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+Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 2
+       Amiel to Atrauli
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34074]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+are listed at the end of the text.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron";
+[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above";
+[n.] "n with dot below"; [:a] "a with diaeresis"; and so forth.
+
+THE
+
+NEW . GRESHAM
+
+ENCYCLOPEDIA
+
+VOLUME . I . PART . 2
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING
+COMPANY . _Limited_
+
+66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND
+LONDON W.C.2.
+1922
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+VOLUME I PART 2
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PLATES
+
+                                                                  Page
+
+  ANATOMY (Human Skeleton and Muscles)                            153
+
+  ARCHAEOLOGY (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages)   220
+
+  ARCHITECTURE                                                    224
+
+
+MAPS IN COLOUR
+
+  ASIA                                                            274
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
+the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
+transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--
+
+VOWELS
+
+[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.
+
+[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _a_me, Ger. B_a_hn = a of Indian names.
+
+[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.
+
+a, as in f_a_t.
+
+[a:], as in f_a_ll.
+
+_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
+in Indian names.
+
+[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.
+
+e, as in m_e_t.
+
+[.e], as in h_e_r.
+
+[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.
+
+i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
+French and Italian words.
+
+_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eu_ne = Ger. long _oe_, as in S_oe_hne,
+G_oe_the (Goethe).
+
+eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _oe_ short.
+
+[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.
+
+o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.
+
+[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.
+
+[=u] as in t_u_be.
+
+u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.
+
+[u:], as in b_u_ll.
+
+[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _u_ as in d_u_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in
+gr_ue_n, B_ue_hne.
+
+[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
+M_ue_ller.
+
+oi, as in _oi_l.
+
+ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.
+
+CONSONANTS
+
+Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
+have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
+The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
+being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
+explanation are the following:--
+
+ch is always as in ri_ch_.
+
+_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.
+
+g is always hard, as in _g_o.
+
+_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
+similar gutturals.
+
+[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.
+
+r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
+much more strongly trilled.
+
+s, always as in _s_o.
+
+th, as _th_ in _th_in.
+
+_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.
+
+w always consonantal, as in _w_e.
+
+x = ks, which are used instead.
+
+y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
+l[=e]ny).
+
+zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+AMIEL', Henri Frederic, French-Swiss philosophical writer and poet, born at
+Geneva, 1821, died there 1881. Educated at Geneva, he resided a
+considerable time abroad, especially in Germany, and was much influenced by
+German thought and science. On his return he first held the chair of
+aesthetics, and then that of philosophy. He published several volumes of
+poetry as well as other works, but he is best known by his _Journal
+Intime_, published after his death, and translated into English (1885),
+with a critical study by Mrs. Humphry Ward. It shows great critical and
+philosophical power, but is pessimistic.
+
+AMIENS ([.a]-m[=e]-a[n.]), a town of France, capital of the department of
+Somme, on the railway from Boulogne to Paris. It has a citadel, wide and
+regular streets, and several large open areas; a cathedral, one of the
+largest and finest Gothic buildings in Europe, founded in 1220 by Bishop
+Evrard, after designs made by the architect Robert de Luzarches. Having
+water communication with the sea by the Somme, which is navigable for small
+vessels, it has a large trade and numerous important manufactures,
+especially cotton and woollen goods. It was taken by the Germans in 1870,
+and again in 1914, by General von Kluck. Pop. (1911) 93,207.--The _Peace of
+Amiens_, concluded between Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Batavian
+Republic, 27th March, 1802, put an end for a time to the great war which
+had lasted since 1793.
+
+AMIR. See _Emir_.
+
+AMIRANTE ISLANDS ([.a]-m[=e]-r[.a]n't[=a]), a group of eleven small islands
+in the Indian Ocean, lying south-west of the Seychelles, and forming a
+dependency of Mauritius.
+
+AMLWCH (am'loe_h_), a seaport in North Wales, Island of Anglesey. Pop.
+(1921), 2694 (urb. dist.).
+
+AMMANA'TI, Bartolomeo, a sculptor and architect, born at Florence in 1511,
+died 1592; executed the _Leda_ at Florence, a gigantic _Neptune_ for St.
+Mark's Place at Venice, a colossal _Hercules_ at Padua, and after the
+inundation in 1557, which destroyed all the bridges of the Arno, built the
+celebrated Trinity Bridge at Florence, finished in 1570. He was an imitator
+of Michael Angelo without his inspiration and genius.
+
+AMMERGAU ([.a]m'er-gou), a district in Upper Bavaria, having its centre in
+the villages of Ober and Unter Ammergau. The former village is famous on
+account of the Passion Play which is performed there, at intervals usually
+of ten years.
+
+[Illustration: Ammeter.--Front removed to show details.
+
+A. Large magnet. B. Soft-iron keeper magnetized by magnet and acting as
+resistance. D. Cylinder turning within B, and actuated by current entering
+at C1, and flowing through spiral wire (not shown) at base of D, and
+through coil on cylinder to terminal C2. E. Hair-spring regulating pointer.
+F. Pointer stops.]
+
+AM'METER (short for ampere-meter), an instrument used for the measurement
+of electric currents. For commercial use the scale is marked so as to read
+amperes directly, but for experimental purposes it is usual to have a scale
+with divisions numbered in tens, in which case the reading multiplied by a
+suitable constant gives the value of the current in amperes. By employing
+suitable shunts this admits of the one instrument being used for a number
+of ranges.
+
+The types of ammeter and the principles upon which they work are as
+follows: (_a_) _Soft-iron type_, the action of a magnetic field on a piece
+of soft iron; (_b_) _moving-coil type_ and _dynamometer type_, the action
+of a magnetic field on a current-carrying coil; (_c_) _hot-wire type_, the
+expansion of a conductor due to the heating produced by the current; (_d_)
+_induction type_, the action of a magnetic field on the eddy currents
+produced in a metal disc.
+
+The "soft-iron" ammeter can be used for both direct and alternating
+currents, is inexpensive, and is sufficiently accurate for commercial use.
+
+For direct-current measurements where a high degree of accuracy is of first
+importance, a "moving-coil" ammeter is invariably used.
+
+In alternating-current circuits its place is taken by the dynamometer type,
+which reads both direct and alternating currents.
+
+In cases where absence of inductance in the instrument is important, e.g.
+in the measurements in wireless-telegraph and telephone circuits, the
+"hot-wire" ammeter is used. It measures both direct and alternating
+currents, and, when properly used, has a high degree of accuracy.
+
+The "induction" type cannot be used for direct currents, and has the
+limitation that with alternating currents it will read correctly only at
+the frequency for which it is calibrated.
+
+Almost invariably an ammeter gives its full-scale reading when a small
+current, say of the order of one-tenth of an ampere, is passing through the
+instrument itself. In order to read larger currents a device is employed
+whereby a definite fraction of the current to be measured passes through
+the instrument.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Fleming, _A Handbook for the
+Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room_ (2 vols.); G. D. Aspinall Parr,
+_Electrical Measuring Instruments_.
+
+AMMIA'NUS MARCELLI'NUS, a Roman historian, born at Antioch in Syria about
+320, died about 390. He wrote in 31 books (of which the first 13 are lost)
+a history of the Caesars, from Nerva to Valens, which was highly thought of
+by Gibbon for its fidelity. His MS. was printed for the first time at Rome
+in 1474.
+
+[Illustration: Ammon.]
+
+AM'MON (often called AMMON-RA, i.e. Ammon-Sun), an ancient Egyptian deity,
+one of the chief gods of the country, identified by the Greeks with their
+supreme god Zeus, while the Romans regarded him as the representative of
+Jupiter; represented as a ram, as a human being with a ram's head,
+ornamented with the solar disc, or simply with the horns of a ram. There
+was a celebrated temple of Ammon in the Oasis of Siwah in the Libyan
+desert.
+
+AMMON, Oasis of. See _Siwah_.
+
+AMMO'NIA, an alkaline substance, which differs from the other alkalies by
+being gaseous, and is hence sometimes called the _volatile alkali_. It is a
+colourless pungent gas, composed of nitrogen and hydrogen; formula, NH_3.
+It was first prepared by Priestley, who termed it _alkaline air_. He
+obtained it from sal-ammoniac by the action of lime, by which method it is
+yet generally prepared. It is used for many purposes, both in medicine and
+scientific chemistry; not, however, in the gaseous state, but frequently in
+solution in water, under the names of _liquid ammonia_, _aqueous ammonia_,
+or _spirits of hartshorn_. It is generally prepared from the ammoniacal
+liquor obtained as a by-product on distilling coal. Combined with acids,
+ammonia forms salts which are of immense value to agriculture. The
+well-known odour of farmyard manure is very largely due to the formation of
+ammonia during the rotting of the dung. Many animal substances, such as
+bones, clippings and shavings of horn, hoof, &c., and certain vegetable
+matters yield ammonia when heated. Sal-ammoniac is ammonium chloride.
+
+AMMONI'[)A]CUM, a gum-resinous exudation from an umbelliferous plant, the
+_Dor[=e]ma ammoni[)a]cum_. It has a fetid smell, is inflammable, soluble in
+water and spirit of wine; used as an antispasmodic, stimulant, and
+expectorant in chronic catarrh, bronchitic affections, and asthma; also
+used for plasters.
+
+AMMO'NIAPHONE, an instrument, consisting of a metallic tube containing some
+substance saturated with ammonia, peroxide of hydrogen, and a few
+flavouring compounds, fitted with a mouthpiece to breathe through, which is
+said to render the voice strong, clear, rich, and ringing by the inhalation
+of the ammoniacal vapour. It was invented by Dr. Carter Moffat, and was
+suggested by the presence of ammonia in some quantity in the atmosphere of
+Italy--the country of fine singers.
+
+[Illustration: Ammonites obtusus. Ammonites varians]
+
+AM'MONITES, a group of fossil cephalopods, now divided into a large number
+of genera, ranging from the Coal Measures (Texas) to the uppermost
+cretaceous strata. The ammonites differ from the nautili in having the tube
+connecting the chambers placed on the outer margin of the coiled shell,
+while the calcareous neck where it passes through the partitions is
+directed forwards. The partitions are much folded, producing markings like
+the fronds of ferns where they meet the inner wall of the shell. The name
+arises from confusion with a coiled gastropod, which was held to resemble
+the horns of the Egyptian deity Jupiter Ammon.
+
+AM'MONITES, a Semitic race frequently mentioned in Scripture, descended
+from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (_Gen._ xix, 38), often spoken of in
+conjunction with the Moabites. A predatory and Bedouin race, they inhabited
+the desert country east of Gad, their chief city being Rabbath-Ammon
+(Philadelphia). Wars between the Israelites and the Ammonites were
+frequent; they were overcome by Jephthah, Saul, David, Uzziah, Jotham, &c.
+They appear to have existed as a distinct people in the time of Justin
+Martyr, but have subsequently become merged in the aggregate of nameless
+Arab tribes.
+
+AMMO'NIUM, the name given to the hypothetical radicle (formula, NH_4) of
+ammonium salts. It functionates as a metal, has not been isolated, but it
+is believed to exist in an amalgam with mercury.
+
+AMMO'NIUS SAC'CAS, a Greek philosopher who lived about A.D. 175-240.
+Originally a porter in Alexandria, he derived his epithet from the carrying
+of _sacks_ of corn. The son of Christian parents, he abandoned their faith
+for the polytheistic philosophy of Greece. His teaching was historically a
+transition stage between Platonism and Neo-Platonism. Among his disciples
+were Plotinus, Longinus, Origen, &c. The books often attributed to him are
+by a Christian philosopher of the same name.
+
+AMMUNI'TION, another form of the word munition, with a more restricted
+meaning. It is now taken to include cartridges of all sorts for guns,
+howitzers, rifles, and all fire-arms. Ammunition comprises both cartridges
+in which explosive and missiles are combined to form one compact article,
+and also other forms of projectiles of which the explosive agent forms one
+portion and the actual missile the other. Bombs, grenades, shells, powder,
+and bullets are all included in the generic term ammunition. As a
+qualifying word used adjectivally it is found in ammunition-wagon,
+ammunition-carrier, ammunition-mules, ammunition-column, &c. In the British
+service the Royal Army Ordnance Corps is entrusted with the provision of
+supplies of ammunition generally, while the actual distribution in the
+field is the duty of the ammunition-column, a Royal Artillery organization.
+
+AM'NESTY (Gr. _amnestia_, forgetfulness), the releasing of a number of
+persons who have been guilty of political offences from the consequence of
+these offences. The earliest recorded amnesty in history is that of
+Thrasybulus at Athens, and the last act of amnesty passed in Britain was
+that of 1747, after the second Jacobite rebellion.
+
+AM'NION, the innermost membrane surrounding the fetus of mammals, birds,
+and reptiles.--In botany, a gelatinous fluid in which the embryo of a seed
+is suspended, and by which it is supposed to be nourished.
+
+AMO'AFUL, village near Kumassi, West Africa, at which the Ashanti were
+defeated by British troops under Wolseley, 31st Jan., 1874.
+
+[Illustration: Amoeba proteus.]
+
+AMOE'BA, a microscopic genus of rhizopodous Protozoa, of which _A.
+diffl[)u]ens_, common in freshwater ponds and ditches, is the type. It
+exists as a mass of protoplasm, and pushes its body out into finger-like
+processes or pseudopodia, and by means of these moves about or grasps
+particles of food. There is no distinct mouth, and food is engulfed within
+any portion of the soft sarcode body. Reproduction takes place by fission,
+or by a single pseudopodium detaching itself from the parent body and
+developing into a separate amoeba.
+
+AMOEBE'AN POETRY, poetry in which persons are represented as speaking
+alternately, as in some of Virgil's _Eclogues_.
+
+AMOL', a town of Northern Persia, 76 miles N.E. of Teheran. Extensive ruins
+tell of former greatness, the most prominent being the mausoleum of Seyed
+Quam-u-deen, who died in 1378. Pop. in winter estimated at about 40,000.
+
+AMO'MUM, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Zinziberaceae (ginger, &c.),
+natives of warm climates, and remarkable for the pungency and aromatic
+properties of their seeds. Some of the species yield Cardamoms, others
+Grains of Paradise.
+
+AMONTILLA'DO, a dry kind of sherry wine of a light colour, highly esteemed.
+
+AMOOR. See _Amur_.
+
+A'MOR, the god of love among the Romans, equivalent to the Gr. _Er[=o]s_.
+
+AMOR'GO (ancient AMORGOS), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the
+Eastern Cyclades, 22 miles long, 5 miles broad; area, 106 sq. miles; it has
+a town of the same name, with a castle and a large harbour. Pop. 3561.
+
+AM'ORITES, a powerful Canaanitish tribe at the time of the occupation of
+the country by the Israelites; occupied the whole of Gilead and Bashan, and
+formed two powerful kingdoms--a northern, under Og, who is called King of
+Bashan; and a southern, under Sihon, called King of the Amorites; first
+attacked and overthrown by Joshua; subsequently subdued, and made tributary
+or driven to mingle with the Philistines and other remnants of the
+Canaanitish nations.
+
+AMORPHOUS ROCKS or MINERALS, those having no regular structure, or without
+crystallization, even in the minutest particles.
+
+AMORPHOZO'A, a term applied to some of the lower groups of animals, as the
+sponges and their allies, which have no regular symmetrical structure.
+
+AMORTIZA'TION, in law, the alienation of real property to corporations
+(that is, in _mortmain_), prohibited by several English statutes.
+
+A'MOS, one of the minor prophets; flourished under the Kings Uzziah of
+Judah and Jeroboam II of Israel (810 to 784 B.C. by the common chronology).
+Though engaged in the occupations of a peasant he must have had a
+considerable amount of culture, and his book of prophecies has high
+literary merits. It contains denunciations of Israel and the surrounding
+nations, with promises of the Messiah.
+
+AMOY', an important Chinese trading port, on a small island off the
+south-east coast opposite Formosa; has a safe and commodious harbour, and
+its merchants are among the wealthiest and most enterprising in China; one
+of the five ports opened to foreign commerce by the treaty of Nanking in
+1842. The privilege was confirmed and extended by the treaty of Tien-tsin
+in 1858, and the port is now open to all countries. Pop. 114,000.
+
+AMPEL'IDAE. See _Chatterers_.
+
+AMPERE ([.a][n.]-p[=a]r), Andre-Marie, a celebrated French mathematician
+and philosopher, founder of the science of electro-dynamics, born at Lyons
+in 1775, died at Marseilles in 1836; professor of mathematical analysis at
+the Polytechnic School, Paris, and of physics at the College of France.
+What is known as _Ampere's Theory_ is that magnetism consists in the
+existence of electric currents circulating round the particles of magnetic
+bodies, being in different directions round different particles when the
+bodies are unmagnetized, but all in the same direction when they are
+magnetized.
+
+AMPERE, Jean-Jacques-Joseph-Antoine, historian and professor of French
+literature in the College of France; the only son of Andre-Marie Ampere;
+born at Lyons 1800, died 1864; chief works: _Histoire Litteraire de la
+France avant le 12^{_e_} siecle_ (1839); _Introduction a l'Histoire de la
+Litterature francaise au moyen age_ (1841); _Litterature, Voyages et
+Poesies_ (1833); _La Grece, Rome et Dante, Etudes Litteraires d'apres
+Nature; l'Histoire romaine a Rome_ (4 vols. 8vo, 1856-64); _Promenades en
+Amerique_ (1855); _Cesar, Scenes historiques_ (1859), full of hostile
+allusions to the French Empire.
+
+AMPERE (am'p[=a]r), in electricity, the unit employed in measuring the
+strength or intensity of an electric current, being equivalent to the
+current produced by the electro-motive force of one volt in a wire having
+the resistance of one ohm. The name (cf. _Farad_, _Coulomb_, _Watt_, &c.)
+is derived from that of the well-known physicist, Ampere. An _ampere-meter_
+or _ammeter_ is an instrument by which the strength of an electric current
+is given in amperes.
+
+AMPHIB'IA, a class of vertebrate animals, which in their early life breathe
+by gills or branchiae, and afterwards partly or entirely by lungs. The
+Frog, breathing in its tadpole state by gills and afterwards throwing off
+these organs and breathing entirely by lungs in its adult state, is an
+example of the latter phase of amphibian existence. The Proteus of the
+underground caves of Central Europe exemplifies forms in which the gills of
+early life are retained throughout life, and in which lungs are developed
+in addition to the gills. A second character of this group consists in the
+presence of two occipital 'condyles', or processes by means of which the
+skull articulates with the spine or vertebral column; Reptiles possessing
+one condyle only. The class is divided into four orders: the Ophiomorpha
+(or serpentiform), represented by the Blindworms, in which limbs are
+wanting and the body is snake-like; the Urodela or 'Tailed' Amphibians,
+including the Newts, Proteus, Siren, &c.; the Anoura, or Tailless Amphibia,
+represented by the Frogs and Toads; and the Labyrinthodontia, which
+includes the extinct forms known as Labyrinthodons. The term Amphibia was
+originally employed by Linnaeus in his _Systema Naturae_, and adopted by
+Cuvier in his _Tableau Elementaire_. See _Batrachia_.
+
+AMPHIBOL'OGY, in logic, an equivocal phrase or sentence, not from the
+double sense of any of the words, but from its admitting a double
+construction, as 'The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose'.
+
+AMPHIC'TYONIC LEAGUE (or COUNCIL), in ancient Greece, a confederation of
+tribes for the protection of religious worship, but which also discussed
+questions of international law, and matters affecting their political
+union. The most important was that of the twelve northern tribes which met
+alternately at Delphi and Thermopylae. The tribes sent two deputies each,
+who assembled with great solemnity; composed the public dissensions, and
+the quarrels of individual cities, by force or persuasion; punished civil
+and criminal offences, and particularly transgressions of the law of
+nations, and violations of the temple of Delphi. Its calling on the States
+to punish the Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the Sacred Wars,
+595-586, 448-447, 357-346 B.C.
