you from the jaws of death?" This is indeed life, if I remember +it by my own will, but death if I remember it at yours; I owe you +nothing, if you saved me merely in order to have some one to point at. +How long do you mean to lead me about? how long do you mean to forbid +me to forget my adventure? If I had been a defeated enemy, I should +have been led in triumph but once. We ought not to speak of the benefits +which we have conferred; to remind men of them is to ask them to return +them. We should not obtrude them, or recall the memory of them; you +should only remind a man of what you have given him by giving him +something else. We ought not even to tell others of our good deeds. +He who confers a benefit should be silent, it should be told by the +receiver; for otherwise you may receive the retort which was made to one +who was everywhere boasting of the benefit which he had conferred: "You +will not deny," said his victim, "that you have received a return for +it?" "When?" asked he. "Often," said the other, "and in many places, +that is, wherever and whenever you have told the story." What need is +there for you to speak, and to take the place which belongs to another? +There is a man who can tell the story in a way much more to your credit, +and thus you will gain glory for not telling it your self. You would +think me ungrateful if, through your own silence, no one is to know of +your benefit. So far from doing this, even if any one tells the story in +our presence, we ought to make answer, "He does indeed deserve much more +than this, and I am aware that I have not hitherto done any great things +for him, although I wish to do so." This should not be said jokingly, +nor yet with that air by which some persons repel those whom they +especially wish to attract. In addition to this, we ought to act with +the greatest politeness towards such persons. If the farmer ceases his +labours after he has put in the seed, he will lose what he has sown; it +is only by great pains that seeds are brought to yield a crop; no plant +will bear fruit unless it be tended with equal care from first to last, +and the same rule is true of benefits. Can any benefits be greater than +those which children receive from their parents? Yet these benefits +are useless if they be deserted while young, if the pious care of the +parents does not for a long time watch over the gift which they have +bestowed. So it is with other benefits; unless you help them, you will +lose them; to give is not enough, you must foster what you have given. +If you wish those whom you lay under an obligation to be grateful to +you, you must not merely confer benefits upon them, but you must also +love them. Above all, as I said before, spare their ears; you will weary +them if you remind them of your goodness, if you reproach them with it +you will make them hate you. Pride ought above all things to be avoided +when you confer a benefit. What need have you for disdainful airs, +or swelling phrases? the act itself will exalt you. Let us shun vain +boasting: let us be silent, and let our deeds speak for us. A benefit +conferred with haughtiness not only wins no gratitude, but causes +dislike. + +XII. Gaius Caesar granted Pompeius Pennus his life, that is, if not +to take away life be to grant it; then, when Pompeius was set free and +returning thanks to him, he stretched out his left foot to be kissed. +Those who excuse this action, and say that it was not done through +arrogance, say that he wished to show him a gilded, nay a golden slipper +studded with pearls. "Well," say they, "what disgrace can there be in a +man of consular rank kissing gold and pearls, and what part of Caesar's +whole body was it less pollution to kiss?" So, then, that man, +the object of whose life was to change a free state into a Persian +despotism, was not satisfied when a senator, an aged man, a man who had +filled the highest offices in the state, prostrated himself before him +in the presence of all the nobles, just as the vanquished prostrate +themselves before their conqueror! He discovered a place below his knees +down to which he might thrust liberty. What is this but trampling upon +the commonwealth, and that, too, with the left foot, though you may say +that this point does not signify? It was not a sufficiently foul and +frantic outrage for the emperor to sit at the trial of a consular for +his life wearing slippers, he must needs push his shoes into a senator's +face. + +XIII. O pride, the silliest fault of great good fortune! how pleasant +it is to take nothing from thee! how dost thou turn all benefits into +outrages! how dost thou delight in all excess! how ill all things become +thee! The higher thou risest the lower thou art, and provest that +the good things by which thou art so puffed up profit thee not; thou +spoilest all that thou givest. It is worth while to inquire why it is +that pride thus swaggers and changes the form and appearance of her +countenance, so that she prefers a mask to her own face. It is pleasant +to receive gifts when they are conferred in a kindly and gentle manner, +when a superior in giving them does not exalt himself over me, but shows +as much good feeling as possible, placing himself on a level with me, +giving without parade, and choosing a time when I am glad of his help, +rather than waiting till I am in the bitterest need. The only way by +which you can prevail upon proud men not to spoil their gifts by their +arrogance is by proving to them that benefits do not appear greater +because they are bestowed with great pomp and circumstance; that no one +will think them greater men for so doing, and that excessive pride is a +mere delusion which leads men to hate even what they ought to love. + +XIV. There are some things which injure those who receive them, things +which it is not a benefit to give but to withhold; we should therefore +consider the usefulness of our gift rather than the wish of the +petitioner to receive it; for we often long for hurtful things, and are +unable to discern how ruinous they are, because our judgment is biassed +by our feelings; when, however, the longing is past, when that frenzied +impulse which masters our good sense has passed away, we abhor those +who have given us hurtful gifts. As we refuse cold water to the sick, +or swords to the grief-stricken or remorseful, and take from the insane +whatever they might in their delirium use to their own destruction, so +must we persist in refusing to give anything whatever that is hurtful, +although our friends earnestly and humbly, nay, sometimes even most +piteously beg for it. We ought to look at the end of our benefits as +well as the beginning, and not merely to give what men are glad to +receive, but what they will hereafter be glad to have received. There +are many who say, "I know that this will do him no good, but what am I +to do? he begs for it, I cannot withstand his entreaties. Let him see +to it; he will blame himself, not me." Not so: you he will blame, and +deservedly; when he comes to his right mind, when the frenzy which +now excites him has left him, how can he help hating the man who has +assisted him to harm and to endanger himself? It is a cruel kindness to +allow one's self to be won over into granting that which injures those +who beg for it. Just as it is the noblest of acts to save men from harm +against their will, so it is but hatred, under the mask of civility, to +grant what is harmful to those who ask for it. Let us confer benefits of +such a kind, that the more they are made use of the better they please, +and which never can turn into injuries. I never will give money to a man +if I know that he will pay it to an adulteress, nor will I be found in +connexion with any wicked act or plan; if possible, I will restrain men +from crime; if not, at least I will never assist them in it. Whether my +friend be driven into doing wrong by anger, or seduced from the path of +safety by the heat of ambition, he shall never gain the means of doing +mischief except from himself, nor will I enable him one day to say, +"He ruined me out of love for me." Our friends often give us what our +enemies wish us to receive; we are driven by the unseasonable fondness +of the former into the ruin which the latter hope will befall us. Yet, +often as it is the case, what can be more shameful than that there +should be no difference between a benefit and hatred? + +XV. Let us never bestow gifts which may recoil upon us to our shame. +As the sum total of friendship consists in making our friends equal to +ourselves, we ought to consider the interests of both parties; I must +give to him that wants, yet so that I do not want myself; I must help +him who is perishing, yet so that I do not perish myself, unless by so +doing I can save a great man or a great cause. I must give no benefit +which it would disgrace me to ask for. I ought not to make a small +benefit appear a great one, nor allow great benefits to be regarded as +small; for although it destroys all feeling of gratitude to treat what +you give like a creditor, yet you do not reproach a man, but merely +set off your gift to the best advantage by letting him know what it is +worth. Every man must consider what his resources and powers are, so +that we may not give either more or less than we are able. We must also +consider the character and position of the person to whom we give, for +some men are too great to give small gifts, while others are too small +to receive great ones. Compare, therefore, the character both of the +giver and the receiver, and weigh that which you give between the two, +taking care that what is given be neither too burdensome nor too trivial +for the one to give, nor yet such as the receiver will either treat with +disdain as too small, or think too great for him to deal with. + +XVI. Alexander, who was of unsound mind, and always full of magnificent +ideas, presented somebody with a city. When the man to whom he gave it +had reflected upon the scope of his own powers, he wished to avoid the +jealousy which so great a present would excite, saying that the gift did +not suit a man of his position. "I do not ask," replied Alexander, "what +is becoming for you to receive, but what is becoming for me to give." +This seems a spirited and kingly speech, yet really it is a most foolish +one. Nothing is by itself a becoming gift for any one: all depends upon +who gives it, to whom he gives it, when, for what reason, where, and +so forth, without which details it is impossible to argue about it. +Inflated creature! if it did not become him to receive this gift, it +could not become thee to give it. There should be a proportion between +men's characters and the offices which they fill; and as virtue in all +cases should be our measure, he who gives too much acts as wrongly as he +who gives too little. Even granting that fortune has raised you so high, +that, where other men give cups, you give cities (which it would show a +greater mind in you not to take than to take and squander), still there +must be some of your friends who are not strong enough to put a city in +their pockets. + +XVII. A certain cynic asked Antigonus for a talent. Antigonus answered +that this was too much for a cynic to ask for. After this rebuff he +asked for a penny. Antigonus answered that this was too little for a +king to give. "This kind of hair-splitting" (you say) "is contemptible: +he found the means of giving neither. In the matter of the penny he +thought of the king, in that of the talent he thought of the cynic, +whereas with respect to the cynic it would have been right to receive +the penny, with respect to the king it would have been right to give the +talent. Though there may be things which are too great for a cynic to +receive, yet nothing is so small, that it does not become a gracious +king to bestow it." If you ask me, I applaud Antigonus; for it is not to +be endured that a man who despises money should ask for it. Your cynic +has publicly proclaimed his hatred of money, and assumed the character +of one who despises it: let him act up to his professions. It is most +inconsistent for him to earn money by glorifying his poverty. I wish +to use Chrysippus's simile of the game of ball, in which the ball must +certainly fall by the fault either of the thrower or of the catcher; it +only holds its course when it passes between the hands of two persons +who each throw it and catch it suitably. It is necessary, however, for a +good player to send the ball in one way to a comrade at a long distance, +and in another to one at a short distance. So it is with a benefit: +unless it be suitable both for the giver and the receiver, it will +neither leave the one nor reach the other as it ought. If we have to +do with a practised and skilled player, we shall throw the ball more +recklessly, for however it may come, that quick and agile hand will send +it back again; if we are playing with an unskilled novice, we shall not +throw it so hard, but far more gently, guiding it straight into his very +hands, and we shall run to meet it when it returns to us. This is just +what we ought to do in conferring benefits; let us teach some men how to +do so, and be satisfied if they attempt it, if they have the courage and +the will to do so. For the most part, however, we make men ungrateful, +and encourage them, to be so, as if our benefits were only great when +we cannot receive any gratitude for them; just as some spiteful +ball-players purposely put out their companion, of course to the ruin of +the game, which cannot be carried on without entire agreement Many men +are of so depraved a nature that they had rather lose the presents which +they make than be thought to have received a return for them, because +they are proud, and like to lay people under obligations: yet how much +better and more kindly would it be if they tried to enable the others +also to perform their parts, if they encouraged them in returning +gratitude, put the best construction upon all their acts, received one +who wished to thank them just as cordially as if he came to repay what +he had received, and easily lent themselves to the belief that those +whom they have laid under an obligation wish to repay it. We blame +usurers equally when they press harshly for payment, and when they delay +and make difficulties about taking back the money which they have lent; +in the same way, it is just as right that a benefit should be returned, +as it is wrong to ask any one to return it. The best man is he who gives +readily, never asks for any return, and is delighted when the return +is made, because, having really and truly forgotten what he gave, he +receives it as though it were a present. + +XVIII. Some men not only give, but even receive benefit haughtily, a +mistake into which we ought not to fall: for now let us cross over to +the other side of the subject, and consider how men should behave when +they receive benefits. Every function which is performed by two persons +makes equal demands upon both: after you have considered what a father +ought to be, you will perceive that there remains an equal task, that +of considering what a son ought to be: a husband has certain duties, +but those of a wife are no less important. Each of these give and take +equally, and each require a similar rule of life, which, as Hecaton +observes, is hard to follow: indeed, it is difficult for us to attain +to virtue, or even to anything that comes near virtue: for we ought not +only to act virtuously but to do so upon principle. We ought to follow +this guide throughout our lives, and to do everything great and small +according to its dictates: according as virtue prompts us we ought both +to give and to receive. Now she will declare at the outset that we ought +not to receive benefits from every man. "From whom, then, ought we to +receive them?" To answer you briefly, I should say, from those to whom +we have given them. Let us consider whether we ought not to be even more +careful in choosing to whom we should owe than to whom we should give. +For even supposing that no unpleasantness should result (and very much +always does), still it is a great misery to be indebted to a man to whom +you do not wish to be under an obligation; whereas it is most delightful +to receive a benefit from one whom you can love even after he has +wronged you, and when the pleasure which you feel in his friendship is +justified by the grounds on which it is based. Nothing is more wretched +for a modest and honourable man than to feel it to be his duty to love +one whom it does not please him to love. I must constantly remind you +that I do not speak of wise men, who take pleasure in everything that is +their duty, who have their feelings under command, and are able to lay +down whatever law they please to themselves and keep it, but that I +speak of imperfect beings struggling to follow the right path, who often +have trouble in bending their passions to their will. I must therefore +choose the man from whom I will accept a benefit; indeed, I ought to be +more careful in the choice of my creditor for a benefit than for money; +for I have only to pay the latter as much as I received of him, land +when I have paid it I am free from all obligation; but to the other I +must both repay more, and even when I have repaid his kindness we remain +connected, for when I have paid my debt I ought again to renew it, +while our friendship endures unbroken. Thus, as I ought not to make an +unworthy man my friend, so I ought not to admit an unworthy man into +that most holy bond of gratitude for benefits, from which friendship +arises. You reply, "I cannot always say 'No': sometimes I must receive a +benefit even against my will. Suppose I were given something by a cruel +and easily offended tyrant, who would take it as an affront if his +bounty were slighted? am I not to accept it? Suppose it were offered by +a pirate, or a brigand, or a king of the temper of a pirate or brigand. +What ought I to do? Such a man is not a worthy object for me to owe a +benefit to." When I say that you ought to choose, I except vis major +and fear, which destroy all power of choice. If you are free, if it lies +with you to decide whether you will or not, then you will turn over in +your own mind whether you will take a gift from a man or not; but if +your position makes it impossible for you to choose, then be assured +that you do not receive a gift, you merely obey orders. No one incurs +any obligation by receiving what it was not in his power to refuse; if +you want to know whether I wish to take it, arrange matters so that I +have the power of saying 'No.' "Yet suppose he gave you your life." It +does not matter what the gift was, unless it be given and received with +good will: you are not my preserver because you have saved my life. +Poison sometimes acts as a medicine, yet it is not on that account +regarded as wholesome. Some things benefit us but put us under no +obligation: for instance a man who intended to kill a tyrant, cut with +his sword a tumour from which he suffered: yet the tyrant did not show +him gratitude because by wounding him he had healed a disease which +surgeons had feared to meddle with. + +XIX. You see that the actual thing itself is not of much importance, +because it is not regarded as a benefit at all, if you do good when you +intended to do evil; in such a case the benefit is done by chance, the +man did harm. I have seen a lion in the amphitheatre, who recognized one +of the men who fought with wild beasts, who once had been his keeper, +and protected him against the attacks of the other animals. Are we, +then, to say that this assistance of the brute was a benefit? By no +means, because it did not intend to do it, and did not do it with kindly +intentions. You may class the lion and your tyrant together: each of +them saved a man's life, yet neither conferred a benefit. Because it is +not a benefit to be forced to receive one, neither is it a benefit to be +under an obligation to a man to whom we do not wish to be indebted. You +must first give me personal freedom of decision, and then your benefit. + +XX. The question has been raised, whether Marcus Brutus ought to have +received his life from the hands of Julius Caesar, who, he had decided, +ought to be put to death. + +As to the grounds upon which he put him to death, I shall discuss them +elsewhere; for to my mind, though he was in other respects a great man, +in this he seems to have been entirely wrong, and not to have followed +the maxims of the Stoic philosophy. He must either have feared the name +of "King," although a state thrives best under a good king, or he must +have hoped that liberty could exist in a state where some had so much to +gain by reigning, and others had so much to gain by becoming slaves. Or, +again, he must have supposed that it would be possible to restore the +ancient constitution after all the ancient manners had been lost, and +that citizens could continue to possess equal rights, or laws remain +inviolate, in a state in which he had seen so many thousands of men +fighting to decide, not whether they should be slaves or free, but which +master they should serve. How forgetful he seems to have been, both of +human nature and of the history of his own country, in supposing that +when one despot was destroyed another of the same temper would not take +his place, though, after so many kings had perished by lightning and the +sword, a Tarquin was found to reign! Yet Brutus did right in receiving +his life from Caesar, though he was not bound thereby to regard Caesar +as his father, since it was by a wrong that Caesar had come to be in a +position to bestow this benefit. A man does not save your life who does +not kill you; nor does he confer a benefit, but merely gives you your +discharge. [The 'discharge' alluded to is that which was granted to +the beaten one of a pair of gladiators, when their duel was not to the +death.] + +XXI. It seems to offer more opportunity for debate to consider what a +captive ought to do, if a man of abominable vices offers him the price +of his ransom? Shall I permit myself to be saved by a wretch? When safe, +what recompense can I make to him? Am I to live with an infamous person? +Yet, am I not to live with my preserver? I will tell you my opinion. I +would accept money, even from such a person, if it were to save my life; +yet I would only accept it as a loan, not as a benefit. I would repay +him the money, and if I were ever able to preserve him from danger I +would do so. As for friendship, which can only exist between equals, I +would not condescend to be such a man's friend; nor would I regard him +as my preserver, but merely as a money-lender, to whom I am only bound +to repay what I borrowed from him. + +A man may be a worthy person for me to receive a benefit from, but it +will hurt him to give it. For this reason I will not receive it, because +he is ready to help me to his own prejudice, or even danger. Suppose +that he is willing to plead for me in court, but by so doing will make +the king his enemy. I should be his enemy, if, when he is willing to +risk himself for me, if I were not to risk myself without him, which +moreover is easier for me to do. + +As an instance of this, Hecaton calls the case of Arcesilaus silly, and +not to the purpose. Arcesilaus, he says, refused to receive a large sum +of money which was offered to him by a son, lest the son should offend +his penurious father. What did he do deserving of praise, in not +receiving stolen goods, in choosing not to receive them, instead of +returning them? What proof of self-restraint is there in refusing to +receive another man's property. If you want an instance of magnanimity, +take the case of Julius Graecinus, whom Caius Caesar put to death merely +on the ground that he was a better man than it suited a tyrant for +anyone to be. This man, when he was receiving subscriptions from many of +his friends to cover his expenses in exhibiting public games, would not +receive a large sum which was sent him by Fabius Persicus; and when he +was blamed for rejecting it by those who think more of what is given +than of who gives it, he answered, "Am I to accept a present from a man +when I would not accept his offer to drink a glass of wine with him?" + +When a consular named Rebilius, a man of equally bad character, sent +a yet larger sum to Graecinus, and pressed him to receive it. "I must +beg," answered he, "that you will excuse me. I did not take money from +Persicus either." Ought we to call this receiving presents, or rather +taking one's pick of the senate? + +XXII. When we have decided to accept, let us accept with cheerfulness, +showing pleasure, and letting the giver see it, so that he may at once +receive some return for his goodness: for as it is a good reason for +rejoicing to see our friend happy, it is a better one to have made +him so. Let us, therefore, show how acceptable a gift is by loudly +expressing our gratitude for it; and let us do so, not only in the +hearing of the giver, but everywhere. He who receives a benefit with +gratitude, repays the first instalment of it. + +XXIII. There are some, who only like to receive benefits privately: they +dislike having any witnesses and confidants. Such men, we may believe, +have no good intentions. As a giver is justified in dwelling upon those +qualities of his gift which will please the receiver, so a man, when he +receives, should do so publicly; you should not take from a man what +you are ashamed to owe him. Some return thanks to one stealthily, in a +corner, in a whisper. This is not modesty, but a kind of denying of the +debt: it is the part of an ungrateful man not to express his gratitude +before witnesses. Some object to any accounts being kept between them +and their benefactors, and wish no brokers to be employed or witnesses +to be called, but merely to give their own signature to a receipt. Those +men do the like, who take care to let as few persons as possible know +of the benefits which they have received. They fear to receive them in +public, in order that their success may be attributed rather to their +own talents than to the help of others: they are very seldom to be +found in attendance upon those to whom they owe their lives and their +fortunes, and thus, while avoiding the imputation of servility, they +incur that of ingratitude. + +XXIV. Some men speak in the most offensive terms of those to whom they +owe most. There are men whom it is safer to affront than to serve, +for their dislike leads them to assume the airs of persons who are not +indebted to us: although nothing more is expected of them than that they +should remember what they owe us, refreshing their memory from time to +time, because no one can be grateful who forgets a kindness, and he +who remembers it, by so doing proves his gratitude. We ought neither to +receive benefits with a fastidious air, nor yet with a slavish humility: +for if a man does not care for a benefit when it is freshly bestowed--a +time at which all presents please us most--what will he do when its +first charms have gone off? Others receive with an air of disdain, as +much as to say. "I do not want it; but as you wish it so very much, I +will allow you to give it to me." Others take benefits languidly, and +leave the giver in doubt as to whether they know that they have received +them; others barely open their lips in thanks, and would be less +offensive if they said nothing. One ought to proportion one's thanks +to the importance of the benefit received, and to use the phrases, "You +have laid more of us than you think under an obligation," for everyone +likes to find his good actions extend further than he expected. "You do +not know what it is that you have done for me; but you ought to know +how much more important it is than you imagine." It is in itself +an expression of gratitude to speak of one's self as overwhelmed by +kindness; or "I shall never be able to thank you sufficiently; but, at +any rate, I will never cease to express everywhere my inability to thank +you." + +XXV. By nothing did Furnius gain greater credit with Augustus, and make +it easy for him to obtain anything else for which he might ask, than +by merely saying, when at his request Augustus pardoned his father for +having taken Antonius's side, "One wrong alone I have received at your +hands, Caesar; you have forced me to live and to die owing you a greater +debt of gratitude than I can ever repay." What can prove gratitude +so well as that a man should never be satisfied, should never even +entertain the hope of making any adequate return for what he has +received? By these and similar expressions we must try not to conceal +our gratitude, but to display it as clearly as possible. No words need +be used; if we only feel as we ought, our thankfulness will be shown in +our countenances. He who intends to be grateful, let him think how he +shall repay a kindness while he is receiving it. Chrysippus says that +such a man must watch for his opportunity, and spring forward whenever +it offers, like one who has been entered for a race, and who stands at +the starting-point waiting for the barriers to be thrown open; and even +then he must use great exertions and great swiftness to catch the other, +who has a start of him. + +XXVI. We must now consider what is the main cause of ingratitude. It is +caused by excessive self-esteem, by that fault innate in all mortals, +of taking a partial view of ourselves and our own acts, by greed, or by +jealousy. + +Let us begin with the first of these. Every one is prejudiced in his own +favour, from which it follows that he believes himself to have earned +all that he receives, regards it as payment for his services, and does +not think that he has been appraised at a valuation sufficiently near +his own. "He has given me this," says he, "but how late, after how much +toil? how much more might I have earned if I had attached myself to So +and so, or to So and so? I did not expect this; I have been treated like +one of the herd; did he really think that I only deserved so little? +why, it would have been less insulting to have passed me over +altogether." + +XXVII. The augur Cnaeus Lentulus, who, before his freedmen reduced him +to poverty, was one of the richest of men, who saw himself in possession +of a fortune of four hundred millions--I say advisedly, "saw," for he +never did more than see it--was as barren and contemptible in intellect +as he was in spirit. Though very avaricious, yet he was so poor a +speaker that he found it easier to give men coins than words. This man, +who owed all his prosperity to the late Emperor Augustus, to whom he had +brought only poverty, encumbered with a noble name, when he had risen to +be the chief man in Rome, both in wealth and influence, used sometimes +to complain that Augustus had interrupted his legal studies, observing +that he had not received anything like what he had lost by giving up the +study of eloquence. Yet the truth was that Augustus, besides loading him +with other gifts, had set him free from the necessity of making himself +ridiculous by labouring at a profession in which he never could succeed. + +Greed does not permit any one to be grateful; for what is given is never +equal to its base desires, and the more we receive the more we +covet, for avarice is much more eager when it has to deal with great +accumulations of wealth, just as the power of a flame is enormously +greater in proportion to the size of the conflagration from which it +springs. Ambition in like manner suffers no man to rest satisfied with +that measure of public honours, to gain which was once the limit of his +wildest hope; no one is thankful for becoming tribune, but grumbles at +not being at once promoted to the post of praetor; nor is he grateful +for this if the consulship does not follow; and even this does not +satisfy him if he be consul but once. His greed ever stretches itself +out further, and he does not understand the greatness of his success +because he always looks forward to the point at which he aims, and never +back towards that from which he started. + +XXVIII. A more violent and distressing vice than any of these is +jealousy which disturbs us by suggesting comparisons. "He gave me this, +but he gave more to that man, and he gave it to him before me;" after +which he sympathises with no one, but pushes his own claims to the +prejudice of every one else. How much more straightforward and modest +is it to make the most of what we have received, knowing that no man is +valued so highly by any one else as by his own, self! "I ought to have +received more, but it was not easy for him to give more; he was obliged +to distribute his liberality among many persons. This is only the +beginning; let me be contented, and by my gratitude encourage him to +show me more favour; he has not done as much as he ought, but he will +do so the more frequently; he certainly preferred that man to me, but he +has preferred me before many others; that man is not my equal either in +virtue or in services, but he has some charm of his own: by complaining +I shall not make myself deserve to receive more, but shall become +unworthy of what I have received. More has been given to those most +villainous men than has been given to me; well, what is that to the +purpose? how seldom does Fortune show judgment in her choice? We +complain every day of the success of bad men; very often the hail passes +over the estates of the greatest villains and strikes down the crops of +the best of men; every man has to take his chance, in friendship as well +as in everything else." There is no benefit so great that spitefulness +can pick no holes in it, none so paltry that it cannot be made more of +by friendly interpretation. We shall never want a subject for complaint +if we look at benefits on their wrong side. + +XXIX. See how unjustly the gifts of heaven are valued even by some who +profess themselves philosophers, who complain that we are not as big +as elephants, as swift as stags, as light as birds, as strong as bulls; +that the skins of seals are stronger, of hinds prettier, of bears +thicker, of beavers softer than ours; that dogs excel us in delicacy of +scent, eagles in keenness of sight, crows in length of days, and many +beasts in ease of swimming. And although nature itself does not allow +some qualities, as for example strength and swiftness, to be combined +in the same person, yet they call it a monstrous thing that men are not +compounded of different and inconsistent good qualities, and call the +gods neglectful of us because we have not been given health which even +our vices cannot destroy, or knowledge of the future. They scarcely +refrain from rising to such a pitch of impudence as to hate nature +because we are below the gods, and not on an equality with them. +How much better is it to turn to the contemplation of so many great +blessings, and to be thankful that the gods have been pleased to give us +a place second only to themselves in this most beautiful abode, and that +they have appointed us to be the lords of the earth! Can any one compare +us with the animals over whom we rule? Nothing has been denied us except +what could not have been granted. In like manner, thou that takest an +unfair view of the lot of mankind, think what blessings our Father has +bestowed upon us, how far more powerful animals than ourselves we have +broken to harness, how we catch those which are far swifter, how +nothing that has life is placed beyond the reach of our weapons! We have +received so many excellencies, so many crafts, above all our mind, which +can pierce at once whatever it is directed against, which is swifter +than the stars in their courses, for it arrives before them at the place +which they will reach after many ages; and besides this, so many fruits +of the earth, so much treasure, such masses of various things piled one +upon another. You may go through the whole order of nature, and since +you find no entire creature which you would prefer to be, you may choose +from each, the special qualities which you would like to be given to +yourself; then, if you rightly appreciate the partiality of nature for +you, you cannot but confess yourself to be her spoiled child. So it is; +the immortal gods have unto this day always held us most dear, and +have bestowed upon us the greatest possible honour, a place nearest to +themselves. We have indeed received great things, yet not too great. + +XXX. I have thought it necessary, my friend Liberalis, to state these +facts, both because when speaking of small benefits one ought to make +some mention of the greatest, and because also this shameless and +hateful vice (of ingratitude), starting with these, transfers itself +from them to all the rest. If a man scorn these, the greatest of all +benefits, to whom will he feel gratitude, what gift will he regard as +valuable or deserving to be returned: to whom will he be grateful for +his safety or his life, if he denies that he has received from the gods +that existence which he begs from them daily? He, therefore, who teaches +men to be grateful, pleads the cause not only of men, but even of the +gods, for though they, being placed above all desires, cannot be in want +of anything, yet we can nevertheless offer them our gratitude. + +No one is justified in seeking an excuse for ingratitude in his own +weakness or poverty, or in saying, "What am I to do, and how? When can I +repay my debt to my superiors the lords of heaven and earth?" Avaricious +as you are, it is easy for you to give them thanks, without expense; +lazy though you be, you can do it without labour. At the same instant at +which you received your debt towards them, if you wish to repay it, +you have done as much as any one can do, for he returns a benefit who +receives it with good will. + +XXXI. This paradox of the Stoic philosophy, that he returns a benefit +who receives it with good will, is, in my opinion, either far from +admirable, or else it is incredible. For if we look at everything merely +from the point of view of our intentions, every man has done as much +as he chose to do; and since filial piety, good faith, justice, and in +short every virtue is complete within itself, a man may be grateful in +intention even though he may not be able to lift a hand to prove his +gratitude. Whenever a man obtains what he aimed at, he receives the +fruit of his labour. When a man bestows a benefit, at what does he aim? +clearly to be of service and afford pleasure to him upon whom he bestows +it. If he does what he wishes, if his purpose reaches me and fills us +each with joy, he has gained his object. He does not wish anything to be +given to him in return, or else it becomes an exchange of commodities, +not a bestowal of benefits. A man steers well who reaches the port for +which he started: a dart hurled by a steady hand performs its duty if it +hits the mark; one who bestows a benefit wishes it to be received with +gratitude; he gets what he wanted if it be well received. "But," you +say, "he hoped for some profit also." Then it was not a benefit, the +property of which is to think nothing of any repayment. I receive what +was given me in the same spirit in which it was given: then I have +repaid it. If this be not true, then this best of deeds has this worst +of conditions attached to it, that it depends entirely upon fortune +whether I am grateful or not, for if my fortune is adverse I can make no +repayment. The intention is enough. What then? am I not to do whatever +I may be able to repay it, and ought I not ever to be on the watch for +an opportunity of filling the bosom [Footnote: Sinus, the fold of the +toga over the breast, used as a pocket by the Romans. The great French +actor Talma, when dressed for the first time in correct classical +costume, indignantly asked where he was to put his snuff-box.] of him +from whom I have received any kindness? True; but a benefit is in +an evil plight if we cannot be grateful for it even when we are +empty-handed. + +XXXII. "A man," it is argued, "who has received a benefit, however +gratefully he may have received it, has not yet accomplished all his +duty, for there remains the part of repayment; just as in playing at +ball it is something to catch the ball cleverly and carefully, but a man +is not called a good player unless he can handily and quickly send +back the ball which he has caught." This analogy is imperfect; and why? +Because to do this creditably depends upon the movement and activity of +the body, and not upon the mind: and an act of which we judge entirely +by the eye, ought to be all clearly displayed. But if a man caught +the ball as he ought to do, I should not call him a bad player for not +returning it, if his delay in returning it was not caused by his own +fault. "Yet," say you, "although the player is not wanting in skill, +because he did one part of his duty, and was able to do the other part, +yet in such a case the game is imperfect, for its perfection lies in +sending the ball backwards and forwards." I am unwilling to expose this +fallacy further; let us think that it is the game, not the player that +is imperfect: so likewise in the subject which we are discussing, the +thing which is given lacks something, because another equal thing ought +to be returned for it, but the mind of the giver lacks nothing, because +it has found another mind equal to itself, and as far as intentions go, +has effected what it wished. + +XXXIII. A man bestows a benefit upon me: I receive it just as he wished +it to be received: then he gets at once what he wanted, and the only +thing which he wanted, and therefore I have proved myself grateful. +After this it remains for me to enjoy my own resources, with the +addition of an advantage conferred upon me by one whom I have obliged; +this advantage is not the remainder of an imperfect service, but an +addition to a perfected service. [Footnote: Nothing is wanted to make +a benefit, conferred from good motives, perfect: if it is returned, the +gratitude is to be counted as net profit.] For example, Phidias makes a +statue. Now the product of an art is one thing, and that of a trade is +another. It is the business of the art to make the thing which he wished +to make, and that of the trade to make it with a profit. Phidias has +completed his work, even though he does not sell it. The product, +therefore, of his work is threefold: there is the consciousness of +having made it, which he receives when his work is completed; there is +the fame which he receives; and thirdly, the advantage which he obtains +by it, in influence, or by selling it, or otherwise. In like manner the +first fruit of a benefit is the consciousness of it, which we feel when +we have bestowed it upon the person whom we chose; secondly and thirdly +there is the credit which we gain by doing so, and there are those +things which we may receive in exchange for it. So when a benefit has +been graciously received, the giver has already received gratitude, but +has not yet received recompense for it: that which we owe in return is +therefore something apart from the benefit itself, for we have paid for +the benefit itself when we accept it in a grateful spirit. + +XXXIV. "What," say you, "can a man repay a benefit, though he does +nothing?" He has taken the first step, he has offered you a good thing +with good feeling, and, which is the characteristic of friendship, has +placed you both on the same footing. In the next place, a benefit is not +repaid in the same manner as a loan: you have no reason for expecting +me to offer you any payment; the account between us depends upon the +feelings alone. What I say will not appear difficult, although it may +not at first accord with your ideas, if you will do me the favour to +remember that there are more things than there are words to express +them. There is an enormous mass of things without names, which we do not +speak of under distinctive names of their own, but by the names of other +things transferred to them. We speak of our own foot, of the foot of a +couch, of a sail, or of a poem; we apply the word 'dog' to a hound, a +fish, and a star. Because we have not enough words to assign a separate +name to each thing, we borrow a name whenever we want one. Bravery is +the virtue which rightly despises danger, or the science of repelling, +sustaining, or inviting dangers: yet we call a brave man a gladiator, +and we use the same word for a good-for-nothing slave, who is led by +rashness to defy death. Economy is the science of avoiding unnecessary +expenditure, or the art of using one's income with moderation: yet we +call a man of mean and narrow mind, most economical, although there is +an immeasurable distance between moderation and meanness. These things +are naturally distinct, yet the poverty of our language compels us to +call both these men economical, just as he who views slight accidents +with rational contempt, and he who without reason runs into danger are +alike called brave. Thus a benefit is both a beneficent action, and also +is that which is bestowed by that action, such as money, a house, an +office in the state: there is but one name for them both, though their +force and power are widely different. + +XXXV. Wherefore, give me your attention, and you will soon perceive that +I say nothing to which you can object. That benefit which consists of +the action is repaid when we receive it graciously; that other, which +consists of something material, we have not then repaid, but we hope to +do so. The debt of goodwill has been discharged by a return of goodwill; +the material debt demands a material return. Thus, although we may +declare that he who has received a benefit with good-will has returned +the favour, yet we counsel him to return to the giver something of the +same kind as that which he has received. Some part of what we have said +departs from the conventional line of thought, and then rejoins it by +another path. We declare that a wise man cannot receive an injury; yet, +if a man hits him with his fist, that man will be found guilty of doing +him an injury. We declare that a fool can possess nothing; yet if a man +stole anything from a fool, we should find that man guilty of theft. We +declare that all men are mad, yet we do not dose all men with hellebore; +but we put into the hands of these very persons, whom we call madmen, +both the right of voting and of pronouncing judgment. Similarly, we say +that a man who has received a benefit with good-will has returned the +favour, yet we leave him in debt nevertheless--bound to repay it even +though he has repaid it. This is not to disown benefits, but is an +encouragement to us neither to fear to receive benefits, nor to faint +under the too great burden of them. "Good things have been given to me; +I have been preserved from starving; I have been saved from the misery +of abject poverty; my life, and what is dearer than life, my liberty, +has been preserved. How shall I be able to repay these favours? When +will the day come upon which I can prove my gratitude to him?" When a +man speaks thus, the day has already come. Receive a benefit, embrace +it, rejoice, not that you have received it, but that you have to owe it +and return it; then you will never be in peril of the great sin of being +rendered ungrateful by mischance. I will not enumerate any difficulties +to you, lest you should despair, and faint at the prospect of a long and +laborious servitude. I do not refer you to the future; do it with what +means you have at hand. You never will be grateful unless you are so +straightway. What, then, will you do? You need not take up arms, yet +perhaps you may have to do so; you need not cross the seas, yet it may +be that you will pay your debt, even when the wind threatens to blow a +gale. Do you wish to return the benefit? Then receive it graciously; +you have then returned the favour--not, indeed, so that you can think +yourself to have repaid it, but so that you can owe it with a quieter +conscience. + + + + +BOOK III. + +I. + + +Not to return gratitude for benefits, my AEbutius Liberalis, is +both base in itself, and is thought base by all men; wherefore even +ungrateful men complain of ingratitude, and yet what all condemn is at +the same time rooted in all; and so far do men sometimes run into the +other extreme that some of them become our bitterest enemies, not merely +after receiving benefits from us, but because they have received them. +I cannot deny that some do this out of sheer badness of nature; but +more do so because lapse of time destroys their remembrance, for time +gradually effaces what they felt vividly at the moment. I remember +having had an argument with you about this class of persons, whom you +wished to call forgetful rather than ungrateful, as if that which caused +a man to be ungrateful was any excuse for his being so, or as if the +fact of this happening to a man prevented his being ungrateful, when we +know that it only happens to ungrateful men. There are many classes of +the ungrateful, as there are of thieves or of homicides, who all have +the same fault, though there is a great variety in its various forms. +The man is ungrateful who denies that he has received a benefit; who +pretends that he has not received it; who does not return it. The most +ungrateful man of all is he who forgets it. The others, though they do +not repay it, yet feel their debt, and possess some traces of worth, +though obstructed by their bad conscience. They may by some means and at +some time be brought to show their gratitude, if, for instance, they +be pricked by shame, if they conceive some noble ambition such as +occasionally rises even in the breasts of the wicked, if some easy +opportunity of doing so offers; but the man from whom all recollection +of the benefit has passed away can never become grateful. Which of the +two do you call the worse--he who is ungrateful for kindness, or he who +does not even remember it? The eyes which fear to look at the light are +diseased, but those which cannot see it are blind. It is filial impiety +not to love one's parents, but not to recognise them is madness. + +II. Who is so ungrateful as he who has so completely laid aside and cast +away that which ought to be in the forefront of his mind and ever +before him, that he knows it not? It is clear that if forgetfulness of +a benefit steals over a man, he cannot have often thought about repaying +it. + +In short, repayment requires gratitude, time, opportunity, and the help +of fortune; whereas, he who remembers a benefit is grateful for it, and +that too without expenditure. Since gratitude demands neither labour, +wealth, nor good fortune, he who fails to render it has no excuse behind +which to shelter himself; for he who places a benefit so far away that +it is out of his sight, never could have meant to be grateful for it. +Just as those tools which are kept in use, and are daily touched by the +hand, are never in danger of growing rusty, while those which are not +brought before our eyes, and lie as if superfluous, not being required +for common use, collect dirt by the mere lapse of time, so likewise that +which our thoughts frequently turn over and renew never passes from our +memory, which only loses those things to which it seldom directs its +eyes. + +III. Besides this, there are other causes which at times erase the +greatest services from our minds. The first and most powerful of these +is that, being always intent upon new objects of desire, we think, not +of what we have, but of what we are striving to obtain. Those whose mind +is fixed entirely upon what they hope to gain, regard with contempt all +that is their own already. It follows that since men's eagerness for +something new makes them undervalue whatever they have received, they +do not esteem those from whom they have received it. As long as we are +satisfied with the position we have gained, we love our benefactor, we +look up to him, and declare that we owe our position entirely to him; +then we begin to entertain other aspirations, and hurry forward to +attain them after the manner of human beings, who when they have gained +much always covet more; straightway all that we used to regard as +benefits slip from our memory, and we no longer consider the advantages +which we enjoy over others, but only the insolent prosperity of those +who have outstripped us. Now no one can at the same time be both jealous +and grateful, because those who are jealous are querulous and sad, while +the grateful are joyous. In the next place, since none of us think of +any time but the present, and but few turn back their thoughts to the +past, it results that we forget our teachers, and all the benefits +which we have obtained from them, because we have altogether left +our childhood behind us: thus, all that was done for us in our youth +perishes unremembered, because our youth itself is never reviewed. What +has been is regarded by every one, not only as past, but as gone; and +for the same reason, our memory is weak for what is about to happen in +the future. + +IV. Here I must do Epicurus the justice to say that he constantly +complains of our ingratitude for past benefits, because we cannot bring +back again, or count among our present pleasures, those good things +which we have received long ago, although no pleasures can be more +undeniable than those which cannot be taken from us. Present good is not +yet altogether complete, some mischance may interrupt it; the future is +in suspense, and uncertain; but what is past is laid up in safety. How +can any man feel gratitude for benefits, if he skips through his +whole life entirely engrossed with the present and the future? It is +remembrance that mates men grateful; and the more men hope, the less +they remember. + +V. In the same way, my Liberalis, as some things remain in our memory as +soon as they are learned, while to know others it is not enough to have +learned them, for our knowledge slips away from us unless it be kept +up--I allude to geometry and astronomy, and such other sciences as are +Hard to remember because of their intricacy--so the greatness of some +benefits prevents their being forgotten, while others, individually +less, though many more in number, and bestowed at different times, pass +from our minds, because, as I have stated above, we do not constantly +think about them, and do not willingly recognize how much we owe to each +of our benefactors. Listen to the words of those who ask for favours. +There is not one of them who does not declare that his remembrance will +be eternal, who does not vow himself your devoted servant and slave, or +find, if he can, some even greater expression of humility with which to +pledge himself. After a brief space of time these same men avoid +their former expressions, thinking them abject, and scarcely befitting +free-born men; afterwards they arrive at the same point to which, as +I suppose, the worst and most ungrateful of men come--that is, they +forget. So little does forgetfulness excuse ingratitude, that even the +remembrance of a benefit may leave us ungrateful. + +VI. The question has been raised, whether this most odious vice ought to +go unpunished; and whether the law commonly made use of in the schools, +by which we can proceed against a man for ingratitude, ought to be +adopted by the State also, since all men agree that it is just. "Why +not?" you may say, "seeing that even cities cast in each other's teeth +the services which they have performed to one another, and demand from +the children some return for benefits conferred upon their fathers?" On +the other hand, our ancestors, who were most admirable men, made demands +upon their enemies alone, and both gave and lost their benefits with +magnanimity. With the exception of Macedonia, no nation has ever +established an action at law for ingratitude. And this is a strong +argument against its being established, because all agree in blaming +crime; and homicide, poisoning, parricide, and sacrilege are visited +with different penalties in different countries, but everywhere with +some penalty; whereas this most common vice is nowhere punished, though +it is everywhere blamed. We do not acquit it; but as it would be most +difficult to reckon accurately the penalty for so varying a matter, we +condemn it only to be hated, and place it upon the list of those crimes +which we refer for judgment to the gods. + +VII. Many arguments occur to me which prove that this vice ought not +to come under the action of the law. First of all, the best part of a +benefit is lost if the benefit can be sued for at law, as in the case of +a loan, or of letting and hiring. Indeed, the finest part of a benefit +is that we have given it without considering whether we shall lose it or +not, that we have left all this to the free choice of him who receives +it: if I call him before a judge, it begins to be not a benefit, but a +loan. Next, though it is a most honourable thing to show gratitude, it +ceases to be honourable if it be forced, for in that case no one will +praise a grateful man any more than he praises him who restores the +money which was deposited in his keeping, or who pays what he borrowed +without the intervention of a judge. We should therefore spoil the two +finest things in human life,--a grateful man and a beneficent man; for +what is there admirable in one who does not give but merely lends a +benefit, or in one who repays it, not because he wishes, but because he +is forced to do so? There is no credit in being grateful, unless it +is safe to be ungrateful. Besides this, all the courts would hardly be +enough for the action of this one law. Who would not plead under it? Who +would not be pleaded against? for every one exalts his own merits, +every one magnifies even the smallest matters which he has bestowed upon +another. Besides this, those things which form the subject of a judicial +inquiry can be distinctly defined, and cannot afford unlimited licence +to the judge; wherefore a good cause is in a better position if it +before a judge than before an arbitrator, because the words of the law +tie down a judge and define certain limits beyond which he may not pass, +whereas the conscience of an arbitrator is free and not fettered by +any rules, so that he can either give or take away, and can arrange his +decision, not according to the precepts of law and justice, but just +as his own kindly feeling or compassion may prompt him. An action for +ingratitude would not bind a judge, but would place him in the position +of an autocrat. It cannot be known what or how great a benefit is; all +that would be really important would be, how indulgently the judge might +interpret it. No law defines an ungrateful person, often, indeed, one +who repays what he has received is ungrateful, and one who has not +returned it is grateful. Even an unpractised judge can give his vote +upon some matters; for instance, when the thing to be determined is +whether something has or has not been done, when a dispute is terminated +by the parties giving written bonds, or when the casting up of accounts +decides between the disputants. When, however, motives have to be +guessed at, when matters upon which wisdom alone can decide, are brought +into court, they cannot be tried by a judge taken at random from the +list of "select judges," [Footnote: See Smith's "Dict. of Antiq.," s. +v] whom property and the inheritance of an equestrian fortune [Footnote: +400,000 sesterces] has placed upon the roll. + +VIII. Ingratitude, therefore, is not only matter unfit to be brought +into court, but no judge could be found fit to try it; and this you +will not be surprised at, if you examine the difficulties of any one who +should attempt to prosecute a man upon such a charge. One man may +have given a large sum of money, but he is rich and would not feel it; +another may have given it at the cost of his entire inheritance. The +sum given is the same in each case, but the benefit conferred is not the +same. Add another instance: suppose that to redeem a debtor from slavery +one man paid money from his own private means, while another man paid +the same sum, but had to borrow it or beg for it, and allow himself to +be laid under a great obligation to some one; would you rank the man who +so easily bestowed his benefit on an equality with him who was obliged +to receive a benefit himself before he could bestow it? Some benefits +are great, not because of their amount, but because of the time at which +they are bestowed; it is a benefit to give an estate whose fertility +can bring down the price of corn, and it is a benefit to give a loaf of +bread in time of famine; it is a benefit to give provinces through which +flow vast navigable rivers, and it is a benefit, when men are parched +with thirst, and can scarcely draw breath through their dry throats, +to show them a spring of water. Who will compare these cases with one +another, or weigh one against the other? It is hard to give a decision +when it is not the thing given, but its meaning, which has to be +considered; though what is given is the same, yet if it be given +under different circumstances it has a different value. A man may have +bestowed a benefit upon me, but unwillingly; he may have complained of +having given it; he may have looked at me with greater haughtiness than +he was wont to do; he may have been so slow in giving it, that he would +have done me a greater service if he had promptly refused it. How could +a judge estimate the value of these things, when words, hesitation, or +looks can destroy all their claim to gratitude? + +IX. What, again, could he do, seeing that some things are called +benefits because they are unduly coveted, whilst others are not benefits +at all, according to this common valuation, yet are of even greater +value, though not so showy? You call it a benefit to cause a man to be +adopted as a member of a powerful city, to get him enrolled among the +knights, or to defend one who is being tried for his life: what do you +say of him who gives useful advice? of him who holds you back when you +would rush into crime? of him who strikes the sword from the hands of +the suicide? of him who by his power of consolation brings back to the +duties of life one who was plunged in grief, and eager to follow those +whom he had lost? of him who sits at the bedside of the sick man, and +who, when health and recovery depend upon seizing the right moment, +administers food in due season, stimulates the failing veins with wine, +or calls in the physician to the dying man? Who can estimate the value +of such services as these? who can bid us weigh dissimilar benefits one +with another? "I gave you a house," says one. Yes, but I forewarned +you that your own house would come down upon your head. "I gave you an +estate," says he. True, but I gave a plank to you when shipwrecked. "I +fought for you and received wounds for you," says another. But I saved +your life by keeping silence. Since a benefit is both given and returned +differently by different people, it is hard to make them balance. + +X. Besides this, no day is appointed for repayment of a benefit, as +there is for borrowed money; consequently he who has not yet repaid a +benefit may do so hereafter: for tell me, pray, within what time a man +is to be declared ungrateful? The greatest benefits cannot be proved by +evidence; they often lurk in the silent consciousness of two men +only; are we to introduce the rule of not bestowing benefits without +witnesses? Next, what punishment are we to appoint for the ungrateful? +is there to be one only for all, though the benefits which they have +received are different? or should the punishment be varying, greater +or less according to the benefit which each has received? Are our +valuations to be restricted to pecuniary fines? what are we to do, +seeing that in some cases the benefit conferred is life, and things +dearer than life? What punishment is to be assigned to ingratitude for +these? One less than the benefit? That would be unjust. One equal to it; +death? What could be more inhuman than to cause benefits to result in +cruelty? + +XI. It may be argued, "Parents have certain privileges: these are +regarded as exempt from the action of ordinary rules, and so also ought +to be the case with other beneficent persons." Nay; mankind has +assigned a peculiar sanctity to the position of parents, because it +was advantageous that children should be reared, and people had to be +tempted into undergoing the toil of doing so, because the issue of their +experiment was doubtful. One cannot say to them, as one does to others +who bestow benefits, "Choose the man to whom you give: you must only +blame yourself if you are deceived; help the deserving." In rearing +children nothing depends upon the judgment of those who rear them; it is +a matter of hope: in order, therefore, that people may be more willing +to embark upon this lottery, it was right that they should be given a +certain authority; and since it is useful for youth to be governed, we +have placed their parents in the position of domestic magistrates, under +whose guardianship their lives may be ruled. Moreover, the position of +parents differs from that of other benefactors, for their having given +formerly to their children does not stand in the way of their giving +now and hereafter; and also, there is no fear of their falsely asserting +that they have given: with others one has to inquire not only whether +they have received, but whether they have given; but the good deeds of +parents are placed beyond doubt. In the next place, one benefit bestowed +by parents is the same for all, and might be counted once for all; +while the others which they bestow are of various kinds, unlike one to +another, differing from one another by the widest possible intervals; +they can therefore come under no regular rule, since it would be more +just to leave them all unrewarded than to give the same reward to all. + +XII. Some benefits cost much to the givers, some are of much value +to the receivers but cost the givers nothing. Some are bestowed upon +friends, others on strangers: now although that which is given be the +same, yet it becomes more when it is given to one with whom you +are beginning to be acquainted through the benefits which you have +previously conferred upon him. One man may give us help, another +distinctions, a third consolation. You may find one who thinks nothing +pleasanter or more important than to have some one to save him from +distress; you may again find one who would rather be helped to great +place than to security; while some consider themselves more indebted to +those who save their lives than to those who save their honour. Each +of these services will be held more or less important, according as the +disposition of our judge inclines to one or the other of them. Besides +this, I choose my creditors for myself, whereas I often receive benefits +from those from whom I would not, and sometimes I am laid under an +obligation without my knowledge. What will you do in such a case? When +a man has received a benefit unknown to himself, and which, had he known +of it, he would have refused to receive, will you call him ungrateful if +he does not repay it, however he may have received it? Suppose that some +one has bestowed a benefit upon me, and that the same man has afterwards +done me some wrong; am I to be bound by his one bounty to endure with +patience any wrong that he may do me, or will it be the same as if I had +repaid it, because he himself has by the subsequent wrong cancelled his +own benefit? How, in that case, would you decide which was the greater; +the present which the man has received, or the injury which has +been done him? Time would fail me if I attempted to discuss all the +difficulties which would arise. + +XIII. It may be argued that "we render men less willing to confer +benefits by not supporting the claim of those which have been bestowed +to meet with gratitude, and by not punishing those who repudiate them." +But you would find, on the other hand, that men would be far less +willing to receive benefits, if by so doing they were likely to incur +the danger of having to plead their cause in court, and having more +difficulty in proving their integrity. This legislation would also +render us less willing to give: for no one is willing to give to those +who are unwilling to receive, but one who is urged to acts of kindness +by his own good nature and by the beauty of charity, will give all the +more freely to those who need make no return unless they choose. It +impairs the credit of doing a service, if in doing it we are carefully +protected from loss. + +XIV. "Benefits, then, will be fewer, but more genuine: well, what harm +is there in restricting people from giving recklessly?" Even those who +would have no legislation upon the subject follow this rule, that we +ought to be somewhat careful in giving, and in choosing those upon whom +we bestow favours. Reflect over and over again to whom you are giving: +you will have no remedy at law, no means of enforcing repayment. You are +mistaken if you suppose that the judge will assist you: no law will +make full restitution to you, you must look only to the honour of the +receiver. Thus only can benefits retain their influence, and thus only +are they admirable: you dishonour them if you make them the grounds of +litigation, "Pay what you owe" is a most just proverb; and one which +carries with it the sanction of all nations; but in dealing with +benefits it is most shameful. "Pay!" How is a man to pay who owes his +life, his position, his safety, or his reason to another? None of the +greatest benefits can be repaid. "Yet," it is said, "you ought to give +in return for them something of equal value." This is just what I have +been saying, that the grandeur of the act is ruined if we make our +benefits commercial transactions. We ought hot to encourage ourselves in +avarice, in discontent, or in quarrels; the human mind is prone enough +to these by nature. As far as we are able, let us check it, and cut off +the opportunities for which it seeks. + +XV. Would that we could indeed persuade men to receive back money which +they have lent from those debtors only who are willing to pay! would +that no agreement ever bound the buyer to the seller, and that their +interests were not protected by sealed covenants and agreements, but +rather by honour and a sense of justice! However, men prefer what +is needful to what is truly best, and choose rather to force their +creditors to keep faith with them than to trust that they will do so. +Witnesses are called on both sides; the one, by calling in brokers, +makes several names appear in his accounts as his debtors instead of +one; the other is not content with the legal forms of question and +answer unless he holds the other party by the hand. What a shameful +admission of the dishonesty and wickedness of mankind! men trust more to +our signet-rings than to our intentions. For what are these respectable +men summoned? for what do they impress their seals? it is in order that +the borrower may not deny that he has received what he has received. +You regard these men, I suppose, as above bribes, as maintainers of the +truth: well, these very men will not be entrusted with money except on +the same terms. Would it not, then, be more honourable to be deceived +by some than to suspect all men of dishonesty? To fill up the measure +of avarice one thing only is lacking, that we should bestow no benefit +without a surety. To help, to be of service, is the part of a generous +and noble mind; he who gives acts like a god, he who demands repayment +acts like a money-lender. Why then, by trying to protect the rights of +the former class, should we reduce them to the level of the basest of +mankind? + +XVI. "More men," our opponent argues, "will be ungrateful, if no legal +remedy exists against ingratitude." Nay, fewer, because then benefits +will be bestowed with more discrimination, In the next place, it is not +advisable that it should be publicly known how many ungrateful men there +are: for the number of sinners will do away with the disgrace of +the sin, and a reproach which applies to all men will cease to be +dishonourable. Is any woman ashamed of being divorced, now that some +noble ladies reckon the years of their lives, not by the number of the +consuls, but by that of their husbands, now that they leave their +homes in order to marry others, and marry only in order to be divorced? +Divorce was only dreaded as long as it was unusual; now that no gazette +appears without it, women learn to do what they hear so much about. Can +any one feel ashamed of adultery, now that things have come to such +a pass that no woman keeps a husband at all unless it be to pique her +lover? Chastity merely implies ugliness. Where will you find any woman +so abject, so repulsive, as to be satisfied with a single pair of +lovers, without having a different one for each hour of the day; nor is +the day long enough for all of them, unless she has taken her airing +in the grounds of one, and passes the night with another. A woman is +frumpish and old-fashioned if she does not know that "adultery with one +paramour is nick-named marriage." Just as all shame at these vices has +disappeared since the vice itself became so widely spread, so if you +made the ungrateful begin to count their own numbers, you would both +make them more numerous, and enable them to be ungrateful with greater +impunity. + +XVII. "What then? shall the ungrateful man go unpunished?" What then, +I answer, shall we punish the undutiful, the malicious, the avaricious, +the headstrong, and the cruel? Do you imagine that those things which +are loathed are not punished, or do you suppose that any punishment is +greater than the hate of all men? It is a punishment not to dare receive +a benefit from anyone, not to dare to bestow one, to be, or to fancy +that you are a mark for all men's eyes, and to lose all appreciation of +so excellent and pleasant a matter. Do you call a man unhappy who has +lost his sight, or whose hearing has been impaired by disease, and do +you not call him wretched who has lost the power of feeling benefits? He +fears the gods, the witnesses of all ingratitude; he is tortured by +the thought of the benefit which he has misapplied, and, in fine, he is +sufficiently punished by this great penalty, that, as I said before, he +cannot enjoy the fruits of this most delightful act. On the other hand, +he who takes pleasure in receiving a benefit, enjoys an unvarying and +continuous happiness, which he derives from consideration, not of +the thing given, but of the intention of the giver. A benefit gives +perpetual joy to a grateful man, but pleases an ungrateful one only for +a moment. Can the lives of such men be compared, seeing that the one +is sad and gloomy--as it is natural that a denier of his debts and a +defrauder should be, a man who does not give his parents, his nurses, or +his teachers the honour which is their due--while the other is joyous, +cheerful, on the watch for an opportunity of proving his gratitude, and +gaining much pleasure from this frame of mind itself? Such a man has no +wish to become bankrupt, but only to make the fullest and most copious +return for benefits, and that not only to parents and friends, but also +to more humble persons; for even if he receives a benefit from his +own slave, he does not consider from whom he receives it, but what he +receives. + +XVIII. It has, however, been doubted by Hecaton and some other writers, +whether a slave can bestow a benefit upon his master. Some distinguish +between benefits, duties, and services, calling those things benefits +which are bestowed by a stranger--that is, by one who could discontinue +them without blame--while duties are performed by our children, our +wives, and those whom relationship prompts and orders to afford us help; +and, thirdly, services are performed by slaves, whose position is such +that nothing which they do for their master can give them any claim upon +him.... + +Besides this, he who affirms that a slave does not sometimes confer +a benefit upon his master is ignorant of the rights of man; for the +question is, not what the station in life of the giver may be, but what +his intentions are. The path of virtue is closed to no one, it lies open +to all; it admits and invites all, whether they be free-born men, slaves +or freed-men, kings or exiles; it requires no qualifications of family +or of property, it is satisfied with a mere man. What, indeed, should we +have to trust to for defence against sudden misfortunes, what could--a +noble mind promise to itself to keep unshaken, if virtue could be lost +together with prosperity? If a slave cannot confer a benefit upon his +master, then no subject can confer a benefit upon his king, and no +soldier upon his general; for so long as the man is subject to supreme +authority, the form of authority can make no difference. If main force, +or the fear of death and torture, can prevent a slave from gaining any +title to his master's gratitude, they will also prevent the subjects of +a king, or the soldiers of a general from doing so, for the same things +may happen to either of these classes of men, though under different +names. + +Yet men do bestow benefits upon their kings and their generals; +therefore slaves can bestow benefits upon their masters. A slave can be +just, brave, magnanimous; he can therefore bestow a benefit, for this +is also the part of a virtuous man. So true is it that slaves can bestow +benefits upon their masters, that the masters have often owed their +lives to them. + +XIX. There is no doubt that a slave can bestow a benefit upon anyone; +why, then, not upon his master? "Because," it is argued, "he cannot +become his master's creditor if he gives him money. If this be not so, +he daily lays his master under an obligation to him; he attends him when +on a journey, he nurses him when sick, he works most laboriously at the +cultivation of his estate; yet all these, which would be called benefits +if done for us by anyone else, are merely called service when done by +a slave. A benefit is that which some one bestows who has the option of +withholding it:--now a slave has no power to refuse, so that he does +not afford us his help, but obeys our orders, and cannot boast of having +done what he could not leave undone." Even under these conditions I +shall win the day, and will place a slave in such positions, that for +many purposes he will be free; in the meanwhile, tell me, if I give you +an instance of a slave fighting for his master's safety without regard +to himself, pierced through with wounds, yet spending the last drops of +his blood, and gaining time for his master to escape by the sacrifice of +his life, will you say that this man did not bestow a benefit upon his +master because he was a slave? If I give an instance of one who could +not be bribed to betray his master's secrets by any of the offers of +a tyrant, who was not terrified by any threats, nor overpowered by any +tortures, but who, as far as he was able, placed his questioners upon a +wrong scent, and, paid for his loyalty with his life; will you say +that this man did not confer a benefit upon his master because he was a +slave? Consider, rather, whether an example of virtue in a slave be not +all the greater because it is rarer than in free men, and whether it be +not all the more gratifying that, although to be commanded is odious, +and all submission to authority is irksome, yet in some particular cases +love for a master has been more powerful than men's general dislike to +servitude. A benefit does not, therefore, cease to be a benefit because +it is bestowed by a slave, but is all the greater on that account, +because not even slavery could restrain him from bestowing it. + +XX. It is a mistake to imagine that slavery pervades a man's whole +being; the better part of him is exempt from it: the body indeed is +subjected and in the power of a master, but the mind is independent, and +indeed is so free and wild, that it cannot be restrained even by this +prison of the body, wherein it is confined, from following its own +impulses, dealing with gigantic designs, and soaring into the infinite, +accompanied by all the host of heaven. It is, therefore, only the body +which misfortune hands over to a master, and which he buys and sells; +this inward part cannot be transferred as a chattel. Whatever comes +from this, is free; indeed, we are not allowed to order all things to be +done, nor are slaves compelled to obey us in all things; they will not +carry out treasonable orders, or lend their hands to an act of crime. + +XXI. There are some things which the law neither enjoins nor forbids; it +is in these that a slave finds the means of bestowing benefits. As long +as we only receive what is generally demanded from a slave, that is +mere service; when more is given than a slave need afford us, it is a +benefit; as soon as what he does begins to partake of the affection of +a friend, it can no longer be called service. There are certain things +with which a master is bound to provide his slave, such as food and +clothing; no one calls this a benefit; but supposing that he indulges +his slave, educates him above his station, teaches him arts which +free-born men learn, that is a benefit. The converse is true in the case +of the slave; anything which goes beyond the rules of a slave's duty, +which is done of his own free will, and not in obedience to orders, is a +benefit, provided it be of sufficient importance to be called by such a +name if bestowed by any other person. + +XXII. It has pleased Chrysippus to define a slave as "a hireling for +life." Just as a hireling bestows a benefit when he does more than he +engaged himself to do, so when a slave's love for his master raises him +above his condition and urges him to do something noble--something which +would be a credit even to men more fortunate by birth--he surpasses the +hopes of his master, and is a benefit found in the house. Do you think +it is just that we should be angry with our slaves when they do less +than their duty, and that we should not be grateful to them when they do +more? Do you wish to know when their service is not a benefit? When the +question can be asked, "What if he had refused to do it?" When he does +that which he might have refused to do, we must praise his good will. +Benefits and wrongs are opposites; a slave can bestow a benefit upon his +master, if he can receive a wrong from his master. Now an official has +been appointed to hear complaints of the wrongs done by masters to their +slaves, whose duty it is to restrain cruelty and lust, or avarice in +providing them with the necessaries of life. What follows, then? Is it +the master who receives a benefit from his slave? nay, rather, it is +one man who receives it from another. Lastly, he did all that lay in his +power; he bestowed a benefit upon his master; it lies in your power to +receive or not to receive it from a slave. Yet who is so exalted, that +fortune may not make him need the aid even of the lowliest? + +XXIII. I shall now quote a number of instances of benefits, not all +alike, some even contradictory. Some slaves have given their master +life, some death; have saved him when perishing, or, as if that were +not enough, have saved him by their own death; others have helped +their master to die, some have saved his life by stratagem. Claudius +Quadrigarius tells us in the eighteenth book of his "Annals," that +when Grumentum was being besieged, and had been reduced to the greatest +straits, two slaves deserted to the enemy, and did valuable service. +Afterwards, when the city was taken, and the victors were rushing wildly +in every direction, they ran before every one else along the streets, +which they well knew, to the house in which they had been slaves, and +drove their mistress before them; when they were asked who she might +be, they answered that she was their mistress, and a most cruel one, and +that they were leading her away for punishment. They led her outside the +walls, and concealed her with the greatest care until the fighting +was over; then, as the soldiery, satisfied with the sack of the city, +quickly resumed the manners of Romans, they also returned to their +own countrymen, and themselves restored their mistress to them. She +manumitted each of them on the spot, and was not ashamed to receive her +life from men over whom she had held the power of life and death. She +might, indeed, especially congratulate herself upon this; for had +she been saved otherwise, she would merely have received a common and +hackneyed piece of kindness, whereas, by being saved as she was, she +became a glorious legend, and an example to two cities. In the confusion +of the captured city, when every one was thinking only of his own +safety, all deserted her except these deserters; but they, that they +might prove what had been their intentions in effecting that desertion, +deserted again from the victors to the captive, wearing the masks of +unnatural murderers. + +They thought--and this was the greatest part of the service which they +rendered--they were content to seem to have murdered their mistress, if +thereby their mistress might be saved from murder. Believe me, it is +the mark of no slavish soul to purchase a noble deed by the semblance of +crime. + +When Vettius, the praetor of the Marsi, was being led into the presence +of the Roman general, his slave snatched a sword from the soldier who +was dragging him along, and first slew his master. Then he said, "It is +now time for me to look to myself; I have already set my master free," +and with these words transfixed himself with one blow. Can you tell me +of anyone who saved his master more gloriously? + +XXIV. When Caesar was besieging Corfinium, Domitius, who was shut up in +the city, ordered a slave of his own, who was also a physician, to give +him poison. Observing the man's hesitation, he said, "Why do you delay, +as though the whole business was in your power? I ask for death with +arms in my hands." Then the slave assented, and gave him a harmless drug +to drink. When Domitius fell asleep after drinking this, the slave went +to his son, and said, "Give orders for my being kept in custody until +you learn from the result whether I have given your father poison or +no." Domitius lived, and Caesar saved his life; but his slave had saved +it before. + +XXV. During the civil war, a slave hid his master, who had been +proscribed, put on his rings and clothes, met the soldiers who were +searching for him, and, after declaring that he would not stoop to +entreat them not to carry out their orders, offered his neck to their +swords. What a noble spirit it shows in a slave to have been willing +to die for his master, at a time when few were faithful enough to +wish their master to live! to be found kind when the state was cruel, +faithful when it was treacherous! to be eager for the reward of +fidelity, though it was death, at a time when such rich rewards were +offered for treachery! + +XXVI. I will not pass over the instances which our own age affords. In +the reign of Tiberius Caesar, there was a common and almost universal +frenzy for informing, which was more ruinous to the citizens of Rome +than the whole civil war; the talk of drunkards, the frankness of +jesters, was alike reported to the government; nothing was safe; every +opportunity of ferocious punishment was seized, and men no longer waited +to hear the fate of accused persons, since it was always the same. One +Paulus, of the Praetorian guard, was at an entertainment, wearing a +portrait of Tiberius Caesar engraved in relief upon a gem. It would be +absurd for me to beat about the bush for some delicate way of explaining +that he took up a chamber-pot, an action which was at once noticed by +Maro, one of the most notorious informers of that time, and the slave of +the man who was about to fall into the trap, who drew the ring from the +finger of his drunken master. When Maro called the guests to witness +that Paulus had dishonoured the portrait of the emperor, and was already +drawing up an act of accusation, the slave showed the ring upon his +own finger. Such a man no more deserves to be called a slave, than Maro +deserved to be called a guest. + +XXVII. In the reign of Augustus men's own words were not yet able to +ruin them, yet they sometimes brought them into trouble. A senator named +Rufus, while at dinner, expressed a hope that Caesar would not return +safe from a journey for which he was preparing, and added that all bulls +and calves wished the same thing. Some of those present carefully noted +these words. At daybreak, the slave who had stood at his feet during the +dinner, told him what he had said in his cups, and urged him to be the +first to go to Caesar, and denounce himself. Rufus followed this advice, +met Caesar as he was going down to the forum, and, swearing that he was +out of his mind the day before, prayed that what he had said might fall +upon his own head and that of his children; he then begged Caesar pardon +him, and to take him back into favour. When Caesar said that he would +do so, he added, "No one will believe that you have taken me back into +favour unless you make me a present of something;" and he asked for and +obtained a sum of money so large, that it would have been a gift not to +be slighted even if bestowed by an unoffended prince. Caesar added: "In +future I will take care never to quarrel with you, for my own sake." +Caesar acted honourably in pardoning him, and in being liberal as well +as forgiving; no one can hear this anecdote without praising Caesar, +but he must praise the slave first. You need not wait for me to tell +you that the slave who did his master this service was set free; yet his +master did not do this for nothing, for Caesar had already paid him the +price of the slave's liberty. + +XXVIII. After so many instances, can we doubt that a master may +sometimes receive a benefit from a slave? Why need the person of the +giver detract from the thing which he gives? why should not the gift add +rather to the glory of the giver. All men descend from the same original +stock; no one is better born than another, except in so far as his +disposition is nobler and better suited for the performance of good +actions. Those who display portraits of their ancestors in their halls, +and set up in the entrance to their houses the pedigree of their family +drawn out at length, with many complicated collateral branches, are they +not notorious rather than noble? The universe is the one parent of all, +whether they trace their descent from this primary source through a +glorious or a mean line of ancestors. Be not deceived when men who are +reckoning up their genealogy, wherever an illustrious name is wanting, +foist in that of a god in its place. You need despise no one, even +though he bears a commonplace name, and owes little to fortune. Whether +your immediate ancestors were freedmen, or slaves, or foreigners, pluck +up your spirits boldly, and leap over any intervening disgraces of your +pedigree; at its source, a noble origin awaits you. Why should our +pride inflate us to such a degree that we think it beneath us to receive +benefits from slaves, and think only of their position, forgetting their +good deeds? You, the slave of lust, of gluttony, of a harlot, nay, who +are owned as a joint chattel by harlots, can you call anyone else +a slave? Call a man a slave? why, I pray you, whither are you being +hurried by those bearers who carry your litter? whither are these men +with their smart military-looking cloaks carrying you? is it not to the +door of some door-keeper, or to the gardens of some one who has not even +a subordinate office? and then you, who regard the salute of another +man's slave as a benefit, declare that you cannot receive a benefit from +your own slave. What inconsistency is this? At the same time you despise +and fawn upon slaves, you are haughty and violent at home, while out of +doors you are meek, and as much despised as you despise your slaves; +for none abase themselves lower than those who unconscionably give +themselves airs, nor are anymore prepared to trample upon others than +those who have learned how to offer insults by having endured them. + +XXIX. I felt it my duty to say this, in order to crush the arrogance of +men who are themselves at the mercy of fortune, and to claim the right +of bestowing a benefit for slaves, in order that I may claim it also for +sons. The question arises, whether children can ever bestow upon their +parents greater benefits than those which they have received from them. + +It is granted that many sons become greater and more powerful than their +parents, and also that they are better men. If this be true, they may +give better gifts to their fathers than they have received from them, +seeing that their fortune and their good nature are alike greater than +that of their father. "Whatever a father receives from his son," our +opponent will urge, "must in any case be lees than what the son received +from him, because the son owes to his father the very power of giving. +Therefore the father can never be surpassed in the bestowal of benefits, +because the benefit which surpasses his own is really his." I answer, +that some things derive their first origin from others, yet are greater +than those others; and a thing may be greater than that from which it +took its rise, although without that thing to start from it never could +have grown so great. All things greatly outgrow their beginnings. Seeds +are the causes of all things, and yet are the smallest part of the +things which they produce. Look at the Rhine, or the Euphrates, or any +other famous rivers; how small they are, if you only view them at the +place from whence they take their rise? they gain all that makes them +terrible and renowned as they flow along. Look at the trees which are +tallest if you consider their height, and the broadest if you look at +their thickness and the spread of their branches; compared with all +this, how small a part of them is contained in the slender fibres of +the root? Yet take away their roots, and no more groves will arise, nor +great mountains be clothed with trees. Temples and cities are supported +by their foundations; yet what is built as the foundation of the entire +building lies out of sight. So it is in other matters; the subsequent +greatness of a thing ever eclipses its origin. I could never have +obtained anything without having previously received the boon of +existence from my parents; yet it does not follow from this that +whatever I obtain is less than that without which I could not obtain it. +If my nurse had not fed me when I was a child, I should not have been +able to conduct any of those enterprises which I now carry on, both with +my head and with my hand, nor should I ever have obtained the fame which +is due to my labours both in peace and war; would you on that account +argue that the services of a nurse were more valuable than the most +important undertakings? Yet is not the nurse as important as the father, +since without the benefits which I have received from each of them +alike, I should have been alike unable to effect anything? If I owe all +that I now can do to my original beginning, I cannot regard my father or +my grandfather as being this original beginning; there always will be a +spring further back, from which the spring next below is derived. Yet no +one will argue that I owe more to unknown and forgotten ancestors +than to my father; though really I do owe them more, if I owe it to my +ancestors that my father begat me. + +XXX. "Whatever I have bestowed upon my father," says my opponent, +"however great it may be, yet is less valuable than what my father has +bestowed upon me, because if he had not begotten me, it never could +have existed at all." By this mode of reasoning, if a man has healed +my father when ill, and at the point of death, I shall not be able to +bestow anything upon him equivalent to what I have received from him; +for had my father not been healed, he could not have begotten me. Yet +think whether it be not nearer the truth to regard all that I can do, +and all that I have done, as mine, due to my own powers and my own will? +Consider what the fact of my birth is in itself; you will see that it +is a small matter, the outcome of which is dubious, and that it may lead +equally to good or to evil; no doubt it is the first step to everything, +but because it is the first, it is not on that account more important +than all the others. Suppose that I have saved my father's life, raised +him to the highest honours, and made him the chief man in his city, +that I have not merely made him illustrious by my own deeds, but have +furnished him himself with an opportunity of performing great exploits, +which is at once important, easy, and safe, as well as glorious; that I +have loaded him with appointments, wealth, and all that attracts men's +minds; still, even when I surpass all others, I am inferior to him. +Now if you say, "You owe to your father the power of doing all this," I +shall answer, "Quite true, if to do all this it is only necessary to be +born; but if life is merely an unimportant factor in the art of living +well, and if you have bestowed upon me only that which I have in common +with wild beasts and the smallest, and some of the foulest of creatures, +do not claim for yourself what did not come into being in consequence of +the benefits which you bestowed, even though it could not have come into +being without them." + +XXXI. Suppose, father, that I have saved your life, in return for the +life which I received from you: in this case also I have outdone your +benefit, because I have given life to one who understands what I have +done, and because I understood what I was doing, since I gave you your +life not for the sake of, or by the means of my own pleasure; for just +as it is less terrible to die before one has time to fear death, so it +is a much greater boon to preserve one's life than to receive it. I have +given life to one who will at once enjoy it, you gave it to one who knew +not if he should ever live; I have given life to one who was in fear of +death, your gift of life merely enables me to die; I have given you a +life complete, perfect; you begat me without intelligence, a burden upon +others. Do you wish to know how far from a benefit it was to give life +under such conditions? You should have exposed me as a child, for you +did me a wrong in begetting me. What do I gather from this? That the +cohabitation of a father and mother is the very least of benefits to +their child, unless in addition this beginning of kindnesses be followed +up by others, and confirmed by other services. It is not a good thing +to live, but to live well. "But," say you, "I do live well." True, but +I might have lived ill; so that your part in me is merely this, that I +live. If you claim merit to yourself for giving me mere life, bare and +helpless, and boast of it as a great boon, reflect that this you claim +merit for giving me is a boon which I possess in common with flies and +worms. In the next place, if I say no more than that I have applied +myself to honourable pursuits, and have guided the course of my life +along the path of rectitude, then you have received more from your +benefit than you gave; for you gave me to myself ignorant and unlearned, +and I have returned to you a son such as you would wish to have +begotten. + +XXXII. My father supported me. If I repay this kindness, I give him +more than I received, because he has the pleasure, not only of being +supported, but of being supported by a son, and receives more delight +from my filial devotion than from the food itself, whereas the food +which he used to give me merely affected my body. What? if any man +rises so high as to become famous among nations for his eloquence, his +justice, or his military skill, if much of the splendour of his renown +is shed upon his father also, and by its clear light dispels the +obscurity of his birth, does not such a man confer an inestimable +benefit upon his parents? Would anyone have heard of Aristo and Gryllus +except through Xenophon and Plato, their sons? Socrates keeps alive +the memory of Sophroniscus. It would take long to recount the other +men whose names survive for no other reason than that the admirable +qualities of their sons have handed them down to posterity. Did the +father of Marcus Agrippa, of whom nothing was known, even after Agrippa +became famous, confer the greater benefit upon his son, or was that +greater which Agrippa conferred upon his father when he gained the +glory, unique in the annals of war, of a naval crown, and when he raised +so many vast buildings in Rome, which not only surpassed all former +grandeur, but have been surpassed by none since? Did Octavius confer a +greater benefit upon his son, or the Emperor Augustus upon his father, +obscured as he was by the intervention of an adoptive father? What joy +would he have experienced, if, after the putting down of the civil war, +he had seen his son ruling the state in peace and security? He would not +have recognized the good which he had himself bestowed, and would hardly +have believed, when he looked back upon himself, that so great a man +could have been born in his house. Why should I go on to speak of others +who would now be forgotten, if the glory of their sons had not raised +them from obscurity, and kept them in the light until this day? In the +next place, as we are not considering what son may have given back to +his father greater benefits than he received from him, but whether a son +can give back greater benefits, even if the examples which I have quoted +are not sufficient, and such benefits do not outweigh the benefits +bestowed by the parents, if no age has produced. an actual example, +still it is not in the nature of things impossible. Though no solitary +act can outweigh the deserts of a parent, yet many such acts combined by +one son may do so. + +XXXIII. Scipio, while under seventeen years of age, rode among the enemy +in battle, and saved his father's life. Was it not enough, that in order +to reach his father he despised so many dangers when they were pressing +hardest upon the greatest generals, that he, a novice in his first +battle, made his way through so many obstacles, over the bodies of so +many veteran soldiers, and showed strength and courage beyond his years? +Add to this, that he also defended his father in court, and saved him +from a plot of his powerful enemies, that he heaped upon him a second +and a third consulship and other posts which were coveted even by +consulars, that when his father was poor he bestowed upon him the +plunder which he took by military licence, and that he made him rich +with the spoils of the enemy, which is the greatest honour of a soldier. +If even this did not repay his debt, add to it that he caused him to +be constantly employed in the government of provinces and in special +commands, add, that after he had destroyed the greatest cities, +and became without a rival either in the east or in the west, the +acknowledged protector and second founder of the Roman Empire, he +bestowed upon one who was already of noble birth the higher title of +"the father of Scipio;" can we doubt that the commonplace benefit of his +birth was outdone by his exemplary conduct, and by the valour which was +at once the glory and the protection of his country? Next, if this +be not enough, suppose that a son were to rescue his father from the +torture, or to undergo it in his stead. You can suppose the benefits +returned by the son as great as you please, whereas the gift he received +from his father was of one sort only, was easily performed, and was +a pleasure to the giver; that he must necessarily have given the same +thing to many others, even to some to whom he knows not that he has +given it, that he had a partner in doing so, and that he had in view the +law, patriotism, the rewards bestowed upon fathers of families by the +state, the maintenance of his house and family: everything rather than +him to whom he was giving life. What? supposing that any one were to +learn philosophy and teach it to his father, could it be any longer +disputed that the son had given him something greater than he had +received from him, having returned to his father a happy life, whereas +he had received from him merely life? + +XXXIV. "But," says our opponent, "whatever you do, whatever you are able +to give to your father, is