+
+AMPHI'ON, in Greek mythology, son of Zeus and Anti[)o]p[=e], and husband of
+Ni[)o]b[=e]. He had miraculous skill in music, being taught by Mercury, or,
+according to others, by Apollo. In poetic legend he is said to have availed
+himself of his skill when building the walls of Thebes--the stones moving
+and arranging themselves in proper position at the sound of his lyre. See
+_Zethus_.
+
+AMPHIOXUS. See _Lancelet_.
+
+[Illustration: Amphipoda
+
+1. Shore-jumper (_Orchestia littoralis_), 2. Portion showing the
+respiratory organs _a a a_.]
+
+AMPHIP'ODA, an order of sessile-eyed malacostracan crustaceans, with feet
+directed partly forward and partly backward. Many species are found in
+springs and rivulets, others in salt water. The sand-hopper and
+shore-jumper are examples.
+
+AMPHIP'ROSTYLE, in architecture, said of a structure having the form of an
+ancient Greek or Roman oblong rectangular temple, with a prostyle or
+portico on each of its ends or fronts, but with no columns on its sides or
+flanks.
+
+AMPHISBAE'NA (Gr., from _amphis_, both ways, and _bainein_, to go), a genus
+of serpentiform, limbless, lacertilian reptiles; body cylindrical,
+destitute of scales, and divided into numerous annular segments; the tail
+obtuse, and scarcely to be distinguished from the head, whence the belief
+that it moved equally well with either end foremost. There are several
+species, found in tropical America. They feed on ants and earthworms, and
+were formerly, but erroneously, deemed poisonous. In Greek mythology the
+amphisbaena was a serpent believed to possess two heads.
+
+AMPHIS'CII (Gr. _amphi_, on both sides, and _skia_, shadow), a term
+sometimes applied to the inhabitants of the intertropical regions, whose
+shadows at noon in one part of the year are cast to the north and in the
+other to the south, according as the sun is in the southern or northern
+signs.
+
+[Illustration: Amphitheatre at Pompeii]
+
+AMPHITHE'ATRE, an ancient Roman building of an oval form without a roof,
+having a central area (the _arena_) encompassed with rows of seats, rising
+higher as they receded from the centre, on which people used to sit to view
+the combats of gladiators and of wild beasts, and other sports. The first
+amphitheatre at Rome was that constructed by C. Scribonius Curio, 59 B.C.
+The Colosseum at Rome is the largest of all the ancient amphitheatres,
+being capable of containing 100,000 persons, 87,000 of whom occupied
+numbered and reserved seats. That at Verona is one of the best examples
+remaining. Its dimensions are 502 feet by 401, and it is 98 feet high. The
+name means 'both-ways theatre', or 'theatre all round', the theatre forming
+only a semicircular building.
+
+AMPHITRI'T[=E], in Greek mythology, daughter of Oce[)a]nus and Tethys, or
+of Nereus and Doris, and wife of Poseidon (or Neptune), represented as
+drawn in a chariot of shells by Tritons, with a trident in her hand. In the
+Homeric poems she is the personification of the Sea, and her marriage to
+Poseidon is alluded to in a number of scenes depicted on ancient monuments.
+Such are a bas-relief in the glyptothek at Munich and a mosaic in the
+museum at Naples.
+
+AMPHIT'RYON, in Greek legend, King of Thebes, son of Alcaeus, and husband
+of Alcmena. Plautus, and after him Moliere, have made an amour of Jupiter
+with Alcmena the subject of amusing comedies.
+
+AMPHIU'MA, a genus of amphibians which frequent the lakes and stagnant
+waters of North America. The adults retain the clefts at which the gills of
+the tadpole projected.
+
+[Illustration: Amphora
+From a Roman specimen in the British Museum]
+
+AM'PH[)O]RA, a vessel used by the Greeks and Romans for holding liquids;
+commonly tall and narrow, with two handles and a pointed end which fitted
+into a stand or was stuck in the ground to enable it to stand upright; used
+also as a cinerary urn, and as a liquid measure--Greek = 9 gallons; Roman =
+6 gallons.
+
+AMPLEX'ICAUL, in botany, said of a leaf that embraces and nearly surrounds
+the stem.
+
+AM'PLITUDE, in astronomy, the distance of any celestial body (when referred
+by a secondary circle to the horizon) from the east or west points.
+
+AMPTHILL, a market-town of England, Bedfordshire, about 7 miles south-west
+of Bedford. Pop. (1921), 2269.
+
+AMPUL'LA, the Latin name for a vessel bellying out like a jug, which
+contained unguents for the bath; also a vessel for drinking at table. The
+ampulla has also been employed for ceremonial purposes, such as holding the
+oil or chrism used in various Church rites and for anointing monarchs at
+their coronation. The ampulla of the English sovereigns now in use is an
+eagle, weighing about 10 oz., of the purest chased gold, which passed
+through various hands to the Black Prince. The ampulla of the French kings,
+kept at Rheims in the tomb of St. Remy, was destroyed in 1793.
+
+AMPUTA'TION, in surgery, that operation by which a member is separated from
+the body.
+
+AMRA'OTI, a town of British India in Berar; it is celebrated for its
+cotton, and is a place of good trade. Pop. 35,000. The district has an area
+of 4733 sq. miles. Pop. 876,000.
+
+AM'RITSIR, or AMRITSAR ('the pool of immortality'), a flourishing
+commercial town of India, capital of a district of the same name, in the
+Punjab, the centre of the Sikh religion since the end of the sixteenth
+century. It has considerable manufactures of shawls and silks; and receives
+its name from the sacred pond constructed by Ram Das, the apostle of the
+Sikhs, in which the Sikhs and other Hindus immerse themselves that they may
+be purified from all sin. Pop. 152,756.--The district of Amritsir has an
+area of 1601 sq. miles. Pop. 900,000.
+
+AM'RU, originally an opponent, and subsequently a zealous supporter of
+Mahomet, and one of the ablest of the Mahommedan warriors. He brought Egypt
+under the power of the Caliph Omar in 638, and governed it wisely till his
+death in 663. The burning of the famous Alexandrian Library has been
+generally attributed to him, though only on the authority of a writer who
+lived six centuries later.
+
+AM'STERDAM (that is, 'the dam of the Amstel'), one of the chief commercial
+cities of Europe, capital of Holland (but not the residence of the
+sovereign), situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Y or Ij, an
+arm of the Zuider-Zee. On account of the lowness of the site of the city
+the greater part of it is built on piles. It is divided by numerous canals
+into about 90 islands, which are connected by nearly 300 bridges. Many of
+the streets have a canal in the middle with broad brick-paved quays on
+either side, planted with rows of trees; the houses are generally of brick,
+many of them six or seven stories high, with pointed gables turned to the
+streets. Among the public buildings are the old stadthouse, the work of
+Jacob van Kempen, commenced in 1648 and finished in 1655, which is now a
+royal palace, the interior being decorated by the Dutch painters and
+sculptors of the seventeenth century with their masterpieces; the
+justiciary hall, an imitation of a Greek temple; the town hall (fourteenth
+century); the exchange, a handsome building, constructed in 1836 on the
+site of the old bourse built in 1608; the Palace of National Industry; the
+national museum; and the central railway station. The old church is a
+structure of the fourteenth century with stained-glass windows painted by
+Digman in the fifteenth century. The chief educational institutions of the
+kingdom are here, including the city university, a free university,
+gymnasiums and other secondary schools, the national picture gallery or
+museum, containing many masterpieces of Dutch artists, &c. Among its
+numerous industries may be mentioned as a speciality the cutting and
+polishing of diamonds. It has also factories and workshops dealing with
+wool, cotton, silk, tobacco, leather, machinery, and metal goods, glass,
+liqueurs, cocoa, &c. The harbour, formed by the Y, lies along the whole of
+the north side of the city, and is surrounded by various docks and basins.
+The trade is very great, being much facilitated by the great ship-canal (15
+miles long, opened 1876, admitting the largest vessels) connecting the Y
+directly with the North Sea at Y-Muiden, where the entrance is between two
+long piers projecting into the sea. Another canal of much less importance,
+the North Holland Canal (46 miles long, 20 feet deep), connects Amsterdam
+with the Helder. Between the harbour and the Zuider Zee the Y is now
+crossed by a great dam in which are locks to admit vessels and regulate the
+amount of water in the North Sea Canal. The oversea trade of Amsterdam has
+immensely increased since the opening of the great canal, and the foreign
+trade of the kingdom practically centres in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. There
+is also a large trade with the interior by railway, river, and canal. In
+the beginning of the thirteenth century Amsterdam was but a fishing
+village. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries it had attained some
+importance, especially through the Baltic trade. The ruin of Antwerp
+through the troubles with Spain was greatly to its advantage, and during
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Amsterdam was one of the
+wealthiest and most flourishing cities in the world. Its forced alliance
+with France ruined its trade, but since 1813 its commerce has revived.
+Amsterdam is the birthplace of Spinoza and of the painters van de Velde and
+van der Neer. Pop. (1919), 647,120.
+
+AMSTERDAM, a town of New York State, United States, on the Mohawk River and
+the Erie Canal, 33 miles N.W. of Albany; a busy manufacturing town. Pop.
+(1920), 33,524.
+
+AMSTERDAM, New, a town in British Guiana, on the east side of the River
+Berbice, near the sea, with some trade as a seaport. Pop. 8903.
+
+AMSTERDAM ISLAND, a small and almost inaccessible island in the Indian
+Ocean, about halfway in a direct line between the Cape of Good Hope and
+Tasmania. It is sparsely provided with vegetation, and inhabited only by
+sea-birds, but it was taken possession of by France in 1893, along with the
+neighbouring St. Paul. It was discovered by the Dutch in 1633.
+
+AMSTETTEN, a town in Lower Austria, on the Ybbs, and on the railway from
+Vienna to Linz. In 1805 a victory was gained here by the French under Murat
+over the Russians under Bagration. Pop. 3760.
+
+AMUCK', or AMUK, to run, a phrase applied to natives of the Eastern
+Archipelago, who are occasionally seen to rush out in a frantic state of
+temporary mental derangement, making indiscriminate and murderous assaults
+on all that come in their way.
+
+AMU-DARYA. See _Oxus_.
+
+AMU-DARYA, district. See _Turkestan_.
+
+AM'ULET, a piece of stone, metal, &c., marked with certain figures or
+characters, which people in some countries wear about them, superstitiously
+deeming them a protection against diseases, enchantments, witchcraft, &c.
+According to Pliny the elder, the _bulla_, or amulet, was first hung by
+Tarquinius Priscus on the neck of his son. Articles that archaeologists
+have decided to be amulets have been found dating from prehistoric times,
+and they were commonly worn in ancient times by the Jews, Greeks, and
+Romans, as they still are by Persians, Arabs, and many other peoples. See
+_Charms_.
+
+AMUNDSEN, Captain Roald, Norwegian polar explorer, born at Borge, Norway,
+16th July, 1872. He was first-lieutenant on the _Belgica_ during the
+Belgian south polar expedition, 1897-9. He then planned an expedition to
+the area of the north magnetic pole and a north-west passage by water. On
+17th June, 1903, he embarked from Christiania on the small sailing vessel
+the _Gjoea_, with a company of six men, and reached King William Land,
+where the vessel remained for two years. Here he made his headquarters, and
+by numerous excursions was able to prove that the north magnetic pole has
+no stationary position, but is in continual movement. On 11th July, 1906,
+his vessel reached the Behring Strait, and on 30th August entered the
+Pacific. After his return Amundsen began his preparations for an Antarctic
+expedition, and on 9th August, 1910, he sailed from Norway on Nansen's
+ship, the _Fram_, and reached the South Pole on 7th March, 1912. He
+published an account of his North-West Passage expedition, entitled
+_Sydpolen. Den norske Sydpolsfaerd med_ Fram _1910-12_. An English
+translation was published in 1913. Amundsen started on a North Polar
+Expedition in 1918.
+
+AMUR', or AMOOR', one of the largest rivers of Eastern Asia, formed by the
+junction of the Rivers Shilka and Argun; flows first in a south-eastern and
+then in a north-eastern direction till it falls into an arm of the Sea of
+Okhotsk, opposite the Island of Sakhalin, after a course of 1500 miles. It
+forms, for a large portion of its course, part of the boundary-line between
+the Russian and the Chinese dominions, and is navigable throughout for four
+months in the year.--_Amoor Territory._ In 1858 Russia acquired from China
+the territory on the left bank of the Upper and Middle Amoor, together with
+that on both banks of the Lower Amoor. The western portion of the territory
+was organized as a separate province, with the name of the Amoor (area,
+154,795 sq. miles. Pop. 261,500). The eastern portion was joined to the
+Maritime Province of Eastern Siberia.
+
+AM'URATH, or MURAD, the name of several Ottoman sultans. See _Ottoman
+Empire_.
+
+AMYCLAE (a-m[=i]'kl[=e]), a town of ancient Greece, the chief seat of the
+Achaeans in Laconia, a short distance from Sparta, by which it was
+conquered about 800 B.C.
+
+AMYG'DALOID (Gr. _amygdal[=e]_, an almond), meaning 'almond-shaped', a term
+used in anatomy and geology.
+
+AMYG'DALUS, the genus to which the almond belongs.
+
+AM'YL, in chemistry, a hypothetic radicle believed to exist in many
+compounds, especially the fusel-oil series, and having the formula
+C_5H_{11}.--_Amyl Nitrite_, or _Nitrite of Amyl_, an amber-coloured fluid,
+smelling and tasting like essence of pears, which has been employed as an
+anaesthetic and also in relieving cardiac distress, as in angina pectoris.
+
+AM'YLENE (C_5H_{10}), an ethereal liquid with an aromatic odour, prepared
+from fusel-oil. It possesses anaesthetic properties, and has been tried as
+a substitute for chloroform, but is very dangerous.
+
+AMYL'IC ALCOHOL, one of the products of the fermentation of grain, &c.,
+commonly known by the name of fusel-oil (q.v.).
+
+AMYOT (ae-mi-[=o]), Jacques, French writer and scholar, whose translations
+from the Greek have themselves become classics, was born in 1513, and died
+Bishop of Auxerre in 1593, having been for twelve years a professor of
+classics at Bourges, and having enjoyed the patronage of Margaret of
+Navarre and Henry II. His chief translations are those of Plutarch's
+_Lives_ and his _Morals_, the _Aethiopica_ of Heliodorus, and the _Daphnis
+and Chloe_ of Longus. Sir Thomas North's English translation of Plutarch
+(1575), of which Shakespeare made much use, was derived from that of Amyot.
+
+AMYRIDA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees or
+shrubs, the leaves, bark, and fruit of which abound in fragrant resinous
+and balsamic juices. Myrrh, frankincense, and the gum-elemi of commerce are
+among their products. Among the chief genera of the order are _Amyris_,
+_Balsamodendron_, _Boswellia_, and _Canarium_.
+
+A'NA, the neuter plural termination of Latin adjectives in _-[=a]nus_,
+often forming an affix with the names of eminent men to denote a collection
+of their memorable sayings--thus _Scaligeriana_, _Johnsoniana_, the sayings
+of Scaliger, of Johnson; or to denote a collection of anecdotes, or gossipy
+matter, as in _boxiana_. Hence, as an independent noun, books recording
+such sayings; the sayings themselves.
+
+ANABAP'TISTS (from the Gr. _anabaptizein_, to rebaptize), a name given to a
+Christian sect by their adversaries, because, as they objected to infant
+baptism, they rebaptized those who joined their body. Their doctrine is
+based upon the words of Christ in _St. Mark_, xvi, 16. The founder of the
+sect appears to have been Nicolas Storch, a disciple of Luther's, who seems
+to have aimed also at the reorganization of society based on civil and
+political equality. Gathering round him a number of fiery spirits, among
+whom was Thomas Muenzer, he incited the peasantry of Suabia and Franconia
+to insurrection--the doctrine of a community of goods being now added to
+their creed. This insurrection was quelled in 1525, when Muenzer was put to
+the torture and beheaded. After the death of Muenzer the sectaries
+dispersed in all directions, spreading their doctrines wherever they went.
+In 1534 the town of Muenster in Westphalia became their centre of action.
+Under the leadership of Bockhold and Matthias their numbers increased
+daily, and being joined by the restless spirits of the adjoining towns,
+they soon made themselves masters of the town and expelled their
+adversaries. Matthias became their prophet, but he fell in a sally against
+the Bishop of Muenster, Count Waldeck, who had laid siege to the city.
+Bockhold then became leader, assuming the name of John of Leyden, King of
+the New Jerusalem, and Muenster became a theatre of all the excesses of
+fanaticism, lust, and cruelty. The town was eventually taken (June, 1535),
+and Bockhold and a great many of his partisans suffered death. This was the
+last time that the movement assumed anything like political importance. In
+the meantime some of the apostles, who were sent out by Bockhold to extend
+the limits of his kingdom, had been successful in various places, and many
+independent teachers, who preached the same doctrines, continued active in
+the work of founding a new empire of pure Christians. It is true that they
+rejected the practice of polygamy, community of goods, and intolerance
+towards those of different opinions which had prevailed in Muenster; but
+they enjoined upon their adherents the other doctrines of the early
+Anabaptists, and certain heretical opinions in regard to the humanity of
+Christ, occasioned by the controversies of that day about the sacrament.
+The most celebrated of those Anabaptist prophets were Melchior Hoffmann,
+the founder of the Hoffmannists or Millenarians; Galenus Abrahamssohn, from
+whom the sect of the Galenists were called; and Simon Menno, founder of
+various sects known as Mennonites. Menno's principles are contained in his
+_Principles of the True Christian Faith_ (1556), a work which is held as
+authoritative on points of doctrine and worship among the Baptist
+communities at the present day. The application of the term Anabaptist to
+the general body of Baptists throughout the world is unwarranted, because
+these sects have nothing in common with the bodies which sprung up in
+various countries of Europe during the Reformation, except the practice of
+adult baptism. The Baptists themselves repudiate the name Anabaptist, as
+they claim to baptize according to the original institution of the rite,
+and never repeat baptism in the case of those who in their opinion have
+been so baptized. It is under the designation of Mennonites that they exist
+to-day, principally in Holland, Germany, and the United States.
+
+AN'ABAS. See _Climbing-perch_.
+
+ANAB'ASIS (Gr. _anabasis_, a march up country), the title of Xenophon's
+celebrated account of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his
+brother Artaxerxes, King of Persia. The title is also given to Arrian's
+work which records the campaigns of Alexander the Great.
+
+AN'ABLEPS, a genus of fishes of the perch family, found in the rivers of
+Guiana, consisting of but one species, remarkable for a peculiar structure
+of the eyes, in which there is a division of the iris and cornea, by
+transverse ligaments forming two pupils, and making the whole eye appear
+double. The young are brought forth alive.
+
+ANABOLISM (Gr. _ana_, up, and _bole_, a throw), a biological term suggested
+by Michael Foster, and used by Gaskell in 1886, and meaning the building-up
+of organic life, or the process by which a substance is transformed into
+another which is more complex. Anabolism is the constructive phase of
+metabolism (q.v.).
+
+ANACANTHI'NI (Gr. neg. prefix _an_, and _akantha_, a spine), an order of
+osseous fishes, including the cod, plaice, &c., with spineless fins,
+cycloid or ctenoid scales, the ventral fins either absent or below the
+pectorals, and ductless swim-bladder.
+
+ANACARDIA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees and
+shrubs which secrete an acrid resinous juice, which is often used as a
+varnish. Mastic, Japan lacquer, and Martaban varnish are some of their
+products. The cashoo or cashew (genus Anacardium), the pistacia, sumach,
+mango, &c., are members of the order.
+
+ANACH'ARIS, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Hydrocharidaceae, the species of
+which grow in ponds and streams of fresh water; water-thyme or water-weed.
+It appeared in Britain in the nineteenth century. _A. Alsinastrum_ has been
+introduced from North America into European rivers, canals, and ponds, and
+by its rapid growth in dense tangled masses tends to choke them so as
+materially to impede navigation. The plants in our canals perfect no seed,
+their spread being due to vegetative vigour only.
+
+ANACH'RONISM, an error of chronology by which things are represented as
+coexisting which did not coexist; applied also to anything foreign to or
+out of keeping with a specified time. Thus it is an anachronism when
+Shakespeare, in _Troilus and Cressida_, makes Hector quote Aristotle. There
+are anachronisms in the _Cid_ and the _Nibelungenlied_, and also in Dante's
+_Inferno_, when the poet introduces pagan mythology into the Christian
+hell.
+
+ANACOLU'THON, a want of grammatical and logical sequence in the structure
+of a sentence.
+
+[Illustration: Anaconda (_Python tigris_)]
+
+ANACON'DA, the popular name of two of the largest species of the serpent
+tribe, viz. a Ceylonese species of the genus Python (_P. tigris_), said to
+have been met with 33 feet long; and _Eunectes mur[=i]nus_, a native of
+tropical America, allied to the boa-constrictor, and the largest of the
+serpent tribe, attaining the length of 40 feet. They frequent swamps and
+rivers, are without poison fangs, and kill their victims by constriction.
+
+ANACONDA, a town of the United States, Montana, with the largest
+copper-smelting works in the world. Pop. (1920), 11,668.
+
+ANAC'REON, an amatory lyric Greek poet of the sixth century B.C., native of
+Teos, in Ionia. Only a few fragments of his works have come down to us; the
+collection of odes that usually passes under the name of Anacreon is mostly
+the production of a later time, the poetry of the real Anacreon being much
+less frivolous.
+
+ANADYOM'[)E]N[=E] (Gr., 'she who comes forth'), a name given to
+Aphrodit[=e] (Venus) when she was represented as rising from the sea, as in
+the celebrated painting by Apelles, painted for the temple of Aesculapius
+at Cos, and afterwards in the temple of Julius Caesar at Rome.
+
+ANADYR ([.a]-nae'd[=e]r), the most easterly of the larger rivers of Siberia
+and of all Asia; rises in the Stanovoi Mountains, and falls into the Gulf
+of Anadyr; length, 600 miles.
+
+ANAE'MIA (Gr., 'want of blood'), a medical term applied to an unhealthy
+condition of the body, in which there is a diminution of the red corpuscles
+which the blood should contain. The principal symptoms are paleness and
+general want of colour in the skin, languor, emaciation, want of appetite,
+fainting, palpitation, &c.
+
+ANAESTHE'SIA, or ANAESTHE'SIS, a state of insensibility to pain, produced
+by inhaling chloroform, or by the application of other anaesthetic agents.
+
+ANAESTHET'ICS are medical agents chiefly used in surgical operations for
+the abolition of pain. They are divided into (1) _general anaesthetics_,
+those in which complete unconsciousness is produced; (2) _local
+anaesthetics_, those which act upon the nerves of a limited area alone.
+
+The earliest record of attempts to produce anaesthesia is to be found in
+the thirteenth century. Since then many agents have been tried. The first
+scientific effort was in 1800, when Sir Humphry Davy experimented with
+nitrous oxide, but without practical result. In 1844 Wells, an American
+dentist, used nitrous oxide, also without result. In 1846 Morton, another
+American dentist, used ether, and from that time it was increasingly used
+in America. In the same year the first operation under ether was performed
+in University College Hospital, London. In 1847 Sir James Simpson
+(Edinburgh) introduced chloroform. Through his influence it was soon
+largely used throughout England and Scotland, and continued to be the chief
+anaesthetic till about the end of the nineteenth century, when ether again
+became popular in England. To-day, in England, as always in the United
+States, ether is the most widely-used anaesthetic. Much controversy exists
+regarding the respective merits of ether and chloroform. The general
+opinion is, that ether is on the whole safer, but more liable, in the
+British climate, to be followed by bronchitis; while there are various
+conditions when chloroform is still preferable. They are frequently
+combined in use. _Nitrous-oxide gas_ (laughing gas) is much used in
+dentistry. Lately, nitrous oxide has been used with ether; while ether and
+oxygen together were much used with the British Expeditionary Force in
+France during the European War (1914-8). The administration of all
+anaesthetics is helped when the patient is given a hypodermic injection of
+morphia shortly before. _Twilight sleep_, increasingly used in childbirth,
+is the production of a partial anaesthesia by the administration of
+scopolamin morphine. _Local anaesthetics_ are much used in minor surgery,
+and with proper technique act effectively. Cocaine was the first of these,
+and is still widely used. Of later developments, eucaine and novocaine are
+best known. Spinal anaesthesia is the injection of stovaine or similar
+substance into the spinal cord, producing anaesthesia of a large part of
+the body, varying according to the site of the injection.
+
+ANAGAL'LIS, a genus of the nat. ord. Primulaceae, to which belongs the
+Pimpernel, the 'poor man's weather-glass'. See _Pimpernel_.
+
+ANAGNI ([.a]-naen'y[=e]), a town of Italy, province of Rome; the seat of a
+bishopric erected in 487. Pop. 10,400.
+
+AN'AGRAM, the transposition of the letters of a word or words so as to form
+a new word or phrase, a connection in meaning being frequently preserved;
+thus, _evil_, _vile_; _Horatio Nelson_, _Honor est a Nilo_ (honour is from
+the Nile). The seventeenth century was the golden age of the anagram, but
+it was employed by the Hebrews and the Greeks.
+
+ANAHUAC ([.a]-n[.a]-w[.a]k'; Mex., 'near the water'), an old Mexican name
+applied to the plateau of the city of Mexico, from the lakes situated
+there, generally elevated from 6000 to 9000 feet above the sea.
+
+AN'AKIM, the posterity of Anak, the son of Arba, noted in sacred history
+for their fierceness and loftiness of stature. Their stronghold was
+Kirjath-arba or Hebron, which was taken and destroyed by Caleb and the
+tribe of Judah.
+
+ANAKOLU'THON. See _Anacoluthon_.
+
+ANALEP'TIC, a restorative or invigorating medicine or diet.
+
+AN'ALOGUE, in comparative anatomy an organ in one species or group having
+the same function as an organ of different structure in another species or
+group, as the wing of a bird and that of an insect, both serving for
+flight. Organs in different animals having a similar anatomical structure,
+development, and relative position, independent of function or form, such
+as the arm of a man and the wing of a bird, are termed _homologues_.
+
+ANAL'OGY is the mode of reasoning from resemblance to resemblance. When we
+find on attentive examination resemblances in objects apparently diverse,
+and in which at first no such resemblances were discovered, a presumption
+arises that other resemblances may be found by further examination in these
+or other objects likewise apparently diverse. It is on the belief in a
+unity in nature that all inferences from analogy rest. The general
+inference from analogy is always perfectly valid. Wherever there is
+resemblance, similarity or identity of cause somewhere may be justly
+inferred; but to infer the particular cause without particular proof is
+always to reason falsely. Analogy is of great use and constant application
+in science, in philosophy, and in the common business of life.
+
+ANAL'YSIS, the resolution of an object, whether of the senses or the
+intellect, into its component elements. The word was introduced by Boyle in
+the seventeenth century. In philosophy it is the mode of resolving a
+compound idea into its simple parts, in order to consider them more
+distinctly, and arrive at a more precise knowledge of the whole. It is
+opposed to _synthesis_, by which we combine and class our perceptions, and
+contrive expressions for our thoughts, so as to represent their several
+divisions, classes, and relations.
+
+Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the widest sense, the expression and
+development of the functions of quantities by calculation; in a narrower
+sense the resolving of problems by algebraic equations. The analysis of the
+ancients was exhibited only in geometry, and made use only of geometrical
+assistance, whereby it is distinguished from the analysis of the moderns,
+which extends to all measurable objects, and expresses in equations the
+mutual dependence of magnitudes. Analysis is divided into lower and higher,
+the lower comprising, besides arithmetic and algebra, the doctrines of
+functions, of series, combinations, logarithms, and curves, the higher
+comprising the differential and integral calculus, and the calculus of
+variations.
+
+In chemistry, analysis is the process of decomposing a compound substance
+with a view to determine either (_a_) what elements it contains
+(_qualitative analysis_), or (_b_) how much of each element is present
+(_quantitative analysis_). Thus by the first process we learn that water is
+a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and by the second that it consists of
+one part of hydrogen by weight to eight parts of oxygen. As a means of
+testing soils and feeding-stuffs, analysis has given important results; it
+has enabled Liebig to solve the problem of plant-nutrition.
+
+ANAM. See _Annam_.
+
+ANAMOR'PHOSIS, a term denoting a drawing executed in such a manner as to
+present a distorted image of the object represented, but which, when viewed
+from a certain point, or reflected by a curved mirror or through a
+polyhedron, shows the object in its true proportions.
+
+AN'[)A]NAS. See _Pine-apple_.
+
+ANAPA', a seaport of Russia in province Kuban, on the Black Sea, 50 miles
+south-east of Kertsh, constructed by the Turks in 1781, and formerly
+fortified. Pop. about 7000.
+
+AN'APAEST, in prosody, a foot consisting of two short and one long
+syllable, or two unaccented and one accented syllable, e.g.
+
+   )  )  ___  )    )   __    )   )   __   )  )   __
+  The As-syr-ian came down like the wolf on the fold.
+          --(Byron's _The Destruction of Sennacherib_.)
+
+AN'APLASTY, a surgical operation to repair superficial lesions, or make up
+for lost parts, by the employment of adjacent healthy structure or tissue.
+Artificial noses, &c., are thus made.
+
+ANARAJAPOO'RA, or ANURADHAPURA, a ruined city, the ancient capital of
+Ceylon, built about 540 B.C., and said to have covered an area of 300 sq.
+miles, doubtless a great exaggeration. There are still several dagobas in
+tolerable preservation, but the great object of interest is the sacred
+Bo-tree planted over 2000 years, and probably the oldest historical tree in
+the world, but shattered by a storm in 1887.
+
+AN'ARCHISTS, a revolutionary sect or body setting forth as the social ideal
+the extreme form of individual freedom, holding that all government is
+injurious and immoral, and that the destruction of every social form now
+existing must be the first step to the creation of a new social system.
+According to Herbert Spencer, anarchism is the doctrine of _laisser faire_.
+Anarchists usually look upon Diderot as one of their pioneers, and quote
+his lines: "La nature n'a fait ni serviteurs ni maitres. Je ne veux ni
+donner ni recevoir de lois." Historically, however, it is Proudhon who may
+be considered as the father of anarchism. The recognition of the anarchists
+as an independent sect may be dated from the secession of Bakunin and his
+followers from the Social Democrats at the congress of the Hague in 1872,
+since which they have maintained an active propaganda. Their principal
+journals have been _La Revolte_ (Paris), the _Freiheit_ (New York),
+_Liberty_ (Boston), and the _Anarchist_ (London). Among modern philosophers
+of anarchism are Elisee Reclus and Prince Kropotkin.
+
+ANARTHROP'ODA, one of the two great divisions (the Arthropoda being the
+other) of the Annulosa, or ringed animals, in which there are no
+articulated appendages. It includes the leeches, earth-worms, tube-worms,
+&c.
+
+A'NAS, a genus of web-footed birds, containing the true ducks.
+
+ANASARCA. See _Dropsy_.
+
+ANASTA'SIUS I, Emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, A.D. 491, at the age of
+sixty. He was a member of the imperial life-guard, and owed his elevation
+to Ariadne, widow of Zeno, whom he married forty days after the death of
+her husband. He distinguished himself by suppressing the combats between
+men and wild beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale of offices, building
+the fortifications  of Constantinople, &c. His support of the heretical
+Eutychians led to a dangerous rebellion. He died A.D. 518.
+
+ANASTAT'ICA, a genus of cruciferous plants, including the Rose of Jericho
+(_A. hierochuntica_). See _Rose of Jericho_.
+
+ANASTATIC PRINTING, a process by which the perfect facsimile of a page of
+type or an engraving, old or new, can be reproduced and printed in the
+manner of a lithograph. The print or page to be transferred is dipped in
+diluted nitric acid, and, while moist with dilute acid, it is laid face
+downwards on a polished zinc plate and passed through a roller-press. The
+zinc is immediately corroded by the acid contained in the paper, excepting
+on those parts occupied by the ink of the type or engraving. The ink, while
+rejecting the acid, is loosened by it, and deposits a thin film on the
+zinc, thus protecting it from the action of the acid. The result is that
+those parts are left slightly raised in relief and greasy. The plate is
+then treated as in ordinary lithographic printing (q.v.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+F. H. Collins, _Authors' and Printers' Dictionary_; C. T. Jacobi,
+_Printing_; J. Southward, _Modern Printing_.
+
+ANASTOMO'SIS, in animals and plants, the inosculation of vessels, or the
+opening of one vessel into another, as an artery into another artery, or a
+vein into a vein. By means of anastomosis, if the course of a fluid is
+arrested in one vessel it can proceed along others. It is by anastomosis
+that circulation is re-established in amputated limbs, and in aneurism when
+the vessel is tied.
+
+ANATH'EMA, originally a gift hung up in a temple (Gr., _anatith[=e]mi_, to
+lay up), and dedicated to some god, a votive offering; but it gradually
+came to be used for _expulsion_, _curse_. The Roman Catholic Church
+pronounces the sentence of anathema against heretics, schismatics, and all
+who wilfully pursue a course of conduct condemned by the Church. The
+subject of the anathema is declared an outcast from the Church, all the
+faithful are forbidden to associate with him, and the utter destruction of
+his body and soul is foretold.
+
+ANAT'IDAE, a family of swimming birds, including the Ducks, Swans, Geese,
+&c.
+
+ANATO'LIA (from Gr. _anatol[=e]_, the sunrise, the Orient), the modern name
+of Asia Minor (q.v.).
+
+ANATOLIAN RAILWAY. See _Bagdad Railway, Turkey_.
+
+ANATOMY
+
+[Illustration]
+
+ANAT'OMY, in the literal sense, means simply a cutting up, but is now
+generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating
+the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view
+to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science
+which treats of the internal structure of organized bodies. By means of the
+dissection of the human body the surgeon and physician acquire the
+knowledge of the geography of the territory in which all their professional
+operations are carried on. _Comparative anatomy_ is the science which
+compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of
+man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes. The anatomy of an
+animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the
+succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult
+form (_developmental_ or _embryotical anatomy_); with reference to the
+general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (_general
+anatomy_, _histology_); with reference to the changes in structure of
+organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (_morbid_
+or _pathological anatomy_); or with reference to the function, use, or
+purpose performed by the organs or parts (_teleological_ or _physiological
+anatomy_). According to the parts of the body described, the different
+divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, _osteology_, the
+description of the bones; _myology_, of the muscles; _arthrology_, of the
+ligaments and sinews; _splanchnology_, of the viscera or internal organs,
+in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver,
+spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, &c. _Angiology_ describes the vessels
+through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the
+blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic
+vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are
+distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and
+carrying them back into the blood. _Neurology_ describes the system of the
+nerves and of the brain; _dermatology_ treats of the skin.--Among
+anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and
+preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be
+preserved (1) by macerating the body so as to obtain the bones of the
+skeleton; or (2) by treating the body or some part of it with alcohol,
+formalin, or other preservative, which renders its tissues imperishable.
+
+Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned
+Hippocrates the younger (460-377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B.C.),
+Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria (about 300 B.C.), Celsus (53
+B.C.-A.D. 37), and Galen of Pergamus (A.D. 130-200), the most celebrated of
+all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time till the revival
+of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its
+progress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed
+dissection, and published a _System of Anatomy_ which was a textbook in the
+schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of
+Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and
+many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth
+century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered
+the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the
+circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the
+Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned anatomists of later times we can only
+mention Malpighi, Boerhaave, William and John Hunter, the younger Meckel,
+Bichat, Rosenmueller, Quain, Sir A. Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Joh.
+Mueller, Gegenbaur, Owen, and Huxley.
+
+Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for
+enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for
+dissection. An Act of some years previously had, it is true, empowered a
+criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly-qualified persons
+the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was
+far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high
+prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice
+of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the
+notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a
+statute was passed in 1832, which was intended to make provision for the
+wants of surgeons, students, or other duly-qualified persons, by
+permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of
+persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, &c. The Act also
+appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and
+required persons practising the operations to obtain a licence. Relatives
+may effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though
+the deceased had expressed a desire for it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. J.
+Cunningham, _Textbook of Anatomy_; J. Quain, _Elements of Anatomy_; A. M.
+Buchanan, _Manual of Anatomy_; A. Thomson, _Anatomy for Art Students_.
+
+ANAXAG'ORAS, an ancient Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, born at
+Clazomenae, in Ionia, probably about 500 B.C. When only about twenty years
+of age he settled at Athens, and soon gained a high reputation, and
+gathered round him a circle of renowned pupils, including Pericles,
+Euripides, Socrates, &c. At the age of fifty he was publicly charged with
+impiety and condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual
+banishment. He thereupon went to Lampsacus, where he died about 428.
+Anaxagoras belonged to the atomic school of Ionic philosophers. He held
+that there was an infinite number of different kinds of elementary atoms,
+and that these, in themselves motionless and originally existing in a state
+of chaos, were put in motion by an eternal, immaterial, spiritual,
+elementary being, _Nous_ (Intelligence), from which motion the world was
+produced. His conception of _Nous_ as the first cause of movement marks a
+great advance in the history of philosophical thought, for he thus placed
+spirit above matter. The stars were, according to him, of earthy materials;
+the sun a glowing mass, about as large as the Peloponnesus; the earth was
+flat; the moon a dark, inhabitable body, receiving its light from the sun;
+the comets wandering stars.
+
+ANAXIMAN'DER, an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, was born at Miletus in
+611 B.C., and died 547. The fundamental principle of his philosophy is that
+the source of all things is an undefined substance infinite in quantity.
+The firmament is composed of heat and cold, the stars of air and fire. The
+sun occupies the highest place in the heavens, has a circumference
+twenty-eight times larger than the earth, and resembles a cylinder, from
+which streams of fire issue. The moon is likewise a cylinder, nineteen
+times larger than the earth. The earth has the shape of a cylinder, and is
+placed in the midst of the universe, where it remains suspended. His
+philosophy is thus a step in advance of the theories of Thales, the
+conception of the Infinite, however vague, being superior to the idea of
+water constituting the first principle of all things. Anaximander occupied
+himself a great deal with mathematics and geography. To him is credited the
+invention of geographical maps and the first application of the _gnomon_ or
+style fixed on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices and equinoxes.
+
+ANAXIMENES (an-aks-im'e-n[=e]z) OF MILETUS, an ancient Greek (Ionic)
+philosopher, according to whom air was the first principle of all things.
+Finite things were formed from the infinite air by compression and
+rarefaction produced by eternally existent motion; and heat and cold
+resulted from varying degrees of density of the primal element. He
+flourished about 550 B.C.