part of his benefit bestowed upon you." So +it is the benefit of my teacher that I have become proficient in liberal +studies; yet we pass on from those who taught them to us, at any rate +from those who taught us the alphabet; and although no one can learn +anything without them, yet it does not follow that whatsoever success +one subsequently obtains, one is still inferior to those teachers. There +is a great difference between the beginning of a thing and its final +development; the beginning is not equal to the thing at its greatest, +merely upon the ground that, without the beginning, it could never have +become so great. + +XXXV. It is now time for me to bring forth something, so to speak, from +my own mint. So long as there is something better than the benefit which +a man bestows, he may be outdone. A father gives life to his son; +there is something better than life; therefore a father may be outdone, +because there is something better than the benefit which he has +bestowed. Still further, he who has given any one his life, if he be +more than once saved from peril of death by him, has received a greater +benefit than he bestowed. Now, a father has given life to his son: if, +therefore, he be more than once saved from peril by his son, he can +receive a greater benefit than he gave. A benefit becomes greater to the +receiver in proportion to his need of it. Now he who is alive needs life +more than he who has not been born, seeing that such a one can have no +need at all; consequently a father, if his life is saved by his son, +receives a greater benefit than his son received from him by being born. +It is said, "The benefits conferred by fathers cannot be outdone by +those returned by their sons." Why? "Because the son received life from +his father, and had he not received it, he could not have returned any +benefits at all." A father has this in common with all those who have +given any men their lives; it is impossible that these men could repay +the debt if they had not received their life. Then I suppose one cannot +overpay one's debt to a physician, for a physician gives life as well +as a father; or to a sailor who has saved us when shipwrecked? Yet the +benefits bestowed by these and by all the others who give us life in +whatever fashion, can be outdone: consequently those of our fathers can +be outdone. If any one bestows upon me a benefit which requires the help +of benefits from many other persons, whereas I give him what requires no +one to help it out, I have given more than I have received; now a father +gave to his son a life which, without many accessories to preserve it, +would perish; whereas a son, if he gives life to his father, gives him +a life which requires no assistance to make it lasting; therefore the +father who receives life from his son, receives a greater benefit than +he himself bestowed upon his son. + +XXXVI. These considerations do not destroy the respect due to parents, +or make their children behave worse to them, nay, better; for virtue +is naturally ambitious, and wishes to outstrip those who are before it. +Filial piety will be all the more eager, if, in returning a father's +benefits, it can hope to outdo them; nor will this be against the will +or the pleasure of the father, since in many contests it is to our +advantage to be outdone. How does this contest become so desirable? +How comes it to be such happiness to parents that they should confess +themselves outdone by the benefits bestowed by their children? Unless we +decide the matter thus, we give children an excuse, and make them less +eager to repay their debt, whereas we ought to spur them on, saying, +"Noble youths, give your attention to this! You are invited to contend +in an honourable strife between parents and children, as to which party +has received more than it has given. Your fathers have not necessarily +won the day because they are first in the field: only take courage, as +befits you, and do not give up the contest; you will conquer if you wish +to do so. In this honourable warfare you will have no lack of leaders +who will encourage you to perform deeds like their own, and bid you +follow in their footsteps upon a path by which victory has often before +now been won over parents." + +XXXVII. AEneas conquered his father in well doing, for he himself had +been but a light and a safe burden for him when he was a child, yet he +bore his father, when heavy with age, through the midst of the enemy's +lines and the crash of the city which was falling around him, albeit the +devout old man, who bore the sacred images and the household gods in +his hands, pressed him with more than his own weight; nevertheless +(what cannot filial piety accomplish!) AEneas bore him safe through the +blazing city, and placed him in safety, to be worshipped as one of the +founders of the Roman Empire. Those Sicilian youths outdid their parents +whom they bore away safe, when Aetna, roused to unusual fury, poured +fire over cities and fields throughout a great part of the island. It +is believed that the fires parted, and that the flames retired on either +side, so as to leave a passage for these youths to pass through, who +certainly deserved to perform their daring task in safety. Antigonus +outdid his father when, after having conquered the enemy in a great +battle, he transferred the fruits of it to him, and handed over to him +the empire of Cyprus. This is true kingship, to choose not to be a king +when you might. Manlius conquered his father, imperious [Footnote: +There is an allusion to the surname of both the father and the son, +"Imperiosus" given them on account of their severity.] though he was, +when, in spite of his having previously been banished for a time by his +father on, account of his dulness and stupidity as a boy, he came to an +interview which he had demanded with the tribune of the people, who +had filed an action against his father. The tribune had granted him the +interview, hoping that he would betray his hated father, and believed +that he had earned the gratitude of the youth, having, amongst other +matters, reproached old Manlius with sending him into exile, treating +it as a very serious accusation; but the youth, having caught him alone, +drew a sword which he had hidden in his robe, and said, "Unless you +swear to give up your suit against my father, I will run you through +with this sword. It is in your power to decide how my father shall be +freed from his prosecutor." The tribune swore, and kept his oath; he +related the reason of his abandonment of his action to an assembly at +the Rostra. No other man was ever permitted to put down a tribune with +impunity. + +XXXVIII. There are instances without number of men who have saved their +parents from danger, have raised them from the lowest to the highest +station, and, taking them from the nameless mass of the lower classes, +have given them a name glorious throughout all ages. By no force of +words, by no power of genius, can one rightly express how desirable, how +admirable, how never to be erased from human memory it is to be able to +say, "I obeyed my parents, I gave way to them, I was submissive to their +authority whether it was just, or unjust and harsh; the only point in +which I resisted them was, not to be conquered by them in benefits." +Continue this struggle, I beg of you, and even though weary, yet re-form +your ranks. Happy are they who conquer, happy they who are conquered. +What can be more glorious than the youth who can say to himself--it +would not be right to say it to another--"I have conquered my father +with benefits"? What is more fortunate than that old man who declares +everywhere to everyone that he has been conquered in benefits by +his son? What, again, is more blissful than to be overcome in such a +contest? + + + + +BOOK IV. + +I. + + +Of all the matters which we have discussed, Aebutius Liberalis, there is +none more essential, or which, as Sallust says, ought to be stated with +more care than that which is now before us: whether the bestowal of +benefits and the return of gratitude for them are desirable objects +in themselves. Some men are found who act honourably from commercial +motives, and who do not care for unrewarded virtue, though it can confer +no glory if it brings any profit. What can be more base than for a man +to consider what it costs him to be a good man, when virtue neither +allures by gain nor deters by loss, and is so far from bribing any one +with hopes and promises, that on the other hand she bids them spend +money upon herself, and often consists in voluntary gifts? We must go to +her, trampling what is merely useful under our feet: whithersoever she +may call us or send us we must go, without any regard for our private +fortunes, sometimes without sparing even our own blood, nor must we +ever refuse to obey any of her commands. "What shall I gain," says my +opponent, "if I do this bravely and gratefully?" You will gain the doing +of it--the deed itself is your gain. Nothing beyond this is promised. If +any advantage chances to accrue to you, count it as something extra. +The reward of honourable dealings lies in themselves. If honour is to be +sought after for itself, since a benefit is honourable, it follows that +because both of these are of the same nature, their conditions must also +be the same. Now it has frequently and satisfactorily been proved, that +honour ought to be sought after for itself alone. + +II. In this part of the subject we oppose the Epicureans, an effeminate +and dreamy sect who philosophize in their own paradise, amongst whom +virtue is the handmaid of pleasures, obeys them, is subject to them, +and regards them as superior to itself. You say, "there is no pleasure +without virtue." But wherefore is it superior to virtue? Do you imagine +that the matter in dispute between them is merely one of precedence? +Nay, it is virtue itself and its powers which are in question. It cannot +be virtue if it can follow; the place of virtue is first, she ought to +lead, to command, to stand in the highest rank; you bid her look for a +cue to follow. "What," asks our opponent, "does that matter to you? I +also declare that happiness is impossible without virtue. Without virtue +I disapprove of and condemn the very pleasures which I pursue, and to +which I have surrendered myself. The only matter in dispute is this, +whether virtue be the cause of the highest good, or whether it be itself +the highest good." Do you suppose, though this be the only point in +question, that it is a mere matter of precedence? It is a confusion and +obvious blindness to prefer the last to the first. I am not angry at +virtue being placed below pleasure, but at her being mixed up at all +with pleasure, which she despises, whose enemy she is, and from which +she separates herself as far as possible, being more at home with labour +and sorrow, which are manly troubles, than with your womanish good +things. + +III. It was necessary to insert this argument, my Liberalis, because +it is the part of virtue to bestow those benefits which we are now +discussing, and it is most disgraceful to bestow benefits for any other +purpose than that they should be free gifts. If we give with the hope of +receiving a return, we should give to the richest men, not to the most +deserving: whereas we prefer a virtuous poor man to an unmannerly rich +one. That is not a benefit, which takes into consideration the fortune +of the receiver. Moreover, if our only motive for benefiting others was +our own advantage, those who could most easily distribute benefits, such +as rich and powerful men, or kings, and persons who do not stand in need +of the help of others, ought never to do so at all; the gods would +not bestow upon us the countless blessings which they pour upon us +unceasingly by night and by day, for their own nature suffices them in +all respects, and renders them complete, safe, and beyond the reach of +harm; they will, therefore, never bestow a benefit upon any one, if self +and self interest be the only cause for the bestowal of benefits. To +take thought, not where your benefit will be best bestowed, but where +it may be most profitably placed at interest, from whence you will most +easily get it back, is not bestowal of benefits, but usury. Now the gods +have nothing to do with usury; it follows, therefore, that they cannot +be liberal; for if the only reason for giving is the advantage of the +giver, since God cannot hope to receive any advantages from us, there is +no cause why God should give anything. + +IV. I know what answer may be made to this. "True; therefore God does +not bestow benefits, but, free from care and unmindful of us, He +turns away from our world and either does something else, or else does +nothing, which Epicurus thought the greatest possible happiness, and +He is not affected either by benefits or by injuries." The man who says +this cannot surely hear the voices of worshippers, and of those who all +around him are raising their hands to heaven and praying for the success +both of their private affairs and those of the state; which certainly +would not be the case, all men would not agree in this madness of +appealing to deaf and helpless gods, unless we knew that their benefits +are sometimes bestowed upon us unasked, sometimes in answer to our +prayers, and that they give us both great and seasonable gifts, which +shield us from the most terrible dangers. Who is there so poor, so +uncared for, born to sorrow by so unkind a fate, as never to have felt +the vast generosity of the Gods? Look even at those who complain and are +discontented with their lot; you will find that they are not altogether +without a share in the bounty of heaven, that there is no one upon whom +something has not been shed from that most gracious fount. Is the gift +which is bestowed upon all alike, at their birth, not enough? However +unequally the blessings of after life may be dealt out to us, did nature +give us too little when she gave us herself? + +V. It is said, "God does not bestow benefits." Whence, then, comes all +that you possess, that you give or refuse to give, that you hoard or +steal? whence come these innumerable delights of our eyes, our ears, and +our minds? whence the plenty which provides us even with luxury--for it +is not our bare necessities alone against which provision is made; +we are loved so much as actually to be pampered--whence so many trees +bearing various fruits, so many wholesome herbs, so many different sorts +of food distributed throughout the year, so that even the slothful may +find sustenance in the chance produce of the earth? Then, too, whence +come the living creatures of all kinds, some inhabiting the dry land, +others the waters, others alighting from the sky, that every part of +nature may pay us some tribute; the rivers which encircle our meadows +with most beauteous bends, the others which afford a passage to merchant +fleets as they flow on, wide and navigable, some of which in summer +time are subject to extraordinary overflowings in order that lands lying +parched under a glowing sun may suddenly be watered by the rush of a +midsummer torrent? + +What of the fountains of medicinal waters? What of the bursting forth of +warm waters upon the seashore itself? Shall I + + "Tell of the seas round Italy that flow, + Which laves her shore above, and which below; + Or of her lakes, unrivalled Larius, thee, + Or thee, Benacus, roaring like a sea?" + +VI. If any one gave you a few acres, you would say that you had received +a benefit; can you deny that the boundless extent of the earth is a +benefit? If any one gave you money, and filled your chest, since you +think that so important, you would call that a benefit. God has buried +countless mines in the earth, has poured out from the earth countless +rivers, rolling sands of gold; He has concealed in every place huge +masses of silver, copper and iron, and has bestowed upon you the means +of discovering them, placing upon the surface of the earth signs of the +treasures hidden below; and yet do you say that you have received +no benefit? If a house were given you, bright with marble, its roof +beautifully painted with colours and gilding, you would call it no small +benefit. God has built for you a huge mansion that fears no fire or +ruin, in which you see no flimsy veneers, thinner than the very saw with +which they are cut, but vast blocks of most precious stone, all composed +of those various and different substances whose paltriest fragments you +admire so much; he has built a roof which glitters in one fashion by +day, and in another by night; and yet do you say that you have received +no benefit? When you so greatly prize what you possess, do you act the +part of an ungrateful man, and think that there is no one to whom you +are indebted for them? Whence comes the breath which you draw? the light +by which you arrange and perform all the actions of your life? the blood +by whose circulation your vital warmth is maintained? those meats +which excite your palate by their delicate flavour after your hunger is +appeased? those provocatives which rouse you when wearied with pleasure? +that repose in which you are rotting and mouldering? Will you not, if +you are grateful, say-- + + "'Tis to a god that this repose I owe, + For him I worship, as a god below. + Oft on his altar shall my firstlings bleed, + See, by his bounty here with rustic reed + I play the airs I love the livelong day, + The while my oxen round about me stray." + +The true God is he who has placed, not a few oxen, but all the herds on +their pastures throughout the world; who furnishes food to the flocks +wherever they wander; who has ordained the alternation of summer and +winter pasturage, and has taught us not merely to play upon a reed, and +to reduce to some order a rustic and artless song, but who has invented +so many arts and varieties of voice, so many notes to make music, +some with our own breath, some with instruments. You cannot call our +inventions our own any more than you call our growth our own, or the +various bodily functions which correspond to each stage of our lives; at +one time comes the loss of childhood's teeth, at another, when our age +is advancing and growing into robuster manhood, puberty and the last +wisdom-tooth marks the end of our youth. "We have implanted in us the +seeds of all ages, of all arts, and God our master brings forth our +intellects from obscurity." + +VII. "Nature," says my opponent, "gives me all this." Do you not +perceive when you say this that you merely speak of God under another +name? for what is nature but God and divine reason, which pervades the +universe and all its parts? You may address the author of our world +by as many different titles as you please; you may rightly call him +Jupiter, Best and Greatest, and the Thunderer, or the Stayer, so called, +not because, as the historians tell us, he stayed the flight of the +Roman army in answer to the prayer of Romulus, but because all things +continue in their stay through his goodness. If you were to call this +same personage Fate, you would not lie; for since fate is nothing more +than a connected chain of causes, he is the first cause of all upon +which all the rest depend. You will also be right in applying to him any +names that you please which express supernatural strength and power: he +may have as many titles as he has attributes. + +VIII. Our school regards him as Father Liber, and Hercules, and +Mercurius: he is Father Liber because he is the parent of all, who first +discovered the power of seed, and our being led by pleasure to plant it; +he is Hercules, because his might is unconquered, and when it is wearied +after completing its labours, will retire into fire; he is Mercurius, +because in him is reasoning, and numbers, and system, and knowledge. +Whither-soever you turn yourself you will see him meeting you: +nothing is void of him, he himself fills his own work. Therefore, most +ungrateful of mortals, it is in vain that you declare yourself indebted, +not to God, but to nature, because there can be no God without nature, +nor any nature without God; they are both the same thing, differing only +in their functions. If you were to say that you owe to Annaeus or +to Lucius what you received from Seneca, you would not change your +creditor, but only his name, because he remains the same man whether you +use his first, second, or third name. So whether you speak of nature, +fate, or fortune, these are all names of the same God, using his power +in different ways. So likewise justice, honesty, discretion, courage, +frugality, are all the good qualities of one and the same mind; if you +are pleased with any one of these, you are pleased with that mind. + +IX. However, not to drift aside into a distinct controversy, God bestows +upon us very many and very great benefits without hope of receiving any +return; since he does not require any offering from us, and we are +not capable of bestowing anything upon him: wherefore, a benefit is +desirable in itself. In it the advantage of the receiver is all that +is taken into consideration: we study this without regarding our own +interests. "Yet," argues our opponent, "you say that we ought to choose +with care the persons upon whom we bestow benefits, because neither do +husbandmen sow seed in the sand: now if this be true, we follow our own +interest in bestowing benefits, just as much as in ploughing and sowing: +for sowing is not desirable in itself. Besides this you inquire where +and how you ought to bestow a benefit, which would not need to be +done if the bestowal of a benefit was desirable in itself: because in +whatever place and whatever manner it might be bestowed, it still would +be a benefit." We seek to do honourable acts, solely because they are +honourable; yet even though we need think of nothing else, we consider +to whom we shall do them, and when, and how; for in these points the act +has its being. In like manner, when I choose upon whom I shall bestow +a benefit, and when I aim at making it a benefit; because if it were +bestowed upon a base person, it could neither be a benefit nor an +honourable action. + +X. To restore what has been entrusted to one is desirable in itself; yet +I shall not always restore it, nor shall I do so in any place or at any +time you please. Sometimes it makes no difference whether I deny that I +have received it, or return it openly. I shall consider the interests +of the person to whom I am to return it, and shall deny that I have +received a deposit, which would injure him if returned. I shall act in +the same manner in bestowing a benefit: I shall consider when to give +it, to whom, in what manner, and on what grounds. Nothing ought to be +done without a reason: a benefit is not truly so, if it be bestowed +without a reason, since reason accompanies all honorable action. How +often do we hear men reproaching themselves for some thoughtless gift, +and saying, "I had rather have thrown it away than have given it to +him!" What is thoughtlessly given away is lost in the most discreditable +manner, and it is much worse to have bestowed a benefit badly than to +have received no return for it; that we receive no return is the fault +of another; that we did not choose upon whom we should bestow it, is our +own. In choosing a fit person, I shall not, as you expect, pay the +least attention to whether I am likely to get any return from him, for +I choose one who will be grateful, not one who will return my goodness, +and it often happens that the man who makes no return is grateful, while +he who returns a benefit is ungrateful for it. I value men by their +hearts alone, and, therefore, I shall pass over a rich man if he be +unworthy, and give to a good man though he be poor; for he will be +grateful however destitute he may be, since whatever he may lose, his +heart will still be left him. + +XI. I do not fish for gain, for pleasure, or for credit, by bestowing +benefits: satisfied in doing so with pleasing one man alone, I shall +give in order to do my duty. Duty, however, leaves one some choice; do +you ask me, how I am to choose? I shall choose an honest, plain, man, +with a good memory, and grateful for kindness; one who keeps his hands +off other men's goods, yet does not greedily hold to his own, and who is +kind to others; when I have chosen such a man, I shall have acted to my +mind, although fortune may have bestowed upon him no means of returning +my kindness. If my own advantage and mean calculation made me liberal, +if I did no one any service except in order that he might in turn do a +service to me, I should never bestow a benefit upon one who was setting +out for distant and foreign countries, never to return; I should not +bestow a benefit upon one who was so ill as to be past hope of recovery, +nor should I do so when I myself was failing, because I should not live +long enough to receive any return. Yet, that you may know that to do +good is desirable in itself, we afford help to strangers who put into +our harbour only to leave it straightway; we give a ship and fit it out +for a shipwrecked stranger to sail back in to his own country. He leaves +us hardly knowing who it was who saved him, and, as he will never return +to our presence, he hands over his debt of gratitude to the gods, and +beseeches them to fulfil it for him: in the meanwhile we rejoice in the +barren knowledge that we have done a good action. What? when we stand +upon the extreme verge of life, and make our wills, do we not assign to +others benefits from which we ourselves shall receive no advantage? How +much time we waste, how long we consider in secret how much property we +are to leave, and to whom! What then? does it make any difference to us +to whom we leave our property, seeing that we cannot expect any return +from any one? Yet we never give anything with more care, we never take +such pains in deciding upon our verdict, as when, without any views of +personal advantage, we think only of what is honourable, for we are bad +judges of our duty as long as our view of it is distorted by hope and +fear, and that most indolent of vices, pleasure: but when death has shut +off all these, and brought us as incorrupt judges to pronounce sentence, +we seek for the most worthy men to leave our property to, and we never +take more scrupulous care than in deciding what is to be done with what +does not concern us. Yet, by Hercules, then there steals over us a +great satisfaction as we think, "I shall make this man richer, and by +bestowing wealth upon that man I shall add lustre to his high position." +Indeed, if we never give without expecting some return, we must all die +without making our wills. + +XII. It may be said, "You define a benefit as a loan which cannot be +repaid: now a loan is not a desirable thing in itself." When we speak of +a loan, we make use of a figure, or comparison, just as we speak of law +as; the standard of right and wrong, although a standard is not a thing +to be desired for its own sake. I have adopted this phrase in order to +illustrate my subject: when I speak of a loan, I must be understood to +mean something resembling a loan. Do you wish to know how it differs +from one? I add the words "which cannot be repaid," whereas every loan +both can and ought to be repaid. It is so far from being right to bestow +a benefit for one's own advantage, that often, as I have explained, it +is one's duty to bestow it when it involves one's own loss and risk: for +instance, if I assist a man when beset by robbers, so that he gets away +from them safely, or help some victim of power, and bring upon myself +the party spite of a body of influential men, very, probably incurring +myself the same disgrace from which I saved him, although I might have +taken the other side, and looked on with safety at struggles with +which I have nothing to do: if I were to give bail for one who has been +condemned, and when my friend's goods were advertised for sale I were +to give a bond to the effect that I would make restitution to the +creditors, if, in order to save a proscribed person I myself run the +risk of being proscribed. No one, when about to buy a villa at Tusculum +or Tibur, for a summer retreat, because of the health of the locality, +considers how many years' purchase he gives for it; this must be looked +to by the man who makes a profit by it. The same is true with benefits; +when you ask what return I get for them, I answer, the consciousness +of a good action. "What return does one get for benefits?" Pray tell +me what return one gets for righteousness, innocence, magnanimity, +chastity, temperance? If you wish for anything beyond these virtues, you +do not wish for the virtues themselves. For what does the order of the +universe bring round the seasons? for what does the sun make the day +now longer and now shorter? all these things are benefits, for they take +place for our good. As it is the duty of the universe to maintain the +round of the seasons, as it is the duty of the sun to vary the points of +his rising and setting, and to do all these things by which we profit, +without any reward, so is it the duty of man, amongst other things, to +bestow benefits. Wherefore then does he give? He gives for fear that +he should not give, lest he might lose an opportunity of doing a good +action. + +XIII. You Epicureans take pleasure in making a study of dull torpidity, +in seeking for a repose which differs little from sound sleep, in +lurking beneath the thickest shade, in amusing with the feeblest +possible trains of thought that sluggish condition of your languid minds +which you term tranquil contemplation, and in stuffing with food and +drink, in the recesses of your gardens, your bodies which are pallid +with want of exercise; we Stoics, on the other hand, take pleasure in +bestowing benefits, even though they cost us labour, provided that they +lighten the labours of others; though they lead us into danger, provided +that they save others, though they straiten our means, if they alleviate +the poverty and distresses of others. What difference does it make to me +whether I receive benefits or not? even if I receive them, it is still +my duty to bestow them. A benefit has in view the advantage of him +upon whom we bestow it, not our own; otherwise we merely bestow it upon +ourselves. Many things, therefore, which are of the greatest possible +use to others lose all claim to gratitude by being paid for. Merchants +are of use to cities, physicians to invalids, dealers to slaves; yet all +these have no claim to the gratitude of those whom they benefit, because +they seek their own advantage through that of others. That which is +bestowed with a view to profit is not a benefit. "I will give this in +order that I may get a return for it" is the language of a broker. + +XIV. I should not call a woman modest, if she rebuffed her lover in +order to increase his passion, or because she feared the law or her +husband; as Ovid says: + + "She that denies, because she does not dare + To yield, in spirit grants her lover's prayer." + +Indeed, the woman who owes her chastity, not to her own virtue, but to +fear, may rightly be classed as a sinner. In the same manner, he who +merely gave in order that he might receive, cannot be said to have +given. Pray, do we bestow benefits upon animals when we feed them for +our use or for our table? do we bestow benefits upon trees when we tend +them that they may not suffer from drought or from hardness of ground? +No one is moved by righteousness and goodness of heart to cultivate an +estate, or to do any act in which the reward is something apart from the +act itself; but he is moved to bestow benefits, not by low and grasping +motives, but by a kind and generous mind, which even after it has given +is willing to give again, to renew its former bounties by fresh ones, +which thinks only of how much good it can do the man to whom it gives; +whereas to do any one a service because it is our interest to do so is a +mean action, which deserves no praise, no credit. What grandeur is there +in loving oneself, sparing oneself, gaining profit for oneself? The true +love of giving calls us away from all this, forcibly leads us to put up +with loss, and foregoes its own interest, deriving its greatest pleasure +from the mere act of doing good. + +XV. Can we doubt that the converse of a benefit is an injury? As the +infliction of injuries is a thing to be avoided, so is the bestowal of +benefits to be desired for its own sake. In the former, the disgrace of +crime outweighs all the advantages which incite us to commit it; while +we are urged to the latter course by the appearance of honour, in itself +a powerful incentive to action, which attends it. + +I should not lie if I were to affirm that every one takes pleasure in +the benefits which he has bestowed, that everyone loves best to see the +man whom he has most largely benefited. Who does not thinks that to have +bestowed one benefit is a reason for bestowing a second? and would this +be so, if the act of giving did not itself give us pleasure? How often +you may hear a man say, "I cannot bear to desert one whose life I have +preserved, whom I have saved from danger. True, he asks me to plead his +cause against men of great influence. I do not wish to do so, yet what +am I to do? I have already helped him once, nay twice." Do you not +perceive how very powerful this instinct must be, if it leads us to +bestow benefits first because it is right to do so, and afterwards +because we have already bestowed somewhat? Though at the outset a man +may have had no claim upon us, we yet continue to give to him because we +have already given to him. So untrue is it that we are urged to bestow +benefits by our own interest, that even when our benefits prove failures +we continue to nurse them and encourage them out of sheer love of +benefiting, which has a natural weakness even for what has been +ill-bestowed, like that which we feel for our vicious children. + +XVI. These same adversaries of ours admit that they are grateful, yet +not because it is honourable, but because it is profitable to be so. +This can be proved to be untrue all the more easily, because it can be +established by the same arguments by which we have established that to +bestow a benefit is desirable for its own sake. All our arguments start +from this settled point, that honour is pursued for no reason except +because it is honour. Now, who will venture to raise the question +whether it be honourable to be grateful? who does not loathe the +ungrateful man, useless as he is even to himself? How do you feel when +any one is spoken of as being ungrateful for great benefits conferred +upon him by a friend? Is it as though he had done something base, or had +merely neglected to do something useful and likely to be profitable to +himself? I imagine that you think him a bad man, and one who deserves +punishment, not one who needs a guardian; and this would not be the +case, unless gratitude were desirable in itself and honourable. Other +qualities, it may be, manifest their importance less clearly, and +require an explanation to prove whether they be honourable or no; this +is openly proved to be so in the sight of all, and is too beautiful for +anything to obscure or dim its glory. What is more praiseworthy, upon +what are all men more universally agreed, than to return gratitude for +good offices? + +XVII. Pray tell me, what is it that urges us to do so? Is it profit? +Why, unless a man despises profit, he is not grateful. Is it ambition? +why, what is there to boast of in having paid what you owe? Is it +fear? The ungrateful man feels none, for against this one crime we +have provided no law, as though nature had taken sufficient precautions +against it. Just as there is no law which bids parents love and indulge +their children, seeing that it is superfluous to force us into the +path which we naturally take, just as no one needs to be urged to love +himself, since self-love begins to act upon him as soon as he is born, +so there is no law bidding us to seek that which is honourable +in itself; for such things please us by their very nature, and so +attractive is virtue that the disposition even of bad men leads them to +approve of good rather than of evil. Who is there who does not wish +to appear beneficent, who does not even when steeped in crime and +wrong-doing strive after the appearance of goodness, does not put some +show of justice upon even his most intemperate acts, and endeavour to +seem to have conferred a benefit even upon those whom he has injured? +Consequently, men allow themselves to be thanked by those whom they have +ruined, and pretend to be good and generous, because they cannot prove +themselves so; and this they never would do were it not that a love +of honour for its own sake forces them to seek a reputation quite at +variance with their real character, and to conceal their baseness, a +quality whose fruits we covet, though we regard it itself with dislike +and shame. No one has ever so far rebelled against the laws of nature +and put off human feeling as to act basely for mere amusement. Ask any +of those who live by robbery whether he would not rather obtain what +he steals and plunders by honest means; the man whose trade is highway +robbery and the murder of travellers would rather find his booty than +take it by force; you will find no one who would not prefer to enjoy the +fruits of wickedness without acting wickedly. Nature bestows upon us all +this immense advantage, that the light of virtue shines into the minds +of all alike; even those who do not follow her, behold her. + +XVIII. A proof that gratitude is desirable for itself lies in the fact +that ingratitude is to be avoided for itself, because no vice more +powerfully rends asunder and destroys the union of the human race. +To what do we trust for safety, if not in mutual good offices one to +another? It is by the interchange of benefits alone that we gain some +measure of protection for our lives, and of safety against sudden +disasters. Taken singly, what should we be? a prey and quarry for wild +beasts, a luscious and easy banquet; for while all other animals have +sufficient strength to protect themselves, and those which are born to a +wandering solitary life are armed, man is covered by a soft skin, has no +powerful teeth or claws with which to terrify other creatures, but weak +and naked by himself is made strong by union. + +God has bestowed upon him two gifts, reason and union, which raise him +from weakness to the highest power; and so he, who if taken alone would +be inferior to every other creature, possesses supreme dominion. Union +has given him sovereignty over all animals; union has enabled a being +born upon the earth to assume power over a foreign element, and bids him +be lord of the sea also; it is union which has checked the inroads of +disease, provided supports for our old age, and given us relief from +pain; it is union which makes us strong, and to which we look for +protection against the caprices of fortune. Take away union, and you +will rend asunder the association by which the human race preserves +its existence; yet you will take it away if you succeed in proving that +ingratitude is not to be avoided for itself, but because something is +to be feared for it; for how many are there who can with safety be +ungrateful? In fine, I call every man ungrateful who is merely made +grateful by fear. + +XIX. No sane man fears the gods; for it is madness to fear what is +beneficial, and no man loves those whom he fears. You, Epicurus, ended +by making God unarmed; you stripped him of all weapons, of all power, +and, lest anyone should fear him, you banished him out of the world. +There is no reason why you should fear this being, cut off as he is, and +separated from the sight and touch of mortals by a vast and impassable +wall; he has no power either of rewarding or of injuring us; he dwells +alone half-way between our heaven and that of another world, without the +society either of animals, of men, or of matter, avoiding the crash of +worlds as they fall in ruins above and around him, but neither hearing +our prayers nor interested in us. Yet you wish to seem to worship this +being just as a father, with a mind, I suppose, full of gratitude; or, +if you do not wish to seem grateful, why should you worship him, since +you have received no benefit from him, but have been put together +entirely at random and by chance by those atoms and mites of yours? +"I worship him," you answer, "because of his glorious majesty and his +unique nature." Granting that you do this, you clearly do it without +the attraction of any reward, or any hope; there is therefore something +which is desirable for itself, whose own worth attracts you, that +is, honour. Now what is more honourable than gratitude? the means of +practising this virtue are as extensive as life itself. + +XX. "Yet," argues he, "there is also a certain amount of profit inherent +in this virtue." In what virtue is there not? But that which we speak +of as desirable for itself is such, that although it may possess some +attendant advantages, yet it would be desirable even if stripped of +all these. It is profitable to be grateful; yet I will be grateful even +though it harm me. What is the aim of the grateful man? is it that his +gratitude may win for him more friends and more benefits? What then? If +a man is likely to meet with affronts by showing his gratitude, if he +knows that far from gaining anything by it, he must lose much even of +what he has already acquired, will he not cheerfully act to his own +disadvantage? That man is ungrateful who, in returning a kindness, +looks forward to a second gift--who hopes while he repays. I call him +ungrateful who sits at the bedside of a sick man because he is about +to make a will, when he is at leisure to think of inheritances and +legacies. Though he may do everything which a good and dutiful friend +ought to do, yet, if any hope of gain be floating in his mind, he is a +mere legacy-hunter, and is angling for an inheritance. Like the birds +which feed upon carcases, which come close to animals weakened by +disease, and watch till they fall, so these men are attracted by death +and hover around a corpse. + +XXI. A grateful mind is attracted only by a sense of the beauty of its +purpose. Do you wish to know this to be so, and that it is not bribed by +ideas of profit? There are two classes of grateful men: a man is called +grateful who has made some return for what he received; this man may +very possibly display himself in this character, he has something +to boast of, to refer to. We also call a man grateful who receives a +benefit with goodwill, and owes it to his benefactor with goodwill; yet +this man's gratitude lies concealed within his own mind. What profit can +accrue to him from this latent feeling? yet this man, even though he +is not able to do anything more than this, is grateful; he loves his +benefactor, he feels his debt to him, he longs to repay his kindness; +whatever else you may find wanting, there is nothing wanting in the man. +He is like a workman who has not the tools necessary for the practice of +his craft, or like a trained singer whose voice cannot be heard through +the noise of those who interrupt him. I wish to repay a kindness: after +this there still remains something for me to do, not in order that I may +become grateful, but that I may discharge my debt; for, in many cases, +he who returns a kindness is ungrateful for it, and he who does not +return it is grateful. Like all other virtues, the whole value of +gratitude lies in the spirit in which it is done; so, if this man's +purpose be loyal, any shortcomings on his part are due not to himself, +but to fortune. A man who is silent may, nevertheless, be eloquent; his +hands may be folded or even bound, and he may yet be strong; just as +a pilot is a pilot even when upon dry land, because his knowledge +is complete, and there is nothing wanting to it, though there may be +obstacles which prevent his making use of it. In the same way, a man is +grateful who only wishes to be so, and who has no one but himself who +can bear witness to his frame of mind. I will go even further than +this: a man sometimes is grateful when he appears to be ungrateful, when +ill-judging report has declared him to be so. Such a man can look +to nothing but his own conscience, which can please him even when +overwhelmed by calumny, which contradicts the mob and common rumour, +relies only upon itself, and though it beholds a vast crowd of the other +way of thinking opposed to it, does not count heads, but wins by its own +vote alone. Should it see its own good faith meet with the punishment +due to treachery, it will not descend from its pedestal, and will remain +superior to its punishment. "I have," it says, "what I wished, what I +strove for. I do not regret it, nor shall I do so; nor shall fortune, +however unjust she may be, ever hear me say, 'What did I want? What now +is the use of having meant well?'" A good conscience is of value on +the rack, or in the fire; though fire be applied to each of our limbs, +gradually encircle our living bodies, and burst our heart, yet if our +heart be filled with a good conscience, it will rejoice in the fire +which will make its good faith shine before the world. + +XXII. Now let that question also which has been already stated be again +brought forward; Why is it that we should wish to be grateful when we +are dying, that we should carefully weigh the various services rendered +us by different individuals, and carefully review our whole life, that +we may not seem to have forgotten any kindness? Nothing then remains for +us to hope for; yet when on the very threshold, we wish to depart +from human life as full of gratitude as possible. There is in truth an +immense reward for this thing merely in doing it, and what is honourable +has great power to attract men's minds, which are overwhelmed by its +beauty and carried off their balance, enchanted by its brilliancy and +splendour. "Yet," argues our adversary, "from it many advantages take +their rise, and good men obtain a safer life and love, and the good +opinion of the better class, while their days are spent in greater +security when accompanied by innocence and gratitude." + +Indeed, nature would have been most unjust had she rendered this great +blessing miserable, uncertain, and fruitless. But consider this point, +whether you would make your way to that virtue, to which it is generally +safe and easy to attain, even though the path lay over rocks and +precipices, and were beset with fierce beasts and venomous serpents. A +virtue is none the less to be desired for its own sake, because it has +some adventitious profit connected with it: indeed, in most cases the +noblest virtues are accompanied by many extraneous advantages, but it is +the virtues that lead the way, and these merely follow in their train. + +XXIII. Can we doubt that the climate of this abode of the human race is +regulated by the motion of the sun and moon in their orbits? that +our bodies are sustained, the hard earth loosened, excessive moisture +reduced, and the surly bonds of winter broken by the heat of the one, +and that crops are brought to ripeness by the effectual all-pervading +warmth of the other? that the fertility of the human race corresponds +to the courses of the moon? that the sun by its revolution marks out +the year, and that the moon, moving in a smaller orbit, marks out the +months? Yet, setting aside all this, would not the sun be a sight worthy +to be contemplated and worshipped, if he did no more than rise and set? +would not the moon be worth looking at, even if it passed uselessly +through the heavens? Whose attention is not arrested by the universe +itself, when by night it pours forth its fires and glitters with +innumerable stars? Who, while he admires them, thinks of their being of +use to him? Look at that great company gliding over our heads, how they +conceal their swift motion under the semblance of a fixed and immovable +work. How much takes place in that night which you make use of merely +to mark and count your days! What a mass of events is being prepared in +that silence! What a chain of destiny their unerring path is forming! +Those which you imagine to be merely strewn about for ornament are +really one and all at work. Nor is there any ground for your belief that +only seven stars revolve, and that the rest remain still: we understand +the orbits of a few, but countless divinities, further removed from +our sight, come and go; while the greater part of those whom our sight +reaches move in a mysterious manner and by an unknown path. + +XXIV. What then? would you not be captivated by the sight of such a +stupendous work, even though it did not cover you, protect you, cherish +you, bring you into existence and penetrate you with its spirit? Though +these heavenly bodies are of the very first importance to us, and are, +indeed, essential to our life, yet we can think of nothing but +their glorious majesty, and similarly all virtue, especially that of +gratitude, though it confers great advantages upon us, does not wish to +be loved for that reason; it has something more in it than this, and he +who merely reckons it among useful things does not perfectly comprehend +it. A man, you say, is grateful because it is to his advantage to be +so. If this be the case, then his advantage will be the measure of his +gratitude. Virtue will not admit a covetous lover; men must approach her +with open purse. The ungrateful man thinks, "I did wish to be grateful, +but I fear the expense and danger and insults to which I should expose +myself: I will rather consult my own interest." Men cannot be rendered +grateful and ungrateful by the same line of reasoning: their actions +are as distinct as their purposes. The one is ungrateful, although it is +wrong, because it is his interest; the other is grateful, although it is +not his interest, because it is right. + +XXV. It is our aim to live in harmony with the scheme of the universe, +and to follow the example of the gods. Yet in all their acts the gods +have no object in view other than the act itself, unless you suppose +that they obtain a reward for their work in the smoke of burnt +sacrifices and the scent of incense. See what great things they do every +day, how much they divide amongst us, with how great crops they fill the +earth, how they move the seas with convenient winds to carry us to all +shores, how by the fall of sudden showers they soften the ground, renew +the dried-up springs of fountains, and call them into new life by +unseen supplies of water. All this they do without reward, without any +advantage accruing to themselves. Let our line of conduct, if it would +not depart from its model, preserve this direction, and let us not act +honourably because we are hired to do so. We ought to feel ashamed that +any benefit should have a price: we pay nothing for the gods. + +XXVI. "If," our adversary may say, "you wish to imitate the gods, then +bestow benefits upon the ungrateful as well as the grateful; for the +sun rises upon the wicked as well as the good, the seas are open even +to pirates." By this question he really asks whether a good man +would bestow a benefit upon an ungrateful person, knowing him to be +ungrateful. Allow me here to introduce a short explanation, that we may +not be taken in by a deceitful question. Understand that according to +the system of the Stoics there are two classes of ungrateful persons. +One man is ungrateful because he is a fool; a fool is a bad man; a man +who is bad possesses every vice: therefore he is ungrateful. In the same +way we speak of all bad men as dissolute, avaricious, luxurious, and +spiteful, not because each man has all these vices in any great or +remarkable degree, but because he might have them; they are in him, even +though they be not seen. The second form of ungrateful person is he who +is commonly meant by the term, one who is inclined by nature to this +vice. In the case of him who has the vice of ingratitude just as he has +every other, a wise man will bestow a benefit, because if he sets aside +all such men there will be no one left for him to bestow it on. As for +the ungrateful man who habitually misapplies benefits and acts so by +choice, he will no more bestow a benefit upon him than he would lend +money to a spendthrift, or place a deposit in the hands of one who had +already often refused to many persons to give up the property with which +they had entrusted him. + +XXVII. We call some men timid because they are fools: in this they +are like the bad men who are steeped in all vices without distinction. +Strictly speaking, we call those persons timid who are alarmed even +at unmeaning noises. A fool possesses all vices, but he is not equally +inclined by nature to all; one is prone to avarice, another to luxury, +and another to insolence. Those persons, therefore, are mistaken, who +ask the Stoics, "What do you say, then? is Achilles timid? Aristides, +who received a name for justice, is he unjust? Fabius, who 'by delays +retrieved the day,' is he rash? Does Decius fear death? Is Mucius +a traitor? Camillus a betrayer?" We do not mean that all vices are +inherent in all men in the same way in which some especial ones are +noticeable in certain men, but we declare that the bad man and the fool +possess all vices; we do not even acquit them of fear when they are +rash, or of avarice when they are extravagant. Just as a man has all his +senses, yet all men have not on that account as keen a sight as Lynceus, +so a man that is a fool has not all vices in so active and vigorous a +form as some persons have spine of them, yet he has them all. All vices +exist in all of them, yet all are not prominent in each individual. One +man is naturally prone to avarice, another is the slave of wine, a third +of lust; or, if not yet enslaved by these passions, he is so fashioned +by nature that this is the direction in which his character would +probably lead him. Therefore, to return to my original proposition, +every bad man is ungrateful, because he has the seeds of every villainy +in him; but he alone is rightly so called who is naturally inclined to +this vice. Upon such a person as this, therefore, I shall not bestow a +benefit. One who betrothed his daughter to an ill-tempered man from whom +many women had sought a divorce, would be held to have neglected her +interests; a man would be thought a bad father if he entrusted the care +of his patrimony to one who had lost his own family estate, and it would +be the act of a madman to make a will naming as the guardian of one's +son a man who had already defrauded other wards. So will that man be +said to bestow benefits as badly as possible, who chooses ungrateful +persons, in whose hands they will perish. + +XXVIII. "The gods," it may be said, "bestow much, even upon the +ungrateful." But what they bestow they had prepared for the good, and +the bad have their share as well, because they cannot be separated. It +is better to benefit the bad as well, for the sake of benefiting the +good, than to stint the good for fear of benefiting the bad. Therefore +the gods have created all that you speak of, the day, the sun, the +alternations of winter and summer, the transitions through spring and +autumn from one extreme to the other, showers, drinking fountains, and +regularly blowing winds for the use of all alike; they could not except +individuals from the enjoyment of them. A king bestows honours upon +those who deserve them, but he gives largesse to the undeserving as +well. The thief, the bearer of false witness, and the adulterer, alike +receive the public grant of corn, and all are placed on the register +without any examination as to character; good and bad men share alike in +all the other privileges which a man receives, because he is a citizen, +not because he is a good man. God likewise has bestowed certain gifts +upon the entire human race, from which no one is shut out. Indeed, it +could not be arranged that the wind which was fair for good men should +be foul for bad ones, while it is for the good of all men that the seas +should be open for traffic and the kingdom of mankind be enlarged; nor +could any law be appointed for the showers, so that they should not fall +upon the fields of wicked and evil men. Some things are given to all +alike: cities are founded for good and bad men alike; works of genius +reach, by publication, even unworthy men; medicine points out the +means of health even to the wicked; no one has checked the making up of +wholesome remedies for fear that the undeserving should be healed. You +must seek for examination and preference of individuals in such things +as are bestowed separately upon those who are thought to deserve them; +not in these, which admit the mob to share them without distinction. +There is a great difference between not shutting a man out and choosing +him. Even a thief receives justice; even murderers enjoy the blessings +of peace; even those who have plundered others can recover their own +property; assassins and private bravoes are defended against the common +enemy by the city wall; the laws protect even those who have sinned most +deeply against them. There are some things which no man could obtain +unless they were given to all; you need not, therefore, cavil about +those matters in which all mankind is invited to share. As for things +which men receive or not at my discretion, I shall not bestow them upon +one whom I know to be ungrateful. + +XXIX. "Shall we, then," argues he, "not give our advice to an ungrateful +man when he is at a loss, or refuse him a drink of water when he is +thirsty, or not show him the path when he has lost his way? or would you +do him these services and yet not give him anything?" Here I will draw +a distinction, or at any rate endeavour to do so. A benefit is a useful +service, yet all useful service is not a benefit; for some are so +trifling as not to claim the title of benefits. To produce a benefit two +conditions must concur. First, the importance of the thing given; for +some things fall short of the dignity of a benefit. Who ever called a +hunch of bread a benefit, or a farthing dole tossed to a beggar, or the +means of lighting a fire? yet sometimes these are of more value than the +most costly benefits; still their cheapness detracts from their value +even when, by the exigency of time, they are rendered essential. The +next condition, which is the most important of all, must necessarily be +present, namely, that I should confer the benefit for the sake of him +whom I wish to receive it, that I should judge him worthy of it, bestow +it of my own free will, and receive pleasure from my own gift, none +of which conditions are present in the cases of which we have just now +spoken; for we do not bestow such things as those upon these who are +worthy of them, but we give them carelessly, as trifles, and do not give +them so much to a man as to humanity. + +XXX. I shall not deny that sometimes I would give even to the unworthy, +out of respect for others; as, for instance, in competition for public +offices, some of the basest of men are preferred on account of their +noble birth, to industrious men of no family, and that for good reasons; +for the memory of great virtues is sacred, and more men will take +pleasure in being good, if the respect felt for good men does not cease +with their lives. What made Cicero's son a consul, except his father? +What lately brought Cinna [Footnote: See Seneca on "Clemency," book i., +ch. ix.] out of the camp of the enemy and raised him to the consulate? +What made Sextus Pompeius and the other Pompeii consuls, unless it was +the greatness of one man, who once was raised so high that, by his very +fall, he sufficiently exalted all his relatives. What lately made Fabius +Persicus a member of more than one college of priests, though even +profligates avoided his kiss? Was it not Verrucosus, and Allobrogicus, +and the three hundred who to serve their country blocked the invader's +path with the force of a single family? It is our duty to respect the +virtuous, not only when present with us, but also when removed from our +sight: as they have made it their study not to bestow their benefits +upon one age alone, but to leave them existing after they themselves +have passed away, so let us not confine our gratitude to a single +age. If a man has begotten great men, he deserves to receive benefits, +whatever he himself may be: he has given us worthy men. If a man +descends from glorious ancestors, whatever he himself may be, let him +find refuge under the shadow of his ancestry. As mean places are lighted +up by the rays of the sun, so let the degenerate shine in the light of +their forefathers. + +XXXI. In this place, my Liberalis, I wish to speak in defence of the +gods. We sometimes say, "What could Providence mean by placing an +Arrhidaeus upon the throne?" Do you suppose that the crown was given +to Arrhidaeus? nay, it was given to his father and his brother. Why +did Heaven bestow the empire of the world upon Caius Caesar, the most +bloodthirsty of mankind, who was wont to order blood to be shed in his +presence as freely as if he wished to drink of it? Why, do you suppose +that it was given to him? It was given to his father, Germanicus, to his +grandfather, his great grandfather, and to others before them, no less +illustrious men, though they lived as private citizens on a footing +of equality with others. Why, when you yourself were making Mamercus +Scaurus consul, were you ignorant of his vices? did he himself conceal +them? did he wish to appear decent? + +Did you admit a man who was so openly filthy to the fasces and the +tribunal? Yes, it was because you were thinking of the great old +Scaurus, the chief of the Senate, and were unwilling that his descendant +should be despised. + +XXXII. It is probable that the gods act in the same manner, that they +show greater indulgence to some for the sake of their parents and +their ancestry, and to others for the sake of their children and +grandchildren, and a long line of descendants beyond them; for they +know the whole course of their works, and have constant access to the +knowledge of all that shall hereafter pass through their hands. These +things come upon us from the unknown future, and the gods have foreseen +and are familiar with the events by which we are startled. "Let these +men," says Providence, "be kings, because their ancestors were good +kings, because they regarded righteousness and temperance as the highest +rule of life, because they did not devote the state to themselves, but +devoted themselves to the state. Let these others reign, because some +one of their ancestors before them was a good man, who bore a soul +superior to fortune, who preferred to be conquered rather than to +conquer in civil strife, because it was more to the advantage of +the state. [Footnote: Gertz, "Stud. Crit," p. 159, note.] It was not +possible to make a sufficient return to him for this during so long a +time; let this other, therefore, out of regard for him, be chief of the +people, not because he knows how, or is capable, but because the other +has earned it for him. This man is misshapen, loathsome to look upon, +and will disgrace the insignia of his office. Men will presently blame +me, calling me blind and reckless, not knowing upon whom I am conferring +what ought to be given to the greatest and noblest of men; but I know +that, in giving this dignity to one man, I am paying an old debt to +another. How should the men of to-day know that ancient hero, who so +resolutely avoided the glory which pressed upon him, who went into +danger with the same look which other men wear when they have escaped +from danger, who never regarded his own interest as apart from that +of the commonwealth?" "Where," you ask, "or who is he? whence does +he come?" "You know him not; it lies with me to balance the debit and +credit account in such cases as these; I know how much I owe to each +man; I repay some after a long interval, others beforehand, according +as my opportunities and the exigencies of my social system permit." +I shall, therefore, sometimes bestow somewhat upon an ungrateful man, +though not for his own sake. + +XXXIII. "What," argues he, "if you do not know whether your man be +ungrateful or grateful--will you wait until you know, or will you +not lose the opportunity of bestowing a benefit? To wait is a long +business--for, as Plato says, it is hard to form an opinion about the +human mind,--not to wait, is rash." To this objector we shall answer, +that we never should wait for absolute knowledge of the whole case, +since the discovery of truth is an arduous task, but should proceed +in the direction in which truth appeared to direct us. All our actions +proceed in this direction: it is thus that we sow seed, that we sail +upon the sea, that we serve in the army, marry, and bring up children. +The result of all these actions is uncertain, so we take that course +from which we believe that good results may be hoped for. Who can +guarantee a harvest to the sower, a harbour to the sailor, victory +to the soldier, a modest wife to the husband, dutiful children to the +father? We proceed in the way in which reason, not absolute truth, +directs us. Wait, do nothing that will not turn out well, form no +opinion until you have searched but the truth, and your life will pass +in absolute in action. Since it is only the appearance of truth, not +truth itself, which leads me hither or thither, I shall confer benefits +upon the man who apparently will be grateful. + +XXXIV. "Many circumstances," argues he, "may arise which may enable a +bad man to steal into the place of a good one, or may cause a good man +to be disliked as though he were a bad one; for appearances, to which +we trust, are deceptive." Who denies it? Yet I can find nothing else by +which to guide my opinion. I must follow these tracks in my search after +truth, for I have none more trustworthy than these; I will take pains +to weigh the value of these with all possible care, and will not hastily +give my assent to them. For instance, in a battle, it may happen that my +hand may be deceived by some mistake into turning my weapon against my +comrade, and sparing my enemy as though he were on my side; but this +will not often take place, and will not take place through any fault of +mine, for my object is to strike the enemy, and defend my countryman. +If I know a man to be ungrateful, I shall not bestow a benefit upon him. +But the man has passed himself off as a good man by some trick, and has +imposed upon me. Well, this is not at all the fault of the giver, who +gave under the impression that his friend was grateful. "Suppose," asks +he, "that you were to promise to bestow a benefit, and afterwards were +to learn that your man was ungrateful, would you bestow it or not? If +you do, you do wrong knowingly, for you give to one to whom you ought +not; if you refuse, you do wrong likewise, for you do not give to him to +whom you promised to give. This case upsets your consistency, and that +proud assurance of yours that the wise man never regrets his actions, +or amends what he has done, or alters his plans." The wise man never +changes his plans while the conditions under which he formed them remain +the same; therefore, he never feels regret, because at the time nothing +better than what he did could have been done, nor could any better +decision have been arrived at than that which was made; yet he begins +everything with the saving clause, "If nothing shall occur to the +contrary." This is the reason why we say that all goes well with him, +and that nothing happens contrary to his expectation, because he +bears in mind the possibility of something happening to prevent the +realization of his projects. It is an imprudent confidence to trust that +fortune will be on our side. The wise man considers both sides: he knows +how great is the power of errors, how uncertain human affairs are, how +many obstacles there are to the success of plans. Without committing +himself, he awaits the doubtful and capricious issue of events, and +weighs certainty of purpose against uncertainty of result. Here also, +however, he is protected by that saving clause, without which he decides +upon nothing, and begins nothing. + +XXXV. When I promise to bestow a benefit, I promise it, unless something +occurs which makes it my duty not to do so. What if, for example, my +country orders me to give to her what I had promised to my friend? or if +a law be passed forbidding any one to do what I had promised to do for +him? Suppose that I have promised you my daughter in marriage, that +then you turn out to be a foreigner, and that I have no right of +intermarriage with foreigners; in this case, the law, by which I +am forbidden to fulfil my promise, forms my defence. I shall be +treacherous, and hear myself blamed for inconsistency, only if I do not +fulfil, my promise when all conditions remain the same as when I made +it; otherwise, any change makes me free to reconsider the entire case, +and absolves me from my promise. I may have promised to plead a cause; +afterwards it appears that this cause is designed to form a precedent +for an attack upon my father. I may have promised to leave my country, +and travel abroad; then news comes that the road is beset with robbers. +I was going to an appointment at some particular place; but my son's +illness, or my wife's confinement, prevented me. All conditions must be +the same as they were when I made the promise, if you mean to hold me +bound in honour to fulfil it. Now what greater change can take place +than that I should discover you to be a bad and ungrateful man? I +shall refuse to an unworthy man that which I had intended to give him +supposing him to be worthy, and I shall also have reason to be angry +with him for the trick which he has put upon me. + +XXXVI. I shall nevertheless look into the matter, and consider what the +value of the thing promised may be. If it be trifling, I shall give it, +not because you are worthy of it, but because I promised it, and I shall +not give it as a present, but merely in order to make good my words +and give myself a twitch of the ear. I will punish my own rashness in +promising by the loss of what I gave. "See how grieved you are; mind you +take more care what you say in future." As the saying is, I will take +tongue money from you. If the matter be important, I will not, as +Maecenas said, let ten million sesterces reproach me. I will weigh the +two sides of the question one against the other: there is something in +abiding by what you have promised; on the other hand, there is a great +deal in not bestowing a benefit upon one who is unworthy of it. Now, how +great is this benefit? If it is a trifling one, let us wink and let it +pass; but if it will cause me much loss or much shame to give it, I had +rather excuse myself once for refusing it than have to do so ever after +for giving it. The whole point, I repeat, depends upon how much the +thing given is worth: let the terms of my promise be appraised. Not only +shall I refuse to give what I may have promised rashly, but I shall also +demand back again what I may have wrongly bestowed: a man must be mad +who keeps a promise made under a mistake. + +XXXVII. Philip, king of the Macedonians, had a hardy soldier whose +services he had found useful in many campaigns. From time to time he +made this man presents of part of the plunder as the reward of his +valour, and used to excite his greedy spirit by his frequent gifts. This +man was cast by shipwreck upon the estate of a certain Macedonian, +who as soon as he heard the news hastened to him, restored his breath, +removed him to his own farmhouse, gave up his own bed to him, nursed him +out of his weakened and half-dead condition, took care of him at his own +expense for thirty days, restored him to health and gave him a sum of +money for his journey, as the man kept constantly saying, "If only I +can see my chief, I will repay your kindness." He told Philip of his +shipwreck, said nothing about the help which he had received, and at +once demanded that a certain man's estate should be given to him. +The man was a friend of his: it was that very man by whom he had been +rescued and restored to health. Sometimes, especially in time of war, +kings bestow many gifts with their eyes shut. One just man cannot deal +with such a mass of armed selfishness. It is not possible for any one +to be at the same time a good man and a good general. How are so many +thousands of insatiable men to be satiated? What would they have, +if every man had his own? Thus Philip reasoned with himself while he +ordered the man to be put in possession of the property which he asked +for. However, the other, when driven out of his estate, did not, like a +peasant, endure his wrongs in silence, thankful that he himself was not +given away also, but sent a sharp and outspoken letter to Philip, who, +on reading it, was so much enraged that he straightway ordered Pausanias +to restore the property to its former owner, and to brand that +wickedest of soldiers, that most ungrateful of guests, that greediest +of shipwrecked men, with letters bearing witness to his ingratitude. He, +indeed, deserved to have the letters not merely branded but carved in +his flesh, for having reduced his host to the condition in which he +himself had been when he lay naked and shipwrecked upon the beach; +still, let us see within what limits one ought to keep in punishing him. +Of course what he had so villainously seized ought to be taken from him. +But who would be affected by the spectacle of his punishment? The crime +which he had committed would prevent his being pitied even by any humane +person. + +XXXVIII. Will Philip then give you a thing because he has promised to +give it, even though he ought not to do so, even though he will commit +a wrong by doing so, nay, a crime, even though by this one act he will +make it impossible for shipwrecked men to reach the shore? There is no +inconsistency in giving up an intention which we have discovered to +be wrong and have condemned as wrong; we ought candidly to admit, "I +thought that it was something different; I have been deceived." It is +mere pride and folly to persist, "what I once have said, be it what +it may, shall remain unaltered and settled." There is no disgrace in +altering one's plans according to circumstances. Now, if Philip had +left this man in possession of that seashore which he obtained by +his shipwreck, would he not have practically pronounced sentence of +banishment against all unfortunates for the future? "Rather," says +Philip, "do thou carry upon thy forehead of brass those letters, that +they may be impressed upon the eyes of all throughout my kingdom. Go, +let men see how sacred a thing is the table of hospitality; show them +your face, that upon it they may read the decree which prevents its +being a capital crime to give refuge to the unfortunate under one's +roof. The order will be more certainly respected by this means than if I +had inscribed it upon tablets of brass." + +XXXIX. "Why then," argues our adversary, "did your Stoic philosopher +Zeno, when he had promised a loan of five hundred denarii to some +person, whom he afterwards discovered to be of doubtful character, +persist in lending it, because of his promise, though his friends +dissuaded him from doing so?" In the first place a loan is on a +different footing to a benefit. Even when we have lent money to an +undesirable person we can recall it; I can demand payment upon a certain +day, and if he becomes bankrupt, I can obtain my share of his property; +but a benefit is lost utterly and instantly. Besides, the one is the act +of a bad man, the other that of a bad father of a family. In the next +place, if the sum had been a larger one, not even Zeno would have +persisted in lending it. It was five hundred denarii; the sort of sum of +which one says, "May he spend it in sickness," and it was worth paying +so much to avoid breaking his promise. I shall go out to supper, even +though the weather be cold, because I have promised to go; but I shall +not if snow be falling. I shall leave my bed to go to a betrothal feast, +although I may be suffering from indigestion; but I shall not do so if I +am feverish. I will become bail for you, because I promised; but not if +you wish me to become bail in some transaction of uncertain issue, if +you expose me to forfeiting my money to the state. There runs through +all these cases, I argue, an implied exception; if I am able, provided +it is right for me to do so, if these things be so and so. Make the +position the same when you ask me to fulfil my promise, as it was when +I gave it, and it will be mere fickleness to disappoint you; but if +something new has taken place in the meanwhile, why should you wonder at +my intentions being changed when the conditions under which I gave the +promise are changed? Put everything back as it was, and I shall be the +same as I was. We enter into recognizances to appear, yet if we fail to +do so an action will not in all cases lie against us, for we are excused +for making default if forced to do so by a power which we cannot resist. + +XL. You may take the same answer to the question as to whether we ought +in all cases to show gratitude for kindness, and whether a benefit ought +in all cases to be repaid. It is my duty to show a grateful mind, but +in some cases my own poverty, in others the prosperity of the friend +to whom I owe some return, will not permit me to give it. What, for +instance, am I, a poor man, to give to a king or a rich man in return +for his kindness, especially as some men regard it as a wrong to have +their benefits repaid, and are wont to pile one benefit upon another? In +dealing with such persons, what more can I do than wish to repay them? +Yet I ought not to refuse to receive a new benefit, because I have not +repaid the former one. I shall take it as freely as it is given, and +will offer myself to my friend as a wide field for the exercise of +his good nature: he who is unwilling to receive new benefits must be +dissatisfied with what he has already received. Do you say, "I shall +not be able to return them?" What is that to the purpose? I am willing +enough to do so if opportunity or means were given me. He gave it to me, +of course, having both opportunity and means: is he a good man or a bad +one? if he is a good man, I have a good case against him, and I will +not plead if he be a bad one. Neither do I think it right to insist on +making repayment, even though it be against the will of those whom we +repay, and to press it upon them however reluctant they may be; it is +not repayment to force an unwilling man to resume what you were once +willing to take. Some people, if any trifling present be sent to them, +afterwards send back something else for no particular reason, and then +declare that they are under no obligation; to send something back at +once, and balance one present by another, is the next thing to refusing +to receive it. On some occasions I shall not return a benefit, even +though I be able to do so. When? When by so doing I shall myself lose +more than he will gain, or if he would not notice any advantage to +himself in receiving that which it would be a great loss to me to +return. The man who is always eager to repay under all circumstances, +has not the feeling of a grateful man, but of a debtor; and, to put +it shortly, he who is too eager to repay, is unwilling to be in his +friend's debt; he who is unwilling, and yet is in his friend's debt, is +ungrateful. + + + + +BOOK V. + +I. + + +In the preceding books I seem to have accomplished the object which I +proposed to myself, since in them I have discussed how a benefit ought +to be bestowed, and how it ought to be received. These are the limits of +this action; when I dwell upon it further I am not obeying the orders, +but the caprices of my subject which ought to be followed whither it +leads, not whither it allures us to wander; for now and then something +will arise, which, although it is all but unconnected with the subject, +instead of being a necessary part of it, still thrills the mind with a +certain charm. However, since you wish it to be so, let us go on, after +having completed our discussion of the heads of the subject itself, +to investigate those matters which, if you wish for truth, I must +call adjacent to it, not actually connected with it; to examine which +carefully is not one worth one's while, and yet is not labour in vain. +No praise, however, which I can give to benefits does justice to +you, Aebutius Liberalis, a man of excellent disposition and naturally +inclined to bestow them. Never have I seen any one esteem even the most +trifling services more kindly; indeed, your good-nature goes so far +as to regard whatever benefit is bestowed upon anyone as bestowed upon +yourself; you are prepared to pay even what is owed by the ungrateful, +that no one may regret having bestowed benefits. You yourself are so far +from any boastfulness, you are so eager at once to free those whom you +serve from any feeling of obligation to you, that you like, when giving +anything to any one, to seem not so much to be giving a present as +returning one; and therefore what you give in this manner will all the +more fully he repaid to you: for, as a rule, benefits come to one who +does not demand repayment of them; and just as glory follows those who +avoid it, so men receive a more plentiful harvest in return for benefits +bestowed upon those who had it in their power to be ungrateful. With you +there is no reason why those who have received benefits from you should +not ask for fresh ones; nor would you refuse to bestow others, to +overlook and conceal what you have given, and to add to it more and +greater gifts, since it is the aim of all the best men and the noblest +dispositions to bear with an ungrateful man until you make him grateful. +Be not deceived in pursuing this plan; vice, if you do not too soon +begin to hate it, will yield to virtue. + +II. Thus it is that you are especially pleased with what you think the +grandly-sounding phrase, "It is disgraceful to be worsted in a contest +of benefits." Whether this be true or not deserves to be investigated, +and it means something quite different from what you imagine; for it is +never disgraceful to be worsted in any honourable contest, provided that +you do not throw down your arms, and that even when conquered you +wish to conquer. All men do not strive for a good object with the same +strength, resources, and good fortune, upon which depend at all events +the issues of the most admirable projects, though we ought to praise the +will itself which makes an effort in the right direction. Even though +another passes it by with swifter pace, yet the palm of victory does +not, as in publicly-exhibited races, declare which is the better man; +though even in the games chance frequently brings an inferior man to the +front. As far as loyalty of feeling goes, which each man wishes to be +possessed in the fullest measure on his own side, if one of the two be +the more powerful, if he have at his disposal all the resources which he +wishes to use, and be favoured by fortune in his most ambitious efforts, +while the other, although equally willing, can only return less than he +receives, or perhaps can make no return at all, but still wishes to do +so and is entirely devoted to this object; then the latter is no more +conquered than he who dies in arms, whom the enemy found it easier to +slay than to turn back. To be conquered, which you consider disgraceful, +cannot happen to a good man; for he will never surrender, never give up +the contest, to the last day of his life he will stand prepared and in +that posture he will die, testifying that though he has received much, +yet that he had the will to repay as much as he had received. + +III. The Lacedaemonians forbid their young men to contend in the +pancratium, or with the caestus, in which games the defeated party has +to acknowledge himself beaten. The winner of a race is he who first +reaches the goal; he outstrips the others in swiftness, but not in +courage. The wrestler who has been thrown three times loses the palm of +victory, but does not yield it up. Since the Lacedaemonians thought it +of great importance that their countrymen should be invincible, they +kept them away from those contests in which victory is assigned, not by +the judge, or by the issue of the contest itself, but by the voice +of the vanquished begging the victor to spare him as he falls. This +attribute of never being conquered, which they so jealously guard among +their citizens, can be attained by all men through virtue and goodwill, +because even when all else is vanquished, the mind remains unconquered. +For this cause no one speaks of the three hundred Fabii as conquered, +but slaughtered. Regulus was taken captive by the Carthaginians, not +conquered; and so were all other men who have not yielded in spirit when +overwhelmed by the strength and weight of angry fortune. + +So is it with benefits. A man may have received more than he gave, more +valuable ones, more frequently bestowed; yet is he not vanquished. It +may be that, if you compare the benefits with one another, those which +he has received will outweigh those which he has bestowed; but if you +compare the giver and the receiver, whose intentions also ought to be +considered apart, neither will prove the victor. It often happens that +even when one combatant is pierced with many wounds, while the other is +only slightly injured, yet they are said to have fought a drawn battle, +although the former may appear to be the worse man. + +IV. No one, therefore, can be conquered in a contest of benefits, if he +knows how to owe a debt, if he wishes to make a return for what he +has received, and raises himself to the same level with his friend in +spirit, though he cannot do so in material gifts. As long as he remains +in this temper of mind, as long as he has the wish to declare by proofs +that he has a grateful mind, what difference does it make upon which +side we can count the greater number of presents? You are able to give +much; I can do nothing but receive. Fortune abides with you, goodwill +alone with me; yet I am as much on an equality with you as naked or +lightly armed men are with a large body armed to the teeth. No one, +therefore, is worsted by benefits, because each man's gratitude is to be +measured by his will. If it be disgraceful to be worsted in a contest +of benefits, you ought not to receive a benefit from very powerful men +whose kindness you cannot return, I mean such as princes and kings, whom +fortune has placed in such a station that they can give away much, and +can only receive very little and quite inadequate returns for what they +give. I have spoken of kings and princes, who alone can cause works to +be accomplished, and whose superlative power depends upon the obedience +and services of inferiors; but some there are, free from all earthly +lusts, who are scarcely affected by any human objects of desire, upon +whom fortune herself could bestow nothing. I must be worsted in a +contest of benefits with Socrates, or with Diogenes, who walked naked +through the treasures of Macedonia, treading the king's wealth under his +feet. In good sooth, he must then rightly have seemed, both to himself +and to all others whose eyes were keen enough to perceive the real +truth, to be superior even to him at whose feet all the world lay. +He was far more powerful, far richer even than Alexander, who then +possessed everything; for there was more that Diogenes could refuse to +receive than that Alexander was able to give. + +V. It is not disgraceful to be worsted by these men, for I am not the +less brave because you pit me against an invulnerable enemy, nor does +fire not burn because you throw into it something over which flames have +no power, nor does iron lose its power of cutting, though you may wish +to cut up a stone which is hard, impervious to blows, and of such a +nature that hard tools are blunted upon it. I give you the same answer +about gratitude. A man is not disgracefully worsted in a contest of +benefits if he lays himself under an obligation to such persons +as these, whose enormous wealth or admirable virtue shut out all +possibility of their benefits being returned. As a rule we are worsted +by our parents; for while we have them with us, we regard them as +severe, and do not understand what they do for us. When our age begins +to bring us a little sense, and we gradually perceive that they deserve +our love for those very things which used to prevent our loving them, +their advice, their punishments, and the careful watch which they used +to keep over our youthful recklessness, they are taken from us. Few live +to reap any real fruit from children; most men feel their sons only as +a burden. Yet there is no disgrace in being worsted by one's parent +in bestowing benefits; how should there be, seeing that there is no +disgrace in being worsted by anyone. We are equal to some men, and yet +not equal; equal in intention, which is all that they care for, which +is all that we promise to be, but unequal in fortune. And if fortune +prevents any one from repaying a kindness, he need not, therefore, +blush, as though he were vanquished; there is no disgrace in failing +to reach your object, provided you attempt to reach it. It often is +necessary, that before making any return for the benefits which we have +received, we should ask for new ones; yet, if so, we shall not refrain +from asking for them, nor shall we do so as though disgraced by so +doing, because, even if we do not repay the debt, we shall owe it; +because, even if something from without befalls us to prevent our +repaying it, it will not be our fault if we are not grateful. We can +neither be conquered in intention, nor can we be disgraced by yielding +to what is beyond our strength to contend with. + +VI. Alexander, the king of the Macedonians, used to boast that he had +never been worsted by anybody in a contest of benefits. If so, it was +no reason why, in the fulness of his pride, he should despise the +Macedonians, Greeks, Carians, Persians, and other tribes of whom his +army was composed, nor need he imagine that it was this that gave him an +empire reaching from a corner of Thrace to the shore of the unknown +sea. Socrates could make the same boast, and so could Diogenes, by whom +Alexander was certainly surpassed; for was he not surpassed on the day +when, swelling as he was beyond the limits of merely human pride, +he beheld one to whom he could give nothing, from whom he could take +nothing? King Archelaus invited Socrates to come to him. Socrates is +reported to have answered that he should be sorry to go to one who would +bestow benefits upon him, since he should not be able to make him an +adequate return for them. In the first place, Socrates was at liberty +not to receive them; next, Socrates himself would have been the first +to bestow a benefit, for he would have come when invited, and would have +given to Archelaus that for which Archelaus could have made no return to +Socrates. Even if Archelaus were to give Socrates gold and silver, if +he learned in return for them to despise gold and silver, would not +Socrates be able to repay Archelaus? Could Socrates receive from him +as much value as he gave, in displaying to him a man skilled in the +knowledge of life and of death, comprehending the true purpose of each? +Suppose that he had found this king, as it were, groping his way in the +clear sunlight, and had taught him the secrets of nature, of which he +was so ignorant, that when there was an eclipse of the sun, he up his +palace, and shaved his son's head, [Footnote: Gertz very reasonably +conjectures that he shaved his own head which reading would require a +very trifling alteration of the text.] which men are wont to do in times +of mourning and distress. What a benefit it would have been if he had +dragged the terror-stricken king out of his hiding-place, and bidden him +be of good cheer, saying, "This is not a disappearance of the sun, but a +conjunction of two heavenly bodies; for the moon, which proceeds along +a lower path, has placed her disk beneath the sun, and hidden it by the +interposition of her own mass. Sometimes she only hides a small portion +of the sun's disk, because she only grazes it in passing; sometimes +she hides more, by placing more of herself before it; and sometimes she +shuts it out from our sight altogether, if she passes in an exactly even +course between the sun and the earth. Soon, however, their own swift +motion will draw these two bodies apart; soon the earth will receive +back again the light of day. And this system will continue throughout +centuries, having certain days, known beforehand, upon which the sun +cannot display all rays, because of the intervention of the moon. Wait +only for a short time; he will soon emerge, he will soon leave that +seeming cloud, and freely shed abroad his light without any hindrances." +Could Socrates not have made an adequate return to Archelaus, if he +had taught him to reign? as though Socrates would not benefit him +sufficiently, merely by enabling him to bestow a benefit upon Socrates. +Why, then, did Socrates say this? Being a joker and a speaker in +parables--a man who turned all, especially the great, into ridicule--he +preferred giving him a satirical refusal, rather than an obstinate or +haughty one, and therefore said that he did not wish to receive benefits +from one to whom he could not return as much as he received. He feared, +perhaps, that he might be forced to receive something which he did +not wish, he feared that it might be something unfit for Socrates to +receive. Some one may say, "He ought to have said that he did not wish +to go." But by so doing he would have excited against himself the anger +of an arrogant king, who wished everything connected with himself to be +highly valued. It makes no difference to a king whether you be unwilling +to give anything to him or to accept anything from him; he is equally +incensed at either rebuff, and to be treated with disdain is more +bitter to a proud spirit than not to be feared. Do you wish to know what +Socrates really meant? He, whose freedom of speech could not be borne +even by a free state, was not willing of his own choice to become a +slave. + +VII. I think that we have sufficiently discussed this part of the +subject, whether it be disgraceful to be worsted in a contest of +benefits. Whoever asks this question must know that men are not wont +to bestow benefits upon themselves, for evidently it could not be +disgraceful to be worsted by oneself. Yet some of the Stoics debate this +question, whether any one can confer a benefit upon himself, and whether +one ought to return one's own kindness to oneself. This discussion has +been raised in consequence of our habit of saying, "I am thankful +to myself," "I can complain of no one but myself," "I am angry with +myself," "I will punish myself," "I hate myself," and many other phrases +of the same sort, in which one speaks of oneself as one would of some +other person. "If," they argue, "I can injure myself, why should I not +be able also to bestow a benefit upon myself? Besides this, why are +those things not called benefits when I bestow them upon myself which +would be called benefits if I bestowed them upon another? If to receive +a certain thing from another would lay me under an obligation to him, +how is it that if I give it to myself, I do not contract an obligation +to myself? why should I be ungrateful to my own self, which is no less +disgraceful than it is to be mean to oneself, or hard and cruel to +oneself, or neglectful of oneself?" The procurer is equally odious +whether he prostitutes others or himself. We blame a flatterer, and one +who imitates another man's mode of speech, or is prepared to give praise +whether it be deserved or not; we ought equally to blame one who humours +himself and looks up to himself, and so to speak is his own flatterer. +Vices are not only hateful when outwardly practised, but also when they +are repressed within the mind. Whom would you admire more than he who +governs himself and has himself under command? It is easier to rule +savage nations, impatient of foreign control, than to restrain one's +own mind and keep it under one's own control. Plato, it is argued, +was grateful to Socrates for having been taught by him; why should not +Socrates be grateful to himself for having taught himself? Marcus Cato +said, "Borrow from yourself whatever you lack;" why, then, if I can +lend myself anything, should I be unable to give myself anything? The +instances in which usage divides us into two persons are innumerable; we +are wont to say, "Let me converse with myself," and, "I will give myself +a twitch of the ear;" [Footnote: See book iv. ch. xxxvi.] and if it be +true that one can do so, then a man ought to be grateful to himself, +just as he is angry with himself; as he blames himself, SO he ought +to praise himself; since he can impoverish himself, he can also enrich +himself. Injuries and benefits are the converse of one another: if we +say of a man, 'he has done himself an injury,' we can also say 'he has +bestowed upon himself a benefit?' + +VIII. It is natural that a man should first incur an obligation, and +then that he should return gratitude for it; a debtor cannot exist +without a creditor, any more than a husband without a wife, or a son +without a father; someone must give in order that some one may +receive. Just as no one carries himself, although he moves his body and +transports it from place to place; as no one, though he may have made a +speech in his own defence, is said to have stood by himself, or erects +a statue to himself as his own patron; as no sick man, when by his +own care he has regained his health, asks himself for a fee; so in no +transaction, even when a man does what is useful to himself, need he +return thanks to himself, because there is no one to whom he can return +them. Though I grant that a man can bestow a benefit upon himself, yet +at the same time that he gives it, he also receives it; though I grant +that a man may receive a benefit from himself, yet he receives it at the +same time that he gives it. The exchange takes place within doors, as +they say, and the transfer is made at once, as though the debt were a +fictitious one; for he who gives is not a different person to he who +receives, but one and the same. The word "to owe" has no meaning except +as between two persons; how then can it apply to one man who incurs an +obligation, and by the same act frees himself from it? In a disk or +a ball there is no top or bottom, no beginning or end, because the +relation of the parts is changed when it moves, what was behind coming +before, and what went down on one side coming up on the other, so that +all the parts, in whatever direction they may move, come back to the +same position. Imagine that the same thing takes place in a man; into +however many pieces you may divide him, he remains one. If he strikes +himself, he has no one to call to account for the insult; if he binds +himself and locks himself up, he cannot demand damages; if he bestows a +benefit upon himself, he straightway returns it to the giver. It is said +that there is no waste in nature, because everything which is taken from +nature returns to her again, and nothing can perish, because it cannot +fall out of nature, but goes round again to the point from whence +it started. You ask, "What connection has this illustration with the +subject?" I will tell you. Imagine yourself to be ungrateful, the +benefit bestowed upon you is not lost, he who gave it has it; suppose +that you are unwilling to receive it, it still belongs to you before it +is returned. You cannot lose anything, because what you take away from +yourself, you nevertheless gain yourself. The matter revolves in a +circle within yourself; by receiving you give, by giving you receive. + +IX. "It is our duty," argues our adversary, "to bestow benefits upon +ourselves, therefore we ought also to be grateful to ourselves." The +original axiom, upon which the inference depends, is untrue, for no one +bestows benefits upon himself, but obeys the dictates of his nature, +which disposes him to affection for himself, and which makes him take +the greatest pains to avoid hurtful things, and to follow after those +things which are profitable to him. Consequently, the man who gives to +himself is not generous, nor is he who pardons himself forgiving, nor is +he who is touched by his own misfortunes tender-hearted; it is +natural to do those things to oneself which when done to others become +generosity, clemency, and tenderness of heart. A benefit is a voluntary +act, but to do good to oneself is an instinctive one. The more benefits +a man bestows, the more beneficent he is, yet who ever was praised for +having been of service to himself? or for having rescued himself from +brigands? No one bestows a benefit upon himself any more than he bestows +hospitality upon himself; no one gives himself anything, any more than +he lends himself anything. If each man bestows benefits upon himself, is +always bestowing them, and bestows them without any cessation, then +it is impossible for him to make any calculation of the number of his +benefits; when then can he show his gratitude, seeing that by the very +act of doing so he would bestow a benefit? for what distinction can +you draw between giving himself a benefit or receiving a benefit for +himself, when the whole transaction takes place in the mind of the same +man? Suppose that I have freed myself from danger, then I have bestowed +a benefit upon myself; suppose I free myself a second time, by so doing +do I bestow or repay a benefit? In the next place, even if I grant the +primary axiom, that we can bestow benefits upon ourselves, I do not +admit that which follows; for even if we can do so, we ought not to do +so. Wherefore? Because we receive a return for them at once. It is right +for me to receive a benefit, then to lie under an obligation, then to +repay it; now here there is no time for remaining under an obligation, +because we receive the return without any delay. No one really gives +except to another, no one owes except to another, no one repays except +to another. An act which always requires two persons cannot take place +within the mind of one. + +X. A benefit means the affording of something useful, and the word +AFFORDING implies other persons. Would not a man be thought mad if +he said that he had sold something to himself, because selling means +alienation, and the transferring of a thing and of one's rights in that +thing to another person? Yet giving, like selling anything, consists in +making it pass away from you, handing over what you yourself once owned +into the keeping of some one else. + +If this be so, no one ever gave himself a benefit, because no one gives +to himself; if not, two opposites coalesce, so that it becomes the same +thing to give and to receive. Yet there is a great difference between +giving and receiving; how should there not be, seeing that these words +are the converse of one another? Still, if any one can give himself a +benefit, there can be no difference between giving and receiving. I said +a little before that some words apply only to other persons, and are +so constituted that their whole meaning lies apart from ourselves; for +instance, I am a brother, but a brother of some other man, for no one is +his own brother; I am an equal, but equal to somebody else, for who +is equal to himself? A thing which is compared to another thing is +unintelligible without that other thing; a thing which is joined to +something else does not exist apart from it; so that which is given does +not exist without the other person, nor can a benefit have any existence +without another person. This is clear from the very phrase which +describes it, 'to do good,' yet no one does good to himself, any more +than he favours himself or is on his own side. I might enlarge further +upon this subject and give many examples. Why should benefits not be +included among those acts which require two persons to perform them? +Many honourable, most admirable and highly virtuous acts cannot take +place without a second person. Fidelity is praised and held to be one +of the chief blessings known among men, yet was any one ever on that +account said to have kept faith with himself? + +XI. I come now to the last part of this subject. The man who returns a +kindness ought to expend something, just as he who repays expends money; +but the man who returns a kindness to himself expends nothing, just +as he who receives a benefit from himself gains nothing. A benefit +and gratitude for it must pass to and fro between two persons; their +interchange cannot take place within one man. He who returns a kindness +does good in his turn to him from whom he has received something; +but the man who returns his own kindness, to whom does he do good? +To himself? Is there any one who does not regard the returning of a +kindness, and the bestowal of a benefit, as distinct acts? 