+
+ANBURY (an'be-ri) (called also CLUB-ROOT and FINGERS AND TOES), a disease
+in turnips, in which knobs or excrescences are formed on the root, which is
+then useless for feeding purposes. Some authorities distinguish anbury
+proper from 'fingers and toes' in turnips, setting it down as a distinct
+disease due to a fungus, while in the other case the roots simply assume a
+bad habit of growth through some unknown influence.
+
+ANCACHS ([.a]n-k[.a]ch'), a department of Peru, between the Andes and the
+Pacific; area, 16,562 sq. miles. Capital Hararaz. Pop. 500,000.
+
+ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, an ancient and widespread practice, displayed in its most
+characteristic form in modern China and ancient Rome, which apparently was
+based upon the belief that dead parents or ancestors, represented by images
+or 'ancestral tablets', could be revived by appropriate ceremonies, such as
+burning incense or offering libations, and give the benefit of their wisdom
+to their descendants who performed the vitalizing ritual and asked for
+their advice upon, or their sanction for, actions affecting the welfare of
+the family. The earliest deity was a dead king (Osiris), whose advice was
+sought by his son and successor. Hence in primitive religions, in which an
+endless variety of modifications of these more ancient beliefs has arisen,
+ancestor-worship may take the form of pious devotion to an actual ancestor
+or to a supernatural deity. As many of the most ancient gods were
+identified with animals, the dead ancestor, or his soul, is believed by
+many peoples to become incarnate in the appropriate animal, which is
+accorded the special veneration of a god or supernatural adviser, and set
+apart as sacred. Ancestor-worship still survives in a great variety of
+forms among various peoples.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive
+Culture_; F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_; D. G.
+Brinton, _Religions of Primitive Peoples_.
+
+ANCHISES (an-k[=i]'s[=e]z), the father of the Trojan hero Aeneas, who
+carried him off on his shoulders at the burning of Troy and made him the
+companion of his voyage to Italy. This voyage, which is not mentioned in
+the Homeric legend, is described by Virgil in his _Aeneid_. He died at
+Drepanum, in Sicily.
+
+[Illustration: Modern Stockless Anchor (Hall's Patent)]
+
+AN'CHOR, an implement for holding a ship or other vessel at rest in the
+water. In ancient times large stones or crooked pieces of wood heavily
+weighted with metal were used for this purpose. The anchor now used is of
+iron, formed with a strong _shank_, at one extremity of which is the
+_crown_, from which branch out two _arms_, terminating in broad _palms_ or
+_flukes_, the sharp extremity of which is the _peak_ or _bill_; at the
+other end of the shank is the _stock_ (fixed at right angles to the plane
+of the arms), behind which is the _ring_, to which a cable can be attached.
+The principal use of the stock is to cause the arms to fall so as one of
+the flukes shall enter the ground. Many anchors are made nowadays without a
+stock. The anchors of the largest size carried by men-of-war are the _best_
+and _small bowers_, the _sheet_, and the _spare_, to which are added the
+_stream_ and the _kedge_, which are used for anchoring in a stream or other
+sheltered place and for warping the vessel from one place to another. Many
+improvements and novelties in the shape and construction of anchors have
+been introduced within recent times. The principal names connected with
+those alterations are those of Lieutenant Rodgers, who introduced the
+_hollow-shanked anchor_ with the view of increasing the strength without
+adding to the weight; Porter, who made the arms and flukes movable by
+pivoting them to the stock instead of fixing them immovably, causing the
+anchor to take a readier and firmer hold, and avoiding the chance of the
+cable becoming foul; Trotman, who further improved on Porter's invention;
+and M. Martin, whose anchor is of very peculiar form, and is constructed so
+as to be self-canting, the arms revolving through an angle of 30deg either
+way, and the sharp points of the flukes being always ready to enter the
+ground.
+
+[Illustration: Type of Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, &c.]
+
+AN'CHORITES, or AN'CHORETS (Gr. _anachor[=e]tai_, persons who have
+withdrawn themselves from the world), in the early Church a class of
+religious persons who generally passed their lives in cells, from which
+they never removed. Their habitations were, in many instances, entirely
+separated from the abodes of other men, sometimes in the depth of
+wildernesses, in pits or caverns; at other times several of these
+individuals fixed their habitations in the vicinity of each other, but they
+always lived personally separate. The continual prevalence of fierce wars,
+civil commotions, and persecutions at the beginning of the Christian era
+must have made retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of
+quiet and contemplative minds. This spirit, however, soon led to fanatical
+excesses; many anchorites went without proper clothing, wore heavy chains,
+and we find at the close of the fourth century Simeon Stylites passing
+thirty years on the top of a column without ever descending from it, and
+finally dying there. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity became blended
+with the Grecian philosophy and strongly tinged with the peculiar notions
+of the East, the anchorites were most numerous; in Europe there were
+comparatively few, and on the development and establishment of the monastic
+system they completely disappeared. See _Asceticism_.
+
+ANCHOVY (an-ch[=o]'vi), a small fish of the Herring family, all the
+species, with exception of the common anchovy (_Engraulis
+encrasich[)o]lus_) and _E. meletta_ (both Mediterranean species),
+inhabitants of the tropical seas of India and America. The common anchovy,
+so esteemed for its rich and peculiar flavour, is not much larger than the
+middle finger. It is caught in vast numbers in the Mediterranean, and
+frequently on the coasts of France, Holland, and the south of England, and
+pickled for exportation. A favourite sauce is made by pounding the pickled
+fish in water, simmering for a short time, adding a little cayenne pepper,
+and straining the whole through a hair-sieve.
+
+ANCHO'VY-PEAR (_Grias caulifl[=o]ra_), a tree of the nat. ord. Myrtaceae, a
+native of Jamaica, growing to the height of 50 feet, with large leaves and
+large white flowers, and bearing a fruit somewhat bigger than a hen's egg,
+which is pickled and eaten like the mango, and strongly resembles it in
+taste.
+
+ANCHU'SA. See _Alkanet_.
+
+ANCHYLO'SIS. See _Ankylosis_.
+
+ANCIENT LIGHTS, in English law, windows or other openings which have been
+in existence for at least twenty years, and during that time have enjoyed
+the access of light without interruption, go that a right is established
+against the obstruction of the light by a neighbouring proprietor.
+
+ANCILLON ([.a][n.]-s[=e]-y[=o][n.]), Jean Pierre Frederic, an author and
+statesman of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1767 (where his father
+was pastor of the French reformed church); died there in 1837. He became
+professor of history in the military academy at Berlin, and in 1806 he was
+charged with the education of the crown-prince. He successively occupied
+several important offices of state, being at last appointed Minister of
+Foreign Affairs. He wrote on philosophy, history, and politics, partly in
+French, partly in German.
+
+ANCKARSTROEM. See _Ankarstroem_.
+
+ANCO'NA, a seaport of Italy, capital of the province of the same name, on
+the Adriatic, 130 miles N.E. of Rome, with harbour works begun by Trajan,
+who built the ancient mole or quay. A triumphal arch of white marble,
+erected in honour of Trajan, stands on the mole. Ancona is a station of the
+Italian fleet, and the commerce is increasing. The town is indifferently
+built, but has some remarkable edifices, among others, the cathedral. There
+is a colossal statue of Count Cavour. Ancona is said to have been founded
+about four centuries B.C., by Syracusan refugees. It fell into the hands of
+the Romans in the first half of the third century B.C., and became a Roman
+colony. Pop. 68,430. The province has an area of 748 sq. miles. Pop.
+333,381.
+
+ANCONA FOWL. See _Poultry_.
+
+ANCRE (ae[n.]-kr), Concino Concini, Marshal and Marquis d', was a native of
+Florence, and on the marriage of Marie de' Medici to Henri IV, in 1600,
+came in her suite to France, where he obtained rapid promotion, more
+especially after the assassination of the king (1610). He became
+successively Governor of Normandy, Marshal of France, and last of all,
+Prime Minister. Being thoroughly detested by all classes, at last a
+conspiracy was formed against him, and he was shot dead on the bridge of
+the Louvre in 1617.
+
+ANCRE, BATTLE OF. This battle was the final one in the British offensive in
+France in 1916. It began on 13th Nov. after a two day's preliminary
+bombardment of the German salient, on both sides of the River Ancre, from
+Beaumont-Hamel to St. Pierre Divion. One area of extraordinary strength was
+the Y ravine which stretches from Beaumont-Hamel plateau towards the river.
+The assaults on both banks of the river were vigorous and determined. A
+fierce struggle was waged in the Y ravine, which Scottish troops ultimately
+cleared with the bayonet. Beaumont-Hamel having fallen, the British line
+was extended well beyond it. Further gains were made on the following day.
+The prisoners captured numbered 7200. This brilliant action paved the way
+for further successes in the spring.
+
+AN'CUS MAR'CIUS, according to the traditionary history of Rome the fourth
+king of that city, who succeeded Tullus Hostilius, 638, and died 614 B.C.
+He was the son of Numa's daughter, and sought to imitate his grandfather by
+reviving the neglected observances of religion. He is said to have built
+the wooden bridge across the Tiber known as the Sublician, constructed the
+harbour of Ostia, and built the first Roman prison.
+
+ANCY'RA. See _Angora_.
+
+ANDALU'SIA (Sp. _Andalucia_), a large and fertile district in the south of
+Spain, bounded N. by Estremadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia, S. by the
+Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Portugal and the Atlantic; area, about 33,777
+sq. miles, comprising the modern provinces of Seville, Huelva, Cadiz, Jaen,
+Cordova, Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. It is traversed throughout its whole
+extent by ranges of mountains, the loftiest being the Sierra Nevada, many
+summits of which are covered with perpetual snow (Mulahacen is 11,678
+feet). Minerals abound, and several mines have been opened by English
+companies, especially in the province of Huelva, where the Tharsis and Rio
+Tinto copper-mines are situated. The principal river is the Guadalquivir.
+The vine, myrtle, olive, palm, banana, carob, &c., grow abundantly in the
+valley of the Guadalquivir. Wheat, maize, barley, and many varieties of
+fruit grow almost spontaneously; besides which, honey, silk, and cochineal
+form important articles of culture. The horses and mules are the best in
+the Peninsula; the bulls are sought for bull-fighting over all Spain; sheep
+are reared in vast numbers. Agriculture is in a backward state, and the
+manufactures are by no means extensive. The Andalusians are descended in
+part from the Moors, of whom they still preserve decided characteristics.
+Andalusia is still famous for its bull-fighters. Pop. 3,828,916.
+
+ANDALUSIAN FOWL. See _Poultry_.
+
+AN'DAMANS, a chain of islands on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, the
+principal being the North, Middle, South, and Little Andamans. Middle
+Andaman is about 60 miles long, and 15 or 16 miles broad; North and South
+Andaman are each about 50 miles long. The Andamanese, about 1315 in number
+(1911), are mostly in a state of nature, living almost naked in the rudest
+habitations. They are small (generally much less than 5 feet), well-formed,
+and active, skilful archers and canoeists, and excellent swimmers and
+divers. These islands have been used since 1858 as a penal settlement by
+the Indian Government, the settlement being at Port Blair, on South
+Andaman. Here rice, coffee, pineapples, nutmegs, &c., are grown, while the
+jungle has been cleared off the neighbouring hills. The natives in the
+vicinity of the settlement have become to some extent civilized. The
+climate is humid, but the settlement is healthy. Pop. 18,000.
+
+ANDANTE ([.a]n-d[.a]n't[=a]; It., 'at a walking pace'), in music, denotes a
+movement somewhat slow, graceful, distinct, and soothing. The word is also
+applied substantively to that part of a sonata or symphony having a
+movement of this character. In Handel's music one often meets the
+expression _andante allegro_, which is equivalent to _andante con moto_.
+
+ANDELYS, LES (l[=a]z [:a][n.]d-l[=e]z), two towns in France called
+respectively Grand and Petit Andely, distant half a mile from each other,
+in the department of Eure, on the right bank of the Seine, 19 miles S.E. of
+Rouen. Grand Andely dates from the sixth century, its church, built in the
+thirteenth century, is one of the finest in the department. Petit Andely
+owes its origin to Richard Coeur de Lion, who, in 1195, built here the
+Chateau Gaillard, in its time one of the strongest fortresses in France,
+but now wholly a ruin. Pop. 5530.
+
+ANDENNE', a town of Belgium, province of Namur, on the right bank of the
+Meuse and 10 miles east of Namur; manufactures delftware, porcelain,
+tobacco-pipes, paper, &c. Pop. 7803.
+
+ANDERNACH ([.a]n'der-n[.a]_ch_), a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the left
+bank of the Rhine, 10 miles N.W. of Coblentz, partly surrounded with walls.
+Pop. 9800.
+
+AN'DERSEN, Hans Christian, a Danish novelist, poet, and writer of fairy
+tales, was born of poor parents at Odense, 2nd April, 1805. He learned to
+read and write in a charity school, from which he was taken when only nine
+years old, and was put to work in a manufactory in order that his earnings
+might assist his widowed mother. In his leisure time he eagerly read
+national ballads, poetry, and plays, and wrote several tragedies full of
+sound and fury. In 1819 he went to Copenhagen, but failed in getting any of
+his plays accepted, and in securing an appointment at the theatre, having
+to content himself for some time with unsteady employment as a joiner. His
+abilities at last brought him under the notice of Councillor Collin, a man
+of considerable influence, who procured for him free entrance into a
+Government school at Slagelse. From this school he was transferred to the
+university, and soon became favourably known by his poetic works. Through
+the influence of Oehlenschlaeger and Ingermann he received a royal grant to
+enable him to travel, and in 1833 he visited Italy, his impressions of
+which he published in _The Improvvisatore_ (1835)--a work which rendered
+his fame European. The scene of his following novel, _O. T._, was laid in
+Denmark, and in _Only a Fiddler_ he described his own early struggles. In
+1835 appeared the first volume of his _Fairy Tales_, of which successive
+volumes continued to be published year by year at Christmas, and which have
+been the most popular and widespread of his works. Among his other works
+are _Picture-books without Pictures_--conversations of the author with the
+moon, who came to visit the poet in his garret; _A Poet's Bazaar_--the
+result of a voyage in 1840 to the East; and a number of dramas. In 1845 he
+received an annuity from the Government. He visited England in 1848, and
+acquired such a command of the language that his next work, _The Two
+Baronesses_, was written in English. In 1855 he published an autobiography,
+under the title _My Life's Romance_, an English translation of which,
+published in 1871, contained additional chapters by the author, bringing
+the narrative to 1867. Among his later works we may mention, _To Be or Not
+To Be_ (1857); _Tales from Jutland_ (1859); _The Ice Maiden_ (1863). He
+died 4th Aug, 1875, having had the pleasure of seeing many of his works
+translated into most of the European languages.
+
+ANDERSON, a town of the United States, Indiana, on the west branch of White
+River, 32 miles north-east of Indianapolis, with various manufacturing
+works. Pop. 23,856.
+
+ANDERSON, Elizabeth Garrett, M.D., born in 1836, maiden name Garrett,
+married Mr. J. S. Anderson of the Orient Line of steamers. She studied
+medicine, but met with many obstacles, the study of medicine by women being
+then discouraged on all hands; at last she was licensed to practise by the
+Apothecaries' Society in 1865, and afterwards passed examinations at the
+University of Paris and obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine. From
+1866 to 1890 she was senior physician to the New Hospital for Women; from
+1876 to 1898 lecturer on medicine in the London School of Medicine for
+Women. She did much to aid in opening the medical profession to women. In
+1908 she was elected Mayor of Aldeburgh, being the first woman to hold the
+position of mayor in England. She died on 17th Dec., 1917. Her daughter
+Louisa Garrett Anderson, born in 1873, went to France in 1914 as Joint
+Organiser of and Chief Surgeon to the Women's Hospital Corps, Voluntary
+Unit.
+
+ANDERSON, James, a Scottish writer on political and rural economy, born at
+Hermiston in 1739, died in 1808. In 1790 he started the _Bee_, which ran to
+eighteen volumes, and contains many useful papers on agricultural,
+economical, and other topics. Some of his other publications, _Recreations
+in Agriculture_, _Natural History_, &c., contain anticipations of theories
+afterwards propounded by Malthus and Ricardo.
+
+ANDERSON, John, F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy in the University
+of Glasgow, born 1726, died 1796. By his will he directed that the whole of
+his effects should be devoted to the establishment of an educational
+institution in Glasgow, to be denominated _Anderson's University_, for the
+use of the unacademical classes. According to the design of the founder,
+there were to be four colleges--for arts, medicine, law, and
+theology--besides an initiatory school. As the funds, however, were totally
+inadequate to the plan, it was at first commenced with only a single course
+of lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry. The institution gradually
+enlarged its sphere of instruction, coming nearer and nearer to the
+original design of its founder, the medical school in particular possessing
+a high reputation. In 1886 it was incorporated with other institutions to
+form the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College (now Glasgow Royal
+Technical College), Anderson's College medical school, however, retaining a
+distinct position.
+
+ANDERSON, Joseph, Scottish antiquary, born in 1832, became a school
+teacher, was for some years newspaper editor, and in 1870 was appointed
+keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. His chief works
+embody the lectures delivered by him as Rhind lecturer in archaeology to
+the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland: _Scotland in Early Christian
+Times_, _Scotland in Pagan Times_, and the _Early Christian Monuments of
+Scotland_. He also edited _The Orkneyinga Saga_, _The Oliphants in
+Scotland_, and Drummond's _Ancient Scottish Weapons_. He died in 1916.
+
+ANDERSON, Robert, M.D., Scottish biographical writer, born 1750, died 1830.
+He furnished biographical and critical notices for _A Complete Edition of
+the Poets of Great Britain_ (1792-5), and was for a time editor of the
+_Edinburgh Magazine_.
+
+ANDERSSON, Carl Jan, an African traveller, born in Sweden in 1827, died in
+the land of the Ovampos, in Western Africa, in July, 1867. He published
+_Lake Ngami, or Discoveries in South Africa_ (London, 2 vols., 1856), and
+_The Okavango River_ (London, 1861). The observations of his last voyage
+were published in 1875 in _Notes of Travel in South Africa_.
+
+ANDES (an'd[=e]z), or, as they are called in Spanish South America,
+CORDILLERAS (ridges) DE LOS ANDES, or simply CORDILLERAS, a range of
+mountains stretching along the whole of the west coast of South America,
+from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama and the Caribbean Sea. In absolute
+length (4500 miles) no single chain of mountains approaches the Andes, and
+only a certain number of the higher peaks of the Himalayan chain rise
+higher above the sea-level; which peak is the highest of all is not yet
+settled. Several main sections of this huge chain are distinguishable. The
+Southern Andes present a lofty main chain, with a minor chain running
+parallel to it on the east, reaching from Tierra del Fuego and the Straits
+of Magellan, northward to about lat. 28deg S., and rising in Aconcagua to a
+height of 23,080 feet. North of this is the double chain of the Central
+Andes, enclosing the wide and lofty plateaus of Bolivia and Peru, which lie
+at an elevation of more than 12,000 feet above the sea. The mountain system
+is here at its broadest, being about 500 miles across. Here are also
+several very lofty peaks, as Illampu or Sorata (21,484 feet), Sahama
+(21,054 feet), Illimani (21,024 feet). Farther north the outer and inner
+ranges draw closer together, and in Ecuador there is but a single system of
+elevated masses, generally described as forming two parallel chains. In
+this section are crowded together a number of lofty peaks, most of them
+volcanoes, either extinct or active. Of the latter class are Pichincha
+(15,918 feet), with a crater 2500 feet deep; Tunguragua (16,685 feet);
+Sangay (17,460 feet); and Cotopaxi (19,550 feet). The loftiest summit here
+appears to be Chimborazo (20,581 feet); others are Antisana (19,260 feet)
+and Cayambe (19,200 feet). Northward of this section the Andes break into
+three distinct ranges, the east-most running north-eastward into Venezuela,
+the westmost running north-westward to the Isthmus of Panama. In the
+central range is the volcano of Tolima (17,660 feet). The western slope of
+the Andes is generally exceedingly steep, the eastern much less so, the
+mountains sinking gradually to the plains. The whole range gives evidence
+of volcanic action, but it consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks.
+Thus mountains may be found rising to the height of over 20,000 feet, and
+fossiliferous to their summits (as Illimani and Sorata or Illampu). There
+are about thirty volcanoes in a state of activity. The loftiest of these
+burning mountains seems to be Gualateiri, in Peru (21,960 feet). The
+heights of the others vary from 13,000 to 20,000 feet. All the districts of
+the Andes system have suffered severely from earthquakes, towns having been
+either destroyed or greatly injured by these visitations. Peaks crowned
+with perpetual snow are seen all along the range, and glaciers are also met
+with, more especially from Aconcagua southwards. The passes are generally
+at a great height, the most important being from 10,000 to 15,000 feet.
+Railways have been constructed to cross the chain at a similar elevation.
+The Andes are extremely rich in the precious metals, gold, silver, copper,
+platinum, mercury, and tin all being wrought; lead and iron are also found.
+The llama and kindred species--the guanaco, vicuna, and alpaca--are
+characteristic of the Andes. Among birds, the condor is the most
+remarkable. The vegetation necessarily varies much according to elevation,
+latitude, rainfall, &c., but generally is rich and varied. Except in the
+south and north little rain falls on the western side of the range, and in
+the centre there is a considerable desert area. On the east side the
+rainfall is heavy in the equatorial regions, but in the south is very
+scanty or altogether deficient. From the Andes rise two of the largest
+water systems of the world--the Amazon and its affluents, and the La Plata
+and its affluents. Besides which, in the north, from its slopes flow the
+Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some tributaries to the Orinoco. The
+mountain chain pressing so close upon the Pacific Ocean, no streams of
+importance flow from its western slopes. The number of lakes is not great;
+the largest and most important is that of Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau.
+In the Andes are towns at a greater elevation than anywhere else in the
+world, the highest being the silver-mining town of Cerro de Pasco (14,270
+feet), the next being Potosi.
+
+AN'DESIN, a kind of felspar containing both soda and lime, and named from
+being first obtained in the Andes.
+
+AN'DESITE, a name given to a crystalline volcanic rock or group of rocks of
+very wide occurrence, consisting mostly of felspar mixed with other
+ingredients, especially hornblende and augite, often also hypersthene and
+mica, the four chief varieties being named accordingly. Andesite is often
+porphyritic in character, with large crystals of felspar scattered through
+it. These rocks are commonly eruptive products of volcanoes of the tertiary
+or more recent periods, and the name was given by C. L. von Buch on account
+of their prevalence in the lavas of volcanoes of the Andes. The Ochils and
+other hills of middle Scotland largely consist of andesite.
+
+ANDIJAN', a town of Russian Turkestan, Ferghana, south of the Syr-Darya, a
+terminus of the Transcaspian Railway, 73 miles north-east of Khokand. Pop.
+82,235.
+
+ANDI'RA, a genus of leguminous American trees, with fleshy plum-like
+fruits. The wood is suitable for building purposes. The bark of _A.
+inermis_, or cabbage tree, is narcotic, and is used as an anthelminthic
+under the name of _worm-bark_ or _cabbage bark_. The powdered bark of _A.
+arar[=o]ba_ is used as a remedy in certain skin diseases, as herpes.
+
+ANDIRON (and'[=i]-[.e]rn), a horizontal iron bar raised on short legs, with
+an upright standard at one end, used to support pieces of wood when burning
+in an open hearth, one andiron being placed on either side of the hearth.
+
+ANDKHOO, or ANDKHOUI ([.a]nd-_h_[:o]', [.a]nd-_h_oe'i), a town of
+Afghanistan, about 200 miles south of Bokhara, on the commercial route to
+Herat. Pop. estimated at 15,000.
+
+ANDOCIDES (an-dos'i-d[=e]z), an Athenian orator, born about 440 B.C., died
+about 393 B.C. He took an active part in public affairs, and was four times
+exiled; the first time along with Alcibiades, for profaning the Eleusinian
+mysteries. Several of his orations are extant, one called _On the
+Mysteries_ being the best.
+
+ANDOR'RA, or ANDORRE', a small nominally independent State in the Pyrenees,
+south of the French department of Ariege, with an area of about 191 sq.
+miles. It has been a separate State for six hundred years, is governed by
+its own civil and criminal codes, and has its own courts of justice, the
+laws being administered by two judges, one of whom is chosen by France, the
+other by the Bishop of Urgel, in Spain. The little State pays an annual due
+of 960 francs to France, and 460 pesetas to the Bishop of Urgel. The chief
+industry is the rearing of sheep and cattle. The commerce is largely in
+importing contraband goods into Spain. The inhabitants, who speak the
+Catalan dialect of Spanish, are simple in their manners, their wealth
+consisting mainly of cattle and sheep. The village of Old Andorra is the
+capital. Pop. 5231.
+
+AN'DOVER, a town in England, in Hants, 12 miles north by west of
+Winchester, with a fine church, and a trade in corn, malt, &c. Interesting
+Roman remains have been found in the vicinity. Pop. (1921), 8569.
+
+AN'DOVER, a town in Massachusetts, 25 miles N.N.W. of Boston, chiefly
+remarkable for its literary institutions--Phillip's Academy, founded in
+1778; the Andover Theological Seminary, founded in 1807; and Abbot Academy,
+a girls' school, founded in 1829. Pop. 7300.
+
+ANDRASSY ([.a]n-drae'sh[=e]), Count Julius, Hungarian statesman, born 1823,
+died in 1890. He took part in the revolution of 1848, was condemned to
+death, but escaped and went into exile. He was appointed Premier when
+self-government was restored to Hungary in 1867; became imperial Minister
+for Foreign Affairs in 1871, but retired from public life in 1879.
+
+ANDRASSY, Julius, Hungarian statesman, son of the preceding. He was born in
+1860, and entered the Reichstag in 1884. He became Minister of the Interior
+in 1906, and retained that office until 1909. In 1912 he represented
+Austria at the conference on the Balkan question. In 1918 he was appointed
+Minister for Foreign Affairs, but soon resigned.
+
+ANDRE (an'dr[=a]), Major John, adjutant-general in the British army during
+the American revolutionary war. Employed to negotiate the defection of the
+American general Arnold, and the delivery of the works at West Point, he
+was apprehended in disguise, 23rd Sept., 1780, within the American lines;
+declared a spy from the enemy, and hanged 2nd Oct., 1780. His remains were
+brought to England in 1821 and interred in Westminster Abbey, where a
+monument has been erected to his memory.
+
+ANDREA DEL SARTO. See _Sarto_.
+
+ANDREAE ([.a]n'dre-[=a]), Johann Valentin, German author, born 1586, died
+1654. He was the author of numerous tracts, several of them of an amusing
+and satirical character. He was long believed to be the founder of the
+celebrated Rosicrucian order, an opinion that received a certain support
+from some of his works, but in all probability the real intention of the
+writer was to ridicule the folly of contemporary alchemists.
+
+AN'DREASBERG, ST., a mining town of the Harz Mountains, in Prussia, 57
+miles S.S.E. of Hanover. Pop. about 4000.
+
+ANDREEV, Leonid Nicolaievitsh, Russian author, born in 1871, died in 1919.
+He studied law at the Universities of Moscow and Petrograd, but finding his
+practice unremunerative he became a police-court reporter for a daily
+paper. At the age of twenty-three he attempted suicide, driven to it by his
+miserable circumstances and struggle for existence. His first story, _About
+a Poor Student_, based upon his own experiences, attracted but little
+attention, and his literary career really began when Gorky discovered his
+talent. He was one of the most prolific Russian writers, the short story
+being his speciality. He was a mystic and a fatalist, like so many of his
+compatriots. His works include: _The Red Laugh_ (1905); _The Seven who were
+Hanged_ (1909); _Judas Iscariot and the Others_ (1910); _A Dilemma_ (1910);
+_Silence and Other Stories_, &c. His works have been translated into many
+European languages.
+
+ANDREW, ST., brother of St. Peter, and the first disciple whom Christ
+chose. He is said to have preached in Scythia, in Thrace and Asia Minor,
+and in Achaia (Greece), and according to tradition he was crucified by
+order of the Roman governor Aegeas at Patrae, now Patras, in Achaia, on a
+cross of the form X (decussate cross), now known as a St. Andrew's cross.
+The Russians revere him as the apostle who brought the gospel to them; the
+Scots, as the patron saint of their country. The day dedicated to him is
+30th Nov. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted by Peter the Great
+in 1698. For the Scottish Knights of St. Andrew or the Thistle, see
+_Thistle_.
+
+AN'DREWES, Lancelot, an eminent and learned bishop of the English Church,
+born in London in 1555, died at Winchester 1626; was high in favour both
+with Queen Elizabeth and James I. In 1605 he became Bishop of Chichester;
+in 1609 was translated to Ely, and appointed one of the king's
+privy-councillors; and in 1618 he was translated to Winchester. He was one
+of those engaged in preparing the authorized version of the Scriptures. He
+left sermons, lectures, and other writings.
+
+AN'DREWS, ST., an ancient city and parliamentary burgh in Fifeshire,
+Scotland, 31 miles north-east from Edinburgh; was erected into a royal
+burgh by David I in 1140, and after having been an episcopal, became an
+archiepiscopal see in 1472, and was for long the ecclesiastical capital of
+Scotland. The cathedral, now in ruins, was begun about 1160, and took 157
+years to finish. The old castle, founded about 1200, and rebuilt in the
+fourteenth century, is also an almost shapeless ruin. In it James III was
+born and Cardinal Beaton assassinated, and in front of it George Wishart
+was burned. There are several other interesting ruins. The trade and
+manufactures are of no importance, but the town is in favour as a
+watering-place. Golf is much played here. Pop. 7597.--The _University of
+St. Andrews_, the oldest of the Scottish universities, founded in 1411,
+consists of the united colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard and the
+college of St. Mary, both at St. Andrews, and embraces also University
+College, Dundee. In 1579 the colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard were
+restricted to the teaching of arts and medicine, and that of St. Mary to
+theology. In 1747 the two former colleges were united by Act of Parliament.
+University College, Dundee, was founded in 1880. The united college of St.
+Salvator and St. Leonard has a principal (who is also principal of the
+university) and twelve professors, and the college of St. Mary has a
+principal and four professors. Degrees, open to women as well as men, are
+conferred in arts, divinity, science, medicine, and law; and the university
+also confers the diploma and title of L.L.A. (Lady Literate in Arts). The
+number of students is 420. In connection with the university is a library,
+founded in 1612 and containing about 150,000 printed volumes and 150 MSS.
+The university unites with the other three Scottish universities in
+returning three members to Parliament. Madras College or Academy, founded
+by Dr. Bell of Madras, the principal secondary school of the place,
+provides accommodation for upwards of 1500 scholars.
+
+AN'DREWS, Thomas, chemist, was born at Belfast in 1813; studied chemistry
+at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson, and for a short time in Paris; then
+medicine at Belfast, Dublin, and Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.D. at
+the last place. After practising and teaching chemistry for ten years in
+Belfast, he became vice-president of the Northern College there, which in
+1849 was converted into Queen's College, and Andrews now became professor
+of chemistry in the college, a post which he held till 1879. He died in
+1885, having received various academic distinctions in the course of his
+life. His name is associated with valuable researches on the heat of
+chemical combustion, and on the nature of ozone, but especially with the
+discovery of the existence of a critical temperature for every gas, above
+which it cannot be liquefied by any pressure, however great. He wrote many
+scientific papers, which have been published in a collective form by P. G.
+Tait and A. Crum Brown.
+
+AN'DRIA, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, with a fine cathedral,
+founded in 1046; the Church of Sant' Agostino, with a beautiful Pointed
+Gothic portal; a college; manufactures of majolica, and a good trade. Pop.
+53,274.
+
+ANDROCLUS, or ANDROCLES, a Roman slave who once pulled a thorn out of a
+lion's paw and dressed the wound. Androclus was afterwards condemned to be
+thrown to the lions in the Circus Maximus, and encountered the same lion
+that he had helped; the beast, instead of attacking him, fawned on him and
+caressed him. The story is told by Aulus Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, v, 14.
+
+ANDROE'CIUM, in botany, the male system of a flower; the aggregate of the
+stamens.
+
+ANDROMACHE (an-drom'a-k[=e]), in Greek legend, wife of Hector, and one of
+the most attractive women of Homer's _Iliad_. The passage describing her
+parting with Hector, when he was setting out to battle, is well known and
+much admired (_Iliad_, vi, 369-502). Euripides and Racine have made her the
+chief character of tragedies.
+
+ANDROM'[)E]DA, in Greek mythology, daughter of the Ethiopian king Cepheus
+and of Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia having boasted that her daughter surpassed
+the Nereids, if not H[=e]ra (Juno) herself, in beauty, the offended
+goddesses prevailed on their father, Poseid[=o]n (Neptune), to afflict the
+country with a horrid sea-monster, which threatened universal destruction.
+To appease the offended god, Andromeda was chained to a rock, but was
+rescued by Perseus; and after death was changed into a constellation. The
+legend forms the subject of tragedies by Euripides and Sophocles, and Ovid
+introduced it into his _Metamorphoses_.
+
+ANDROM'EDA. See _Ericaceae_.
+
+ANDRONI'CUS, the name of four emperors of Constantinople.--ANDRONICUS I,
+Comnenus, born 1110, murdered 1185.--ANDRONICUS II, Palaeologus, born 1258,
+died 1332. His reign is celebrated for the invasion of the
+Turks.--ANDRONICUS III, Palaeologus the Younger, born 1296, died
+1341.--ANDRONICUS IV, Palaeologus, reigned in the absence of John IV. In
+1373 he gave way to his brother Manuel, and died a monk.
+
+ANDRONI'CUS, Livius, the most ancient of the Latin dramatic poets;
+flourished about 240 B.C.; by origin a Greek, and long a slave. A few
+fragments of his works have come down to us.
+
+ANDRONI'CUS of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher who lived at Rome in the
+time of Cicero. He arranged Aristotle's works in much the same form as they
+retain in present editions.
+
+ANDRONI'CUS CYRRHESTES (sir-es't[=e]z), a Greek architect about 100 B.C.,
+who constructed at Athens the Tower of the Winds, an octagonal building,
+still standing. On the top was a Triton, which indicated the direction of
+the wind. Each of the sides had a sort of dial, and the building formerly
+contained a clepsydra or water-clock.
+
+ANDROPO'GON, a large genus of grasses, mostly natives of warm countries.
+_A. Schoenanthus_ is the sweet-scented lemon-grass of conservatories.
+Others also are fragrant.
+
+AN'DROS (now ANDRO), one of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, the
+most northerly of the Cyclades; about 25 miles long and 6 or 7 broad; area,
+100 sq. miles. A considerable trade is done in silk, wine, olives, figs,
+oranges, and lemons. Andro or Castro, the capital, has a good port. Pop.
+18,809.
+
+ANDROS ISLANDS, a group of isles belonging to the Bahamas, lying south-west
+of New Providence, not far from the east entrance to the Gulf of Florida.
+The passages through them are dangerous. Pop. 7545.
+
+ANDRUSSOVO, a Russian village in the government of Smolensk. A treaty was
+signed here between Poland and Russia (1667).
+
+ANDUJAR ([.a]n-_d_oe-_h_aer'), a town in Spain, in Andalusia, 50 miles
+E.N.E. of Cordova, on the Guadalquivir, which is here crossed by a fine
+bridge; manufactures a peculiar kind of porous earthen water-bottles and
+jugs (_alcarazas_). Pop. 16,500.
+
+AN'ECDOTE, originally some particular about a subject not noticed in
+previous works on that subject; now any particular or detached incident or
+fact of an interesting nature; a single passage of private life.
+
+ANEGA'DA, a British West Indian island, the most northern of the Virgin
+group, 10 miles long by 4-1/2 broad; contains numerous salt ponds, from
+which quantities of salt are obtained. Pop. 200.
+
+ANELECTRIC, a body not easily electrified.
+
+ANELECTRODE, the positive pole of a galvanic battery.
+
+[Illustration: Beckley's Improved Robinson Cup Anemometer]
+
+ANEMOM'ETER (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind, _metron_, measure), an instrument for
+measuring the force and velocity of the wind. This force is usually
+measured by the pressure of the wind upon a square plate attached to one
+end of a spiral spring (with its axis horizontal), which yields more or
+less according to the force of the wind, and transmits its motion to a
+pencil which leaves a trace upon paper moved by clockwork. Various
+instruments have been devised for this purpose, but the one most commonly
+adopted by meteorological stations is after the type invented by Dr.
+Robinson of Armagh. It consists of four hemispherical cups A attached to
+the ends of equal horizontal arms, forming a horizontal cross which turns
+freely about a vertical axis B. By means of an endless screw carried by the
+axis a train of wheelwork is set in motion; and the indication is given by
+a hand which moves round a dial; or in some instruments by several hands
+moving round different dials like those of a gas-meter. It is found that
+the centre of each cup moves with a velocity which is almost exactly
+one-third of that of the wind. There are various other forms of the
+instrument, one of which is portable, and is especially intended for
+measuring the velocity of currents of air passing through mines, and the
+ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public buildings. The direction
+of the wind as indicated by a vane can also be made to leave a continuous
+record by various contrivances; one of the most common being a pinion
+carried by the shaft of a vane, and driving a rack which carries a pencil.
+
+ANEM'[)O]N[=E] (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind), wind-flower, a genus of plants
+belonging to the Buttercup family (Ranunculaceae), containing about ninety
+species, found in temperate regions, three of them occurring in Britain:
+the white-flowered (_A. nemor[=o]sa_), the only one truly native; the
+blue-flowered (_A. apenn[=i]na_); and the yellow-flowered (_A.
+ranunculoides_), a common European species naturalized in some parts of
+Britain. Several species are cultivated as florists' flowers.
+
+ANEMOPH'ILOUS, said of flowers that are fertilized by the wind conveying
+the pollen.
+
+ANEM'OSCOPE, any contrivance indicating the direction of the wind;
+generally applied to a vane which turns a spindle descending through the
+roof to a chamber where, by means of a compass-card and index, the
+direction of the wind is shown.
+
+ANEROID BAROMETER. See _Barometer_.
+
+ANE'THUM, a genus of plants; dill.
+
+ANEU'RIN, a poet and prince of the Cambrian Britons who flourished in the
+seventh century, author of an epic poem, the _Gododin_, relating the defeat
+of the Britons of Strathclyde by the Saxons at the battle of Cattraeth. See
+_Celtic Literature_.
+
+AN'EURISM, or ANEURYSM (Gr. _aneurysma_, a widening), the dilatation or
+expansion of some part of an artery. Aneurisms arise partly from the too
+violent motion of the blood, and partly from degenerative changes occurring
+in the coats of the artery, diminishing their elasticity. They are
+therefore more frequent in the great branches; in particular, in the
+vicinity of the heart, in the arch of the aorta, and in the extremities,
+where the arteries are exposed to frequent injuries by stretching, violent
+bodily exertions, thrusts, falls, and contusions. An internal aneurism may
+burst and cause death.