'He who +returns a kindness to himself does good to himself.' Was any man ever +unwilling to do this, even though he were ungrateful? nay, who ever was +ungrateful from any other motive than this? "If," it is argued, "we are +right in thanking ourselves, we ought to return our own kindness;" +yet we say, "I am thankful to myself for having refused to marry that +woman," or "for having refused to join a partnership with that man." +When we speak thus, we are really praising ourselves, and make use +of the language of those who return thanks to approve our own acts. A +benefit is something which, when given, may or may not be returned. +Now, he who gives a benefit to himself must needs receive what he gives; +therefore, this is not a benefit. A benefit is received at one time, and +is returned at another; (but when a man bestows a benefit upon himself, +he both receives it and returns it at the same time). In a benefit, +too, what we commend and admire is, that a man has for the time being +forgotten his own interests, in order that he may do good to another; +that he has deprived himself of something, in order to bestow it upon +another. Now, he who bestows a benefit upon himself does not do this. +The bestowal of a benefit is an act of companionship--it wins some man's +friendship, and lays some man under an obligation; but to bestow it upon +oneself is no act of companionship--it wins no man's friendship, lays +no man under an obligation, raises no man's hopes, or leads him to +say, "This man must be courted; he bestowed a benefit upon that person, +perhaps he will bestow one upon me also." A benefit is a thing which +one gives not for one's own sake, but for the sake of him to whom it is +given; but he who bestows a benefit upon himself, does so for his own +sake; therefore, it is not a benefit. + +XII. Now I seem to you not to have made good what I said at the +beginning of this book. You say that I am far from doing what is worth +any one's while; nay, that in real fact I have thrown away all my +trouble. Wait, and soon you will be able to say this more truly, for +I shall lead you into covert lurking-places, from which when you have +escaped, you will have gained nothing except that you will have freed +yourself from difficulties with which you need never have hampered +yourself. What is the use of laboriously untying knots which you +yourself have tied, in order that you might untie them? Yet, just as +some knots are tied in fun and for amusement, so that a tyro may find +difficulty in untying them, which knots he who tied them can loose +without any trouble, because he knows the joinings and the difficulties +of them, and these nevertheless afford us some pleasure, because they +test the sharpness of our wits, and engross, our attention; so also +these questions, which seem subtle and tricky, prevent our intellects +becoming careless and lazy, for they ought at one time to have a field +given them to level, in order that they may wander about it, and at +another to have some dark and rough passage thrown in their way for them +to creep through, and make their way with caution. It is said by +our opponent that no one is ungrateful; and this is supported by the +following arguments: "A benefit is that which does good; but, as you +Stoics say, no one can do good to a bad man; therefore, a bad man does +not receive a benefit. (If he does not receive it, he need not return +it; therefore, no bad man is ungrateful.) Furthermore, a benefit is an +honourable and commendable thing. No honourable or commendable thing can +find any place with a bad man; therefore, neither can a benefit. If he +cannot receive one, he need not repay one; therefore, he does not become +ungrateful. Moreover, as you say, a good man does everything rightly; if +he does everything rightly, he cannot be ungrateful. A good man returns +a benefit, a bad man does not receive one. If this be so, no man, good +or bad, can be ungrateful. Therefore, there is no such thing in nature +as an ungrateful man: the word is meaningless." We Stoics have only one +kind of good, that which is honourable. This cannot come to a bad man, +for he would cease to be bad if virtue entered into him; but as long as +he is bad, no one can bestow a benefit upon him, because good and bad +are contraries, and cannot exist together. Therefore, no one can do good +to such a man, because whatever he receives is corrupted by his vicious +way of using it. Just as the stomach, when disordered by disease and +secreting bile, changes all the food which it receives, and turns every +kind of sustenance into a source of pain, so whatever you entrust to an +ill-regulated mind becomes to it a burden, an annoyance, and a source +of misery. Thus the most prosperous and the richest men have the most +trouble; and the more property they have to perplex them, the less +likely they are to find out what they really are. Nothing, therefore, +can reach bad men which would do them good; nay, nothing which would +not do them harm. They change whatever falls to their lot into their own +evil nature; and things which elsewhere would, if given to better men, +be both beautiful and profitable, are ruinous to them. They cannot, +therefore, bestow benefits, because no one can give what he does not +possess, and, therefore, they lack the pleasure of doing good to others. + +XIII. But, though this be so, yet even a bad man can receive some things +which resemble benefits, and he will be ungrateful if he does not return +them. There are good things belonging to the mind, to the body, and to +fortune. A fool or a bad man is debarred from the first--those, that is, +of the mind; but he is admitted to a share in the two latter, and, if +he does not return them, he is ungrateful. Nor does this follow from +our (Stoic) system alone the Peripatetics, also, who widely extend the +boundaries of human happiness, declare that trifling benefits reach bad +men, and that he who does not return them is ungrateful. We therefore +do not agree that things which do not tend to improve the mind should +be called benefits, yet do not deny that these things are convenient and +desirable. Such things as these a bad man may bestow upon a good man, +or may receive from him--such, for example, as money, clothes, public +office, or life; and, if he makes no return for these, he will come +under the denomination of ungrateful. "But how can you call a man +ungrateful for not returning that which you say is not a benefit?" Some +things, on account of their similarity, are included under the same +designation, although they do not really deserve it. Thus we speak of +a silver or golden box; ["The original word is 'pyx,' which means a box +made of box-wood."] thus we call a man illiterate, although he may not +be utterly ignorant, but only not acquainted with the higher branches of +literature; thus, seeing a badly-dressed ragged man we say that we have +seen a naked man. These things of which we spoke are not benefits, +but they possess the appearance of benefits. "Then, just as they are +quasi-benefits, so your man is quasi-ungrateful, not really ungrateful." +This is untrue, because both he who gives and he who receives them +speaks of them as benefits; so he who fails to return the semblance of +a real benefit is as much an ungrateful man as he who mixes a sleeping +draught, believing it to be poison, is a poisoner. + +XIV. Cleanthes speaks more impetuously than this. "Granted," says he, +"that what he received was not a benefit, yet he is ungrateful, because +he would not have returned a benefit if he had received one." So he who +carries deadly weapons and has intentions of robbing and murdering, is +a brigand even before he has dipped his hands in blood; his wickedness +consists and is shown in action, but does not begin thereby. Men are +punished for sacrilege, although no one's hands can reach to the gods. +"How," asks our opponent, "can any one be ungrateful to a bad man, since +a bad man cannot bestow a benefit?" In the same way, I answer, because +that which he received was not a benefit, but was called one; if any +one receives from a bad man any of those things which are valued by the +ignorant, and of which bad men often possess great store, it becomes his +duty to make a return in the same kind, and to give back as though they +were truly good those things which he received as though they were +truly good. A man is said to be in debt, whether he owes gold pieces +or leather marked with a state stamp, such as the Lacedaemonians used, +which passes for coined money. Pay your debts in that kind in which you +incurred them. You have nothing to do with the definition of benefits, +or with the question whether so great and noble a name ought to be +degraded by applying it to such vulgar and mean matters as these, nor do +we seek for truth that we may use it to the disadvantage of others; +do you adjust your minds to the semblance of truth, and while you are +learning what is really honourable, respect everything to which the name +of honour is applied. + +XV. "In the same way," argues our adversary, "that your school proves +that no one is ungrateful, you afterwards prove that all men are +ungrateful. For, as you say, all fools are bad men; he who has one vice +has all vices; all men are both fools and bad men; therefore all men are +ungrateful." Well, what then? Are they not? Is not this the universal +reproach of the human race? is there not a general complaint that +benefits are thrown away, and that there are very few men who do not +requite their benefactors with the basest ingratitude? Nor need you +suppose that what we say is merely the grumbling of men who think +every act wicked and depraved which falls short of an ideal standard of +righteousness. Listen! I know not who it is who speaks, yet the voice +with which he condemns mankind proceeds, not from the schools of +philosophers, but from the midst of the crowd: + + "Host is not safe from guest; + Father-in-law from son; but seldom love + Exists 'twixt brothers; wives long to destroy + Their husbands; husbands long to slay their wives." + +This goes even further: according to this, crimes take the place of +benefits, and men do not shrink from shedding the blood of those for +whom they ought to shed their own; we requite benefits by steel and +poison. We call laying violent hands upon our own country, and putting +down its resistance by the fasces of its own lictors, gaining power +and great place; every man thinks himself to be in a mean and degraded +position if he has not raised himself above the constitution; the armies +which are received from the state are turned against her, and a general +now says to his men, "Fight against your wives, fight against your +children, march in arms against your altars, your hearths and homes!" +Yes, [Footnote: I believe, in spite of Gertz, that this is part of +the speech of the Roman general, and that the conjecture of Muretus, +"without the command of the senate," gives better sense.] you, who even +when about to triumph ought not to enter the city at the command of the +senate, and who have often, when bringing home a victorious army, been +given an audience outside the walls, you now, after slaughtering your +countrymen, stained with the blood of your kindred, march into the city +with standards erect. "Let liberty," say you, "be silent amidst the +ensigns of war, and now that wars are driven far away and no ground +for terror remains, let that people which conquered and civilized all +nations be beleaguered within its own walls, and shudder at the sight of +its own eagles." + +XVI. Coriolanus was ungrateful, and became dutiful late, and after +repenting of his crime; he did indeed lay down his arms, but only in +the midst of his unnatural warfare. Catilina was ungrateful; he was +not satisfied with taking his country captive without overturning it, +without despatching the hosts of the Allobroges against it, without +bringing an enemy from beyond the Alps to glut his old inborn hatred, +and to offer Roman generals as sacrifices which had been long owing to +the tombs of the Gaulish dead. Caius Marius was ungrateful, when, after +being raised from the ranks to the consulship, he felt that he would not +have wreaked his vengeance upon fortune, and would sink to his original +obscurity, unless he slaughtered Romans as freely as he had slaughtered +the Cimbri, and not merely gave the signal, but was himself the signal +for civil disasters and butcheries. Lucius Sulla was ungrateful, for he +saved his country by using remedies worse than the perils with which it +was threatened, when he marched through human blood all the way from the +citadel of Praeneste to the Colline Gate, fought more battles and caused +more slaughter afterwards within the city, and most cruelly after the +victory was won, most wickedly after quarter had been promised them, +drove two legions into a corner and put them to the sword, and, great +gods! invented a proscription by which he who slew a Roman citizen +received indemnity, a sum of money, everything but a civic crown! Cnaeus +Pompeius was ungrateful, for the return which he made to his country for +three consulships, three triumphs, and the innumerable public offices +into most of which he thrust himself when under age, was to lead others +also to lay hands upon her under the pretext of thus rendering his own +power less odious; as though what no one ought to do became right +if more than one person did it. Whilst he was coveting extraordinary +commands, arranging the provinces so as to have his own choice of them, +and dividing the whole state with a third person, [Footnote: Crassus.] +in such a manner as to leave two-thirds of it in the possession of his +own family, [Footnote: Pompey was married to Caesar's daughter. Cf. +Virg., "Aen.," vi., 831, sq., and Lucan's beautiful verses, "Phars.," +i., 114.] he reduced the Roman people to such a condition that they +could only save themselves by submitting to slavery. The foe and +conqueror [Footnote: Seneca is careful to avoid the mention of Caesar's +name, which might have given offence to the emperors under whom +he lived, who used the name as a title.] of Pompeius was himself +ungrateful; he brought war from Gaul and Germany to Rome, and he, the +friend of the populace, the champion of the commons, pitched his camp in +the Circus Flaminus, nearer to the city than Porsena's camp had been. He +did, indeed, use the cruel privileges of victory with moderation; as was +said at the time, he protected his countrymen, and put to death no man +who was not in arms. Yet what credit is there in this? Others used their +arms more cruelly, but flung them away when glutted with blood, while +he, though he soon sheathed the sword, never laid it aside. Antonius was +ungrateful to his dictator, who he declared was rightly slain, and whose +murderers he allowed to depart to their commands in the provinces; +as for his country, after it had been torn to pieces by so many +proscriptions, invasions, and civil wars, he intended to subject it +to kings, not even of Roman birth, and to force that very state to pay +tribute to eunuchs, [Footnote: The allusion is to Antonius's connection +with Cleopatra. Cf. Virg. "Aen.," viii., 688.] which had itself restored +sovereign rights, autonomy, and immunities, to the Achaeans, the +Rhodians, and the people of many other famous cities. + +XVII. The day would not be long enough for me to enumerate those who +have pushed their ingratitude so far as to ruin their native land. +It would be as vast a task to mention how often the state has been +ungrateful to its best and most devoted lovers, although it has done no +less wrong than it has suffered. It sent Camillus and Scipio into exile; +even after the death of Catiline it exiled Cicero, destroyed his house, +plundered his property, and did everything which Catiline would +have done if victorious; Rutilius found his virtue rewarded with a +hiding-place in Asia; to Cato the Roman people refused the praetorship, +and persisted in refusing the consulship. We are ungrateful in public +matters; and if every man asks himself, you will find that there is +no one who has not some private ingratitude to complain of. Yet it is +impossible that all men should complain, unless all were deserving of +complaint, therefore all men are ungrateful. Are they ungrateful +alone? nay, they are also all covetous, all spiteful, and all cowardly, +especially those who appear daring; and, besides this, all men fawn upon +the great, and all are impious. Yet you need not be angry with them; +pardon them, for they are all mad. I do not wish to recall you to what +is not proved, or to say, "See how ungrateful is youth! what young man, +even if of innocent life, does not long for his father's death? even if +moderate in his desires, does not look forward to it? even if dutiful, +does not think about it? How few there are who fear the death even of +the best of wives, who do not even calculate the probabilities of it. +Pray, what litigant, after having been successfully defended, retains +any remembrance of so great a benefit for more than a few days?" All +agree that no one dies without complaining. Who on his last day dares to +say, + + "I've lived, I've done the task which Fortune set me." + +Who does not leave the world with reluctance, and with lamentations? Yet +it is the part of an ungrateful man not to be satisfied with the past. +Your days will always be few if you count them. Reflect that length +of time is not the greatest of blessings; make the best of your time, +however short it may be; even if the day of your death be postponed, +your happiness will not be increased, for life is merely made longer, +not pleasanter, by delay. How much better is it to be thankful for the +pleasures which one has received, not to reckon up the years of others, +but to set a high value upon one's own, and score them to one's credit, +saying, "God thought me worthy of this; I am satisfied with it; he might +have given me more, but this, too, is a benefit." Let us be grateful +towards both gods and men, grateful to those who have given us anything, +and grateful even to those who have given anything to our relatives. + +XVIII. "You render me liable to an infinite debt of gratitude," says our +opponent, "when you say 'even to those who have given any thing to our +relations,' so fix some limit. He who bestows a benefit upon the son, +according to you, bestows it likewise upon the father: this is the first +question I wish to raise. In the next place I should like to have a +clear definition of whether a benefit, if it be bestowed upon your +friend's father as well as upon himself, is bestowed also upon his +brother? or upon his uncle? or his grandfather? or his wife and his +father-in-law? tell me where I am to stop, how far I am to follow out +the pedigree of the family?" + +SENECA. If I cultivate your land, I bestow a benefit upon you; if I +extinguish your house when burning, or prop it so as to save it from +falling, I shall bestow a benefit upon you; if I heal your slave, I +shall charge it to you; if I save your son's life, will you not thereby +receive a benefit from me? + +XIX. THE ADVERSARY. Your instances are not to the purpose, for he who +cultivates my land, does not benefit the land, but me; he who props my +house so that it does not fall, does this service to me, for the house +itself is without feeling, and as it has none, it is I who am indebted +to him; and he who cultivates my land does so because he wishes to +oblige me, not to oblige the land. I should say the same of a slave; he +is a chattel owned by me; he is saved for my advantage, therefore I am +indebted for him. My son is himself capable of receiving a benefit; so +it is he who receives it; I am gratified at a benefit which comes so +near to myself, but am not laid under any obligation. + +SE. Still I should like you, who say that you are under no obligation, +to answer me this. The good health, the happiness, and the inheritance +of a son are connected with his father; his father will be more happy if +he keeps his son safe, and more unhappy if he loses him. What follows, +then? when a man is made happier by me and is freed from the greatest +danger of unhappiness, does he not receive a benefit? + +AD. No, because there are some things which are bestowed upon others, +and yet flow from them so as to reach ourselves; yet we must ask the +person upon whom it was bestowed for repayment; as for example, money +must be sought from the man to whom it was lent, although it may, +by some means, have come into my hands. There is no benefit whose +advantages do not extend to the receiver's nearest friends, and +sometimes even to those less intimately connected with him; yet we do +not enquire whither the benefit has proceeded from him to whom it was +first given, but where it was first placed. You must demand repayment +from the defendant himself personally. + +SE. Well, but I pray you, do you not say, "you have preserved my son for +me; had he perished, I could not have survived him?" Do you not owe +a benefit for the life of one whose safety you value above your own? +Moreover, should I save your son's life, you would fall down before +my knees, and would pay vows to heaven as though you yourself had been +saved; you would say, "It makes no difference whether you have saved +mine or me; you have saved us both, yet me more than him." Why do you +say this, if you do not receive a benefit? + +A.D. Because, if my son were to contract a loan, I should pay his +creditor, yet I should not, therefore, be indebted to him; or if my son +were taken in adultery, I should blush, yet I should not, therefore, be +an adulterer. I say that I am under an obligation to you for saving my +son, not because I really am, but because I am willing to constitute +myself your debtor of my own free will. On the other hand I have derived +from his safety the greatest possible pleasure and advantage, and I have +escaped that most dreadful blow, the loss of my child. True, but we are +not now discussing whether you have done me any good or not, but whether +you have bestowed a benefit upon me; for animals, stones, and herbs can +do one good, but do not bestow benefits, which can only be given by one +who wishes well to the receiver. Now you do not wish well to the father, +but only to the son; and sometimes you do not even know the father. So +when you have said, "Have I not bestowed a benefit upon the father by +saving the son?" you ought to meet this with, "Have I, then, bestowed a +benefit upon a father whom I do not know, whom I never thought of?" And +what will you say when, as is sometimes the case, you hate the father, +and yet save his son? Can you be thought to have bestowed a benefit upon +one whom you hated most bitterly while you were bestowing it? + +However, if I were to lay aside the bickering of dialogue, and answer +you as a lawyer, I should say that you ought to consider the intention +of the giver, you must regard his benefit as bestowed upon the person +upon whom he meant to bestow it. If he did it in honour of the father, +then the father received the benefit; if he thought only of the son, +then the father is not laid under any obligation: by the benefit which +was conferred upon the son, even though the father derives pleasure from +it. Should he, however, have an opportunity, he will himself wish to +give you something, yet not as though he were forced to repay a debt, +but rather as if he had grounds for beginning an exchange of favours. +No return for a benefit ought to be demanded from the father of the +receiver; if he does you any kindness in return for it, he should be +regarded as, a righteous man, but not as a grateful one. For there is no +end to it; if I bestow a benefit on the receiver's father, do I likewise +bestow it upon his mother, his grandfather, his maternal uncle, his +children, relations, friends, slaves, and country? Where, then, does +a benefit begin to stop? for there follows it this endless chain of +people, to whom it is hard to assign bounds, because they join it by +degrees, and are always creeping on towards it. + +XX. A common question is, "Two brothers are at variance. If I save the +life of one, do I confer a benefit upon the other, who will be sorry +that his hated brother did not perish?" There can be no doubt that it is +a benefit to do good to a man, even against that man's will, just as he, +who against his own will does a man good, does not bestow a benefit upon +him. "Do you," asks our adversary, "call that by which he is displeased +and hurt a benefit?" Yes; many benefits have a harsh and forbidding +appearance, such as cutting or burning to cure disease, or confining +with chains. We must not consider whether a man is grieved at receiving +a benefit, but whether he ought to rejoice: a coin is not bad because it +is refused by a savage who is unacquainted with its proper stamp. A man +receives a benefit even though he hates what is done, provided that it +does him good, and that the giver bestowed it in order to do him good. +It makes no difference if he receives a good thing in a bad spirit. +Consider the converse of this. Suppose that a man hates his brother, +though it is to his advantage to have a brother, and I kill this +brother, this is not a benefit, though he may say that it is, and be +glad of it. Our most artful enemies are those whom we thank for the +wrongs which they do us. + +"I understand; a thing which does good is a benefit, a thing which does +harm is not a benefit. Now I will suggest to you an act which neither +does good nor harm, and yet is a benefit. Suppose that I find the corpse +of some one's father in a wilderness, and bury it, then I certainly +have done him no good, for what difference could it make to him in what +manner his body decayed? Nor have I done any good to his son, for what +advantage does he gain by my act?" I will tell you what he gains. He has +by my means performed a solemn and necessary rite; I have performed a +service for his father which he would have wished, nay, which it would +have been his duty to have performed himself. Yet this act is not a +benefit, if I merely yielded to those feelings of pity and kindliness +which would make me bury any corpse whatever, but only if I recognized +this body, and buried it, with the thought in my mind that I was doing +this service to the son; but, by merely throwing earth over a dead +stranger, I lay no one under an obligation for an act performed on +general principles of humanity. + +It may be asked, "Why are you so careful in inquiring upon whom you +bestow benefits, as though some day you meant to demand repayment of +them? Some say that repayment should never be demanded; and they give +the following reasons. An unworthy man will not repay the benefit which +he has received, even if it be demanded of him, while a worthy man will +do so of his own accord. Consequently, if you have bestowed it upon a +good man, wait; do not outrage him by asking him for it, as though of +his own accord he never would repay it. If you have bestowed it upon a +bad man, suffer for it, but do not spoil your benefit by turning it +into a loan. Moreover the law, by not authorizing you, forbids you, +by implication, to demand the repayment of a benefit." All this is +nonsense. As long as I am in no pressing need, as long as I am +not forced by poverty, I will lose my benefits rather than ask for +repayment; but if the lives of my children were at stake, if my wife +were in danger, if my regard for the welfare of my country and for +my own liberty were to force me to adopt a course which I disliked, I +should overcome my delicacy, and openly declare that I had done all that +I could to avoid the necessity of receiving help from an ungrateful man; +the necessity of obtaining repayment of one's benefit will in the end +overcome one's delicacy about asking for it. In the next place, when I +bestow a benefit upon a good man, I do so with the intention of never +demanding repayment, except in case of absolute necessity. + +XXI. "But," argues he, "by not authorizing you, the law forbids you to +exact repayment." There are many things which are not enforced by any +law or process, but which the conventions of society, which are stronger +than any law, compel us to observe. There is no law forbidding us to +divulge our friend's secrets; there is no law which bids us keep faith +even with an enemy; pray what law is there which binds us to stand by +what we have promised? There is none. Nevertheless I should remonstrate +with one who did not keep a secret, and I should be indignant with one +who pledged his word and broke it. "But," he argues, "you are turning a +benefit into a loan." By no means, for I do not insist upon repayment, +but only demand it; nay, I do not even demand it, but remind my friend +of it. Even the direst need will not bring me to apply for help to one +with whom I should have to undergo a long struggle. + +If there be any one so ungrateful that it is not sufficient to remind +him of his debt, I should pass him over, and think that he did not +deserve to be made grateful by force. A money-lender does not demand +repayment from his debtors if he knows they have become bankrupt, and, +to their shame, have nothing but shame left to lose; and I, like him, +should pass over those who are openly and obstinately ungrateful, and +would demand repayment only from those who were likely to give it me, +not from those from whom I should have to extort it by force. + +XXII. There are many who cannot deny that they have received a benefit, +yet cannot return it--men who are not good enough to be termed grateful, +nor yet bad enough to be termed ungrateful; but who are dull and +sluggish, backward debtors, though not defaulters. Such men as these I +should not ask for repayment, but forcibly remind them of it, and, from +a state of indifference, bring them back to their duty. They would at +once reply, "Forgive me; I did not know, by Hercules, that you missed +this, or I would have offered it of my own accord, I beg that you will +not think me ungrateful; I remember your goodness to me." Why need I +hesitate to make such men as these better to themselves and to me? I +would prevent any one from doing wrong, if I were able; much more would +I prevent a friend, both lest he should do wrong, and lest he should +do wrong to me in particular. I bestow a second benefit upon him by not +permitting him to be ungrateful; and I should not reproach him harshly +with what I had done for him, but should speak as gently as I could. In +order to afford him an opportunity of returning my kindness, I +should refresh his remembrance of it, and ask for a benefit; he would +understand that I was asking for repayment. Sometimes I would make use +of somewhat severe language, if I had any hope that by it he might be +amended; though I would not irritate a hopelessly ungrateful man, for +fear that I might turn him into an enemy. If we spare the ungrateful +even the affront of reminding them of their conduct, we shall render +them' more backward in returning benefits; and although some might +be cured of their evil ways, and be made into good men, if their +consciences were stung by remorse, yet we shall allow them to perish for +want of a word of warning, with which a father sometimes corrects +his son, a wife brings back to herself an erring husband, or a man +stimulates the wavering fidelity of his friend. + +XXIII. To awaken some men, it is only necessary to stir them, not to +strike them; in like manner, with some men, the feeling of honour about +returning a benefit is not extinct, but slumbering. Let us rouse it. "Do +not," they will say, "make the kindness you have done me into a wrong: +for it is a wrong, if you do not demand some return from me, and so make +me ungrateful. What if I do not know what sort of repayment you wish +for? if I am so occupied by business, and my attention is so much +diverted to other subjects that I have not been able to watch for an +opportunity of serving you? Point out to me what I can do for you, what +you wish me to do. Why do you despair, before making a trial of me? Why +are you in such haste to lose both your benefit and your friend? How can +you tell whether I do not wish, or whether I do not know how to repay +you: whether it be in intention or in opportunity that I am wanting? +Make a trial of me." I would therefore remind him of what I had done, +without bitterness, not in public, or in a reproachful manner, but so +that he may think that he himself has remembered it rather than that it +has been recalled to him. + +XXIV. One of Julius Caesar's veterans was once pleading before him +against his neighbours, and the cause was going against him. "Do you +remember, general," said he, "that in Spain you dislocated your ankle +near the river Sucro [Footnote: Xucar]?" When Caesar said that he +remembered it, he continued, "Do you remember that when, during the +excessive heat, you wished to rest under a tree which afforded very +little shade, as the ground in which that solitary tree grew was rough +and rocky, one of your comrades spread his cloak under you?" Caesar +answered, "Of course, I remember; indeed, I was perishing with thirst; +and since was unable to walk to the nearest spring, I would have crawled +thither on my hands and knees, had not my comrade, a brave and active +man, brought me water in his helmet." "Could you, then, my general, +recognize that man or that helmet?" Caesar replied that he could not +remember the helmet, but that he could remember the man well; and he +added, I fancy in anger at being led away to this old story in the midst +of a judicial enquiry, "At any rate, you are not he." "I do not blame +you, Caesar," answered the man, "for not recognizing me; for when this +took place, I was unwounded; but afterwards, at the battle of Munda, +my eye was struck out, and the bones of my skull crushed. Nor would +you recognize that helmet if you saw it, for it was split by a Spanish +sword." Caesar would not permit this man to be troubled with lawsuits, +and presented his old soldier with the fields through which a village +right of way had given rise to the dispute. + +XXV. In this case, what ought he to have done? Because his commander's +memory was confused by a multitude of incidents, and because his +position as the leader of vast armies did not permit him to notice +individual soldiers, ought the man not to have asked for a return for +the benefit which he had conferred? To act as he did is not so much to +ask for a return as to take it when it lies in a convenient position +ready for us, although we have to stretch out our hands in order to +receive it. I shall therefore ask for the return of a benefit, whenever +I am either reduced to great straits, or where by doing so I shall act +to the advantage of him from whom I ask it. Tiberius Caesar, when some +one addressed him with the words, "Do you remember....?" answered, +before the man could mention any further proofs of former acquaintance, +"I do not remember what I was." Why should it not be forbidden to demand +of this man repayment of former favours? He had a motive for forgetting +them: he denied all knowledge of his friends and comrades, and wished +men only to see, to think, and to speak of him as emperor. He regarded +his old friend as an impertinent meddler. + +We ought to be even more careful to choose a favorable opportunity when +we ask for a benefit to be repaid to us than when we ask for one to +be bestowed upon us. We must be temperate in our language, so that the +grateful may not take offence, or the ungrateful pretend to do so. If we +lived among wise men, it would be our duty to wait in silence until our +benefits were returned. Yet even to wise men it would be better to give +some hint of what our position required. We ask for help even from +the gods themselves, from whose knowledge nothing is hid, although our +prayers cannot alter their intentions towards us, but can only recall +them to their minds. Homer's priest, [Il. i. 39 sqq.] I say, recounts +even to the gods his duteous conduct and his pious care of their +altars. The second best form of virtue is to be willing and able to take +advice.[Hes. Op. 291.] A horse who is docile and prompt to obey can be +guided hither and thither by the slightest movement of the reins. Very +few men are led by their own reason: those who come next to the best are +those who return to the right path in consequence of advice; and these +we must not deprive of their guide. When our eyes are covered they still +possess sight; but it is the light of day which, when admitted to them, +summons them to perform their duty: tools lie idle, unless the workman +uses them to take part in his work. Similarly men's minds contain a good +feeling, which, however, lies torpid, either through luxury and disuse, +or through ignorance of its duties. This we ought to render useful, and +not to get into a passion with it, and leave it in its wrong doing, but +bear with it patiently, just as schoolmasters bear patiently with the +blunders of forgetful scholars; for as by the prompting of a word or two +their memory is often recalled to the text of the speech which they +have to repeat, so men's goodwill can be brought to return kindness by +reminding them of it. + + + + +BOOK VI. + +I. + + +There are some things, my most excellent Liberalis, which lie completely +outside of our actual life, and which we only inquire into in order to +exercise our intellects, while others both give us pleasure while we are +discovering them, and are of use when discovered. I will place all these +in your hands; you, at your own discretion, may order them either to +be investigated thoroughly, or to be reserved, and be used as agreeable +interludes. Something will be gained even by those which you dismiss at +once, for it is advantageous even to know what subjects are not worth +learning. I shall be guided, therefore, by your face: according to its +expression, I shall deal with some questions at greater length, and +drive others out of court, and put an end to them at once. + +II. It is a question whether a benefit can be taken away from one by +force. Some say that it cannot, because it is not a thing, but an act. A +gift is not the same as the act of giving, any more than a sailor is the +same as the act of sailing. A sick man and a disease are not the same +thing, although no one can be ill without disease; and, similarly, +a benefit itself is one thing, and what any of us receive through a +benefit is another. The benefit itself is incorporeal, and never becomes +invalid; but its subject-matter changes owners, and passes from hand to +hand. So, when you take away from anyone what you have given him, +you take away the subject-matter only of the benefit, not the benefit +itself. Nature herself cannot recall what she has given. She may cease +to bestow benefits, but cannot take them away: a man who dies, yet has +lived; a man who becomes blind, nevertheless has seen. She can cut off +her blessings from us in the future, but she cannot prevent our having +enjoyed them in the past. We are frequently not able to enjoy a benefit +for long, but the benefit is not thereby destroyed. Let Nature struggle +as hard as she please, she cannot give herself retrospective action. A +man may lose his house, his money, his property--everything to which the +name of benefit can be given--yet the benefit itself will remain firm +and unmoved; no power can prevent his benefactor's having bestowed them, +or his having received them. + +III. I think that a fine passage in Rabirius's poem, where M. Antonius, +seeing his fortune deserting him, nothing left him except the privilege +of dying, and even that only on condition that he used it promptly, +exclaims, + + "What I have given, that I now possess!" + +How much he might have possessed, had he chosen! These are riches to be +depended upon, which through all the turmoil of human life will remain +steadfast; and the greater they are, the less envy they will attract. +Why are you sparing of your property, as though it were your own? You +are but the manager of it. All those treasures, which make you swell +with pride, and soar above mere mortals, till you forget the weakness of +your nature; all that which you lock up in iron-grated treasuries, and +guard in arms, which you win from other men with their lives, and defend +at the risk of your own; for which you launch fleets to dye the sea with +blood, and shake the walls of cities, not knowing what arrows fortune +may be preparing for you behind your back; to gain which you have so +often violated all the ties of relationship, of friendship, and of +colleagueship, till the whole world lies crushed between the two +combatants: all these are not yours; they are a kind of deposit, which +is on the point of passing into other hands: your enemies, or your +heirs, who are little better, will seize upon them. "How," do you ask, +"can you make them your own?" "By giving them away." Do, then, what is +best for your own interests, and gain a sure enjoyment of them, which +cannot be taken from you, making them at once more certainly yours, and +more honorable to you. That which you esteem so highly, that by which +you think that you are made rich and powerful, owns but the shabby title +of "house," "slave," or "money;" but when you have given it away, it +becomes a benefit. + +IV. "You admit," says our adversary, "that we sometimes are under no +obligation to him from whom we have received a benefit. In that case it +has been taken by force." Nay, there are many things which would cause +us to cease to feel gratitude for a benefit, not because the benefit has +been taken from me, but because it has been spoiled. Suppose that a man +has defended me in a lawsuit, but has forcibly outraged my wife; he has +not taken away the benefit which he conferred upon me, but by balancing +it with an equivalent wrong, he has set me free from my debt; indeed, if +he has injured me more than he had previously benefited me, he not only +puts an end to my gratitude, but makes me free to revenge myself upon +him, and to complain of him, when the wrong outweighs the benefit; in +such a case the benefit is not taken away, but is overcome. Why, are +not some fathers so cruel and so wicked that it is right and proper for +their sons to turn away from them, and disown them? Yet, pray, have they +taken away the life which they gave? No, but their unnatural conduct in +later years has destroyed all the gratitude which was due to them for +their original benefit. In these cases it is not a benefit itself, but +the gratitude owing for a benefit which is taken away, and the result +is, not that one does not possess the benefit, but that one is not laid +under any obligation by it. It is as though a man were to lend me money, +and then burn my house down; the advantage of the loan is balanced by +the damage which he has caused: I do not repay him, and yet I am not +in his debt. In like manner any one who may have acted kindly and +generously to me, and who afterwards has shown himself haughty, +insulting, and cruel, places me in just the same position as though I +never had received anything from him: he has murdered his own benefits. +Though the lease may remain in force, still a man does not continue to +be a tenant if his landlord tramples down his crops, or cuts down his +orchard; their contract is at an end, not because the landlord has +received the rent which was agreed upon, but because he has made it +impossible that he should receive it. So, too, a creditor often has to +pay money to his debtor, should he have taken more property from him in +other transactions than he claims as having lent him. The judge does not +sit merely to decide between debtor and creditor, when he says, "You did +lend the man money; but then, what followed? You have driven away his +cattle, you have murdered his slave, you have in your possession plate +which you have not paid for. After valuing what each has received, +I order you, who came to this court as a creditor, to leave it as +a debtor." In like manner a balance is struck between benefits and +injuries. In many cases, I repeat, a benefit is not taken away from him +who receives it, and yet it lays him under no obligation, if the giver +has repented of giving it, called himself unhappy because he gave it, +sighed or made a wry face while he gave it; if he thought that he was +throwing it away rather than giving it, if he gave it to please himself, +or to please any one except me, the receiver; if he persistently makes +himself offensive by boasting of what he has done, if he brags of his +gift everywhere, and makes it a misery to me, then indeed the benefit +remains in my hands, but I owe him nothing for it, just as sums of money +to which a creditor has no legal right are owed to him, but cannot be +claimed by him. + +V. Though you have bestowed a benefit upon me, yet you have since +done me a wrong; the benefit demanded gratitude, the wrong required +vengeance: the result is that I do not owe you gratitude, nor do you +owe me compensation--each is cancelled by the other. When we say, "I +returned him his benefit," we do not mean that we restored to him the +very thing which we had received, but something else in its place. To +return is to give back one thing instead of another, because, of course, +in all repayment it is not the thing itself, but its equivalent which +is returned. We are said to have returned money even though we count out +gold pieces instead of silver ones, or even if no money passes between +us, but the transaction be effected verbally by the assignment of a +debt. + +I think I see you say, "You are wasting your time; of what use is it +to me to know whether what I do not owe to another still remains in my +hands or not? These are like the ingenious subtleties of the lawyers, +who declare that one cannot acquire an inheritance by prescription, +but can only acquire those things of which the inheritance consists, as +though there were any difference between the heritage and the things of +which it consists. Rather decide this point for me, which may be of +use. If the same man confers a benefit upon me, and afterwards does me +a wrong, is it my duty to return the benefit to him, and nevertheless to +avenge myself upon him, having, as it were, two distinct accounts open +with him, or to mix them both together, and do nothing, leaving the +benefit to be wiped out by the injury, the injury by the benefit? I see +that the former course is adopted by the law of the land; you know +best what the law may be among you Stoic philosophers in such a case. I +suppose that you keep the action which I bring against another distinct +from that which he Strings against me, and the two processes are not +merged into one? For instance, if a man entrusts me with money, and +afterwards robs me, I shall bring an action against him for theft, and +he will bring one against me for unlawfully detaining his property?" + +VI. The cases which you have mentioned, my Liberalis, come under +well-established laws, which it is necessary for us to follow. One law +cannot be merged in another: each one proceeds its own way. There is a +particular action which deals with deposits just as there is one which +deals with theft. A benefit is subject to no law; it depends upon my +own arbitration. I am at liberty to contrast the amount of good or +harm which any one may have done me, and then to decide which of us is +indebted to the other. In legal processes we ourselves have no power, we +must go whither they lead us; in the case of a benefit the supreme +power is mine, I pronounce sentence. Consequently I do not separate or +distinguish between benefits and wrongs, but send them before the same +judge. Unless I did so, you would bid me love and hate, give thanks and +make complaints at the same time, which human nature does not admit of. +I would rather compare the benefit and the injury with one another, and +see whether there were any balance in my favour. If anybody puts lines +of other writing upon my manuscript he conceals, though he does not take +away, the letters which were there before, and in like manner a wrong +coming after a benefit does not allow it to be seen. + +VII. Your face, by which I have agreed to be guided, now becomes +wrinkled with frowns, as though I were straying too widely from the +subject. You seem to say to me: + + "Why steer to seaward? + Hither bend thy course, + Hug close the shore..." + +I do hug it as close as possible. So now, if you think that we have +dwelt sufficiently upon this point, let us proceed to the consideration +of the next--that is, whether we are at all indebted to any one who +does us good without wishing to do so. I might have expressed this +more clearly, if it were not right that the question should be somewhat +obscurely stated, in order that by the distinction immediately following +it may be shown that we mean to investigate the case both of him who +does us good against his will, and that of him who does us good without +knowing it. That a man who does us good by acting under compulsion does +not thereby lay us under any obligation, is so clear, that no words +are needed to prove it. Both this question, and any other of the like +character which may be raised, can easily be settled if in each case we +bear in mind that, for anything to be a benefit, it must reach us in the +first place through some thought, and secondly through the thought of a +friend and well-wisher. Therefore we do not feel any gratitude towards +rivers, albeit they may bear large ships, afford an ample and unvarying +stream for the conveyance of merchandise, or flow beauteously and full +of fish through fertile fields. No one conceives himself to be indebted +for a benefit to the Nile, any more than he would owe it a grudge if its +waters flooded his fields to excess, and retired more slowly than usual; +the wind does not bestow benefits, gentle and favorable though it +may be, nor does wholesome and useful food; for he who would bestow a +benefit upon me, must not only do me good, but must wish to do so. No +obligation can therefore be incurred towards dumb animals; yet how many +men have been saved from peril by the swiftness of a horse!--nor +yet towards trees--yet how many sufferers from summer heat have been +sheltered by the thick foliage of a tree! What difference can it make, +whether I have profited by the act of one who did not know that he was +doing me good, or one who could not know it, when in each case the will +to do me good was wanting? You might as well bid me be grateful to a +ship, a carriage, or a lance for saving me from danger, as bid me be +grateful to a man who may have done me good by chance, but with no more +intention of doing me good than those things could have. + +VIII. Some men may receive benefits without knowing it, but no man can +bestow them without knowing it. Many sick persons have been cured by +chance circumstances, which do not therefore become specific remedies; +as, for instance, one man was restored to health by falling into a river +during very cold weather, as another was set free from a quartan fever +by means of a flogging, because the sudden terror turned his attention +into a new channel, so that the dangerous hours passed unnoticed. Yet +none of these are remedies, even though they may have been +successful; and in like manner some men do us good, though they are +unwilling--indeed, because they are unwilling to do so--yet we need not +feel grateful to them as though we had received a benefit from them, +because fortune has changed the evil which they intended into good. Do +you suppose that I am indebted to a man who strikes my enemy with a blow +which he aimed at me, who would have injured me had he not missed his +mark? It often happens that by openly perjuring himself a man makes even +trustworthy witnesses disbelieved, and renders his intended victim an +object of compassion, as though he were being ruined by a conspiracy. +Some have been saved by the very power which was exerted to crush +them, and judges who would have condemned a man by law, have refused +to condemn him by favour. Yet they did not confer a benefit upon the +accused, although they rendered him a service, because we must +consider at what the dart was aimed, not what it hits, and a benefit +is distinguished from an injury not by its result, but by the spirit in +which it was meant. By contradicting himself, by irritating the judge by +his arrogance, or by rashly allowing his whole case to depend upon the +testimony of one witness, my opponent may have saved my cause. I do not +consider whether his mistakes benefited me or not, for he wished me ill. + +IX. In order that I may be grateful, I must wish to do what my +benefactor must have wished in order that he might bestow a benefit. Can +anything be more unjust than to bear a grudge against a person who may +have trodden upon one's foot in a crowd, or splashed one, or pushed one +the way which one did not wish to go? Yet it was by his act that we were +injured, and we only refrain from complaining of him, because he did not +know what he was doing. The same reason makes it possible for men to do +us good without conferring benefits upon us, or to harm us without doing +us wrong, because it is intention which distinguishes our friends +from our enemies. How many have been saved from service in the army by +sickness! Some men have been saved from sharing the fall of their house, +by being brought up upon their recognizances to a court of law by their +enemies; some have been saved by ship-wreck from falling into the hands +of pirates; yet we do not feel grateful to such things, because chance +has no feeling of the service it renders, nor are we grateful to our +enemy, though his lawsuit, while it harassed and detained us, still +saved our lives. Nothing can be a benefit which does not proceed from +good will, and which is not meant as such by the giver. If any one +does me a service, without knowing it, I am under no obligation to him; +should he do so, meaning to injure me, I shall imitate his conduct. + +X. Let us turn our attention to the first of these. Can you desire me to +do anything to express my gratitude to a man who did nothing in order to +confer a benefit upon me? Passing on to the next, do you wish me to show +my gratitude to such a man, and of my own will to return to him what I +received from him against his will? What am I to say of the third, he +who, meaning to do an injury, blunders into bestowing a benefit? That +you should have wished to confer a benefit upon me is not sufficient +to render me grateful; but that you should have wished not to do so is +enough to set me free from any obligation to you. A mere wish does not +constitute a benefit; and just as the best and heartiest wish is not a +benefit when fortune prevents its being carried into effect, neither is +what fortune bestows upon us a benefit, unless good wishes preceded +it. In order to lay me under an obligation, you must not merely do me a +service, but you must do so intentionally. + +XI. Cleanthes makes use of the following example:--"I sent," says he, +"two slaves to look for Plato and bring him to me from the Academy. One +of them searched through the whole of the colonnade, and every other +place in which he thought that he was likely to be found, and returned +home alike weary and unsuccessful; the other sat down among the audience +of a mountebank close by, and, while amusing himself in the society of +other slaves like a careless vagabond as he was, found Plato, without +seeking for him, as he happened to pass that way. We ought," says he, +"to praise that slave who, as far as lay in his power, did what he was +ordered, and we ought to punish the other whose laziness turned out so +fortunate." It is goodwill alone which does one real service; let us +then consider under what conditions it lays us under obligations. It is +not enough to wish a man well, without doing him good; nor is it enough +to do him good without wishing him well. Suppose that some one wished to +give me a present, but did not give it; I have his good will, but I +do not have his benefit, which consists of subject matter and goodwill +together. I owe nothing to one who wished to lend me money but did not +do so, and in like manner I shall be the friend of one who wished but +was not able to bestow a benefit upon me, but I shall not be under any +obligation to him. I also shall wish to bestow something upon him, even +as he did upon me; but if fortune be more favorable to me than to him, +and I succeed in bestowing something upon him, my doing so will be a +benefit bestowed upon him, not a repayment out of gratitude for what he +did for me. It will become his duty to be grateful to me; I shall have +begun the interchange of benefits; the series must be counted from my +act. + +XII. I already understand what you wish to ask; there is no need for you +to say anything, your countenance speaks for you. "If any one does us +good for his own sake, are we," you ask, "under an obligation to him? I +often hear you complain that there are some things which men make use +of themselves, but which they put down to the account of others." I will +tell you, my Liberalis; but first let me distinguish between the two +parts of your question, and separate what is fair from what is unfair. +It makes a great difference whether any one bestows a benefit upon us +for his own sake, or whether he does so partly for his own sake and +partly for ours. He who looks only to his own interests, and who does us +good because he cannot otherwise make a profit for himself, seems to +me to be like the farmer who provides winter and summer fodder for his +flocks, or like the man who feeds up the captives whom he has bought +in order that they may fetch a better price in the slave market, or who +crams and curry-combs fat oxen for sale; or like the keeper of a +school of arms, who takes great pains in exercising and equipping his +gladiators. As Cleanthes says, there is a great difference between +benefits and trade. + +XIII. On the other hand, I am not so unjust as to feel no gratitude to +a man, because, while helping me, he helped himself also; for I do +not insist upon his consulting my interests to the exclusion of his +own--nay, I should prefer that the benefit which I receive may be of +even greater advantage to the giver, provided that he thought of us +both when giving it, and meant to divide it between me and himself. Even +should he possess the larger portion of it, still, if he admits me to +a share, if he meant it for both of us, I am not only unjust but +ungrateful, if I do not rejoice in what has benefited me benefiting him +also. It is the essence of spitefulness to say that nothing can be a +benefit which does not cause some inconvenience to the giver. + +As for him who bestows a benefit for his own sake, I should say to him, +"You have made use of me, and how can you say that you have bestowed a +benefit upon me, rather than I upon you?" "Suppose," answers he, "that I +cannot obtain a public office except by ransoming ten citizens out of a +great number of captives, will you owe me nothing for setting you free +from slavery and bondage? Yet I shall do so for my own sake." To this I +should answer, "You do this partly for my sake, partly for your own. +It is for your own sake that you ransom captives, but it is for my sake +that you ransom me; for to serve your purpose it would be enough for you +to ransom any one. I am therefore your debtor, not for ransoming me +but for choosing me, since you might have attained the same result by +ransoming some one else instead of me. You divide the advantages of the +act between yourself and me, and you confer upon me a benefit by which +both of us profit. What you do entirely for my sake is, that you choose +me in preference to others. If therefore you were to be made praetor for +ransoming ten captives, and there were only ten of us captives, none of +us would be under any obligation to you, because there is nothing for +which you can ask any one of us to give you credit apart from your own +advantage. I do not regard a benefit jealously and wish it to be given +to myself alone, but I wish to have a share in it." + +XIV. "Well, then," says he, "suppose that I were to order all your names +to be put into a ballot-box, and that your name was drawn among those +who were to be ransomed, would you owe me nothing?" Yes, I should owe +you something, but very little: how little, I will explain to you. By so +doing you do something for my sake, in that you grant me the chance of +being ransomed; I owe to fortune that my name was drawn, all I owe +to you is that my name could be drawn. You have given me the means +of obtaining your benefit. For the greater part of that benefit I am +indebted to fortune; that I could be so indebted, I owe to you. + +I shall take no notice whatever of those whose benefits are bestowed +in a mercenary spirit, who do not consider to whom, but upon what terms +they give, whose benefits are entirely selfish. Suppose that some one +sells me corn; I cannot live unless I buy it; yet I do not owe my life +to him because I have bought it. I do not consider how essential it was +to me, and that I could not live without it; but how little thanks are +due for it, since I could not have had it without paying for it, and +since the merchant who imported it did not consider how much good he +would do me, but how much he would gain for himself, I owe nothing for +what I have bought and paid for. + +XV. "According to this reasoning," says my opponent, "you would say +that you owe nothing to a physician beyond his paltry fee, nor to your +teacher, because you have paid him some money; yet these persons are all +held very dear, and are very much respected." In answer to this I should +urge that some things are of greater value than the price which we pay +for them. You buy of a physician life and good health, the value of +which cannot be estimated in money; from a teacher of the liberal +sciences you buy the education of a gentleman and mental culture; +therefore you pay these persons the price, not of what they give us, but +of their trouble in giving it; you pay them for devoting their attention +to us, for disregarding their own affairs to attend to us: they receive +the price, not of their services, but of the expenditure of their time. +Yet this may be more truly stated in another way, which I will at once +lay before you, having first pointed out how the above may be confuted. +Our adversary would say, "If some things are of greater value than the +price which we pay for them, then, though you may have bought them, you +still owe me something more for them." I answer, in the first place, +what does their real value matter, since the buyer and seller have +settled the price between them? Next, I did not buy it at it's own +price, but at yours. "It is," you say, "worth more than its sale price." +True, but it cannot be sold for more. The price of everything varies +according to circumstances; after you have well praised your wares, they +are worth only the highest price at which you can sell them; a man who +buys things cheap is not on that account under any obligation to the +seller. In the next place, even if they are worth more, there is no +generosity in your letting them go for less, since the price is settled +by custom and the rate of the market, not by the uses and powers of the +merchandise. What would you state to be the proper payment of a man who +crosses the seas, holding a true course through the midst of the waves +after the land has sunk out of sight, who foresees coming storms, and +suddenly, when no one expects danger, orders sails to be furled, yards +to be lowered, and the crew to stand at their posts ready to meet the +fury of the unexpected gale? and yet the price of such great skill is +fully paid for by the passage money. At what sum can you estimate the +value of a lodging in a wilderness, of a shelter in the rain, of a bath +or fire in cold weather? Yet I know on what terms I shall be supplied +with these when I enter an inn. How much the man does for us who props +our house when it is about to fall, and who, with a skill beyond belief, +suspends in the air a block of building which has begun to crack at the +foundation; yet we can contract for underpinning at a fixed and cheap +rate. The city wall keeps us safe from our enemies, and from sudden +inroads of brigands; yet it is, well known how much a day a smith +would earn for erecting towers and scaffoldings [Footnote: See +Viollet-le-Duc's "Dictionnaire d'Architecture," articles "Architecture +Militaire" and "Hourds," for the probable meaning of "Propugnacula."]to +provide for the public safety. + +XVI. I might go on for ever collecting instances to prove that valuable +things are sold at a low price. What then? why is it that I owe +something extra both to my physician and to my teacher, and that I do +not acquit myself of all obligation to them by paying them their fee? It +is because they pass from physicians and teachers into friends, and lay +us under obligations, not by the skill which they sell to us, but by +kindly and familiar good will. If my physician does no more than feel +my pulse and class me among those whom he sees in his daily rounds, +pointing out what I ought to do or to avoid without any personal +interest, then I owe him no more than his fee, because he views me with +the eye not of a friend, but of a commander. [Footnote: I read "Nbn +tamquam amicus videt sed tamquam imperator."] Neither have I any reason +for loving my teacher, if he has regarded me merely as one of the mass +of his scholars, and has not thought me worthy of taking especial pains +with by myself, if he has never fixed his attention upon me, and if when +he discharged his knowledge on the public, I might be said rather to +have picked it up than to have learnt it from him. What then is our +reason for owing them much? It is, not that what they have sold us is +worth more than we paid for it, but that they have given something to us +personally. Suppose that my physician has spent more consideration upon +my case than was professionally necessary; that it was for me, not for +his own credit, that he feared: that he was not satisfied with pointing +out remedies, but himself applied them, that he sat by my bedside among +my anxious friends, and came to see me at the crises of my disorder; +that no service was too troublesome or too disgusting for him to +perform; that he did not hear my groans unmoved; that among the numbers +who called for him I was his favourite case; and that he gave the others +only so much time as his care of my health permitted him: I should feel +obliged to such a man not as to a physician, but as to a friend. Suppose +again that my teacher endured labour and weariness in instructing me; +that he taught me something more than is taught by all masters alike; +that he roused my better feelings by his encouragement, and that at +one time he would raise my spirits by praise, and at another warn me +to shake off slothfulness: that he laid his hand, as it were, upon my +latent and torpid powers of intellect and drew them out into the light +of day; that he did not stingily dole out to me what he knew, in order +that he might be wanted for a longer time, but was eager, if possible, +to pour all his learning into me; then I am ungrateful, if I do not love +him as much as I love my nearest relatives and my dearest friends. + +XVII. We give something additional even to those who teach the meanest +trades, if their efforts appear to be extraordinary; we bestow a +gratuity upon pilots, upon workmen who deal with the commonest materials +and hire themselves out by the day. In the noblest arts, however, those +which either preserve or beautify our lives, a man would be ungrateful +who thinks he owes the artist no more than he bargained for. Besides +this, the teaching of such learning as we have spoken of blends mind +with mind; now when this takes place, both in the case of the physician +and of the teacher the price of his work is paid, but that of his mind +remains owing. + +XVIII. Plato once crossed a river, and as the ferryman did not ask him +for anything, he supposed that he had let him pass free out of respect, +and said that the ferryman had laid Plato under an obligation. Shortly +afterwards, seeing the ferryman take one person after another across the +river with the same pains, and without charging anything, Plato declared +that the ferryman had not laid him under an obligation. If you wish me +to be grateful for what you give, you must not merely give it to me, but +show that you mean it specially for me; you cannot make any claim upon +one for having given him what you fling away broad-cast among the crowd. +What then? shall I owe you nothing for it? Nothing, as an individual; I +will pay, when the rest of mankind do, what I owe no more than they. + +XIX. "Do you say," inquires my opponent, "that he who carries me gratis +in a boat across the river Po, does not bestow any benefit upon me?" I +do. He does me some good, but he does not bestow a benefit upon me; for +he does it for his own sake, or at any rate not for mine; in short, he +himself does not imagine that he is bestowing a benefit upon me, but +does it for the credit of the State, or of the neighbourhood, or of +himself, and expects some return for doing so, different from what he +would receive from individual passengers. "Well," asks my opponent, "if +the emperor were to grant the franchise to all the Gauls, or exemption, +from taxes to all the Spaniards, would each individual of them owe him +nothing on that account?" Of course he would: but he would be indebted +to him, not as having personally received a benefit intended for himself +alone, but as a partaker in one conferred upon his nation. He would +argue, "The emperor had no thought of me at the time when he benefited +us all; he did not care to give me the franchise separately, he did not +fix his attention upon me; why then should I be grateful to one who did +not have me in his mind when he was thinking of doing what he did? In +answer to this, I say that when he thought of doing good to all the +Gauls, he thought of doing good to me also, for I was a Gaul, and he +included me under my national, if not under my personal appellation. In +like manner, I should feel grateful to him, not as for a personal, but +for a general benefit; being only one of the people, I should regard +the debt of gratitude as incurred, not by myself, but by my country, and +should not pay it myself, but only contribute my share towards doing so. +I do not call a man my creditor because he has lent money to my country, +nor should I include that money in a schedule of my debts were I either +a candidate for a public office, or a defendant in the courts; yet I +would pay my share towards extinguishing such a debt. Similarly, I deny +that I am laid under an obligation by a gift bestowed upon my entire +nation, because although the giver gave it to me, yet he did not do so +for my sake, but gave it without knowing whether he was giving it to me +or not: nevertheless I should feel that I owed something for the +gift, because it did reach me, though not directly. To lay me under an +obligation, a thing must be done for my sake alone." + +XX. "According to this," argues our opponent, "you are under no +obligation to the sun or the moon; for they do not move for your sake +alone." No, but since they move with the object of preserving the +balance of the universe, they move for my sake also, seeing that I am +a fraction of the universe. Besides, our position and theirs is not the +same, for he who does me good in order that he may by my means do good +to himself, does not bestow a benefit upon me, because he merely makes +use of me as an instrument for his own advantage; whereas the sun and +the moon, even if they do us good for their own sakes, still cannot do +good to us in order that by our means they may do good to themselves, +for what is there which we can bestow upon them? + +XXI. "I should be sure," replies he, "that the sun and the moon wished +to do us good, if they were able to refuse to do so; but they cannot +help moving as they do. In short, let them stop and discontinue their +work." + +See now, in how many ways this argument may be refuted. One who cannot +refuse to do a thing may nevertheless wish to do it; indeed there is no +greater proof of a fixed desire to do anything, than not to be able to +alter one's determination. A good man cannot leave undone what he does: +for unless he does it he will not be a good man. Is a good man, then, +not able to bestow a benefit, because he does what he ought to do, and +is not able not to do what he ought to do? Besides this, it makes +a great difference whether you say, "He is not able not to do this, +because he is forced to do it," or "He is not able to wish not to do +it;" for, if he could not help doing it, then I am not indebted for it +to him, but to the person who forced him to do it; if he could not help +wishing for it because he had nothing better to wish for, then it is he +who forces himself to do it, and in this case the debt which as acting +under compulsion he could not claim, is due to him as compelling +himself. + +"Let the sun and moon cease to wish to benefit us," says our adversary. +I answer, "Remember what has been said. Who can be so crazy as to refuse +the name of free-will to that which has no danger of ceasing to act, and +of adopting the opposite course, since, on the contrary, he whose will +is fixed for ever, must be thought to wish more earnestly than any one +else. Surely if he, who may at any moment change his mind, can be said +to wish, we must not deny the existence of will in a being whose nature +does not admit of change of mind." + +XXII. "Well," says he "let them stop, if it be possible." What you say +is this:--"Let all those heavenly bodies, placed as they are at vast +distances from each other, and arranged to preserve the balance of the +universe, leave their appointed posts: let sudden confusion arise, +so that constellations may collide with constellations, that the +established harmony of all things may be destroyed and the works of God +be shaken into ruin; let the whole frame of the rapidly moving heavenly +bodies abandon in mid career those movements which we were assured would +endure for ages, and let those which now by their regular advance and +retreat keep the world at a moderate temperature, be instantly consumed +by fire, so that instead of the infinite variety of the seasons all may +be reduced to one uniform condition; let fire rage everywhere, followed +by dull night, and let the bottomless abyss swallow up all the gods." Is +it worth while to destroy all this merely in order to refute you? Even +though you do not wish it, they do you good, and they wheel in their +courses for your sake, though their motion may be due to some earlier +and more important cause. + +XXIII. Besides this, the gods act under no external constraint, but +their own will is a law to them for all time. They have established an +order which is not to be changed, and consequently it is impossible that +they should appear to be likely to do anything against their will, since +they wish to continue doing whatever they cannot cease from doing, and +they never regret their original decision, No doubt it is impossible for +them to stop short, or to desert to the other side, but it is so for no +other reason than that their own force holds them to their purpose. It +is from no weakness that they persevere; no, they have no mind to leave +the best course, and by this it is fated that they should proceed. When, +at the time of the original creation, they arranged the entire universe, +they paid attention to us as well as to the rest, and took thought about +the human race; and for this reason we cannot suppose that it is merely +for their own pleasure that they move in their orbits and display their +work since we also are a part of that work. We are, therefore; under +an obligation to the sun and moon and the rest of the heavenly host, +because, although they may rise in order to bestow more important +benefits than those which we receive from them, yet they do bestow these +upon us as they pass on their way to greater things. Besides this, they +assist us of set purpose, and, therefore, lay us under an obligation, +because we do not in their case stumble by chance upon a benefit +bestowed by one who knew not what he was doing, but they knew that we +should receive from them the advantages which we do; so that, though +they may have some higher aim, though the result of their movements may +be something of greater importance than the preservation of the human +race, yet from the beginning thought has been directed to our comforts, +and the scheme of the world has been arranged in a fashion which proves +that our interests were neither their least nor last concern. It is our +duty to show filial love for our parents, although many of them had no +thought of children when they married. Not so with the gods: they cannot +but have known what they were doing when they furnished mankind with +food and comforts. Those for whose advantage so much was created, could +not have been created without design. Nature conceived the idea of us +before she formed us, and, indeed, we are no such trifling piece of work +as could have fallen from her hands unheeded. See how great privileges +she has bestowed upon us, how far beyond the human race the empire of +mankind extends; consider how widely she allows us to roam, not having +restricted us to the land alone, but permitted us to traverse every part +of herself; consider, too, the audacity of our intellect, the only one +which knows of the gods or seeks for them, and how we can raise our mind +high above the earth, and commune with those divine influences: you will +perceive that man is not a hurriedly put together, or an unstudied piece +of work. Among her noblest products nature has none of which she can +boast more than man, and assuredly no other which can comprehend her +boast. What madness is this, to call the gods in question for their +bounty? If a man declares that he has received nothing when he is +receiving all the while, and from those who will always be giving +without ever receiving anything in return, how will he be grateful to +those whose kindness cannot be returned without expense? and how great a +mistake is it not to be thankful to a giver, because he is good even to +him who disowns him, or to use the fact of his bounty being poured upon +us in an uninterrupted stream, as an argument to prove that he cannot +help bestowing it. Suppose that such men as these say, "I do not want +it," "Let him keep it to himself," "Who asks him for it?" and so forth, +with all the other speeches of insolent minds: still, he whose bounty +reaches you, although you say that it does not, lays you under an +obligation nevertheless; indeed, perhaps the greatest part of the +benefit which he bestows is that he is ready to give even when you are +complaining against him. + +XXIV. Do you not see how parents force children during their infancy +to undergo what is useful for their health? Though the children cry and +struggle, they swathe them and bind their limbs straight lest premature +liberty should make them grow crooked, afterwards instill into them a +liberal education, threatening those who are unwilling to learn, and +finally, if spirited young men do not conduct themselves frugally, +modestly, and respectably, they compel them to do so. Force and harsh +measures are used even to youths who have grown up and are their own +masters, if they, either from fear or from insolence, refuse to take +what is good for them. Thus the greatest benefits that we receive, +we receive either without knowing it, or against our will, from our +parents. + +XXV. Those persons who are ungrateful and repudiate benefits, not +because they do not wish to receive them, but in order that they may not +be laid under an obligation for them, are like those who fall into the +opposite extreme, and are over grateful, who pray that some trouble or +misfortune may befall their benefactors to give them an opportunity +of proving how gratefully they remember the benefit which they have +received. It is a question whether they are right, and show a truly +dutiful feeling; their state of mind is morbid, like that of frantic +lovers who long for their mistress to be exiled, that they may accompany +her when she leaves her country forsaken by all her friends, or that she +may be poor in order that she may the more need what they give her, or +who long that she may be ill in order that they may sit by her bedside, +and who, in short, out of sheer love form the same wishes as her enemies +would wish for her. Thus the results of hatred and of frantic love are +very nearly the same; and these lovers are very like those who hope that +their friends may meet with difficulties which they may remove, and who +thus do a wrong that they may bestow a benefit, whereas it would have +been much better for them to do nothing, than by a crime to gain an +opportunity of doing good service. What should we say of a pilot who +prayed to the gods for dreadful storms and tempests, in order that +danger might make his skill more highly esteemed? what of a general who +should pray that a vast number of the enemy surround his camp, fill +the ditches by a sudden charge, tear down the rampart round his +panic-stricken army, and plant its hostile standards at the very gates, +in order that he might gain more glory by restoring his broken ranks and +shattered fortunes? All such men confer their benefits upon us by odious +means, for they beg the gods to harm those whom they mean to help, and +wish them to be struck down before they raise them up; it is a cruel +feeling, brought about by a distorted sense of gratitude, to wish evil +to befall one whom one is bound in honour to succour. + +XXVI. "My wish," argues our opponent, "does him no harm, because when +I wish for the danger I wish for the rescue at the same time." What you +mean by this is not that you do no wrong, but that you do less than if +you wished that the danger might befall him, without wishing for the +rescue. It is wicked to throw a man into the water in order that you may +pull him out, to throw him down that you may raise him up, or to shut +him up that you may release him. You do not bestow a benefit upon a man +by ceasing to wrong him, nor can it ever be a piece of good service to +anyone to remove from him a burden which you yourself imposed on him. +True, you may cure the hurt which you inflict, but I had rather that you +did not hurt me at all. You may gain my gratitude by curing me because I +am wounded, but not by wounding me in order that you may cure me: no man +likes scars except as compared with wounds, which he is glad to see thus +healed, though he had rather not have received them. It would be cruel +to wish such things to befall one from whom you had never received a +kindness; how much more cruel is it to wish that they may befall one in +whose debt you are. + +XXVII. "I pray," replies he, "at the same time, that I may be able to +help him." In the first place, if I stop you short in the middle of your +prayer, it shows at once that you are ungrateful: I have not yet heard +what you wish to do for him; I have heard what you wish him to suffer. +You pray that anxiety and fear and even worse evil than this may come +upon him. You desire that he may need aid: this is to his disadvantage; +you desire that he may need your aid: this is to your advantage. You do +not wish to help him, but to be set free from your obligation to him: +for when you are eager to repay your debt in such a way as this, you +merely wish to be set free from the debt, not to repay it. So the only +part of your wish that could be thought honourable proves to be the base +and ungrateful feeling of unwillingness to lie under an obligation: for +what you wish for is, not that you may have an opportunity of repaying +his kindness, but that he may be forced to beg you to do him a kindness. +You make yourself the superior, and you wickedly degrade beneath your +feet the man who has done you good service. How much better would it be +to remain in his debt in an honourable and friendly manner, than to seek +to discharge the debt by these evil means! You would be less to blame if +you denied that you had received it, for your benefactor would then +lose nothing more than what he gave you, whereas now you wish him to be +rendered inferior to you, and brought by the loss of his property and +social position into a condition below his own benefits. Do you think +yourself grateful? Just utter your wishes in the hearing of him to whom +you wish to do good. Do you call that a prayer for his welfare, which +can be divided between his friend and his enemy, which, if the last part +were omitted, you would not doubt was pronounced, by one who opposed and +hated him? Enemies in war have sometimes wished to capture certain +towns in order to spare them, or to conquer certain persons in order +to pardon, them, yet these were the wishes of enemies, and what was the +kindest part of them began by cruelty. Finally, what sort of prayers do +you think those can be which he, on whose behalf they are made, hopes +more earnestly than any one else may not be granted? In hoping that +the gods may injure a man, and that you may help him, you deal most +dishonourably with him, and you do not treat the gods themselves fairly, +for you give them the odious part to play, and reserve the generous one +for yourself: the gods must do him wrong in order that you may do him +a service. If you were to suborn an informer to accuse a man, and +afterwards withdrew him, if you engaged a man in a law suit and +afterwards gave it up, no one would hesitate to call you a villain: what +difference does it make, whether you attempt to do this by chicanery +or by prayer, unless it be that by prayer you raise up more powerful +enemies to him than by the other means? You cannot say "Why, what harm +do I do him?" your prayer is either futile or harmful, indeed it is +harmful even though nothing comes of it. You do your friend wrong by +wishing him harm: you must thank the gods that you do him no harm. The +fact of your wishing it is enough: we ought to be just as angry with you +as if you had effected it. + +XXVIII. "If," argues our adversary, "my prayers had any efficacy, they +would also have been efficacious to save him from danger." In the first +place, I reply, the danger into which you wish me to fall is certain, +the help which I should receive is uncertain. Or call them both certain; +it is that which injures me that comes first. Besides, YOU understand +the terms of your wish; _I_ shall be tossed by the storm without being +sure that I have a haven of rest at hand. + +Think what torture it must have been to me, even if I receive your help, +to have stood in need of it: if I escape safely, to have trembled for +myself; if I be acquitted, to have had to plead my cause. To escape from +fear, however great it may be, can never be so pleasant as to live in +sound unassailable safety. Pray that you may return my kindnesses when I +need their return, but do not pray that I may need them. You would have +done what you prayed for, had it been in your power. + +XXIX. How far more honourable would a prayer of this sort be: "I pray +that he may remain in such a position as that he may always bestow +benefits and never need them: may he be attended by the means of giving +and helping, of which he makes such a bountiful use; may he never want +benefits to bestow, or be sorry for any which he has bestowed; may his +nature, fitted as it is for acts of pity, goodness, and clemency, be +stimulated and brought out by numbers of grateful persons, whom I trust +he will find without needing to make trial of their gratitude; may +he refuse to be reconciled to no one, and may no one require to be +reconciled to him: may fortune so uniformly continue to favour him that +no one may be able to return his kindness in any way except by feeling +grateful to him." + +How far more proper are such prayers as these, which do not put you off +to some distant opportunity, but express your gratitude at once? What is +there to prevent your returning your benefactor's kindness, even while +he is in prosperity? How many ways are there by which we can repay what +we owe even to the affluent--for instance, by honest advice, by constant +intercourse, by courteous conversation, pleasing him without flattering +him, by listening attentively to any subject which he may wish to +discuss, by keeping safe any secret that he may impart to us, and by +social intercourse. There is no one so highly placed by fortune as not +to want a friend all the more because he wants nothing. + +XXX. The other is a melancholy opportunity, and one which we ought +always to pray may be kept far from us: must the gods be angry with +a man in order that you may prove your gratitude to him? Do you not +perceive that you are doing wrong, from the very fact that those to +whom you are ungrateful fare better? Call up before your mind dungeons, +chains, wretchedness, slavery, war, poverty: these are the opportunities +for which you pray; if any one has any dealings with you, it is by means +of these that you square your account. Why not rather wish that he to +whom you owe most may be powerful and happy? for, as I have just said, +what is there to prevent your returning the kindness even of those +who enjoy the greatest prosperity? to do which, ample and various +opportunities will present themselves to you, What! do you not know that +a debt can be paid even to a rich man? Nor will I trouble you with many +instances of what you may do. Though a man's riches and prosperity may +prevent your making him any other repayment, I will show you what the +highest in the land stand in need of, what is wanting to those who +possess everything. They want a man to speak the truth, to save them +from the organized mass of falsehood by which they are beset, which so +bewilders them with lies that the habit of hearing only what is pleasant +instead of what is true, prevents their knowing what truth really is. Do +you not see how such persons are driven to ruin by the want of candour +among their friends, whose loyalty has degenerated into slavish +obsequiousness? No one, when giving them his advice, tells them what he +really thinks, but each vies with the other in flattery; and while the +man's friends make it their only object to see who can most pleasantly +deceive him, he himself is ignorant of his real powers, and, believing +himself to be as great a man as he is told that he is, plunges the State +in useless wars, which bring disasters upon it, breaks off a useful and +necessary peace, and, through a passion of anger which no one checks, +spills the blood of numbers of people, and at last sheds his own. +Such persons assert what has never been investigated as certain facts, +consider that to modify their opinion is as dishonourable as to be +conquered, believe that institutions which are just flickering out of +existence will last for ever, and, thus overturn great States, to the +destruction of themselves and all who are connected with them. Living +as they do in a fool's paradise, resplendent with unreal and short-lived +advantages, they forget that, as soon as they put it out of their power +to hear the truth, there is no limit to the misfortunes which they may +expect. + +XXXI. When Xerxes declared war against Greece, all his courtiers +encouraged his boastful temper, which forgot how unsubstantial his +grounds for confidence were. One declared that the Greeks would not +endure to hear the news of the declaration of war, and would take to +flight at the first rumour of his approach; another, that with such a +vast army Greece could not only be conquered, but utterly overwhelmed, +and that it was rather to be feared that they would find the Greek +cities empty and abandoned, and that the panic flight of the enemy +would leave them only vast deserts, where no use could be made of their +enormous forces. Another told him that the world was hardly large enough +to contain him, that the seas were too narrow for his fleets, the camps +would not take in his armies, the plains were not wide enough to deploy +his cavalry in, and that the sky itself was scarcely large enough to +enable all his troops to hurl their darts at once. While much boasting +of this sort was going on around him, raising his already overweening +self-confidence to a frantic pitch, Demaratus, the Lacedaemonian, +alone told him that the disorganized and unwieldy multitude in which he +trusted, was in itself a danger to its chief, because it possessed +only weight without strength; for an army which is too large cannot +be governed, and one which cannot be governed, cannot long exist. "The +Lacedaemonians," said he, "will meet you upon the first mountain in +Greece, and will give you a taste of their quality. All these thousands +of nations of yours will be held in check by three hundred men: they +will stand firm at their posts, they will defend the passes entrusted to +them with their weapons, and block them up with their bodies: all Asia +will not force them to give way; few as they are, they will stop all +this terrible invasion, attempted though it be by nearly the whole human +race. Though the laws of nature may give way to you, and enable you to +pass from Europe to Asia, yet you will stop short in a bypath; consider +what your losses will be afterwards, when you have reckoned up the price +which you have to pay for the pass of Thermopylae; when you learn that +your march can be stayed, you will discover that you may be put to +flight. The Greeks will yield up many parts of their country to you, as +if they were swept out of them by the first terrible rush of a mountain +torrent; afterwards they will rise against you from all quarters and +will crush you by means of your own strength. What people say, that +your warlike preparations are too great to be contained in the +countries which you intend to attack, is quite true; but this is to our +disadvantage. Greece will conquer you for this very reason, that she +cannot contain you; you cannot make use of the whole of your force. +Besides this, you will not be able to do what is essential to +victory--that is, to meet the manoeuvres of the enemy at once, to +support your own men if they give way, or to confirm and strengthen +them when their ranks are wavering; long before you know it, you will +be defeated. Moreover, you should not think that because your army is +so large that its own chief does not know its numbers, it is therefore +irresistible; there is nothing so great that it cannot perish; nay, +without any other cause, its own excessive size may prove its ruin." +What Demaratus predicted came to pass. He whose power gods and men +obeyed, and who swept away all that opposed him, was bidden to halt by +three hundred men, and the Persians, defeated in every part of Greece, +learned how great a difference there is between a mob and an army. Thus +it came to pass that Xerxes, who suffered more from the shame of his +failure than from the losses which he sustained, thanked Demaratus for +having been the only man who told him the truth, and permitted him to +ask what boon he pleased. He asked to be allowed to drive a chariot into +Sardis, the largest city in Asia, wearing a tiara erect upon his head, +a privilege which was enjoyed by kings alone. He deserved his reward +before he asked for it, but how wretched must the nation have been, in +which there was no one who would speak the truth to the king except one +man who did not speak it to himself. + +XXXII. The late Emperor Augustus banished his daughter, whose conduct +went beyond the shame of ordinary immodesty, and made public the +scandals of the imperial house. + +Led away by his passion, he divulged all these crimes which, as emperor, +he ought to have kept secret with as much care as he punished them, +because the shame of some deeds asperses even him who avenges them. +Afterwards, when by lapse of time shame took the place of anger in his +mind, he lamented that he had not kept silence about matters which he +had not learned until it was disgraceful to speak of them, and often +used to exclaim, "None of these things would have happened to me, if +either Agrippa or Maecenas had lived!" So hard was it for the master +of so many thousands of men to repair the loss of two. When his legions +were slaughtered, new ones were at once enrolled; when his fleet was +wrecked, within a few days another was afloat; when the public buildings +were consumed by fire, finer ones arose in their stead; but the places +of Agrippa and Maecenas remained unfilled throughout his life. What am I +to imagine? that there were not any men like these, who could take +their place, or that it was the fault of Augustus himself, who preferred +mourning for them to seeking for their likes? We have no reason for +supposing that it was the habit of Agrippa or Maecenas to speak the +truth to him; indeed, if they had lived they would have been as great +dissemblers as the rest. It is one of the habits of kings to insult +their present servants by praising those whom they have lost, and to +attribute the virtue of truthful speaking to those from whom there is no +further risk of hearing it. + +XXXIII. However, to return to my subject, you see how easy it is to +return the kindness of the prosperous, and even of those who occupy the +highest places of all mankind. Tell them, not what they wish to hear, +but what they will wish that they always had heard; though their ears be +stopped by flatteries, yet sometimes truth may penetrate them; give them +useful advice. Do you ask what service you can render to a prosperous +man? Teach him not to rely upon his prosperity, and to understand that +it ought to be supported by the hands of many trusty friends. Will you +not have done much for him, if you take away his foolish belief that +his influence will endure for ever, and teach him that what we gain by +chance passes away soon, and at a quicker rate than it came; that we +cannot fall by the same stages by which we rose to the height of good +fortune, but that frequently between it and ruin there is but one step? +You do not know how great is the value of friendship, if you do not +understand how much you give to him to whom you give a friend, a +commodity which is scarce not only in men's houses, but in whole +centuries, and which is nowhere scarcer than in the places where it is +thought to be most plentiful. Pray, do you suppose that those books of +names, which your nomenclator [Footnote: The nomenclator was a slave +who attended his master in canvassing and on similar occasions, for +the purpose of telling him the names of whom he met in the street.] can +hardly carry or remember, are those of friends? It is not your friends +who crowd to knock at your door, and who are admitted to your greater or +lesser levees. + +XXXIV. To divide one's friends into classes is an old trick of kings and +their imitators; it shows great arrogance to think that to touch or +to pass one's threshold can be a valuable privilege, or to grant as an +honour that you should sit nearer one's front door than others, or enter +house before them, although within the house there are many more doors, +which shut out even those who have been admitted so far. With us Gaius +Gracchus, and shortly after him Livius Drusus, were the first to keep +themselves apart from the mass of their adherents, and to admit some to +their privacy, some to their more select, and others to their general +receptions. These men consequently had friends of the first and second +rank, and so on, but in none had they true friends. Can you apply the +name of friend to one who is admitted in his regular order to pay his +respects to you? or can you expect perfect loyalty from one who is +forced to slip into your presence through a grudgingly-opened door? How +can a man arrive at using bold freedom of speech with you, if he is only +allowed in his proper turn to make use of the common phrase, "Hail to +you," which is used by perfect strangers? Whenever you go to any of +these great men, whose levees interest the whole city, though you find +all the streets beset with throngs of people, and the passers-by hardly +able to make their way through the crowd, you may be sure that you +have come to a place where there are many men, but no friends of their +patron. We must not seek our friends in our entrance hall, but in our +own breast; it is there that he ought to be received, there retained, +and hoarded up in our minds. Teach this, and you will have repaid your +debt of gratitude. + +XXXV. If you are useful to your friend only when he is in distress, and +are superfluous when all goes well with him, you form a mean estimate +of your own value. As you can bear yourself wisely both in doubtful, +in prosperous, and in adverse circumstances, by showing prudence in +doubtful cases, courage in misfortune, and self-restraint in good +fortune, so in all circumstances you can make yourself useful to your +friend. Do not desert him in adversity, but do not wish that it may +befall him: the various incidents of human life will afford you many +opportunities of proving your loyalty to him without wishing him evil. +He who prays that another may become rich, in order that he may share +his riches, really has a view to his own advantage, although his prayers +are ostensibly offered in behalf of his friend; and similarly he who +wishes that his friend may get into some trouble from which his own +friendly assistance may extricate him--a most ungrateful wish--prefers +himself to his friend, and thinks it worthwhile that his friend should +be unhappy, in order that he may prove his gratitude. This very wish +makes him ungrateful, for he wishes to rid himself of his gratitude as +though it were a heavy burden. In returning a kindness it makes a great +difference whether you are eager to bestow a benefit, or merely to free +yourself from a debt. He who wishes to return a benefit will study his +friend's interests, and will hope that a suitable occasion will arise; +he who only wishes to free himself from an obligation will be eager to +do so by any means whatever, which shows very bad feeling. "Do you say," +we may be asked, "that eagerness to repay kindness belongs to a morbid +feeling of gratitude?" I cannot explain my meaning more clearly than +by repeating what I have already said. You do not want to repay, but to +escape from the benefit which you have received. You seem to say, "When +shall I get free from this obligation? I must strive by any means in my +power to extinguish my debt to him." You would be thought to be far from +grateful, if you wished to pay a debt to him with his own money; yet +this wish of yours is even more unjust; for you invoke curses upon him, +and call down terrible imprecations upon the head of one who ought to +be held sacred by you. No one, I suppose, would have any doubt of your +wickedness if you were openly to pray that he might suffer poverty, +captivity, hunger, or fear; yet what is the difference between openly +praying for some of these things, and silently wishing for them? for +you do wish for some of these. Go, and enjoy your belief that this is +gratitude, to do what not even an ungrateful man would do, supposing he +confined himself to repudiating the benefit, and did not go so far as to +hate his benefactor. + +XXXVI. Who would call Aeneas pious, if he wished that his native +city might be captured, in order that he might save his father from +captivity? Who would point to the Sicilian youths as good examples for +his children, if they had prayed that