+
+ANGARA', a Siberian river which flows into Lake Baikal at its N. extremity,
+and leaves it near the S.W. end, joining the Yenisei as the Lower Angara or
+Upper Tunguska.
+
+ANGEL (Gr. _angelos_, a messenger), one of those spiritual intelligences
+who are regarded as dwelling in Heaven and employed as the ministers or
+agents of God. To these the name of good angels is sometimes given, to
+distinguish them from bad angels, who were originally created to occupy the
+same blissful abode, but lost it by rebellion. The Old Testament represents
+them as messengers of the Divine will, and Christ spoke of them more than
+once (_St. Matt._ xviii, 10; _St. Luke_, xv, 10). Generally, however,
+Scripture speaks of angels with great reserve, Michael and Gabriel alone
+being mentioned by name in the canonical books, while Raphael is mentioned
+in the Apocrypha. The angels are represented in Scripture as in the most
+elevated state of intelligence, purity, and bliss, ever doing the will of
+God so perfectly that we can seek for nothing higher or better than to aim
+at being like them. There are indications of a diversity of rank and power
+among them, and something like angelic orders--Michael, Gabriel, Raphael,
+Uriel, &c., seraphim and cherubim. They are represented as frequently
+taking part in communications made from heaven to earth, as directly and
+actively ministering to the good of believers, and shielding or delivering
+them from evils incident to their earthly lot. That every person has a good
+and a bad angel attendant on him was an early belief, and is held to some
+extent yet. Roman Catholics, since St. Ambrosius, who died in 397, show a
+certain veneration or worship to angels, and beg their prayers and their
+kind offices. The New Testament, however, formally forbidding such
+veneration (_Col._ ii, 18, &c.), Protestants consider this unlawful.
+
+[Illustration: Angel of Queen Elizabeth]
+
+ANGEL, a gold coin introduced into England in the reign of Edward IV, and
+coined down to the Commonwealth, so named from having the representation of
+the archangel Michael piercing a dragon upon it. It had different values in
+different reigns, varying from 6s. 8d. to 10s.
+
+ANGEL-FISH, a fish, _Squat[=i]na ang[)e]lus_, nearly allied to the sharks,
+very ugly and voracious, preying on other fish. It is from 6 to 8 feet
+long, and takes its name from its pectoral fins, which are very large,
+extending horizontally like wings when spread. This fish connects the rays
+with the sharks, but it differs from both in having its mouth placed at the
+extremity of the head. It is common on the south coasts of Britain, and is
+also called _Monk-fish_ and _Fiddle-fish_.
+
+ANGEL'ICA, a genus of umbelliferous plants, one of which, _A. sylvestris_,
+a tall plant bearing large umbels of white flowers tinged with pink, is
+common in wet places in Britain, and was formerly believed to possess
+_angelic_ properties as an antidote to poison, a specific against
+witchcraft, &c. The name is also given to an allied plant, the
+_Archangelica officin[=a]lis_, found on the banks of rivers and ditches in
+the north of Europe, once generally cultivated as an esculent, and still
+valued for its medicinal properties. It has a large fleshy aromatic root,
+and a strong-furrowed branched stem as high as a man. It is cultivated for
+its agreeable aromatic odour and carminative properties. Its blanched
+stems, candied with sugar, form a very agreeable sweetmeat, possessing
+tonic and stomachic qualities.
+
+ANGELICO ([.a]n-jel'i-k[=o]), FRA, the common appellation of _Fra Giovanni
+da Fiesole_, one of the most celebrated of the early Italian painters. Born
+1387, he entered the Dominican order in 1407, and was employed by Cosmo de'
+Medici in painting the monastery of St. Mark and the church of St.
+Annunziata with frescoes. These pictures gained him so much celebrity that
+Pope Nicholas V invited him to Rome to ornament his private chapel in the
+Vatican, and offered him the archbishopric of Florence, which Angelico
+declined. He died at, Rome 1455. He has been called the 'painter of
+seraphic dreams'. His works were considered unrivalled in finish and in
+sweetness and harmony of colour, and were made the models for religious
+painters of his own and succeeding generations.
+
+ANGELN ([.a]ng'eln), a district in Schleswig of about 300 sq. miles,
+bounded N. by the Bay of Flensburg, S. by the Schlei, E. by the Baltic, the
+only continental territory which has retained the name of the Angles.
+
+ANGELO ([.a]n'je-l[=o]), Michael. See _Buonarotti_.
+
+AN'GELUS, in the Roman Catholic Church, a short form of prayer in honour of
+the incarnation, consisting mainly of versicles and responses, the angelic
+salutation three times repeated, and a collect, so named from the word with
+which it commences, '_Angelus_ Domini' (Angel of the Lord). Hence, also,
+the bell tolled in the morning, at noon, and in the evening to indicate the
+time when the angelus is to be recited. The prayer is attributed to St.
+Bonaventura, and in Germany and Italy it is called 'Ave Maria'.
+
+ANGERMANN (ong'er-m[.a]n), a Swedish river which falls into the Gulf of
+Bothnia, noted for its fine scenery. It is navigable for nearly 70 miles
+for vessels of 600 tons.
+
+ANGERMUENDE ([.a]ng'er-muen-de), a town in Prussia, on Lake Muende, 42
+miles north-east of Berlin. Pop. 8200.
+
+ANGERS ([.a][n.]-zh[=a]), a town and river-port of France, capital of the
+department of Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of the province of Anjou, on the
+banks of the Maine, 5-1/2 miles from the Loire, 150 miles south-west of
+Paris. It has an old castle, built by Louis IX, once a place of great
+strength, now used as a prison, barrack, and powder-magazine; a fine
+cathedral of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with very fine old
+painted windows; is the seat of a bishop, and has a school of arts and
+manufactures; a public library, an art-gallery, a large modern hospital,
+the remains of a hospital founded by Henry II of England in 1155; courts of
+law, theatre, &c. It manufactures sail-cloth, hosiery, leather, and
+chemicals; foundries, &c. In the neighbourhood are immense slate-quarries.
+Pop. 83,786.
+
+ANGEVINS (an'je-vins), natives of Anjou, often applied to the race of
+English sovereigns called Plantagenets (q.v.). Anjou became connected with
+England by the marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, with Geoffrey V,
+Count of Anjou. The Angevin kings of England were Henry II, Richard I,
+John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and Richard II.
+
+ANGILBERT, ST., the most celebrated poet of his age, secretary and friend
+of Charlemagne, whose daughter, Bertha, he married. In the latter part of
+his life he retired to a monastery, of which he became abbot. Died 814.
+
+ANGINA PECTORIS (an'ji-na pek'to-ris), or HEART-SPASM, a disease
+characterized by an extremely acute constriction, felt generally in the
+lower part of the sternum, and extending along the whole side of the chest
+and into the corresponding arm, a sense of suffocation, faintness, and
+apprehension of approaching death: seldom experienced by any but those with
+organic heart-disease. The disease rarely occurs before middle age, and is
+more frequent in men than in women. Those liable to attack must lead a
+quiet, temperate life, avoiding all scenes which would unduly rouse their
+emotions. The first attack is occasionally fatal, but usually death occurs
+as the result of repeated seizures. The paroxysm may be relieved by
+opiates, or the inhalation, under due precaution, of anaesthetic vapours.
+
+ANGIOSPERM (an'ji-o-sp[.e]rm), a term for any plant which has its seeds
+enclosed in a seed-vessel. Exogens are divided into those whose seeds are
+enclosed in a seed-vessel, and those with seeds produced and ripened
+without the production of a seed-vessel. The former are _angiosperms_, and
+constitute the principal part of the species; the latter are _gymnosperms_,
+and chiefly consist of the Coniferae and Cycadaceae.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+ANGLE, the point where two lines meet, or the meeting of two lines in a
+point. A _plane rectilineal angle_ is formed by two straight lines which
+meet one another, but are not in the same straight line; it may be
+considered the degree of opening or divergence of the two straight lines
+which thus meet one another. A _right angle_ is an angle formed by a
+straight line falling on another perpendicularly, or an angle which is
+measured by an arc of 90 degrees. When a straight line, as A B (fig. 1),
+standing on another straight line C D, makes the two angles A B C and A B D
+equal to one another, each of these angles is called a _right angle_. An
+_acute angle_ is that which is less than a right angle, as E B C. An
+_obtuse angle_ is that which is greater than a right angle, as E B D. Acute
+and obtuse angles are both called _oblique_, in opposition to right angles.
+_Exterior_ or _external angles_, the angles of any rectilineal figure
+without it, made by producing the sides; thus, if the sides A B, B C, C A
+of the triangle A B C (fig. 2) be produced to the points F D E, the angles
+C B F, A C D, B A E are called _exterior_ or _external angles_. A _solid
+angle_ is that which is made by more than two plane angles meeting in one
+point and not lying in the same plane, as the angle of a cube. A _spherical
+angle_ is an angle on the surface of a sphere, contained between the arcs
+of two great circles which intersect each other.
+
+ANGLER (_Lophius piscatorius_), also from its habits and appearance called
+FISHING-FROG and SEA-DEVIL, a remarkable fish often found on the British
+coasts. It is from 3 to 5 feet long; the head is very wide, depressed, with
+protuberances, and bearing long separate movable tendrils; the mouth is
+capacious, and armed with formidable teeth. Its voracity is extreme, and it
+is said to lie concealed in the mud, and attract the smaller fishes within
+its reach by gently waving the filamentous appendages on its head.
+
+ANGLES, a Low German tribe who in the earliest historical period had their
+seats in the district about Angeln, in the duchy of Schleswig, and who in
+the fifth century and subsequently crossed over to Britain along with bands
+of Saxons and Jutes (and probably Frisians also), and colonized a great
+part of what from them has received the name of England, as well as a
+portion of the Lowlands of Scotland. The Angles formed the largest body
+among the Germanic settlers in Britain, and founded the three kingdoms of
+East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.
+
+ANGLESEY (ang'gl-s[=e]), or ANGLESEA ('the Angles' Island'), an island and
+county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea, separated from the mainland by the
+Menai Strait; 20 miles long and 17 miles broad; area, 176,630 acres. The
+surface is comparatively flat, and the climate is milder than that of the
+adjoining coast. The chief agricultural products are oats and barley,
+wheat, rye, potatoes, and turnips. Numbers of cattle and sheep are raised.
+Anglesey yields a little copper, lead, silver, ochre, &c. The Menai Strait
+is crossed by a magnificent suspension-bridge, 580 feet between the piers
+and 100 feet above high-water mark, and also by the great Britannia Tubular
+Railway Bridge. The chief market-towns are Beaumaris, Holyhead, Llangefni,
+and Amlweh. The county returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921),
+51,695.
+
+ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, Marquess of, English soldier and statesman,
+was the eldest son of Henry, first Earl of Uxbridge, and was born in 1768.
+He was educated at Oxford, and in 1790 entered Parliament as member for the
+Carnarvon boroughs. In 1793 he entered the army, and in 1794 he took part
+in the campaign in Flanders under the Duke of York. In 1808 he was sent
+into Spain with two brigades of cavalry to join Sir John Moore, and in the
+retreat to Coruna commanded the rear-guard. In 1812 he became, by his
+father's death, Earl of Uxbridge. On Napoleon's escape from Elba he was
+appointed commander of the British cavalry, and at the battle of Waterloo,
+by the charge of the heavy brigade, overthrew the Imperial Guard. For his
+services he was created Marquess of Anglesey. In 1828 he became
+Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland and made himself extremely popular, but was
+recalled in consequence of favouring Catholic Emancipation. He was again
+Lord-Lieutenant in 1830, but lost his popularity by his opposition to
+O'Connell and his instrumentality in the passing of the Irish Coercion
+Acts; and he quitted office in 1833. From 1846-52 he was Master-General of
+the Ordnance. He died in 1854.
+
+ANGLICANISM, the term is capable of a wider use, but is usually employed as
+descriptive of the type of doctrine formulated by the Church of England in
+the period of the Protestant Reformation. The two most notable formularies
+of that period are the Confession of Faith, known as the Thirty-nine
+Articles, which assumed its present shape in 1571, and the Liturgy, known
+as the Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1559 in what was substantially its
+present shape. By the Clerical Subscription Act of 1865 assent is required
+to both Prayer Book and Articles. The Articles are not and never were
+binding upon laymen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mgr. Moyes, _Aspects of Anglicanism_;
+F. Y. Kinsman, _Principles of Anglicanism_.
+
+ANGLING, the art of catching fish with a hook or _angle_ (A. Sax. _angel_)
+baited with worms, small fish, flies, &c. We find occasional allusions to
+this pursuit among the Greek and Latin classical writers; it is mentioned
+several times in the Old Testament, and it was practised by the ancient
+Egyptians. The first reference to angling in England is a passage in a
+tract, entitled _Piers Fulham_, supposed to have been written about the
+year 1420. The oldest work on the subject in English is the _Treatyse of
+Fysshinge with an Angle_, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with a
+treatise on hunting and hawking, the whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana
+Berners or Barnes, prioress of a nunnery near St. Albans. Walton's
+inimitable discourse on angling was first printed in 1653. The chief
+appliances required by an angler are a rod, line, hooks, and baits. Rods
+are made of various materials, and of various sizes. The cane rods are
+lightest, and where fishing-tackle is sold they most commonly have the
+preference; but in country places the rod is often of the angler's own
+manufacture. Rods are commonly made in separate joints, so as to be easily
+taken to pieces and put up again. They are made to taper from the butt end
+to the top, and are usually possessed of a considerable amount of
+elasticity. In length they may vary from 10 feet to more than double that
+length, with a corresponding difference in strength--a rod for salmon being
+necessarily much stronger than one suited for ordinary burn trout. The
+_reel_, an apparatus for winding up the line, is attached to the rod near
+the lower end, where the hand grasps it while fishing. The best are usually
+made of brass, are of simple construction, and so made as to wind or unwind
+freely and rapidly. That part of the line which passes along the rod and is
+wound on the reel is called the _reel line_, and may vary from 20 to 100
+yards in length, according to the size of the water and the habits of the
+fish angled for; it is usually made of twisted horse-hair and silk, or of
+oiled silk alone. The casting line, which is attached to this, is made of
+the same materials, but lighter and finer. To the end of this is tied a
+piece of fine gut, on which the hook, or hooks, are fixed. The casting or
+gut lines should decrease in thickness from the reel line to the hooks. The
+hook, of finely-tempered steel, should readily bend without breaking, and
+yet retain a sharp point. It should be long in the shank and deep in the
+bend; the point straight and true to the level of the shank; and the barb
+long. Their sizes and sorts must of course entirely depend on the kind of
+fish that is angled for. Floats formed of cork, goose and swan quills, &c.,
+are often used to buoy up the hook so that it may float clear of the
+bottom. For heavy fish or strong streams a cork float is used; in slow
+water and for lighter fish quill floats. _Baits_ may consist of a great
+variety of materials, natural or artificial. The principal natural baits
+are worms: common garden worms, brandlings, and red worms, maggots, or
+gentles (the larvae of blow-flies such as are found on putrid meat),
+insects, small fish (as minnows), salmon roe, &c. The artificial flies so
+much used in angling for trout and salmon are composed of hairs, furs, and
+wools of every variety, mingled with pieces of feathers, and secured
+together by plaited wire, or gold and silver thread, marking-silk, wax, &c.
+The wings may be made of the feathers of domestic fowls, or any others of a
+showy colour. Some angling authorities recommend that the artificial flies
+should be made to resemble as closely as possible the insects on which the
+fish is wont to feed, but experience has shown that the most capricious and
+unnatural combinations of feather, fur, &c., have been often successful
+where the most realistic imitations have failed. Artificial minnows, or
+other small fish, are also used by way of bait, and are so contrived as to
+spin rapidly when drawn through the water in order to attract the notice of
+the fish angled for. Angling, especially with the fly, demands a great deal
+of skill and practice, the casting of the line properly being the initial
+difficulty. Nowhere is the art pursued with greater success and enthusiasm
+than in Britain and the United States.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Fishing_ (vol. i),
+_Salmon and Trout_ (vol. ii), _Pike and Coarse Fish_ (Badminton Library);
+H. G. Hutchinson, _Fishing_ (2 vols., Country Life series); Viscount Grey,
+_Fly Fishing_; Gathorne-Hardy, _The Salmon_; Marquess of Granby, _The
+Trout_; H. T. Sheringham, _Elements of Angling_; W. M. Gallichan, _The
+Complete Fisherman_.
+
+ANGLO-CATHOLIC, a term sometimes used to designate those churches which
+hold the principles of the English Reformation, the Anglican or Established
+Church of England and the allied churches. The term is also applied to that
+party in the English Church which favours doctrines and religious forms
+closely approaching those of the Roman Catholic Church, objects to be
+called Protestant, and corresponds closely with the _Ritualistic_ section
+of the Church.
+
+ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. See _Sudan_.
+
+[Illustration: Saxon Architecture. Doorway, Earl's Barton, Northampton]
+
+ANGLO-SAXONS, the name commonly given to the nation or people formed by the
+amalgamation of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain in
+the fifth and sixth centuries after Christ, the Anglo-Saxons being simply
+the English people of the earlier period of English history. The tribes who
+were thus the ancestors of the bulk of the English-speaking nationalities
+came from North Germany, where they inhabited the parts about the mouths of
+the Elbe and Weser, and the first body of them who gained a footing in
+Britain are said to have landed in 449, and to have been led by Hengist and
+Horsa. From the preponderance of the Angles the whole country came to be
+called _Engla-land_, that is, the land of the Angles or English.
+
+Many scholars object to the term 'Anglo-Saxon' as being inaccurate and open
+to misinterpretation. Correctly used, Anglo-Saxon means _English-Saxon_, as
+distinguished from the Old-Saxon of the Continent; incorrectly used, as it
+has been too frequently, it is taken as = Angle + Saxon, a union of Angle
+and Saxon. Camden (1551-1623) is responsible for the widespread use of the
+term; ignorance is responsible for the misuse. Many scholars prefer to
+apply the term 'Old English' to the language and people of England before
+A.D. 1100, partly because this term is more accurate and partly because its
+use helps to emphasize the essential continuity of the language.
+
+The whole Anglo-Saxon community was frequently spoken of as consisting of
+the _eorls_ and the _ceorls_, or the nobles and common freemen. The former
+were the men of property and position, the latter were the small
+landholders, handicraftsmen, &c., who generally placed themselves under the
+protection of some nobleman, who was hence termed their _hlaford_ or lord.
+Besides these there was the class of the serfs or slaves (_theowas_), who
+might be either born slaves or freemen who had forfeited their liberty by
+their crimes, or whom poverty or the fortune of war had brought into this
+position. They served as agricultural labourers on their masters' estates,
+and were mere chattels, as absolutely the property of their master as his
+cattle.
+
+The king (_cyning_, _cyng_) was at the head of the State; he was the
+highest of the nobles and the chief magistrate. He was not looked upon as
+ruling by any Divine Right, but by the will of the people, as represented
+by the _witan_ (wise men) or great council of the nation. The new king was
+not always the direct and nearest heir of the late king, but one of the
+royal family whose abilities and character recommended him for the office.
+He had the right of maintaining a standing army of household troops, the
+duty of calling together the _witan_, and of laying before them public
+measures, with certain distinctions of dress, dwelling, &c., all his
+privileges being possessed and exercised by the advice and consent of the
+_witena-gemot_ or parliament (literally, 'meeting of the wise'). Next in
+rank and dignity to the king were the _ealdormen_, who were the chief witan
+or counsellors, and without whose assent laws could not be made, altered,
+or abrogated. They were at the head of the administration of justice in the
+shires, possessing both judicial and executive authority, and had as their
+officers the _scir-gerefan_ or sheriffs. The ealdormen led the _fyrd_ or
+armed force of the county, and the ealdorman, as such, held possession of
+certain lands attached to the office, and was entitled to a share of fines
+and other moneys levied for the king's use and passing through his hands.