Aetna might flame with unusual +heat and pour forth a vast mass of fire in order to afford them an +opportunity of displaying their filial affection by rescuing their +parents from the midst of the conflagration? Rome owes Scipio nothing +if he kept the Punic War alive in order that he might have the glory of +finishing it; she owes nothing to the Decii if they prayed for public +disasters, to give themselves an opportunity of displaying their brave +self-devotion. It is the greatest scandal for a physician to make work +for himself; and many who have aggravated the diseases of their patients +that they may have the greater credit for curing them, have either +failed to cure them, at all or have done so at the cost of the most +terrible suffering to their victims. + +XXXVII. It is said (at any rate Hecaton tells us) that when Callistratus +with many others was driven into exile by his factious and licentiously +free country, some one prayed that such trouble might befall the +Athenians that they would be forced to recall the exiles, on hearing +which, he prayed that God might forbid his return upon such terms. When +some one tried to console our own countryman, Rutilius, for his exile, +pointing out that civil war was at hand, and that all exiles would soon +be restored to Rome, he answered with even greater spirit, "What harm +have I done you, that you should wish that I may return to my country +more unhappily than I quit it? My wish is, that my country should blush +at my being banished, rather than that she should mourn at my having +returned." An exile, of which every one is more ashamed than the +sufferer, is not exile at all. These two persons, who did not wish to be +restored to their homes at the cost of a public disaster, but preferred +that two should suffer unjustly than that all should suffer alike, are +thought to have acted like good citizens; and in like manner it does not +accord with the character of a grateful man, to wish that his benefactor +may fall into troubles which he may dispel; because, even though he may +mean well to him, yet he wishes him evil. To put out a fire which you +yourself have lighted, will not even gain acquittal for you, let alone +credit. + +XXXVIII. In some states an evil wish was regarded as a crime. It is +certain that at Athens Demades obtained a verdict against one who sold +furniture for funerals, by proving that he had prayed for great gains, +which he could not obtain without the death of many persons. Yet it is +a stock question whether he was rightly found guilty. Perhaps he prayed, +not that he might sell his wares to many persons, but that he might sell +them dear, or that he might procure what he was going to sell, cheaply. +Since his business consisted of buying and selling, why should you +consider his prayer to apply to one branch of it only, although he made +profit from both? Besides this, you might find every one of his trade +guilty, for they all wish, that is, secretly pray, as he did. You might, +moreover, find a great part of the human race guilty, for who is there +who does not profit by his neighbour's wants? A soldier, if he wishes +for glory, must wish for war; the farmer profits by corn being dear; +a large number of litigants raises the price of forensic eloquence; +physicians make money by a sickly season; dealers in luxuries are +made rich by the effeminacy of youth; suppose that no storms and no +conflagrations injured our dwellings, the builder's trade would be at a +standstill. The prayer of one man was detected, but it was just like the +prayers of all other men. Do you imagine that Arruntius and Haterius, +and all other professional legacy-hunters do not put up the same prayers +as undertakers and grave-diggers? though the latter know not whose death +it is that they wish for, while the former wish for the death of their +dearest friends, from whom, on account of their intimacy, they have most +hopes of inheriting a fortune. No one's life does the undertaker any +harm, whereas these men starve if their friends are long about dying; +they do not, therefore, merely wish for their deaths in order that they +may receive what they have earned by a disgraceful servitude, but in +order that they may be set free from a heavy tax. There can, therefore, +be no doubt that such persons repeat with even greater earnestness the +prayer for which the undertaker was condemned, for whoever is likely to +profit such men by dying, does them an injury by living. Yet the wishes +of all these are alike well known and unpunished. Lastly, let every man +examine his own self, let him look into the secret thoughts of his heart +and consider what it is that he silently hopes for; how many of his +prayers he would blush to acknowledge, even to himself; how few there +are which we could repeat in the presence of witnesses! + +XXXIX. Yet we must not condemn every thing which we find worthy of +blame, as, for instance, this wish about our friends which we have been +discussing, arises from a misdirected feeling of affection, and falls +into the very error which it strives to avoid, for the man is ungrateful +at the very time when he hurries to prove his gratitude. He prays aloud, +"May he fall into my power, may he need my influence, may not be able +to be safe and respectable without my aid, may he be so unfortunate that +whatever return I make to him may be regarded as a benefit." To the +gods alone he adds, "May domestic treasons encompass him, which can be +quelled by me alone; may some powerful and virulent enemy, some excited +and armed mob, assail him; may he be set upon by a creditor or an +informer." + +XL. See, how just you are; you would never have wished any of these +misfortunes to befall him, if he had not bestowed a benefit upon you. +Not to speak of the graver guilt which you incur by returning evil for +good, you distinctly do wrong in not waiting for the fitting time for +each action, for it is as wrong to anticipate this as it is not to take +it when it comes. A benefit ought not always to be accepted, and ought +not in all cases to be returned. If you were to return it to me against +my will, you would be ungrateful, how much more ungrateful are you, if +you force me to wish for it? Wait patiently; why are you unwilling to +let my bounty abide with you? Why do you chafe at being laid under an +obligation? why, as though you were dealing with a harsh usurer, are you +in such a hurry to sign and seal an equivalent bond? Why do you wish me +to get into trouble? Why do you call upon the gods to ruin me? If this +is your way of returning a kindness, what would you do if you were +exacting repayment of a debt? + +XLI. Above all, therefore, my Liberalis, let us learn to live calmly +under an obligation to others, and watch for opportunities of repaying +our debt without manufacturing them. Let us remember that this +anxiety to seize the first opportunity of setting ourselves free shows +ingratitude; for no one repays with good will that which he is unwilling +to owe, and his eagerness to get it out of his hands shows that he +regards it as a burden rather than as a favour. How much better and more +righteous is it to bear in mind what we owe to our friends, and to offer +repayment, not to obtrude it, nor to think ourselves too much indebted; +because a benefit is a common bond which connects two persons. Say "I do +not delay to repay your kindness to me; I hope that you will accept my +gratitude cheerfully. If irresistible fate hangs over either of us, and +destiny rules either that you must receive your benefit back again, or +that I must receive a second benefit, why then, of us two, let him give +that was wont to give. I am ready to receive it. + + "'Tis not the part of Turnus to delay." + +That is the spirit which I shall show whenever the time comes; in the +meanwhile the gods shall be my witnesses. + +XLII. I have noted in you, my Liberalis, and as it were touched with my +hand a feeling of fussy anxiety not to be behindhand in doing what is +your duty. This anxiety is not suitable to a grateful mind, which, +on the contrary, produces the utmost confidence in oneself, and which +drives away all trouble by the consciousness of real affection towards +one's benefactor. To say "Take back what you gave me," is no less +a reproach than to say "You are in my debt." Let this be the first +privilege of a benefit, that he who bestowed it may choose the time when +he will have it returned. "But I fear that men may speak ill of me." You +do wrong if you are grateful only for the sake of your reputation, and +not to satisfy your conscience. You have in this matter two judges, your +benefactor, whom you ought not, and yourself, whom you cannot deceive. +"But," say you, "if no occasion of repayment offers, am I always to +remain in his debt?" Yes; but you should do so openly, and willingly, +and should view with great pleasure what he has entrusted to you. If you +are vexed at not having yet returned a benefit, you must be sorry that +you ever received it; but if he deserved that you should receive a +benefit from him, why should he not deserve that you should long remain +in his debt? + +XLIII. Those persons are much mistaken who regard it as a proof of a +great mind to make offers to give, and to fill many men's pockets and +houses with their presents, for sometimes these are due not to a great +mind, but to a great fortune; they do not know how far more great and +more difficult it sometimes is to receive than to lavish gifts. I must +disparage neither act; it is as proper to a noble heart to owe as to +receive, for both are of equal value when done virtuously; indeed, to +owe is the more difficult, because it requires more pains to keep a +thing safe than to give it away. We ought not therefore to be in a hurry +to repay, nor need we seek to do so out of due season, for to hasten to +make repayment at the wrong time is as bad as to be slow to do so at the +right time. My benefactor has entrusted his bounty to me: I ought not +to have any fears either on his behalf or on my own. He has a sufficient +security; he cannot lose it except he loses me--nay, not even if he +loses me. I have returned thanks to him for it--that is, I have requited +him. He who thinks too much about repaying a benefit must suppose that +his friend thinks too much about receiving repayment. Make no difficulty +about either course. If he wishes to receive his benefit back again, +let us return it cheerfully; if he prefers to leave it in our hands, +why should we dig up his treasure? why should we decline to be its +guardians? he deserves to be allowed to do whichever he pleases. As +for fame and reputation, let us regard them as matters which ought to +accompany, but which ought not to direct our actions. + + + + +BOOK VII. + +I. + + + Be of good cheer, my Liberalis: + + "Our port is close, and I will not delay, + Nor by digressions wander from the way." + +This book collects together all that has been omitted, and in it, having +exhausted my subject, I shall consider not what I am to say, but what +there is which I have not yet said. If there be anything superfluous +in it, I pray you take it in good part, since it is for you that it is +superfluous. Had I wished to set off my work to the best advantage, I +ought to have added to it by degrees, and to have kept for the last that +part which would be eagerly perused even by a sated reader. However, +instead of this, I have collected together all that was essential in the +beginning; I am now collecting together whatever then escaped me; nor, +by Hercules, if you ask me, do I think that, after the rules which +govern our conduct have been stated, it is very much to the purpose to +discuss the other questions which have been raised more for the exercise +of our intellects than for the health of our minds. The cynic Demetrius, +who in my opinion was a great man even if compared with the greatest +philosophers, had an admirable saying about this, that one gained more +by having a few wise precepts ready and in common use than by learning +many without having them at hand. "The best wrestler," he would say, "is +not he who has learned thoroughly all the tricks and twists of the art, +which are seldom met with in actual wrestling, but he who has well and +carefully trained himself in one or two of them, and watches keenly for +an opportunity of practising them. It does not matter how many of them +he knows, if he knows enough to give him the victory; and so in +this subject of ours there are many points of interest, but few of +importance. You need not know what is the system of the ocean tides, +why each seventh year leaves its mark upon the human body, why the more +distant parts of a long portico do not keep their true proportion, +but seem to approach one another until at last the spaces between the +columns disappear, how it can be that twins are conceived separately, +though they are born together, whether both result from one, or each +from a separate act, why those whose birth was the same should have such +different fates in life, and dwell at the greatest possible distance +from one another, although they were born touching one another; it will +not do you much harm to pass over matters which we are not permitted to +know, and which we should not profit by knowing. Truths so obscure may +be neglected with impunity. [Footnote: The old saying, 'Truth lurks deep +in a well (or abyss).'] Nor can we complain that nature deals hardly +with us, for there is nothing which is hard to discover except those +things by which we gain nothing beyond the credit of having discovered +them; whatever things tend to make us better or happier are either +obvious or easily discovered. Your mind can rise superior to the +accidents of life, if it can raise itself above fears and not greedily +covet boundless wealth, but has learned to seek for riches within +itself; if it has cast out the fear of men and gods, and has learned +that it has not much to fear from man, and nothing to fear from God; if +by scorning all those things which make life miserable while they adorn +it, the mind can soar to such a height as to see clearly that death +cannot be the beginning of any trouble, though it is the end of many; +if it can dedicate itself to righteousness and think any path easy which +leads to it; if, being a gregarious creature, and born for the common +good, it regards the world as the universal home, if it keeps its +conscience clear towards God and lives always as though in public, +fearing itself more than other men, then it avoids all storms, it stands +on firm ground in fair daylight, and has brought to perfection its +knowledge of all that is useful and essential. All that remains serves +merely to amuse our leisure; yet, when once anchored in safety, the mind +may consider these matters also, though it can derive no strength, but +only culture from their discussion." + +II. The above are the rules which my friend Demetrius bids him who would +make progress in philosophy to clutch with both hands, never to let +go, but to cling to them, and make them a part of himself, and by daily +meditation upon them to bring himself into such a state of mind, that +these wholesome maxims occur to him of their own accord, that wherever +he may be, they may straightway be ready for use when required, and +that the criterion of right and wrong may present itself to him without +delay. Let him know that nothing is evil except what is base, and +nothing good except what is honourable: let him guide his life by this +rule: let him both act and expect others to act in accordance with this +law, and let him regard those whose minds are steeped in indolence, and +who are given up to lust and gluttony, as the most pitiable of mankind, +no matter how splendid their fortunes may be. Let him say to himself, +"Pleasure is uncertain, short, apt to pall upon us, and the more eagerly +we indulge in it, the sooner we bring on a reaction of feeling against +it; we must necessarily afterwards blush for it, or be sorry for it, +there is nothing grand about it, nothing worthy of man's nature, little +lower as it is than that of the gods; pleasure is a low act, brought +about by the agency of our inferior and baser members, and shameful in +its result. True pleasure, worthy of a human being and of a man, is, +not to stuff or swell his body with food and drink, nor to excite lusts +which are least hurtful when they are most quiet, but to be free from +all forms of mental disturbance, both those which arise from men's +ambitious struggles with one another, and those which come from on high +and are more difficult to deal with, which flow from our taking the +traditional view of the gods, and estimating them by the analogy of our +own vices." This equable, secure, uncloying pleasure is enjoyed by the +man now described; a man skilled, so to say, in the laws of gods and men +alike. Such a man enjoys the present without anxiety for the future: for +he who depends upon what is uncertain can rely confidently upon nothing. +Thus he is free from all those great troubles which unhinge the mind, +he neither hopes for, nor covets anything, and engages in no uncertain +adventures, being satisfied with what he has. Do not suppose that he +is satisfied with a little; for everything is his, and that not in the +sense in which all was Alexander's, who, though he reached the shore of +the Red Sea, yet wanted more territory than that through which he +had come. He did not even own those countries which he held or had +conquered, while Onesicritus, whom he had sent on before him to discover +new countries, was wandering about the ocean and engaging in war in +unknown seas. Is it clear that he who pushed his armies beyond the +bounds of the universe, who with reckless greed dashed headlong into a +boundless and unexplored sea, must in reality have been full of wants? +It matters not how many kingdoms he may have seized or given away, or +how great a part of the world may pay him tribute; such a man must be in +need of as much as he desires. + +III. This was not the vice of Alexander alone, who followed with a +fortunate audacity in the footsteps of Bacchus and Hercules, but it is +common to all those whose covetousness is whetted rather than appeased +by good fortune. Look at Cyrus and Cambyses and all the royal house of +Persia: can you find one among them who thought his empire large enough, +or was not at the last gasp still aspiring after further conquests? We +need not wonder at this, for whatever is obtained by covetousness is +simply swallowed up and lost, nor does it matter how much is poured +into its insatiable maw. Only the wise man possesses everything +without having to struggle to retain it; he alone does not need to send +ambassadors across the seas, measure out camps upon hostile shores, +place garrisons in commanding forts, or manoeuvre legions and squadrons +of cavalry. Like the immortal gods, who govern their realm without +recourse to arms, and from their serene and lofty heights protect their +own, so the wise man fulfils his duties, however far-reaching they may +be, without disorder, and looks down upon the whole human race, because +he himself is the greatest and most powerful member thereof. You may +laugh at him, but if you in your mind survey the east and the west, +reaching even to the regions separated from us by vast wildernesses, if +you think of all the creatures of the earth, all the riches which the +bounty of nature lavishes, it shows a great spirit to be able to say, as +though you were a god, "All these are mine." Thus it is that he covets +nothing, for there is nothing which is not contained in everything, and +everything is his. + +IV. "This," say you, "is the very thing that I wanted! I have caught +you! I shall be glad to see how you will extricate yourself from the +toils into which you have fallen of your own accord. Tell me, if the +wise man possesses everything, how can one give anything to a wise man? +for even what you give him is his already. It is impossible, therefore, +to bestow a benefit upon a wise man, if whatever is given him comes from +his own store; yet you Stoics declare that it is possible to give to +a wise man. I make the same inquiry about friends as well: for you +say that friends own everything in common, and if so, no one can give +anything to his friend, for he gives what his friend owned already in +common with himself." + +There is nothing to prevent a thing belonging to a wise man, and yet +being the property of its legal owner. According to law everything in a +state belongs to the king, yet all that property over which the king has +rights of possession is parcelled out among individual owners, and +each separate thing belongs to somebody: and so one can give the king +a house, a slave, or a sum of money without being said to give him what +was his already; for the king has rights over all these things, while +each citizen has the ownership of them. We speak of the country of the +Athenians, or of the Campanians, though the inhabitants divide them +amongst themselves into separate estates; the whole region belongs to +one state or another, but each part of it belongs to its own individual +proprietor; so that we are able to give our lands to the state, although +they are reckoned as belonging to the state, because we and the state +own them in different ways. Can there be any doubt that all the private +savings of a slave belong to his master as well as he himself? yet he +makes his master presents. The slave does not therefore possess nothing, +because if his master chose he might possess nothing; nor does what he +gives of his own free will cease to be a present, because it might have +been wrung from him against his will. As for how we are to prove that +the wise man possesses all things, we shall see afterwards; for the +present we are both agreed to regard this as true; we must gather +together something to answer the question before us, which is, how any +means remain of acting generously towards one who already possesses all +things? All things that a son has belong to his father, yet who does not +know that in spite of this a son can make presents to his father? All +things belong to the gods; yet we make presents and bestow alms even +upon the gods. What I have is not necessarily not mine because it +belongs to you; for the same thing may belong both to me and to you. + +"He to whom courtezans belong," argues our adversary, "must be +a procurer: now courtezans are included in all things, therefore +courtezans belong to the wise man. But he to whom courtezans belong is +a procurer; therefore the wise man is a procurer." Yes! by the same +reasoning, our opponents would forbid him to buy anything, arguing, "No +man buys his own property. Now all things are the property of the wise +man; therefore the wise man buys nothing." By the same reasoning they +object to his borrowing, because no one pays interest for the use of +his own money. They raise endless quibbles, although they perfectly well +understand what we say. + +V. For, when I say that the wise man possesses everything, I mean that +he does so without thereby impairing each man's individual rights in +his own property, in the same way as in a country ruled by a good king, +everything belongs to the king, by the right of his authority, and to +the people by their several rights of ownership. This I shall prove +in its proper place; in the mean time it is a sufficient answer to the +question to declare that I am able to give to the wise man that which is +in one way mine, and in another way his. Nor is it strange that I should +be able to give anything to one who possesses everything. Suppose I have +hired a house from you: some part of that house is mine, some is yours; +the house itself is yours, the use of your house belongs to me. Crops +may ripen upon your land, but you cannot touch them against the will of +your tenant; and if corn be dear, or at famine price, you will + + "In vain another's mighty store behold," + +grown upon your land, lying upon your land, and to be deposited in +your own barns. Though you be the landlord, you must not enter my hired +house, nor may you take away your own slave from me if I have contracted +for his services; nay, if I hire a carriage from you, I bestow a benefit +by allowing you to take your seat in it, although it is your own. You +see, therefore, that it is possible for a man to receive a present by +accepting what is his own. + +VI. In all the cases which I have mentioned, each party is the owner of +the same thing. How is this? It is because the one owns the thing, the +other owns the use of the thing. We speak of the books of Cicero. Dorus, +the bookseller, calls these same books his own; the one claims them +because he wrote them, the other because he bought them; so that they +may quite correctly be spoken of as belonging to either of the two, for +they do belong to each, though in a different manner. Thus Titus Livius +may receive as a present, or may buy his own books from Dorus. +Although the wise man possesses everything, yet I can give him what I +individually possess; for though, king-like, he in his mind possesses +everything, yet the ownership of all things is divided among various +individuals, so that he can both receive a present and owe one; can +buy, or hire things. Everything belongs to Caesar; yet he has no private +property beyond his own privy purse; as Emperor all things are his, +but nothing is his own except what he inherits. It is possible, without +treason, to discuss what is and what is not his; for even what the court +may decide not to be his, from another point of view is his. In the same +way the wise man in his mind possesses everything, in actual right and +ownership he possesses only his own property. + +VII. Bion is able to prove by argument at one time that everyone is +sacrilegious, at another that no one is. When he is in a mood for +casting all men down the Tarpeian rock, he says, "Whosoever touches that +which belongs to the gods, and consumes it or converts it to his own +uses, is sacrilegious; but all things belong to the gods, so that +whatever thing any one touches belongs to them to whom all belongs; +whoever, therefore, touches anything is sacrilegious." Again, when he +bids men break open temples and pillage the Capitol without fear of the +wrath of heaven, he declares that no one can be sacrilegious; because, +whatever a man takes away, he takes from one place which belongs to the +gods into another place which belongs to the gods. The answer to this +is that all places do indeed belong to the gods, but all are not +consecrated to them, and that sacrilege can only be done in places +solemnly dedicated to heaven. Thus, also, the whole world is a temple of +the immortal gods, and, indeed, the only one worthy of their greatness +and splendour, and yet there is a distinction between things sacred and +profane; all things which it is lawful to do under the sky and the stars +are not lawful to do within consecrated walls. The sacrilegious man +cannot do God any harm, for He is placed beyond his reach by His divine +nature; yet he is punished because he seems to have done Him harm: his +punishment is demanded by our feeling on the matter, and even by his +own. In the same way, therefore, as he who carries off any sacred +things is regarded as sacrilegious, although that which he stole is +nevertheless within the limits of the world, so it is possible to steal +from a wise man: for in that case it will be some, not of that universe +which he possesses, but some of those things of which he is the +acknowledged owner, and which are severally his own property, which will +be stolen from him. The former of these possessions he will recognize as +his own, the latter he will be unwilling, even if he be able to possess; +he will say, as that Roman commander said, when, to reward his courage +and good service to the state, he was assigned as much land as he could +inclose in one day's ploughing. "You do not," said he, "want a citizen +who wants more than is enough for one citizen." Do you not think that it +required a much greater man to refuse this reward than to earn it? for +many have taken away the landmarks of other men's property, but no one +sets up limits to his own. + +VIII. When, then, we consider that the mind of the truly wise man has +power over all things and pervades all things, we cannot help declaring +that everything is his, although, in the estimation of our common law, +it may chance that he may be rated as possessing no property whatever. +It makes a great difference whether we estimate what he owns by the +greatness of his mind, or by the public register. He would pray to be +delivered from that possession of everything of which you speak. I will +not remind you of Socrates, Chrysippus, Zeno, and other great men, all +the greater, however, because envy prevents no one from praising the +ancients. But a short time ago I mentioned Demetrius, who seems to have +been placed by nature in our times that he might prove that we could +neither corrupt him nor be corrected by him; a man of consummate wisdom, +though he himself disclaimed it, constant to the principles which he +professed, of an eloquence worthy to deal with the mightiest subjects, +scorning mere prettinesses and verbal niceties, but expressing with +infinite spirit, the ideas which inspired it. I doubt not that he was +endowed by divine providence with so pure a life and such power of +speech in order that our age might neither be without a model nor a +reproach. Had some god wished to give all our wealth to Demetrius on the +fixed condition that he should not be permitted to give it away, I am +sure that he would have refused to accept it, and would have said, + +IX. "I do not intend to fasten upon my back a burden like this, of which +I never can rid myself, nor do I, nimble and lightly equipped as I am, +mean to hinder my progress by plunging into the deep morass of business +transactions. Why do you offer to me what is the bane of all nations? +I would not accept it even if I meant to give it away, for I see many +things which it would not become me to give. I should like to place +before my eyes the things which fascinate both kings and peoples, I wish +to behold the price of your blood and your lives. First bring before +me the trophies of Luxury, exhibiting them as you please, either in +succession, or, which is better, in one mass. I see the shell of +the tortoise, a foul and slothful brute, bought for immense sums and +ornamented with the most elaborate care, the contrast of colours which +is admired in it being obtained by the use of dyes resembling the +natural tints. I see tables and pieces of wood valued at the price of +a senator's estate, which are all the more precious, the more knots +the tree has been twisted into by disease. I see crystal vessels, whose +price is enhanced by their fragility, for among the ignorant the risk of +losing things increases their value instead of lowering it, as it ought. +I see murrhine cups, for luxury would be too cheap if men did not drink +to one another out of hollow gems the wine to be afterwards thrown up +again. I see more than one large pearl placed in each ear; for now our +ears are trained to carry burdens, pearls are hung from them in pairs, +and each pair has other single ones fastened above it. This womanish +folly is not exaggerated enough for the men of our time, unless they +hang two or three estates upon each ear. I see ladies' silk dresses, if +those deserve to be called dresses which can neither cover their body +or their shame; when wearing which, they can scarcely with a good +conscience, swear that they are not naked. These are imported at a vast +expense from nations unknown even to trade, in order that our matrons +may show as much of their persons in public as they do to their lovers +in private." + +X. What are you doing, Avarice? see how many things there are whose +price exceeds that of your beloved gold: all those which I have +mentioned are more highly esteemed and valued. I now wish to review your +wealth, those plates of gold and silver which dazzle our covetousness. +By Hercules, the very earth, while she brings forth upon the surface +every thing that is of use to us, has buried these, sunk them deep, +and rests upon them with her whole weight, regarding them as pernicious +substances, and likely to prove the ruin of mankind if brought into the +light of day. I see that iron is brought out of the same dark pits as +gold and silver, in order that we may lack neither the means nor the +reward of murder. Thus far we have dealt with actual substances; but +some forms of wealth deceive our eyes and minds alike. I see there +letters of credit, promissory notes, and bonds, empty phantoms of +property, ghosts of sick Avarice, with which she deceives our minds, +which delight in unreal fancies; for what are these things, and what are +interest, and account books, and usury, except the names of unnatural +developments of human covetousness? I might complain of nature for not +having hidden gold and silver deeper, for not having laid over it a +weight too heavy to be removed: but what are your documents, your sale +of time, your blood-sucking twelve per cent. interest? these are evils +which we owe to our own will, which flow merely from our perverted +habit, having nothing about them which can be seen or handled, mere +dreams of empty avarice. Wretched is he who can take pleasure in the +size of the audit book of his estate, in great tracts of land cultivated +by slaves in chains, in huge flocks and herds which require provinces +and kingdoms for their pasture ground, in a household of servants, more +in number than some of the most warlike nations, or in a private house +whose extent surpasses that of a large city! After he has carefully +reviewed all his wealth, in what it is invested, and on what it is +spent, and has rendered himself proud by the thoughts of it, let him +compare what he has with what he wants: he becomes a poor man at once. +"Let me go: restore me to those riches of mine. I know the kingdom of +wisdom, which is great and stable: I possess every thing, and in such a +manner that it belongs to all men nevertheless." + +XI. When, therefore, Gaius Caesar offered him two hundred thousand +sesterces, he laughingly refused it, thinking it unworthy of himself to +boast of having refused so small a sum. Ye gods and goddesses, what a +mean mind must the emperor have had, if he hoped either to honour or to +corrupt him. I must here repeat a proof of his magnanimity. I have +heard that when he was expressing his wonder at the folly of Gaius at +supposing that he could be influenced by such a bribe, he said, "If +he meant to tempt me, he ought to have tried to do so by offering his +entire kingdom." + +XII. It is possible, then, to give something to the wise man, although +all things belong to the wise man. Similarly, though we declare that +friends have all things in common, it is nevertheless possible to give +something to a friend: for I have not everything in common with a friend +in the same manner as with a partner, where one part belongs to him, +and another to me, but rather as a father and a mother possess their +children in common when they have two, not each parent possessing one +child, but each possessing both. First of all I will prove that any +chance would-be partner of mine has nothing in common with me: and why? +Because this community of goods can only exist between wise men, who +are alone capable of friendship: other men can neither be friends nor +partners one to another. In the next place, things may be owned in +common in various ways. The knights' seats in the theatre belong to all +the Roman knights; yet of these the seat which I occupy becomes my own, +and if I yield it up to any one, although I only yield him a thing +which we own in common, still I appear to have given him something. Some +things belong to certain persons under particular conditions. I have +a place among the knights, not to sell, or to let, or to dwell in, but +simply to see the spectacle from, wherefore I do not tell an untruth +when I say that I have a place among the knights' seats. Yet if, when I +come into the theatre, the knights' seats are full, I both have a seat +there by right, because I have the privilege of sitting there, and I +have not a seat there, because my seat is occupied by those who share my +right to those places. Suppose that the same thing takes place between +friends; whatever our friend possesses, is common to us, but is the +property of him who owns it; I cannot make use of it against his will. +"You are laughing at me," say you; "if what belongs to my friend is +mine, I am able to sell it." You are not able; for you are not able to +sell your place among the knights' seats, and yet they are in common +between you and the other knights. Consequently, the fact that you +cannot sell a thing, or consume it, or exchange it for the better or the +worse does not prove that it is not yours; for that which is yours under +certain conditions is yours nevertheless. + +XIII. I have received, but certainly not less. Not to detain you longer +than is necessary, a benefit can be no more than a benefit; but the +means employed to convey benefits may be both greater and more numerous. +I mean those things by which kindness expresses and gives vent to +itself, like lovers, whose many kisses and close embraces do not +increase their love but give it play. + +XIV. The next question which arises has been thoroughly threshed out in +the former books, so here it shall only be touched on shortly; for the +arguments which have been used for other cases can be transferred to it. + +The question is, whether one who has done everything in his power to +return a benefit, has returned it. "You may know," says our adversary, +"that he has not returned it, because he did everything in his power to +return it; it is evident, therefore, that he did not not do that which +he did not have an opportunity of doing. A man who searches everywhere +for his creditor without finding him does not thereby pay him what +he owes." Some are in such a position that it is their duty to effect +something material; in the case of others to have done all in their +power to effect it is as good as effecting it. If a physician has done +all in his power to heal his patient he has performed his duty; an +advocate who employs his whole powers of eloquence on his client's +behalf, performs his duty even though his client be convicted; the +generalship even of a beaten commander is praised if he has prudently, +laboriously, and courageously exercised his functions. Your friend has +done all in his power to return your kindness, but your good fortune +stood in his way; no adversity befell you in which he could prove the +truth of his friendship; he could not give you money when you were +rich, or nurse you when you were in health, or help you when you were +succeeding; yet he repaid your kindness, even though you did not receive +a benefit from him. Moreover, this man, being always eager, and on the +watch for an opportunity of doing this, as he has expended much anxiety +and much trouble upon it, has really done more than he who quickly had +an opportunity of repaying your kindness. The case of a debtor is not +the same, for it is not enough for him to have tried to find the money +unless he pays it; in his case a harsh creditor stands over him who will +not let a single day pass without charging him interest; in yours there +is a most kind friend, who seeing you busy, troubled, and anxious would +say. + + "'Dismiss this trouble from thy breast;' + +leave off disturbing yourself; I have received from you all that I wish; +you wrong me, if you suppose that I want anything further; you have +fully repaid me in intention." + +"Tell me," says our adversary, "if he had repaid the benefit you would +say that he had returned your kindness: is, then, he who repays it in +the same position as he who does not repay it?" + +On the other hand, consider this: if he had forgotten the benefit which +he had received, if he had not even attempted to be grateful, you would +say that he had not returned the kindness; but this man has laboured day +and night to the neglect of all his other duties in his devoted care to +let no opportunity of proving his gratitude escape him; is then he who +took no pains to return a kindness to be classed with this man who never +ceased to take pains? you are unjust, if you require a material payment +from me when you see that I am not wanting in intention. + +XV. In short, suppose that when you are taken captive, I have borrowed +money, made over my property as security to my creditor, that I have +sailed in a stormy winter season along coasts swarming with pirates, +that I have braved all the perils which necessarily attend a voyage even +on a peaceful sea, that I have wandered through all wildernesses seeking +for those men whom all others flee from, and that when I have at length +reached the pirates, someone else has already ransomed you: will you +say that I have not returned your kindness? Even if during this voyage I +have lost by shipwreck the money that I had raised to save you, even if +I myself have fallen into the prison from which I sought to release you, +will you say that I have not returned your kindness? No, by Hercules! +the Athenians call Harmodius and Aristogiton, tyrannicides; the hand of +Mucius which he left on the enemy's altar was equivalent to the death +of Porsena, and valour struggling against fortune is always illustrious, +even if it falls short of accomplishing its design. He who watches +each opportunity as it passes, and tries to avail himself of one +after another, does more to show his gratitude than he whom the first +opportunity enabled to be grateful without any trouble whatever. "But," +says our adversary, "he gave you two things, material help and kindly +feeling; you, therefore, owe him two." You might justly say this to one +who returns your kindly feeling without troubling himself further; this +man is really in your debt; but you cannot say so of one who wishes to +repay you, who struggles and leaves no stone unturned to do so; for, +as far as in him lies, he repays you in both kinds; in the next place, +counting is not always a true test, sometimes one thing is equivalent to +two; consequently so intense and ardent a wish to repay takes the place +of a material repayment. Indeed, if a feeling of gratitude has no value +in repaying a kindness without giving something material, then no one +can be grateful to the gods, whom we can repay by gratitude alone. "We +cannot," says our adversary, "give the gods anything else." Well, but +if I am not able to give this man, whose kindness I am bound to return, +anything beside my gratitude, why should that which is all that I can +bestow on a god be insufficient to prove my gratitude towards a man? + +XVI. If, however, you ask me what I really think, and wish me to give a +definite answer, I should say that the one party ought to consider his +benefit to have been returned, while the other ought to feel that he has +not returned it; the one should release his friend from the debt, the +other should hold himself bound to pay it; the one should say, "I have +received;" the other should answer, "I owe." In our whole investigation, +we ought to look entirely to the public good; we ought to prevent the +ungrateful having any excuses in which they can take refuge, and under +cover of which they can disown their debts. "I have done all in my +power," say you. Well, keep on doing so still. Do you suppose that our +ancestors were so foolish, as not to understand that it is most unjust +that the man who has wasted the money which he received from his +creditor on debauchery, or gambling, should be classed with one who has +lost his own property as well as that of others in a fire, by robbery, +or some sadder mischance? They would take no excuse, that men might +understand that they were always bound to keep their word; it was +thought better that even a good excuse should not be accepted from a few +persons, than that all men should be led to try to make excuses. You say +that you have done all in your power to repay your debt; this ought to +be enough for your friend, but not enough for you. He to whom you owe a +kindness, is unworthy of gratitude if he lets all your anxious care and +trouble to repay it go for nothing; and so, too, if your friend takes +your good will as a repayment, you are ungrateful if you are not all the +more eager to feel the obligation of the debt which he has forgiven you. +Do not snap up his receipt, or call witnesses to prove it; rather seek +opportunities for repaying not less than before; repay the one man +because he asks for repayment, the other because he forgives you your +debt; the one because he is good, the other because he is bad. You, need +not, therefore, think that you have anything to do with the question +whether a man be bound to repay the benefit which he has received from +a wise man, if that man has ceased to be wise and has turned into a bad +man. You would return a deposit which you had received from a wise man; +you would return a loan even to a bad man; what grounds have you for +not returning a benefit also? Because he has changed, ought he to change +you? What? if you had received anything from a man when healthy, would +you not return it to him when he was sick, though we always are more +bound to treat our friends with more kindness when they are ailing? So, +too, this man is sick in his mind; we ought to help him, and bear with +him; folly is a disease of the mind. + +XVII. I think here we ought to make a distinction, in order to render +this point more intelligible. Benefits are of two kinds: one, the +perfect and true benefit, which can only be bestowed by one wise man +upon another; the other, the common vulgar form which ignorant men like +ourselves interchange. With regard to the latter, there is no doubt that +it is my duty to repay it whether my friend turns out to be a murderer, +a thief, or an adulterer. Crimes have laws to punish them; criminals are +better reformed by judges than by ingratitude; a man ought not to make +you bad by being so himself. I will fling a benefit back to a bad man, I +will return it to a good man; I do so to the latter, because I owe it to +him; to the former, that I may not be in his debt. + +XVIII. With regard to the other class of benefit, the question arises +whether if I was not able to take it without being a wise man, I am able +to return it, except to a wise man. For suppose I do return it to him, +he cannot receive it, he is not any longer able to receive such a thing, +he has lost the knowledge of how to use it. You would not bid me throw +back [Footnote: i.e. in the game of ball.] a ball to a man who has lost +his hand; it is folly to give any one what he cannot receive. If I am +to begin to reply to the last argument, I say that I should not give him +what he is unable to take; but I would return it, even though he is not +able to receive it. I cannot lay him under an obligation unless he takes +my bounty; but by returning it I can free myself from my obligations to +him. You say, "he will not be able to use it." Let him see to that; the +fault will lie with him, not with me. + +XIX. "To return a thing," says our adversary, "is to hand it over to one +who can receive it. Why, if you owed some wine to any man, and he bade +you pour it into a net or a sieve, would you say that you had returned +it? or would you be willing to return it in such a way that in the act +of returning it was lost between you?" To return is to give that which +you owe back to its owner when he wishes for it. It is not my duty to +perform more than this; that he should possess what he has received +from me is a matter for further consideration; I do not owe him the +safe-keeping of his property, but the honourable payment of my debt, +and it is much better that he should not have it, than that I should +not return it to him. I would repay my creditor, even though he would +at once take what I paid him to the market; even if he deputed an +adulteress to receive the money from me, I would pay it to her; even +if he were to pour the coins which he receives into a loose fold of his +cloak, I would pay it. It is my business to return it to him, not to +keep it and save it for him after I have returned it; I am bound to take +care of his bounty when I have received it, but not when I have returned +it to him. While it remains with me, it must be kept safe; but when he +asks for it again I must give it to him, even though it slips out of his +hands as he takes it. I will repay a good man when it is convenient; I +will repay a bad man when he asks me to do so. + +"You cannot," argues our adversary, "return him a benefit of the same +kind as that which you received; for you received it from a wise man, +and you are returning it to a fool." Do I not return to him such a +benefit, as he is now able to receive? It is not my fault if I return it +to him worse than I received it, the fault lies with him, and so, unless +he regains his former wisdom, I shall return it in such a form as he +in his fallen condition is able to receive. "But what," asks he, "if +he become not only bad, but savage and ferocious, like Apollodorus or +Phalaris, would you return even to such a man as this a benefit which +you had received from him?" I answer, Nature does not admit of so great +a change in a wise man. Men do not change from the best to the worst; +even in becoming bad, he would necessarily retain some traces of +goodness; virtue is never so utterly quenched as not to imprint on the +mind marks which no degradation can efface. If wild animals bred in +captivity escape into the woods, they still retain something of their +original tameness, and are as remote from the gentlest in the one +extreme as they are in the other from those which have always been wild, +and have never endured to be touched by man's hand. No one who has ever +applied himself to philosophy ever becomes completely wicked; his mind +becomes so deeply coloured with it, that its tints can never be entirely +spoiled and blackened. In the next place, I ask whether this man of +yours be ferocious merely in intent, or whether he breaks out into +actual outrages upon mankind? You have instanced the tyrants Apollodorus +and Phalaris; if the bad man restrains their evil likeness within +himself, why should I not return his benefit to him, in order to set +myself free from any further dealings with him? If, however, he not +only delights in human blood, but feeds upon it; if he exercises his +insatiable cruelty in the torture of persons of all ages, and his fury +is not prompted by anger, but by a sort of delight in cruelty, if he +cuts the throats of children before the eyes of their parents; if, not +satisfied with merely killing his victims, he tortures them, and not +only burns but actually roasts them; if his castle is always wet with +freshly shed blood; then it is not enough not to return his benefits. +All connexion between me and such a man has been broken off by his +destruction of the bonds of human society. If he had bestowed something +upon me, but were to invade my native country, he would have lost all +claim to my gratitude, and it would be counted a crime to make him any +return; if he does not attack my country, but is the scourge of his own; +if he has nothing to do with my nation, but torments and cuts to pieces +his own, then in the same manner such depravity, though it does not +render him my personal enemy, yet renders him hateful to me, and the +duty which I owe to the human race is anterior to and more important +than that which I owe to him as an individual. + +XX. However, although this be so, and although I am freed from all +obligation towards him, from the moment when, by outraging all laws, he +rendered it impossible for any man to do him a wrong, nevertheless, I +think I ought to make the following distinction in dealing with him. +If my repayment of his benefit will neither increase nor maintain his +powers of doing mischief to mankind, and is of such a character that I +can return it to him without disadvantage to the public, I would return +it: for instance, I would save the life of his infant child; for what +harm can this benefit do to any of those who suffer from his cruelty? +But I would not furnish him with money to pay his bodyguard. If he +wishes for marbles, or fine clothes, the trappings of his luxury will +harm no one; but with soldiers and arms I would not furnish him. If he +demands, as a great boon, actors and courtesans and such things as will +soften his savage nature, I would willingly bestow them upon him. I +would not furnish him with triremes and brass-beaked ships of war, but I +would send him fast sailing and luxuriously-fitted vessels, and all +the toys of kings who take their pleasure on the sea. If his health was +altogether despaired of, I would by the same act bestow a benefit on all +men and return one to him; seeing that for such characters death is +the only remedy, and that he who never will return to himself, had best +leave himself. However, such wickedness as this is uncommon, and is +always regarded as a portent, as when the earth opens, or when fires +break forth from caves under the sea; so let us leave it, and speak of +those vices which we can hate without shuddering at them. As for the +ordinary bad man, whom I can find in the marketplace of any town, who is +feared only by individuals, I would return to him a benefit which I +had received from him. It is not right that I should profit by his +wickedness; let me return what is not mine to its owner. Whether he be +good or bad makes no difference; but I would consider the matter most +carefully, if I were not returning but bestowing it. + +XXI. This point requires to be illustrated by a story. A certain +Pythagoraean bought a fine pair of shoes from a shoemaker; and as they +were an expensive piece of work, he did not pay ready money for them. +Some time afterwards he came to the shop to pay for them, and after he +had long been knocking at the closed door, some one said to him, "Why do +you waste your time? The shoemaker whom you seek has been carried out +of his house and buried; this is a grief to us who lose our friends for +ever, but by no means so to you, who know that he will be born again," +jeering at the Pythagoraean. Upon this our philosopher not unwillingly +carried his three or four denarii home again, shaking them every now and +then; afterwards, blaming himself for the pleasure which he had secretly +felt at not paying his debt, and perceiving that he enjoyed having made +this trifling gain, he returned to the shop, and saying, "the man lives +for you, pay him what you owe," he passed four denarii into the +shop through the crack of the closed door, and let them fall inside, +punishing himself for his unconscionable greediness that he might not +form the habit of appropriating that which is not his own. + +XXII. If you owe anything, seek for some one to whom you may repay it, +and if no one demands it, dun your own self; whether the man be good +or bad is no concern of yours; repay him, and then blame him. You have +forgotten, how your several duties are divided: it is right for him to +forget it, but we have bidden you bear it in mind. When, however, we +say that he who bestows a benefit ought to forget it, it is a mistake to +suppose that we rob him of all recollection of the business, though it +is most creditable to him; some of our precepts are stated over strictly +in order to reduce them to their true proportions. When we say that he +ought not to remember it, we mean he ought not to speak publicly, or +boast of it offensively. There are some, who, when they have bestowed +a benefit, tell it in all societies, talk of it when sober, cannot be +silent about it when drunk, force it upon strangers, and communicate it +to friends; it is to quell this excessive and reproachful consciousness +that we bid him who gave it forget it, and by commanding him to do this, +which is more than he is able, encourage him to keep silence. + +XXIII. When you distrust those whom you order to do anything, you ought +to command them to do more than enough in order that they may do what +is enough. The purpose of all exaggeration is to arrive at the truth by +falsehood. Consequently, he who spoke of horses as being: + + "Whiter than snows and swifter than the winds," + +said what could not possibly be in order that they might be thought to +be as much so as possible. And he who said: + + "More firm than crags, more headlong than the stream," + +did not suppose that he should make any one believe that a man could +ever be as firm as a crag. Exaggeration never hopes all its daring +flights to be believed, but affirms what is incredible, that thereby it +may convey what is credible. When we say, "let the man who has bestowed +a benefit, forget it," what we mean is, "let him be as though he had +forgotten it; let not his remembrance of it appear or be seen." When +we say that repayment of a benefit ought not to be demanded, we do not +utterly forbid its being demanded; for repayment must often be extorted +from bad men, and even good men require to be reminded of it. Am I not +to point out a means of repayment to one who does not perceive it? Am I +not to explain my wants to one does not know them? Why should he (if +a bad man) have the excuse, or (if a good man) have the sorrow of not +knowing them? Men ought sometimes to be reminded of their debts, though +with modesty, not in the tone of one demanding a legal right. + +XXIV. Socrates once said in the hearing of his friends: "I would have +bought a cloak, if I had had the money for it." He asked no one for +money, but he reminded them all to give it. There was a rivalry between +them, as to who should give it; and how should there not be? Was it not +a small thing which Socrates received? Yes, but it was a great thing +to be the man from whom Socrates received it. Could he blame them more +gently? "I would," said he, "have bought a cloak if I had had the money +for it." After this, however eager any one was to give, he gave too +late; for he had already been wanting in his duty to Socrates. Because +some men harshly demand repayment of debts, we forbid it, not in order +that it may never be done, but that it may be done sparingly. + +XXV. Aristippus once, when enjoying a perfume, said: "Bad luck to those +effeminate persons who have brought so nice a thing into disrepute." We +also may say, "Bad luck to those base extortioners who pester us for a +fourfold return of their benefits, and have brought into disrepute +so nice a thing as reminding our friends of their duty." I shall +nevertheless make use of this right of friendship, and I shall demand +the return of a benefit from any man from whom I would not have scrupled +to ask for one, such a man as would regard the power of returning a +benefit as equivalent to receiving a second one. Never, not even when +complaining of him, would I say, + + "A wretch forlorn upon the shore he lay, + His ship, his comrades, all were swept away; + Fool that I was, I pitied his despair, + And even gave him of my realm a share." + +This is not to remind, but to reproach; this is to make one's benefits +odious to enable him, or even to make him wish to be ungrateful. It is +enough, and more than enough, to remind him of it gently and familiarly: + + "If aught of mine hath e'er deserved thy thanks." + +To this his answer would be, "Of course you have deserved my thanks; you +took me up, 'a wretch forlorn upon the shore.'" + +XXVI. "But," says our adversary, "suppose that we gain nothing by this; +suppose that he pretends that he has forgotten it, what ought I to do?" +You now ask a very necessary question, and one which fitly concludes +this branch of the subject, how, namely, one ought to bear with the +ungrateful. I answer, calmly, gently, magnanimously. Never let any one's +discourtesy, forgetfulness, or ingratitude, enrage you so much that you +do not feel any pleasure at having bestowed a benefit upon him; never +let your wrongs drive you into saying, "I wish I had not done it." You +ought to take pleasure even in the ill-success of your benefit; he will +always be sorry for it, even though you are not even now sorry for it. +You ought not to be indignant, as if something strange had happened; you +ought rather to be surprised if it had not happened. Some are prevented +by difficulties, some by expense, and some by danger from returning your +bounty; some are hindered by a false shame, because by returning it, +they would confess that they had received it; with others ignorance of +their duty, indolence, or excess of business, stands in the way. Reflect +upon the insatiability of men's desires. You need not be surprised if no +one repays you in a world in which no one ever gains enough. What man is +there of so firm and trustworthy a mind that you can safely invest your +benefits in him? One man is crazed with lust, another is the slave of +his belly, another gives his whole soul to gain, caring nothing for the +means by which he amasses it; some men's minds are disturbed by envy, +some blinded by ambition till they are ready to fling themselves on the +sword's point. In addition to this, one must reckon sluggishness of +mind and old age; and also the opposites of these, restlessness and +disturbance of mind, also excessive self-esteem and pride in the +very things for which a man ought to be despised. I need not mention +obstinate persistence in wrong-doing, or frivolity which cannot remain +constant to one point; besides all this, there is headlong rashness, +there is timidity which never gives us trustworthy counsel, and the +numberless errors with which we struggle, the rashness of the most +cowardly, the quarrels of our best friends, and that most common evil +of trusting in what is most uncertain, and of undervaluing, when we have +obtained it, that which we once never hoped to possess. Amidst all these +restless passions, how can you hope to find a thing so full of rest as +good faith? + +XXVII. If a true picture of our life were to rise before your mental +vision, you would, I think, behold a scene like that of a town just +taken by storm, where decency and righteousness were no longer regarded, +and no advice is heard but that of force, as if universal confusion +were the word of command. Neither fire nor sword are spared; crime +is unpunished by the laws; even religion, which saves the lives of +suppliants in the very midst of armed enemies, does not check those who +are rushing to secure plunder. Some men rob private houses, some public +buildings; all places, sacred or profane, are alike stripped; some burst +their way in, others climb over; some open a wider path for themselves +by overthrowing the walls that keep them out, and make their way to +their booty over ruins; some ravage without murdering, others brandish +spoils dripping with their owner's blood; everyone carries off his +neighbours' goods. In this greedy struggle of the human race surely you +forget the common lot of all mankind, if you seek among these robbers +for one who will return what he has got. If you are indignant at +men being ungrateful, you ought also to be indignant at their being +luxurious, avaricious and lustful; you might as well be indignant with +sick men for being ugly, or with old men for being pale. It is, indeed, +a serious vice, it is not to be borne, and sets men at variance with one +another; nay, it rends and destroys that union by which alone our human +weakness can be supported; yet it is so absolutely universal, that even +those who complain of it most are not themselves free from it. + +XXVIII. Consider within yourself, whether you have always shown +gratitude to those to whom you owe it, whether no one's kindness has +ever been wasted upon you, whether you constantly bear in mind all the +benefits which you have received. You will find that those which you +received as a boy were forgotten before you became a man; that those +bestowed upon you as a young man slipped from your memory when you +became an old one. Some we have lost, some we have thrown away, some +have by degrees passed out of our sight, to some we have wilfully shut +our eyes. If I am to make excuses for your weakness, I must say in the +first place that human memory is a frail vessel, and is not large enough +to contain the mass of things placed in it; the more it receives, the +more it must necessarily lose; the oldest things in it give way to the +newest. Thus it comes to pass that your nurse has hardly any influence +with you, because the lapse of time has set the kindness which you +received from her at so great a distance; thus it is that you no longer +look upon your teacher with respect; and that now when you are busy +about your candidature for the consulate or the priesthood, you forget +those who supported you in your election to the quaestorship. If you +carefully examine yourself, perhaps you will find the vice of which +you complain in your own bosom; you are wrong in being angry with a +universal failing, and foolish also, for it is your own as well; you +must pardon others, that you may yourself be acquitted. You will make +your friend a better man by bearing with him, you will in all cases make +him a worse one by reproaching him. You can have no reason for rendering +him shameless; let him preserve any remnants of modesty which he may +have. Too loud reproaches have often dispelled a modesty which might +have borne good fruit. No man fears to be that which all men see that he +is; when his fault is made public, he loses his sense of shame. + +XXIX. You say, "I have lost the benefit which I bestowed." Yet do we +say that we have lost what we consecrate to heaven, and a benefit well +bestowed, even though we get an ill return for it, is to be reckoned +among things consecrated. Our friend is not such a man as we hoped he +was; still, let us, unlike him, remain the same as we were. The loss did +not take place when he proved himself so; his ingratitude cannot be made +public without reflecting some shame upon us, since to complain of the +loss of a benefit is a sign that it was not well bestowed. As far as we +are able we ought to plead with ourselves on his behalf: "Perhaps he was +not able to return it, perhaps he did not know of it, perhaps he will +still do so." A wise and forbearing creditor prevents the loss of some +debts by encouraging his debtor and giving him time. We ought to do the +same, we ought to deal tenderly with a weakly sense of honour. + +XXX. "I have lost," say you, "the benefit which I bestowed." You are a +fool, and do not understand when your loss took place; you have indeed +lost it, but you did so when you gave it, the fact has only now come +to light. Even in the case of those benefits which appear to be lost, +gentleness will do much good; the wounds of the mind ought to be +handled as tenderly as those of the body. The string, which might be +disentangled by patience, is often broken by a rough pull. What is +the use of abuse, or of complaints? why do you overwhelm him with +reproaches? why do you set him free from his obligation? even if he +be ungrateful he owes you nothing after this. What sense is there in +exasperating a man on whom you have conferred great favours, so as out +of a doubtful friend to make a certain enemy, and one, too, who will +seek to support his own cause by defaming you, or to make men say, "I do +not know what the reason is that he cannot endure a man to whom he +owes so much; there must be something in the background?" Any man can +asperse, even if he does not permanently stain the reputation of his +betters by complaining of them; nor will any one be satisfied with +imputing small crimes to them, when it is only by the enormity of his +falsehood that he can hope to be believed. + +XXXI. What a much better way is that by which the semblance of +friendship, and, indeed, if the other regains to his right mind, +friendship itself is preserved! Bad men are overcome by unwearying +goodness, nor does any one receive kindness in so harsh and hostile a +spirit as not to love good men even while he does them wrong, when they +lay him under the additional obligation of requiring no return for their +kindness. Reflect, then, upon this: you say, "My kindness has met with +no return, what am I to do? I ought to imitate the gods, those noblest +disposers of all events, who begin to bestow their benefits on those who +know them not, and persist in bestowing them on those who are ungrateful +for them. Some reproach them with neglect of us, some with injustice +towards us; others place them outside of their own world, in sloth and +indifference, without light, and without any functions; others declare +that the sun itself, to whom we owe the division of our times of labour +and of rest, by whose means we are saved from being plunged in the +darkness of eternal night; who, by his circuit, orders the seasons +of the year, gives strength to our bodies, brings forth our crops and +ripens our fruits, is merely a mass of stone, or a fortuitous collection +of fiery particles, or anything rather than a god. Yet, nevertheless, +like the kindest of parents, who only smile at the spiteful words of +their children, the gods do not cease to heap benefits upon those +who doubt from what source their benefits are derived, but continue +impartially distributing their bounty among all the peoples and nations +of the earth. Possessing only the power of doing good, they moisten +the land with seasonable showers, they put the seas in movement by the +winds, they mark time by the course of the constellations, they temper +the extremes of heat and cold, of summer and winter, by breathing a +milder air upon us; and they graciously and serenely bear with the +faults of our erring spirits. Let us follow their example; let us give, +even if much be given to no purpose, let us, in spite of this, give to +others; nay, even to those upon whom our bounty has been wasted. No one +is prevented by the fall of a house from building another; when one home +has been destroyed by fire, we lay the foundations of another before the +site has had time to cool; we rebuild ruined cities more than once +upon the same spots, so untiring are our hopes of success. Men would +undertake no works either on land or sea if they were not willing to try +again what they have failed in once." + +XXXII. Suppose a man is ungrateful, he does not injure me, but himself; +I had the enjoyment of my benefit when I bestowed it upon him. Because +he is ungrateful, I shall not be slower to give but more careful; what I +have lost with him, I shall receive back from others. But I will bestow +a second benefit upon this man himself, and will overcome him even as a +good husbandman overcomes the sterility of the soil by care and culture; +if I do not do so my benefit is lost to me, and he is lost to mankind. +It is no proof of a great mind to give and to throw away one's bounty; +the true test of a great mind is to throw away one's bounty and still to +give. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of L. Annaeus Seneca On Benefits, by Seneca + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK L. 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Perhaps some of his popularity may have been due to +his being supposed to be the author of those tragedies which the +world has long ceased to read, but which delighted a period that +preferred Euripides to Aeschylus: while casuists must have found +congenial matter in an author whose fantastic cases of conscience +are often worthy of Sanchez or Escobar. Yet Seneca's morality is +always pure, and from him we gain, albeit at second hand, an +insight into the doctrines of the Greek philosophers, Zeno, +Epicurus, Chrysippus, &c., whose precepts and system of religious +thought had in cultivated Roman society taken the place of the old +worship of Jupiter and Quirinus. + +Since Lodge's edition (fol. 1614), no complete translation of +Seneca has been published in England, though Sir Roger L'Estrange +wrote paraphrases of several Dialogues, which seem to have been +enormously popular, running through more than sixteen editions. I +think we may conjecture that Shakespeare had seen Lodge's +translation, from several allusions to philosophy, to that +impossible conception "the wise man," and especially from a passage +in "All's Well that ends Well," which seems to breathe the very +spirit of "De Beneficiis." + + "'Tis pity-- + That wishing well had not a body in it + Which might be felt: that we, the poorer born, + Whose baser stars do shut us up in wishes, + Might with effects of them follow our friends + And show what we alone must think; which never + Returns us thanks." + + All's Well that ends Well," Act i. sc. 1. + +Though, if this will not fit the supposed date of that play, he may +have taken the idea from "The Woorke of Lucius Annaeus Seneca +concerning Benefyting, that is too say, the dooing, receyving, and +requyting of good turnes, translated out of Latin by A. Golding. J. +Day, London, 1578." And even during the Restoration, Pepys's ideal +of virtuous and lettered seclusion is a country house in whose +garden he might sit on summer afternoons with his friend, Sir W. +Coventry, "it maybe, to read a chapter of Seneca." In sharp +contrast to this is Vahlen's preface to the minor Dialogues, which +he edited after the death of his friend Koch, who had begun that +work, in which he remarks that "he has read much of this writer, in +order to perfect his knowledge of Latin, for otherwise he neither +admires his artificial subtleties of thought, nor his childish +mannerisms of style" (Vahlen, preface, p. v., ed. 1879, Jena). + +Yet by the student of the history of Rome under the Caesars, Seneca +is not to be neglected, because, whatever may be thought of the +intrinsic merit of his speculations, he represents, more perhaps +even than Tacitus, the intellectual characteristics of his age, and +the tone of society in Rome--nor could we well spare the gossiping +stories which we find imbedded in his graver dissertations. The +following extract from Dean Merivale's "History of the Romans under +the Empire" will show the estimate of him which has been formed by +that accomplished writer:-- + +"At Rome, we, have no reason, to suppose that Christianity was only +the refuge of the afflicted and miserable; rather, if we may lay +any stress on the documents above referred to, it was first +embraced by persons in a certain grade of comfort and +respectability; by persons approaching to what we should call the +MIDDLE CLASSES in their condition, their education, and their moral +views. Of this class Seneca himself was the idol, the oracle; he +was, so to speak, the favourite preacher of the more intelligent +and humane disciples of nature and virtue. Now the writings of +Seneca show, in their way, a real anxiety among this class to raise +the moral tone of mankind around them; a spirit of reform, a zeal +for the conversion of souls, which, though it never rose, indeed, +under the teaching of the philosophers, to boiling heat, still +simmered with genial warmth on the surface of society. Far +different as was their social standing-point, far different as were +the foundations and the presumed sanctions of their teaching +respectively, Seneca and St. Paul were both moral reformers; both, +be it said with reverence, were fellow-workers in the cause of +humanity, though the Christian could look beyond the proximate aims +of morality and prepare men for a final development on which the +Stoic could not venture to gaze. Hence there is so much in their +principles, so much even in their language, which agrees together, +so that the one has been thought, though it must be allowed without +adequate reason, to have borrowed directly from the other. +[Footnote: It is hardly necessary to refer to the pretended letters +between St. Paul and Seneca. Besides the evidence from style, some +of the dates they contain are quite sufficient to condemn them as +clumsy forgeries. They are mentioned, but with no expression of +belief in their genuineness, by Jerome and Augustine. See Jones, +"On the Canon," ii. 80.] + +But the philosopher, be it remembered, discoursed to a large and +not inattentive audience, and surely the soil was not all +unfruitful on which his seed was scattered when he proclaimed that +God dwells not in temples of wood and stone, nor wants the +ministrations of human hands;[Footnote: Sen., Ep. 95, and in +Lactantius, Inst. vi.] that He has no delight in the blood of +victims:[Footnote: Ep. 116: "Colitur Deus non tauris sed pia et +recta voluntate."] that He is near to all His creatures:[Footnote: +Ep. 41, 73.] that His Spirit resides in men's hearts:[Footnote: Ep. +46: "Sacer intra nos spiritus sedet."] that all men are truly His +offspring:[Footnote: "De Prov," i.] that we are members of one +body, which is God or Nature;[Footnote: Ep. 93, 95: "Membra sumus +magni corporis."] that men must believe in God before they can +approach Him:[Footnote: Ep. 95: "Primus Deorum cultus est Deos +credere."] that the true service of God is to be like unto +Him:[Footnote: Ep. 95: "Satis coluit quisquis imitatus est."] that +all men have sinned, and none performed all the works of the +law:[Footnote: Sen. de Ira. i. 14; ii. 27: "Quis est iste qui se +profitetur omnibus legibus innocentem?"] that God is no respecter +of nations, ranks, or conditions, but all, barbarian and Roman, +bond and free, are alike under His all-seeing Providence.[Footnote: +"De Benef.," iii. 18: "Virtus omnes admittit, libertinos, servos, +reges." These and many other passages are collected by Champagny, +ii. 546, after Fabricius and others, and compared with well-known +texts of Scripture. The version of the Vulgate shows a great deal +of verbal correspondence. M. Troplong remarks, after De Maistre, +that Seneca has written a fine book on Providence, for which there +was not even a name at Rome in the time of Cicero.--"L'Influence du +Christianisme," &c., i., ch. 4.] + +"St. Paul enjoined submission and obedience even to the tyranny of +Nero, and Seneca fosters no ideas subversive of political +subjection. Endurance is the paramount virtue of the Stoic. To +forms of government the wise man was wholly indifferent; they were +among the external circumstances above which his spirit soared in +serene self-contemplation. We trace in Seneca no yearning for a +restoration of political freedom, nor does he even point to the +senate, after the manner of the patriots of the day, as a +legitimate check to the autocracy of the despot. The only mode, in +his view, of tempering tyranny is to educate the tyrant himself in +virtue. His was the self-denial of the Christians, but without +their anticipated compensation. It seems impossible to doubt that +in his highest flights of rhetoric--and no man ever recommended the +unattainable with a finer grace--Seneca must have felt that he was +labouring to build up a house without foundations; that his system, +as Caius said of his style, was sand without lime. He was surely +not unconscious of the inconsistency of his own position, as a +public man and a minister, with the theories to which he had wedded +himself; and of the impossibility of preserving in it the purity of +his character as a philosopher or a man. He was aware that in the +existing state of society at Rome, wealth was necessary to men high +in station; wealth alone could retain influence, and a poor +minister became at once contemptible. The distributor of the +Imperial favours must have his banquets, his receptions, his slaves +and freedmen; he must possess the means of attracting if not of +bribing; he must not seem too virtuous, too austere, among an evil +generation; in order to do good at all he must swim with the +stream, however polluted it might be. All this inconsistency Seneca +must have contemplated without blenching; and there is something +touching in the serenity he preserved amidst the conflict that must +have perpetually raged between his natural sense and his acquired +principles. Both Cicero and Seneca were men of many weaknesses, and +we remark them the more because both were pretenders to unusual +strength of character; but while Cicero lapsed into political +errors, Seneca cannot be absolved of actual crime. Nevertheless, if +we may compare the greatest masters of Roman wisdom together, the +Stoic will appear, I think, the more earnest of the two, the more +anxious to do his duty for its own sake, the more sensible of the +claims of mankind upon him for such precepts of virtuous living as +he had to give. In an age of unbelief and compromise he taught that +Truth was positive and Virtue objective. He conceived, what never +entered Cicero's mind, the idea of improving his fellow-creatures; +he had, what Cicero had not, a heart for conversion to +Christianity." + +To this eloquent account of Seneca's position and of the tendency +of his writings I have nothing to add. The main particulars of his +life, his Spanish extraction (like that of Lacan and Martial), his +father's treatises on Rhetoric, his mother Helvia, his brothers, +his wealth, his exile in Corsica, his outrageous flattery of +Claudius and his satiric poem on his death--"The Vision of +Judgment," Merivale calls it, after Lord Byron--his position as +Nero's tutor, and his death, worthy at once of a Roman and a Stoic, +by the orders of that tyrant, may be read of in "The History of the +Romans under the Empire," or in the article "Seneca" in the +"Dictionary of Classical Biography," and need not be reproduced +here: but I cannot resist pointing out how entirely Grote's view of +the "Sophists" as a sort of established clergy, and Seneca's +account of the various sects of philosophers as representing the +religious thought of the time, is illustrated by his anecdote of +Julia Augusta, the mother of Tiberius, better known to English +readers as Livia the wife of Augustus, who in her first agony of +grief at the loss of her first husband applied to his Greek +philosopher, Areus, as to a kind of domestic chaplain, for +spiritual consolation. ("Ad Marciam de Consolatione," ch. iv.) + +I take this opportunity of expressing my gratitude to the Rev. J. +E. B. Mayor, Professor of Latin in the University of Cambridge, for +his kindness in finding time among his many and important literary +labours for reading and correcting the proofs of this work. + +The text which I have followed for De Beneficiis is that of Gertz, +Berlin (1876.). + +AUBREY STEWART + +London, March, 1887. + + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +BOOK I. The prevalence of ingratitude--How a benefit ought to be +bestowed--The three Graces--Benefits are the chief bond of human +society--What we owe in return for a benefit received--A benefit +consists not of a thing but of the wish to do good--Socrates and +Aeschines--What kinds of benefits should be bestowed, and in what +manner--Alexander and the franchise of Corinth. + +BOOK II. Many men give through weakness of character--We ought to +give before our friends ask--Many benefits are spoiled by the +manner of the giver--Marius Nepos and Tiberius--Some benefits +should be given secretly--We must not give what would harm the +receiver--Alexander's gift of a city--Interchange of benefits like +a game of ball--From whom ought one to receive a benefit?-- +Examples--How to receive a benefit--Ingratitude caused by self- +love, by greed, or by jealousy--Gratitude and repayment not the +same thing--Phidias and the statue + +BOOK III. Ingratitude--Is it worse to be ungrateful for kindness or +not even to remember it?--Should ingratitude be punished by law?-- +Can a slave bestow a benefit?--Can a son bestow a benefit upon his +father?--Examples + +BOOK IV. Whether the bestowal of benefits and the return of +gratitude for them are desirable objects in themselves? Does God +bestow benefits?--How to choose the man to be benefited--We ought +not to look for any return--True gratitude--Of keeping one's +promise--Philip and the soldier--Zeno + +BOOK V. Of being worsted in a contest of benefits--Socrates and +Archelaus--Whether a man can be grateful to himself, or can bestow +a benefit upon himself--Examples of ingratitude--Dialogue on +ingratitude--Whether one should remind one's friends of what one +has done for them--Caesar and the soldier--Tiberius. + +BOOK VI. Whether a benefit can be taken from one by force-- +Benefits depend upon thought--We are not grateful for the +advantages which we receive from inanimate Nature, or from dumb +animals--In order to lay me under an obligation you must benefit me +intentionally--Cleanthes's story of the two slaves--Of benefits +given in a mercenary spirit--Physicians and teachers bestow +enormous benefits, yet are sufficiently paid by a moderate fee-- +Plato and the ferryman--Are we under an obligation to the sun and +moon?--Ought we to wish that evil may befall our benefactors, in +order that we may show our gratitude by helping them? + +BOOK VII. The cynic Demetrius--his rules of conduct--Of the truly +wise man--Whether one who has done everything in his power to +return a benefit has returned it--Ought one to return a benefit to +a bad man?--The Pythagorean, and the shoemaker--How one ought to +bear with the ungrateful. + + + + + + +L. A. SENECA + +ON BENEFITS. + + +DEDICATED TO + +AEBUTIUS LIBERALIS. + + + + +BOOK I. + +I. + + +Among the numerous faults of those who pass their lives recklessly +and without due reflexion, my good friend Liberalis, I should say +that there is hardly any one so hurtful to society as this, that we +neither know how to bestow or how to receive a benefit. It follows +from this that benefits are badly invested, and become bad debts: +in these cases it is too late to complain of their not being +returned, for they were thrown away when we bestowed them. Nor need +we wonder that while the greatest vices are common, none is more +common than ingratitude: for this I see is brought about by various +causes. The first of these is, that we do not choose worthy persons +upon whom to bestow our bounty, but although when we are about to +lend money we first make a careful enquiry into the means and +habits of life of our debtor, and avoid sowing seed in a worn-out +or unfruitful soil, yet without any discrimination we scatter our +benefits at random rather than bestow them. It is hard to say +whether it is more dishonourable for the receiver to disown a +benefit, or for the giver to demand a return of it: for a benefit +is a loan, the repayment of which depends merely upon the good +feeling of the debtor. To misuse a benefit like a spendthrift is +most shameful, because we do not need our wealth but only our +intention to set us free from the obligation of it; for a benefit +is repaid by being acknowledged. Yet while they are to blame who do +not even show so much gratitude as to acknowledge their debt, we +ourselves are to blame no less. We find many men ungrateful, yet we +make more men so, because at one time we harshly and reproachfully +demand some return for our bounty, at another we are fickle and +regret what we have given, at another we are peevish and apt to +find fault with trifles. By acting thus we destroy all sense of +gratitude, not only after we have given anything, but while we are +in the act of giving it. Who has ever thought it enough to be asked +for anything in an off-hand manner, or to be asked only once? Who, +when he suspected that he was going to be asked for any thing, has +not frowned, turned away his face, pretended to be busy, or +purposely talked without ceasing, in order not to give his suitor a +chance of preferring his request, and avoided by various tricks +having to help his friend in his pressing need? and when driven +into a corner, has not either put the matter off, that is, given a +cowardly refusal, or promised his help ungraciously, with a wry +face, and with unkind words, of which he seemed to grudge the +utterance. Yet no one is glad to owe what he has not so much +received from his benefactor, as wrung out of him. Who can be +grateful for what has been disdainfully flung to him, or angrily +cast at him, or been given him out of weariness, to avoid further +trouble? No one need expect any return from those whom he has tired +out with delays, or sickened with expectation. A benefit is +received in the same temper in which it is given, and ought not, +therefore, to be given carelessly, for a man thanks himself for +that which he receives without the knowledge of the giver. Neither +ought we to give after long delay, because in all good offices the +will of the giver counts for much, and he who gives tardily must +long have been unwilling to give at all. Nor, assuredly, ought we +to give in offensive manner, because human nature is so constituted +that insults sink deeper than kindnesses; the remembrance of the +latter soon passes away, while that of the former is treasured in +the memory; so what can a man expect who insults while he obliges? +All the gratitude which he deserves is to be forgiven for helping +us. On the other hand, the number of the ungrateful ought not to +deter us from earning men's gratitude; for, in the first place, +their number is increased by our own acts. Secondly, the sacrilege +and indifference to religion of some men does not prevent even the +immortal gods from continuing to shower their benefits upon us: for +they act according to their divine nature and help all alike, among +them even those who so ill appreciate their bounty. Let us take +them for our guides as far as the weakness of our mortal nature +permits; let us bestow benefits, not put them out at interest. The +man who while he gives thinks of what he will get in return, +deserves to be deceived. But what if the benefit turns out ill? +Why, our wives and our children often disappoint our hopes, yet we +marry--and bring up children, and are so obstinate in the face of +experience that we fight after we have been beaten, and put to sea +after we have been shipwrecked. How much more constancy ought we to +show in bestowing benefits! If a man does not bestow benefits +because he has not received any, he must have bestowed them in +order to receive them in return, and he justifies ingratitude, +whose disgrace lies in not returning benefits when able to do so. +How many are there who are unworthy of the light of day? and +nevertheless the sun rises. How many complain because they have +been born? yet Nature is ever renewing our race, and even suffers +men to live who wish that they had never lived. It is the property +of a great and good mind to covet, not the fruit of good deeds, but +good deeds themselves, and to seek for a good man even after having +met with bad men. If there were no rogues, what glory would there +be in doing good to many? As it is, virtue consists in bestowing +benefits for which we are not certain of meeting with any return, +but whose fruit is at once enjoyed by noble minds. So little +influence ought this to have in restraining us from doing good +actions, that even though I were denied the hope of meeting with a +grateful man, yet the fear of not having my benefits returned would +not prevent my bestowing them, because he who does not give, +forestalls the vice of him who is ungrateful. I will explain what I +mean. He who does not repay a benefit, sins more, but he who does +not bestow one, sins earlier. + + "If thou at random dost thy bounties waste, + Much must be lost, for one that's rightly placed." + +II. In the former verse you may blame two things, for one should +not cast them at random, and it is not right to waste anything, +much less benefits; for unless they be given with judgement, they +cease to be benefits, and, may be called by any other name you +please. The meaning of the latter verse is admirable, that one +benefit rightly bestowed makes amends for the loss of many that +have been lost. See, I pray you, whether it be not truer and more +worthy of the glory of the giver, that we should encourage him to +give, even though none of his gifts should be worthily placed. +"Much must be lost." Nothing is lost because he who loses had +counted the cost before. The book-keeping of benefits is simple: it +is all expenditure; if any one returns it, that is clear gain; if +he does not return it, it is not lost, I gave it for the sake of +giving. No one writes down his gifts in a ledger, or like a +grasping creditor demands repayment to the day and hour. A good man +never thinks of such matters, unless reminded of them by some one +returning his gifts; otherwise they become like debts owing to him. +It is a base usury to regard a benefit as an investment. Whatever +may have been the result of your former benefits, persevere in +bestowing others upon other men; they will be all the better placed +in the hands of the ungrateful, whom shame, or a favourable +opportunity, or imitation of others may some day cause to be +grateful. Do not grow weary, perform your duty, and act as becomes +a good man. Help one man with money, another with credit, another +with your favour; this man with good advice, that one with sound +maxims. Even wild beasts feel kindness, nor is there any animal so +savage that good treatment will not tame it and win love from it. +The mouths of lions are handled by their keepers with impunity; to +obtain their food fierce elephants become as docile as slaves: so +that constant unceasing kindness wins the hearts even of creatures +who, by their nature, cannot comprehend or weigh the value of a +benefit. Is a man ungrateful for one benefit? perhaps he will not +be so after receiving a second. Has he forgotten two kindnesses? +perhaps by a third he may be brought to remember the former ones +also. + +III. He who is quick to believe that he has thrown away his +benefits, does really throw them away; but he who presses on and +adds new benefits to his former ones, forces out gratitude even +from a hard and forgetful breast. In the face of many kindnesses, +your friend will not dare to raise his eyes; let him see you +whithersoever he turns himself to escape from his remembrance of +you; encircle him with your benefits. As for the power and property +of these, I will explain it to you if first you will allow me to +glance at a matter which does not belong to our subject, as to why +the Graces are three in number, why they are sisters, why hand in +hand, and why they are smiling and young, with a loose and +transparent dress. Some writers think that there is one who bestows +a benefit, one who receives it, and a third who returns it; others +say that they represent the three sorts of benefactors, those who +bestow, those who repay, and those who both receive and repay them. +But take whichever you please to be true; what will this knowledge +profit us? What is the meaning of this dance of sisters in a +circle, hand in hand? It means that the course of a benefit is from +hand to hand, back to the giver; that the beauty of the whole chain +is lost if a single link fails, and that it is fairest when it +proceeds in unbroken regular order. In the dance there is one. +esteemed beyond the others, who represents the givers of benefits. +Their faces are cheerful, as those of men who give or receive +benefits are wont to be. They are young, because the memory of +benefits ought not to grow old. They are virgins, because benefits +are pure and untainted, and held holy by all; in benefits there +should be no strict or binding conditions, therefore the Graces +wear loose flowing tunics, which are transparent, because benefits +love to be seen. People who are not under the influence of Greek +literature may say that all this is a matter of course; but there +can be no one who would think that the names which Hesiod has given +them bear upon our subject. He named the eldest Aglaia, the middle +one Euphrosyne, the third Thalia. Every one, according to his own +ideas, twists the meaning of these names, trying to reconcile them +with some system, though Hesiod merely gave his maidens their names +from his own fancy. So Homer altered the name of one of them, +naming her Pasithea, and betrothed her to a husband, in order that +you may know that they are not vestal virgins. [Footnote: i.e. not +vowed to chastity.] + +I could find another poet, in whose writings they are girded, and +wear thick or embroidered Phrygian robes. Mercury stands with them +for the same reason, not because argument or eloquence commends +benefits, but because the painter chose to do so. Also Chrysippus, +that man of piercing intellect who saw to the very bottom of truth, +who speaks only to the point, and makes use of no more words than +are necessary to express his meaning, fills his whole treatise with +these puerilities, insomuch that he says but very little about the +duties of giving, receiving, and returning a benefit, and has not +so much inserted fables among these subjects, as he has inserted +these subjects among a mass of fables. For, not to mention what +Hecaton borrows from him, Chrysippus tells us that the three Graces +are the daughters of Jupiter and Eurynome, that they are younger +than the Hours, and rather more beautiful, and that on that account +they are assigned as companions to Venus. He also thinks that the +name of their mother bears upon the subject, and that she is named +Eurynome because to distribute benefits requires a wide +inheritance; as if the mother usually received her name after her +daughters, or as if the names given by poets were true. In truth, +just as with a 'nomenclator' audacity supplies the place of memory, +and he invents a name for every one whose name he cannot recollect, +so the poets think that it is of no importance to speak the truth, +but are either forced by the exigencies of metre, or attracted by +sweetness of sound, into calling every one by whatever name runs +neatly into verse. Nor do they suffer for it if they introduce +another name into the list, for the next poet makes them bear what +name he pleases. That you may know that this is so, for instance +Thalia, our present subject of discourse, is one of the Graces in +Hesiod's poems, while in those of Homer she is one of the Muses. + +IV. But lest I should do the very thing which I am blaming, I will +pass over all these matters, which are so far from the subject that +they are not even connected with it. Only do you protect me, if any +one attacks me for putting down Chrysippus, who, by Hercules, was a +great man, but yet a Greek, whose intellect, too sharply pointed, +is often bent and turned back upon itself; even when it seems to be +in earnest it only pricks, but does not pierce. Here, however, what +occasion is there for subtlety? We are to speak of benefits, and to +define a matter which is the chief bond of human society; we are to +lay down a rule of life, such that neither careless openhandedness +may commend itself to us under the guise of goodness of heart, and +yet that our circumspection, while it moderates, may not quench our +generosity, a quality in which we ought neither to exceed nor to +fall short. Men must be taught to be willing to give, willing to +receive, willing to return; and to place before themselves the high +aim, not merely of equalling, but even of surpassing those to whom +they are indebted, both in good offices and in good feeling; +because the man whose duty it is to repay, can never do so unless +he out-does his benefactor; [Footnote: That is, he never comes up +to his benefactor unless he leaves him behind: he can only make a +dead heat of it by getting a start.] the one class must be taught +to look for no return, the other to feel deeper gratitude. In this +noblest of contests to outdo benefits by benefits, Chrysippus +encourages us by bidding us beware lest, as the Graces are the +daughters of Jupiter, to act ungratefully may not be a sin against +them, and may not wrong those beauteous maidens. Do thou teach me +how I may bestow more good things, and be more grateful to those +who have earned my gratitude, and how the minds of both parties may +vie with one another, the giver in forgetting, the receiver in +remembering his debt. As for those other follies, let them be left +to the poets, whose purpose is merely to charm the ear and to weave +a pleasing story; but let those who wish to purify men's minds, to +retain honour in their dealings, and to imprint on their minds +gratitude for kindnesses, let them speak in sober earnest and act +with all their strength; unless you imagine, perchance, that by +such flippant and mythical talk, and such old wives' reasoning, it +is possible for us to prevent that most ruinous consummation, the +repudiation of benefits. + +V. However, while I pass over what is futile and irrelevant I must +point out that the first thing which we have to learn is, what we +owe in return for a benefit received. One man says that he owes the +money which he has received, another that he owes a consulship, a +priesthood, a province, and so on. These, however, are but the +outward signs of kindnesses, not the kindnesses themselves. A +benefit is not to be felt and handled, it is a thing which exists +only in the mind. There is a great difference between the subject- +matter of a benefit, and the benefit itself. Wherefore neither +gold, nor silver, nor any of those things which are most highly +esteemed, are benefits, but the benefit lies in the goodwill of him +who gives them. The ignorant take notice only of that which comes +before their eyes, and which can be owned and passed from hand to +hand, while they disregard that which gives these things their +value. The things which we hold in our hands, which we see with our +eyes, and which our avarice hugs, are transitory, they may be taken +from us by ill luck or by violence; but a kindness lasts even after +the loss of that by means of which it was bestowed; for it is a +good deed, which no violence can undo. For instance, suppose that I +ransomed a friend from pirates, but another pirate has caught him +and thrown him into prison. The pirate has not robbed him of my +benefit, but has only robbed him of the enjoyment of it. Or suppose +that I have saved a man's children from a shipwreck or a fire, and +that afterwards disease or accident has carried them off; even when +they are no more, the kindness which was done by means of them +remains. All those things, therefore, which improperly assume the +name of benefits, are means by which kindly feeling manifests +itself. In other cases also, we find a distinction between the +visible symbol and the matter itself, as when a general bestows +collars of gold, or civic or mural crowns upon any one. What value +has the crown in itself? or the purple-bordered robe? or the +fasces? or the judgment-seat and car of triumph? None of these +things is in itself an honour, but is an emblem of honour. In like +manner, that which is seen is not a benefit--it is but the trace +and mark of a benefit. + +VI. What, then, is a benefit? It is the art of doing a kindness +which both bestows pleasure and gains it by bestowing it, and which +does its office by natural and spontaneous impulse. It is not, +therefore, the thing which is done or given, but the spirit in +which it is done or given, that must be considered, because a +benefit exists, not in that which is done or given, but in the mind +of the doer or giver. How great the distinction between them is, +you may perceive from this, that while a benefit is necessarily +good, yet that which is done or given is neither good nor bad. The +spirit in which they are given can exalt small things, can glorify +mean ones, and can discredit great and precious ones; the objects +themselves which are sought after have a neutral nature, neither +good nor bad; all depends upon the direction given them by the +guiding spirit from which things receive their shape. That which is +paid or handed over is not the benefit itself, just as the honour +which we pay to the gods lies not in the victims themselves, +although they be fat and glittering with gold, [Footnote: Alluding +to the practice of gilding the horns of the victims.] but in the +pure and holy feelings of the worshippers. + +Thus good men are religious, though their offering be meal and +their vessels of earthenware; whilst bad men will not escape from +their impiety, though they pour the blood of many victims upon the +altars. + +VII. If benefits consisted of things, and not of the wish to +benefit, then the more things we received the greater the benefit +would be. But this is not true, for sometimes we feel more +gratitude to one who gives us trifles nobly, who, like Virgil's +poor old soldier, "holds himself as rich as kings," if he has given +us ever so little with a good will a man who forgets his own need +when he sees mine, who has not only a wish but a longing to help, +who thinks that he receives a benefit when he bestows one, who +gives as though he would receive no return, receives a repayment as +though he had originally given nothing, and who watches for and +seizes an opportunity of being useful. On the other hand, as I said +before, those gifts which are hardly wrung from the giver, or which +drop unheeded from his hands, claim no gratitude from us, however +great they may appear and may be. We prize much more what comes +from a willing hand, than what comes from a full one. This man has +given me but little, yet more he could not afford, while what that +one has given is much indeed, but he hesitated, he put it off, he +grumbled when he gave it, he gave it haughtily, or he proclaimed it +aloud, and did it to please others, not to please the person to +whom he gave it; he offered it to his own pride, not to me. + +VIII. As the pupils of Socrates, each in proportion to his means, +gave him large presents, Aeschines, a poor pupil, said, "I can find +nothing to give you which is worthy of you; I feel my poverty in +this respect alone. Therefore I present you with the only thing I +possess, myself. I pray that you may take this my present, such as +it is, in good part, and may remember that the others, although +they gave you much, yet left for themselves more than they gave." +Socrates answered, "Surely you have bestowed a great present upon +me, unless perchance you set a small value upon yourself. I will +accordingly take pains to restore you to yourself a better man than +when I received you." By this present Aeschines outdid Alcibiades, +whose mind was as great as his Wealth, and all the splendour of the +most wealthy youths of Athens. + +IX. You see how the mind even in the straitest circumstances finds +the means of generosity. Aeschines seems to me to have said, +"Fortune, it is in vain that you have made me poor; in spite of +this I will find a worthy present for this man. Since I can give +him nothing of yours, I will give him something of my own." Nor +need you suppose that he held himself cheap; he made himself his +own price. By a stroke of genius this youth discovered a means of +presenting Socrates to himself. We must not consider how great +presents are, but in what spirit they are given. + +A rich man is well spoken of if he is clever enough to render +himself easy of access to men of immoderate ambition, and although +he intends to do nothing to help them, yet encourages their +unconscionable hopes; but he is thought the worse of if he be sharp +of tongue, sour in appearance, and displays his wealth in an +invidious fashion. For men respect and yet loathe a fortunate man, +and hate him for doing what, if they had the chance, they would do +themselves. + + * * * * * * * + +Men nowadays no longer secretly, but openly outrage the wives of +others, and allow to others access to their own wives. A match is +thought countrified, uncivilized, in bad style, and to be protested +against by all matrons, if the husband should forbid his wife to +appear in public in a litter, and to be carried about exposed to +the gaze of all observers. If a man has not made himself notorious +by a LIAISON with some mistress, if he does not pay an annuity to +some one else's wife, married women speak of him as a poor-spirited +creature, a man given to low vice, a lover of servant girls. Soon +adultery becomes the most respectable form of marriage, and +widowhood and celibacy are commonly practised. No one takes a wife +unless he takes her away from some one else. Now men vie with one +another in wasting what they have stolen, and in collecting +together what they have wasted with the keenest avarice; they +become utterly reckless, scorn poverty in others, fear personal +injury more than anything else, break the peace by their riots, and +by violence and terror domineer over those who are weaker than +themselves. No wonder that they plunder provinces and offer the +seat of judgment for sale, knocking it down after an auction to the +highest bidder, since it is the law of nations that you may sell +what you have bought. + +X. However, my enthusiasm has carried me further than I intended, +the subject being an inviting one. Let me, then, end by pointing +out that the disgrace of these crimes does not belong especially to +our own time. Our ancestors before us have lamented, and our +children after us will lament, as we do, the ruin, of morality, the +prevalence of vice, and the gradual deterioration of mankind; yet +these things are really stationary, only moved slightly to and fro +like the waves which at one time a rising tide washes further over +the land, and at another an ebbing one restrains within a lower +water mark. At one time the chief vice will be adultery, and +licentiousness will exceed all bounds; at another time a rage for +feasting will be in vogue, and men will waste their inheritance in +the most shameful of all ways, by the kitchen; at another, +excessive care for the body, and a devotion to personal beauty +which implies ugliness of mind; at another time, injudiciously +granted liberty will show itself in wanton recklessness and +defiance of authority; sometimes there will be a reign of cruelty +both in public and private, and the madness of the civil wars will +come upon us, which destroy all that is holy and inviolable. +Sometimes even drunkenness will be held in honour, and it will be a +virtue to swallow most wine. Vices do not lie in wait for us in one +place alone, but hover around us in changeful forms, sometimes even +at variance one with another, so that in turn they win and lose the +field; yet we shall always be obliged to pronounce the same verdict +upon ourselves, that we are and always were evil, and, I +unwillingly add, that we always shall be. There always will be +homicides, tyrants, thieves, adulterers, ravishers, sacrilegious, +traitors: worse than all these is the ungrateful man, except we +consider that all these crimes flow from ingratitude, without which +hardly any great wickedness has ever grown to full stature. Be sure +that you guard against this as the greatest of crimes in yourself, +but pardon it as the least of crimes in another. For all the injury +which you suffer is this: you have lost the subject-matter of a +benefit, not the benefit itself, for you possess unimpaired the +best part of it, in that you have given it. Though we ought to be +careful to bestow our benefits by preference upon those who are +likely to show us gratitude for them, yet we must sometimes do what +we have little hope will turn out well, and bestow benefits upon +those who we not only think will prove ungrateful, but who we know +have been so. For instance, if I should be able to save a man's +children from a great danger with no risk to myself, I should not +hesitate to do so. If a man be worthy I would defend him even with +my blood, and would share his perils; if he be unworthy, and yet by +merely crying for help I can rescue him from robbers, I would +without reluctance raise the shout which would save a fellow- +creature. + +XI. The next point to be defined is, what kind of benefits are to +be given, and in what manner. First let us give what is necessary, +next what is useful, and then what is pleasant, provided that they +be lasting. We must begin with what is necessary, for those things +which support life affect the mind very differently from, those +which adorn and improve it. A man may be nice, and hard to please, +in things which he can easily do without, of which he can say, +"Take them back; I do not want them, I am satisfied with what I +have." Sometimes, we wish not only to, return what we have +received, but even to throw it away. Of necessary things, the first +class consists of things without which we cannot live; the second, +of things without which we ought not to live; and the third, of +things without which we should not care to live. The first class +are, to be saved from the hands of the enemy, from the anger of +tyrants, from proscription, and the various other perils which +beset human life. By averting any one of these, we shall earn +gratitude proportionate to the greatness of the danger, for when +men think of the greatness of the misery from which they have been +saved, the terror which they have gone through enhances the value +of our services. Yet we ought not to delay rescuing any one longer +than we are obliged, solely in order to make his fears add weight +to our services. Next come those things without which we can indeed +live, but in such a manner that it would be better to die, such as +liberty, chastity, or a good conscience. After these are what we +have come to hold dear by connexion and relationship and long use +and custom, such as our wives and children, our household gods, and +so on, to which the mind so firmly attaches itself that separation +from them seems worse than death. + +After these come useful things, which form a very wide and varied +class; in which will be money, not in excess, but enough for living +in a moderate style; public office, and, for the ambitious, due +advancement to higher posts; for nothing can be more useful to a +man than to be placed in a position in which he can benefit +himself. All benefits beyond these are superfluous, and are likely +to spoil those who receive them. In giving these we must be careful +to make them acceptable by giving them at the appropriate time, or +by giving things which are not common, but such as few people +possess, or at any rate few possess in our times; or again, by +giving things in such a manner, that though not naturally valuable, +they become so by the time and place at which they are given. We +must reflect what present will produce the most pleasure, what will +most frequently come under the notice of the possessor of it, so +that whenever he is with it he may be with us also; and in all +cases we must be careful not to send useless presents, such as +hunting weapons to a woman or old man, or books to a rustic, or +nets to catch wild animals to a quiet literary man. On the other +hand, we ought to be careful, while we wish to send what will +please, that we do not send what will insultingly remind our +friends of their failings, as, for example, if we send wine to a +hard drinker or drugs to an invalid, for a present which contains +an allusion to the shortcomings of the receiver, becomes an +outrage. + +XII. If we have a free choice as to what to give, we should above +all choose lasting presents, in order that our gift may endure as +long as possible; for few are so grateful as to think of what they +have received, even when they do not see it. Even the ungrateful +remember us by our gifts, when they are always in their sight and +do not allow themselves to be forgotten, but constantly obtrude and +stamp upon the mind the memory of the giver. As we never ought to +remind men of what we have given them, we ought all the more to +choose presents that will be permanent; for the things themselves +will prevent the remembrance of the giver from fading away. I would +more willingly give a present of plate than of coined money, and +would more willingly give statues than clothes or other things +which are soon worn out. Few remain grateful after the present is +gone: many more remember their presents only while they make use of +them. If possible, I should like my present not to be consumed; let +it remain in existence, let it stick to my friend and share his +life. No one is so foolish as to need to be told not to send +gladiators or wild beasts to one who has just given a public show, +or not to send summer clothing in winter time, or winter clothing +in summer. Common sense must guide our benefits; we must consider +the time and the place, and the character of the receiver, which +are the weights in the scale, which cause our gifts to be well or +ill received. How far more acceptable a present is, if we give a +man what he has not, than if we give him what he has plenty of! if +we give him what he has long been searching for in vain, rather +than what he sees everywhere! Let us make presents of things which +are rare and scarce rather than costly, things which even a rich +man will be glad of, just as common fruits, such as we tire of +after a few days, please us if they have ripened before the usual +season. People will also esteem things which no one else has given +to them, or which we have given to no one else. + +XIII. When the +conquest of the East had flattered Alexander of Macedon into +believing himself to be more than man, the people of Corinth sent +an embassy to congratulate him, and presented him with the +franchise of their city. When Alexander smiled at this form of +courtesy, one of the ambassadors said, "We have never enrolled any +stranger among our citizens except Hercules and yourself." +Alexander willingly accepted the proffered honour, invited the +ambassadors to his table, and showed them other courtesies. He did +not think of who offered the citizenship, but to whom they had +granted it; and being altogether the slave of glory, though he knew +neither its true nature or its limits, had followed in the +footsteps of Hercules and Bacchus, and had not even stayed his +march where they ceased; so that he glanced aside from the givers +of this honour to him with whom he shared it, and fancied that the +heaven to which his vanity aspired was indeed opening before him +when he was made equal to Hercules. In what indeed did that frantic +youth, whose only merit was his lucky audacity, resemble Hercules? +Hercules conquered nothing for himself; he travelled throughout the +world, not coveting for himself but liberating the countries which +he conquered, an enemy to bad men, a defender of the good, a +peacemaker both by sea and land; whereas the other was from his +boyhood a brigand and desolator of nations, a pest to his friends +and enemies alike, whose greatest joy was to be the terror of all +mankind, forgetting that men fear not only the fiercest but also +the most cowardly animals, because of their evil and venomous +nature. + +XIV. Let us now return to our subject. He who bestows a benefit +without discrimination, gives what pleases no one; no one considers +himself to be under any obligation to the landlord of a tavern, or +to be the guest of any one with whom he dines in such company as to +be able to say, "What civility has he shown to me? no more than he +has shown to that man, whom he scarcely knows, or to that other, +who is both his personal enemy and a man of infamous character. Do +you suppose that he wished to do me any honour? not so, he merely +wished to indulge his own vice of profusion." If you wish men to be +grateful for anything, give it but seldom; no one can bear to +receive what you give to all the world. Yet let no one gather from +this that I wish to impose any bonds upon generosity; let her go to +what lengths she will, so that she go a steady course, not at +random. It is possible to bestow gifts in such a manner that each +of those who receive them, although he shares them with many +others, may yet feel himself to be distinguished from the common +herd. Let each man have some peculiarity about his gift which may +make him consider himself more highly favoured than the rest. He +may say, "I received the same present that he did, but I never +asked for it." "I received the same present, but mine was given me +after a few days, whereas he had earned it by long service." +"Others have the same present, but it was not given to them with +the same courtesy and gracious words with which it was given to +me." "That man got it because he asked for it; I did not ask." +"That man received it as well as I, but then he could easily return +it; one has great expectations from a rich man, old and childless, +as he is; whereas in giving the same present to me he really gave +more, because he gave it without the hope of receiving any return +for it." Just as a courtesan divides her favours among many men, so +that no one of her friends is without some proof of her affection, +so let him who wishes his benefits to be prized consider how he may +at the same time gratify many men, and nevertheless give each one +of them some especial mark of favour to distinguish him from the +rest. + +XV. I am no advocate of slackness in giving benefits: the more and +the greater they are, the more praise they will bring to the giver. +Yet let them be given with discretion; for what is given carelessly +and recklessly can please no one. Whoever, therefore, supposes that +in giving this advice I wish to restrict benevolence and to confine +it to narrower limits, entirely mistakes the object of my warning. +What virtue do we admire more than benevolence? Which do we +encourage more? Who ought to applaud it more than we Stoics, who +preach the brotherhood of the human race? What then is it? Since no +impulse of the human mind can be approved of, even though it +springs from a right feeling, unless it be made into a virtue by +discretion, I forbid generosity to degenerate into extravagance. It +is, indeed, pleasant to receive a benefit with open arms, when +reason bestows it upon the worthy, not when it is flung hither or +thither thoughtlessly and at random; this alone we care to display +and claim as our own. Can you call anything a benefit, if you feel +ashamed to mention the person who gave it you? How far more +grateful is a benefit, how far more deeply does it impress itself +upon the mind, never to be forgotten, when we rejoice to think not +so much of what it is, as from whom we have received it! Crispus +Passienus was wont to say that some men's advice was to be +preferred to their presents, some men's presents to their advice; +and he added as an example, "I would rather have received advice +from Augustus than a present; I would rather receive a present from +Claudius than advice." I, however, think that one ought not to wish +for a benefit from any man whose judgement is worthless. What then? +Ought we not to receive what Claudius gives? We ought; but we ought +to regard it as obtained from fortune, which may at any moment turn +against us. Why do we separate this which naturally is connected? +That is not a benefit, to which the best part of a benefit, that it +be bestowed with judgment, is wanting: a really great sum of money, +if it be given neither with discernment nor with good will, is no +more a benefit than if it remained hoarded. There are, however, +many things which we ought not to reject, yet for which we cannot +feel indebted. + + + + +BOOK II. + +I. + + +Let us consider, most excellent Liberalis, what still remains of +the earlier part of the subject; in what way a benefit should be +bestowed. I think that I can point out the shortest way to this; +let us give in the way in which we ourselves should like to +receive. Above all we should give willingly, quickly, and without +any hesitation; a benefit commands no gratitude if it has hung for +a long time in the hands of the giver, if he seems unwilling to +part with it, and gives it as though he were being robbed of it. +Even though some delay should intervene, let us by all means in our +power strive not to seem to have been in two minds about giving it +at all. To hesitate is the next thing to refusing to give, and +destroys all claim to gratitude. For just as the sweetest part of a +benefit is the kindly feeling of the giver, it follows that one who +has by his very delay proved that he gives unwillingly, must be +regarded not as having given anything, but as having been unable to +keep it from an importunate suitor. Indeed, many men are made +generous by want of firmness. The most acceptable benefits are +those which are waiting for us to take them, which are easy to be +received, and offer themselves to us, so that the only delay is +caused by the modesty of the receiver. The best thing of all is to +anticipate a person's wishes; the next, to follow them; the former +is the better course, to be beforehand with our friends by giving +them what they want before they ask us for it, for the value of a +gift is much enhanced by sparing an honest man the misery of asking +for it with confusion and blushes. He who gets what he asked for +does not get it for nothing, for indeed, as our austere ancestors +thought, nothing is so dear as that which is bought by prayers. Men +would be much more modest in their petitions to heaven, if these +had to be made publicly; so that even when addressing the gods, +before whom we can with all honour bend our knees, we prefer to +pray silently and within ourselves. + +II. It is unpleasant, burdensome, and covers one with shame to have +to say, "Give me." You should spare your friends, and those whom +you wish to make your friends, from having to do this; however +quick he may be, a man gives too late who gives what he has been +asked for. We ought, therefore, to divine every man's wishes, and +when we have discovered them, to set him free from the hard +necessity of asking; you may be sure that a benefit which comes +unasked will be delightful and will not be forgotten. If we do not +succeed in anticipating our friends, let us at any rate cut them +short when they ask us for anything, so that we may appear to be +reminded of what we meant to do, rather than to have been asked to +do it. Let us assent at once, and by our promptness make it appear +that we meant to do so even before we were solicited. As in dealing +with sick persons much depends upon when food is given, and plain +water given at the right moment sometimes acts as a remedy, so a +benefit, however slight and commonplace it may be, if it be +promptly given without losing a moment of time, gains enormously in +importance, and wins our gratitude more than a far more valuable +present given after long waiting and deliberation. One who gives so +readily must needs give with good will; he therefore gives +cheerfully and shows his disposition in his countenance. + +III. Many who bestow immense benefits spoil them by their silence +or slowness of speech, which gives them an air of moroseness, as +they say "yes" with a face which seems to say "no." How much better +is it to join kind words to kind actions, and to enhance the value +of our gifts by a civil and gracious commendation of them! To cure +your friend of being slow to ask a favour of you, you may join to +your gift the familiar rebuke, "I am angry with you for not having +long ago let me know what you wanted, for having asked for it so +formally, or for having made interest with a third party." "I +congratulate myself that you have been pleased to make trial of me; +hereafter, if you want anything, ask for it as your right; however, +for this time I pardon your want of manners." By so doing you will +cause him to value your friendship more highly than that, whatever +it may have been, which he came to ask of you. The goodness and +kindness of a benefactor never appears so great as when on leaving +him one says, "I have to-day gained much; I am more pleased at +finding him so kind than if I had obtained many times more of this, +of which I was speaking, by some other means; I never can make any +adequate return to this man for his goodness." + +IV. Many, however, there are who, by harsh words and contemptuous +manner, make their very kindnesses odious, for by speaking and +acting disdainfully they make us sorry that they have granted our +requests. Various delays also take place after we have obtained a +promise; and nothing is more heartbreaking than to be forced to beg +for the very thing which you already have been promised. Benefits +ought to be bestowed at once, but from some persons it is easier to +obtain the promise of them than to get them. One man has to be +asked to remind our benefactor of his purpose; another, to bring it +into effect; and thus a single present is worn away in passing +through many hands, until hardly any gratitude is left for the +original promiser, since whoever we are forced to solicit after the +giving of the promise receives some of the gratitude which we owe +to the giver. Take care, therefore, if you wish your gifts to be +esteemed, that they reach those to whom they are promised entire, +and, as the saying is, without any deduction. Let no one intercept +them or delay them; for no one can take any share of the gratitude +due for your gifts without robbing you of it. + +V. Nothing is more bitter than long uncertainty; some can bear to +have their hopes extinguished better than to have them deferred. Yet +many men are led by an unworthy vanity into this fault of putting +off the accomplishment of their promises, merely in order to swell +the crowd of their suitors, like the ministers of royalty, who +delight in prolonging the display of their own arrogance, hardly +thinking themselves possessed of power unless they let each man see +for a long time how powerful they are. They do nothing promptly, or +at one sitting; they are indeed swift to do mischief, but slow to do +good. Be sure that the comic poet speaks the most absolute truth in +the verses:-- + + "Know you not this? If you your gifts delay, + You take thereby my gratitude away." + +And the following lines, the expression of virtuous pain--a high- +spirited man's misery,-- + + "What thou doest, do quickly;" + +and:-- + + "Nothing in the world + Is worth this trouble; I had rather you + Refused it to me now." + +When the mind begins through weariness to hate the promised +benefit, or while it is wavering in expectation of it, how can it +feel grateful for it? As the most refined cruelty is that which +prolongs the torture, while to kill the victim at once is a kind of +mercy, since the extremity of torture brings its own end with it-- +the interval is the worst part of the execution--so the shorter +time a benefit hangs in the balance, the more grateful it is to the +receiver. It is possible to look forward with anxious disquietude +even to good things, and, seeing that most benefits consist in a +release from some form of misery, a man destroys the value of the +benefit which he confers, if he has the power to relieve us, and +yet allows us to suffer or to lack pleasure longer than we need. +Kindness always eager to do good, and one who acts by love +naturally acts at once; he who does us good, but does it tardily +and with long delays, does not do so from the heart. Thus he loses +two most important things: time, and the proof of his good will to +us; for a lingering consent is but a form of denial. + +VI. The manner in which things are said or done, my Liberalis, +forms a very important part of every transaction. We gain much by +quickness, and lose much by slowness. Just as in darts, the +strength of the iron head remains the same, but there is an +immeasureable difference between the blow of one hurled with the +full swing of the arm and one which merely drops from the hand, and +the same sword either grazes or pierces according as the blow is +delivered; so, in like manner, that which is given is the same, but +the manner in which it is given makes the difference. How sweet, +how precious is a gift, when he who gives does not permit himself +to be thanked, and when while he gives he forgets that he has +given! To reproach a man at the very moment that you are doing him +a service is sheer madness; it is to mix insult with your favours. +We ought not to make our benefits burdensome, or to add any +bitterness to them. Even if there be some subject upon which you +wish to warn your friend, choose some other time for doing so. + +VII. Fabius Verrucosus used to compare a benefit bestowed by a +harsh man in an offensive manner to a gritty loaf of bread, which a +hungry man is obliged to receive, but which is painful to eat. When +Marius Nepos of the praetorian guard asked Tiberius Caesar for help +to pay his debts, Tiberius asked him for a list of his creditors; +this is calling a meeting of creditors, not paying debts. When the +list was made out, Tiberius wrote to Nepos telling him that he had +ordered the money to be paid, and adding some offensive reproaches. +The result of this was that Nepos owed no debts, yet received no +kindness; Tiberius, indeed, relieved him from his creditors, but +laid him under no obligation. Tiberius, however, had some design in +doing so; I imagine he did not wish more of his friends to come to +him with the same request. His mode of proceeding was, perhaps, +successful in restraining men's extravagant desires by shame, but +he who wishes to confer benefits must follow quite a different +path. In all ways you should make your benefit as acceptable as +possible by presenting it in the most attractive form; but the +method of Tiberius is not to confer benefits, but to reproach. + +VIII. Moreover, if incidentally I should say what I think of this +part of the subject, I do not consider that it is becoming even to +an emperor to give merely in order to cover a man with shame. "And +yet," we are told, "Tiberius did not even by this means attain his +object; for after this a good many persons were found to make the +same request. He ordered all of them to explain the reasons of +their indebtedness before the senate, and when they did so, granted +them certain definite sums of money." This is not an act of +generosity, but a reprimand. You may call it a subsidy, or an +imperial contribution; it is not a benefit, for the receiver cannot +think of it without shame. I was summoned before a judge, and had +to be tried at bar before I obtained what I asked for. + +IX. Accordingly, all writers on ethical philosophy tell us that +some benefits ought to be given in secret, others in public. Those +things which it is glorious to receive, such as military +decorations or public offices, and whatever else gains in value the +more widely it is known, should be conferred in public; on the +other hand, when they do not promote a man or add to his social +standing, but help him when in weakness, in want, or in disgrace, +they should be given silently, and so as to be known only to those +who profit by them. + +X. Sometimes even the person who is assisted must be deceived, in +order that he may receive our bounty without knowing the source +from whence it flows. It is said that Arcesilaus had a friend who +was poor, but concealed his poverty; who was ill, yet tried to hide +his disorder, and who had not money for the necessary expenses of +existence. Without his knowledge, Arcesilaus placed a bag of money +under his pillow, in order that this victim of false shame might +rather seem to find what he wanted than to receive. "What," say +you, "ought he not to know from whom he received it?" Yes; let him +not know it at first, if it be essential to your kindness that he +should not; afterwards I will do so much for him, and give him so +much that he will perceive who was the giver of the former benefit; +or, better still, let him not know that he has received any thing, +provided I know that I have given it. "This," you say, "is to get +too little return for one's goodness." True, if it be an investment +of which you are thinking; but if a gift, it should be given in the +way which will be of most service to the receiver. You should be +satisfied with the approval of your own conscience; if not, you do +not really delight in doing good, but in being seen to do good. +"For all that," say you, "I wish him to know it." Is it a debtor +that you seek for? "For all that, I wish him to know it." What! +though it be more useful, more creditable, more pleasant for him +not to know his benefactor, will you not consent to stand aside? "I +wish him to know." So, then, you would not save a man's life in the +dark? I do not deny that, whenever the matter admits of it, one +ought to take into consideration the pleasure which we receive from +the joy of the receiver of our kindness; but if he ought to have +help and is ashamed to receive it--if what we bestow upon him pains +him unless it be concealed--I forbear to make my benefits public. +Why should I not refrain from hinting at my having given him +anything, when the first and most essential rule is, never to +reproach a man with what you have done for him, and not even to +remind him of it. The rule for the giver and receiver of a benefit +is, that the one should straightway forget that he has given, the +other should never forget that he has received it. + +XI. A constant reference to one's own services wounds our friend's +feelings. Like the man who was saved from the proscription under +the triumvirate by one of Caesar's friends, and afterwards found it +impossible to endure his preserver's arrogance, they wish to cry, +"Give me back to Caesar." How long will you go on saying, "I saved +you, I snatched you from the jaws of death?" This is indeed life, +if I remember it by my own will, but death if I remember it at +yours; I owe you nothing, if you saved me merely in order to have +some one to point at. How long do you mean to lead me about? how +long do you mean to forbid me to forget my adventure? If I had been +a defeated enemy, I should have been led in triumph but once. We +ought not to speak of the benefits which we have conferred; to +remind men of them is to ask them to return them. We should not +obtrude them, or recall the memory of them; you should only remind +a man of what you have given him by giving him something else. We +ought not even to tell others of our good deeds. He who confers a +benefit should be silent, it should be told by the receiver; for +otherwise you may receive the retort which was made to one who was +everywhere boasting of the benefit which he had conferred: "You +will not deny," said his victim, "that you have received a return +for it?" "When?" asked he. "Often," said the other, "and in many +places, that is, wherever and whenever you have told the story." +What need is there for you to speak, and to take the place which +belongs to another? There is a man who can tell the story in a way +much more to your credit, and thus you will gain glory for not +telling it your self. You would think me ungrateful if, through +your own silence, no one is to know of your benefit. So far from +doing this, even if any one tells the story in our presence, we +ought to make answer, "He does indeed deserve much more than this, +and I am aware that I have not hitherto done any great things for +him, although I wish to do so." This should not be said jokingly, +nor yet with that air by which some persons repel those whom they +especially wish to attract. In addition to this, we ought to act +with the greatest politeness towards such persons. If the farmer +ceases his labours after he has put in the seed, he will lose what +he has sown; it is only by great pains that seeds are brought to +yield a crop; no plant will bear fruit unless it be tended with +equal care from first to last, and the same rule is true of +benefits. Can any benefits be greater than those which children +receive from their parents? Yet these benefits are useless if they +be deserted while young, if the pious care of the parents does not +for a long time watch over the gift which they have bestowed. So it +is with other benefits; unless you help them, you will lose them; +to give is not enough, you must foster what you have given. If you +wish those whom you lay under an obligation to be grateful to you, +you must not merely confer benefits upon them, but you must also +love them. Above all, as I said before, spare their ears; you will +weary them if you remind them of your goodness, if you reproach +them with it you will make them hate you. Pride ought above all +things to be avoided when you confer a benefit. What need have you +for disdainful airs, or swelling phrases? the act itself will exalt +you. Let us shun vain boasting: let us be silent, and let our deeds +speak for us. A benefit conferred with haughtiness not only wins no +gratitude, but causes dislike. + +XII. Gaius Caesar granted Pompeius Pennus his life, that is, if not +to take away life be to grant it; then, when Pompeius was set free +and returning thanks to him, he stretched out his left foot to be +kissed. Those who excuse this action, and say that it was not done +through arrogance, say that he wished to show him a gilded, nay a +golden slipper studded with pearls. "Well," say they, "what +disgrace can there be in a man of consular rank kissing gold and +pearls, and what part of Caesar's whole body was it less pollution +to kiss?" So, then, that man, the object of whose life was to +change a free state into a Persian despotism, was not satisfied +when a senator, an aged man, a man who had filled the highest +offices in the state, prostrated himself before him in the presence +of all the nobles, just as the vanquished prostrate themselves +before their conqueror! He discovered a place below his knees down +to which he might thrust liberty. What is this but trampling upon +the commonwealth, and that, too, with the left foot, though you may +say that this point does not signify? It was not a sufficiently +foul and frantic outrage for the emperor to sit at the trial of a +consular for his life wearing slippers, he must needs push his +shoes into a senator's face. + +XIII. O pride, the silliest fault of great good fortune! how +pleasant it is to take nothing from thee! how dost thou turn all +benefits into outrages! how dost thou delight in all excess! how +ill all things become thee! The higher thou risest the lower thou +art, and provest that the good things by which thou art so puffed +up profit thee not; thou spoilest all that thou givest. It is worth +while to inquire why it is that pride thus swaggers and changes the +form and appearance of her countenance, so that she prefers a mask +to her own face. It is pleasant to receive gifts when they are +conferred in a kindly and gentle manner, when a superior in giving +them does not exalt himself over me, but shows as much good feeling +as possible, placing himself on a level with me, giving without +parade, and choosing a time when I am glad of his help, rather than +waiting till I am in the bitterest need. The only way by which you +can prevail upon proud men not to spoil their gifts by their +arrogance is by proving to them that benefits do not appear greater +because they are bestowed with great pomp and circumstance; that no +one will think them greater men for so doing, and that excessive +pride is a mere delusion which leads men to hate even what they +ought to love. + +XIV. There are some things which injure those who receive them, +things which it is not a benefit to give but to withhold; we should +therefore consider the usefulness of our gift rather than the wish +of the petitioner to receive it; for we often long for hurtful +things, and are unable to discern how ruinous they are, because our +judgment is biassed by our feelings; when, however, the longing is +past, when that frenzied impulse which masters our good sense has +passed away, we abhor those who have given us hurtful gifts. As we +refuse cold water to the sick, or swords to the grief-stricken or +remorseful, and take from the insane whatever they might in their +delirium use to their own destruction, so must we persist in +refusing to give anything whatever that is hurtful, although our +friends earnestly and humbly, nay, sometimes even most piteously +beg for it. We ought to look at the end of our benefits as well +as the beginning, and not merely to give what men are glad to +receive, but what they will hereafter be glad to have received. +There are many who say, "I know that this will do him no good, but +what am I to do? he begs for it, I cannot withstand his entreaties. +Let him see to it; he will blame himself, not me." Not so: you he +will blame, and deservedly; when he comes to his right mind, when +the frenzy which now excites him has left him, how can he help +hating the man who has assisted him to harm and to endanger +himself? It is a cruel kindness to allow one's self to be won over +into granting that which injures those who beg for it. Just as it +is the noblest of acts to save men from harm against their will, so +it is but hatred, under the mask of civility, to grant what is +harmful to those who ask for it. Let us confer benefits of such a +kind, that the more they are made use of the better they please, +and which never can turn into injuries. I never will give money to +a man if I know that he will pay it to an adulteress, nor will I be +found in connexion with any wicked act or plan; if possible, I will +restrain men from crime; if not, at least I will never assist them +in it. Whether my friend be driven into doing wrong by anger, or +seduced from the path of safety by the heat of ambition, he shall +never gain the means of doing mischief except from himself, nor +will I enable him one day to say, "He ruined me out of love for +me." Our friends often give us what our enemies wish us to receive; +we are driven by the unseasonable fondness of the former into the +ruin which the latter hope will befall us. Yet, often as it is the +case, what can be more shameful than that there should be no +difference between a benefit and hatred? + +XV. Let us never bestow gifts which may recoil upon us to our +shame. As the sum total of friendship consists in making our +friends equal to ourselves, we ought to consider the interests of +both parties; I must give to him that wants, yet so that I do not +want myself; I must help him who is perishing, yet so that I do not +perish myself, unless by so doing I can save a great man or a great +cause. I must give no benefit which it would disgrace me to ask +for. I ought not to make a small benefit appear a great one, nor +allow great benefits to be regarded as small; for although it +destroys all feeling of gratitude to treat what you give like a +creditor, yet you do not reproach a man, but merely set off your +gift to the best advantage by letting him know what it is worth. +Every man must consider what his resources and powers are, so that +we may not give either more or less than we are able. We must also +consider the character and position of the person to whom we give, +for some men are too great to give small gifts, while others are +too small to receive great ones. Compare, therefore, the character +both of the giver and the receiver, and weigh that which you give +between the two, taking care that what is given be neither too +burdensome nor too trivial for the one to give, nor yet such as the +receiver will either treat with disdain as too small, or think too +great for him to deal with. + +XVI. Alexander, who was of unsound mind, and always full of +magnificent ideas, presented somebody with a city. When the man to +whom he gave it had reflected upon the scope of his own powers, he +wished to avoid the jealousy which so great a present would excite, +saying that the gift did not suit a man of his position. "I do not +ask," replied Alexander, "what is becoming for you to receive, but +what is becoming for me to give." This seems a spirited and kingly +speech, yet really it is a most foolish one. Nothing is by itself a +becoming gift for any one: all depends upon who gives it, to whom +he gives it, when, for what reason, where, and so forth, without +which details it is impossible to argue about it. Inflated +creature! if it did not become him to receive this gift, it could +not become thee to give it. There should be a proportion between +men's characters and the offices which they fill; and as virtue in +all cases should be our measure, he who gives too much acts as +wrongly as he who gives too little. Even granting that fortune has +raised you so high, that, where other men give cups, you give +cities (which it would show a greater mind in you not to take than +to take and squander), still there must be some of your friends who +are not strong enough to put a city in their pockets. + +XVII. A certain cynic asked Antigonus for a talent. Antigonus +answered that this was too much for a cynic to ask for. After this +rebuff he asked for a penny. Antigonus answered that this was too +little for a king to give. "This kind of hair-splitting" (you say) +"is contemptible: he found the means of giving neither. In the +matter of the penny he thought of the king, in that of the talent +he thought of the cynic, whereas with respect to the cynic it would +have been right to receive the penny, with respect to the king it +would have been right to give the talent. Though there may be +things which are too great for a cynic to receive, yet nothing is +so small, that it does not become a gracious king to bestow it." If +you ask me, I applaud Antigonus; for it is not to be endured that a +man who despises money should ask for it. Your cynic has publicly +proclaimed his hatred of money, and assumed the character of one +who despises it: let him act up to his professions. It is most +inconsistent for him to earn money by glorifying his poverty. I +wish to use Chrysippus's simile of the game of ball, in which the +ball must certainly fall by the fault either of the thrower or of +the catcher; it only holds its course when it passes between the +hands of two persons who each throw it and catch it suitably. It is +necessary, however, for a good player to send the ball in one way +to a comrade at a long distance, and in another to one at a short +distance. So it is with a benefit: unless it be suitable both for +the giver and the receiver, it will neither leave the one nor reach +the other as it ought. If we have to do with a practised and +skilled player, we shall throw the ball more recklessly, for +however it may come, that quick and agile hand will send it back +again; if we are playing with an unskilled novice, we shall not +throw it so hard, but far more gently, guiding it straight into his +very hands, and we shall run to meet it when it returns to us. This +is just what we ought to do in conferring benefits; let us teach +some men how to do so, and be satisfied if they attempt it, if they +have the courage and the will to do so. For the most part, however, +we make men ungrateful, and encourage them, to be so, as if our +benefits were only great when we cannot receive any gratitude for +them; just as some spiteful ball-players purposely put out their +companion, of course to the ruin of the game, which cannot be +carried on without entire agreement Many men are of so depraved a +nature that they had rather lose the presents which they make than +be thought to have received a return for them, because they are +proud, and like to lay people under obligations: yet how much +better and more kindly would it be if they tried to enable the +others also to perform their parts, if they encouraged them in +returning gratitude, put the best construction upon all their acts, +received one who wished to thank them just as cordially as if he +came to repay what he had received, and easily lent themselves to +the belief that those whom they have laid under an obligation wish +to repay it. We blame usurers equally when they press harshly for +payment, and when they delay and make difficulties about taking +back the money which they have lent; in the same way, it is just as +right that a benefit should be returned, as it is wrong to ask any +one to return it. The best man is he who gives readily, never asks +for any return, and is delighted when the return is made, because, +having really and truly forgotten what he gave, he receives it as +though it were a present. + +XVIII. Some men not only give, but even receive benefit haughtily, a +mistake into which we ought not to fall: for now let us cross over +to the other side of the subject, and consider how men should behave +when they receive benefits. Every function which is performed by two +persons makes equal demands upon both: after you have considered +what a father ought to be, you will perceive that there remains an +equal task, that of considering what a son ought to be: a husband +has certain duties, but those of a wife are no less important. Each +of these give and take equally, and each require a similar rule of +life, which, as Hecaton observes, is hard to follow: indeed, it is +difficult for us to attain to virtue, or even to anything that comes +near virtue: for we ought not only to act virtuously but to do so +upon principle. We ought to follow this guide throughout our lives, +and to do everything great and small according to its dictates: +according as virtue prompts us we ought both to give and to +receive. Now she will declare at the outset that we ought not to +receive benefits from every man. "From whom, then, ought we to +receive them?" To answer you briefly, I should say, from those to +whom we have given them. Let us consider whether we ought not to be +even more careful in choosing to whom we should owe than to whom we +should give. For even supposing that no unpleasantness should +result (and very much always does), still it is a great misery to +be indebted to a man to whom you do not wish to be under an +obligation; whereas it is most delightful to receive a benefit from +one whom you can love even after he has wronged you, and when the +pleasure which you feel in his friendship is justified by the +grounds on which it is based. Nothing is more wretched for a modest +and honourable man than to feel it to be his duty to love one whom +it does not please him to love. I must constantly remind you that I +do not speak of wise men, who take pleasure in everything that is +their duty, who have their feelings under command, and are able to +lay down whatever law they please to themselves and keep it, but +that I speak of imperfect beings struggling to follow the right +path, who often have trouble in bending their passions to their +will. I must therefore choose the man from whom I will accept a +benefit; indeed, I ought to be more careful in the choice of my +creditor for a benefit than for money; for I have only to pay the +latter as much as I received of him, land when I have paid it I am +free from all obligation; but to the other I must both repay more, +and even when I have repaid his kindness we remain connected, for +when I have paid my debt I ought again to renew it, while our +friendship endures unbroken. Thus, as I ought not to make an +unworthy man my friend, so I ought not to admit an unworthy man +into that most holy bond of gratitude for benefits, from which +friendship arises. You reply, "I cannot always say 'No': sometimes +I must receive a benefit even against my will. Suppose I were given +something by a cruel and easily offended tyrant, who would take it +as an affront if his bounty were slighted? am I not to accept it? +Suppose it were offered by a pirate, or a brigand, or a king of the +temper of a pirate or brigand. What ought I to do? Such a man is +not a worthy object for me to owe a benefit to." When I say that +you ought to choose, I except vis major and fear, which destroy all +power of choice. If you are free, if it lies with you to decide +whether you will or not, then you will turn over in your own mind +whether you will take a gift from a man or not; but if your +position makes it impossible for you to choose, then be assured +that you do not receive a gift, you merely obey orders. No one +incurs any obligation by receiving what it was not in his power to +refuse; if you want to know whether I wish to take it, arrange +matters so that I have the power of saying 'No.' "Yet suppose he +gave you your life." It does not matter what the gift was, unless +it be given and received with good will: you are not my preserver +because you have saved my life. Poison sometimes acts as a +medicine, yet it is not on that account regarded as wholesome. Some +things benefit us but put us under no obligation: for instance a +man who intended to kill a tyrant, cut with his sword a tumour from +which he suffered: yet the tyrant did not show him gratitude +because by wounding him he had healed a disease which surgeons had +feared to meddle with. + +XIX. You see that the actual thing itself is not of much +importance, because it is not regarded as a benefit at all, if you +do good when you intended to do evil; in such a case the benefit is +done by chance, the man did harm. I have seen a lion in the +amphitheatre, who recognized one of the men who fought with wild +beasts, who once had been his keeper, and protected him against the +attacks of the other animals. Are we, then, to say that this +assistance of the brute was a benefit? By no means, because it did +not intend to do it, and did not do it with kindly intentions. You +may class the lion and your tyrant together: each of them saved a +man's life, yet neither conferred a benefit. Because it is not a +benefit to be forced to receive one, neither is it a benefit to be +under an obligation to a man to whom we do not wish to be indebted. +You must first give me personal freedom of decision, and then your +benefit. + +XX. The question has been raised, whether Marcus Brutus ought to +have received his life from the hands of Julius Caesar, who, he had +decided, ought to be put to death. + +As to the grounds upon which he put him to death, I shall discuss +them elsewhere; for to my mind, though he was in other respects a +great man, in this he seems to have been entirely wrong, and not to +have followed the maxims of the Stoic philosophy. He must either +have feared the name of "King," although a state thrives best under +a good king, or he must have hoped that liberty could exist in a +state where some had so much to gain by reigning, and others had so +much to gain by becoming slaves. Or, again, he must have supposed +that it would be possible to restore the ancient constitution after +all the ancient manners had been lost, and that citizens could +continue to possess equal rights, or laws remain inviolate, in a +state in which he had seen so many thousands of men fighting to +decide, not whether they should be slaves or free, but which master +they should serve. How forgetful he seems to have been, both of +human nature and of the history of his own country, in supposing +that when one despot was destroyed another of the same temper would +not take his place, though, after so many kings had perished by +lightning and the sword, a Tarquin was found to reign! Yet Brutus +did right in receiving his life from Caesar, though he was not +bound thereby to regard Caesar as his father, since it was by a +wrong that Caesar had come to be in a position to bestow this +benefit. A man does not save your life who does not kill you; nor +does he confer a benefit, but merely gives you your discharge. [The +'discharge' alluded to is that which was granted to the beaten one +of a pair of gladiators, when their duel was not to the death.] + +XXI. It seems to offer more opportunity for debate to consider what +a captive ought to do, if a man of abominable vices offers him the +price of his ransom? Shall I permit myself to be saved by a wretch? +When safe, what recompense can I make to him? Am I to live with an +infamous person? Yet, am I not to live with my preserver? I will +tell you my opinion. I would accept money, even from such a person, +if it were to save my life; yet I would only accept it as a loan, +not as a benefit. I would repay him the money, and if I were ever +able to preserve him from danger I would do so. As for friendship, +which can only exist between equals, I would not condescend to be +such a man's friend; nor would I regard him as my preserver, but +merely as a money-lender, to whom I am only bound to repay what I +borrowed from him. + +A man may be a worthy person for me to receive a benefit from, but +it will hurt him to give it. For this reason I will not receive it, +because he is ready to help me to his own prejudice, or even +danger. Suppose that he is willing to plead for me in court, but by +so doing will make the king his enemy. I should be his enemy, if, +when he is willing to risk himself for me, if I were not to risk +myself without him, which moreover is easier for me to do. + +As an instance of this, Hecaton calls the case of Arcesilaus silly, +and not to the purpose. Arcesilaus, he says, refused to receive a +large sum of money which was offered to him by a son, lest the son +should offend his penurious father. What did he do deserving of +praise, in not receiving stolen goods, in choosing not to receive +them, instead of returning them? What proof of self-restraint is +there in refusing to receive another man's property. If you want an +instance of magnanimity, take the case of Julius Graecinus, whom +Caius Caesar put to death merely on the ground that he was a better +man than it suited a tyrant for anyone to be. This man, when he was +receiving subscriptions from many of his friends to cover his +expenses in exhibiting public games, would not receive a large sum +which was sent him by Fabius Persicus; and when he was blamed for +rejecting it by those who think more of what is given than of who +gives it, he answered, "Am I to accept a present from a man when I +would not accept his offer to drink a glass of wine with him?" + +When a consular named Rebilius, a man of equally bad character, +sent a yet larger sum to Graecinus, and pressed him to receive it. +"I must beg," answered he, "that you will excuse me. I did not take +money from Persicus either." Ought we to call this receiving +presents, or rather taking one's pick of the senate? + +XXII. When we have decided to accept, let us accept with +cheerfulness, showing pleasure, and letting the giver see it, so +that he may at once receive some return for his goodness: for as it +is a good reason for rejoicing to see our friend happy, it is a +better one to have made him so. Let us, therefore, show how +acceptable a gift is by loudly expressing our gratitude for it; and +let us do so, not only in the hearing of the giver, but everywhere. +He who receives a benefit with gratitude, repays the first +instalment of it. + +XXIII. There are some, who only like to receive benefits privately: +they dislike having any witnesses and confidants. Such men, we may +believe, have no good intentions. As a giver is justified in +dwelling upon those qualities of his gift which will please the +receiver, so a man, when he receives, should do so publicly; you +should not take from a man what you are ashamed to owe him. Some +return thanks to one stealthily, in a corner, in a whisper. This is +not modesty, but a kind of denying of the debt: it is the part of +an ungrateful man not to express his gratitude before witnesses. +Some object to any accounts being kept between them and their +benefactors, and wish no brokers to be employed or witnesses to be +called, but merely to give their own signature to a receipt. Those +men do the like, who take care to let as few persons as possible +know of the benefits which they have received. They fear to receive +them in public, in order that their success may be attributed +rather to their own talents than to the help of others: they are +very seldom to be found in attendance upon those to whom they owe +their lives and their fortunes, and thus, while avoiding the +imputation of servility, they incur that of ingratitude. + +XXIV. Some men speak in the most offensive terms of those to whom +they owe most. There are men whom it is safer to affront than to +serve, for their dislike leads them to assume the airs of persons +who are not indebted to us: although nothing more is expected of +them than that they should remember what they owe us, refreshing +their memory from time to time, because no one can be grateful who +forgets a kindness, and he who remembers it, by so doing proves his +gratitude. We ought neither to receive benefits with a fastidious +air, nor yet with a slavish humility: for if a man does not care +for a benefit when it is freshly bestowed--a time at which all +presents please us most--what will he do when its first charms have +gone off? Others receive with an air of disdain, as much as to say. +"I do not want it; but as you wish it so very much, I will allow +you to give it to me." Others take benefits languidly, and leave +the giver in doubt as to whether they know that they have received +them; others barely open their lips in thanks, and would be less +offensive if they said nothing. One ought to proportion one's +thanks to the importance of the benefit received, and to use the +phrases, "You have laid more of us than you think under an +obligation," for everyone likes to find his good actions extend +further than he expected. "You do not know what it is that you have +done for me; but you ought to know how much more important it is +than you imagine." It is in itself an expression of gratitude to +speak of one's self as overwhelmed by kindness; or "I shall never +be able to thank you sufficiently; but, at any rate, I will never +cease to express everywhere my inability to thank you." + +XXV. By nothing did Furnius gain greater credit with Augustus, and +make it easy for him to obtain anything else for which he might +ask, than by merely saying, when at his request Augustus pardoned +his father for having taken Antonius's side, "One wrong alone I +have received at your hands, Caesar; you have forced me to live and +to die owing you a greater debt of gratitude than I can ever +repay." What can prove gratitude so well as that a man should never +be satisfied, should never even entertain the hope of making any +adequate return for what he has received? By these and similar +expressions we must try not to conceal our gratitude, but to +display it as clearly as possible. No words need be used; if we +only feel as we ought, our thankfulness will be shown in our +countenances. He who intends to be grateful, let him think how he +shall repay a kindness while he is receiving it. Chrysippus says +that such a man must watch for his opportunity, and spring forward +whenever it offers, like one who has been entered for a race, and +who stands at the starting-point waiting for the barriers to be +thrown open; and even then he must use great exertions and great +swiftness to catch the other, who has a start of him. + +XXVI. We must now consider what is the main cause of ingratitude. +It is caused by excessive self-esteem, by that fault innate in all +mortals, of taking a partial view of ourselves and our own acts, by +greed, or by jealousy. + +Let us begin with the first of these. Every one is prejudiced in +his own favour, from which it follows that he believes himself to +have earned all that he receives, regards it as payment for his +services, and does not think that he has been appraised at a +valuation sufficiently near his own. "He has given me this," says +he, "but how late, after how much toil? how much more might I have +earned if I had attached myself to So and so, or to So and so? I +did not expect this; I have been treated like one of the herd; did +he really think that I only deserved so little? why, it would have +been less insulting to have passed me over altogether." + +XXVII. The augur Cnaeus Lentulus, who, before his freedmen reduced +him to poverty, was one of the richest of men, who saw himself in +possession of a fortune of four hundred millions--I say advisedly, +"saw," for he never did more than see it--was as barren and +contemptible in intellect as he was in spirit. Though very +avaricious, yet he was so poor a speaker that he found it easier to +give men coins than words. This man, who owed all his prosperity to +the late Emperor Augustus, to whom he had brought only poverty, +encumbered with a noble name, when he had risen to be the chief man +in Rome, both in wealth and influence, used sometimes to complain +that Augustus had interrupted his legal studies, observing that he +had not received anything like what he had lost by giving up the +study of eloquence. Yet the truth was that Augustus, besides +loading him with other gifts, had set him free from the necessity +of making himself ridiculous by labouring at a profession in which +he never could succeed. + +Greed does not permit any one to be grateful; for what is given is +never equal to its base desires, and the more we receive the more +we covet, for avarice is much more eager when it has to deal with +great accumulations of wealth, just as the power of a flame is +enormously greater in proportion to the size of the conflagration +from which it springs. Ambition in like manner suffers no man to +rest satisfied with that measure of public honours, to gain which +was once the limit of his wildest hope; no one is thankful for +becoming tribune, but grumbles at not being at once promoted to the +post of praetor; nor is he grateful for this if the consulship does +not follow; and even this does not satisfy him if he be consul but +once. His greed ever stretches itself out further, and he does not +understand the greatness of his success because he always looks +forward to the point at which he aims, and never back towards that +from which he started. + +XXVIII. A more violent and distressing vice than any of these is +jealousy which disturbs us by suggesting comparisons. "He gave me +this, but he gave more to that man, and he gave it to him before +me;" after which he sympathises with no one, but pushes his own +claims to the prejudice of every one else. How much more +straightforward and modest is it to make the most of what we have +received, knowing that no man is valued so highly by any one else +as by his own, self! "I ought to have received more, but it was not +easy for him to give more; he was obliged to distribute his +liberality among many persons. This is only the beginning; let me +be contented, and by my gratitude encourage him to show me more +favour; he has not done as much as he ought, but he will do so the +more frequently; he certainly preferred that man to me, but he has +preferred me before many others; that man is not my equal either in +virtue or in services, but he has some charm of his own: by +complaining I shall not make myself deserve to receive more, but +shall become unworthy of what I have received. More has been given +to those most villainous men than has been given to me; well, what +is that to the purpose? how seldom does Fortune show judgment in +her choice? We complain every day of the success of bad men; very +often the hail passes over the estates of the greatest villains and +strikes down the crops of the best of men; every man has to take +his chance, in friendship as well as in everything else." There is +no benefit so great that spitefulness can pick no holes in it, none +so paltry that it cannot be made more of by friendly +interpretation. We shall never want a subject for complaint if we +look at benefits on their wrong side. + +XXIX. See how unjustly the gifts of heaven are valued even by some +who profess themselves philosophers, who complain that we are not +as big as elephants, as swift as stags, as light as birds, as +strong as bulls; that the skins of seals are stronger, of hinds +prettier, of bears thicker, of beavers softer than ours; that dogs +excel us in delicacy of scent, eagles in keenness of sight, crows +in length of days, and many beasts in ease of swimming. And +although nature itself does not allow some qualities, as for +example strength and swiftness, to be combined in the same person, +yet they call it a monstrous thing that men are not compounded of +different and inconsistent good qualities, and call the gods +neglectful of us because we have not been given health which even +our vices cannot destroy, or knowledge of the future. They scarcely +refrain from rising to such a pitch of impudence as to hate nature +because we are below the gods, and not on an equality with them. +How much better is it to turn to the contemplation of so many great +blessings, and to be thankful that the gods have been pleased to +give us a place second only to themselves in this most beautiful +abode, and that they have appointed us to be the lords of the +earth! Can any one compare us with the animals over whom we rule? +Nothing has been denied us except what could not have been granted. +In like manner, thou that takest an unfair view of the lot of +mankind, think what blessings our Father has bestowed upon us, how +far more powerful animals than ourselves we have broken to harness, +how we catch those which are far swifter, how nothing that has life +is placed beyond the reach of our weapons! We have received so many +excellencies, so many crafts, above all our mind, which can pierce +at once whatever it is directed against, which is swifter than the +stars in their courses, for it arrives before them at the place +which they will reach after many ages; and besides this, so many +fruits of the earth, so much treasure, such masses of various +things piled one upon another. You may go through the whole order +of nature, and since you find no entire creature which you would +prefer to be, you may choose from each, the special qualities which +you would like to be given to yourself; then, if you rightly +appreciate the partiality of nature for you, you cannot but confess +yourself to be her spoiled child. So it is; the immortal gods have +unto this day always held us most dear, and have bestowed upon us +the greatest possible honour, a place nearest to themselves. We +have indeed received great things, yet not too great. + +XXX. I have thought it necessary, my friend Liberalis, to state +these facts, both because when speaking of small benefits one ought +to make some mention of the greatest, and because also this +shameless and hateful vice (of ingratitude), starting with these, +transfers itself from them to all the rest. If a man scorn these, +the greatest of all benefits, to whom will he feel gratitude, what +gift will he regard as valuable or deserving to be returned: to +whom will he be grateful for his safety or his life, if he denies +that he has received from the gods that existence which he begs +from them daily? He, therefore, who teaches men to be grateful, +pleads the cause not only of men, but even of the gods, for though +they, being placed above all desires, cannot be in want of +anything, yet we can nevertheless offer them our gratitude. + +No one is justified in seeking an excuse for ingratitude in his own +weakness or poverty, or in saying, "What am I to do, and how? When +can I repay my debt to my superiors the lords of heaven and earth?" +Avaricious as you are, it is easy for you to give them thanks, +without expense; lazy though you be, you can do it without labour. +At the same instant at which you received your debt towards them, +if you wish to repay it, you have done as much as any one can do, +for he returns a benefit who receives it with good will. + +XXXI. This paradox of the Stoic philosophy, that he returns a +benefit who receives it with good will, is, in my opinion, either +far from admirable, or else it is incredible. For if we look at +everything merely from the point of view of our intentions, every +man has done as much as he chose to do; and since filial piety, +good faith, justice, and in short every virtue is complete within +itself, a man may be grateful in intention even though he may not +be able to lift a hand to prove his gratitude. Whenever a man +obtains what he aimed at, he receives the fruit of his labour. When +a man bestows a benefit, at what does he aim? clearly to be of +service and afford pleasure to him upon whom he bestows it. If he +does what he wishes, if his purpose reaches me and fills us each +with joy, he has gained his object. He does not wish anything to be +given to him in return, or else it becomes an exchange of +commodities, not a bestowal of benefits. A man steers well who +reaches the port for which he started: a dart hurled by a steady +hand performs its duty if it hits the mark; one who bestows a +benefit wishes it to be received with gratitude; he gets what he +wanted if it be well received. "But," you say, "he hoped for some +profit also." Then it was not a benefit, the property of which is +to think nothing of any repayment. I receive what was given me in +the same spirit in which it was given: then I have repaid it. If +this be not true, then this best of deeds has this worst of +conditions attached to it, that it depends entirely upon fortune +whether I am grateful or not, for if my fortune is adverse I can +make no repayment. The intention is enough. "What then? am I not to +do whatever I may be able to repay it, and ought I not ever to be +on the watch for an opportunity of filling the bosom [Footnote: +Sinus, the fold of the toga over the breast, used as a pocket by +the Romans. The great French actor Talma, when dressed for the +first time in correct classical costume, indignantly asked where he +was to put his snuff-box.] of him from whom I have received any +kindness? True; but a benefit is in an evil plight if we cannot be +grateful for it even when we are empty-handed. + +XXXII. "A man," it is argued, "who has received a benefit, however +gratefully he may have received it, has not yet accomplished all +his duty, for there remains the part of repayment; just as in +playing at ball it is something to catch the ball cleverly and +carefully, but a man is not called a good player unless he can +handily and quickly send back the ball which he has caught." This +analogy is imperfect; and why? Because to do this creditably +depends upon the movement and activity of the body, and not upon +the mind: and an act of which we judge entirely by the eye, ought +to be all clearly displayed. But if a man caught the ball as he +ought to do, I should not call him a bad player for not returning +it, if his delay in returning it was not caused by his own fault. +"Yet," say you, "although the player is not wanting in skill, +because he did one part of his duty, and was able to do the other +part, yet in such a case the game is imperfect, for its perfection +lies in sending the ball backwards and forwards." I am unwilling to +expose this fallacy further; let us think that it is the game, not +the player that is imperfect: so likewise in the subject which we +are discussing, the thing which is given lacks something, because +another equal thing ought to be returned for it, but the mind of +the giver lacks nothing, because it has found another mind equal to +itself, and as far as intentions go, has effected what it wished. + +XXXIII. A man bestows a benefit upon me: I receive it just as he +wished it to be received: then he gets at once what he wanted, and +the only thing which he wanted, and therefore I have proved myself +grateful. After this it remains for me to enjoy my own resources, +with the addition of an advantage conferred upon me by one whom I +have obliged; this advantage is not the remainder of an imperfect +service, but an addition to a perfected service. [Footnote: Nothing +is wanted to make a benefit, conferred from good motives, perfect: +if it is returned, the gratitude is to be counted as net profit.] +For example, Phidias makes a statue. Now the product of an art is +one thing, and that of a trade is another. It is the business of +the art to make the thing which he wished to make, and that of the +trade to make it with a profit. Phidias has completed his work, +even though he does not sell it. The product, therefore, of his +work is threefold: there is the consciousness of having made it, +which he receives when his work is completed; there is the fame +which he receives; and thirdly, the advantage which he obtains by +it, in influence, or by selling it, or otherwise. In like manner +the first fruit of a benefit is the consciousness of it, which we +feel when we have bestowed it upon the person whom we chose; +secondly and thirdly there is the credit which we gain by doing so, +and there are those things which we may receive in exchange for it. +So when a benefit has been graciously received, the giver has +already received gratitude, but has not yet received recompense for +it: that which we owe in return is therefore something apart from +the benefit itself, for we have paid for the benefit itself when we +accept it in a grateful spirit. + +XXXIV. "What," say you, "can a man repay a benefit, though he does +nothing?" He has taken the first step, he has offered you a good +thing with good feeling, and, which is the characteristic of +friendship, has placed you both on the same footing. In the next +place, a benefit is not repaid in the same manner as a loan: you +have no reason for expecting me to offer you any payment; the +account between us depends upon the feelings alone. What I say will +not appear difficult, although it may not at first accord with your +ideas, if you will do me the favour to remember that there are more +things than there are words to express them. There is an enormous +mass of things without names, which we do not speak of under +distinctive names of their own, but by the names of other things +transferred to them. We speak of our own foot, of the foot of a +couch, of a sail, or of a poem; we apply the word 'dog' to a hound, +a fish, and a star. Because we have not enough words to assign a +separate name to each thing, we borrow a name whenever we want one. +Bravery is the virtue which rightly despises danger, or the science +of repelling, sustaining, or inviting dangers: yet we call a brave +man a gladiator, and we use the same word for a good-for-nothing +slave, who is led by rashness to defy death. Economy is the science +of avoiding unnecessary expenditure, or the art of using one's +income with moderation: yet we call a man of mean and narrow mind, +most economical, although there is an immeasurable distance between +moderation and meanness. These things are naturally distinct, yet +the poverty of our language compels us to call both these men +economical, just as he who views slight accidents with rational +contempt, and he who without reason runs into danger are alike +called brave. Thus a benefit is both a beneficent action, and also +is that which is bestowed by that action, such as money, a house, +an office in the state: there is but one name for them both, though +their force and power are widely different. + +XXXV. Wherefore, give me your attention, and you will soon perceive +that I say nothing to which you can object. That benefit which +consists of the action is repaid when we receive it graciously; +that other, which consists of something material, we have not then +repaid, but we hope to do so. The debt of goodwill has been +discharged by a return of goodwill; the material debt demands a +material return. Thus, although we may declare that he who has +received a benefit with good-will has returned the favour, yet we +counsel him to return to the giver something of the same kind as +that which he has received. Some part of what we have said departs +from the conventional line of thought, and then rejoins it by +another path. We declare that a wise man cannot receive an injury; +yet, if a man hits him with his fist, that man will be found guilty +of doing him an injury. We declare that a fool can possess nothing; +yet if a man stole anything from a fool, we should find that man +guilty of theft. We declare that all men are mad, yet we do not +dose all men with hellebore; but we put into the hands of these +very persons, whom we call madmen, both the right of voting and of +pronouncing judgment. Similarly, we say that a man who has received +a benefit with good-will has returned the favour, yet we leave him +in debt nevertheless--bound to repay it even though he has repaid +it. This is not to disown benefits, but is an encouragement to us +neither to fear to receive benefits, nor to faint under the too +great burden of them. "Good things have been given to me; I have +been preserved from starving; I have been saved from the misery of +abject poverty; my life, and what is dearer than life, my liberty, +has been preserved. How shall I be able to repay these favours? +When will the day come upon which I can prove my gratitude to him?" +When a man speaks thus, the day has already come. Receive a +benefit, embrace it, rejoice, not that you have received it, but +that you have to owe it and return it; then you will never be in +peril of the great sin of being rendered ungrateful by mischance. I +will not enumerate any difficulties to you, lest you should +despair, and faint at the prospect of a long and laborious +servitude. I do not refer you to the future; do it with what means +you have at hand. You never will be grateful unless you are so +straightway. What, then, will you do? You need not take up arms, +yet perhaps you may have to do so; you need not cross the seas, yet +it may be that you will pay your debt, even when the wind threatens +to blow a gale. Do you wish to return the benefit? Then receive it +graciously; you have then returned the favour--not, indeed, so that +you can think yourself to have repaid it, but so that you can owe +it with a quieter conscience. + + + + +BOOK III. + +I. + + +Not to return gratitude for benefits, my AEbutius Liberalis, is +both base in itself, and is thought base by all men; wherefore even +ungrateful men complain of ingratitude, and yet what all condemn is +at the same time rooted in all; and so far do men sometimes run +into the other extreme that some of them become our bitterest +enemies, not merely after receiving benefits from us, but because +they have received them. I cannot deny that some do this out of +sheer badness of nature; but more do so because lapse of time +destroys their remembrance, for time gradually effaces what they +felt vividly at the moment. I remember having had an argument with +you about this class of persons, whom you wished to call forgetful +rather than ungrateful, as if that which caused a man to be +ungrateful was any excuse for his being so, or as if the fact of +this happening to a man prevented his being ungrateful, when we +know that it only happens to ungrateful men. There are many classes +of the ungrateful, as there are of thieves or of homicides, who all +have the same fault, though there is a great variety in its various +forms. The man is ungrateful who denies that he has received a +benefit; who pretends that he has not received it; who does not +return it. The most ungrateful man of all is he who forgets it. The +others, though they do not repay it, yet feel their debt, and +possess some traces of worth, though obstructed by their bad +conscience. They may by some means and at some time be brought to +show their gratitude, if, for instance, they be pricked by shame, +if they conceive some noble ambition such as occasionally rises +even in the breasts of the wicked, if some easy opportunity of +doing so offers; but the man from whom all recollection of the +benefit has passed away can never become grateful. Which of the two +do you call the worse--he who is ungrateful for kindness, or he who +does not even remember it? The eyes which fear to look at the light +are diseased, but those which cannot see it are blind. It is filial +impiety not to love one's parents, but not to recognise them is +madness. + +II. Who is so ungrateful as he who has so completely laid aside and +cast away that which ought to be in the forefront of his mind and +ever before him, that he knows it not? It is clear that if +forgetfulness of a benefit steals over a man, he cannot have often +thought about repaying it. + +In short, repayment requires gratitude, time, opportunity, and the +help of fortune; whereas, he who remembers a benefit is grateful +for it, and that too without expenditure. Since gratitude demands +neither labour, wealth, nor good fortune, he who fails to render it +has no excuse behind which to shelter himself; for he who places a +benefit so far away that it is out of his sight, never could have +meant to be grateful for it. Just as those tools which are kept in +use, and are daily touched by the hand, are never in danger of +growing rusty, while those which are not brought before our eyes, +and lie as if superfluous, not being required for common use, +collect dirt by the mere lapse of time, so likewise that which our +thoughts frequently turn over and renew never passes from our +memory, which only loses those things to which it seldom directs +its eyes. + +III. Besides this, there are other causes which at times erase the +greatest services from our minds. The first and most powerful of +these is that, being always intent upon new objects of desire, we +think, not of what we have, but of what we are striving to obtain. +Those whose mind is fixed entirely upon what they hope to gain, +regard with contempt all that is their own already. It follows that +since men's eagerness for something new makes them undervalue +whatever they have received, they do not esteem those from whom +they have received it. As long as we are satisfied with the +position we have gained, we love our benefactor, we look up to him, +and declare that we owe our position entirely to him; then we begin +to entertain other aspirations, and hurry forward to attain them +after the manner of human beings, who when they have gained much +always covet more; straightway all that we used to regard as +benefits slip from our memory, and we no longer consider the +advantages which we enjoy over others, but only the insolent +prosperity of those who have outstripped us. Now no one can at the +same time be both jealous and grateful, because those who are +jealous are querulous and sad, while the grateful are joyous. In +the next place, since none of us think of any time but the present, +and but few turn back their thoughts to the past, it results that +we forget our teachers, and all the benefits which we have obtained +from them, because we have altogether left our childhood behind us: +thus, all that was done for us in our youth perishes unremembered, +because our youth itself is never reviewed. What has been is +regarded by every one, not only as past, but as gone; and for the +same reason, our memory is weak for what is about to happen in the +future. + +IV. Here I must do Epicurus the justice to say that he constantly +complains of our ingratitude for past benefits, because we cannot +bring back again, or count among our present pleasures, those good +things which we have received long ago, although no pleasures can +be more undeniable than those which cannot be taken from us. +Present good is not yet altogether complete, some mischance may +interrupt it; the future is in suspense, and uncertain; but what is +past is laid up in safety. How can any man feel gratitude for +benefits, if he skips through his whole life entirely engrossed +with the present and the future? It is remembrance that mates men +grateful; and the more men hope, the less they remember. + +V. In the same way, my Liberalis, as some things remain in our +memory as soon as they are learned, while to know others it is not +enough to have learned them, for our knowledge slips away from us +unless it be kept up--I allude to geometry and astronomy, and such +other sciences as are Hard to remember because of their intricacy-- +so the greatness of some benefits prevents their being forgotten, +while others, individually less, though many more in number, and +bestowed at different times, pass from our minds, because, as I +have stated above, we do not constantly think about them, and do +not willingly recognize how much we owe to each of our benefactors. +Listen to the words of those who ask for favours. There is not one +of them who does not declare that his remembrance will be eternal, +who does not vow himself your devoted servant and slave, or find, +if he can, some even greater expression of humility with which to +pledge himself. After a brief space of time these same men avoid +their former expressions, thinking them abject, and scarcely +befitting free-born men; afterwards they arrive at the same point +to which, as I suppose, the worst and most ungrateful of men come-- +that is, they forget. So little does forgetfulness excuse +ingratitude, that even the remembrance of a benefit may leave us +ungrateful. + +VI. The question has been raised, whether this most odious vice +ought to go unpunished; and whether the law commonly made use of in +the schools, by which we can proceed against a man for ingratitude, +ought to be adopted by the State also, since all men agree that it +is just. "Why not?" you may say, "seeing that even cities cast in +each other's teeth the services which they have performed to one +another, and demand from the children some return for benefits +conferred upon their fathers?" On the other hand, our ancestors, +who were most admirable men, made demands upon their enemies alone, +and both gave and lost their benefits with magnanimity. With the +exception of Macedonia, no nation has ever established an action at +law for ingratitude. And this is a strong argument against its +being established, because all agree in blaming crime; and +homicide, poisoning, parricide, and sacrilege are visited with +different penalties in different countries, but everywhere with +some penalty; whereas this most common vice is nowhere punished, +though it is everywhere blamed. We do not acquit it; but as it +would be most difficult to reckon accurately the penalty for so +varying a matter, we condemn it only to be hated, and place it upon +the list of those crimes which we refer for judgment to the gods. + +VII. Many arguments occur to me which prove that this vice ought +not to come under the action of the law. First of all, the best +part of a benefit is lost if the benefit can be sued for at law, as +in the case of a loan, or of letting and hiring. Indeed, the finest +part of a benefit is that we have given it without considering +whether we shall lose it or not, that we have left all this to the +free choice of him who receives it: if I call him before a judge, +it begins to be not a benefit, but a loan. Next, though it is a +most honourable thing to show gratitude, it ceases to be honourable +if it be forced, for in that case no one will praise a grateful man +any more than he praises him who restores the money which was +deposited in his keeping, or who pays what he borrowed without the +intervention of a judge. We should therefore spoil the two finest +things in human life,--a grateful man and a beneficent man; for +what is there admirable in one who does not give but merely lends a +benefit, or in one who repays it, not because he wishes, but +because he is forced to do so? There is no credit in being +grateful, unless it is safe to be ungrateful. Besides this, all the +courts would hardly be enough for the action of this one law. Who +would not plead under it? Who would not be pleaded against? for +every one exalts his own merits, every one magnifies even the +smallest matters which he has bestowed upon another. Besides this, +those things which form the subject of a judicial inquiry can be +distinctly defined, and cannot afford unlimited licence to the +judge; wherefore a good cause is in a better position if it before +a judge than before an arbitrator, because the words of the law tie +down a judge and define certain limits beyond which he may not +pass, whereas the conscience of an arbitrator is free and not +fettered by any rules, so that he can either give or take away, +and can arrange his decision, not according to the precepts of law +and justice, but just as his own kindly feeling or compassion may +prompt him. An action for ingratitude would not bind a judge, but +would place him in the position of an autocrat. It cannot be known +what or how great a benefit is; all that would be really important +would be, how indulgently the judge might interpret it. No law +defines an ungrateful person, often, indeed, one who repays what he +has received is ungrateful, and one who has not returned it is +grateful. Even an unpractised judge can give his vote upon some +matters; for instance, when the thing to be determined is whether +something has or has not been done, when a dispute is terminated by +the parties giving written bonds, or when the casting up of +accounts decides between the disputants. When, however, motives +have to be guessed at, when matters upon which wisdom alone can +decide, are brought into court, they cannot be tried by a judge +taken at random from the list of "select judges," [Footnote: See +Smith's "Dict. of Antiq.," s. v] whom property and the inheritance +of an equestrian fortune [Footnote: 400,000 sesterces] has placed +upon the roll. + +VIII. Ingratitude, therefore, is not only matter unfit to be +brought into court, but no judge could be found fit to try it; and +this you will not be surprised at, if you examine the difficulties +of any one who should attempt to prosecute a man upon such a +charge. One man may have given a large sum of money, but he is rich +and would not feel it; another may have given it at the cost of his +entire inheritance. The sum given is the same in each case, but the +benefit conferred is not the same. Add another instance: suppose +that to redeem a debtor from slavery one man paid money from his +own private means, while another man paid the same sum, but had to +borrow it or beg for it, and allow himself to be laid under a great +obligation to some one; would you rank the man who so easily +bestowed his benefit on an equality with him who was obliged to +receive a benefit himself before he could bestow it? Some benefits +are great, not because of their amount, but because of the time at +which they are bestowed; it is a benefit to give an estate whose +fertility can bring down the price of corn, and it is a benefit to +give a loaf of bread in time of famine; it is a benefit to give +provinces through which flow vast navigable rivers, and it is a +benefit, when men are parched with thirst, and can scarcely draw +breath through their dry throats, to show them a spring of water. +Who will compare these cases with one another, or weigh one against +the other? It is hard to give a decision when it is not the thing +given, but its meaning, which has to be considered; though what is +given is the same, yet if it be given under different circumstances +it has a different value. A man may have bestowed a benefit upon +me, but unwillingly; he may have complained of having given it; he +may have looked at me with greater haughtiness than he was wont to +do; he may have been so slow in giving it, that he would have done +me a greater service if he had promptly refused it. How could a +judge estimate the value of these things, when words, hesitation, +or looks can destroy all their claim to gratitude? + +IX. What, again, could he do, seeing that some things are called +benefits because they are unduly coveted, whilst others are not +benefits at all, according to this common valuation, yet are of +even greater value, though not so showy? You call it a benefit to +cause a man to be adopted as a member of a powerful city, to get +him enrolled among the knights, or to defend one who is being tried +for his life: what do you say of him who gives useful advice? of +him who holds you back when you would rush into crime? of him who +strikes the sword from the hands of the suicide? of him who by his +power of consolation brings back to the duties of life one who was +plunged in grief, and eager to follow those whom he had lost? of +him who sits at the bedside of the sick man, and who, when health +and recovery depend upon seizing the right moment, administers food +in due season, stimulates the failing veins with wine, or calls in +the physician to the dying man? Who can estimate the value of such +services as these? who can bid us weigh dissimilar benefits one +with another? "I gave you a house," says one. Yes, but I forewarned +you that your own house would come down upon your head. "I gave you +an estate," says he. True, but I gave a plank to you when +shipwrecked. "I fought for you and received wounds for you," says +another. But I saved your life by keeping silence. Since a benefit +is both given and returned differently by different people, it is +hard to make them balance. + +X. Besides this, no day is appointed for repayment of a benefit, as +there is for borrowed money; consequently he who has not yet repaid +a benefit may do so hereafter: for tell me, pray, within what time +a man is to be declared ungrateful? The greatest benefits cannot be +proved by evidence; they often lurk in the silent consciousness of +two men only; are we to introduce the rule of not bestowing +benefits without witnesses? Next, what punishment are we to appoint +for the ungrateful? is there to be one only for all, though the +benefits which they have received are different? or should the +punishment be varying, greater or less according to the benefit +which each has received? Are our valuations to be restricted to +pecuniary fines? what are we to do, seeing that in some cases the +benefit conferred is life, and things dearer than life? What +punishment is to be assigned to ingratitude for these? One less +than the benefit? That would be unjust. One equal to it; death? +What could be more inhuman than to cause benefits to result in +cruelty? + +XI. It may be argued, "Parents have certain privileges: these are +regarded as exempt from the action of ordinary rules, and so also +ought to be the case with other beneficent persons." Nay; mankind +has assigned a peculiar sanctity to the position of parents, +because it was advantageous that children should be reared, and +people had to be tempted into undergoing the toil of doing so, +because the issue of their experiment was doubtful. One cannot say +to them, as one does to others who bestow benefits, "Choose the man +to whom you give: you must only blame yourself if you are deceived; +help the deserving." In rearing children nothing depends upon the +judgment of those who rear them; it is a matter of hope: in order, +therefore, that people may be more willing to embark upon this +lottery, it was right that they should be given a certain +authority; and since it is useful for youth to be governed, we have +placed their parents in the position of domestic magistrates, under +whose guardianship their lives may be ruled. Moreover, the position +of parents differs from that of other benefactors, for their having +given formerly to their children does not stand in the way of their +giving now and hereafter; and also, there is no fear of their +falsely asserting that they have given: with others one has to +inquire not only whether they have received, but whether they have +given; but the good deeds of parents are placed beyond doubt. In +the next place, one benefit bestowed by parents is the same for +all, and might be counted once for all; while the others which they +bestow are of various kinds, unlike one to another, differing from +one another by the widest possible intervals; they can therefore +come under no regular rule, since it would be more just to leave +them all unrewarded than to give the same reward to all. + +XII. Some benefits cost much to the givers, some are of much value +to the receivers but cost the givers nothing. Some are bestowed +upon friends, others on strangers: now although that which is given +be the same, yet it becomes more when it is given to one with whom +you are beginning to be acquainted through the benefits which you +have previously conferred upon him. One man may give us help, +another distinctions, a third consolation. You may find one who +thinks nothing pleasanter or more important than to have some one +to save him from distress; you may again find one who would rather +be helped to great place than to security; while some consider +themselves more indebted to those who save their lives than to +those who save their honour. Each of these services will be held +more or less important, according as the disposition of our judge +inclines to one or the other of them. Besides this, I choose my +creditors for myself, whereas I often receive benefits from those +from whom I would not, and sometimes I am laid under an obligation +without my knowledge. What will you do in such a case? When a man +has received a benefit unknown to himself, and which, had he known +of it, he would have refused to receive, will you call him +ungrateful if he does not repay it, however he may have received +it? Suppose that some one has bestowed a benefit upon me, and that +the same man has afterwards done me some wrong; am I to be bound by +his one bounty to endure with patience any wrong that he may do me, +or will it be the same as if I had repaid it, because he himself +has by the subsequent wrong cancelled his own benefit? How, in that +case, would you decide which was the greater; the present which the +man has received, or the injury which has been done him? Time would +fail me if I attempted to discuss all the difficulties which would +arise. + +XIII. It may be argued that "we render men less willing to confer +benefits by not supporting the claim of those which have been +bestowed to meet with gratitude, and by not punishing those who +repudiate them." But you would find, on the other hand, that men +would be far less willing to receive benefits, if by so doing they +were likely to incur the danger of having to plead their cause in +court, and having more difficulty in proving their integrity. This +legislation would also render us less willing to give: for no one +is willing to give to those who are unwilling to receive, but one +who is urged to acts of kindness by his own good nature and by the +beauty of charity, will give all the more freely to those who need +make no return unless they choose. It impairs the credit of doing a +service, if in doing it we are carefully protected from loss. + +XIV. "Benefits, then, will be fewer, but more genuine: well, what +harm is there in restricting people from giving recklessly?" Even +those who would have no legislation upon the subject follow this +rule, that we ought to be somewhat careful in giving, and in +choosing those upon whom we bestow favours. Reflect over and over +again to whom you are giving: you will have no remedy at law, no +means of enforcing repayment. You are mistaken if you suppose that +the judge will assist you: no law will make full restitution to +you, you must look only to the honour of the receiver. Thus only +can benefits retain their influence, and thus only are they +admirable: you dishonour them if you make them the grounds of +litigation, "Pay what you owe" is a most just proverb; and one +which carries with it the sanction of all nations; but in dealing +with benefits it is most shameful. "Pay!" How is a man to pay who +owes his life, his position, his safety, or his reason to another? +None of the greatest benefits can be repaid. "Yet," it is said, +"you ought to give in return for them something of equal value." +This is just what I have been saying, that the grandeur of the act +is ruined if we make our benefits commercial transactions. We ought +hot to encourage ourselves in avarice, in discontent, or in +quarrels; the human mind is prone enough to these by nature. As far +as we are able, let us check it, and cut off the opportunities for +which it seeks. + +XV. Would that we could indeed persuade men to +receive back money which they have lent from those debtors only who +are willing to pay! would that no agreement ever bound the buyer to +the seller, and that their interests were not protected by sealed +covenants and agreements, but rather by honour and a sense of +justice! However, men prefer what is needful to what is truly best, +and choose rather to force their creditors to keep faith with them +than to trust that they will do so. Witnesses are called on both +sides; the one, by calling in brokers, makes several names appear +in his accounts as his debtors instead of one; the other is not +content with the legal forms of question and answer unless he holds +the other party by the hand. What a shameful admission of the +dishonesty and wickedness of mankind! men trust more to our signet- +rings than to our intentions. For what are these respectable men +summoned? for what do they impress their seals? it is in order that +the borrower may not deny that he has received what he has +received. You regard these men, I suppose, as above bribes, as +maintainers of the truth: well, these very men will not be +entrusted with money except on the same terms. Would it not, then, +be more honourable to be deceived by some than to suspect all men +of dishonesty? To fill up the measure of avarice one thing only is +lacking, that we should bestow no benefit without a surety. To +help, to be of service, is the part of a generous and noble mind; +he who gives acts like a god, he who demands repayment acts like a +money-lender. Why then, by trying to protect the rights of the +former class, should we reduce