+The whole executive government may be considered as a great aristocratical
+association, of which the ealdormen were the members, and the king little
+more than the president. The ealdorman and the king were both surrounded by
+a number of followers called _thegnas_ or thanes, who were bound by close
+ties to their superior. The king's thanes were the higher in rank; they
+possessed a certain quantity of land, smaller in amount than that of an
+ealdorman, and they filled offices connected with the personal service of
+the king or with the administration of justice. The _scir-gerefa_
+(shire-reeve or sheriff) was also an important functionary. He presided at
+the county court along with the ealdorman and bishop, or alone in their
+absence; and he had to carry out the decisions of the court, levy fines,
+collect taxes, &c. The shires were divided into hundreds and tithings, the
+latter consisting of ten heads of families, who were jointly responsible to
+the State for the good conduct of any member of their body. For the trial
+and settlement of minor causes there was a hundred court held once a month.
+The place of the modern Parliament was held by the _witena-gemot_. Its
+members, who were not elected, comprised the aethelings or princes of the
+blood royal, the bishops and abbots, the ealdormen, the thanes, the
+sheriffs, &c.
+
+One of the peculiar features of Anglo-Saxon society was the _wergyld_,
+which was established for the settling of feuds. A sum, paid either in kind
+or in money, was placed upon the life of every freeman, according to his
+rank in the State, his birth, or his office. A corresponding sum was
+settled for every wound that could be inflicted upon his person; for nearly
+every injury that could be done to his civil rights, his honour, or his
+domestic peace, &c. From the operation of this principle no one from king
+to peasant was exempt.
+
+[Illustration: Ploughing
+From an Anglo-Saxon Calendar in the British Museum.]
+
+Agriculture, including especially the raising of cattle, sheep, and swine,
+was the chief occupation of the Anglo-Saxons. Gardens and orchards are
+frequently mentioned, and vineyards were common in the southern counties.
+The forests were extensive, and valuable both from the mast they produced
+for the swine, and from the beasts of the chase which they harboured.
+Hunting was a favourite recreation among the higher ranks, both lay and
+clerical. Fishing was largely carried on, herrings and salmon being the
+principal fish caught; and the Anglo-Saxon whaling vessels used to go as
+far as Iceland. The manufactures were naturally of small moment. Iron was
+made to some extent, and some cloth, and saltworks were numerous. In
+embroidery and working of gold the English were famous over Europe. There
+was a considerable trade at London, which was frequented by Normans,
+French, Flemings, and the merchants of the Hanse towns. Our Anglo-Saxon
+forefathers were notorious for their excess in eating and drinking, and in
+this respect formed a strong contrast to their Norman conquerors. Ale,
+mead, and cider were the common beverages, wine being limited to the higher
+classes. Pork and eels were favourite articles of food. The houses were
+rude structures, but were often richly furnished and hung with fine
+tapestry. The dress of the people was loose and flowing, composed chiefly
+of linen, and often adorned with embroidery. The men wore their hair long
+and flowing over their shoulders. Christianity was introduced among the
+Anglo-Saxons in the end of the sixth century by St. Augustine, who was sent
+by Pope Gregory the Great, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.
+Kent, then under King Ethelred, was the first place where it took root, and
+thence it soon spread over the rest of the country. The Anglo-Saxon Church
+long remained independent of Rome, notwithstanding the continual efforts of
+the Popes to bring it under their power. It was not till the tenth century
+that this result was brought about by Dunstan. Many Anglo-Saxon
+ecclesiastics were distinguished for learning and ability, but the
+Venerable Bede holds the first place.
+
+_Anglo-Saxon Language._--The Anglo-Saxon language, which is simply the
+earliest form of English, claims kinship with Dutch, Icelandic, Danish,
+Swedish, and German, especially with the Low German dialects (spoken in
+North Germany). It was called by those who spoke it _Englisc_ (English).
+The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature show different dialects, of
+which the northern and the southern were the principal. The former was the
+first to be cultivated as a literary language, but afterwards it was
+supplanted in this respect by the southern or that of Wessex. It is in the
+latter that the principal Anglo-Saxon works are written. The Anglo-Saxon
+alphabet was substantially the same as that which we still use, except that
+some of the letters were different in form, while it had two characters
+either of which represented the sounds of _th_ in _thy_ and in _thing_.
+Nouns and adjectives are declined much as in German or in Latin. The
+pronouns of the first and second person had a dual number, 'we two' or 'us
+two' and 'you two', besides the plural for more than two. The infinitive of
+the verb is in _-an_, the participle in _-ende_, and there is a gerund
+somewhat similar in its usage to the Latin gerund. The verb had four
+moods--indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, but only two
+tenses, the present (often used as a future) and the past. Other tenses and
+the passive voice were formed by auxiliary verbs. Anglo-Saxon words
+terminated in a vowel much more frequently than the modern English, and
+altogether the language is so different that it has to be learned quite
+like a foreign tongue. Yet, notwithstanding the large number of words of
+Latin or French origin that our language now contains, and the changes it
+has undergone, its framework, so to speak, is still Anglo-Saxon. Many
+chapters of the New Testament do not contain more than 4 per cent of
+non-Teutonic words, and as a whole it averages perhaps 6 or 7.
+
+The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in
+prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period,
+one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to
+England. The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is the ancient epic of
+_Beowulf_, extending to more than 6000 lines. Beowulf is a Scandinavian
+prince, who slays a monster named Grendel, after encountering supernatural
+perils, and is at last slain in a contest with a frightful dragon. Its
+scene appears to be laid entirely in Scandinavia. Its date is uncertain;
+parts of it may have been brought over at the emigration from Germany,
+though in its present form it is much later than this. The poetical remains
+include a number of religious poems, or poems on sacred themes;
+ecclesiastical narratives, as lives of saints and versified chronicles;
+psalms and hymns; secular lyrics; allegories, gnomic poems, riddles, &c.
+The religious class of poems was the largest, and of these Caedmon's
+(flourished about 660) are the most remarkable. His poems consist of
+paraphrases of considerable portions of the Bible history, and treat of the
+creation, the temptation, the fall, the exodus of the Israelites, the story
+of Daniel, the incarnation, and the harrowing of hell, or release of the
+ransomed souls by Christ. Other most interesting poems are those ascribed
+to Cynewulf, the _Christ_, _Elene_, and _Juliana_, the subjects
+respectively being Christ, the finding of the cross by the Empress Helena,
+and the life of Juliana. Rhyme was not used in Anglo-Saxon poetry,
+alliteration being employed instead, as in the older northern poetry
+generally. The style of the poetry is highly elliptical, and it is full of
+harsh inversions and obscure metaphors.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Brooch
+
+Ornament on front (left) is formed by means of plates of thin gold and
+wire, with bosses of ivory and red glass.]
+
+The Anglo-Saxon prose remains consist of translations of portions of the
+Bible, homilies, philosophical writings, history, biography, laws, leases,
+charters, popular treatises on science and medicine, grammars, &c. Many of
+these were translations from the Latin. The Anglo-Saxon versions of the
+Gospels, next to the Moeso-Gothic, are the earliest scriptural translations
+in any modern language. The Psalms are said to have been translated by
+Bishop Aldhelm (died 709), and also under Alfred's direction; and the
+_Gospel of St. John_ by Bede; but it is not known who were the authors of
+the extant versions. A translation of the first seven books of the Bible is
+believed to have been the work of Aelfric, who was Abbot of Ensham and
+lived about the beginning of the eleventh century. We have also eighty
+homilies from his pen, several theological treatises, a Latin grammar, &c.
+King Alfred was a diligent author, besides being a translator of Latin
+works. We have under his name translations of Boethius' _De Consolatione
+Philosophiae_, the _Universal History_ of Orosius, Bede's _Ecclesiastical
+History_, the _Pastoral Care_ of Gregory the Great, &c. The most valuable
+to us of the Anglo-Saxon prose writings is the _Saxon Chronicle_, as it is
+called, a collection of annals recording important events in the history of
+the country, and compiled in different religious houses. Of this
+_Chronicle_ there are seven MSS. in existence, and the latest text comes
+down to 1154. A considerable body of laws remains, as well as a large
+number of charters. The whole of the literature has never yet been printed.
+For Anglo-Saxon history, see _England_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: (History) H. M.
+Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge); (Language) Sweet,
+_Anglo-Saxon Primer_ and _Reader_; (Literature) B. ten Brink, _Geschichte
+der Englischen Litteratur_; Stopford A. Brooke, _English Literature, from
+the beginning to the Norman Conquest_; Henry Morley, _English Writers_
+(vols. i and ii).
+
+ANGLO-SAXON LAW. Series of laws written in the vernacular, and unique among
+Teutonic peoples, were issued from the seventh century onwards by
+Aethelberht, Hlothhere, Eadric, and Withraed, Kings of Kent, by Ine, King
+of Wessex, by Alfred, Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmund, Edgar,
+Aethelred, and Canute, in addition to a number of important by-laws and
+regulations of various kinds, which bear no king's name. We hear, also, of
+laws issued by other kings which have been lost, and there must have been a
+considerable body of traditional law which was never committed to writing.
+What laws are extant, show us a society mainly agricultural, divided by
+birth into a noble, a free peasant, and a servile class. There was also a
+dependent class in Kent, intermediate between the freeman and the slave.
+The strongest social ties were those of the kindred, and the relationship
+between lord and man.
+
+The laws were issued by the king and his councillors. Cases were decided by
+the production of oaths which varied in value according to the rank of the
+swearer, or by the several forms of the ordeal. No distinction was made
+between civil and criminal law, and even homicide could be atoned for by
+payment of a sum varying according to the social status of the dead man.
+The object of the laws was to restrict private vengeance, to prevent and
+punish theft (primarily of cattle), to stop dishonest trading, to secure
+the persons and residences of the people, to enforce the mutual obligations
+of relatives, and masters and men, to provide adequate defence for the
+kingdom by means of garrisoned boroughs and a well-armed mounted infantry,
+to protect the helpless, and to safeguard the rights of the Church and its
+servants.
+
+The early laws present considerable difficulty owing to their antiquity.
+The laws of Aethelberht are the earliest records in the English language,
+though, like many of the other laws, they are only preserved in a MS. of
+the twelfth century. The standard edition is Liebermann's _Gesetze der
+Angelsachsen_ (Halle, A. S. Max Niemeyer).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pollock and
+Maitland, _History of English Law_; H. M. Chadwick, _Studies in Anglo-Saxon
+Institutions_.
+
+ANGO'LA, a Portuguese territory in Western Africa, south of the Congo,
+extending from the sea to Rhodesia, and from about lat. 6deg S. to lat.
+17deg S. (area, 484,800 sq. miles; pop. 4,119,000). It is a country of
+varied features, and its resources, as yet hardly known, are probably very
+great. The province is rich in malachite, copper, iron, petroleum, and
+salt; rubber supplies are becoming exhausted. The Coanza (Kwanza) is the
+largest river. The capital is the seaport of Loanda; other ports are
+Benguella (or Benguela) and Mossamedes. Three railways now run inland from
+these places. It exports coffee, hides, gum, rubber, wax, &c.
+
+ANGOLA PEA (_Caj[=a]nus indicus_). See _Pigeon Pea_.
+
+ANGO'NILAND, a district of South Africa, lying to the west of the southern
+half of Lake Nyassa, and partly in British Central Africa, partly in
+Rhodesia. It is a plateau with an average height of 4000 feet, the name
+being derived from the Angoni, a race of mixed Zulu blood, who used to make
+murderous raids on their neighbours, and have given much trouble to the
+missionaries and others.
+
+ANGO'RA (ancient, ANCY'RA), a town in Asia Minor, 215 miles E.S.E. of
+Constantinople, with considerable remains of Byzantine architecture, and
+relics of earlier times, both Greek and Roman, such as the remnants of the
+Monumentum Ancyranum, raised in honour of the Emperor Augustus, and giving
+us much valuable information about his public life and work. All the
+animals of this region are long haired, especially the goats (see _Goat_),
+sheep, and cats. This hair forms an important export as well as the fabric
+called camlet here manufactured from it; other exports being goats' skins,
+dye-stuffs, gums, honey and wax, &c. A railway connects it with Skutari.
+Pop. 32,000. In 1920 Kemal Pasha set up a National Government at Angora,
+and refused to recognize the Treaty of Sevres. A treaty concluded with
+France was ratified by the Angora Government on 23rd Oct., 1921.
+
+ANGOSTU'RA, or CIUDAD BOLIVAR, a city of Venezuela, capital of the province
+of Bolivar, on the Orinoco, about 240 miles from the sea, with governor's
+residence, a college, a handsome cathedral, and a considerable trade,
+steamers and sailing-vessels ascending to the town. Exports: gold, cotton,
+indigo, tobacco, coffee, cattle, &c.; imports: manufactured goods, wines,
+flour, &c. Pop. 17,535.
+
+ANGOSTURA BARK, the aromatic bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly from
+_Galip[=e]a officin[=a]lis_, a tree of 10 to 20 feet high, growing in the
+northern regions of South America; nat. ord. Rutaceae. The bark is valuable
+as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also used for a kind of bitters. From this
+bark being adulterated, indeed sometimes entirely replaced, by the
+poisonous bark of _Strychnos Nux-Vomica_, its use as a medicine has been
+almost given up.
+
+ANGOULEME ([.a][n.]-goe-l[=a]m), an ancient town of Western France, capital
+of department Charente, on the Charente, 60 miles N.N.E. of Bordeaux, on
+the summit of a rocky hill. It has a fine old cathedral, built in the
+twelfth century and restored in 1875, a beautiful modern town hall, built
+in 1858, a lyceum, public library, natural history museum, &c. There are
+manufactures of paper, woollens, and linens; distilleries, sugar-works,
+tanneries, &c. Calvin lived here for three years (1527-30). Pop. 38,211.
+
+ANGRA DO HEROISMO, the chief seaport of Terceira, one of the Azores, with
+the only convenient harbour in the whole group. It has a cathedral, a
+military college and arsenal, &c., and is the residence of the
+Governor-General of the Azores, and of the foreign consuls. Pop. 10,057.
+
+ANGRA PEQUENA ([.a]n'gr[.a] pe-k[=a]'n[.a]; Port. 'little bay'), a bay on
+the coast of former German S.W. Africa, where the Bremen commercial firm
+Luederitz in 1883 acquired a strip of territory and established a trading
+station. In 1884, notwithstanding some weak protests of the British,
+Germany took under her protection the whole coast territory from the Orange
+River to 26deg S. lat., and soon after extended the protectorate to the
+Portuguese frontier, but not including the British settlement of Walvis
+Bay. Angra Pequena, called by the Germans Luederitzbucht, was captured by
+the South African forces in Sept., 1915. See _South-West Africa_.
+
+ANGRI ([.a]n'gr[=e]), a town of Southern Italy, 12 miles N.W. of Salerno,
+in the centre of a region which produces grapes, cotton, and tobacco in
+great quantities. In the vicinity of Angri, Teias, King of the Ostrogoths,
+was defeated by Narses. Pop. 11,574.
+
+ANGUILLA (an-gwil'la). See _Eel_.
+
+ANGUILLA (ang-gil'a), or SNAKE ISLAND, one of the British West India
+Islands, 60 miles N.E. of St. Kitts; about 20 miles long, with a breadth
+varying from 3 to 1 1/4 miles; area, 35 sq. miles. A little sugar, cotton,
+tobacco, and maize is grown. There is a saline lake in the centre, which
+yields salt. Pop. 4075, of whom 100 are white.
+
+ANGUIS (ang'gwis). See _Blind-worm_.
+
+ANGUS (ang'gus), a name of Forfarshire.
+
+AN'HALT, formerly a duchy of North Germany, lying partly in the plains of
+the Middle Elbe, and partly in the valleys and uplands of the Lower Harz,
+and almost entirely surrounded by Prussia; area, 888 sq. miles. All sorts
+of grain, wheat especially, are grown in abundance; also flax, rape,
+potatoes, tobacco, hops, and fruit. Excellent cattle are bred. The
+inhabitants are principally occupied in agriculture, though there are some
+iron-works and manufactures of woollens, linens, beet-sugar, tobacco, &c.
+The dukes of Anhalt traced their origin to Bernard (1170-1212), son of
+Albert the Bear. In time the family split up into numerous branches, and
+the territory was afterwards held by three dukes (Anhalt-Koethen,
+Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau). In 1863 the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau
+became sole heir to the three duchies. The united principality,
+incorporated in the German Empire, had one vote in the Bundesrath and two
+in the Reichstag. The executive power, previous to the changes resulting
+from the European War, was vested in the duke, and the legislative in a
+Diet of thirty-six members. The reigning duke in 1918 was Eduard, who
+succeeded his brother on 21st April, 1918. With the outbreak of the
+revolution in Germany in 1918 Anhalt became a republic, but its status in
+the German Republic still remains to be determined. Pop. (1919), 331,258,
+almost all Protestants. The chief towns are Dessau, Bernburg, Koethen, and
+Zerbst.
+
+AN'HOLT, an island belonging to Denmark, in the Cattegat, midway between
+Jutland and Sweden, 7 miles long, 4 1/2 broad, largely covered with
+drift-sand, and surrounded by dangerous banks and reefs. Pop. 300.
+
+ANHY'DRIDE, a chemical term synonymous with acidic oxide (see _Chemistry_)
+and applied to those oxides which unite with water to form acids. They were
+formerly called _anhydrous acids_.
+
+ANHY'DRITE, anhydrous sulphate of calcium, a mineral presenting several
+varieties of structure and colour. The _vulpinite_ of Italy possesses a
+granular structure, resembling a coarse-grained marble, and is used in
+sculpture. Its colour is greyish-white, intermingled with blue.
+
+ANI (ae'n[=e]), a ruined city in Armenia, formerly the residence of the
+Armenian dynasty of the Bagratidae, having in the eleventh century a
+population of 100,000 and 1000 churches. In the thirteenth century it was
+taken by the Tartars, and was destroyed by an earthquake in 1319.
+
+ANICHE ([.a]-n[=e]sh), a town or village in the French department Nord,
+arrondissement Douai, with coal-mines, glass-works, chemical-works, &c.
+Pop. 6927.
+
+ANIENE ([.a]-n[=e]-[=a]'n[=a]). See _Anio_.
+
+AN'ILINE, C_6H_5NH_2, is an extremely important substance as it forms the
+starting-point in the preparation of a large number of substances. It was
+first prepared by Unverdorben, in 1826, by distillation of indigo. Aniline
+is present in small quantity in coal-tar, and is prepared commercially from
+benzene by transforming it by means of nitric acid into nitro-benzene and
+reducing this with scrap-iron and hydrochloric acid. The substance can also
+be prepared by reducing nitro-benzene electrolytically. It is a liquid of
+peculiar odour, boiling at 182deg C., colourless when quite pure, but
+rapidly darkening in colour on standing, so that commercial aniline is
+usually dark-brown. It is a basic substance, and forms crystalline salts
+with acids. The salts, like aniline itself, become coloured on exposure to
+air. Aniline contains the characteristic chemical group NH_2, the amino
+group, and substances containing this group react with nitrous acid at 0deg
+C., forming diazonium compounds; these combine readily with phenols,
+naphthols, and other amino compounds to form azo compounds, highly-coloured
+compounds many of which are dyes. Many dyes are prepared from aniline, e.g.