them to the level of the basest of +mankind? + +XVI. "More men," our opponent argues, "will be ungrateful, if no +legal remedy exists against ingratitude." Nay, fewer, because then +benefits will be bestowed with more discrimination, In the next +place, it is not advisable that it should be publicly known how +many ungrateful men there are: for the number of sinners will do +away with the disgrace of the sin, and a reproach which applies to +all men will cease to be dishonourable. Is any woman ashamed of +being divorced, now that some noble ladies reckon the years of +their lives, not by the number of the consuls, but by that of their +husbands, now that they leave their homes in order to marry others, +and marry only in order to be divorced? Divorce was only dreaded as +long as it was unusual; now that no gazette appears without it, +women learn to do what they hear so much about. Can any one feel +ashamed of adultery, now that things have come to such a pass that +no woman keeps a husband at all unless it be to pique her lover? +Chastity merely implies ugliness. Where will you find any woman so +abject, so repulsive, as to be satisfied with a single pair of +lovers, without having a different one for each hour of the day; +nor is the day long enough for all of them, unless she has taken +her airing in the grounds of one, and passes the night with +another. A woman is frumpish and old-fashioned if she does not know +that "adultery with one paramour is nick-named marriage." Just as +all shame at these vices has disappeared since the vice itself +became so widely spread, so if you made the ungrateful begin to +count their own numbers, you would both make them more numerous, +and enable them to be ungrateful with greater impunity. + +XVII. "What then? shall the ungrateful man go unpunished?" What +then, I answer, shall we punish the undutiful, the malicious, the +avaricious, the headstrong, and the cruel? Do you imagine that +those things which are loathed are not punished, or do you suppose +that any punishment is greater than the hate of all men? It is a +punishment not to dare receive a benefit from anyone, not to dare +to bestow one, to be, or to fancy that you are a mark for all men's +eyes, and to lose all appreciation of so excellent and pleasant a +matter. Do you call a man unhappy who has lost his sight, or whose +hearing has been impaired by disease, and do you not call him +wretched who has lost the power of feeling benefits? He fears the +gods, the witnesses of all ingratitude; he is tortured by the +thought of the benefit which he has misapplied, and, in fine, he is +sufficiently punished by this great penalty, that, as I said +before, he cannot enjoy the fruits of this most delightful act. On +the other hand, he who takes pleasure in receiving a benefit, +enjoys an unvarying and continuous happiness, which he derives from +consideration, not of the thing given, but of the intention of the +giver. A benefit gives perpetual joy to a grateful man, but pleases +an ungrateful one only for a moment. Can the lives of such men be +compared, seeing that the one is sad and gloomy--as it is natural +that a denier of his debts and a defrauder should be, a man who +does not give his parents, his nurses, or his teachers the honour +which is their due--while the other is joyous, cheerful, on the +watch for an opportunity of proving his gratitude, and gaining much +pleasure from this frame of mind itself? Such a man has no wish to +become bankrupt, but only to make the fullest and most copious +return for benefits, and that not only to parents and friends, but +also to more humble persons; for even if he receives a benefit from +his own slave, he does not consider from whom he receives it, but +what he receives. + +XVIII. It has, however, been doubted by Hecaton and some other +writers, whether a slave can bestow a benefit upon his master. Some +distinguish between benefits, duties, and services, calling those +things benefits which are bestowed by a stranger--that is, by one +who could discontinue them without blame--while duties are +performed by our children, our wives, and those whom relationship +prompts and orders to afford us help; and, thirdly, services are +performed by slaves, whose position is such that nothing which they +do for their master can give them any claim upon him. . . . + +Besides this, he who affirms that a slave does not sometimes confer +a benefit upon his master is ignorant of the rights of man; for the +question is, not what the station in life of the giver may be, but +what his intentions are. The path of virtue is closed to no one, it +lies open to all; it admits and invites all, whether they be free- +born men, slaves or freed-men, kings or exiles; it requires no +qualifications of family or of property, it is satisfied with a +mere man. What, indeed, should we have to trust to for defence +against sudden misfortunes, what could--a noble mind promise to +itself to keep unshaken, if virtue could be lost together with +prosperity? If a slave cannot confer a benefit upon his master, +then no subject can confer a benefit upon his king, and no soldier +upon his general; for so long as the man is subject to supreme +authority, the form of authority can make no difference. If main +force, or the fear of death and torture, can prevent a slave from +gaining any title to his master's gratitude, they will also prevent +the subjects of a king, or the soldiers of a general from doing so, +for the same things may happen to either of these classes of men, +though under different names. + +Yet men do bestow benefits upon their kings and their generals; +therefore slaves can bestow benefits upon their masters. A slave +can be just, brave, magnanimous; he can therefore bestow a benefit, +for this is also the part of a virtuous man. So true is it that +slaves can bestow benefits upon their masters, that the masters +have often owed their lives to them. + +XIX. There is no doubt that a slave can bestow a benefit upon +anyone; why, then, not upon his master? "Because," it is argued, +"he cannot become his master's creditor if he gives him money. If +this be not so, he daily lays his master under an obligation to +him; he attends him when on a journey, he nurses him when sick, he +works most laboriously at the cultivation of his estate; yet all +these, which would be called benefits if done for us by anyone +else, are merely called service when done by a slave. A benefit is +that which some one bestows who has the option of withholding it:-- +now a slave has no power to refuse, so that he does not afford us +his help, but obeys our orders, and cannot boast of having done +what he could not leave undone." Even under these conditions I +shall win the day, and will place a slave in such positions, that +for many purposes he will be free; in the meanwhile, tell me, if I +give you an instance of a slave fighting for his master's safety +without regard to himself, pierced through with wounds, yet +spending the last drops of his blood, and gaining time for his +master to escape by the sacrifice of his life, will you say that +this man did not bestow a benefit upon his master because he was a +slave? If I give an instance of one who could not be bribed to +betray his master's secrets by any of the offers of a tyrant, who +was not terrified by any threats, nor overpowered by any tortures, +but who, as far as he was able, placed his questioners upon a wrong +scent, and, paid for his loyalty with his life; will you say that +this man did not confer a benefit upon his master because he was a +slave? Consider, rather, whether an example of virtue in a slave be +not all the greater because it is rarer than in free men, and +whether it be not all the more gratifying that, although to be +commanded is odious, and all submission to authority is irksome, +yet in some particular cases love for a master has been more +powerful than men's general dislike to servitude. A benefit does +not, therefore, cease to be a benefit because it is bestowed by a +slave, but is all the greater on that account, because not even +slavery could restrain him from bestowing it. + +XX. It is a mistake to imagine that slavery pervades a man's whole +being; the better part of him is exempt from it: the body indeed is +subjected and in the power of a master, but the mind is +independent, and indeed is so free and wild, that it cannot be +restrained even by this prison of the body, wherein it is confined, +from following its own impulses, dealing with gigantic designs, and +soaring into the infinite, accompanied by all the host of heaven. +It is, therefore, only the body which misfortune hands over to a +master, and which he buys and sells; this inward part cannot be +transferred as a chattel. Whatever comes from this, is free; +indeed, we are not allowed to order all things to be done, nor are +slaves compelled to obey us in all things; they will not carry out +treasonable orders, or lend their hands to an act of crime. + +XXI. There are some things which the law neither enjoins nor +forbids; it is in these that a slave finds the means of bestowing +benefits. As long as we only receive what is generally demanded +from a slave, that is mere service; when more is given than a slave +need afford us, it is a benefit; as soon as what he does begins to +partake of the affection of a friend, it can no longer be called +service. There are certain things with which a master is bound to +provide his slave, such as food and clothing; no one calls this a +benefit; but supposing that he indulges his slave, educates him +above his station, teaches him arts which free-born men learn, that +is a benefit. The converse is true in the case of the slave; +anything which goes beyond the rules of a slave's duty, which is +done of his own free will, and not in obedience to orders, is a +benefit, provided it be of sufficient importance to be called by +such a name if bestowed by any other person. + +XXII. It has pleased Chrysippus to define a slave as "a hireling +for life." Just as a hireling bestows a benefit when he does more +than he engaged himself to do, so when a slave's love for his +master raises him above his condition and urges him to do something +noble--something which would be a credit even to men more fortunate +by birth--he surpasses the hopes of his master, and is a benefit +found in the house. Do you think it is just that we should be angry +with our slaves when they do less than their duty, and that we +should not be grateful to them when they do more? Do you wish to +know when their service is not a benefit? When the question can be +asked, "What if he had refused to do it?" When he does that which +he might have refused to do, we must praise his good will. Benefits +and wrongs are opposites; a slave can bestow a benefit upon his +master, if he can receive a wrong from his master. Now an official +has been appointed to hear complaints of the wrongs done by masters +to their slaves, whose duty it is to restrain cruelty and lust, or +avarice in providing them with the necessaries of life. What +follows, then? Is it the master who receives a benefit from his +slave? nay, rather, it is one man who receives it from another. +Lastly, he did all that lay in his power; he bestowed a benefit +upon his master; it lies in your power to receive or not to receive +it from a slave. Yet who is so exalted, that fortune may not make +him need the aid even of the lowliest? + +XXIII. I shall now quote a number of instances of benefits, not all +alike, some even contradictory. Some slaves have given their master +life, some death; have saved him when perishing, or, as if that +were not enough, have saved him by their own death; others have +helped their master to die, some have saved his life by stratagem. +Claudius Quadrigarius tells us in the eighteenth book of his +"Annals," that when Grumentum was being besieged, and had been +reduced to the greatest straits, two slaves deserted to the enemy, +and did valuable service. Afterwards, when the city was taken, and +the victors were rushing wildly in every direction, they ran before +every one else along the streets, which they well knew, to the +house in which they had been slaves, and drove their mistress +before them; when they were asked who she might be, they answered +that she was their mistress, and a most cruel one, and that they +were leading her away for punishment. They led her outside the +walls, and concealed her with the greatest care until the fighting +was over; then, as the soldiery, satisfied with the sack of the +city, quickly resumed the manners of Romans, they also returned to +their own countrymen, and themselves restored their mistress to +them. She manumitted each of them on the spot, and was not ashamed +to receive her life from men over whom she had held the power of +life and death. She might, indeed, especially congratulate herself +upon this; for had she been saved otherwise, she would merely have +received a common and hackneyed piece of kindness, whereas, by +being saved as she was, she became a glorious legend, and an +example to two cities. In the confusion of the captured city, when +every one was thinking only of his own safety, all deserted her +except these deserters; but they, that they might prove what had +been their intentions in effecting that desertion, deserted again +from the victors to the captive, wearing the masks of unnatural +murderers. + +They thought--and this was the greatest part of the service which +they rendered--they were content to seem to have murdered their +mistress, if thereby their mistress might be saved from murder. +Believe me, it is the mark of no slavish soul to purchase a noble +deed by the semblance of crime. + +When Vettius, the praetor of the Marsi, was being led into the +presence of the Roman general, his slave snatched a sword from the +soldier who was dragging him along, and first slew his master. Then +he said, "It is now time for me to look to myself; I have already +set my master free," and with these words transfixed himself with +one blow. Can you tell me of anyone who saved his master more +gloriously? + +XXIV. When Caesar was besieging Corfinium, Domitius, who was shut +up in the city, ordered a slave of his own, who was also a +physician, to give him poison. Observing the man's hesitation, he +said, "Why do you delay, as though the whole business was in your +power? I ask for death with arms in my hands." Then the slave +assented, and gave him a harmless drug to drink. When Domitius fell +asleep after drinking this, the slave went to his son, and said, +"Give orders for my being kept in custody until you learn from the +result whether I have given your father poison or no." Domitius +lived, and Caesar saved his life; but his slave had saved it +before. + +XXV. During the civil war, a slave hid his master, who had been +proscribed, put on his rings and clothes, met the soldiers who were +searching for him, and, after declaring that he would not stoop to +entreat them not to carry out their orders, offered his neck to +their swords. What a noble spirit it shows in a slave to have been +willing to die for his master, at a time when few were faithful +enough to wish their master to live! to be found kind when the +state was cruel, faithful when it was treacherous! to be eager for +the reward of fidelity, though it was death, at a time when such +rich rewards were offered for treachery! + +XXVI. I will not pass over the instances which our own age affords. +In the reign of Tiberius Caesar, there was a common and almost +universal frenzy for informing, which was more ruinous to the +citizens of Rome than the whole civil war; the talk of drunkards, +the frankness of jesters, was alike reported to the government; +nothing was safe; every opportunity of ferocious punishment was +seized, and men no longer waited to hear the fate of accused +persons, since it was always the same. One Paulus, of the +Praetorian guard, was at an entertainment, wearing a portrait of +Tiberius Caesar engraved in relief upon a gem. It would be absurd +for me to beat about the bush for some delicate way of explaining +that he took up a chamber-pot, an action which was at once noticed +by Maro, one of the most notorious informers of that time, and the +slave of the man who was about to fall into the trap, who drew the +ring from the finger of his drunken master. When Maro called the +guests to witness that Paulus had dishonoured the portrait of the +emperor, and was already drawing up an act of accusation, the slave +showed the ring upon his own finger. Such a man no more deserves to +be called a slave, than Maro deserved to be called a guest. + +XXVII. In the reign of Augustus men's own words were not yet able +to ruin them, yet they sometimes brought them into trouble. A +senator named Rufus, while at dinner, expressed a hope that Caesar +would not return safe from a journey for which he was preparing, +and added that all bulls and calves wished the same thing. Some of +those present carefully noted these words. At daybreak, the slave +who had stood at his feet during the dinner, told him what he had +said in his cups, and urged him to be the first to go to Caesar, +and denounce himself. Rufus followed this advice, met Caesar as he +was going down to the forum, and, swearing that he was out of his +mind the day before, prayed that what he had said might fall upon +his own head and that of his children; he then begged Caesar pardon +him, and to take him back into favour. When Caesar said that he +would do so, he added, "No one will believe that you have taken me +back into favour unless you make me a present of something;" and he +asked for and obtained a sum of money so large, that it would have +been a gift not to be slighted even if bestowed by an unoffended +prince. Caesar added: "In future I will take care never to quarrel +with you, for my own sake." Caesar acted honourably in pardoning +him, and in being liberal as well as forgiving; no one can hear +this anecdote without praising Caesar, but he must praise the slave +first. You need not wait for me to tell you that the slave who did +his master this service was set free; yet his master did not do +this for nothing, for Caesar had already paid him the price of the +slave's liberty. + +XXVIII. After so many instances, can we doubt that a master may +sometimes receive a benefit from a slave? Why need the person of +the giver detract from the thing which he gives? why should not the +gift add rather to the glory of the giver. All men descend from the +same original stock; no one is better born than another, except in +so far as his disposition is nobler and better suited for the +performance of good actions. Those who display portraits of their +ancestors in their halls, and set up in the entrance to their +houses the pedigree of their family drawn out at length, with many +complicated collateral branches, are they not notorious rather than +noble? The universe is the one parent of all, whether they trace +their descent from this primary source through a glorious or a mean +line of ancestors. Be not deceived when men who are reckoning up +their genealogy, wherever an illustrious name is wanting, foist in +that of a god in its place. You need despise no one, even though he +bears a commonplace name, and owes little to fortune. Whether your +immediate ancestors were freedmen, or slaves, or foreigners, pluck +up your spirits boldly, and leap over any intervening disgraces of +your pedigree; at its source, a noble origin awaits you. Why should +our pride inflate us to such a degree that we think it beneath us +to receive benefits from slaves, and think only of their position, +forgetting their good deeds? You, the slave of lust, of gluttony, +of a harlot, nay, who are owned as a joint chattel by harlots, can +you call anyone else a slave? Call a man a slave? why, I pray you, +whither are you being hurried by those bearers who carry your +litter? whither are these men with their smart military-looking +cloaks carrying you? is it not to the door of some door-keeper, or +to the gardens of some one who has not even a subordinate office? +and then you, who regard the salute of another man's slave as a +benefit, declare that you cannot receive a benefit from your own +slave. What inconsistency is this? At the same time you despise and +fawn upon slaves, you are haughty and violent at home, while out of +doors you are meek, and as much despised as you despise your +slaves; for none abase themselves lower than those who +unconscionably give themselves airs, nor are anymore prepared to +trample upon others than those who have learned how to offer +insults by having endured them. + +XXIX. I felt it my duty to say this, in order to crush the +arrogance of men who are themselves at the mercy of fortune, and to +claim the right of bestowing a benefit for slaves, in order that I +may claim it also for sons. The question arises, whether children +can ever bestow upon their parents greater benefits than those +which they have received from them. + +It is granted that many sons become greater and more powerful than +their parents, and also that they are better men. If this be true, +they may give better gifts to their fathers than they have received +from them, seeing that their fortune and their good nature are +alike greater than that of their father. "Whatever a father +receives from his son," our opponent will urge, "must in any case +be lees than what the son received from him, because the son owes +to his father the very power of giving. Therefore the father can +never be surpassed in the bestowal of benefits, because the benefit +which surpasses his own is really his." I answer, that some things +derive their first origin from others, yet are greater than those +others; and a thing may be greater than that from which it took its +rise, although without that thing to start from it never could have +grown so great. All things greatly outgrow their beginnings. Seeds +are the causes of all things, and yet are the smallest part of the +things which they produce. Look at the Rhine, or the Euphrates, or +any other famous rivers; how small they are, if you only view them +at the place from whence they take their rise? they gain all that +makes them terrible and renowned as they flow along. Look at the +trees which are tallest if you consider their height, and the +broadest if you look at their thickness and the spread of their +branches; compared with all this, how small a part of them is +contained in the slender fibres of the root? Yet take away their +roots, and no more groves will arise, nor great mountains be +clothed with trees. Temples and cities are supported by their +foundations; yet what is built as the foundation of the entire +building lies out of sight. So it is in other matters; the +subsequent greatness of a thing ever eclipses its origin. I could +never have obtained anything without having previously received the +boon of existence from my parents; yet it does not follow from this +that whatever I obtain is less than that without which I could not +obtain it. If my nurse had not fed me when I was a child, I should +not have been able to conduct any of those enterprises which I now +carry on, both with my head and with my hand, nor should I ever +have obtained the fame which is due to my labours both in peace and +war; would you on that account argue that the services of a nurse +were more valuable than the most important undertakings? Yet is not +the nurse as important as the father, since without the benefits +which I have received from each of them alike, I should have been +alike unable to effect anything? If I owe all that I now can do to +my original beginning, I cannot regard my father or my grandfather +as being this original beginning; there always will be a spring +further back, from which the spring next below is derived. Yet no +one will argue that I owe more to unknown and forgotten ancestors +than to my father; though really I do owe them more, if I owe it to +my ancestors that my father begat me. + +XXX. "Whatever I have bestowed upon my father," says my opponent, +"however great it may be, yet is less valuable than what my father +has bestowed upon me, because if he had not begotten me, it never +could have existed at all." By this mode of reasoning, if a man has +healed my father when ill, and at the point of death, I shall not +be able to bestow anything upon him equivalent to what I have +received from him; for had my father not been healed, he could not +have begotten me. Yet think whether it be not nearer the truth to +regard all that I can do, and all that I have done, as mine, due to +my own powers and my own will? Consider what the fact of my birth +is in itself; you will see that it is a small matter, the outcome +of which is dubious, and that it may lead equally to good or to +evil; no doubt it is the first step to everything, but because it +is the first, it is not on that account more important than all the +others. Suppose that I have saved my father's life, raised him to +the highest honours, and made him the chief man in his city, that I +have not merely made him illustrious by my own deeds, but have +furnished him himself with an opportunity of performing great +exploits, which is at once important, easy, and safe, as well as +glorious; that I have loaded him with appointments, wealth, and all +that attracts men's minds; still, even when I surpass all others, I +am inferior to him. Now if you say, "You owe to your father the +power of doing all this," I shall answer, "Quite true, if to do all +this it is only necessary to be born; but if life is merely an +unimportant factor in the art of living well, and if you have +bestowed upon me only that which I have in common with wild beasts +and the smallest, and some of the foulest of creatures, do not +claim for yourself what did not come into being in consequence of +the benefits which you bestowed, even though it could not have come +into being without them." + +XXXI. Suppose, father, that I have saved your life, in return for +the life which I received from you: in this case also I have +outdone your benefit, because I have given life to one who +understands what I have done, and because I understood what I was +doing, since I gave you your life not for the sake of, or by the +means of my own pleasure; for just as it is less terrible to die +before one has time to fear death, so it is a much greater boon to +preserve one's life than to receive it. I have given life to one +who will at once enjoy it, you gave it to one who knew not if he +should ever live; I have given life to one who was in fear of +death, your gift of life merely enables me to die; I have given you +a life complete, perfect; you begat me without intelligence, a +burden upon others. Do you wish to know how far from a benefit it +was to give life under such conditions? You should have exposed me +as a child, for you did me a wrong in begetting me. What do I +gather from this? That the cohabitation of a father and mother is +the very least of benefits to their child, unless in addition this +beginning of kindnesses be followed up by others, and confirmed by +other services. It is not a good thing to live, but to live well. +"But," say you, "I do live well." True, but I might have lived ill; +so that your part in me is merely this, that I live. If you claim +merit to yourself for giving me mere life, bare and helpless, and +boast of it as a great boon, reflect that this you claim merit for +giving me is a boon which I possess in common with flies and worms. +In the next place, if I say no more than that I have applied myself +to honourable pursuits, and have guided the course of my life along +the path of rectitude, then you have received more from your +benefit than you gave; for you gave me to myself ignorant and +unlearned, and I have returned to you a son such as you would wish +to have begotten. + +XXXII. My father supported me. If I repay this kindness, I give him +more than I received, because he has the pleasure, not only of +being supported, but of being supported by a son, and receives more +delight from my filial devotion than from the food itself, whereas +the food which he used to give me merely affected my body. What? if +any man rises so high as to become famous among nations for his +eloquence, his justice, or his military skill, if much of the +splendour of his renown is shed upon his father also, and by its +clear light dispels the obscurity of his birth, does not such a man +confer an inestimable benefit upon his parents? Would anyone have +heard of Aristo and Gryllus except through Xenophon and Plato, +their sons? Socrates keeps alive the memory of Sophroniscus. It +would take long to recount the other men whose names survive for no +other reason than that the admirable qualities of their sons have +handed them down to posterity. Did the father of Marcus Agrippa, of +whom nothing was known, even after Agrippa became famous, confer +the greater benefit upon his son, or was that greater which Agrippa +conferred upon his father when he gained the glory, unique in the +annals of war, of a naval crown, and when he raised so many vast +buildings in Rome, which not only surpassed all former grandeur, +but have been surpassed by none since? Did Octavius confer a +greater benefit upon his son, or the Emperor Augustus upon his +father, obscured as he was by the intervention of an adoptive +father? What joy would he have experienced, if, after the putting +down of the civil war, he had seen his son ruling the state in +peace and security? He would not have recognized the good which he +had himself bestowed, and would hardly have believed, when he +looked back upon himself, that so great a man could have been born +in his house. Why should I go on to speak of others who would now +be forgotten, if the glory of their sons had not raised them from +obscurity, and kept them in the light until this day? In the next +place, as we are not considering what son may have given back to +his father greater benefits than he received from him, but whether +a son can give back greater benefits, even if the examples which I +have quoted are not sufficient, and such benefits do not outweigh +the benefits bestowed by the parents, if no age has produced. an +actual example, still it is not in the nature of things impossible. +Though no solitary act can outweigh the deserts of a parent, yet +many such acts combined by one son may do so. + +XXXIII. Scipio, while under seventeen years of age, rode among the +enemy in battle, and saved his father's life. Was it not enough, +that in order to reach his father he despised so many dangers when +they were pressing hardest upon the greatest generals, that he, a +novice in his first battle, made his way through so many obstacles, +over the bodies of so many veteran soldiers, and showed strength +and courage beyond his years? Add to this, that he also defended +his father in court, and saved him from a plot of his powerful +enemies, that he heaped upon him a second and a third consulship +and other posts which were coveted even by consulars, that when his +father was poor he bestowed upon him the plunder which he took by +military licence, and that he made him rich with the spoils of the +enemy, which is the greatest honour of a soldier. If even this did +not repay his debt, add to it that he caused him to be constantly +employed in the government of provinces and in special commands, +add, that after he had destroyed the greatest cities, and became +without a rival either in the east or in the west, the acknowledged +protector and second founder of the Roman Empire, he bestowed upon +one who was already of noble birth the higher title of "the father +of Scipio;" can we doubt that the commonplace benefit of his birth +was outdone by his exemplary conduct, and by the valour which was +at once the glory and the protection of his country? Next, if this +be not enough, suppose that a son were to rescue his father from +the torture, or to undergo it in his stead. You can suppose the +benefits returned by the son as great as you please, whereas the +gift he received from his father was of one sort only, was easily +performed, and was a pleasure to the giver; that he must +necessarily have given the same thing to many others, even to some +to whom he knows not that he has given it, that he had a partner in +doing so, and that he had in view the law, patriotism, the rewards +bestowed upon fathers of families by the state, the maintenance of +his house and family: everything rather than him to whom he was +giving life. What? supposing that any one were to learn philosophy +and teach it to his father, could it be any longer disputed that +the son had given him something greater than he had received from +him, having returned to his father a happy life, whereas he had +received from him merely life? + +XXXIV. "But," says our opponent, "whatever you do, whatever you are +able to give to your father, is part of his benefit bestowed upon +you." So it is the benefit of my teacher that I have become +proficient in liberal studies; yet we pass on from those who taught +them to us, at any rate from those who taught us the alphabet; and +although no one can learn anything without them, yet it does not +follow that whatsoever success one subsequently obtains, one is +still inferior to those teachers. There is a great difference +between the beginning of a thing and its final development; the +beginning is not equal to the thing at its greatest, merely upon +the ground that, without the beginning, it could never have become +so great. + +XXXV. It is now time for me to bring forth something, so to speak, +from my own mint. So long as there is something better than the +benefit which a man bestows, he may be outdone. A father gives life +to his son; there is something better than life; therefore a father +may be outdone, because there is something better than the benefit +which he has bestowed. Still further, he who has given any one his +life, if he be more than once saved from peril of death by him, has +received a greater benefit than he bestowed. Now, a father has +given life to his son: if, therefore, he be more than once saved +from peril by his son, he can receive a greater benefit than he +gave. A benefit becomes greater to the receiver in proportion to +his need of it. Now he who is alive needs life more than he who has +not been born, seeing that such a one can have no need at all; +consequently a father, if his life is saved by his son, receives a +greater benefit than his son received from him by being born. It is +said, "The benefits conferred by fathers cannot be outdone by those +returned by their sons." Why? "Because the son received life from +his father, and had he not received it, he could not have returned +any benefits at all." A father has this in common with all those +who have given any men their lives; it is impossible that these men +could repay the debt if they had not received their life. Then I +suppose one cannot overpay one's debt to a physician, for a +physician gives life as well as a father; or to a sailor who has +saved us when shipwrecked? Yet the benefits bestowed by these and +by all the others who give us life in whatever fashion, can be +outdone: consequently those of our fathers can be outdone. If any +one bestows upon me a benefit which requires the help of benefits +from many other persons, whereas I give him what requires no one to +help it out, I have given more than I have received; now a father +gave to his son a life which, without many accessories to preserve +it, would perish; whereas a son, if he gives life to his father, +gives him a life which requires no assistance to make it lasting; +therefore the father who receives life from his son, receives a +greater benefit than he himself bestowed upon his son. + +XXXVI. These considerations do not destroy the respect due to +parents, or make their children behave worse to them, nay, better; +for virtue is naturally ambitious, and wishes to outstrip those who +are before it. Filial piety will be all the more eager, if, in +returning a father's benefits, it can hope to outdo them; nor will +this be against the will or the pleasure of the father, since in +many contests it is to our advantage to be outdone. How does this +contest become so desirable? How comes it to be such happiness to +parents that they should confess themselves outdone by the benefits +bestowed by their children? Unless we decide the matter thus, we +give children an excuse, and make them less eager to repay their +debt, whereas we ought to spur them on, saying, "Noble youths, give +your attention to this! You are invited to contend in an honourable +strife between parents and children, as to which party has received +more than it has given. Your fathers have not necessarily won the +day because they are first in the field: only take courage, as +befits you, and do not give up the contest; you will conquer if you +wish to do so. In this honourable warfare you will have no lack of +leaders who will encourage you to perform deeds like their own, and +bid you follow in their footsteps upon a path by which victory has +often before now been won over parents. + +XXXVII. AEneas conquered his father in well doing, for he himself +had been but a light and a safe burden for him when he was a child, +yet he bore his father, when heavy with age, through the midst of +the. enemy's lines and the crash of the city which was falling +around him, albeit the devout old man, who bore the sacred images +and the household gods in his hands, pressed him with more than his +own weight; nevertheless (what cannot filial piety accomplish!) +AEneas bore him safe through the blazing city, and placed him in +safety, to be worshipped as one of the founders of the Roman +Empire. Those Sicilian youths outdid their parents whom they bore +away safe, when Aetna, roused to unusual fury, poured fire over +cities and fields throughout a great part of the island. It is +believed that the fires parted, and that the flames retired on +either side, so as to leave a passage for these youths to pass +through, who certainly deserved to perform their daring task in +safety. Antigonus outdid his father when, after having conquered +the enemy in a great battle, he transferred the fruits of it to +him, and handed over to him the empire of Cyprus. This is true +kingship, to choose not to be a king when you might. Manlius +conquered his father, imperious [Footnote: There is an allusion to +the surname of both the father and the son, "Imperiosus" given them +on account of their severity.] though he was, when, in spite of his +having previously been banished for a time by his father on, +account of his dulness and stupidity as a boy, he came to an +interview which he had demanded with the tribune of the people, who +had filed an action against his father. The tribune had granted him +the interview, hoping that he would betray his hated father, and +believed that he had earned the gratitude of the youth, having, +amongst other matters, reproached old Manlius with sending him into +exile, treating it as a very serious accusation; but the youth, +having caught him alone, drew a sword which he had hidden in his +robe, and said, "Unless you swear to give up your suit against my +father, I will run you through with this sword. It is in your power +to decide how my father shall be freed from his prosecutor." The +tribune swore, and kept his oath; he related the reason of his +abandonment of his action to an assembly at the Rostra. No other +man was ever permitted to put down a tribune with impunity. + +XXXVIII. There are instances without number of men who have saved +their parents from danger, have raised them from the lowest to the +highest station, and, taking them from the nameless mass of the +lower classes, have given them a name glorious throughout all ages. +By no force of words, by no power of genius, can one rightly +express how desirable, how admirable, how never to be erased from +human memory it is to be able to say, "I obeyed my parents, I gave +way to them, I was submissive to their authority whether it was +just, or unjust and harsh; the only point in which I resisted them +was, not to be conquered by them in benefits." Continue this +struggle, I beg of you, and even though weary, yet re-form your +ranks. Happy are they who conquer, happy they who are conquered. +What can be more glorious than the youth who can say to himself--it +would not be right to say it to another--"I have conquered my +father with benefits"? What is more fortunate than that old man who +declares everywhere to everyone that he has been conquered in +benefits by his son? What, again, is more blissful than to be +overcome in such a contest?" + + + + +BOOK IV. + +I. + + +Of all the matters which we have discussed, Aebutius Liberalis, +there is none more essential, or which, as Sallust says, ought to +be stated with more care than that which is now before us: whether +the bestowal of benefits and the return of gratitude for them are +desirable objects in themselves. Some men are found who act +honourably from commercial motives, and who do not care for +unrewarded virtue, though it can confer no glory if it brings any +profit. What can be more base than for a man to consider what it +costs him to be a good man, when virtue neither allures by gain nor +deters by loss, and is so far from bribing any one with hopes and +promises, that on the other hand she bids them spend money upon +herself, and often consists in voluntary gifts? We must go to her, +trampling what is merely useful under our feet: whithersoever she +may call us or send us we must go, without any regard for our +private fortunes, sometimes without sparing even our own blood, nor +must we ever refuse to obey any of her commands. "What shall I +gain," says my opponent, "if I do this bravely and gratefully?" You +will gain the doing of it--the deed itself is your gain. Nothing +beyond this is promised. If any advantage chances to accrue to you, +count it as something extra. The reward of honourable dealings lies +in themselves. If honour is to be sought after for itself, since a +benefit is honourable, it follows that because both of these are of +the same nature, their conditions must also be the same. Now it has +frequently and satisfactorily been proved, that honour ought to be +sought after for itself alone. + +II. In this part of the subject we oppose the Epicureans, an +effeminate and dreamy sect who philosophize in their own paradise, +amongst whom virtue is the handmaid of pleasures, obeys them, is +subject to them, and regards them as superior to itself. You say, +"there is no pleasure without virtue." But wherefore is it superior +to virtue? Do you imagine that the matter in dispute between them +is merely one of precedence? Nay, it is virtue itself and its +powers which are in question. It cannot be virtue if it can follow; +the place of virtue is first, she ought to lead, to command, to +stand in the highest rank; you bid her look for a cue to follow. +"What," asks our opponent, "does that matter to you? I also declare +that happiness is impossible without virtue. Without virtue I +disapprove of and condemn the very pleasures which I pursue, and to +which I have surrendered myself. The only matter in dispute is +this, whether virtue be the cause of the highest good, or whether +it be itself the highest good." Do you suppose, though this be the +only point in question, that it is a mere matter of precedence? It +is a confusion and obvious blindness to prefer the last to the +first. I am not angry at virtue being placed below pleasure, but at +her being mixed up at all with pleasure, which she despises, whose +enemy she is, and from which she separates herself as far as +possible, being more at home with labour and sorrow, which are +manly troubles, than with your womanish good things. + +III. It was necessary to insert this argument, my Liberalis, +because it is the part of virtue to bestow those benefits which we +are now discussing, and it is most disgraceful to bestow benefits +for any other purpose than that they should be free gifts. If we +give with the hope of receiving a return, we should give to the +richest men, not to the most deserving: whereas we prefer a +virtuous poor man to an unmannerly rich one. That is not a benefit, +which takes into consideration the fortune of the receiver. +Moreover, if our only motive for benefiting others was our own +advantage, those who could most easily distribute benefits, such as +rich and powerful men, or kings, and persons who do not stand in +need of the help of others, ought never to do so at all; the gods +would not bestow upon us the countless blessings which they pour +upon us unceasingly by night and by day, for their own nature +suffices them in all respects, and renders them complete, safe, and +beyond the reach of harm; they will, therefore, never bestow a +benefit upon any one, if self and self interest be the only cause +for the bestowal of benefits. To take thought, not where your +benefit will be best bestowed, but where it may be most profitably +placed at interest, from whence you will most easily get it back, +is not bestowal of benefits, but usury. Now the gods have nothing +to do with usury; it follows, therefore, that they cannot be +liberal; for if the only reason for giving is the advantage of the +giver, since God cannot hope to receive any advantages from us, +there is no cause why God should give anything. + +IV. I know what answer may be made to this. "True; therefore God +does not bestow benefits, but, free from care and unmindful of us, +He turns away from our world and either does something else, or +else does nothing, which Epicurus thought the greatest possible +happiness, and He is not affected either by benefits or by +injuries." The man who says this cannot surely hear the voices of +worshippers, and of those who all around him are raising their +hands to heaven and praying for the success both of their private +affairs and those of the state; which certainly would not be the +case, all men would not agree in this madness of appealing to deaf +and helpless gods, unless we knew that their benefits are sometimes +bestowed upon us unasked, sometimes in answer to our prayers, and +that they give us both great and seasonable gifts, which shield us +from the most terrible dangers. Who is there so poor, so uncared +for, born to sorrow by so unkind a fate, as never to have felt the +vast generosity of the Gods? Look even at those who complain and +are discontented with their lot; you will find that they are not +altogether without a share in the bounty of heaven, that there is +no one upon whom something has not been shed from that most +gracious fount. Is the gift which is bestowed upon all alike, at +their birth, not enough? However unequally the blessings of after +life may be dealt out to us, did nature give us too little when she +gave us herself? + +V. It is said, "God does not bestow benefits." Whence, then, comes +all that you possess, that you give or refuse to give, that you +hoard or steal? whence come these innumerable delights of our eyes, +our ears, and our minds? whence the plenty which provides us even +with luxury--for it is not our bare necessities alone against which +provision is made; we are loved so much as actually to be pampered-- +whence so many trees bearing various fruits, so many wholesome +herbs, so many different sorts of food distributed throughout the +year, so that even the slothful may find sustenance in the chance +produce of the earth? Then, too, whence come the living creatures +of all kinds, some inhabiting the dry land, others the waters, +others alighting from the sky, that every part of nature may pay us +some tribute; the rivers which encircle our meadows with most +beauteous bends, the others which afford a passage to merchant +fleets as they flow on, wide and navigable, some of which in summer +time are subject to extraordinary overflowings in order that lands +lying parched under a glowing sun may suddenly be watered by the +rush of a midsummer torrent? + +What of the fountains of medicinal waters? What of the bursting +forth of warm waters upon the seashore itself? Shall I + + "Tell of the seas round Italy that flow, + Which laves her shore above, and which below; + Or of her lakes, unrivalled Larius, thee, + Or thee, Benacus, roaring like a sea?" + +VI. If any one gave you a few acres, you would say that you had +received a benefit; can you deny that the boundless extent of the +earth is a benefit? If any one gave you money, and filled your +chest, since you think that so important, you would call that a +benefit. God has buried countless mines in the earth, has poured +out from the earth countless rivers, rolling sands of gold; He has +concealed in every place huge masses of silver, copper and iron, +and has bestowed upon you the means of discovering them, placing +upon the surface of the earth signs of the treasures hidden below; +and yet do you say that you have received no benefit? If a house +were given you, bright with marble, its roof beautifully painted +with colours and gilding, you would call it no small benefit. God +has built for you a huge mansion that fears no fire or ruin, in +which you see no flimsy veneers, thinner than the very saw with +which they are cut, but vast blocks of most precious stone, all +composed of those various and different substances whose paltriest +fragments you admire so much; he has built a roof which glitters in +one fashion by day, and in another by night; and yet do you say +that you have received no benefit? When you so greatly prize what +you possess, do you act the part of an ungrateful man, and think +that there is no one to whom you are indebted for them? Whence +comes the breath which you draw? the light by which you arrange and +perform all the actions of your life? the blood by whose +circulation your vital warmth is maintained? those meats which +excite your palate by their delicate flavour after your hunger is +appeased? those provocatives which rouse you when wearied with +pleasure? that repose in which you are rotting and mouldering? Will +you not, if you are grateful, say-- + + "'Tis to a god that this repose I owe, + For him I worship, as a god below. + Oft on his altar shall my firstlings bleed, + See, by his bounty here with rustic reed + I play the airs I love the livelong day, + The while my oxen round about me stray." + +The true God is he who has placed, not a few oxen, but all the +herds on their pastures throughout the world; who furnishes food to +the flocks wherever they wander; who has ordained the alternation +of summer and winter pasturage, and has taught us not merely to +play upon a reed, and to reduce to some order a rustic and artless +song, but who has invented so many arts and varieties of voice, so +many notes to make music, some with our own breath, some with +instruments. You cannot call our inventions our own any more than +you call our growth our own, or the various bodily functions which +correspond to each stage of our lives; at one time comes the loss +of childhood's teeth, at another, when our age is advancing and +growing into robuster manhood, puberty and the last wisdom-tooth +marks the end of our youth. "We have implanted in us the seeds of +all ages, of all arts, and God our master brings forth our +intellects from obscurity. + +VII. "Nature," says my opponent, "gives me all this." Do you not +perceive when you say this that you merely speak of God under +another name? for what is nature but God and divine reason, which +pervades the universe and all its parts? You may address the author +of our world by as many different titles as you please; you may +rightly call him Jupiter, Best and Greatest, and the Thunderer, or +the Stayer, so called, not because, as the historians tell us, he +stayed the flight of the Roman army in answer to the prayer of +Romulus, but because all things continue in their stay through his +goodness. If you were to call this same personage Fate, you would +not lie; for since fate is nothing more than a connected chain of +causes, he is the first cause of all upon which all the rest +depend. You will also be right in applying to him any names that +you please which express supernatural strength and power: he may +have as many titles as he has attributes. + +VIII. Our school regards him as Father Liber, and Hercules, and +Mercurius: he is Father Liber because he is the parent of all, who +first discovered the power of seed, and our being led by pleasure +to plant it; he is Hercules, because his might is unconquered, and +when it is wearied after completing its labours, will retire into +fire; he is Mercurius, because in him is reasoning, and numbers, +and system, and knowledge. Whither-soever you turn yourself you +will see him meeting you: nothing is void of him, he himself fills +his own work. Therefore, most ungrateful of mortals, it is in vain +that you declare yourself indebted, not to God, but to nature, +because there can be no God without nature, nor any nature without +God; they are both the same thing, differing only in their +functions. If you were to say that you owe to Annaeus or to Lucius +what you received from Seneca, you would not change your creditor, +but only his name, because he remains the same man whether you use +his first, second, or third name. So whether you speak of nature, +fate, or fortune, these are all names of the same God, using his +power in different ways. So likewise justice, honesty, discretion, +courage, frugality, are all the good qualities of one and the same +mind; if you are pleased with any one of these, you are pleased +with that mind. + +IX. However, not to drift aside into a distinct controversy, God +bestows upon us very many and very great benefits without hope of +receiving any return; since he does not require any offering from +us, and we are not capable of bestowing anything upon him: +wherefore, a benefit is desirable in itself. In it the advantage of +the receiver is all that is taken into consideration: we study this +without regarding our own interests. "Yet," argues our opponent, +"you say that we ought to choose with care the persons upon whom we +bestow benefits, because neither do husbandmen sow seed in the +sand: now if this be true, we follow our own interest in bestowing +benefits, just as much as in ploughing and sowing: for sowing is +not desirable in itself. Besides this you inquire where and how you +ought to bestow a benefit, which would not need to be done if the +bestowal of a benefit was desirable in itself: because in whatever +place and whatever manner it might be bestowed, it still would be +a benefit." We seek to do honourable acts, solely because they are +honourable; yet even though we need think of nothing else, we +consider to whom we shall do them, and when, and how; for in these +points the act has its being. In like manner, when I choose upon +whom I shall bestow a benefit, and when I aim at making it a +benefit; because if it were bestowed upon a base person, it could +neither be a benefit nor an honourable action. + +X. To restore what has been entrusted to one is desirable in +itself; yet I shall not always restore it, nor shall I do so in any +place or at any time you please. Sometimes it makes no difference +whether I deny that I have received it, or return it openly. I +shall consider the interests of the person to whom I am to return +it, and shall deny that I have received a deposit, which would +injure him if returned. I shall act in the same manner in bestowing +a benefit: I shall consider when to give it, to whom, in what +manner, and on what grounds. Nothing ought to be done without a +reason: a benefit is not truly so, if it be bestowed without a +reason, since reason accompanies all honorable action. How often do +we hear men reproaching themselves for some thoughtless gift, and +saying, "I had rather have thrown it away than have given it to +him!" What is thoughtlessly given away is lost in the most +discreditable manner, and it is much worse to have bestowed a +benefit badly than to have received no return for it; that we +receive no return is the fault of another; that we did not choose +upon whom we should bestow it, is our own. In choosing a fit +person, I shall not, as you expect, pay the least attention to +whether I am likely to get any return from him, for I choose one +who will be grateful, not one who will return my goodness, and it +often happens that the man who makes no return is grateful, while +he who returns a benefit is ungrateful for it. I value men by their +hearts alone, and, therefore, I shall pass over a rich man if he be +unworthy, and give to a good man though he be poor; for he will be +grateful however destitute he may be, since whatever he may lose, +his heart will still be left him. + +XI. I do not fish for gain, for pleasure, or for credit, by +bestowing benefits: satisfied in doing so with pleasing one man +alone, I shall give in order to do my duty. Duty, however, leaves +one some choice; do you ask me, how I am to choose? I shall choose +an honest, plain, man, with a good memory, and grateful for +kindness; one who keeps his hands off other men's goods, yet does +not greedily hold to his own, and who is kind to others; when I +have chosen such a man, I shall have acted to my mind, although +fortune may have bestowed upon him no means of returning my +kindness. If my own advantage and mean calculation made me liberal, +if I did no one any service except in order that he might in turn +do a service to me, I should never bestow a benefit upon one who +was setting out for distant and foreign countries, never to return; +I should not bestow a benefit upon one who was so ill as to be past +hope of recovery, nor should I do so when I myself was failing, +because I should not live long enough to receive any return. Yet, +that you may know that to do good is desirable in itself, we afford +help to strangers who put into our harbour only to leave it +straightway; we give a ship and fit it out for a shipwrecked +stranger to sail back in to his own country. He leaves us hardly +knowing who it was who saved him, and, as he will never return to +our presence, he hands over his debt of gratitude to the gods, and +beseeches them to fulfil it for him: in the meanwhile we rejoice in +the barren knowledge that we have done a good action. What? when we +stand upon the extreme verge of life, and make our wills, do we not +assign to others benefits from which we ourselves shall receive no +advantage? How much time we waste, how long we consider in secret +how much property we are to leave, and to whom! What then? does it +make any difference to us to whom we leave our property, seeing +that we cannot expect any return from any one? Yet we never give +anything with more care, we never take such pains in deciding upon +our verdict, as when, without any views of personal advantage, we +think only of what is honourable, for we are bad judges of our duty +as long as our view of it is distorted by hope and fear, and that +most indolent of vices, pleasure: but when death has shut off all +these, and brought us as incorrupt judges to pronounce sentence, we +seek for the most worthy men to leave our property to, and we never +take more scrupulous care than in deciding what is to be done with +what does not concern us. Yet, by Hercules, then there steals over +us a great satisfaction as we think, "I shall make this man richer, +and by bestowing wealth upon that man I shall add lustre to his +high position." Indeed, if we never give without expecting some +return, we must all die without making our wills. + +XII. It may be said, "You define a benefit as a loan which cannot +be repaid: now a loan is not a desirable thing in itself." When we +speak of a loan, we make use of a figure, or comparison, just as we +speak of law as; the standard of right and wrong, although a +standard is not a thing to be desired for its own sake. I have +adopted this phrase in order to illustrate my subject: when I speak +of a loan, I must be understood to mean something resembling a +loan. Do you wish to know how it differs from one? I add the words +"which cannot be repaid," whereas every loan both can and ought to +be repaid. It is so far from being right to bestow a benefit for +one's own advantage, that often, as I have explained, it is one's +duty to bestow it when it involves one's own loss and risk: for +instance, if I assist a man when beset by robbers, so that he gets +away from them safely, or help some victim of power, and bring upon +myself the party spite of a body of influential men, very, probably +incurring myself the same disgrace from which I saved him, although +I might have taken the other side, and looked on with safety at +struggles with which I have nothing to do: if I were to give bail +for one who has been condemned, and when my friend's goods were +advertised for sale I were to give a bond to the effect that I +would make restitution to the creditors, if, in order to save a +proscribed person I myself run the risk of being proscribed. No +one, when about to buy a villa at Tusculum or Tibur, for a summer +retreat, because of the health of the locality, considers how many +years' purchase he gives for it; this must be looked to by the man +who makes a profit by it. The same is true with benefits; when you +ask what return I get for them, I answer, the consciousness of a +good action. "What return does one get for benefits?" Pray tell me +what return one gets for righteousness, innocence, magnanimity, +chastity, temperance? If you wish for anything beyond these +virtues, you do not wish for the virtues themselves. For what does +the order of the universe bring round the seasons? for what does +the sun make the day now longer and now shorter? all these things +are benefits, for they take place for our good. As it is the duty +of the universe to maintain the round of the seasons, as it is the +duty of the sun to vary the points of his rising and setting, and +to do all these things by which we profit, without any reward, so +is it the duty of man, amongst other things, to bestow benefits. +Wherefore then does he give? He gives for fear that he should not +give, lest he might lose an opportunity of doing a good action. + +XIII. You Epicureans take pleasure in making a study of dull +torpidity, in seeking for a repose which differs little from sound +sleep, in lurking beneath the thickest shade, in amusing with the +feeblest possible trains of thought that sluggish condition of your +languid minds which you term tranquil contemplation, and in +stuffing with food and drink, in the recesses of your gardens, your +bodies which are pallid with want of exercise; we Stoics, on the +other hand, take pleasure in bestowing benefits, even though they +cost us labour, provided that they lighten the labours of others; +though they lead us into danger, provided that they save others, +though they straiten our means, if they alleviate the poverty and +distresses of others. What difference does it make to me whether I +receive benefits or not? even if I receive them, it is still my +duty to bestow them. A benefit has in view the advantage of him +upon whom we bestow it, not our own; otherwise we merely bestow it +upon ourselves. Many things, therefore, which are of the greatest +possible use to others lose all claim to gratitude by being paid +for. Merchants are of use to cities, physicians to invalids, +dealers to slaves; yet all these have no claim to the gratitude of +those whom they benefit, because they seek their own advantage +through that of others. That which is bestowed with a view to +profit is not a benefit. "I will give this in order that I may get +a return for it" is the language of a broker. + +XIV. I should not call a woman modest, if she rebuffed her lover in +order to increase his passion, or because she feared the law or her +husband; as Ovid says: + + "She that denies, because she does not dare + To yield, in spirit grants her lover's prayer." + +Indeed, the woman who owes her chastity, not to her own virtue, but +to fear, may rightly be classed as a sinner. In the same manner, he +who merely gave in order that he might receive, cannot be said to +have given. Pray, do we bestow benefits upon animals when we feed +them for our use or for our table? do we bestow benefits upon trees +when we tend them that they may not suffer from drought or from +hardness of ground? No one is moved by righteousness and goodness +of heart to cultivate an estate, or to do any act in which the +reward is something apart from the act itself; but he is moved to +bestow benefits, not by low and grasping motives, but by a kind and +generous mind, which even after it has given is willing to give +again, to renew its former bounties by fresh ones, which thinks +only of how much good it can do the man to whom it gives; whereas +to do any one a service because it is our interest to do so is a +mean action, which deserves no praise, no credit. What grandeur is +there in loving oneself, sparing oneself, gaining profit for +oneself? The true love of giving calls us away from all this, +forcibly leads us to put up with loss, and foregoes its own +interest, deriving its greatest pleasure from the mere act of doing +good. + +XV. Can we doubt that the converse of a benefit is an injury? As +the infliction of injuries is a thing to be avoided, so is the +bestowal of benefits to be desired for its own sake. In the former, +the disgrace of crime outweighs all the advantages which incite us +to commit it; while we are urged to the latter course by the +appearance of honour, in itself a powerful incentive to action, +which attends it. + +I should not lie if I were to affirm that every one takes pleasure +in the benefits which he has bestowed, that everyone loves best to +see the man whom he has most largely benefited. Who does not thinks +that to have bestowed one benefit is a reason for bestowing a +second? and would this be so, if the act of giving did not itself +give us pleasure? How often you may hear a man say, "I cannot bear +to desert one whose life I have preserved, whom I have saved from +danger. True, he asks me to plead his cause against men of great +influence. I do not wish to do so, yet what am I to do? I have +already helped him once, nay twice." Do you not perceive how very +powerful this instinct must be, if it leads us to bestow benefits +first because it is right to do so, and afterwards because we have +already bestowed somewhat? Though at the outset a man may have had +no claim upon us, we yet continue to give to him because we have +already given to him. So untrue is it that we are urged to bestow +benefits by our own interest, that even when our benefits prove +failures we continue to nurse them and encourage them out of sheer +love of benefiting, which has a natural weakness even for what has +been ill-bestowed, like that which we feel for our vicious +children. + +XVI. These same adversaries of ours admit that they are grateful, +yet not because it is honourable, but because it is profitable to +be so. This can be proved to be untrue all the more easily, because +it can be established by the same arguments by which we have +established that to bestow a benefit is desirable for its own sake. +All our arguments start from this settled point, that honour is +pursued for no reason except because it is honour. Now, who will +venture to raise the question whether it be honourable to be +grateful? who does not loathe the ungrateful man, useless as he is +even to himself? How do you feel when any one is spoken of as being +ungrateful for great benefits conferred upon him by a friend? Is it +as though he had done something base, or had merely neglected to do +something useful and likely to be profitable to himself? I imagine +that you think him a bad man, and one who deserves punishment, not +one who needs a guardian; and this would not be the case, unless +gratitude were desirable in itself and honourable. Other qualities, +it may be, manifest their importance less clearly, and require an +explanation to prove whether they be honourable or no; this is +openly proved to be so in the sight of all, and is too beautiful +for anything to obscure or dim its glory. What is more +praiseworthy, upon what are all men more universally agreed, than +to return gratitude for good offices? + +XVII. Pray tell me, what is it that urges us to do so? Is it +profit? Why, unless a man despises profit, he is not grateful. Is +it ambition? why, what is there to boast of in having paid what you +owe? Is it fear? The ungrateful man feels none, for against this +one crime we have provided no law, as though nature had taken +sufficient precautions against it. Just as there is no law which +bids parents love and indulge their children, seeing that it is +superfluous to force us into the path which we naturally take, just +as no one needs to be urged to love himself, since self-love begins +to act upon him as soon as he is born, so there is no law bidding +us to seek that which is honourable in itself; for such things +please us by their very nature, and so attractive is virtue that +the disposition even of bad men leads them to approve of good +rather than of evil. Who is there who does not wish to appear +beneficent, who does not even when steeped in crime and wrong-doing +strive after the appearance of goodness, does not put some show of +justice upon even his most intemperate acts, and endeavour to seem +to have conferred a benefit even upon those whom he has injured? +Consequently, men allow themselves to be thanked by those whom they +have ruined, and pretend to be good and generous, because they +cannot prove themselves so; and this they never would do were it +not that a love of honour for its own sake forces them to seek a +reputation quite at variance with their real character, and to +conceal their baseness, a quality whose fruits we covet, though we +regard it itself with dislike and shame. No one has ever so far +rebelled against the laws of nature and put off human feeling as to +act basely for mere amusement. Ask any of those who live by robbery +whether he would not rather obtain what he steals and plunders by +honest means; the man whose trade is highway robbery and the murder +of travellers would rather find his booty than take it by force; +you will find no one who would not prefer to enjoy the fruits of +wickedness without acting wickedly. Nature bestows upon us all this +immense advantage, that the light of virtue shines into the minds +of all alike; even those who do not follow her, behold her. + +XVIII. A proof that gratitude is desirable for itself lies in the +fact that ingratitude is to be avoided for itself, because no vice +more powerfully rends asunder and destroys the union of the human +race. To what do we trust for safety, if not in mutual good offices +one to another? It is by the interchange of benefits alone that we +gain some measure of protection for our lives, and of safety +against sudden disasters. Taken singly, what should we be? a prey +and quarry for wild beasts, a luscious and easy banquet; for while +all other animals have sufficient strength to protect themselves, +and those which are born to a wandering solitary life are armed, +man is covered by a soft skin, has no powerful teeth or claws with +which to terrify other creatures, but weak and naked by himself is +made strong by union. + +God has bestowed upon him two gifts, reason and union, which raise +him from weakness to the highest power; and so he, who if taken +alone would be inferior to every other creature, possesses supreme +dominion. Union has given him sovereignty over all animals; union +has enabled a being born upon the earth to assume power over a +foreign element, and bids him be lord of the sea also; it is union +which has checked the inroads of disease, provided supports for our +old age, and given us relief from pain; it is union which makes us +strong, and to which we look for protection against the caprices of +fortune. Take away union, and you will rend asunder the association +by which the human race preserves its existence; yet you will take +it away if you succeed in proving that ingratitude is not to be +avoided for itself, but because something is to be feared for it; +for how many are there who can with safety be ungrateful? In fine, +I call every man ungrateful who is merely made grateful by fear. + +XIX. No sane man fears the gods; for it is madness to fear what is +beneficial, and no man loves those whom he fears. You, Epicurus, +ended by making God unarmed; you stripped him of all weapons, of +all power, and, lest anyone should fear him, you banished him out +of the world. There is no reason why you should fear this being, +cut off as he is, and separated from the sight and touch of mortals +by a vast and impassable wall; he has no power either of rewarding +or of injuring us; he dwells alone half-way between our heaven and +that of another world, without the society either of animals, of +men, or of matter, avoiding the crash of worlds as they fall in +ruins above and around him, but neither hearing our prayers nor +interested in us. Yet you wish to seem to worship this being just +as a father, with a mind, I suppose, full of gratitude; or, if you +do not wish to seem grateful, why should you worship him, since you +have received no benefit from him, but have been put together +entirely at random and by chance by those atoms and mites of yours? +"I worship him," you answer, "because of his glorious majesty and +his unique nature." Granting that you do this, you clearly do it +without the attraction of any reward, or any hope; there is +therefore something which is desirable for itself, whose own worth +attracts you, that is, honour. Now what is more honourable than +gratitude? the means of practising this virtue are as extensive as +life itself. + +XX. "Yet," argues he, "there is also a certain amount of profit +inherent in this virtue." In what virtue is there not? But that +which we speak of as desirable for itself is such, that although it +may possess some attendant advantages, yet it would be desirable +even if stripped of all these. It is profitable to be grateful; yet +I will be grateful even though it harm me. What is the aim of the +grateful man? is it that his gratitude may win for him more friends +and more benefits? What then? If a man is likely to meet with +affronts by showing his gratitude, if he knows that far from +gaining anything by it, he must lose much even of what he has +already acquired, will he not cheerfully act to his own +disadvantage? That man is ungrateful who, in returning a kindness, +looks forward to a second gift--who hopes while he repays. I call +him ungrateful who sits at the bedside of a sick man because he is +about to make a will, when he is at leisure to think of +inheritances and legacies. Though he may do everything which a good +and dutiful friend ought to do, yet, if any hope of gain be +floating in his mind, he is a mere legacy-hunter, and is angling +for an inheritance. Like the birds which feed upon carcases, which +come close to animals weakened by disease, and watch till they +fall, so these men are attracted by death and hover around a +corpse. + +XXI. A grateful mind is attracted only by a sense of the beauty of +its purpose. Do you wish to know this to be so, and that it is not +bribed by ideas of profit? There are two classes of grateful men: a +man is called grateful who has made some return for what he +received; this man may very possibly display himself in this +character, he has something to boast of, to refer to. We also call +a man grateful who receives a benefit with goodwill, and owes it to +his benefactor with goodwill; yet this man's gratitude lies +concealed within his own mind. What profit can accrue to him from +this latent feeling? yet this man, even though he is not able to do +anything more than this, is grateful; he loves his benefactor, he +feels his debt to him, he longs to repay his kindness; whatever +else you may find wanting, there is nothing wanting in the man. He +is like a workman who has not the tools necessary for the practice +of his craft, or like a trained singer whose voice cannot be heard +through the noise of those who interrupt him. I wish to repay a +kindness: after this there still remains something for me to do, +not in order that I may become grateful, but that I may discharge +my debt; for, in many cases, he who returns a kindness is +ungrateful for it, and he who does not return it is grateful. Like +all other virtues, the whole value of gratitude lies in the spirit +in which it is done; so, if this man's purpose be loyal, any +shortcomings on his part are due not to himself, but to fortune. A +man who is silent may, nevertheless, be eloquent; his hands may be +folded or even bound, and he may yet be strong; just as a pilot is +a pilot even when upon dry land, because his knowledge is complete, +and there is nothing wanting to it, though there may be obstacles +which prevent his making use of it. In the same way, a man is +grateful who only wishes to be so, and who has no one but himself +who can bear witness to his frame of mind. I will go even further +than this: a man sometimes is grateful when he appears to be +ungrateful, when ill-judging report has declared him to be so. Such +a man can look to nothing but his own conscience, which can please +him even when overwhelmed by calumny, which contradicts the mob and +common rumour, relies only upon itself, and though it beholds a +vast crowd of the other way of thinking opposed to it, does not +count heads, but wins by its own vote alone. Should it see its own +good faith meet with the punishment due to treachery, it will not +descend from its pedestal, and will remain superior to its +punishment. "I have," it says, "what I wished, what I strove for. I +do not regret it, nor shall I do so; nor shall fortune, however +unjust she may be, ever hear me say, 'What did I want? What now is +the use of having meant well?'" A good conscience is of value on +the rack, or in the fire; though fire be applied to each of our +limbs, gradually encircle our living bodies, and burst our heart, +yet if our heart be filled with a good conscience, it will rejoice +in the fire which will make its good faith shine before the world. + +XXII. Now let that question also which has been already stated be +again brought forward; Why is it that we should wish to be grateful +when we are dying, that we should carefully weigh the various +services rendered us by different individuals, and carefully review +our whole life, that we may not seem to have forgotten any +kindness? Nothing then remains for us to hope for; yet when on the +very threshold, we wish to depart from human life as full of +gratitude as possible. There is in truth an immense reward for this +thing merely in doing it, and what is honourable has great power to +attract men's minds, which are overwhelmed by its beauty and +carried off their balance, enchanted by its brilliancy and +splendour. "Yet," argues our adversary, "from it many advantages +take their rise, and good men obtain a safer life and love, and the +good opinion of the better class, while their days are spent in +greater security when accompanied by innocence and gratitude." + +Indeed, nature would have been most unjust had she rendered this +great blessing miserable, uncertain, and fruitless. But consider +this point, whether you would make your way to that virtue, to +which it is generally safe and easy to attain, even though the path +lay over rocks and precipices, and were beset with fierce beasts +and venomous serpents. A virtue is none the less to be desired for +its own sake, because it has some adventitious profit connected +with it: indeed, in most cases the noblest virtues are accompanied +by many extraneous advantages, but it is the virtues that lead the +way, and these merely follow in their train. + +XXIII. Can we doubt that the climate of this abode of the human +race is regulated by the motion of the sun and moon in their +orbits? that our bodies are sustained, the hard earth loosened, +excessive moisture reduced, and the surly bonds of winter broken by +the heat of the one, and that crops are brought to ripeness by the +effectual all-pervading warmth of the other? that the fertility of +the human race corresponds to the courses of the moon? that the sun +by its revolution marks out the year, and that the moon, moving in +a smaller orbit, marks out the months? Yet, setting aside all this, +would not the sun be a sight worthy to be contemplated and +worshipped, if he did no more than rise and set? would not the moon +be worth looking at, even if it passed uselessly through the +heavens? Whose attention is not arrested by the universe itself, +when by night it pours forth its fires and glitters with +innumerable stars? Who, while he admires them, thinks of their +being of use to him? Look at that great company gliding over our +heads, how they conceal their swift motion under the semblance of a +fixed and immovable work. How much takes place in that night which +you make use of merely to mark and count your days! What a mass of +events is being prepared in that silence! What a chain of destiny +their unerring path is forming! Those which you imagine to be +merely strewn about for ornament are really one and all at work. +Nor is there any ground for your belief that only seven stars +revolve, and that the rest remain still: we understand the orbits +of a few, but countless divinities, further removed from our sight, +come and go; while the greater part of those whom our sight reaches +move in a mysterious manner and by an unknown path. + +XXIV. What then? would you not be captivated by the sight of such a +stupendous work, even though it did not cover you, protect you, +cherish you, bring you into existence and penetrate you with its +spirit? Though these heavenly bodies are of the very first +importance to us, and are, indeed, essential to our life, yet we +can think of nothing but their glorious majesty, and similarly all +virtue, especially that of gratitude, though it confers great +advantages upon us, does not wish to be loved for that reason; it +has something more in it than this, and he who merely reckons it +among useful things does not perfectly comprehend it. A man, you +say, is grateful because it is to his advantage to be so. If this +be the case, then his advantage will be the measure of his +gratitude. Virtue will not admit a covetous lover; men must +approach her with open purse. The ungrateful man thinks, "I did +wish to be grateful, but I fear the expense and danger and insults +to which I should expose myself: I will rather consult my own +interest." Men cannot be rendered grateful and ungrateful by the +same line of reasoning: their actions are as distinct as their +purposes. The one is ungrateful, although it is wrong, because it +is his interest; the other is grateful, although it is not his +interest, because it is right. + +XXV. It is our aim to live in harmony with the scheme of the +universe, and to follow the example of the gods. Yet in all their +acts the gods have no object in view other than the act itself, +unless you suppose that they obtain a reward for their work in the +smoke of burnt sacrifices and the scent of incense. See what great +things they do every day, how much they divide amongst us, with how +great crops they fill the earth, how they move the seas with +convenient winds to carry us to all shores, how by the fall of +sudden showers they soften the ground, renew the dried-up springs +of fountains, and call them into new life by unseen supplies of +water. All this they do without reward, without any advantage +accruing to themselves. Let our line of conduct, if it would not +depart from its model, preserve this direction, and let us not act +honourably because we are hired to do so. We ought to feel ashamed +that any benefit should have a price: we pay nothing for the gods. + +XXVI. "If," our adversary may say, "you wish to imitate the gods, +then bestow benefits upon the ungrateful as well as the grateful; +for the sun rises upon the wicked as well as the good, the seas are +open even to pirates." By this question he really asks whether a +good man would bestow a benefit upon an ungrateful person, knowing +him to be ungrateful. Allow me here to introduce a short +explanation, that we may not be taken in by a deceitful question. +Understand that according to the system of the Stoics there are two +classes of ungrateful persons. One man is ungrateful because he is +a fool; a fool is a bad man; a man who is bad possesses every vice: +therefore he is ungrateful. In the same way we speak of all bad men +as dissolute, avaricious, luxurious, and spiteful, not because each +man has all these vices in any great or remarkable degree, but +because he might have them; they are in him, even though they be +not seen. The second form of ungrateful person is he who is +commonly meant by the term, one who is inclined by nature to this +vice. In the case of him who has the vice of ingratitude just as he +has every other, a wise man will bestow a benefit, because if he +sets aside all such men there will be no one left for him to bestow +it on. As for the ungrateful man who habitually misapplies benefits +and acts so by choice, he will no more bestow a benefit upon him +than he would lend money to a spendthrift, or place a deposit in +the hands of one who had already often refused to many persons to +give up the property with which they had entrusted him. + +XXVII. We call some men timid because they are fools: in this they +are like the bad men who are steeped in all vices without +distinction. Strictly speaking, we call those persons timid who are +alarmed even at unmeaning noises. A fool possesses all vices, but +he is not equally inclined by nature to all; one is prone to +avarice, another to luxury, and another to insolence. Those +persons, therefore, are mistaken, who ask the Stoics, "What do you +say, then? is Achilles timid? Aristides, who received a name for +justice, is he unjust? Fabius, who 'by delays retrieved the day,' +is he rash? Does Decius fear death? Is Mucius a traitor? Camillus a +betrayer?" We do not mean that all vices are inherent in all men in +the same way in which some especial ones are noticeable in certain +men, but we declare that the bad man and the fool possess all +vices; we do not even acquit them of fear when they are rash, or of +avarice when they are extravagant. Just as a man has all his +senses, yet all men have not on that account as keen a sight as +Lynceus, so a man that is a fool has not all vices in so active and +vigorous a form as some persons have spine of them, yet he has them +all. All vices exist in all of them, yet all are not prominent in +each individual. One man is naturally prone to avarice, another is +the slave of wine, a third of lust; or, if not yet enslaved by +these passions, he is so fashioned by nature that this is the +direction in which his character would probably lead him. +Therefore, to return to my original proposition, every bad man is +ungrateful, because he has the seeds of every villainy in him; but +he alone is rightly so called who is naturally inclined to this +vice. Upon such a person as this, therefore, I shall not bestow a +benefit. One who betrothed his daughter to an ill-tempered man from +whom many women had sought a divorce, would be held to have +neglected her interests; a man would be thought a bad father if he +entrusted the care of his patrimony to one who had lost his own +family estate, and it would be the act of a madman to make a will +naming as the guardian of one's son a man who had already defrauded +other wards. So will that man be said to bestow benefits as badly +as possible, who chooses ungrateful persons, in whose hands they +will perish. + +XXVIII. "The gods," it may be said, "bestow much, even upon the +ungrateful." But what they bestow they had prepared for the good, +and the bad have their share as well, because they cannot be +separated. It is better to benefit the bad as well, for the sake of +benefiting the good, than to stint the good for fear of benefiting +the bad. Therefore the gods have created all that you speak of, the +day, the sun, the alternations of winter and summer, the +transitions through spring and autumn from one extreme to the +other, showers, drinking fountains, and regularly blowing winds for +the use of all alike; they could not except individuals from the +enjoyment of them. A king bestows honours upon those who deserve +them, but he gives largesse to the undeserving as well. The thief, +the bearer of false witness, and the adulterer, alike receive the +public grant of corn, and all are placed on the register without +any examination as to character; good and bad men share alike in +all the other privileges which a man receives, because he is a +citizen, not because he is a good man. God likewise has bestowed +certain gifts upon the entire human race, from which no one is shut +out. Indeed, it could not be arranged that the wind which was fair +for good men should be foul for bad ones, while it is for the good +of all men that the seas should be open for traffic and the kingdom +of mankind be enlarged; nor could any law be appointed for the +showers, so that they should not fall upon the fields of wicked and +evil men. Some things are given to all alike: cities are founded +for good and bad men alike; works of genius reach, by publication, +even unworthy men; medicine points out the means of health even to +the wicked; no one has checked the making up of wholesome remedies +for fear that the undeserving should be healed. You must seek for +examination and preference of individuals in such things as are +bestowed separately upon those who are thought to deserve them; not +in these, which admit the mob to share them without distinction. +There is a great difference between not shutting a man out and +choosing him. Even a thief receives justice; even murderers enjoy +the blessings of peace; even those who have plundered others can +recover their own property; assassins and private bravoes are +defended against the common enemy by the city wall; the laws +protect even those who have sinned most deeply against them. There +are some things which no man could obtain unless they were given to +all; you need not, therefore, cavil about those matters in which +all mankind is invited to share. As for things which men receive or +not at my discretion, I shall not bestow them upon one whom I know +to be ungrateful. + +XXIX. "Shall we, then," argues he, "not give our advice to an +ungrateful man when he is at a loss, or refuse him a drink of water +when he is thirsty, or not show him the path when he has lost his +way? or would you do him these services and yet not give him +anything?" Here I will draw a distinction, or at any rate endeavour +to do so. A benefit is a useful service, yet all useful service is +not a benefit; for some are so trifling as not to claim the title +of benefits. To produce a benefit two conditions must concur. +First, the importance of the thing given; for some things fall +short of the dignity of a benefit. Who ever called a hunch of bread +a benefit, or a farthing dole tossed to a beggar, or the means of +lighting a fire? yet sometimes these are of more value than the +most costly benefits; still their cheapness detracts from their +value even when, by the exigency of time, they are rendered +essential. The next condition, which is the most important of all, +must necessarily be present, namely, that I should confer the +benefit for the sake of him whom I wish to receive it, that I +should judge him worthy of it, bestow it of my own free will, and +receive pleasure from my own gift, none of which conditions are +present in the cases of which we have just now spoken; for we do +not bestow such things as those upon these who are worthy of them, +but we give them carelessly, as trifles, and do not give them so +much to a man as to humanity. + +XXX. I shall not deny that sometimes I would give even to the +unworthy, out of respect for others; as, for instance, in +competition for public offices, some of the basest of men are +preferred on account of their noble birth, to industrious men of no +family, and that for good reasons; for the memory of great virtues +is sacred, and more men will take pleasure in being good, if the +respect felt for good men does not cease with their lives. What +made Cicero's son a consul, except his father? What lately brought +Cinna [Footnote: See Seneca on "Clemency," book i., ch. ix.] out of +the camp of the enemy and raised him to the consulate? What made +Sextus Pompeius and the other Pompeii consuls, unless it was the +greatness of one man, who once was raised so high that, by his very +fall, he sufficiently exalted all his relatives. What lately made +Fabius Persicus a member of more than one college of priests, +though even profligates avoided his kiss? Was it not Verrucosus, +and Allobrogicus, and the three hundred who to serve their country +blocked the invader's path with the force of a single family? It is +our duty to respect the virtuous, not only when present with us, +but also when removed from our sight: as they have made it their +study not to bestow their benefits upon one age alone, but to leave +them existing after they themselves have passed away, so let us not +confine our gratitude to a single age. If a man has begotten great +men, he deserves to receive benefits, whatever he himself may be: +he has given us worthy men. If a man descends from glorious +ancestors, whatever he himself may be, let him find refuge under +the shadow of his ancestry. As mean places are lighted up by the +rays of the sun, so let the degenerate shine in the light of their +forefathers. + +XXXI. In this place, my Liberalis, I wish to speak in defence of +the gods. We sometimes say, "What could Providence mean by placing +an Arrhidaeus upon the throne?" Do you suppose that the crown was +given to Arrhidaeus? nay, it was given to his father and his +brother. Why did Heaven bestow the empire of the world upon Caius +Caesar, the most bloodthirsty of mankind, who was wont to order +blood to be shed in his presence as freely as if he wished to drink +of it? Why, do you suppose that it was given to him? It was given +to his father, Germanicus, to his grandfather, his great +grandfather, and to others before them, no less illustrious men, +though they lived as private citizens on a footing of equality with +others. Why, when you yourself were making Mamercus Scaurus consul, +were you ignorant of his vices? did he himself conceal them? did he +wish to appear decent? + +Did you admit a man who was so openly filthy to the fasces and the +tribunal? Yes, it was because you were thinking of the great old +Scaurus, the chief of the Senate, and were unwilling that his +descendant should be despised. + +XXXII. It is probable that the gods act in the same manner, that +they show greater indulgence to some for the sake of their parents +and their ancestry, and to others for the sake of their children +and grandchildren, and a long line of descendants beyond them; for +they know the whole course of their works, and have constant access +to the knowledge of all that shall hereafter pass through their +hands. These things come upon us from the unknown future, and the +gods have foreseen and are familiar with the events by which we are +startled. "Let these men," says Providence, "be kings, because +their ancestors were good kings, because they regarded +righteousness and temperance as the highest rule of life, because +they did not devote the state to themselves, but devoted themselves +to the state. Let these others reign, because some one of their +ancestors before them was a good man, who bore a soul superior to +fortune, who preferred to be conquered rather than to conquer in +civil strife, because it was more to the advantage of the state. +[Footnote: Gertz, "Stud. Crit," p. 159, note.] It was not possible +to make a sufficient return to him for this during so long a time; +let this other, therefore, out of regard for him, be chief of the +people, not because he knows how, or is capable, but because the +other has earned it for him. This man is misshapen, loathsome to +look upon, and will disgrace the insignia of his office. Men will +presently blame me, calling me blind and reckless, not knowing upon +whom I am conferring what ought to be given to the greatest and +noblest of men; but I know that, in giving this dignity to one man, +I am paying an old debt to another. How should the men of to-day +know that ancient hero, who so resolutely avoided the glory which +pressed upon him, who went into danger with the same look which +other men wear when they have escaped from danger, who never +regarded his own interest as apart from that of the commonwealth?" +"Where," you ask, "or who is he? whence does he come?" "You know +him not; it lies with me to balance the debit and credit account in +such cases as these; I know how much I owe to each man; I repay +some after a long interval, others beforehand, according as my +opportunities and the exigencies of my social system permit." I +shall, therefore, sometimes bestow somewhat upon an ungrateful man, +though not for his own sake. + +XXXIII. "What," argues he, "if you do not know whether your man be +ungrateful or grateful--will you wait until you know, or will you +not lose the opportunity of bestowing a benefit? To wait is a long +business--for, as Plato says, it is hard to form an opinion about +the human mind,--not to wait, is rash." To this objector we shall +answer, that we never should wait for absolute knowledge of the +whole case, since the discovery of truth is an arduous task, but +should proceed in the direction in which truth appeared to direct +us. All our actions proceed in this direction: it is thus that we +sow seed, that we sail upon the sea, that we serve in the army, +marry, and bring up children. The result of all these actions is +uncertain, so we take that course from which we believe that good +results may be hoped for. Who can guarantee a harvest to the sower, +a harbour to the sailor, victory to the soldier, a modest wife to +the husband, dutiful children to the father? We proceed in the way +in which reason, not absolute truth, directs us. Wait, do nothing +that will not turn out well, form no opinion until you have +searched but the truth, and your life will pass in absolute in +action. Since it is only the appearance of truth, not truth itself, +which leads me hither or thither, I shall confer benefits upon the +man who apparently will be grateful. + +XXXIV. "Many circumstances," argues he, "may arise which may enable +a bad man to steal into the place of a good one, or may cause a +good man to be disliked as though he were a bad one; for +appearances, to which we trust, are deceptive." Who denies it? Yet +I can find nothing else by which to guide my opinion. I must follow +these tracks in my search after truth, for I have none more +trustworthy than these; I will take pains to weigh the value of +these with all possible care, and will not hastily give my assent +to them. For instance, in a battle, it may happen that my hand may +be deceived by some mistake into turning my weapon against my +comrade, and sparing my enemy as though he were on my side; but +this will not often take place, and will not take place through any +fault of mine, for my object is to strike the enemy, and defend my +countryman. If I know a man to be ungrateful, I shall not bestow a +benefit upon him. But the man has passed himself off as a good man +by some trick, and has imposed upon me. Well, this is not at all +the fault of the giver, who gave under the impression that his +friend was grateful. "Suppose," asks he, "that you were to promise +to bestow a benefit, and afterwards were to learn that your man was +ungrateful, would you bestow it or not? If you do, you do wrong +knowingly, for you give to one to whom you ought not; if you +refuse, you do wrong likewise, for you do not give to him to whom +you promised to give. This case upsets your consistency, and that +proud assurance of yours that the wise man never regrets his +actions, or amends what he has done, or alters his plans." The wise +man never changes his plans while the conditions under which he +formed them remain the same; therefore, he never feels regret, +because at the time nothing better than what he did could have been +done, nor could any better decision have been arrived at than that +which was made; yet he begins everything with the saving clause, +"If nothing shall occur to the contrary." This is the reason why we +say that all goes well with him, and that nothing happens contrary +to his expectation, because he bears in mind the possibility of +something happening to prevent the realization of his projects. It +is an imprudent confidence to trust that fortune will be on our +side. The wise man considers both sides: he knows how great is the +power of errors, how uncertain human affairs are, how many +obstacles there are to the success of plans. Without committing +himself, he awaits the doubtful and capricious issue of events, and +weighs certainty of purpose against uncertainty of result. Here +also, however, he is protected by that saving clause, without which +he decides upon nothing, and begins nothing. + +XXXV. When I promise to bestow a benefit, I promise it, unless +something occurs which makes it my duty not to do so. What if, for +example, my country orders me to give to her what I had promised to +my friend? or if a law be passed forbidding any one to do what I +had promised to do for him? Suppose that I have promised you my +daughter in marriage, that then you turn out to be a foreigner, and +that I have no right of intermarriage with foreigners; in this +case, the law, by which I am forbidden to fulfil my promise, forms +my defence. I shall be treacherous, and hear myself blamed for +inconsistency, only if I do not fulfil, my promise when all +conditions remain the same as when I made it; otherwise, any change +makes me free to reconsider the entire case, and absolves me from +my promise. I may have promised to plead a cause; afterwards it +appears that this cause is designed to form a precedent for an +attack upon my father. I may have promised to leave my country, and +travel abroad; then news comes that the road is beset with robbers. +I was going to an appointment at some particular place; but my +son's illness, or my wife's confinement, prevented me. All +conditions must be the same as they were when I made the promise, +if you mean to hold me bound in honour to fulfil it. Now what +greater change can take place than that I should discover you to be +a bad and ungrateful man? I shall refuse to an unworthy man that +which I had intended to give him supposing him to be worthy, and I +shall also have reason to be angry with him for the trick which he +has put upon me. + +XXXVI. I shall nevertheless look into the matter, and consider what +the value of the thing promised may be. If it be trifling, I shall +give it, not because you are worthy of it, but because I promised +it, and I shall not give it as a present, but merely in order to +make good my words and give myself a twitch of the ear. I will +punish my own rashness in promising by the loss of what I gave. +"See how grieved you are; mind you take more care what you say in +future." As the saying is, I will take tongue money from you. If +the matter be important, I will not, as Maecenas said, let ten +million sesterces reproach me. I will weigh the two sides of the +question one against the other: there is something in abiding by +what you have promised; on the other hand, there is a great deal in +not bestowing a benefit upon one who is unworthy of it. Now, how +great is this benefit? If it is a trifling one, let us wink and let +it pass; but if it will cause me much loss or much shame to give +it, I had rather excuse myself once for refusing it than have to do +so ever after for giving it. The whole point, I repeat, depends +upon how much the thing given is worth: let the terms of my promise +be appraised. Not only shall I refuse to give what I may have +promised rashly, but I shall also demand back again what I may have +wrongly bestowed: a man must be mad who keeps a promise made under +a mistake. + +XXXVII. Philip, king of the Macedonians, had a hardy soldier whose +services he had found useful in many campaigns. From time to time +he made this man presents of part of the plunder as the reward of +his valour, and used to excite his greedy spirit by his frequent +gifts. This man was cast by shipwreck upon the estate of a certain +Macedonian, who as soon as he heard the news hastened to him, +restored his breath, removed him to his own farmhouse, gave up his +own bed to him, nursed him out of his weakened and half-dead +condition, took care of him at his own expense for thirty days, +restored him to health and gave him a sum of money for his journey, +as the man kept constantly saying, "If only I can see my chief, I +will repay your kindness." He told Philip of his shipwreck, said +nothing about the help which he had received, and at once demanded +that a certain man's estate should be given to him. The man was a +friend of his: it was that very man by whom he had been rescued and +restored to health. Sometimes, especially in time of war, kings +bestow many gifts with their eyes shut. One just man cannot deal +with such a mass of armed selfishness. It is not possible for any +one to be at the same time a good man and a good general. How are +so many thousands of insatiable men to be satiated? What would they +have, if every man had his own? Thus Philip reasoned with himself +while he ordered the man to be put in possession of the property +which he asked for. However, the other, when driven out of his +estate, did not, like a peasant, endure his wrongs in silence, +thankful that he himself was not given away also, but sent a sharp +and outspoken letter to Philip, who, on reading it, was so much +enraged that he straightway ordered Pausanias to restore the +property to its former owner, and to brand that wickedest of +soldiers, that most ungrateful of guests, that greediest of +shipwrecked men, with letters bearing witness to his ingratitude. +He, indeed, deserved to have the letters not merely branded but +carved in his flesh, for having reduced his host to the condition +in which he himself had been when he lay naked and shipwrecked upon +the beach; still, let us see within what limits one ought to keep +in punishing him. Of course what he had so villainously seized +ought to be taken from him. But who would be affected by the +spectacle of his punishment? The crime which he had committed would +prevent his being pitied even by any humane person. + +XXXVIII. Will Philip then give you a thing because he has promised +to give it, even though he ought not to do so, even though he will +commit a wrong by doing so, nay, a crime, even though by this one +act he will make it impossible for shipwrecked men to reach the +shore? There is no inconsistency in giving up an intention which we +have discovered to be wrong and have condemned as wrong; we ought +candidly to admit, "I thought that it was something different; I +have been deceived." It is mere pride and folly to persist, "what I +once have said, be it what it may, shall remain unaltered and +settled." There is no disgrace in altering one's plans according to +circumstances. Now, if Philip had left this man in possession of +that seashore which he obtained by his shipwreck, would he not have +practically pronounced sentence of banishment against all +unfortunates for the future? "Rather," says Philip, "do thou carry +upon thy forehead of brass those letters, that they may be +impressed upon the eyes of all throughout my kingdom. Go, let men +see how sacred a thing is the table of hospitality; show them your +face, that upon it they may read the decree which prevents its +being a capital crime to give refuge to the unfortunate under one's +roof. The order will be more certainly respected by this means than +if I had inscribed it upon tablets of brass." + +XXXIX. "Why then," argues our adversary, "did your Stoic +philosopher Zeno, when he had promised a loan of five hundred +denarii to some person, whom he afterwards discovered to be of +doubtful character, persist in lending it, because of his promise, +though his friends dissuaded him from doing so?" In the first place +a loan is on a different footing to a benefit. Even when we have +lent money to an undesirable person we can recall it; I can demand +payment upon a certain day, and if he becomes bankrupt, I can +obtain my share of his property; but a benefit is lost utterly and +instantly. Besides, the one is the act of a bad man, the other that +of a bad father of a family. In the next place, if the sum had been +a larger one, not even Zeno would have persisted in lending it. It +was five hundred denarii; the sort of sum of which one says, "May +he spend it in sickness," and it was worth paying so much to avoid +breaking his promise. I shall go out to supper, even though the +weather be cold, because I have promised to go; but I shall not if +snow be falling. I shall leave my bed to go to a betrothal feast, +although I may be suffering from indigestion; but I shall not do so +if I am feverish. I will become bail for you, because I promised; +but not if you wish me to become bail in some transaction of +uncertain issue, if you expose me to forfeiting my money to the +state. There runs through all these cases, I argue, an implied +exception; if I am able, provided it is right for me to do so, if +these things be so and so. Make the position the same when you ask +me to fulfil my promise, as it was when I gave it, and it will be +mere fickleness to disappoint you; but if something new has taken +place in the meanwhile, why should you wonder at my intentions +being changed when the conditions under which I gave the promise +are changed? Put everything back as it was, and I shall be the same +as I was. We enter into recognizances to appear, yet if we fail to +do so an action will not in all cases lie against us, for we are +excused for making default if forced to do so by a power which we +cannot resist. + +XL. You may take the same answer to the question as to whether we +ought in all cases to show gratitude for kindness, and whether a +benefit ought in all cases to be repaid. It is my duty to show a +grateful mind, but in some cases my own poverty, in others the +prosperity of the friend to whom I owe some return, will not permit +me to give it. What, for instance, am I, a poor man, to give to a +king or a rich man in return for his kindness, especially as some +men regard it as a wrong to have their benefits repaid, and are +wont to pile one benefit upon another? In dealing with such +persons, what more can I do than wish to repay them? Yet I ought +not to refuse to receive a new benefit, because I have not repaid +the former one. I shall take it as freely as it is given, and will +offer myself to my friend as a wide field for the exercise of his +good nature: he who is unwilling to receive new benefits must be +dissatisfied with what he has already received. Do you say, "I +shall not be able to return them?" What is that to the purpose? I +am willing enough to do so if opportunity or means were given me. +He gave it to me, of course, having both opportunity and means: is +he a good man or a bad one? if he is a good man, I have a good case +against him, and I will not plead if he be a bad one. Neither do I +think it right to insist on making repayment, even though it be +against the will of those whom we repay, and to press it upon them +however reluctant they may be; it is not repayment to force an +unwilling man to resume what you were once willing to take. Some +people, if any trifling present be sent to them, afterwards send +back something else for no particular reason, and then declare that +they are under no obligation; to send something back at once, and +balance one present by another, is the next thing to refusing to +receive it. On some occasions I shall not return a benefit, even +though I be able to do so. When? When by so doing I shall myself +lose more than he will gain, or if he would not notice any +advantage to himself in receiving that which it would be a great +loss to me to return. The man who is always eager to repay under +all circumstances, has not the feeling of a grateful man, but of a +debtor; and, to put it shortly, he who is too eager to repay, is +unwilling to be in his friend's debt; he who is unwilling, and yet +is in his friend's debt, is ungrateful. + + + + +BOOK V. + +I. + + +In the preceding books I seem to have accomplished the object which +I proposed to myself, since in them I have discussed how a benefit +ought to be bestowed, and how it ought to be received. These are +the limits of this action; when I dwell upon it further I am not +obeying the orders, but the caprices of my subject which ought to +be followed whither it leads, not whither it allures us to wander; +for now and then something will arise, which, although it is all +but unconnected with the subject, instead of being a necessary part +of it, still thrills the mind with a certain charm. However, since +you wish it to be so, let us go on, after having completed our +discussion of the heads of the subject itself, to investigate those +matters which, if you wish for truth, I must call adjacent to it, +not actually connected with it; to examine which carefully is not +one worth one's while, and yet is not labour in vain. No praise, +however, which I can give to benefits does justice to you, Aebutius +Liberalis, a man of excellent disposition and naturally inclined to +bestow them. Never have I seen any one esteem even the most +trifling services more kindly; indeed, your good-nature goes so far +as to regard whatever benefit is bestowed upon anyone as bestowed +upon yourself; you are prepared to pay even what is owed by the +ungrateful, that no one may regret having bestowed benefits. You +yourself are so far from any boastfulness, you are so eager at once +to free those whom you serve from any feeling of obligation to you, +that you like, when giving anything to any one, to seem not so much +to be giving a present as returning one; and therefore what you +give in this manner will all the more fully he repaid to you: for, +as a rule, benefits come to one who does not demand repayment of +them; and just as glory follows those who avoid it, so men receive +a more plentiful harvest in return for benefits bestowed upon those +who had it in their power to be ungrateful. With you there is no +reason why those who have received benefits from you should not ask +for fresh ones; nor would you refuse to bestow others, to overlook +and conceal what you have given, and to add to it more and greater +gifts, since it is the aim of all the best men and the noblest +dispositions to bear with an ungrateful man until you make him +grateful. Be not deceived in pursuing this plan; vice, if you do +not too soon begin to hate it, will yield to virtue. + +II. Thus it is that you are especially pleased with what you think +the grandly-sounding phrase, "It is disgraceful to be worsted in a +contest of benefits." Whether this be true or not deserves to be +investigated, and it means something quite different from what you +imagine; for it is never disgraceful to be worsted in any +honourable contest, provided that you do not throw down your arms, +and that even when conquered you wish to conquer. All men do not +strive for a good object with the same strength, resources, and +good fortune, upon which depend at all events the issues of the +most admirable projects, though we ought to praise the will itself +which makes an effort in the right direction. Even though another +passes it by with swifter pace, yet the palm of victory does not, +as in publicly-exhibited races, declare which is the better man; +though even in the games chance frequently brings an inferior man +to the front. As far as loyalty of feeling goes, which each man +wishes to be possessed in the fullest measure on his own side, if +one of the two be the more powerful, if he have at his disposal all +the resources which he wishes to use, and be favoured by fortune in +his most ambitious efforts, while the other, although equally +willing, can only return less than he receives, or perhaps can make +no return at all, but still wishes to do so and is entirely devoted +to this object; then the latter is no more conquered than he who +dies in arms, whom the enemy found it easier to slay than to turn +back. To be conquered, which you consider disgraceful, cannot +happen to a good man; for he will never surrender, never give up +the contest, to the last day of his life he will stand prepared and +in that posture he will die, testifying that though he has received +much, yet that he had the will to repay as much as he had received. + +III. The Lacedaemonians forbid their young men to contend in the +pancratium, or with the caestus, in which games the defeated party +has to acknowledge himself beaten. The winner of a race is he who +first reaches the goal; he outstrips the others in swiftness, but +not in courage. The wrestler who has been thrown three times loses +the palm of victory, but does not yield it up. Since the +Lacedaemonians thought it of great importance that their countrymen +should be invincible, they kept them away from those contests in +which victory is assigned, not by the judge, or by the issue of the +contest itself, but by the voice of the vanquished begging the +victor to spare him as he falls. This attribute of never being +conquered, which they so jealously guard among their citizens, can +be attained by all men through virtue and goodwill, because even +when all else is vanquished, the mind remains unconquered. For this +cause no one speaks of the three hundred Fabii as conquered, but +slaughtered. Regulus was taken captive by the Carthaginians, not +conquered; and so were all other men who have not yielded in spirit +when overwhelmed by the strength and weight of angry fortune. + +So is it with benefits. A man may have received more than he gave, +more valuable ones, more frequently bestowed; yet is he not +vanquished. It may be that, if you compare the benefits with one +another, those which he has received will outweigh those which he +has bestowed; but if you compare the giver and the receiver, whose +intentions also ought to be considered apart, neither will prove +the victor. It often happens that even when one combatant is +pierced with many wounds, while the other is only slightly injured, +yet they are said to have fought a drawn battle, although the +former may appear to be the worse man. + +IV. No one, therefore, can be conquered in a contest of benefits, +if he knows how to owe a debt, if he wishes to make a return for +what he has received, and raises himself to the same level with his +friend in spirit, though he cannot do so in material gifts. As long +as he remains in this temper of mind, as long as he has the wish to +declare by proofs that he has a grateful mind, what difference does +it make upon which side we can count the greater number of +presents? You are able to give much; I can do nothing but receive. +Fortune abides with you, goodwill alone with me; yet I am as much +on an equality with you as naked or lightly armed men are with a +large body armed to the teeth. No one, therefore, is worsted by +benefits, because each man's gratitude is to be measured by his +will. If it be disgraceful to be worsted in a contest of benefits, +you ought not to receive a benefit from very powerful men whose +kindness you cannot return, I mean such as princes and kings, whom +fortune has placed in such a station that they can give away much, +and can only receive very little and quite inadequate returns for +what they give. I have spoken of kings and princes, who alone can +cause works to be accomplished, and whose superlative power depends +upon the obedience and services of inferiors; but some there are, +free from all earthly lusts, who are scarcely affected by any human +objects of desire, upon whom fortune herself could bestow nothing. +I must be worsted in a contest of benefits with Socrates, or with +Diogenes, who walked naked through the treasures of Macedonia, +treading the king's wealth under his feet. In good sooth, he must +then rightly have seemed, both to himself and to all others whose +eyes were keen enough to perceive the real truth, to be superior +even to him at whose feet all the world lay. He was far more +powerful, far richer even than Alexander, who then possessed +everything; for there was more that Diogenes could refuse to +receive than that Alexander was able to give. + +V. It is not disgraceful to be worsted by these men, for I am not +the less brave because you pit me against an invulnerable enemy, +nor does fire not burn because you throw into it something over +which flames have no power, nor does iron lose its power of +cutting, though you may wish to cut up a stone which is hard, +impervious to blows, and of such a nature that hard tools are +blunted upon it. I give you the same answer about gratitude. A man +is not disgracefully worsted in a contest of benefits if he lays +himself under an obligation to such persons as these, whose +enormous wealth or admirable virtue shut out all possibility of +their benefits being returned. As a rule we are worsted by our +parents; for while we have them with us, we regard them as severe, +and do not understand what they do for us. When our age begins to +bring us a little sense, and we gradually perceive that they +deserve our love for those very things which used to prevent our +loving them, their advice, their punishments, and the careful watch +which they used to keep over our youthful recklessness, they are +taken from us. Few live to reap any real fruit from children; most +men feel their sons only as a burden. Yet there is no disgrace in +being worsted by one's parent in bestowing benefits; how should +there be, seeing that there is no disgrace in being worsted by +anyone. We are equal to some men, and yet not equal; equal in +intention, which is all that they care for, which is all that we +promise to be, but unequal in fortune. And if fortune prevents any +one from repaying a kindness, he need not, therefore, blush, as +though he were vanquished; there is no disgrace in failing to reach +your object, provided you attempt to reach it. It often is +necessary, that before making any return for the benefits which we +have received, we should ask for new ones; yet, if so, we shall not +refrain from asking for them, nor shall we do so as though +disgraced by so doing, because, even if we do not repay the debt, +we shall owe it; because, even if something from without befalls us +to prevent our repaying it, it will not be our fault if we are not +grateful. We can neither be conquered in intention, nor can we be +disgraced by yielding to what is beyond our strength to contend +with. + +VI. Alexander, the king of the Macedonians, used to boast that he +had never been worsted by anybody in a contest of benefits. If so, +it was no reason why, in the fulness of his pride, he should +despise the Macedonians, Greeks, Carians, Persians, and other +tribes of whom his army was composed, nor need he imagine that it +was this that gave him an empire reaching from a corner of Thrace +to the shore of the unknown sea. Socrates could make the same +boast, and so could Diogenes, by whom Alexander was certainly +surpassed; for was he not surpassed on the day when, swelling as he +was beyond the limits of merely human pride, he beheld one to whom +he could give nothing, from whom he could take nothing? King +Archelaus invited Socrates to come to him. Socrates is reported to +have answered that he should be sorry to go to one who would bestow +benefits upon him, since he should not be able to make him an +adequate return for them. In the first place, Socrates was at +liberty not to receive them; next, Socrates himself would have been +the first to bestow a benefit, for he would have come when invited, +and would have given to Archelaus that for which Archelaus could +have made no return to Socrates. Even if Archelaus were to give +Socrates gold and silver, if he learned in return for them to +despise gold and silver, would not Socrates be able to repay +Archelaus? Could Socrates receive from him as much value as he +gave, in displaying to him a man skilled in the knowledge of life +and of death, comprehending the true purpose of each? Suppose that +he had found this king, as it were, groping his way in the clear +sunlight, and had taught him the secrets of nature, of which he was +so ignorant, that when there was an eclipse of the sun, he up his +palace, and shaved his son's head, [Footnote: Gertz very reasonably +conjectures that he shaved his own head which reading would require +a very trifling alteration of the text.] which men are wont to do +in times of mourning and distress. What a benefit it would have +been if he had dragged the terror-stricken king out of his hiding- +place, and bidden him be of good cheer, saying, "This is not a +disappearance of the sun, but a conjunction of two heavenly bodies; +for the moon, which proceeds along a lower path, has placed her +disk beneath the sun, and hidden it by the interposition of her own +mass. Sometimes she only hides a small portion of the sun's disk, +because she only grazes it in passing; sometimes she hides more, by +placing more of herself before it; and sometimes she shuts it out +from our sight altogether, if she passes in an exactly even course +between the sun and the earth. Soon, however, their own swift +motion will draw these two bodies apart; soon the earth will +receive back again the light of day. And this system will continue +throughout centuries, having certain days, known beforehand, upon +which the sun cannot display all rays, because of the intervention +of the moon. Wait only for a short time; he will soon emerge, he +will soon leave that seeming cloud, and freely shed abroad his +light without any hindrances." Could Socrates not have made an +adequate return to Archelaus, if he had taught him to reign? as +though Socrates would not benefit him sufficiently, merely by +enabling him to bestow a benefit upon Socrates. Why, then, did +Socrates say this? Being a joker and a speaker in parables--a man +who turned all, especially the great, into ridicule--he preferred +giving him a satirical refusal, rather than an obstinate or haughty +one, and therefore said that he did not wish to receive benefits +from one to whom he could not return as much as he received. He +feared, perhaps, that he might be forced to receive something which +he did not wish, he feared that it might be something unfit for +Socrates to receive. Some one may say, "He ought to have said that +he did not wish to go." But by so doing he would have excited +against himself the anger of an arrogant king, who wished +everything connected with himself to be highly valued. It makes no +difference to a king whether you be unwilling to give anything to +him or to accept anything from him; he is equally incensed at +either rebuff, and to be treated with disdain is more bitter to a +proud spirit than not to be feared. Do you wish to know what +Socrates really meant? He, whose freedom of speech could not be +borne even by a free state, was not willing of his own choice to +become a slave. + +VII. I think that we have sufficiently discussed this part of the +subject, whether it be disgraceful to be worsted in a contest of +benefits. Whoever asks this question must know that men are not +wont to bestow benefits upon themselves, for evidently it could not +be disgraceful to be worsted by oneself. Yet some of the Stoics +debate this question, whether any one can confer a benefit upon +himself, and whether one ought to return one's own kindness to +oneself. This discussion has been raised in consequence of our +habit of saying, "I am thankful to myself," "I can complain of no +one but myself," "I am angry with myself," "I will punish myself," +"I hate myself," and many other phrases of the same sort, in which +one speaks of oneself as one would of some other person. "If," they +argue, "I can injure myself, why should I not be able also to +bestow a benefit upon myself? Besides this, why are those things +not called benefits when I bestow them upon myself which would be +called benefits if I bestowed them upon another? If to receive a +certain thing from another would lay me under an obligation to him, +how is it that if I give it to myself, I do not contract an +obligation to myself? why should I be ungrateful to my own self, +which is no less disgraceful than it is to be mean to oneself, or +hard and cruel to oneself, or neglectful of oneself? The procurer +is equally odious whether he prostitutes others or himself. We +blame a flatterer, and one who imitates another man's mode of +speech, or is prepared to give praise whether it be deserved or +not; we ought equally to blame one who humours himself and looks up +to himself, and so to speak is his own flatterer. Vices are not +only hateful when outwardly practised, but also when they are +repressed within the mind. Whom would you admire more than he who +governs himself and has himself under command? It is easier to rule +savage nations, impatient of foreign control, than to restrain +one's own mind and keep it under one's own control. Plato, it is +argued, was grateful to Socrates for having been taught by him; why +should not Socrates be grateful to himself for having taught +himself? Marcus Cato said, "Borrow from yourself whatever you +lack;" why, then, if I can lend myself anything, should I be unable +to give myself anything? The instances in which usage divides us +into two persons are innumerable; we are wont to say, "Let me +converse with myself," and, "I will give myself a twitch of the +ear;" [Footnote: See book iv. ch. xxxvi.] and if it be true that +one can do so, then a man ought to be grateful to himself, just as +he is angry with himself; as he blames himself, SO he ought to +praise himself; since he can impoverish himself, he can also enrich +himself. Injuries and benefits are the converse of one another: if +we say of a man, 'he has done himself an injury,' we can also say +'he has bestowed upon himself a benefit?' + +VIII. It is natural that a man should first incur an obligation, +and then that he should return gratitude for it; a debtor cannot +exist without a creditor, any more than a husband without a wife, +or a son without a father; someone must give in order that some one +may receive. Just as no one carries himself, although he moves his +body and transports it from place to place; as no one, though he +may have made a speech in his own defence, is said to have stood by +himself, or erects a statue to himself as his own patron; as no +sick man, when by his own care he has regained his health, asks +himself for a fee; so in no transaction, even when a man does what +is useful to himself, need he return thanks to himself, because +there is no one to whom he can return them. Though I grant that a +man can bestow a benefit upon himself, yet at the same time that he +gives it, he also receives it; though I grant that a man may +receive a benefit from himself, yet he receives it at the same time +that he gives it. The exchange takes place within doors, as they +say, and the transfer is made at once, as though the debt were a +fictitious one; for he who gives is not a different person to he +who receives, but one and the same. The word "to owe" has no +meaning except as between two persons; how then can it apply to one +man who incurs an obligation, and by the same act frees himself +from it? In a disk or a ball there is no top or bottom, no +beginning or end, because the relation of the parts is changed when +it moves, what was behind coming before, and what went down on one +side coming up on the other, so that all the parts, in whatever +direction they may move, come back to the same position. Imagine +that the same thing takes place in a man; into however many pieces +you may divide him, he remains one. If he strikes himself, he has +no one to call to account for the insult; if he binds himself and +locks himself up, he cannot demand damages; if he bestows a benefit +upon himself, he straightway returns it to the giver. It is said +that there is no waste in nature, because everything which is taken +from nature returns to her again, and nothing can perish, because +it cannot fall out of nature, but goes round again to the point +from whence it started. You ask, "What connection has this +illustration with the subject?" I will tell you. Imagine yourself +to be ungrateful, the benefit bestowed upon you is not lost, he who +gave it has it; suppose that you are unwilling to receive it, it +still belongs to you before it is returned. You cannot lose +anything, because what you take away from yourself, you +nevertheless gain yourself. The matter revolves in a circle within +yourself; by receiving you give, by giving you receive. + +IX. "It is our duty," argues our adversary, "to bestow benefits +upon ourselves, therefore we ought also to be grateful to +ourselves." The original axiom, upon which the inference depends, +is untrue, for no one bestows benefits upon himself, but obeys the +dictates of his nature, which disposes him to affection for +himself, and which makes him take the greatest pains to avoid +hurtful things, and to follow after those things which are +profitable to him. Consequently, the man who gives to himself is +not generous, nor is he who pardons himself forgiving, nor is he +who is touched by his own misfortunes tender-hearted; it is natural +to do those things to oneself which when done to others become +generosity, clemency, and tenderness of heart. A benefit is a +voluntary act, but to do good to oneself is an instinctive one. The +more benefits a man bestows, the more beneficent he is, yet who +ever was praised for having been of service to himself? or for +having rescued himself from brigands? No one bestows a benefit upon +himself any more than he bestows hospitality upon himself; no one +gives himself anything, any more than he lends himself anything. If +each man bestows benefits upon himself, is always bestowing them, +and bestows them without any cessation, then it is impossible for +him to make any calculation of the number of his benefits; when +then can he show his gratitude, seeing that by the very act of +doing so he would bestow a benefit? for what distinction can you +draw between giving himself a benefit or receiving a benefit for +himself, when the whole transaction takes place in the mind of the +same man? Suppose that I have freed myself from danger, then I have +bestowed a benefit upon myself; suppose I free myself a second +time, by so doing do I bestow or repay a benefit? In the next +place, even if I grant the primary axiom, that we can bestow +benefits upon ourselves, I do not admit that which follows; for +even if we can do so, we ought not to do so. Wherefore? Because we +receive a return for them at once. It is right for me to receive a +benefit, then to lie under an obligation, then to repay it; now +here there is no time for remaining under an obligation, because we +receive the return without any delay. No one really gives except to +another, no one owes except to another, no one repays except to +another. An act which always requires two persons cannot take place +within the mind of one. + +X. A benefit means the affording of something useful, and the word +AFFORDING implies other persons. Would not a man be thought mad if +he said that he had sold something to himself, because selling +means alienation, and the transferring of a thing and of one's +rights in that thing to another person? Yet giving, like selling +anything, consists in making it pass away from you, handing over +what you yourself once owned into the keeping of some one else. + +If this be so, no one ever gave himself a benefit, because no one +gives to himself; if not, two opposites coalesce, so that it +becomes the same thing to give and to receive. Yet there is a great +difference between giving and receiving; how should there not be, +seeing that these words are the converse of one another? Still, if +any one can give himself a benefit, there can be no difference +between giving and receiving. I said a little before that some +words apply only to other persons, and are so constituted that +their whole meaning lies apart from ourselves; for instance, I am a +brother, but a brother of some other man, for no one is his own +brother; I am an equal, but equal to somebody else, for who is +equal to himself? A thing which is compared to another thing is +unintelligible without that other thing; a thing which is joined to +something else does not exist apart from it; so that which is given +does not exist without the other person, nor can a benefit have any +existence without another person. This is clear from the very +phrase which describes it, 'to do good,' yet no one does good to +himself, any more than he favours himself or is on his own side. I +might enlarge further upon this subject and give many examples. Why +should benefits not be included among those acts which require two +persons to perform them? Many honourable, most admirable and highly +virtuous acts cannot take place without a second person. Fidelity +is praised and held to be one of the chief blessings known among +men, yet was any one ever on that account said to have kept faith +with himself? + +XI. I come now to the last part of this subject. The +man who returns a kindness ought to expend something, just as he +who repays expends money; but the man who returns a kindness to +himself expends nothing, just as he who receives a benefit from +himself gains nothing. A benefit and gratitude for it must pass to +and fro between two persons; their interchange cannot take place +within one man. He who returns a kindness does good in his turn to +him from whom he has received something; but the man who returns +his own kindness, to whom does he do good? To himself? Is there any +one who does not regard the returning of a kindness, and the +bestowal of a benefit, as distinct acts? 'He who returns a kindness +to himself does good to himself.' Was any man ever unwilling to do +this, even though he were ungrateful? nay, who ever was ungrateful +from any other motive than this? "If," it is argued, "we are right +in thanking ourselves, we ought to return our own kindness;" yet we +say, "I am thankful to myself for having refused to marry that +woman," or "for having refused to join a partnership with that +man." When we speak thus, we are really praising ourselves, and +make use of the language of those who return thanks to approve our +own acts. A benefit is something which, when given, may or may not +be returned. Now, he who gives a benefit to himself must needs +receive what he gives; therefore, this is not a benefit. A benefit +is received at one time, and is returned at another; (but when a +man bestows a benefit upon himself, he both receives it and returns +it at the same time). In a benefit, too, what we commend and admire +is, that a man has for the time being forgotten his own interests, +in order that he may do good to another; that he has deprived +himself of something, in order to bestow it upon another. Now, he +who bestows a benefit upon himself does not do this. The bestowal +of a benefit is an act of companionship--it wins some man's +friendship, and lays some man under an obligation; but to bestow it +upon oneself is no act of companionship--it wins no man's +friendship, lays no man under an obligation, raises no man's hopes, +or leads him to say, "This man must be courted; he bestowed a +benefit upon that person, perhaps he will bestow one upon me also." +A benefit is a thing which one gives not for one's own sake, but +for the sake of him to whom it is given; but he who bestows a +benefit upon himself, does so for his own sake; therefore, it is +not a benefit. + +XII. Now I seem to you not to have made good what I said at the +beginning of this book. You say that I am far from doing what is +worth any one's while; nay, that in real fact I have thrown away +all my trouble. Wait, and soon you will be able to say this more +truly, for I shall lead you into covert lurking-places, from which +when you have escaped, you will have gained nothing except that you +will have freed yourself from difficulties with which you need +never have hampered yourself. What is the use of laboriously +untying knots which you yourself have tied, in order that you might +untie them? Yet, just as some knots are tied in fun and for +amusement, so that a tyro may find difficulty in untying them, +which knots he who tied them can loose without any trouble, because +he knows the joinings and the difficulties of them, and these +nevertheless afford us some pleasure, because they test the +sharpness of our wits, and engross, our attention; so also these +questions, which seem subtle and tricky, prevent our intellects +becoming careless and lazy, for they ought at one time to have a +field given them to level, in order that they may wander about it, +and at another to have some dark and rough passage thrown in their +way for them to creep through, and make their way with caution. It +is said by our opponent that no one is ungrateful; and this is +supported by the following arguments: "A benefit is that which does +good; but, as you Stoics say, no one can do good to a bad man; +therefore, a bad man does not receive a benefit. (If he does not +receive it, he need not return it; therefore, no bad man is +ungrateful.) Furthermore, a benefit is an honourable and +commendable thing. No honourable or commendable thing can find any +place with a bad man; therefore, neither can a benefit. If he +cannot receive one, he need not repay one; therefore, he does not +become ungrateful. Moreover, as you say, a good man does everything +rightly; if he does everything rightly, he cannot be ungrateful. A +good man returns a benefit, a bad man does not receive one. If this +be so, no man, good or bad, can be ungrateful. Therefore, there is +no such thing in nature as an ungrateful man: the word is +meaningless." We Stoics have only one kind of good, that which is +honourable. This cannot come to a bad man, for he would cease to be +bad if virtue entered into him; but as long as he is bad, no one +can bestow a benefit upon him, because good and bad are contraries, +and cannot exist together. Therefore, no one can do good to such a +man, because whatever he receives is corrupted by his vicious way +of using it. Just as the stomach, when disordered by disease and +secreting bile, changes all the food which it receives, and turns +every kind of sustenance into a source of pain, so whatever you +entrust to an ill-regulated mind becomes to it a burden, an +annoyance, and a source of misery. Thus the most prosperous and the +richest men have the most trouble; and the more property they have +to perplex them, the less likely they are to find out what they +really are. Nothing, therefore, can reach bad men which would do +them good; nay, nothing which would not do them harm. They change +whatever falls to their lot into their own evil nature; and things +which elsewhere would, if given to better men, be both beautiful +and profitable, are ruinous to them. They cannot, therefore, bestow +benefits, because no one can give what he does not possess, and, +therefore, they lack the pleasure of doing good to others. + +XIII. But, though this be so, yet even a bad man can receive some +things which resemble benefits, and he will be ungrateful if he +does not return them. There are good things belonging to the mind, +to the body, and to fortune. A fool or a bad man is debarred from +the first--those, that is, of the mind; but he is admitted to a +share in the two latter, and, if he does not return them, he is +ungrateful. Nor does this follow from our (Stoic) system alone the +Peripatetics, also, who widely extend the boundaries of human +happiness, declare that trifling benefits reach bad men, and that +he who does not return them is ungrateful. We therefore do not +agree that things which do not tend to improve the mind should be +called benefits, yet do not deny that these things are convenient +and desirable. Such things as these a bad man may bestow upon a +good man, or may receive from him--such, for example, as money, +clothes, public office, or life; and, if he makes no return for +these, he will come under the denomination of ungrateful. "But how +can you call a man ungrateful for not returning that which you say +is not a benefit?" Some things, on account of their similarity, are +included under the same designation, although they do not really +deserve it. Thus we speak of a silver or golden box; ["The original +word is 'pyx,' which means a box made of box-wood."] thus we call a +man illiterate, although he may not be utterly ignorant, but only +not acquainted with the higher branches of literature; thus, seeing +a badly-dressed ragged man we say that we have seen a naked man. +These things of which we spoke are not benefits, but they possess +the appearance of benefits. "Then, just as they are quasi-benefits, +so your man is quasi-ungrateful, not really ungrateful." This is +untrue, because both he who gives and he who receives them speaks +of them as benefits; so he who fails to return the semblance of a +real benefit is as much an ungrateful man as he who mixes a +sleeping draught, believing it to be poison, is a poisoner. + +XIV. Cleanthes speaks more impetuously than this. "Granted," says +he, "that what he received was not a benefit, yet he is ungrateful, +because he would not have returned a benefit if he had received +one." So he who carries deadly weapons and has intentions of +robbing and murdering, is a brigand even before he has dipped his +hands in blood; his wickedness consists and is shown in action, but +does not begin thereby. Men are punished for sacrilege, although no +one's hands can reach to the gods. "How," asks our opponent, "can +any one be ungrateful to a bad man, since a bad man cannot bestow a +benefit?" In the same way, I answer, because that which he received +was not a benefit, but was called one; if any one receives from a +bad man any of those things which are valued by the ignorant, and +of which bad men often possess great store, it becomes his duty to +make a return in the same kind, and to give back as though they +were truly good those things which he received as though they were +truly good. A man is said to be in debt, whether he owes gold +pieces or leather marked with a state stamp, such as the +Lacedaemonians used, which passes for coined money. Pay your debts +in that kind in which you incurred them. You have nothing to do +with the definition of benefits, or with the question whether so +great and noble a name ought to be degraded by applying it to such +vulgar and mean matters as these, nor do we seek for truth that we +may use it to the disadvantage of others; do you adjust your minds +to the semblance of truth, and while you are learning what is +really honourable, respect everything to which the name of honour +is applied. + +XV. "In the same way," argues our adversary, "that your school +proves that no one is ungrateful, you afterwards prove that all men +are ungrateful. For, as you say, all fools are bad men; he who has +one vice has all vices; all men are both fools and bad men; +therefore all men are ungrateful." Well, what then? Are they not? +Is not this the universal reproach of the human race? is there not +a general complaint that benefits are thrown away, and that there +are very few men who do not requite their benefactors with the +basest ingratitude? Nor need you suppose that what we say is merely +the grumbling of men who think every act wicked and depraved which +falls short of an ideal standard of righteousness. Listen! I know +not who it is who speaks, yet the voice with which he condemns +mankind proceeds, not from the schools of philosophers, but from +the midst of the crowd: + + "Host is not safe from guest; + Father-in-law from son; but seldom love + Exists 'twixt brothers; wives long to destroy + Their husbands; husbands long to slay their wives." + +This goes even further: according to this, crimes take the place of +benefits, and men do not shrink from shedding the blood of those +for whom they ought to shed their own; we requite benefits by steel +and poison. We call laying violent hands upon our own country, and +putting down its resistance by the fasces of its own lictors, +gaining power and great place; every man thinks himself to be in a +mean and degraded position if he has not raised himself above the +constitution; the armies which are received from the state are +turned against her, and a general now says to his men, "Fight +against your wives, fight against your children, march in arms +against your altars, your hearths and homes!" Yes, [Footnote: I +believe, in spite of Gertz, that this is part of the speech of the +Roman general, and that the conjecture of Muretus, "without the +command of the senate," gives better sense.] you, who even when +about to triumph ought not to enter the city at the command of the +senate, and who have often, when bringing home a victorious army, +been given an audience outside the walls, you now, after +slaughtering your countrymen, stained with the blood of your +kindred, march into the city with standards erect. "Let liberty," +say you, "be silent amidst the ensigns of war, and now that wars +are driven far away and no ground for terror remains, let that +people which conquered and civilized all nations be beleaguered +within its own walls, and shudder at the sight of its own eagles." + +XVI. Coriolanus was ungrateful, and became dutiful late, and after +repenting of his crime; he did indeed lay down his arms, but only +in the midst of his unnatural warfare. Catilina was ungrateful; he +was not satisfied with taking his country captive without +overturning it, without despatching the hosts of the Allobroges +against it, without bringing an enemy from beyond the Alps to glut +his old inborn hatred, and to offer Roman generals as sacrifices +which had been long owing to the tombs of the Gaulish dead. Caius +Marius was ungrateful, when, after being raised from the ranks to +the consulship, he felt that he would not have wreaked his +vengeance upon fortune, and would sink to his original obscurity, +unless he slaughtered Romans as freely as he had slaughtered the +Cimbri, and not merely gave the signal, but was himself the signal +for civil disasters and butcheries. Lucius Sulla was ungrateful, +for he saved his country by using remedies worse than the perils +with which it was threatened, when he marched through human blood +all the way from the citadel of Praeneste to the Colline Gate, +fought more battles and caused more slaughter afterwards within the +city, and most cruelly after the victory was won, most wickedly +after quarter had been promised them, drove two legions into a +corner and put them to the sword, and, great gods! invented a +proscription by which he who slew a Roman citizen received +indemnity, a sum of money, everything but a civic crown! Cnaeus +Pompeius was ungrateful, for the return which he made to his +country for three consulships, three triumphs, and the innumerable +public offices into most of which he thrust himself when under age, +was to lead others also to lay hands upon her under the pretext of +thus rendering his own power less odious; as though what no one +ought to do became right if more than one person did it. Whilst he +was coveting extraordinary commands, arranging the provinces so as +to have his own choice of them, and dividing the whole state with a +third person, [Footnote: Crassus.] in such a manner as to leave +two-thirds of it in the possession of his own family, [Footnote: +Pompey was married to Caesar's daughter. Cf. Virg., "Aen.," vi., +831, sq., and Lucan's beautiful verses, "Phars.," i., 114.] he +reduced the Roman people to such a condition that they could only +save themselves by submitting to slavery. The foe and conqueror +[Footnote: Seneca is careful to avoid the mention of Caesar's name, +which might have given offence to the emperors under whom he lived, +who used the name as a title.] of Pompeius was himself ungrateful; +he brought war from Gaul and Germany to Rome, and he, the friend of +the populace, the champion of the commons, pitched his camp in the +Circus Flaminus, nearer to the city than Porsena's camp had been. +He did, indeed, use the cruel privileges of victory with +moderation; as was said at the time, he protected his countrymen, +and put to death no man who was not in arms. Yet what credit is +there in this? Others used their arms more cruelly, but flung them +away when glutted with blood, while he, though he soon sheathed the +sword, never laid it aside. Antonius was ungrateful to his +dictator, who he declared was rightly slain, and whose murderers he +allowed to depart to their commands in the provinces; as for his +country, after it had been torn to pieces by so many proscriptions, +invasions, and civil wars, he intended to subject it to kings, not +even of Roman birth, and to force that very state to pay tribute to +eunuchs, [Footnote: The allusion is to Antonius's connection with +Cleopatra. Cf. Virg. "Aen.," viii., 688.] which had itself restored +sovereign rights, autonomy, and immunities, to the Achaeans, the +Rhodians, and the people of many other famous cities. + +XVII. The day would not be long enough for me to enumerate those +who have pushed their ingratitude so far as to ruin their native +land. It would be as vast a task to mention how often the state has +been ungrateful to its best and most devoted lovers, although it +has done no less wrong than it has suffered. It sent Camillus and +Scipio into exile; even after the death of Catiline it exiled +Cicero, destroyed his house, plundered his property, and did +everything which Catiline would have done if victorious; Rutilius +found his virtue rewarded with a hiding-place in Asia; to Cato the +Roman people refused the praetorship, and persisted in refusing the +consulship. We are ungrateful in public matters; and if every man +asks himself, you will find that there is no one who has not some +private ingratitude to complain of. Yet it is impossible that all +men should complain, unless all were deserving of complaint, +therefore all men are ungrateful. Are they ungrateful alone? nay, +they are also all covetous, all spiteful, and all cowardly, +especially those who appear daring; and, besides this, all men fawn +upon the great, and all are impious. Yet you need not be angry with +them; pardon them, for they are all mad. I do not wish to recall +you to what is not proved, or to say, "See how ungrateful is youth! +what young man, even if of innocent life, does not long for his +father's death? even if moderate in his desires, does not look +forward to it? even if dutiful, does not think about it? How few +there are who fear the death even of the best of wives, who do not +even calculate the probabilities of it. Pray, what litigant, after +having been successfully defended, retains any remembrance of so +great a benefit for more than a few days?" All agree that no one +dies without complaining. Who on his last day dares to say, + + "I've lived, I've done the task which Fortune set me." + +Who does not leave the world with reluctance, and with +lamentations? Yet it is the part of an ungrateful man not to be +satisfied with the past. Your days will always be few if you count +them. Reflect that length of time is not the greatest of blessings; +make the best of your time, however short it may be; even if the +day of your death be postponed, your happiness will not be +increased, for life is merely made longer, not pleasanter, by +delay. How much better is it to be thankful for the pleasures which +one has received, not to reckon up the years of others, but to set +a high value upon one's own, and score them to one's credit, +saying, "God thought me worthy of this; I am satisfied with it; he +might have given me more, but this, too, is a benefit." Let us be +grateful towards both gods and men, grateful to those who have +given us anything, and grateful even to those who have given +anything to our relatives. + +XVIII. "You render me liable to an infinite debt of gratitude," +says our opponent, "when you say 'even to those who have given any +thing to our relations,' so fix some limit. He who bestows a +benefit upon the son, according to you, bestows it likewise upon +the father: this is the first question I wish to raise. In the next +place I should like to have a clear definition of whether a +benefit, if it be bestowed upon your friend's father as well as +upon himself, is bestowed also upon his brother? or upon his uncle? +or his grandfather? or his wife and his father-in-law? tell me +where I am to stop, how far I am to follow out the pedigree of the +family?" + +SENECA. If I cultivate your land, I bestow a benefit upon you; if I +extinguish your house when burning, or prop it so as to save it +from falling, I shall bestow a benefit upon you; if I heal your +slave, I shall charge it to you; if I save your son's life, will +you not thereby receive a benefit from me? + +XIX. THE ADVERSARY. Your instances are not to the purpose, for he +who cultivates my land, does not benefit the land, but me; he who +props my house so that it does not fall, does this service to me, +for the house itself is without feeling, and as it has none, it is +I who am indebted to him; and he who cultivates my land does so +because he wishes to oblige me, not to oblige the land. I should +say the same of a slave; he is a chattel owned by me; he is saved +for my advantage, therefore I am indebted for him. My son is +himself capable of receiving a benefit; so it is he who receives +it; I am gratified at a benefit which comes so near to myself, but +am not laid under any obligation. + +SE. Still I should like you, who say that you are under no +obligation, to answer me this. The good health, the happiness, and +the inheritance of a son are connected with his father; his father +will be more happy if he keeps his son safe, and more unhappy if he +loses him. What follows, then? when a man is made happier by me and +is freed from the greatest danger of unhappiness, does he not +receive a benefit? + +AD. No, because there are some things which are bestowed upon +others, and yet flow from them so as to reach ourselves; yet we +must ask the person upon whom it was bestowed for repayment; as for +example, money must be sought from the man to whom it was lent, +although it may, by some means, have come into my hands. There is +no benefit whose advantages do not extend to the receiver's nearest +friends, and sometimes even to those less intimately connected with +him; yet we do not enquire whither the benefit has proceeded from +him to whom it was first given, but where it was first placed. You +must demand repayment from the defendant himself personally. + +SE. Well, but I pray you, do you not say, "you have preserved my +son for me; had he perished, I could not have survived him?" Do you +not owe a benefit for the life of one whose safety you value above +your own? Moreover, should I save your son's life, you would fall +down before my knees, and would pay vows to heaven as though you +yourself had been saved; you would say, "It makes no difference +whether you have saved mine or me; you have saved us both, yet me +more than him." Why do you say this, if you do not receive a +benefit? + +A.D. Because, if my son were to contract a loan, I should pay his +creditor, yet I should not, therefore, be indebted to him; or if my +son were taken in adultery, I should blush, yet I should not, +therefore, be an adulterer. I say that I am under an obligation to +you for saving my son, not because I really am, but because I am +willing to constitute myself your debtor of my own free will. On +the other hand I have derived from his safety the greatest possible +pleasure and advantage, and I have escaped that most dreadful blow, +the loss of my child. True, but we are not now discussing whether +you have done me any good or not, but whether you have bestowed a +benefit upon me; for animals, stones, and herbs can do one good, +but do not bestow benefits, which can only be given by one who +wishes well to the receiver. Now you do not wish well to the +father, but only to the son; and sometimes you do not even know the +father. So when you have said, "Have I not bestowed a benefit upon +the father by saving the son?" you ought to meet this with, "Have +I, then, bestowed a benefit upon a father whom I do not know, whom +I never thought of?" And what will you say when, as is sometimes the +case, you hate the father, and yet save his son? Can you be thought +to have bestowed a benefit upon one whom you hated most bitterly +while you were bestowing it? + +However, if I were to lay aside the bickering of dialogue, and +answer you as a lawyer, I should say that you ought to consider the +intention of the giver, you must regard his benefit as bestowed +upon the person upon whom he meant to bestow it. If he did it in +honour of the father, then the father received the benefit; if he +thought only of the son, then the father is not laid under any +obligation: by the benefit which was conferred upon the son, even +though the father derives pleasure from it. Should he, however, +have an opportunity, he will himself wish to give you something, +yet not as though he were forced to repay a debt, but rather as if +he had grounds for beginning an exchange of favours. No return for +a benefit ought to be demanded from the father of the receiver; if +he does you any kindness in return for it, he should be regarded +as, a righteous man, but not as a grateful one. For there is no end +to it; if I bestow a benefit on the receiver's father, do I +likewise bestow it upon his mother, his grandfather, his maternal +uncle, his children, relations, friends, slaves, and country? +Where, then, does a benefit begin to stop? for there follows it +this endless chain of people, to whom it is hard to assign bounds, +because they join it by degrees, and are always creeping on towards +it. + +XX. A common question is, "Two brothers are at variance. If I save +the life of one, do I confer a benefit upon the other, who will be +sorry that his hated brother did not perish?" There can be no doubt +that it is a benefit to do good to a man, even against that man's +will, just as he, who against his own will does a man good, does +not bestow a benefit upon him. "Do you," asks our adversary, "call +that by which he is displeased and hurt a benefit?" Yes; many +benefits have a harsh and forbidding appearance, such as cutting or +burning to cure disease, or confining with chains. We must not +consider whether a man is grieved at receiving a benefit, but +whether he ought to rejoice: a coin is not bad because it is +refused by a savage who is unacquainted with its proper stamp. A +man receives a benefit even though he hates what is done, provided +that it does him good, and that the giver bestowed it in order to +do him good. It makes no difference if he receives a good thing in +a bad spirit. Consider the converse of this. Suppose that a man +hates his brother, though it is to his advantage to have a brother, +and I kill this brother, this is not a benefit, though he may say +that it is, and be glad of it. Our most artful enemies are those +whom we thank for the wrongs which they do us. + +"I understand; a thing which does good is a benefit, a thing which +does harm is not a benefit. Now I will suggest to you an act which +neither does good nor harm, and yet is a benefit. Suppose that I +find the corpse of some one's father in a wilderness, and bury it, +then I certainly have done him no good, for what difference could +it make to him in what manner his body decayed? Nor have I done any +good to his son, for what advantage does he gain by my act?" I will +tell you what he gains. He has by my means performed a solemn and +necessary rite; I have performed a service for his father which he +would have wished, nay, which it would have been his duty to have +performed himself. Yet this act is not a benefit, if I merely +yielded to those feelings of pity and kindliness which would make +me bury any corpse whatever, but only if I recognized this body, +and buried it, with the thought in my mind that I was doing this +service to the son; but, by merely throwing earth over a dead +stranger, I lay no one under an obligation for an act performed on +general principles of humanity. + +It may be asked, "Why are you so careful in inquiring upon whom you +bestow benefits, as though some day you meant to demand repayment +of them? Some say that repayment should never be demanded; and they +give the following reasons. An unworthy man will not repay the +benefit which he has received, even if it be demanded of him, while +a worthy man will do so of his own accord. Consequently, if you +have bestowed it upon a good man, wait; do not outrage him by +asking him for it, as though of his own accord he never would repay +it. If you have bestowed it upon a bad man, suffer for it, but do +not spoil your benefit by turning it into a loan. Moreover the law, +by not authorizing you, forbids you, by implication, to demand the +repayment of a benefit." All this is nonsense. As long as I am in +no pressing need, as long as I am not forced by poverty, I will +lose my benefits rather than ask for repayment; but if the lives of +my children were at stake, if my wife were in danger, if my regard +for the welfare of my country and for my own liberty were to force +me to adopt a course which I disliked, I should overcome my +delicacy, and openly declare that I had done all that I could to +avoid the necessity of receiving help from an ungrateful man; the +necessity of obtaining repayment of one's benefit will in the end +overcome one's delicacy about asking for it. In the next place, +when I bestow a benefit upon a good man, I do so with the intention +of never demanding repayment, except in case of absolute necessity. + +XXI. "But," argues he, "by not authorizing you, the law forbids you +to exact repayment." There are many things which are not enforced +by any law or process, but which the conventions of society, which +are stronger than any law, compel us to observe. There is no law +forbidding us to divulge our friend's secrets; there is no law +which bids us keep faith even with an enemy; pray what law is there +which binds us to stand by what we have promised? There is none. +Nevertheless I should remonstrate with one who did not keep a +secret, and I should be indignant with one who pledged his word and +broke it. "But," he argues, "you are turning a benefit into a +loan." By no means, for I do not insist upon repayment, but only +demand it; nay, I do not even demand it, but remind my friend of +it. Even the direst need will not bring me to apply for help to one +with whom I should have to undergo a long struggle. + +If there be any one so ungrateful that it is not sufficient to +remind him of his debt, I should pass him over, and think that he +did not deserve to be made grateful by force. A money-lender does +not demand repayment from his debtors if he knows they have become +bankrupt, and, to their shame, have nothing but shame left to lose; +and I, like him, should pass over those who are openly and +obstinately ungrateful, and would demand repayment only from those +who were likely to give it me, not from those from whom I should +have to extort it by force. + +XXII. There are many who cannot deny that they have received a +benefit, yet cannot return it--men who are not good enough to be +termed grateful, nor yet bad enough to be termed ungrateful; but +who are dull and sluggish, backward debtors, though not defaulters. +Such men as these I should not ask for repayment, but forcibly +remind them of it, and, from a state of indifference, bring them +back to their duty. They would at once reply, "Forgive me; I did +not know, by Hercules, that you missed this, or I would have +offered it of my own accord, I beg that you will not think me +ungrateful; I remember your goodness to me." Why need I hesitate to +make such men as these better to themselves and to me? I would +prevent any one from doing wrong, if I were able; much more would I +prevent a friend, both lest he should do wrong, and lest he should +do wrong to me in particular. I bestow a second benefit upon him by +not permitting him to be ungrateful; and I should not reproach him +harshly with what I had done for him, but should speak as gently as +I could. In order to afford him an opportunity of returning my +kindness, I should refresh his remembrance of it, and ask for a +benefit; he would understand that I was asking for repayment. +Sometimes I would make use of somewhat severe language, if I had +any hope that by it he might be amended; though I would not +irritate a hopelessly ungrateful man, for fear that I might turn +him into an enemy. If we spare the ungrateful even the affront of +reminding them of their conduct, we shall render them' more +backward in returning benefits; and although some might be cured of +their evil ways, and be made into good men, if their consciences +were stung by remorse, yet we shall allow them to perish for want +of a word of warning, with which a father sometimes corrects his +son, a wife brings back to herself an erring husband, or a man +stimulates the wavering fidelity of his friend. + +XXIII. To awaken some men, it is only necessary to stir them, not +to strike them; in like manner, with some men, the feeling of +honour about returning a benefit is not extinct, but slumbering. +Let us rouse it. "Do not," they will say, "make the kindness you +have done me into a wrong: for it is a wrong, if you do not demand +some return from me, and so make me ungrateful. What if I do not +know what sort of repayment you wish for? if I am so occupied by +business, and my attention is so much diverted to other subjects +that I have not been able to watch for an opportunity of serving +you? Point out to me what I can do for you, what you wish me to do. +Why do you despair, before making a trial of me? Why are you in +such haste to lose both your benefit and your friend? How can you +tell whether I do not wish, or whether I do not know how to repay +you: whether it be in intention or in opportunity that I am +wanting? Make a trial of me." I would therefore remind him of what +I had done, without bitterness, not in public, or in a reproachful +manner, but so that he may think that he himself has remembered it +rather than that it has been recalled to him. + +XXIV. One of Julius Caesar's veterans was once pleading before him +against his neighbours, and the cause was going against him. "Do +you remember, general," said he, "that in Spain you dislocated your +ankle near the river Sucro [Footnote: Xucar]?" When Caesar said +that he remembered it, he continued, "Do you remember that when, +during the excessive heat, you wished to rest under a tree which +afforded very little shade, as the ground in which that solitary +tree grew was rough and rocky, one of your comrades spread his +cloak under you?" Caesar answered, "Of course, I remember; indeed, +I was perishing with thirst; and since was unable to walk to the +nearest spring, I would have crawled thither on my hands and knees, +had not my comrade, a brave and active man, brought me water in his +helmet." "Could you, then, my general, recognize that man or that +helmet?" Caesar replied that he could not remember the helmet, but +that he could remember the man well; and he added, I fancy in anger +at being led away to this old story in the midst of a judicial +enquiry, "At any rate, you are not he." "I do not blame you, +Caesar," answered the man, "for not recognizing me; for when this +took place, I was unwounded; but afterwards, at the battle of +Munda, my eye was struck out, and the bones of my skull crushed. +Nor would you recognize that helmet if you saw it, for it was split +by a Spanish sword." Caesar would not permit this man to be +troubled with lawsuits, and presented his old soldier with the +fields through which a village right of way had given rise to the +dispute. + +XXV. In this case, what ought he to have done? Because his +commander's memory was confused by a multitude of incidents, and +because his position as the leader of vast armies did not permit +him to notice individual soldiers, ought the man not to have asked +for a return for the benefit which he had conferred? To act as he +did is not so much to ask for a return as to take it when it lies +in a convenient position ready for us, although we have to stretch +out our hands in order to receive it. I shall therefore ask for the +return of a benefit, whenever I am either reduced to great straits, +or where by doing so I shall act to the advantage of him from whom +I ask it. Tiberius Caesar, when some one addressed him with the +words, "Do you remember . . . .?" answered, before the man could +mention any further proofs of former acquaintance, "I do not +remember what I was." Why should it not be forbidden to demand of +this man repayment of former favours? He had a motive for +forgetting them: he denied all knowledge of his friends and +comrades, and wished men only to see, to think, and to speak of him +as emperor. He regarded his old friend as an impertinent meddler. + +We ought to be even more careful to choose a favorable opportunity +when we ask for a benefit to be repaid to us than when we ask for +one to be bestowed upon us. We must be temperate in our language, +so that the grateful may not take offence, or the ungrateful +pretend to do so. If we lived among wise men, it would be our duty +to wait in silence until our benefits were returned. Yet even to +wise men it would be better to give some hint of what our position +required. We ask for help even from the gods themselves, from whose +knowledge nothing is hid, although our prayers cannot alter their +intentions towards us, but can only recall them to their minds. +Homer's priest, [Il. i. 39 sqq.] I say, recounts even to the gods +his duteous conduct and his pious care of their altars. The second +best form of virtue is to be willing and able to take advice.[Hes. +Op. 291.] A horse who is docile and prompt to obey can be guided +hither and thither by the slightest movement of the reins. Very few +men are led by their own reason: those who come next to the best +are those who return to the right path in consequence of advice; +and these we must not deprive of their guide. When our eyes are +covered they still possess sight; but it is the light of day which, +when admitted to them, summons them to perform their duty: tools +lie idle, unless the workman uses them to take part in his work. +Similarly men's minds contain a good feeling, which, however, lies +torpid, either through luxury and disuse, or through ignorance of +its duties. This we ought to render useful, and not to get into a +passion with it, and leave it in its wrong doing, but bear with it +patiently, just as schoolmasters bear patiently with the blunders +of forgetful scholars; for as by the prompting of a word or two +their memory is often recalled to the text of the speech which they +have to repeat, so men's goodwill can be brought to return kindness +by reminding them of it. + + + + +BOOK VI. + +I. + + +There are some things, my most excellent Liberalis, which lie +completely outside of our actual life, and which we only inquire +into in order to exercise our intellects, while others both give us +pleasure while we are discovering them, and are of use when +discovered. I will place all these in your hands; you, at your own +discretion, may order them either to be investigated thoroughly, or +to be reserved, and be used as agreeable interludes. Something will +be gained even by those which you dismiss at once, for it is +advantageous even to know what subjects are not worth learning. I +shall be guided, therefore, by your face: according to its +expression, I shall deal with some questions at greater length, and +drive others out of court, and put an end to them at once. + +II. It is a question whether a benefit can be taken away from one +by force. Some say that it cannot, because it is not a thing, but +an act. A gift is not the same as the act of giving, any more than +a sailor is the same as the act of sailing. A sick man and a +disease are not the same thing, although no one can be ill without +disease; and, similarly, a benefit itself is one thing, and what +any of us receive through a benefit is another. The benefit itself +is incorporeal, and never becomes invalid; but its subject-matter +changes owners, and passes from hand to hand. So, when you take +away from anyone what you have given him, you take away the +subject-matter only of the benefit, not the benefit itself. Nature +herself cannot recall what she has given. She may cease to bestow +benefits, but cannot take them away: a man who dies, yet has lived; +a man who becomes blind, nevertheless has seen. She can cut off her +blessings from us in the future, but she cannot prevent our having +enjoyed them in the past. We are frequently not able to enjoy a +benefit for long, but the benefit is not thereby destroyed. Let +Nature struggle as hard as she please, she cannot give herself +retrospective action. A man may lose his house, his money, his +property--everything to which the name of benefit can be given-- +yet the benefit itself will remain firm and unmoved; no power can +prevent his benefactor's having bestowed them, or his having +received them. + +III. I think that a fine passage in Rabirius's poem, where M. +Antonius, seeing his fortune deserting him, nothing left him except +the privilege of dying, and even that only on condition that he +used it promptly, exclaims, + + "What I have given, that I now possess!" + +How much he might have possessed, had he chosen! These are riches +to be depended upon, which through all the turmoil of human life +will remain steadfast; and the greater they are, the less envy they +will attract. Why are you sparing of your property, as though it +were your own? You are but the manager of it. All those treasures, +which make you swell with pride, and soar above mere mortals, till +you forget the weakness of your nature; all that which you lock up +in iron-grated treasuries, and guard in arms, which you win from +other men with their lives, and defend at the risk of your own; for +which you launch fleets to dye the sea with blood, and shake the +walls of cities, not knowing what arrows fortune may be preparing +for you behind your back; to gain which you have so often violated +all the ties of relationship, of friendship, and of colleagueship, +till the whole world lies crushed between the two combatants: all +these are not yours; they are a kind of deposit, which is on the +point of passing into other hands: your enemies, or your heirs, who +are little better, will seize upon them. "How," do you ask, "can +you make them your own?" "By giving them away." Do, then, what is +best for your own interests, and gain a sure enjoyment of them, +which cannot be taken from you, making them at once more certainly +yours, and more honorable to you. That which you esteem so highly, +that by which you think that you are made rich and powerful, owns +but the shabby title of "house," "slave," or "money;" but when you +have given it away, it becomes a benefit. + +IV. "You admit," says our adversary, "that we sometimes are under +no obligation to him from whom we have received a benefit. In that +case it has been taken by force." Nay, there are many things which +would cause us to cease to feel gratitude for a benefit, not +because the benefit has been taken from me, but because it has been +spoiled. Suppose that a man has defended me in a lawsuit, but has +forcibly outraged my wife; he has not taken away the benefit which +he conferred upon me, but by balancing it with an equivalent wrong, +he has set me free from my debt; indeed, if he has injured me more +than he had previously benefited me, he not only puts an end to my +gratitude, but makes me free to revenge myself upon him, and to +complain of him, when the wrong outweighs the benefit; in such a +case the benefit is not taken away, but is overcome. Why, are not +some fathers so cruel and so wicked that it is right and proper for +their sons to turn away from them, and disown them? Yet, pray, have +they taken away the life which they gave? No, but their unnatural +conduct in later years has destroyed all the gratitude which was +due to them for their original benefit. In these cases it is not a +benefit itself, but the gratitude owing for a benefit which is +taken away, and the result is, not that one does not possess the +benefit, but that one is not laid under any obligation by it. It is +as though a man were to lend me money, and then burn my house down; +the advantage of the loan is balanced by the damage which he has +caused: I do not repay him, and yet I am not in his debt. In like +manner any one who may have acted kindly and generously to me, and +who afterwards has shown himself haughty, insulting, and cruel, +places me in just the same position as though I never had received +anything from him: he has murdered his own benefits. Though the +lease may remain in force, still a man does not continue to be a +tenant if his landlord tramples down his crops, or cuts down his +orchard; their contract is at an end, not because the landlord has +received the rent which was agreed upon, but because he has made it +impossible that he should receive it. So, too, a creditor often has +to pay money to his debtor, should he have taken more property from +him in other transactions than he claims as having lent him. The +judge does not sit merely to decide between debtor and creditor, +when he says, "You did lend the man money; but then, what followed? +You have driven away his cattle, you have murdered his slave, you +have in your possession plate which you have not paid for. After +valuing what each has received, I order you, who came to this court +as a creditor, to leave it as a debtor." In like manner a balance +is struck between benefits and injuries. In many cases, I repeat, a +benefit is not taken away from him who receives it, and yet it lays +him under no obligation, if the giver has repented of giving it, +called himself unhappy because he gave it, sighed or made a wry +face while he gave it; if he thought that he was throwing it away +rather than giving it, if he gave it to please himself, or to +please any one except me, the receiver; if he persistently makes +himself offensive by boasting of what he has done, if he brags of +his gift everywhere, and makes it a misery to me, then indeed the +benefit remains in my hands, but I owe him nothing for it, just as +sums of money to which a creditor has no legal right are owed to +him, but cannot be claimed by him; + +V. Though you have bestowed a benefit upon me, yet you have since +done me a wrong; the benefit demanded gratitude, the wrong required +vengeance: the result is that I do not owe you gratitude, nor do +you owe me compensation--each is cancelled by the other. When we +say, "I returned him his benefit," we do not mean that we restored +to him the very thing which we had received, but something else in +its place. To return is to give back one thing instead of another, +because, of course, in all repayment it is not the thing itself, +but its equivalent which is returned. We are said to have returned +money even though we count out gold pieces instead of silver ones, +or even if no money passes between us, but the transaction be +effected verbally by the assignment of a debt. + +I think I see you say, "You are wasting your time; of what use is +it to me to know whether what I do not owe to another still remains +in my hands or not? These are like the ingenious subtleties of the +lawyers, who declare that one cannot acquire an inheritance by +prescription, but can only acquire those things of which the +inheritance consists, as though there were any difference between +the heritage and the things of which it consists. Rather decide +this point for me, which may be of use. If the same man confers a +benefit upon me, and afterwards does me a wrong, is it my duty to +return the benefit to him, and nevertheless to avenge myself upon +him, having, as it were, two distinct accounts open with him, or to +mix them both together, and do nothing, leaving the benefit to be +wiped out by the injury, the injury by the benefit? I see that the +former course is adopted by the law of the land; you know best what +the law may be among you Stoic philosophers in such a case. I +suppose that you keep the action which I bring against another +distinct from that which he Strings against me, and the two +processes are not merged into one? For instance, if a man entrusts +me with money, and afterwards robs me, I shall bring an action +against him for theft, and he will bring one against me for +unlawfully detaining his property?" + +VI. The cases which you have mentioned, my Liberalis, come under +well-established laws, which it is necessary for us to follow. One +law cannot be merged in another: each one proceeds its own way. +There is a particular action which deals with deposits just as +there is one which deals with theft. A benefit is subject to no +law; it depends upon my own arbitration. I am at liberty to +contrast the amount of good or harm which any one may have done me, +and then to decide which of us is indebted to the other. In legal +processes we ourselves have no power, we must go whither they lead +us; in the case of a benefit the supreme power is mine, I pronounce +sentence. Consequently I do not separate or distinguish between +benefits and wrongs, but send them before the same judge. Unless I +did so, you would bid me love and hate, give thanks and make +complaints at the same time, which human nature does not admit of. +I would rather compare the benefit and the injury with one another, +and see whether there were any balance in my favour. If anybody +puts lines of other writing upon my manuscript he conceals, though +he does not take away, the letters which were there before, and in +like manner a wrong coming after a benefit does not allow it to be +seen. + +VII. Your face, by which I have agreed to be guided, now becomes +wrinkled with frowns, as though I were straying too widely from the +subject. You seem to say to me: + + "Why steer to seaward? Hither bend thy course, Hug close the +shore..." + +I do hug it as close as possible. So now, if you think that we have +dwelt sufficiently upon this point, let us proceed to the +consideration of the next--that is, whether we are at all indebted +to any one who does us good without wishing to do so. I might have +expressed this more clearly, if it were not right that the question +should be somewhat obscurely stated, in order that by the +distinction immediately following it may be shown that we mean to +investigate the case both of him who does us good against his will, +and that of him who does us good without knowing it. That a man who +does us good by acting under compulsion does not thereby lay us +under any obligation, is so clear, that no words are needed to +prove it. Both this question, and any other of the like character +which may be raised, can easily be settled if in each case we bear +in mind that, for anything to be a benefit, it must reach us in the +first place through some thought, and secondly through the thought +of a friend and well-wisher. Therefore we do not feel any gratitude +towards rivers, albeit they may bear large ships, afford an ample +and unvarying stream for the conveyance of merchandise, or flow +beauteously and full of fish through fertile fields. No one +conceives himself to be indebted for a benefit to the Nile, any +more than he would owe it a grudge if its waters flooded his fields +to excess, and retired more slowly than usual; the wind does not +bestow benefits, gentle and favorable though it may be, nor does +wholesome and useful food; for he who would bestow a benefit upon +me, must not only do me good, but must wish to do so. No obligation +can therefore be incurred towards dumb animals; yet how many men +have been saved from peril by the swiftness of a horse!--nor yet +towards trees--yet how many sufferers from summer heat have been +sheltered by the thick foliage of a tree! What difference can it +make, whether I have profited by the act of one who did not know +that he was doing me good, or one who could not know it, when in +each case the will to do me good was wanting? You might as well bid +me be grateful to a ship, a carriage, or a lance for saving me from +danger, as bid me be grateful to a man who may have done me good by +chance, but with no more intention of doing me good than those +things could have. + +VIII. Some men may receive benefits without knowing it, but no man +can bestow them without knowing it. Many sick persons have been +cured by chance circumstances, which do not therefore become +specific remedies; as, for instance, one man was restored to health +by falling into a river during very cold weather, as another was +set free from a quartan fever by means of a flogging, because the +sudden terror turned his attention into a new channel, so that the +dangerous hours passed unnoticed. Yet none of these are remedies, +even though they may have been successful; and in like manner some +men do us good, though they are unwilling--indeed, because they are +unwilling to do so--yet we need not feel grateful to them as though +we had received a benefit from them, because fortune has changed +the evil which they intended into good. Do you suppose that I am +indebted to a man who strikes my enemy with a blow which he aimed +at me, who would have injured me had he not missed his mark? It +often happens that by openly perjuring himself a man makes even +trustworthy witnesses disbelieved, and renders his intended victim +an object of compassion, as though he were being ruined by a +conspiracy. Some have been saved by the very power which was +exerted to crush them, and judges who would have condemned a man by +law, have refused to condemn him by favour. Yet they did not confer +a benefit upon the accused, although they rendered him a service, +because we must consider at what the dart was aimed, not what it +hits, and a benefit is distinguished from an injury not by its +result, but by the spirit in which it was meant. By contradicting +himself, by irritating the judge by his arrogance, or by rashly +allowing his whole case to depend upon the testimony of one +witness, my opponent may have saved my cause. I do not consider +whether his mistakes benefited me or not, for he wished me ill. + +IX. In order that I may be grateful, I must wish to do what my +benefactor must have wished in order that he might bestow a +benefit. Can anything be more unjust than to bear a grudge against +a person who may have trodden upon one's foot in a crowd, or +splashed one, or pushed one the way which one did not wish to go? +Yet it was by his act that we were injured, and we only refrain +from complaining of him, because he did not know what he was doing. +The same reason makes it possible for men to do us good without +conferring benefits upon us, or to harm us without doing us wrong, +because it is intention which distinguishes our friends from our +enemies. How many have been saved from service in the army by +sickness! Some men have been saved from sharing the fall of their +house, by being brought up upon their recognizances to a court of +law by their enemies; some have been saved by ship-wreck from +falling into the hands of pirates; yet we do not feel grateful to +such things, because chance has no feeling of the service it +renders, nor are we grateful to our enemy, though his lawsuit, +while it harassed and detained us, still saved our lives. Nothing +can be a benefit which does not proceed from good will, and which +is not meant as such by the giver. If any one does me a service, +without knowing it, I am under no obligation to him; should he do +so, meaning to injure me, I shall imitate his conduct. + +X. Let us turn our attention to the first of these. Can you desire +me to do anything to express my gratitude to a man who did nothing +in order to confer a benefit upon me? Passing on to the next, do +you wish me to show my gratitude to such a man, and of my own will +to return to him what I received from him against his will? What am +I to say of the third, he who, meaning to do an injury, blunders +into bestowing a benefit? That you should have wished to confer a +benefit upon me is not sufficient to render me grateful; but that +you should have wished not to do so is enough to set me free from +any obligation to you. A mere wish does not constitute a benefit; +and just as the best and heartiest wish is not a benefit when +fortune prevents its being carried into effect, neither is what +fortune bestows upon us a benefit, unless good wishes preceded it. +In order to lay me under an obligation, you must not merely do me a +service, but you must do so intentionally. + +XI. Cleanthes makes use of the following example:--"I sent," says +he, "two slaves to look for Plato and bring him to me from the +Academy. One of them searched through the whole of the colonnade, +and every other place in which he thought that he was likely to be +found, and returned home alike weary and unsuccessful; the other +sat down among the audience of a mountebank close by, and, while +amusing himself in the society of other slaves like a careless +vagabond as he was, found Plato, without seeking for him, as he +happened to pass that way. We ought," says he, "to praise that +slave who, as far as lay in his power, did what he was ordered, and +we ought to punish the other whose laziness turned out so +fortunate." It is goodwill alone which does one real service; let +us then consider under what conditions it lays us under +obligations. It is not enough to wish a man well, without doing him +good; nor is it enough to do him good without wishing him well. +Suppose that some one wished to give me a present, but did not give +it; I have his good will, but I do not have his benefit, which +consists of subject matter and goodwill together. I owe nothing to +one who wished to lend me money but did not do so, and in like +manner I shall be the friend of one who wished but was not able to +bestow a benefit upon me, but I shall not be under any obligation +to him. I also shall wish to bestow something upon him, even as he +did upon me; but if fortune be more favorable to me than to him, +and I succeed in bestowing something upon him, my doing so will be +a benefit bestowed upon him, not a repayment out of gratitude for +what he did for me. It will become his duty to be grateful to me; I +shall have begun the interchange of benefits; the series must be +counted from my act. + +XII. I already understand what you wish to ask; there is no need +for you to say anything, your countenance speaks for you. "If any +one does us good for his own sake, are we," you ask, "under an +obligation to him? I often hear you complain that there are some +things which men make use of themselves, but which they put down to +the account of others." I will tell you, my Liberalis; but first +let me distinguish between the two parts of your question, and +separate what is fair from what is unfair. It makes a great +difference whether any one bestows a benefit upon us for his own +sake, or whether he does so partly for his own sake and partly for +ours. He who looks only to his own interests, and who does us good +because he cannot otherwise make a profit for himself, seems to me +to be like the farmer who provides winter and summer fodder for his +flocks, or like the man who feeds up the captives whom he has +bought in order that they may fetch a better price in the slave +market, or who crams and curry-combs fat oxen for sale; or like the +keeper of a school of arms, who takes great pains in exercising and +equipping his gladiators. As Cleanthes says, there is a great +difference between benefits and trade. + +XIII. On the other hand, I am not so unjust as to feel no gratitude +to a man, because, while helping me, he helped himself also; for I +do not insist upon his consulting my interests to the exclusion of +his own--nay, I should prefer that the benefit which I receive may +be of even greater advantage to the giver, provided that he thought +of us both when giving it, and meant to divide it between me and +himself. Even should he possess the larger portion of it, still, if +he admits me to a share, if he meant it for both of us, I am not +only unjust but ungrateful, if I do not rejoice in what has +benefited me benefiting him also. It is the essence of spitefulness +to say that nothing can be a benefit which does not cause some +inconvenience to the giver. + +As for him who bestows a benefit for his own sake, I should say to +him, "You have made use of me, and how can you say that you have +bestowed a benefit upon me, rather than I upon you?" "Suppose," +answers he, "that I cannot obtain a public office except by +ransoming ten citizens out of a great number of captives, will you +owe me nothing for setting you free from slavery and bondage? Yet I +shall do so for my own sake." To this I should answer, "You do this +partly for my sake, partly for your own. It is for your own sake +that you ransom captives, but it is for my sake that you ransom me; +for to serve your purpose it would be enough for you to ransom any +one. I am therefore your debtor, not for ransoming me but for +choosing me, since you might have attained the same result by +ransoming some one else instead of me. You divide the advantages of +the act between yourself and me, and you confer upon me a benefit +by which both of us profit. What you do entirely for my sake is, +that you choose me in preference to others. If therefore you were +to be made praetor for ransoming ten captives, and there were only +ten of us captives, none of us would be under any obligation to +you, because there is nothing for which you can ask any one of us +to give you credit apart from your own advantage. I do not regard a +benefit jealously and wish it to be given to myself alone, but I +wish to have a share in it." + +XIV. "Well, then," says he, "suppose that I were to order all your +names to be put into a ballot-box, and that your name was drawn +among those who were to be ransomed, would you owe me nothing?" +Yes, I should owe you something, but very little: how little, I +will explain to you. By so doing you do something for my sake, in +that you grant me the chance of being ransomed; I owe to fortune +that my name was drawn, all I owe to you is that my name could be +drawn. You have given me the means of obtaining your benefit. For +the greater part of that benefit I am indebted to fortune; that I +could be so indebted, I owe to you. + +I shall take no notice whatever of those whose benefits are +bestowed in a mercenary spirit, who do not consider to whom, but +upon what terms they give, whose benefits are entirely selfish. +Suppose that some one sells me corn; I cannot live unless I buy it; +yet I do not owe my life to him because I have bought it. I do not +consider how essential it was to me, and that I could not live +without it; but how little thanks are due for it, since I could not +have had it without paying for it, and since the merchant who +imported it did not consider how much good he would do me, but how +much he would gain for himself, I owe nothing for what I have +bought and paid for. + +XV. "According to this reasoning," says my opponent, "you would say +that you owe nothing to a physician beyond his paltry fee, nor to +your teacher, because you have paid him some money; yet these +persons are all held very dear, and are very much respected." In +answer to this I should urge that some things are of greater value +than the price which we pay for them. You buy of a physician life +and good health, the value of which cannot be estimated in money; +from a teacher of the liberal sciences you buy the education of a +gentleman and mental culture; therefore you pay these persons the +price, not of what they give us, but of their trouble in giving it; +you pay them for devoting their attention to us, for disregarding +their own affairs to attend to us: they receive the price, not of +their services, but of the expenditure of their time. Yet this may +be more truly stated in another way, which I will at once lay +before you, having first pointed out how the above may be confuted. +Our adversary would say, "If some things are of greater value than +the price which we pay for them, then, though you may have bought +them, you still owe me something more for them." I answer, in the +first place, what does their real value matter, since the buyer and +seller have settled the price between them? Next, I did not buy it +at it's own price, but at yours. "It is," you say, "worth more than +its sale price." True, but it cannot be sold for more. The price of +everything varies according to circumstances; after you have well +praised your wares, they are worth only the highest price at which +you can sell them; a man who buys things cheap is not on that +account under any obligation to the seller. In the next place, even +if they are worth more, there is no generosity in your letting them +go for less, since the price is settled by custom and the rate of +the market, not by the uses and powers of the merchandise. What +would you state to be the proper payment of a man who crosses the +seas, holding a true course through the midst of the waves after +the land has sunk out of sight, who foresees coming storms, and +suddenly, when no one expects danger, orders sails to be furled, +yards to be lowered, and the crew to stand at their posts ready to +meet the fury of the unexpected gale? and yet the price of such +great skill is fully paid for by the passage money. At what sum can +you estimate the value of a lodging in a wilderness, of a shelter +in the rain, of a bath or fire in cold weather? Yet I know on what +terms I shall be supplied with these when I enter an inn. How much +the man does for us who props our house when it is about to fall, +and who, with a skill beyond belief, suspends in the air a block of +building which has begun to crack at the, foundation; yet we can +contract for underpinning at a fixed and cheap rate. The city wall +keeps us safe from our enemies, and from sudden inroads of +brigands; yet it is, well known how much a day a smith would earn +for erecting towers and scaffoldings [Footnote: See Viollet-le- +Duc's "Dictionnaire d'Architecture," articles "Architecture +Militaire" and "Hourds," for the probable meaning of +"Propugnacula."]to provide for the public safety. + +XVI. I might go on for ever collecting instances to prove that +valuable things are sold at a low price. What then? why is it that +I owe something extra both to my physician and to my teacher, and +that I do not acquit myself of all obligation to them by paying +them their fee? It is because they pass from physicians and +teachers into friends, and lay us under obligations, not by the +skill which they sell to us, but by kindly and familiar good will. +If my physician does no more than feel my pulse and class me among +those whom he sees in his daily rounds, pointing out what I ought +to do or to avoid without any personal interest, then I owe him no +more than his fee, because he views me with the eye not of a +friend, but of a commander. [Footnote: I read "Nbn tamquam amicus +videt sed tamquam imperator."] Neither have I any reason for loving +my teacher, if he has regarded me merely as one of the mass of his +scholars, and has not thought me worthy of taking especial pains +with by myself, if he has never fixed his attention upon me, and if +when he discharged his knowledge on the public, I might be said +rather to have picked it up than to have learnt it from him. What +then is our reason for owing them much? It is, not that what they +have sold us is worth more than we paid for it, but that they have +given something to us personally. Suppose that my physician has +spent more consideration upon my case than was professionally +necessary; that it was for me, not for his own credit, that he +feared: that he was not satisfied with pointing out remedies, but +himself applied them, that he sat by my bedside among my anxious +friends, and came to see me at the crises of my disorder; that no +service was too troublesome or too disgusting for him to perform; +that he did not hear my groans unmoved; that among the numbers who +called for him I was his favourite case; and that he gave the +others only so much time as his care of my health permitted him: I +should feel obliged to such a man not as to a physician, but as to +a friend. Suppose again that my teacher endured labour and +weariness in instructing me; that he taught me something more than +is taught by all masters alike; that he roused my better feelings +by his encouragement, and that at one time he would raise my +spirits by praise, and at another warn me to shake off +slothfulness: that he laid his hand, as it were, upon my latent and +torpid powers of intellect and drew them out into the light of day; +that he did not stingily dole out to me what he knew, in order that +he might be wanted for a longer time, but was eager, if possible, +to pour all his learning into me; then I am ungrateful, if I do not +love him as much as I love my nearest relatives and my dearest +friends. + +XVII. We give something additional even to those who teach the +meanest trades, if their efforts appear to be extraordinary; we +bestow a gratuity upon pilots, upon workmen who deal with the +commonest materials and hire themselves out by the day. In the +noblest arts, however, those which either preserve or beautify our +lives, a man would be ungrateful who thinks he owes the artist no +more than he bargained for. Besides this, the teaching of such +learning as we have spoken of blends mind with mind; now when this +takes place, both in the case of the physician and of the teacher +the price of his work is paid, but that of his mind remains owing. + +XVIII. Plato once crossed a river, and as the ferryman did not ask +him for anything, he supposed that he had let him pass free out of +respect, and said that the ferryman had laid Plato under an +obligation. Shortly afterwards, seeing the ferryman take one person +after another across the river with the same pains, and without +charging anything, Plato declared that the ferryman had not laid +him under an obligation. If you wish me to be grateful for what you +give, you must not merely give it to me, but show that you mean it +specially for me; you cannot make any claim upon one for having +given him what you fling away broad-cast among the crowd. What +then? shall I owe you nothing for it? Nothing, as an individual; I +will pay, when the rest of mankind do, what I owe no more than +they. + +XIX. "Do you say," inquires my opponent, "that he who carries me +gratis in a boat across the river Po, does not bestow any benefit +upon me?" I do. He does me some good, but he does not bestow a +benefit upon me; for he does it for his own sake, or at any rate +not for mine; in short, he himself does not imagine that he is +bestowing a benefit upon me, but does it for the credit of the +State, or of the neighbourhood, or of himself, and expects some +return for doing so, different from what he would receive from +individual passengers. "Well," asks my opponent, "if the emperor +were to grant the franchise to all the Gauls, or exemption, from +taxes to all the Spaniards, would each individual of them owe him +nothing on that account?" Of course he would: but he would be +indebted to him, not as having personally received a benefit +intended for himself alone, but as a partaker in one conferred upon +his nation. He would argue, "The emperor had no thought of me at +the time when he benefited us all; he did not care to give me the +franchise separately, he did not fix his attention upon me; why +then should I be grateful to one who did not have me in his mind +when he was thinking of doing what he did? In answer to this, I say +that when he thought of doing good to all the Gauls, he thought of +doing good to me also, for I was a Gaul, and he included me under +my national, if not under my personal appellation. In like manner, +I should feel grateful to him, not as for a personal, but for a +general benefit; being only one of the people, I should regard the +debt of gratitude as incurred, not by myself, but by my country, +and should not pay it myself, but only contribute my share towards +doing so. I do not call a man my creditor because he has lent money +to my country, nor should I include that money in a schedule of my +debts were I either a candidate for a public office, or a defendant +in the courts; yet I would pay my share towards extinguishing such +a debt. Similarly, I deny that I am laid under an obligation by a +gift bestowed upon my entire nation, because although the giver +gave it to me, yet he did not do so for my sake, but gave it +without knowing whether he was giving it to me or not: nevertheless +I should feel that I owed something for the gift, because it did +reach me, though not directly. To lay me under an obligation, a +thing must be done for my sake alone. + +XX. "According to this," argues our opponent, "you are under no +obligation to the sun or the moon; for they do not move for your +sake alone." No, but since they move with the object of preserving +the balance of the universe, they move for my sake also, seeing +that I am a fraction of the universe. Besides, our position and +theirs is not the same, for he who does me good in order that he +may by my means do good to himself, does not bestow a benefit upon +me, because he merely makes use of me as an instrument for his own +advantage; whereas the sun and the moon, even if they do us good +for their own sakes, still cannot do good to us in order that by +our means they may do good to themselves, for what is there which +we can bestow upon them? + +XXI. "I should be sure," replies he, "that the sun and the moon +wished to do us good, if they were able to refuse to do so; but +they cannot help moving as they do. In short, let them stop and +discontinue their work." + +See now, in how many ways this argument may be refuted. One who +cannot refuse to do a thing may nevertheless wish to do it; indeed +there is no greater proof of a fixed desire to do anything, than +not to be able to alter one's determination. A good man cannot +leave undone what he does: for unless he does it he will not be a +good man. Is a good man, then, not able to bestow a benefit, +because he does what he ought to do, and is not able not to do what +he ought to do? Besides this, it makes a great difference whether +you say, "He is not able not to do this, because he is forced to do +it," or "He is not able to wish not to do it;" for, if he could not +help doing it, then I am not indebted for it to him, but to the +person who forced him to do it; if he could not help wishing for it +because he had nothing better to wish for, then it is he who forces +himself to do it, and in this case the debt which as acting under +compulsion he could not claim, is due to him as compelling himself. + +"Let the sun and moon cease to wish to benefit us," says our +adversary. I answer, "Remember what has been said. Who can be so +crazy as to refuse the name of free-will to that which has no +danger of ceasing to act, and of adopting the opposite course, +since, on the contrary, he whose will is fixed for ever, must be +thought to wish more earnestly than any one else. Surely if he, who +may at any moment change his mind, can be said to wish, we must not +deny the existence of will in a being whose nature does not admit +of change of mind. + +XXII. "Well," says he "let them stop, if it be possible." What you +say is this:--Let all those heavenly bodies, placed as they are at +vast distances from each other, and arranged to preserve the +balance of the universe, leave their appointed posts: let sudden +confusion arise, so that constellations may collide with +constellations, that the established harmony of all things may be +destroyed and the works of God be shaken into ruin; let the whole +frame of the rapidly moving heavenly bodies abandon in mid career +those movements which we were assured would endure for ages, and +let those which now by their regular advance and retreat keep the +world at a moderate temperature, be instantly consumed by fire, so +that instead of the infinite variety of the seasons all may be +reduced to one uniform condition; let fire rage everywhere, +followed by dull night, and let the bottomless abyss swallow up all +the gods." Is it worth while to destroy all this merely in order to +refute you? Even though you do not wish it, they do you good, and +they wheel in their courses for your sake, though their motion may +be due to some earlier and more important cause. + +XXIII. Besides this, the gods act under no external constraint, but +their own will is a law to them for all time. They have established +an order which is not to be changed, and consequently it is +impossible that they should appear to be likely to do anything +against their will, since they wish to continue doing whatever they +cannot cease from doing, and they never regret their original +decision, No doubt it is impossible for them to stop short, or to +desert to the other side, but it is so for no other reason than +that their own force holds them to their purpose. It is from no +weakness that they persevere; no, they have no mind to leave the +best course, and by this it is fated that they should proceed. +When, at the time of the original creation, they arranged the +entire universe, they paid attention to us as well as to the rest, +and took thought about the human race; and for this reason we +cannot suppose that it is merely for their own pleasure that they +move in their orbits and display their work since we also are a +part of that work. We are, therefore; under an obligation to the +sun and moon and the rest of the heavenly host, because, although +they may rise in order to bestow more important benefits than those +which we receive from them, yet they do bestow these upon us as +they pass on their way to greater things. Besides this, they assist +us of set purpose, and, therefore, lay us under an obligation, +because we do not in their case stumble by chance upon a benefit +bestowed by one who knew not what he was doing, but they knew that +we should receive from them the advantages which we do; so that, +though they may have some higher aim, though the result of their +movements may be something of greater importance than the +preservation of the human race, yet from the beginning thought has +been directed to our comforts, and the scheme of the world has been +arranged in a fashion which proves that our interests were neither +their least nor last concern. It is our duty to show filial love +for our parents, although many of them had no thought of children +when they married. Not so with the gods: they cannot but have known +what they were doing when they furnished mankind with food and +comforts. Those for whose advantage so much was created, could not +have been created without design. Nature conceived the idea of us +before she formed us, and, indeed, we are no such trifling piece of +work as could have fallen from her hands unheeded. See how great +privileges she has bestowed upon us, how far beyond the human race +the empire of mankind extends; consider how widely she allows us to +roam, not having restricted us to the land alone, but permitted us +to traverse every part of herself; consider, too, the audacity of +our intellect, the only one which knows of the gods or seeks for +them, and how we can raise our mind high above the earth, and +commune with those divine influences: you will perceive that man is +not a hurriedly put together, or an unstudied piece of work. Among +her noblest products nature has none of which she can boast more +than man, and assuredly no other which can comprehend her boast. +What madness is this, to call the gods in question for their +bounty? If a man declares that he has received nothing when he is +receiving all the while, and from those who will always be giving +without ever receiving anything in return, how will he be grateful +to those whose kindness cannot be returned without expense? and how +great a mistake is it not to be thankful to a giver, because he is +good even to him who disowns him, or to use the fact of his bounty +being poured upon us in an uninterrupted stream, as an argument to +prove that he cannot help bestowing it. Suppose that such men as +these say, "I do not want it," "Let him keep it to himself," "Who +asks him for it?" and so forth, with all the other speeches of +insolent minds: still, he whose bounty reaches you, although you +say that it does not, lays you under an obligation nevertheless; +indeed, perhaps the greatest part of the benefit which he bestows +is that he is ready to give even when you are complaining against +him. + +XXIV. Do you not see how parents force children during their +infancy to undergo what is useful for their health? Though the +children cry and struggle, they swathe them and bind their limbs +straight lest premature liberty should make them grow crooked, +afterwards instill into them a liberal education, threatening those +who are unwilling to learn, and finally, if spirited young men do +not conduct themselves frugally, modestly, and respectably, they +compel them to do so. Force and harsh measures are used even to +youths who have grown up and are their own masters, if they, either +from fear or from insolence, refuse to take what is good for them. +Thus the greatest benefits that we receive, we receive either +without knowing it, or against our will, from our parents. + +XXV. Those persons who are ungrateful and repudiate benefits, not +because they do not wish to receive them, but in order that they +may not be laid under an obligation for them, are like those who +fall into the opposite extreme, and are over grateful, who pray +that some trouble or misfortune may befall their benefactors to +give them an opportunity of proving how gratefully they remember +the benefit which they have received. It is a question whether they +are right, and show a truly dutiful feeling; their state of mind is +morbid, like that of frantic lovers who long for their mistress to +be exiled, that they may accompany her when she leaves her country +forsaken by all her friends, or that she may be poor in order that +she may the more need what they give her, or who long that she may +be ill in order that they may sit by her bedside, and who, in +short, out of sheer love form the same wishes as her enemies would +wish for her. Thus the results of hatred and of frantic love are +very nearly the same; and these lovers are very like those who hope +that their friends may meet with difficulties which they may +remove, and who thus do a wrong that they may bestow a benefit, +whereas it would have been much better for them to do nothing, than +by a crime to gain an opportunity of doing good service. What +should we say of a pilot who prayed to the gods for dreadful storms +and tempests, in order that danger might make his skill more highly +esteemed? what of a general who should pray that a vast number of +the enemy surround his camp, fill the ditches by a sudden charge, +tear down the rampart round his panic-stricken army, and plant its +hostile standards at the very gates, in order that he might gain +more glory by restoring his broken ranks and shattered fortunes? +All such men confer their benefits upon us by odious means, for +they beg the gods to harm those whom they mean to help, and wish +them to be struck down before they raise them up; it is a cruel +feeling, brought about by a distorted sense of gratitude, to wish +evil to befall one whom one is bound in honour to succour. + +XXVI. "My wish," argues our opponent, "does him no harm, because +when I wish for the danger I wish for the rescue at the same time." +What you mean by this is not that you do no wrong, but that you do +less than if you wished that the danger might befall him, without +wishing for the rescue. It is wicked to throw a man into the water +in order that you may pull him out, to throw him down that you may +raise him up, or to shut him up that you may release him. You do +not bestow a benefit upon a man by ceasing to wrong him, nor can it +ever be a piece of good service to anyone to remove from him a +burden which you yourself imposed on him. True, you may cure the +hurt which you inflict, but I had rather that you did not hurt me +at all. You may gain my gratitude by curing me because I am +wounded, but not by wounding me in order that you may cure me: no +man likes scars except as compared with wounds, which he is glad to +see thus healed, though he had rather not have received them. It +would be cruel to wish such things to befall one from whom you had +never received a kindness; how much more cruel is it to wish that +they may befall one in whose debt you are. + +XXVII. "I pray," replies he, "at the same time, that I may be able +to help him." In the first place, if I stop you short in the middle +of your prayer, it shows at once that you are ungrateful: I have +not yet heard what you wish to do for him; I have heard what you +wish him to suffer. You pray that anxiety and fear and even worse +evil than this may come upon him. You desire that he may need aid: +this is to his disadvantage; you desire that he may need your aid: +this is to your advantage. You do not wish to help him, but to be +set free from your obligation to him: for when you are eager to +repay your debt in such a way as this, you merely wish to be set +free from the debt, not to repay it. So the only part of your wish +that could be thought honourable proves to be the base and +ungrateful feeling of unwillingness to lie under an obligation: for +what you wish for is, not that you may have an opportunity of +repaying his kindness, but that he may be forced to beg you to do +him a kindness. You make yourself the superior, and you wickedly +degrade beneath your feet the man who has done you good service. +How much better would it be to remain in his debt in an honourable +and friendly manner, than to seek to discharge the debt by these +evil means! You would be less to blame if you denied that you had +received it, for your benefactor would then lose nothing more than +what he gave you, whereas now you wish him to be rendered inferior +to you, and brought by the loss of his property and social position +into a condition below his own benefits. Do you think yourself +grateful? Just utter your wishes in the hearing of him to whom you +wish to do good. Do you call that a prayer for his welfare, which +can be divided between his friend and his enemy, which, if the last +part were omitted, you would not doubt was pronounced, by one who +opposed and hated him? Enemies in war have sometimes wished to +capture certain towns in order to spare them, or to conquer certain +persons in order to pardon, them, yet these were the wishes of +enemies, and what was the kindest part of them began by cruelty. +Finally, what sort of prayers do you think those can be which he, +on whose behalf they are made, hopes more earnestly than any one +else may not be granted? In hoping that the gods may injure a man, +and that you may help him, you deal most dishonourably with him, +and you do not treat the gods themselves fairly, for you give them +the odious part to play, and reserve the generous one for yourself: +the gods must do him wrong in order that you may do him a service. +If you were to suborn an informer to accuse a man, and afterwards +withdrew him, if you engaged a man in a law suit and afterwards +gave it up, no one would hesitate to call you a villain: what +difference does it make, whether you attempt to do this by +chicanery or by prayer, unless it be that by prayer you raise up +more powerful enemies to him than by the other means? You cannot +say "Why, what harm do I do him?" your prayer is either futile or +harmful, indeed it is harmful even though nothing comes of it. You +do your friend wrong by wishing him harm: you must thank the gods +that you do him no harm. The fact of your wishing it is enough: we +ought to be just as angry with you as if you had effected it. + +XXVIII. "If," argues our adversary, "my prayers had any efficacy, +they would also have been efficacious to save him from danger." In +the first place, I reply, the danger into which you wish me to fall +is certain, the help which I should receive is uncertain. Or call +them both certain; it is that which injures me that comes first. +Besides, YOU understand the terms of your wish; _I_ shall be tossed +by the storm without being sure that I have a haven of rest at +hand. + +Think what torture it must have been to me, even if I receive your +help, to have stood in need of it: if I escape safely, to have +trembled for myself; if I be acquitted, to have had to plead my +cause. To escape from fear, however great it may be, can never be +so pleasant as to live in sound unassailable safety. Pray that you +may return my kindnesses when I need their return, but do not pray +that I may need them. You would have done what you prayed for, had +it been in your power. + +XXIX. How far more honourable would a prayer of this sort be: "I +pray that he may remain in such a position as that he may always +bestow benefits and never need them: may he be attended by the +means of giving and helping, of which he makes such a bountiful +use; may he never want benefits to bestow, or be sorry for any +which he has bestowed; may his nature, fitted as it is for acts of +pity, goodness, and clemency, be stimulated and brought out by +numbers of grateful persons, whom I trust he will find without +needing to make trial of their gratitude; may he refuse to be +reconciled to no one, and may no one require to be reconciled to +him: may fortune so uniformly continue to favour him that no one +may be able to return his kindness in any way except by feeling +grateful to him." + +How far more proper are such prayers as these, which do not put you +off to some distant opportunity, but express your gratitude at +once? What is there to prevent your returning your benefactor's +kindness, even while he is in prosperity? How many ways are there +by which we can repay what we owe even to the affluent--for +instance, by honest advice, by constant intercourse, by courteous +conversation, pleasing him without flattering him, by listening +attentively to any subject which he may wish to discuss, by keeping +safe any secret that he may impart to us, and by social +intercourse. There is no one so highly placed by fortune as not to +want a friend all the more because he wants nothing. + +XXX. The other is a melancholy opportunity, and one which we ought +always to pray may be kept far from us: must the gods be angry with +a man in order that you may prove your gratitude to him? Do you not +perceive that you are doing wrong, from the very fact that those to +whom you are ungrateful fare better? Call up before your mind +dungeons, chains, wretchedness, slavery, war, poverty: these are +the opportunities for which you pray; if any one has any dealings +with you, it is by means of these that you square your account. Why +not rather wish that he to whom you owe most may be powerful and +happy? for, as I have just said, what is there to prevent your +returning the kindness even of those who enjoy the greatest +prosperity? to do which, ample and various opportunities will +present themselves to you, What! do you not know that a debt can be +paid even to a rich man? Nor will I trouble you with many instances +of what you may do. Though a man's riches and prosperity may +prevent your making him any other repayment, I will show you what +the highest in the land stand in need of, what is wanting to those +who possess everything. They want a man to speak the truth, to save +them from the organized mass of falsehood by which they are beset, +which so bewilders them with lies that the habit of hearing only +what is pleasant instead of what is true, prevents their knowing +what truth really is. Do you not see how such persons are driven to +ruin by the want of candour among their friends, whose loyalty has +degenerated into slavish obsequiousness? No one, when giving them +his advice, tells them what he really thinks, but each vies with +the other in flattery; and while the man's friends make it their +only object to see who can most pleasantly deceive him, he himself +is ignorant of his real powers, and, believing himself to be as +great a man as he is told that he is, plunges the State in useless +wars, which bring disasters upon it, breaks off a useful and +necessary peace, and, through a passion of anger which no one +checks, spills the blood of numbers of people, and at last sheds +his own. Such persons assert what has never been investigated as +certain facts, consider that to modify their opinion is as +dishonourable as to be conquered, believe that institutions which +are just flickering out of existence will last for ever, and, thus +overturn great States, to the destruction of themselves and all who +are connected with them. Living as they do in a fool's paradise, +resplendent with unreal and short-lived advantages, they forget +that, as soon as they put it out of their power to hear the truth, +there is no limit to the misfortunes which they may expect. + +XXXI. When Xerxes declared war against Greece, all his courtiers +encouraged his boastful temper, which forgot how unsubstantial his +grounds for confidence were. One declared that the Greeks would not +endure to hear the news of the declaration of war, and would take +to flight at the first rumour of his approach; another, that with +such a vast army Greece could not only be conquered, but utterly +overwhelmed, and that it was rather to be feared that they would +find the Greek cities empty and abandoned, and that the panic +flight of the enemy would leave them only vast deserts, where no +use could be made of their enormous forces. Another told him that +the world was hardly large enough to contain him, that the seas +were too narrow for his fleets, the camps would not take in his +armies, the plains were not wide enough to deploy his cavalry in, +and that the sky itself was scarcely large enough to enable all his +troops to hurl their darts at once. While much boasting of this +sort was going on around him, raising his already overweening self- +confidence to a frantic pitch, Demaratus, the Lacedaemonian, alone +told him that the disorganized and unwieldy multitude in which he +trusted, was in itself a danger to its chief, because it possessed +only weight without strength; for an army which is too large cannot +be governed, and one which cannot be governed, cannot long exist. +"The Lacedaemonians," said he, "will meet you upon the first +mountain in Greece, and will give you a taste of their quality. All +these thousands of nations of yours will be held in check by three +hundred men: they will stand firm at their posts, they will defend +the passes entrusted to them with their weapons, and block them up +with their bodies: all Asia will not force them to give way; few as +they are, they will stop all this terrible invasion, attempted +though it be by nearly the whole human race. Though the laws of +nature may give way to you, and enable you to pass from Europe to +Asia, yet you will stop short in a bypath; consider what your +losses will be afterwards, when you have reckoned up the price +which you have to pay for the pass of Thermopylae; when you learn +that your march can be stayed, you will discover that you may be +put to flight. The Greeks will yield up many parts of their country +to you, as if they were swept out of them by the first terrible +rush of a mountain torrent; afterwards they will rise against you +from all quarters and will crush you by means of your own strength. +What people say, that your warlike preparations are too great to be +contained in the countries which you intend to attack, is quite +true; but this is to our disadvantage. Greece will conquer you for +this very reason, that she cannot contain you; you cannot make use +of the whole of your force. Besides this, you will not be able to +do what is essential to victory--that is, to meet the manoeuvres of +the enemy at once, to support your own men if they give way, or to +confirm and strengthen them when their ranks are wavering; long +before you know it, you will be defeated. Moreover, you should not +think that because your army is so large that its own chief does +not know its numbers, it is therefore irresistible; there is +nothing so great that it cannot perish; nay, without any other +cause, its own excessive size may prove its ruin." What Demaratus +predicted came to pass. He whose power gods and men obeyed, and who +swept away all that opposed him, was bidden to halt by three +hundred men, and the Persians, defeated in every part of Greece, +learned how great a difference there is between a mob and an army. +Thus it came to pass that Xerxes, who suffered more from the shame +of his failure than from the losses which he sustained, thanked +Demaratus for having been the only man who told him the truth, and +permitted him to ask what boon he pleased. He asked to be allowed +to drive a chariot into Sardis, the largest city in Asia, wearing a +tiara erect upon his head, a privilege which was enjoyed by kings +alone. He deserved his reward before he asked for it, but how +wretched must the nation have been, in which there was no one who +would speak the truth to the king except one man. who did not speak +it to himself. + +XXXII. The late Emperor Augustus banished his daughter, whose +conduct went beyond the shame of ordinary immodesty, and made +public the scandals of the imperial house + +Led away by his passion, he divulged all these crimes which, as +emperor, he ought to have kept secret with as much care as he +punished them, because the shame of some deeds asperses even him +who avenges them. Afterwards, when by lapse of time shame took the +place of anger in his mind, he lamented that he had not kept +silence about matters which he had not learned until it was +disgraceful to speak of them, and often used to exclaim, "None of +these things would have happened to me, if either Agrippa or +Maecenas had lived!" So hard was it for the master of so many +thousands of men to repair the loss of two. When his legions were +slaughtered, new ones were at once enrolled; when his fleet was +wrecked, within a few days another was afloat; when the public +buildings were consumed by fire, finer ones arose in their stead; +but the places of Agrippa and Maecenas remained unfilled throughout +his life. What am I to imagine? that there were not any men like +these, who could take their place, or that it was the fault of +Augustus himself, who preferred mourning for them to seeking for +their likes? We have no reason for supposing that it was the habit +of Agrippa or Maecenas to speak the truth to him; indeed, if they +had lived they would have been as great dissemblers as the rest. It +is one of the habits of kings to insult their present servants by +praising those whom they have lost, and to attribute the virtue of +truthful speaking to those from whom there is no further risk of +hearing it. + +XXXIII. However, to return to my subject, you see how easy it is to +return the kindness of the prosperous, and even of those who occupy +the highest places of all mankind. Tell them, not what they wish to +hear, but what they will wish that they always had heard; though +their ears be stopped by flatteries, yet sometimes truth may +penetrate them; give them useful advice. Do you ask what service +you can render to a prosperous man? Teach him not to rely upon his +prosperity, and to understand that it ought to be supported by the +hands of many trusty friends. Will you not have done much for him, +if you take away his foolish belief that his influence will endure +for ever, and teach him that what we gain by chance passes away +soon, and at a quicker rate than it came; that we cannot fall by +the same stages by which we rose to the height of good fortune, but +that frequently between it and ruin there is but one step? You do +not know how great is the value of friendship, if you do not +understand how much you give to him to whom you give a friend, a +commodity which is scarce not only in men's houses, but in whole +centuries, and which is nowhere scarcer than in the places where it +is thought to be most plentiful. Pray, do you suppose that those +books of names, which your nomenclator [Footnote: The nomenclator +was a slave who attended his master in canvassing and on similar +occasions, for the purpose of telling him the names of whom he met +in the street.] can hardly carry or remember, are those of friends? +It is not your friends who crowd to knock at your door, and who are +admitted to your greater or lesser levees. + +XXXIV. To divide one's friends into classes is an old trick of +kings and their imitators; it shows great arrogance to think that +to touch or to pass one's threshold can be a valuable privilege, or +to grant as an honour that you should sit nearer one's front door +than others, or enter house before them, although within the house +there are many more doors, which shut out even those who have been +admitted so far. With us Gaius Gracchus, and shortly after him +Livius Drusus, were the first to keep themselves apart from the +mass of their adherents, and to admit some to their privacy, some +to their more select, and others to their general receptions. These +men consequently had friends of the first and second rank, and so +on, but in none had they true friends. Can you apply the name of +friend to one who is admitted in his regular order to pay his +respects to you? or can you expect perfect loyalty from one who is +forced to slip into your presence through a grudgingly-opened door? +How can a man arrive at using bold freedom of speech with you, if +he is only allowed in his proper turn to make use of the common +phrase, "Hail to you," which is used by perfect strangers? Whenever +you go to any of these great men, whose levees interest the whole +city, though you find all the streets beset with throngs of people, +and the passers-by hardly able to make their way through the crowd, +you may be sure that you have come to a place where there are many +men, but no friends of their patron. We must not seek our friends +in our entrance hall, but in our own breast; it is there that he +ought to be received, there retained, and hoarded up in our minds. +Teach this, and you will have repaid your debt of gratitude. + +XXXV. If you are useful to your friend only when he is in distress, +and are superfluous when all goes well with him, you form a mean +estimate of your own value. As you can bear yourself wisely both in +doubtful, in prosperous, and in adverse circumstances, by showing +prudence in doubtful cases, courage in misfortune, and self- +restraint in good fortune, so in all circumstances you can make +yourself useful to your friend. Do not desert him in adversity, but +do not wish that it may befall him: the various incidents of human +life will afford you many opportunities of proving your loyalty to +him without wishing him evil. He who prays that another may become +rich, in order that he may share his riches, really has a view to +his own advantage, although his prayers are ostensibly offered in +behalf of his friend; and similarly he who wishes that his friend +may get into some trouble from which his own friendly assistance +may extricate him--a most ungrateful wish--prefers himself to his +friend, and thinks it worthwhile that his friend should be unhappy, +in order that he may prove his gratitude. This very wish makes him +ungrateful, for he wishes to rid himself of his gratitude as though +it were a heavy burden. In returning a kindness it makes a great +difference whether you are eager to bestow a benefit, or merely to +free yourself from a debt. He who wishes to return a benefit will +study his friend's interests, and will hope that a suitable +occasion will arise; he who only wishes to free himself from an +obligation will be eager to do so by any means whatever, which +shows very bad feeling. "Do you say," we may be asked, "that +eagerness to repay kindness belongs to a morbid feeling of +gratitude?" I cannot explain my meaning more clearly than by +repeating what I have already said. You do not want to repay, but +to escape from the benefit which you. have received. You seem to +say, "When shall I get free from this obligation? I must strive by +any means in my power to extinguish my debt to him." You would be +thought to be far from grateful, if you wished to pay a debt to him +with his own money; yet this wish of yours is even more unjust; for +you invoke curses upon him, and call down terrible imprecations +upon the head of one who ought to be held sacred by you. No one, I +suppose, would have any doubt of your wickedness if you were openly +to pray that he might suffer poverty, captivity, hunger, or fear; +yet what is the difference between openly praying for some of these +things, and silently wishing for them? for you do wish for some of +these. Go, and enjoy your belief that this is gratitude, to do what +not even an ungrateful man would do, supposing he confined himself +to repudiating the benefit, and did not go so far as to hate his +benefactor. + +XXXVI. Who would call Aeneas pious, if he wished that his native +city might be captured, in order that he might save his father from +captivity? Who would point to the Sicilian youths as good examples +for his children, if they had prayed that Aetna might flame with +unusual heat and pour forth a vast mass of fire in order to afford +them an opportunity of displaying their filial affection by +rescuing their parents from the midst of the conflagration? Rome +owes Scipio nothing if he kept the Punic War alive in order that he +might have the glory of finishing it; she owes nothing to the Decii +if they prayed for public disasters, to give themselves an +opportunity of displaying their brave self-devotion. It is the +greatest scandal for a physician to make work for himself; and many +who have aggravated the diseases of their patients that they may +have the greater credit for curing them, have either failed to cure +them, at all or have done so at the cost of the most terrible +suffering to their victims. + +XXXVII. It is said (at any rate Hecaton tells us) that when +Callistratus with many others was driven into exile by his factious +and licentiously free country, some one prayed that such trouble +might befall the Athenians that they would be forced to recall the +exiles, on hearing which, he prayed that God might forbid his +return upon such terms. When some one tried to console our own +countryman, Rutilius, for his exile, pointing out that civil war +was at hand, and that all exiles would soon be restored to Rome, he +answered with even greater spirit, "What harm have I done you, that +you should wish that I may return to my country more unhappily than +I quit it? My wish is, that my country should blush at my being +banished, rather than that she should mourn at my having returned." +An exile, of which every one is more ashamed than the sufferer, is +not exile at all. These two persons, who did not wish to be +restored to their homes at the cost of a public disaster, but +preferred that two should suffer unjustly than that all should +suffer alike, are thought to have acted like good citizens; and in +like manner it does not accord with the character of a grateful +man, to wish that his benefactor may fall into troubles which he +may dispel; because, even though he may mean well to him, yet he +wishes him evil. To put out a fire which you yourself have lighted, +will not even gain acquittal for you, let alone credit. + +XXXVIII. In some states an evil wish was regarded as a crime. It is +certain that at Athens Demades obtained a verdict against one who +sold furniture for funerals, by proving that he had prayed for +great gains, which he could not obtain without the death of many +persons. Yet it is a stock question whether he was rightly found +guilty. Perhaps he prayed, not that he might sell his wares to many +persons, but that he might sell them dear, or that he might procure +what he was going to sell, cheaply. Since his business consisted of +buying and selling, why should you consider his prayer to apply to +one branch of it only, although he made profit from both? Besides +this, you might find every one of his trade guilty, for they all +wish, that is, secretly pray, as he did. You might, moreover, find +a great part of the human race guilty, for who is there who does +not profit by his neighbour's wants? A soldier, if he wishes for +glory, must wish for war; the farmer profits by corn being dear; a +large number of litigants raises the price of forensic eloquence; +physicians make money by a sickly season; dealers in luxuries are +made rich by the effeminacy of youth; suppose that no storms and no +conflagrations injured our dwellings, the builder's trade would be +at a standstill. The prayer of one man was detected, but it was +just like the prayers of all other men. Do you imagine that +Arruntius and Haterius, and all other professional legacy-hunters +do not put up the same prayers as undertakers and grave-diggers? +though the latter know not whose death it is that they wish for, +while the former wish for the death of their dearest friends, from +whom, on account of their intimacy, they have most hopes of +inheriting a fortune. No one's life does the undertaker any harm, +whereas these men starve if their friends are long about dying; +they do not, therefore, merely wish for their deaths in order that +they may receive what they have earned by a disgraceful servitude, +but in order that they may be set free from a heavy tax. There can, +therefore, be no doubt that such persons repeat with even greater +earnestness the prayer for which the undertaker was condemned, for +whoever is likely to profit such men by dying, does them an injury +by living. Yet the wishes of all these are alike well known and +unpunished. Lastly, let every man examine his own self, let him +look into the secret thoughts of his heart and consider what it is +that he silently hopes for; how many of his prayers he would blush +to acknowledge, even to himself; how few there are which we could +repeat in the presence of witnesses! + +XXXIX. Yet we must not condemn every thing which we find worthy of +blame, as, for instance, this wish about our friends which we have +been discussing, arises from a misdirected feeling of affection, +and falls into the very error which it strives to avoid, for the +man is ungrateful at the very time when he hurries to prove his +gratitude. He prays aloud, "May he fall into my power, may he need +my influence, may not be able to be safe and respectable without my +aid, may he be so unfortunate that whatever return I make to him +may be regarded as a benefit." To the gods alone he adds, "May +domestic treasons encompass him, which can be quelled by me alone; +may some powerful and virulent enemy, some excited and armed mob, +assail him; may he be set upon by a creditor or an informer." + +XL. See, how just you are; you would never have wished any of these +misfortunes to befall him, if he had not bestowed a benefit upon +you. Not to speak of the graver guilt which you incur by returning +evil for good, you distinctly do wrong in not waiting for the +fitting time for each action, for it is as wrong to anticipate this +as it is not to take it when it comes. A benefit ought not always +to be accepted, and ought not in all cases to be returned. If you +were to return it to me against my will, you would be ungrateful, +how much more ungrateful are you, if you force me to wish for it? +Wait patiently; why are you unwilling to let my bounty abide with +you? Why do you chafe at being laid under an obligation? why, as +though you were dealing with a harsh usurer, are you in such a +hurry to sign and seal an equivalent bond? Why do you wish me to +get into trouble? Why do you call upon the gods to ruin me? If this +is your way of returning a kindness, what would you do if you were +exacting repayment of a debt? + +XLI. Above all, therefore, my Liberalis, let us learn to live +calmly under an obligation to others, and watch for opportunities +of repaying our debt without manufacturing them. Let us remember +that this anxiety to seize the first opportunity of setting +ourselves free shows ingratitude; for no one repays with good will +that which he is unwilling to owe, and his eagerness to get it out +of his hands shows that he regards it as a burden rather than as a +favour. How much better and more righteous is it to bear in mind +what we owe to our friends, and to offer repayment, not to obtrude +it, nor to think ourselves too much indebted; because a benefit is +a common bond which connects two persons. Say "I do not delay to +repay your kindness to me; I hope that you will accept my gratitude +cheerfully. If irresistible fate hangs over either of us, and +destiny rules either that you must receive your benefit back again, +or that I must receive a second benefit, why then, of us two, let +him give that was wont to give. I am ready to receive it. + + "'Tis not the part of Turnus to delay." + +That is the spirit which I shall show whenever the time comes; in +the meanwhile the gods shall be my witnesses. + +XLII. I have noted in you, my Liberalis, and as it were touched +with my hand a feeling of fussy anxiety not to be behindhand in +doing what is your duty. This anxiety is not suitable to a grateful +mind, which, on the contrary, produces the utmost confidence in +oneself, and which drives away all trouble by the consciousness of +real affection towards one's benefactor. To say "Take back what you +gave me," is no less a reproach than to say "You are in my debt." +Let this be the first privilege of a benefit, that he who bestowed +it may choose the time when he will have it returned. "But I fear +that men may speak ill of me." You do wrong if you are grateful +only for the sake of your reputation, and not to satisfy your +conscience. You have in this matter two judges, your benefactor, +whom you ought not, and yourself, whom you cannot deceive. "But," +say you, "if no occasion of repayment offers, am I always to remain +in his debt?" Yes; but you should do so openly, and willingly, and +should view with great pleasure what he has entrusted to you. If +you are vexed at not having yet returned a benefit, you must be +sorry that you ever received it; but if he deserved that you should +receive a benefit from him, why should he not deserve that you +should long remain in his debt? + +XLIII. Those persons are much mistaken who regard it as a proof of +a great mind to make offers to give, and to fill many men's pockets +and houses with their presents, for sometimes these are due not to +a great mind, but to a great fortune; they do not know how far more +great and more difficult it sometimes is to receive than to lavish +gifts. I must disparage neither act; it is as proper to a noble +heart to owe as to receive, for both are of equal value when done +virtuously; indeed, to owe is the more difficult, because it +requires more pains to keep a thing safe than to give it away. We +ought not therefore to be in a hurry to repay, nor need we seek to +do so out of due season, for to hasten to make repayment at the +wrong time is as bad as to be slow to do so at the right time. My +benefactor has entrusted his bounty to me: I ought not to have any +fears either on his behalf or on my own. He has a sufficient +security; he cannot lose it except he loses me--nay, not even if he +loses me. I have returned thanks to him for it--that is, I have +requited him. He who thinks too much about repaying a benefit must +suppose that his friend thinks too much about receiving repayment. +Make no difficulty about either course. If he wishes to receive his +benefit back again, let us return it cheerfully; if he prefers to +leave it in our hands, why should we dig up his treasure? why +should we decline to be its guardians? he deserves to be allowed to +do whichever he pleases. As for fame and reputation, let us regard +them as matters which ought to accompany, but which ought not to +direct our actions. + + + + +BOOK VII. + +I. + + + Be of good cheer, my Liberalis: + + "Our port is close, and I will not delay, + Nor by digressions wander from the way." + +This book collects together all that has been omitted, and in it, +having exhausted my subject, I shall consider not what I am to say, +but what there is which I have not yet said. If there be anything +superfluous in it, I pray you take it in good part, since it is for +you that it is superfluous. Had I wished to set off my work to the +best advantage, I ought to have added to it by degrees, and to have +kept for the last that part which would be eagerly perused even by +a sated reader. However, instead of this, I have collected together +all that was essential in the beginning; I am now collecting +together whatever then escaped me; nor, by Hercules, if you ask me, +do I think that, after the rules which govern our conduct have been +stated, it is very much to the purpose to discuss the other +questions which have been raised more for the exercise of our +intellects than for the health of our minds. The cynic Demetrius, +who in my opinion was a great man even if compared with the +greatest philosophers, had an admirable saying about this, that one +gained more by having a few wise precepts ready and in common use +than by learning many without having them at hand. "The best +wrestler," he would say, "is not he who has learned thoroughly all +the tricks and twists of the art, which are seldom met with in +actual wrestling, but he who has well and carefully trained himself +in one or two of them, and watches keenly for an opportunity of +practising them. It does not matter how many of them he knows, if +he knows enough to give him the victory; and so in this subject of +ours there are many points of interest, but few of importance. You +need not know what is the system of the ocean tides, why each +seventh year leaves its mark upon the human body, why the more +distant parts of a long portico do not keep their true proportion, +but seem to approach one another until at last the spaces between +the columns disappear, how it can be that twins are conceived +separately, though they are born together, whether both result from +one, or each from a separate act, why those whose birth was the +same should have such different fates in life, and dwell at the +greatest possible distance from one another, although they were +born touching one another; it will not do you much harm to pass +over matters which we are not permitted to know, and which we +should not profit by knowing. Truths so obscure may be neglected +with impunity. [Footnote: The old saying, 'Truth lurks deep in a +well (or abyss).'] Nor can we complain that nature deals hardly +with us, for there is nothing which is hard to discover except +those things by which we gain nothing beyond the credit of having +discovered them; whatever things tend to make us better or happier +are either obvious or easily discovered. Your mind can rise +superior to the accidents of life, if it can raise itself above +fears and not greedily covet boundless wealth, but has learned to +seek for riches within itself; if it has cast out the fear of men +and gods, and has learned that it has not much to fear from man, +and nothing to fear from God; if by scorning all those things which +make life miserable while they adorn it, the mind can soar to such +a height as to see clearly that death cannot be the beginning of +any trouble, though it is the end of many; if it can dedicate +itself to righteousness and think any path easy which leads to it; +if, being a gregarious creature, and born for the common good, it +regards the world as the universal home, if it keeps its conscience +clear towards God and lives always as though in public, fearing +itself more than other men, then it avoids all storms, it stands on +firm ground in fair daylight, and has brought to perfection its +knowledge of all that is useful and essential. All that remains +serves merely to amuse our leisure; yet, when once anchored in +safety, the mind may consider these matters also, though it can +derive no strength, but only culture from their discussion." + +II. The above are the rules which my friend Demetrius bids him who +would make progress in philosophy to clutch with both hands, never +to let go, but to cling to them, and make them a part of himself, +and by daily meditation upon them to bring himself into such a +state of mind, that these wholesome maxims occur to him of their +own accord, that wherever he may be, they may straightway be ready +for use when required, and that the criterion of right and wrong +may present itself to him without delay. Let him know that nothing +is evil except what is base, and nothing good except what is +honourable: let him guide his life by this rule: let him both act +and expect others to act in accordance with this law, and let him +regard those whose minds are steeped in indolence, and who are +given up to lust and gluttony, as the most pitiable of mankind, no +matter how splendid their fortunes may be. Let him say to himself, +"Pleasure is uncertain, short, apt to pall upon us, and the more +eagerly we indulge in it, the sooner we bring on a reaction of +feeling against it; we must necessarily afterwards blush for it, or +be sorry for it, there is nothing grand about it, nothing worthy of +man's nature, little lower as it is than that of the gods; pleasure +is a low act, brought about by the agency of our inferior and baser +members, and shameful in its result. True pleasure, worthy of a +human being and of a man, is, not to stuff or swell his body with +food and drink, nor to excite lusts which are least hurtful when +they are most quiet, but to be free from all forms of mental +disturbance, both those which arise from men's ambitious struggles +with one another, and those which come from on high and are more +difficult to deal with, which flow from our taking the traditional +view of the gods, and estimating them by the analogy of our own +vices." This equable, secure, uncloying pleasure is enjoyed by the +man now described; a man skilled, so to say, in the laws of gods +and men alike. Such a man enjoys the present without anxiety for +the future: for he who depends upon what is uncertain can rely +confidently upon nothing. Thus he is free from all those great +troubles which unhinge the mind, he neither hopes for, nor covets +anything, and engages in no uncertain adventures, being satisfied +with what he has. Do not suppose that he is satisfied with a +little; for everything is his, and that not in the sense in which +all was Alexander's, who, though he reached the shore of the Red +Sea, yet wanted more territory than that through which he had come. +He did not even own those countries which he held or had conquered, +while Onesicritus, whom he had sent on before him to discover new +countries, was wandering about the ocean and engaging in war in +unknown seas. Is it clear that he who pushed his armies beyond the +bounds of the universe, who with reckless greed dashed headlong +into a boundless and unexplored sea, must in reality have been full +of wants? It matters not how many kingdoms he may have seized or +given away, or how great a part of the world may pay him tribute; +such a man must be in need of as much as he desires. + +III. This was not the vice of Alexander alone, who followed with a +fortunate audacity in the footsteps of Bacchus and Hercules, but it +is common to all those whose covetousness is whetted rather than +appeased by good fortune. Look at Cyrus and Cambyses and all the +royal house of Persia: can you find one among them who thought his +empire large enough, or was not at the last gasp still aspiring +after further conquests? We need not wonder at this, for whatever +is obtained by covetousness is simply swallowed up and lost, nor +does it matter how much is poured into its insatiable maw. Only the +wise man possesses everything without having to struggle to retain +it; he alone does not need to send ambassadors across the seas, +measure out camps upon hostile shores, place garrisons in +commanding forts, or manoeuvre legions and squadrons of cavalry. +Like the immortal gods, who govern their realm without recourse to +arms, and from their serene and lofty heights protect their own, so +the wise man fulfils his duties, however far-reaching they may be, +without disorder, and looks down upon the whole human race, because +he himself is the greatest and most powerful member thereof. You +may laugh at him, but if you in your mind survey the east and the +west, reaching even to the regions separated from us by vast +wildernesses, if you think of all the creatures of the earth, all +the riches which the bounty of nature lavishes, it shows a great +spirit to be able to say, as though you were a god, "All these are +mine." Thus it is that he covets nothing, for there is nothing +which is not contained in everything, and everything is his. + +IV. "This," say you, "is the very thing that I wanted! I have +caught you! I shall be glad to see how you will extricate yourself +from the toils into which you have fallen of your own accord. Tell +me, if the wise man possesses everything, how can one give anything +to a wise man? for even what you give him is his already. It is +impossible, therefore, to bestow a benefit upon a wise man, if +whatever is given him comes from his own store; yet you Stoics +declare that it is possible to give to a wise man. I make the same +inquiry about friends as well: for you say that friends own +everything in common, and if so, no one can give anything to his +friend, for he gives what his friend owned already in common with +himself." + +There is nothing to prevent a thing belonging to a wise man, and +yet being the property of its legal owner. According to law +everything in a state belongs to the king, yet all that property +over which the king has rights of possession is parcelled out among +individual owners, and each separate thing belongs to somebody: and +so one can give the king a house, a slave, or a sum of money +without being said to give him what was his already; for the king +has rights over all these things, while each citizen has the +ownership of them. We speak of the country of the Athenians, or of +the Campanians, though the inhabitants divide them amongst +themselves into separate estates; the whole region belongs to one +state or another, but each part of it belongs to its own individual +proprietor; so that we are able to give our lands to the state, +although they are reckoned as belonging to the state, because we +and the state own them in different ways. Can there be any doubt +that all the private savings of a slave belong to his master as +well as he himself? yet he makes his master presents. The slave +does not therefore possess nothing, because if his master chose he +might possess nothing; nor does what he gives of his own free will +cease to be a present, because it might have been wrung from him +against his will. As for how we are to prove that the wise man +possesses all things, we shall see afterwards; for the present we +are both agreed to regard this as true; we must gather together +something to answer the question before us, which is, how any means +remain of acting generously towards one who already possesses all +things? All things that a son has belong to his father, yet who +does not know that in spite of this a son can make presents to his +father? All things belong to the gods; yet we make presents and +bestow alms even upon the gods. What I have is not necessarily not +mine because it belongs to you; for the same thing may belong both +to me and to you. + +"He to whom courtezans belong," argues our adversary, "must be a +procurer: now courtezans are included in all things, therefore +courtezans belong to the wise man. But he to whom courtezans belong +is a procurer; therefore the wise man is a procurer." Yes! by the +same reasoning, our opponents would forbid him to buy anything, +arguing, "No man buys his own property. Now all things are the +property of the wise man; therefore the wise man buys nothing." By +the same reasoning they object to his borrowing, because no one +pays interest for the use of his own money. They raise endless +quibbles, although they perfectly well understand what we say. + +V. For, when I say that the wise man possesses everything, I mean +that he does so without thereby impairing each man's individual +rights in his own property, in the same way as in a country ruled +by a good king, everything belongs to the king, by the right of his +authority, and to the people by their several rights of ownership. +This I shall prove in its proper place; in the mean time it is a +sufficient answer to the question to declare that I am able to give +to the wise man that which is in one way mine, and in another way +his. Nor is it strange that I should be able to give anything to +one who possesses everything. Suppose I have hired a house from +you: some part of that house is mine, some is yours; the house +itself is yours, the use of your house belongs to me. Crops may +ripen upon your land, but you cannot touch them against the will of +your tenant; and if corn be dear, or at famine price, you will + + "In vain another's mighty store behold," + +grown upon your land, lying upon your land, and to be deposited in +your own barns. Though you be the landlord, you must not enter my +hired house, nor may you take away your own slave from me if I have +contracted for his services; nay, if I hire a carriage from you, I +bestow a benefit by allowing you to take your seat in it, although +it is your own. You see, therefore, that it is possible for a man +to receive a present by accepting what is his own. + +VI. In all the cases which I have mentioned, each party is the +owner of the same thing. How is this? It is because the one owns +the thing, the other owns the use of the thing. We speak of the +books of Cicero. Dorus, the bookseller, calls these same books his +own; the one claims them because he wrote them, the other because +he bought them; so that they may quite correctly be spoken of as +belonging to either of the two, for they do belong to each, though +in a different manner. Thus Titus Livius may receive as a present, +or may buy his own books from Dorus. Although the wise man +possesses everything, yet I can give him what I individually +possess; for though, king-like, he in his mind possesses +everything, yet the ownership of all things is divided among +various individuals, so that he can both receive a present and owe +one; can buy, or hire things. Everything belongs to Caesar; yet he +has no private property beyond his own privy purse; as Emperor all +things are his, but nothing is his own except what he inherits. It +is possible, without treason, to discuss what is and what is not +his; for even what the court may decide not to be his, from another +point of view is his. In the same way the wise man in his mind +possesses everything, in actual right and ownership he possesses +only his own property. + +VII. Bion is able to prove by argument at one time that everyone is +sacrilegious, at another that no one is. When he is in a mood for +casting all men down the Tarpeian rock, he says, "Whosoever touches +that which belongs to the gods, and consumes it or converts it to +his own uses, is sacrilegious; but all things belong to the gods, +so that whatever thing any one touches belongs to them to whom all +belongs; whoever, therefore, touches anything is sacrilegious." +Again, when he bids men break open temples and pillage the Capitol +without fear of the wrath of heaven, he declares that no one can be +sacrilegious; because, whatever a man takes away, he takes from one +place which belongs to the gods into another place which belongs to +the gods. The answer to this is that all places do indeed belong to +the gods, but all are not consecrated to them, and that sacrilege +can only be done in places solemnly dedicated to heaven. Thus, +also, the whole world is a temple of the immortal gods, and, +indeed, the only one worthy of their greatness and splendour, and +yet there is a distinction between things sacred and profane; all +things which it is lawful to do under the sky and the stars are not +lawful to do within consecrated walls. The sacrilegious man cannot +do God any harm, for He is placed beyond his reach by His divine +nature; yet he is punished because he seems to have done Him harm: +his punishment is demanded by our feeling on the matter, and even +by his own. In the same way, therefore, as he who carries off any +sacred things is regarded as sacrilegious, although that which he +stole is nevertheless within the limits of the world, so it is +possible to steal from a wise man: for in that case it will be +some, not of that universe which he possesses, but some of those +things of which he is the acknowledged owner, and which are +severally his own property, which will be stolen from him. The +former of these possessions he will recognize as his own, the +latter he will be unwilling, even if he be able to possess; he will +say, as that Roman commander said, when, to reward his courage and +good service to the state, he was assigned as much land as he could +inclose in one day's ploughing. "You do not," said he, "want a +citizen who wants more than is enough for one citizen." Do you not +think that it required a much greater man to refuse this reward +than to earn it? for many have taken away the landmarks of other +men's property, but no one sets up limits to his own. + +VIII. When, then, we consider that the mind of the truly wise man +has power over all things and pervades all things, we cannot help +declaring that everything is his, although, in the estimation of +our common law, it may chance that he may be rated as possessing no +property whatever. It makes a great difference whether we estimate +what he owns by the greatness of his mind, or by the public +register. He would pray to be delivered from that possession of +everything of which you speak. I will not remind you of Socrates, +Chrysippus, Zeno, and other great men, all the greater, however, +because envy prevents no one from praising the ancients. But a +short time ago I mentioned Demetrius, who seems to have been placed +by nature in our times that he might prove that we could neither +corrupt him nor be corrected by him; a man of consummate wisdom, +though he himself disclaimed it, constant to the principles which +he professed, of an eloquence worthy to deal with the mightiest +subjects, scorning mere prettinesses and verbal niceties, but +expressing with infinite spirit, the ideas which inspired it. I +doubt not that he was endowed by divine providence with so pure a +life and such power of speech in order that our age might neither +be without a model nor a reproach. Had some god wished to give all +our wealth to Demetrius on the fixed condition that he should not +be permitted to give it away, I am sure that he would have refused +to accept it, and would have said, + +IX. "I do not intend to fasten upon my back a burden like this, of +which I never can rid myself, nor do I, nimble and lightly equipped +as I am, mean to hinder my progress by plunging into the deep +morass of business transactions. Why do you offer to me what is the +bane of all nations? I would not accept it even if I meant to give +it away, for I see many things which it would not become me to +give. I should like to place before my eyes the things which +fascinate both kings and peoples, I wish to behold the price of +your blood and your lives. First bring before me the trophies of +Luxury, exhibiting them as you please, either in succession, or, +which is better, in one mass. I see the shell of the tortoise, a +foul and slothful brute, bought for immense sums and ornamented +with the most elaborate care, the contrast of colours which is +admired in it being obtained by the use of dyes resembling the +natural tints. I see tables and pieces of wood valued at the price +of a senator's estate, which are all the more precious, the more +knots the tree has been twisted into by disease. I see crystal +vessels, whose price is enhanced by their fragility, for among the +ignorant the risk of losing things increases their value instead of +lowering it, as it ought. I see murrhine cups, for luxury would be +too cheap if men did not drink to one another out of hollow gems +the wine to be afterwards thrown up again. I see more than one +large pearl placed in each ear; for now our ears are trained to +carry burdens, pearls are hung from them in pairs, and each pair +has other single ones fastened above it. This womanish folly is not +exaggerated enough for the men of our time, unless they hang two or +three estates upon each ear. I see ladies' silk dresses, if those +deserve to be called dresses which can neither cover their body or +their shame; when wearing which, they can scarcely with a good +conscience, swear that they are not naked. These are imported at a +vast expense from nations unknown even to trade, in order that our +matrons may show as much of their persons in public as they do to +their lovers in private." + +X. What are you doing, Avarice? see how many things there are whose +price exceeds that of your beloved gold: all those which I have +mentioned are more highly esteemed and valued. I now wish to +review your wealth, those plates of gold and silver which dazzle +our covetousness. By Hercules, the very earth, while she brings +forth upon the surface every thing that is of use to us, has buried +these, sunk them deep, and rests upon them with her whole weight, +regarding them as pernicious substances, and likely to prove the +ruin of mankind if brought into the light of day. I see that iron +is brought out of the same dark pits as gold and silver, in order +that we may lack neither the means nor the reward of murder. Thus +far we have dealt with actual substances; but some forms of wealth +deceive our eyes and minds alike. I see there letters of credit, +promissory notes, and bonds, empty phantoms of property, ghosts of +sick Avarice, with which she deceives our minds, which delight in +unreal fancies; for what are these things, and what are interest, +and account books, and usury, except the names of unnatural +developments of human covetousness? I might complain of nature for +not having hidden gold and silver deeper, for not having laid over +it a weight too heavy to be removed: but what are your documents, +your sale of time, your blood-sucking twelve per cent. interest? +these are evils which we owe to our own will, which flow merely +from our perverted habit, having nothing about them which can be +seen or handled, mere dreams of empty avarice. Wretched is he who +can take pleasure in the size of the audit book of his estate, in +great tracts of land cultivated by slaves in chains, in huge flocks +and herds which require provinces and kingdoms for their pasture +ground, in a household of servants, more in number than some of the +most warlike nations, or in a private house whose extent surpasses +that of a large city! After he has carefully reviewed all his +wealth, in what it is invested, and on what it is spent, and has +rendered himself proud by the thoughts of it, let him compare what +he has with what he wants: he becomes a poor man at once. Let me +go: restore me to those riches of mine. I know the kingdom of +wisdom, which is great and stable: I possess every thing, and in +such a manner that it belongs to all men nevertheless." + +XI. When, therefore, Gaius Csesar offered him two hundred thousand +sesterces, he laughingly refused it, thinking it unworthy of +himself to boast of having refused so small a sum. Ye gods and +goddesses, what a mean mind must the emperor have had, if he hoped +either to honour or to corrupt him. I must here repeat a proof of +his magnanimity. I have heard that when he was expressing his +wonder at the folly of Gaius at supposing that he could be +influenced by such a bribe, he said, "If he meant to tempt me, he +ought to have tried to do so by offering his entire kingdom." + +XII. It is possible, then, to give something to the wise man, +although all things belong to the wise man. Similarly, though we +declare that friends have all things in common, it is nevertheless +possible to give something to a friend: for I have not everything +in common with a friend in the same manner as with a partner, where +one part belongs to him, and another to me, but rather as a father +and a mother possess their children in common when they have two, +not each parent possessing one child, but each possessing both. +First of all I will prove that any chance would-be partner of mine +has nothing in common with me: and why? Because this community of +goods can only exist between wise men, who are alone capable of +friendship: other men can neither be friends nor partners one to +another. In the next place, things may be owned in common in +various ways. The knights' seats in the theatre belong to all the +Roman knights; yet of these the seat which I occupy becomes my own, +and if I yield it up to any one, although I only yield him a thing +which we own in common, still I appear to have given him something. +Some things belong to certain persons under particular conditions. +I have a place among the knights, not to sell, or to let, or to +dwell in, but simply to see the spectacle from, wherefore I do not +tell an untruth when I say that I have a place among the knights' +seats. Yet if, when I come into the theatre, the knights' seats are +full, I both have a seat there by right, because I have the +privilege of sitting there, and I have not a seat there, because my +seat is occupied by those who share my right to those places. +Suppose that the same thing takes place between friends; whatever +our friend possesses, is common to us, but is the property of him +who owns it; I cannot make use of it against his will. "You are +laughing at me," say you; "if what belongs to my friend is mine, I +am able to sell it." You are not able; for you are not able to sell +your place among the knights' seats, and yet they are in common +between you and the other knights. Consequently, the fact that you +cannot sell a thing, or consume it, or exchange it for the better +or the worse does not prove that it is not yours; for that which is +yours under certain conditions is yours nevertheless. + +XIII. I have received, but certainly not less. Not to detain you +longer than is necessary, a benefit can be no more than a benefit; +but the means employed to convey benefits may be both greater and +more numerous. I mean those things by which kindness expresses and +gives vent to itself, like lovers, whose many kisses and close +embraces do not increase their love but give it play. + +XIV. The next question which arises has been thoroughly threshed out +in the former books, so here it shall only be touched on shortly; +for the arguments which have been used for other cases can be +transferred to it. + +The question is, whether one who has done everything in his power +to return a benefit, has returned it. "You may know," says our +adversary, "that he has not returned it, because he did everything +in his power to return it; it is evident, therefore, that he did +not not do that which he did not have an opportunity of doing. A +man who searches everywhere for his creditor without finding him +does not thereby pay him what he owes." Some are in such a position +that it is their duty to effect something material; in the case of +others to have done all in their power to effect it is as good as +effecting it. If a physician has done all in his power to heal his +patient he has performed his duty; an advocate who employs his +whole powers of eloquence on his client's behalf, performs his duty +even though his client be convicted; the generalship even of a +beaten commander is praised if he has prudently, laboriously, and +courageously exercised his functions. Your friend has done all in +his power to return your kindness, but your good fortune stood in +his way; no adversity befell you in which he could prove the truth +of his friendship; he could not give you money when you were rich, +or nurse you when you were in health, or help you when you were +succeeding; yet he repaid your kindness, even though you did not +receive a benefit from him. Moreover, this man, being always eager, +and on the watch for an opportunity of doing this, as he has +expended much anxiety and much trouble upon it, has really done +more than he who quickly had an opportunity of repaying your +kindness. The case of a debtor is not the same, for it is not +enough for him to have tried to find the money unless he pays it; +in his case a harsh creditor stands over him who will not let a +single day pass without charging him interest; in yours there is a +most kind friend, who seeing you busy, troubled, and anxious would +say. + + "'Dismiss this trouble from thy breast;' + +leave off disturbing yourself; I have received from you all that I +wish; you wrong me, if you suppose that I want anything further; +you have fully repaid me in intention." + +"Tell me," says our adversary, "if he had repaid the benefit you +would say that he had returned your kindness: is, then, he who +repays it in the same position as he who does not repay it?" + +On the other hand, consider this: if he had forgotten the benefit +which he had received, if he had not even attempted to be grateful, +you would say that he had not returned the kindness; but this man +has laboured day and night to the neglect of all his other duties +in his devoted care to let no opportunity of proving his gratitude +escape him; is then he who took no pains to return a kindness to be +classed with this man who never ceased to take pains? you are +unjust, if you require a material payment from me when you see that +I am not wanting in intention. + +XV. In short, suppose that when you are taken captive, I have +borrowed money, made over my property as security to my creditor, +that I have sailed in a stormy winter season along coasts swarming +with pirates, that I have braved all the perils which necessarily +attend a voyage even on a peaceful sea, that I have wandered +through all wildernesses seeking for those men whom all others flee +from, and that when I have at length reached the pirates, someone +else has already ransomed you: will you say that I have not +returned your kindness? Even if during this voyage I have lost by +shipwreck the money that I had raised to save you, even if I myself +have fallen into the prison from which I sought to release you, +will you say that I have not returned your kindness? No, by +Hercules! the Athenians call Harmodius and Aristogiton, +tyrannicides; the hand of Mucius which he left on the enemy's altar +was equivalent to the death of Porsena, and valour struggling +against fortune is always illustrious, even if it falls short of +accomplishing its design. He who watches each opportunity as it +passes, and tries to avail himself of one after another, does more +to show his gratitude than he whom the first opportunity enabled to +be grateful without any trouble whatever. "But," says our +adversary, "he gave you two things, material help and kindly +feeling; you, therefore, owe him two." You might justly say this to +one who returns your kindly feeling without troubling himself +further; this man is really in your debt; but you cannot say so of +one who wishes to repay you, who struggles and leaves no stone +unturned to do so; for, as far as in him lies, he repays you in +both kinds; in the next place, counting is not always a true test, +sometimes one thing is equivalent to two; consequently so intense +and ardent a wish to repay takes the place of a material repayment. +Indeed, if a feeling of gratitude has no value in repaying a +kindness without giving something material, then no one can be +grateful to the gods, whom we can repay by gratitude alone. "We +cannot," says our adversary, "give the gods anything else." Well, +but if I am not able to give this man, whose kindness I am bound to +return, anything beside my gratitude, why should that which is all +that I can bestow on a god be insufficient to prove my gratitude +towards a man? + +XVI. If, however, you ask me what I really think, and wish me to +give a definite answer, I should say that the one party ought to +consider his benefit to have been returned, while the other ought +to feel that he has not returned it; the one should release his +friend from the debt, the other should hold himself bound to pay +it; the one should say, "I have received;" the other should answer, +"I owe." In our whole investigation, we ought to look entirely to +the public good; we ought to prevent the ungrateful having any +excuses in which they can take refuge, and under cover of which +they can disown their debts. "I have done all in my power," say +you. Well, keep on doing so still. Do you suppose that our +ancestors were so foolish, as not to understand that it is most +unjust that the man who has wasted the money which he received from +his creditor on debauchery, or gambling, should be classed with one +who has lost his own property as well as that of others in a fire, +by robbery, or some sadder mischance? They would take no excuse, +that men might understand that they were always bound to keep their +word; it was thought better that even a good excuse should not be +accepted from a few persons, than that all men should be led to try +to make excuses. You say that you have done all in your power to +repay your debt; this ought to be enough for your friend, but not +enough for you. He to whom you owe a kindness, is unworthy of +gratitude if he lets all your anxious care and trouble to repay it +go for nothing; and so, too, if your friend takes your good will as +a repayment, you are ungrateful if you are not all the more eager +to feel the obligation of the debt which he has forgiven you. Do +not snap up his receipt, or call witnesses to prove it; rather seek +opportunities for repaying not less than before; repay the one man +because he asks for repayment, the other because he forgives you +your debt; the one because he is good, the other because he is bad. +You, need not, therefore, think that you have anything to do with +the question whether a man be bound to repay the benefit which he +has received from a wise man, if that man has ceased to be wise and +has turned into a bad man. You would return a deposit which you had +received from a wise man; you would return a loan even to a bad +man; what grounds have you for not returning a benefit also? +Because he has changed, ought he to change you? What? if you had +received anything from a man when healthy, would you not return it +to him when he was sick, though we always are more bound to treat +our friends with more kindness when they are ailing? So, too, this +man is sick in his mind; we ought to help him, and bear with him; +folly is a disease of the mind. + +XVII. I think here we ought to make a distinction, in order to +render this point more intelligible. Benefits are of two kinds: +one, the perfect and true benefit, which can only be bestowed by +one wise man upon another; the other, the common vulgar form which +ignorant men like ourselves interchange. With regard to the latter, +there is no doubt that it is my duty to repay it whether my friend +turns out to be a murderer, a thief, or an adulterer. Crimes have +laws to punish them; criminals are better reformed by judges than +by ingratitude; a man ought not to make you bad by being so +himself. I will fling a benefit back to a bad man, I will return it +to a good man; I do so to the latter, because I owe it to him; to +the former, that I may not be in his debt. + +XVIII. With regard to the other class of benefit, the question +arises whether if I was not able to take it without being a wise +man, I am able to return it, except to a wise man. For suppose I do +return it to him, he cannot receive it, he is not any longer able +to receive such a thing, he has lost the knowledge of how to use +it. You would not bid me throw back [Footnote: i.e. in the game of +ball.] a ball to a man who has lost his hand; it is folly to give +any one what he cannot receive. If I am to begin to reply to the +last argument, I say that I should not give him what he is unable +to take; but I would return it, even though he is not able to +receive it. I cannot lay him under an obligation unless he takes my +bounty; but by returning it I can free myself from my obligations +to him. You say, "he will not be able to use it." Let him see to +that; the fault will lie with him, not with me. + +XIX. "To return a thing," says our adversary, "is to hand it over +to one who can receive it. Why, if you owed some wine to any man, +and he bade you pour it into a net or a sieve, would you say that +you had returned it? or would you be willing to return it in such a +way that in the act of returning it was lost between you?" To +return is to give that which you owe back to its owner when he +wishes for it. It is not my duty to perform more than this; that he +should possess what he has received from me is a matter for further +consideration; I do not owe him the safe-keeping of his property, +but the honourable payment of my debt, and it is much better that +he should not have it, than that I should not return it to him. I +would repay my creditor, even though he would at once take what I +paid him to the market; even if he deputed an adulteress to receive +the money from me, I would pay it to her; even if he were to pour +the coins which he receives into a loose fold of his cloak, I would +pay it. It is my business to return it to him, not to keep it and +save it for him after I have returned it; I am bound to take care +of his bounty when I have received it, but not when I have returned +it to him. While it remains with me, it must be kept safe; but when +he asks for it again I must give it to him, even though it slips +out of his hands as he takes it. I will repay a good man when it is +convenient; I will repay a bad man when he asks me to do so. + +"You cannot," argues our adversary, "return him a benefit of the +same kind as that which you received; for you received it from a +wise man, and you are returning it to a fool." Do I not return to +him such a benefit, as he is now able to receive? It is not my +fault if I return it to him worse than I received it, the fault +lies with him, and so, unless he regains his former wisdom, I shall +return it in such a form as he in his fallen condition is able to +receive. "But what," asks he, "if he become not only bad, but +savage and ferocious, like Apollodorus or Phalaris, would you +return even to such a man as this a benefit which you had received +from him?" I answer, Nature does not admit of so great a change in +a wise man. Men do not change from the best to the worst; even in +becoming bad, he would necessarily retain some traces of goodness; +virtue is never so utterly quenched as not to imprint on the mind +marks which no degradation can efface. If wild animals bred in +captivity escape into the woods, they still retain something of +their original tameness, and are as remote from the gentlest in the +one extreme as they are in the other from those which have always +been wild, and have never endured to be touched by man's hand. No +one who has ever applied himself to philosophy ever becomes +completely wicked; his mind becomes so deeply coloured with it, +that its tints can never be entirely spoiled and blackened. In the +next place, I ask whether this man of yours be ferocious merely in +intent, or whether he breaks out into actual outrages upon mankind? +You have instanced the tyrants Apollodorus and Phalaris; if the bad +man restrains their evil likeness within himself, why should I not +return his benefit to him, in order to set myself free from any +further dealings with him? If, however, he not only delights in +human blood, but feeds upon it; if he exercises his insatiable +cruelty in the torture of persons of all ages, and his fury is not +prompted by anger, but by a sort of delight in cruelty, if he cuts +the throats of children before the eyes of their parents; if, not +satisfied with merely killing his victims, he tortures them, and +not only burns but actually roasts them; if his castle is always +wet with freshly shed blood; then it is not enough not to return +his benefits. All connexion between me and such a man has been +broken off by his destruction of the bonds of human society. If he +had bestowed something upon me, but were to invade my native +country, he would have lost all claim to my gratitude, and it would +be counted a crime to make him any return; if he does not attack my +country, but is the scourge of his own; if he has nothing to do +with my nation, but torments and cuts to pieces his own, then in +the same manner such depravity, though it does not render him my +personal enemy, yet renders him hateful to me, and the duty which I +owe to the human race is anterior to and more important than that +which I owe to him as an individual. + +XX. However, although this be so, and although I am freed from all +obligation towards him, from the moment when, by outraging all +laws, he rendered it impossible for any man to do him a wrong, +nevertheless, I think I ought to make the following distinction in +dealing with him. If my repayment of his benefit will neither +increase nor maintain his powers of doing mischief to mankind, and +is of such a character that I can return it to him without +disadvantage to the public, I would return it: for instance, I +would save the life of his infant child; for what harm can this +benefit do to any of those who suffer from his cruelty? But I would +not furnish him with money to pay his bodyguard. If he wishes for +marbles, or fine clothes, the trappings of his luxury will harm no +one; but with soldiers and arms I would not furnish him. If he +demands, as a great boon, actors and courtesans and such things as +will soften his savage nature, I would willingly bestow them upon +him. I would not furnish him with triremes and brass-beaked ships +of war, but I would send him fast sailing and luxuriously-fitted +vessels, and all the toys of kings who take their pleasure on the +sea. If his health was altogether despaired of, I would by the same +act bestow a benefit on all men and return one to him; seeing that +for such characters death is the only remedy, and that he who never +will return to himself, had best leave himself. However, such +wickedness as this is uncommon, and is always regarded as a +portent, as when the earth opens, or when fires break forth from +caves under the sea; so let us leave it, and speak of those vices +which we can hate without shuddering at them. As for the ordinary +bad man, whom I can find in the marketplace of any town, who is +feared only by individuals, I would return to him a benefit which I +had received from him. It is not right that I should profit by his +wickedness; let me return what is not mine to its owner. Whether he +be good or bad makes no difference; but I would consider the matter +most carefully, if I were not returning but bestowing it. + +XXI. This point requires to be illustrated by a story. A certain +Pythagoraean bought a fine pair of shoes from a shoemaker; and as +they were an expensive piece of work, he did not pay ready money +for them. Some time afterwards he came to the shop to pay for them, +and after he had long been knocking at the closed door, some one +said to him, "Why do you waste your time? The shoemaker whom you +seek has been carried out of his house and buried; this is a grief +to us who lose our friends for ever, but by no means so to you, who +know that he will be born again," jeering at the Pythagoraean. Upon +this our philosopher not unwillingly carried his three or four +denarii home again, shaking them every now and then; afterwards, +blaming himself for the pleasure which he had secretly felt at not +paying his debt, and perceiving that he enjoyed having made this +trifling gain, he returned to the shop, and saying, "the man lives +for you, pay him what you owe," he passed four denarii into the +shop through the crack of the closed door, and let them fall +inside, punishing himself for his unconscionable greediness that he +might not form the habit of appropriating that which is not his +own. + +XXII. If you owe anything, seek for some one to whom you may repay +it, and if no one demands it, dun your own self; whether the man be +good or bad is no concern of yours; repay him, and then blame him. +You have forgotten, how your several duties are divided: it is +right for him to forget it, but we have bidden you bear it in mind. +When, however, we say that he who bestows a benefit ought to forget +it, it is a mistake to suppose that we rob him of all recollection +of the business, though it is most creditable to him; some of our +precepts are stated over strictly in order to reduce them to their +true proportions. When we say that he ought not to remember it, we +mean he ought not to speak publicly, or boast of it offensively. +There are some, who, when they have bestowed a benefit, tell it in +all societies, talk of it when sober, cannot be silent about it +when drunk, force it upon strangers, and communicate it to friends; +it is to quell this excessive and reproachful consciousness that we +bid him who gave it forget it, and by commanding him to do this, +which is more than he is able, encourage him to keep silence. + +XXIII. When you distrust those whom you order to do anything, you +ought to command them to do more than enough in order that they may +do what is enough. The purpose of all exaggeration is to arrive at +the truth by falsehood. Consequently, he who spoke of horses as +being: + + "Whiter than snows and swifter than the winds," + +said what could not possibly be in order that they might be thought +to be as much so as possible. And he who said: + + "More firm than crags, more headlong than the stream," + +did not suppose that he should make any one believe that a man +could ever be as firm as a crag. Exaggeration never hopes all its +daring flights to be believed, but affirms what is incredible, that +thereby it may convey what is credible. When we say, "let the man +who has bestowed a benefit, forget it," what we mean is, "let him +be as though he had forgotten it; let not his remembrance of it +appear or be seen." When we say that repayment of a benefit ought +not to be demanded, we do not utterly forbid its being demanded; +for repayment must often be extorted from bad men, and even good +men require to be reminded of it. Am I not to point out a means of +repayment to one who does not perceive it? Am I not to explain my +wants to one does not know them? Why should he (if a bad man) have +the excuse, or (if a good man) have the sorrow of not knowing them? +Men ought sometimes to be reminded of their debts, though with +modesty, not in the tone of one demanding a legal right. + +XXIV. Socrates once said in the hearing of his friends: "I would +have bought a cloak, if I had had the money for it." He asked no +one for money, but he reminded them all to give it. There was a +rivalry between them, as to who should give it; and how should +there not be? Was it not a small thing which Socrates received? +Yes, but it was a great thing to be the man from whom Socrates +received it. Could he blame them more gently? "I would," said he, +"have bought a cloak if I had had the money for it." After this, +however eager any one was to give, he gave too late; for he had +already been wanting in his duty to Socrates. Because some men +harshly demand repayment of debts, we forbid it, not in order that +it may never be done, but that it may be done sparingly. + +XXV. Aristippus once, when enjoying a perfume, said: "Bad luck to +those effeminate persons who have brought so nice a thing into +disrepute." We also may say, "Bad luck to those base extortioners +who pester us for a fourfold return of their benefits, and have +brought into disrepute so nice a thing as reminding our friends of +their duty." I shall nevertheless make use of this right of +friendship, and I shall demand the return of a benefit from any man +from whom I would not have scrupled to ask for one, such a man as +would regard the power of returning a benefit as equivalent to +receiving a second one. Never, not even when complaining of him, +would I say, + + "A wretch forlorn upon the shore he lay, + His ship, his comrades, all were swept away; + Fool that I was, I pitied his despair, + And even gave him of my realm a share." + +This is not to remind, but to reproach; this is to make one's +benefits odious to enable him, or even to make him wish to be +ungrateful. It is enough, and more than enough, to remind him of it +gently and familiarly: + + "If aught of mine hath e'er deserved thy thanks." + +To this his answer would be, "Of course you have deserved my +thanks; you took me up, 'a wretch forlorn upon the shore.'" + +XXVI. "But," says our adversary, "suppose that we gain nothing by +this; suppose that he pretends that he has forgotten it, what ought +I to do?" You now ask a very necessary question, and one which +fitly concludes this branch of the subject, how, namely, one ought +to bear with the ungrateful. I answer, calmly, gently, +magnanimously. Never let any one's discourtesy, forgetfulness, or +ingratitude, enrage you so much that you do not feel any pleasure +at having bestowed a benefit upon him; never let your wrongs drive +you into saying, "I wish I had not done it." You ought to take +pleasure even in the ill-success of your benefit; he will always be +sorry for it, even though you are not even now sorry for it. You +ought not to be indignant, as if something strange had happened; +you ought rather to be surprised if it had not happened. Some are +prevented by difficulties, some by expense, and some by danger from +returning your bounty; some are hindered by a false shame, because +by returning it, they would confess that they had received it; with +others ignorance of their duty, indolence, or excess of business, +stands in the way. Reflect upon the insatiability of men's desires. +You need not be surprised if no one repays you in a world in which +no one ever gains enough. What man is there of so firm and +trustworthy a mind that you can safely invest your benefits in him? +One man is crazed with lust, another is the slave of his belly, +another gives his whole soul to gain, caring nothing for the means +by which he amasses it; some men's minds are disturbed by envy, +some blinded by ambition till they are ready to fling themselves on +the sword's point. In addition to this, one must reckon +sluggishness of mind and old age; and also the opposites of these, +restlessness and disturbance of mind, also excessive self-esteem +and pride in the very things for which a man ought to be despised. +I need not mention obstinate persistence in wrong-doing, or +frivolity which cannot remain constant to one point; besides all +this, there is headlong rashness, there is timidity which never +gives us trustworthy counsel, and the numberless errors with which +we struggle, the rashness of the most cowardly, the quarrels of our +best friends, and that most common evil of trusting in what is most +uncertain, and of undervaluing, when we have obtained it, that +which we once never hoped to possess. Amidst all these restless +passions, how can you hope to find a thing so full of rest as good +faith? + +XXVII. If a true picture of our life were to rise before your +mental vision, you would, I think, behold a scene like that of a +town just taken by storm, where decency and righteousness were no +longer regarded, and no advice is heard but that of force, as if +universal confusion were the word of command. Neither fire nor +sword are spared; crime is unpunished by the laws; even religion, +which saves the lives of suppliants in the very midst of armed +enemies, does not check those who are rushing to secure plunder. +Some men rob private houses, some public buildings; all places, +sacred or profane, are alike stripped; some burst their way in, +others climb over; some open a wider path for themselves by +overthrowing the walls that keep them out, and make their way to +their booty over ruins; some ravage without murdering, others +brandish spoils dripping with their owner's blood; everyone carries +off his neighbours' goods. In this greedy struggle of the human +race surely you forget the common lot of all mankind, if you seek +among these robbers for one who will return what he has got. If you +are indignant at men being ungrateful, you ought also to be +indignant at their being luxurious, avaricious and lustful; you +might as well be indignant with sick men for being ugly, or with +old men for being pale. It is, indeed, a serious vice, it is not to +be borne, and sets men at variance with one another; nay, it rends +and destroys that union by which alone our human weakness can be +supported; yet it is so absolutely universal, that even those who +complain of it most are not themselves free from it. + +XXVIII. Consider within yourself, whether you have always shown +gratitude to those to whom you owe it, whether no one's kindness +has ever been wasted upon you, whether you constantly bear in mind +all the benefits which you have received. You will find that those +which you received as a boy were forgotten before you became a man; +that those bestowed upon you as a young man slipped from your +memory when you became an old one. Some we have lost, some we have +thrown away, some have by degrees passed out of our sight, to some +we have wilfully shut our eyes. If I am to make excuses for your +weakness, I must say in the first place that human memory is a +frail vessel, and is not large enough to contain the mass of things +placed in it; the more it receives, the more it must necessarily +lose; the oldest things in it give way to the newest. Thus it comes +to pass that your nurse has hardly any influence with you, because +the lapse of time has set the kindness which you received from her +at so great a distance; thus it is that you no longer look upon +your teacher with respect; and that now when you are busy about +your candidature for the consulate or the priesthood, you forget +those who supported you in your election to the quaestorship. If +you carefully examine yourself, perhaps you will find the vice of +which you complain in your own bosom; you are wrong in being angry +with a universal failing, and foolish also, for it is your own as +well; you must pardon others, that you may yourself be acquitted. +You will make your friend a better man by bearing with him, you +will in all cases make him a worse one by reproaching him. You can +have no reason for rendering him shameless; let him preserve any +remnants of modesty which he may have. Too loud reproaches have +often dispelled a modesty which might have borne good fruit. No man +fears to be that which all men see that he is; when his fault is +made public, he loses his sense of shame. + +XXIX. You say, "I have lost the benefit which I bestowed." Yet do +we say that we have lost what we consecrate to heaven, and a +benefit well bestowed, even though we get an ill return for it, is +to be reckoned among things consecrated. Our friend is not such a +man as we hoped he was; still, let us, unlike him, remain the same +as we were. The loss did not take place when he proved himself so; +his ingratitude cannot be made public without reflecting some shame +upon us, since to complain of the loss of a benefit is a sign that +it was not well bestowed. As far as we are able we ought to plead +with ourselves on his behalf: "Perhaps he was not able to return +it, perhaps he did not know of it, perhaps he will still do so." A +wise and forbearing creditor prevents the loss of some debts by +encouraging his debtor and giving him time. We ought to do the +same, we ought to deal tenderly with a weakly sense of honour. + +XXX. "I have lost," say you, "the benefit which I bestowed." You +are a fool, and do not understand when your loss took place; you +have indeed lost it, but you did so when you gave it, the fact has +only now come to light. Even in the case of those benefits which +appear to be lost, gentleness will do much good; the wounds of the +mind ought to be handled as tenderly as those of the body. The +string, which might be disentangled by patience, is often broken by +a rough pull. What is the use of abuse, or of complaints? why do +you overwhelm him with reproaches? why do you set him free from his +obligation? even if he be ungrateful he owes you nothing after +this. What sense is there in exasperating a man on whom you have +conferred great favours, so as out of a doubtful friend to make a +certain enemy, and one, too, who will seek to support his own cause +by defaming you, or to make men say, "I do not know what the reason +is that he cannot endure a man to whom he owes so much; there must +be something in the background?" Any man can asperse, even if he +does not permanently stain the reputation of his betters by +complaining of them; nor will any one be satisfied with imputing +small crimes to them, when it is only by the enormity of his +falsehood that he can hope to be believed. + +XXXI. What a much better way is that by which the semblance of +friendship, and, indeed, if the other regains to his right mind, +friendship itself is preserved! Bad men are overcome by unwearying +goodness, nor does any one receive kindness in so harsh and hostile +a spirit as not to love good men even while he does them wrong, +when they lay him under the additional obligation of requiring no +return for their kindness. Reflect, then, upon this: you say, "My +kindness has met with no return, what am I to do? I ought to +imitate the gods, those noblest disposers of all events, who begin +to bestow their benefits on those who know them not, and persist in +bestowing them on those who are ungrateful for them. Some reproach +them with neglect of us, some with injustice towards us; others +place them outside of their own world, in sloth and indifference, +without light, and without any functions; others declare that the +sun itself, to whom we owe the division of our times of labour and +of rest, by whose means we are saved from being plunged in the +darkness of eternal night; who, by his circuit, orders the seasons +of the year, gives strength to our bodies, brings forth our crops +and ripens our fruits, is merely a mass of stone, or a fortuitous +collection of fiery particles, or anything rather than a god. Yet, +nevertheless, like the kindest of parents, who only smile at the +spiteful words of their children, the gods do not cease to heap +benefits upon those who doubt from what source their benefits are +derived, but continue impartially distributing their bounty among +all the peoples and nations of the earth. Possessing only the power +of doing good, they moisten the land with seasonable showers, they +put the seas in movement by the winds, they mark time by the course +of the constellations, they temper the extremes of heat and cold, +of summer and winter, by breathing a milder air upon us; and they +graciously and serenely bear with the faults of our erring spirits. +Let us follow their example; let us give, even if much be given to +no purpose, let us, in spite of this, give to others; nay, even to +those upon whom our bounty has been wasted. No one is prevented by +the fall of a house from building another; when one home has been +destroyed by fire, we lay the foundations of another before the +site has had time to cool; we rebuild ruined cities more than once +upon the same spots, so untiring are our hopes of success. Men +would undertake no works either on land or sea if they were not +willing to try again what they have failed in once. + +XXXII. Suppose a man is ungrateful, he does not injure me, but +himself; I had the enjoyment of my benefit when I bestowed it upon +him. Because he is ungrateful, I shall not be slower to give but +more careful; what I have lost with him, I shall receive back from +others. But I will bestow a second benefit upon this man himself, +and will overcome him even as a good husbandman overcomes the +sterility of the soil by care and culture; if I do not do so my +benefit is lost to me, and he is lost to mankind. It is no proof of +a great mind to give and to throw away one's bounty; the true test +of a great mind is to throw away one's bounty and still to give." + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's L. Annaeus Seneca On Benefits, by Aubrey Stewart + diff --git a/old/bnfts10.zip b/old/bnfts10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..03cd26c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/bnfts10.zip |