+rosaniline, magenta, methylene blue, aniline blue, &c., also some
+explosives, e.g. tetranitraniline, which is a powerful explosive prepared
+by nitrating aniline and the substance tetranitromethylaniline, "tetryl",
+used in detonators. Several medicinal substances are also prepared from
+aniline, for instance, antifebrin and atoxyl.
+
+AN'ILISM, aniline poisoning, a name given to the aggregate of symptoms
+which often show themselves in those employed in aniline works, resulting
+from the inhalation of aniline vapours. It may be either acute or chronic.
+In a slight attack of the former kind, the lips, cheeks, and ears become of
+a bluish colour, and the person's walk may be unsteady; in severe cases
+there is loss of consciousness. Chronic anilism is accompanied by
+derangement of the digestive organs and of the nervous system, headaches,
+eruptions on the skin, muscular weakness, &c.
+
+ANIMAL, an organized and sentient living being. Life in the earlier periods
+of natural history was attributed almost exclusively to animals. With the
+progress of science, however, it was extended to plants. In the case of the
+higher animals and plants there is no difficulty in assigning the
+individual to one of the two great kingdoms of organic nature, but in their
+lowest manifestations the vegetable and animal kingdoms are brought into
+such immediate contact that it becomes almost impossible to assign them
+precise limits, and to say with certainty where the one begins and the
+other ends. From _form_ no absolute distinction can be fixed between
+animals and plants. Many animals, such as the sea-shrubs, sea-mats, &c., so
+resemble plants in external appearance that they were, and even yet
+popularly are, looked upon as such. With regard to _internal structure_ no
+line of demarcation can be laid down, all plants and animals being, in this
+respect, fundamentally similar; that is, alike composed of molecular,
+cellular, and fibrous tissues. Neither are the chemical characters of
+animal and vegetable substances more distinct. Animals contain in their
+tissues and fluids a larger proportion of nitrogen than plants, whilst
+plants are richer in carbonaceous compounds than the former. In some
+animals, moreover, substances almost exclusively confined to plants are
+found. Thus the outer wall of the Sea-squirts contains _cellulose_, a
+substance largely found in plant-tissues; whilst _chlorophyll_, the
+colouring-matter of plants, occurs in Hydra and many other lower animals.
+_Power of motion_, again, though broadly distinctive of animals, cannot be
+said to be absolutely characteristic of them. Thus many animals, as
+oysters, sponges, corals, &c., in their mature condition are rooted or
+fixed, while the embryos of many plants, together with numerous
+fully-developed forms, are endowed with locomotive power by means of
+vibratile, hair-like processes called cilia. The distinctive points between
+animals and plants which are most to be relied on are those derived from
+the _nature and mode of assimilation of the food_. Plants feed on
+_inorganic matters_, consisting of water, ammonia, carbonic acid, and
+mineral matters. They can only take in food which is presented to them in a
+_liquid_ or _gaseous_ state. The exceptions to these rules are found
+chiefly in the case of plants which live _parasitically_ on other plants or
+animals, in which cases the plant may be said to feed on organic matters,
+represented by the juices of their hosts. Animals, on the contrary, require
+_organized_ matters for food. They feed either upon plants or upon other
+animals. But even carnivorous animals can be shown to be dependent upon
+plants for subsistence; since the animals upon which Carnivora prey are in
+their turn supported by plants. Animals, further, can subsist on _solid_
+food in addition to liquids and gases; but many animals (such as the
+Tapeworms) live by the mere imbibition of fluids which are absorbed by
+their tissues, such forms possessing no distinct digestive system. Animals
+require a due supply of _oxygen gas_ for their sustenance, this gas being
+used in respiration. Plants, on the contrary, require _carbonic acid_. The
+animal exhales or gives out carbonic acid as the part result of its
+tissue-waste, whilst the plant, taking in this gas, is enabled to decompose
+it into its constituent carbon and oxygen. The plant retains the former for
+the uses of its economy, and liberates the oxygen, which is thus restored
+to the atmosphere for the use of the animal. Animals receive their food
+into the interior of their bodies, and assimilation takes place in their
+internal surfaces. Plants, on the other hand, receive their food into their
+external surfaces, and assimilation is effected in the external parts, as
+is exemplified in the leaf-surfaces under the influence of sunlight. Cf.
+T. J. Parker and W. A. Haswell, _Text-Book of Zoology_; _Cambridge Natural
+History_.
+
+ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. See _Chemistry_.
+
+ANIMALCULE (an-i-mal'k[=u]l), a general name given to many forms of animal
+life from their minute size. The larger examples are just visible to the
+naked eye, but most of them are strictly microscopic. Some are pigmented,
+but the majority are colourless. The term is not applicable to a particular
+zoological type, but it is customary to confine it to the 'Protozoa',
+'Rotifera', or 'Wheel Animalcules'.
+
+ANIMAL HEAT. All animals possess a certain amount of heat or temperature
+which is necessary for the performance of vital action. The only classes of
+animals in which a constantly-elevated temperature is kept up are birds and
+mammals. The bodily heat of the former varies from 39.4deg to 43.9deg C.,
+and of the latter from 35.5deg to 40.5deg C. The mean or average heat of
+the human body is about 99deg F., and it never falls much below this in
+health. Below birds, animals are named 'cold-blooded', this term meaning in
+its strictly-physiological sense that their temperature is usually that of
+the medium in which they live, and that it varies with that of the
+surrounding medium. The temperature of 'warm-blooded' animals is remarkably
+constant, although there are individual variations. In man this variation
+is slight, amounting only to fractions of a degree. The cause of the
+evolution of heat in the animal body is referred to the union (by a process
+resembling ordinary combustion) of the carbon and hydrogen of the system
+with the oxygen taken in from the air in the process of respiration.
+
+ANIMAL MAGNETISM. See _Hypnotism_, _Mesmer_.
+
+ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO, an offence against which societies have been formed
+and laws passed in England and other countries. According to English law,
+if any person shall cruelly beat, ill-treat, overdrive, abuse, or torture
+any domestic animal, he shall forfeit a sum not exceeding L5 for every such
+offence. Bull-baiting, cock-fighting, and the like are also prohibited.
+Provision is also made for the punishment of persons unlawfully and
+maliciously killing, maiming, or wounding cattle, dogs, birds, beasts, and
+other animals.
+
+ANIMAL WORSHIP, a practice found to prevail, or to have prevailed, in the
+most widely-distant parts of the world, both the Old and the New, but
+nowhere to such an amazing extent as in ancient Egypt, notwithstanding its
+high civilization. Nearly all the more important animals found in the
+country were regarded as sacred in some part of Egypt, and the degree of
+reverence paid to them was such that throughout Egypt the killing of a hawk
+or an ibis, whether voluntary or not, was punished with death. The worship,
+however, was not, except in a few instances, paid to them as actual
+deities. The animals were merely regarded as sacred to the deities, and the
+worship paid to them was symbolical.
+
+AN'IMA MUN'DI. See _Pantheism_.
+
+ANIME (an'i-me), a resin obtained from the trunk of an American tree
+(_Hymenaea Courbaril_). It is of a transparent amber colour, has a light,
+agreeable smell, and is soluble in alcohol. It strongly resembles copal,
+and, like it, is used in making varnishes. See _Copal_.
+
+AN'IMISM, the system of medicine propounded by Stahl, and based on the idea
+that the soul (_anima_) is the seat of life. In modern usage the term is
+applied to express the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual
+beings, and especially to the tendency, common among savage races, to
+attribute souls or spirits to inanimate things, and to explain phenomena
+not due to obvious natural causes by attributing them to spiritual agency.
+Amongst the beliefs of animism is that of a human apparitional soul,
+bearing the form and appearance of the body, and living after death a sort
+of semi-human life.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_;
+Andrew Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_.
+
+ANIO (now ANI[=E]NE or TEVER[=O]NE), a river in Italy, a tributary of the
+Tiber, which it enters from the east a short distance above Rome, renowned
+for the natural beauties of the valley through which it flows, and for the
+remains of ancient buildings there situated, as the villas of Maecenas and
+the Emperor Hadrian.
+
+ANISE (an'is; _Pimpinella An[=i]sum_), an annual plant of the nat. ord.
+Umbelliferae, a native of Eastern Asia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean
+coasts, and cultivated in Spain, France, Italy, Malta, &c., whence the
+fruit, popularly called _aniseed_, is imported. This fruit is ovate, with
+ten narrow ribs, between which are oil-vessels. It has an aromatic smell,
+and is largely employed to flavour liqueurs (aniseed or anisette),
+sweetmeats, &c. _Star-anise_ is the fruit of an evergreen Asiatic tree
+(_Illicium anis[=a]tum_), nat. ord. Magnoliaceae, and is brought chiefly
+from China. Its flavour is similar to that of anise, and it is used for the
+same purposes. An essential oil is obtained from both kinds of anise, and
+is used for scenting soaps and in the preparation of cordials.
+
+ANJOU ([.a][n.]-zhoe), an ancient province of France, now forming the
+department of Maine-et-Loire, and parts of the departments of
+Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, and Sarthe; area, about 3000 sq. miles. In 1060
+the province passed into the hands of the House of Gatinais, of which
+sprang Count Godfrey V, who, in 1127, married Matilda, daughter of Henry I
+of England, and so became the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings. Anjou
+remained in the possession of the English kings up to 1204, when John lost
+it to the French king Philip Augustus. In 1226 Louis VIII bestowed this
+province on his brother Charles; but in 1328 it was reunited to the French
+Crown. John I raised it to the rank of a duchy, and gave it to his son
+Louis. Henceforth it remained separate from the French Crown till 1480,
+when it fell to Louis XI.
+
+ANKARSTROEM ([.a]n'k[.a]r-streum), Jan Jakob, the murderer of Gustavus III
+of Sweden, was born about 1762, and was at first a page in the Swedish
+Court, afterwards an officer in the royal bodyguard. He was a strenuous
+opponent of the sovereign's measures to restrict the privileges of the
+nobility, and joined Counts Horn and Ribbing in a plot to assassinate
+Gustavus. The assassination took place on 15th March, 1792. Ankarstroem was
+tried, tortured, and executed in April, dying boasting of his deed.
+
+ANKER, an obsolete measure used in Britain for spirits, beer, &c.,
+containing 8-1/2 imperial gallons. A measure of similar capacity was used
+in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.
+
+AN'KLAM, a town in Prussia, province of Pomerania, 47 miles north-west of
+Stettin, on the River Peene, which is here navigable. Shipbuilding, woollen
+and cotton manufactures, soap-boiling, tanning, &c., are carried on. Pop.
+15,280.
+
+ANKO'BAR, or ANKO'BER, a town in Abyssinia, former capital of Shoa, on a
+steep conical hill 8200 feet high. Pop. 2000.
+
+ANKYLO'SIS, or ANCHYLO'SIS, stiffness of the joints caused by a more or
+less complete coalescence of the bones through ossification, often the
+result of inflammation or injury. False ankylosis is stiffness of a joint
+when the disease is not in the joint itself, but in the tendinous and
+muscular parts by which it is surrounded.
+
+ANKYLOSTOMI'ASIS, a 'worm disease' to which miners are subject in some
+localities, is caused by vast numbers of small parasitic worms
+(_Ankylostoma_ or _Anchylostoma duodenale_) in the duodenum or upper
+portions of the intestinal canal. Deriving their sustenance from the
+system, these worms produce anaemia or bloodlessness (that is, deficiency
+of the red corpuscles of the blood), the sufferers being pallid, feeble,
+short-breathed, liable to faint, and unequal to any laborious work, and
+death may result if a cure is not effected. Fortunately the disease is not
+difficult to cure if the remedies are applied--remedies such as will expel
+the worms from the intestine. The disease is said to be common in tropical
+and sub-tropical countries all over the world. In Europe it was perhaps
+first observed in 1879 in the case of workmen engaged in excavating the St.
+Gothard tunnel. Since 1896 it has been well known in some of the German
+mines; and in 1903 it was detected among the miners engaged in the Dolcoath
+mine in Cornwall. The eggs of the worms are carried from the body with the
+faeces; under favourable circumstances they develop into larvae, which may
+gain entrance again into the human body by the mouth (perhaps in
+drinking-water), to attain full development in the intestine. Careful
+sanitary arrangements are a preventive of the disease, which is also known
+as 'miner's worm', 'miner's anaemia', &c.
+
+ANN, or ANNAT, in Scottish law, the half-year's stipend of a living, after
+the death of the clergyman, payable to his family or next of kin. The right
+to the ann is not vested in the clergyman himself, but in his
+representatives; and, accordingly, it can neither be disposed of by him nor
+attached for his debts.
+
+ANNA, an Anglo-Indian money of account, the sixteenth part of a rupee, and
+of the value of one penny; it is divided into four pice.
+
+AN'NABERG, a town in Saxony, 47 miles south-west of Dresden. Mining (for
+silver, cobalt, iron, &c.) is carried on, and there are manufactures of
+lace, ribbons, fringes, buttons, &c. Pop. 17,025.
+
+ANNA COMNE'NA, daughter of Alexius I, Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. She was
+born 1083, and died 1148. After her father's death she endeavoured to
+secure the succession for her husband, Nicephorus Briennius, but was
+baffled by his want of energy and ambition. She wrote (in Greek) a life of
+her father Alexius (_The Alexiad_, a work in fifteen books). She is a
+character in Sir Walter Scott's _Count Robert of Paris_.
+
+ANNA IVANOV'NA, Empress of Russia, born in 1693, the daughter of Ivan, the
+elder half-brother of Peter the Great. She was married in 1710 to the Duke
+of Courland, in the following year was left a widow, and in 1730 ascended
+the throne of the tsars on the condition proposed by the senate, that she
+would limit the absolute power of the tsars, and do nothing without the
+advice of the council composed of the leading members of the Russian
+aristocracy. But no sooner had she ascended the throne than she declared
+her promise null, and proclaimed herself autocrat of all the Russias. She
+chose as her favourite Ernest John von Biren or Biron, who was soon
+all-powerful in Russia, and ruled with great severity. Several of the
+leading nobles were executed, and many thousand men exiled to Siberia. In
+1737 Anna forced the Courlanders to choose Biren as their duke, and
+nominated him at her death regent of the empire during the minority of
+Prince Ivan (of Brunswick). Anna died in 1740. See _Biren_.
+
+AN'NALS, a history of events in chronological order, each event being
+recorded under the year in which it occurred. The name is derived from the
+first annual records of the Romans, which were called _ann[=a]les
+pontificum_ or _ann[=a]les max[)i]mi_, drawn up by the _pontifex maximus_
+(chief pontiff). The practice of keeping such annals was afterwards adopted
+also by various private individuals, as by Fabius Pictor, Calpurnius Piso,
+and others. The name hence came to be applied in later times to historical
+works in which the matter was treated with special reference to
+chronological arrangement, as to the _Annals_ of Tacitus.
+
+ANNAM', a country of Asia occupying the east side of the South-eastern or
+Indo-Chinese Peninsula, along the China Sea. It comprises Tonquin in the
+north, Annam (in a narrower sense), and Cochin-China farther south; with
+the inland territory of the Laos tribes: together, area, 170,000 sq. miles;
+pop. 15,000,000, 9,000,000 being in Tonquin. In the narrow sense Annam now
+denotes the country between Tonquin and French Cochin-China, under the
+nominal rule of a native king (the present ruler, Khai-Dinh, succeeded to
+the throne in 1916). Annam has an area of 52,100 sq. miles. Pop. (1919),
+5,952,000, including 2117 Europeans. The coast is considerably indented,
+especially at the mouths of the rivers, where it affords many commodious
+harbours. Tonquin is mountainous on the north, but in the east is nearly
+level, terminating towards the sea in an alluvial plain yielding good crops
+of rice, cotton, fruits, ginger, and spices, and a great variety of varnish
+trees, palms, &c. The principal river is the Song-ka, which has numerous
+tributaries, many of them being joined together by canals, both for
+irrigation and commerce. Tonquin is rich in gold, silver, copper, and iron.
+Annam (in the narrow sense) is, generally speaking, unproductive, but
+contains many fertile spots, in which grain, leguminous plants, sugar-cane,
+cinnamon, &c., are produced in great abundance. Agriculture is the chief
+occupation, but many of the inhabitants are engaged in the spinning and
+weaving of cotton and silk into coarse fabrics, the preparation of varnish,
+iron-smelting, and the construction of ships or junks. The inhabitants are
+said to be the ugliest of the Mongoloid races of the peninsula, being under
+the middle size and less robust than the surrounding peoples. Their
+language is monosyllabic, and is connected with the Chinese. The religion
+of the majority is Buddhism, but the educated classes hold the doctrines of
+Confucius. The principal towns are Hanoi, the capital of Tonquin, and Hue,
+the capital of the kingdom and formerly of the whole empire. Annam was
+conquered by the Chinese in 214 B.C., but in A.D. 1428 it completely won
+its independence. The French began to interfere actively in its affairs in
+1847 on the plea of protecting the native Christians. By the treaties of
+1862 and 1867 they obtained the southern and most productive part of
+Cochin-China, subsequently known as French Cochin-China; and in 1874 they
+obtained large powers over Tonquin, notwithstanding the protests of the
+Chinese. Finally, in 1883, Tonquin was ceded to France, and next year Annam
+was declared a French protectorate. After a short period of hostilities
+with China the latter recognized the French claims, and Tonquin is now a
+French colony, while the kingdom of Annam is, since 1886, entirely under
+French direction. Cf. F. R. Eberhardt, _Guide de l' Annam_.
+
+ANNAMABOE (-b[=o]'), a seaport in Western Africa, on the Gold Coast, 10
+miles east of Cape Coast Castle, with some trade in gold-dust, ivory,
+palm-oil, &c. Pop. about 5000.
+
+AN'NAN, a royal and police burgh in Scotland, on the Annan, a little above
+its entrance into the Solway Firth, one of the Dumfries district of burghs.
+Pop. 3928.--The River _Annan_ is a stream 40 miles long running through the
+central division of Dumfriesshire, to which it gives the name of
+_Annandale_.
+
+ANNAP'OLIS, the capital of Maryland, United States, on the Severn, near its
+mouth in Chesapeake Bay. It contains a college (St. John's), a state-house,
+and the United States Naval Academy. Pop. (1920), 11,214.
+
+ANNAP'OLIS, a small town in Nova Scotia, on an inlet of the Bay of Fundy,
+with an important traffic by railway and steamboat. It is one of the oldest
+European settlements in America, dating from 1604.
+
+ANN ARBOR, a town of Michigan, United States, on the Huron River, about 40
+miles west of Detroit; the seat of the State university. It has
+flour-mills, and it manufactures woollens, iron, and agricultural
+implements. Pop. 19,516.
+
+ANNATES (an'n[=a]ts), a year's income claimed for many centuries by the
+Pope on the death of any bishop, abbot, or parish priest, to be paid by his
+successor. In England they were at first paid to the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, but were afterwards appropriated by the Popes. In 1532 the
+Parliament gave them to the Crown; but in 1703 Queen Anne restored them to
+the Church by applying them to the augmentation of poor livings. See _Queen
+Anne's Bounty_.
+
+[Illustration: Annatto (_Bixa Orell[=a]na_)]
+
+ANNAT'TO, or ANNATO, an orange-red colouring matter, obtained from the pulp
+surrounding the seeds of _Bixa Orell[=a]na_, a shrub native to tropical
+America, and cultivated in Guiana, St. Domingo, and the East Indies. It is
+sometimes used as a dye for silk and cotton goods, though it does not
+produce a very durable colour, but it is much used in medicine for tinging
+plasters and ointments, and to a considerable extent by farmers for giving
+a rich colour to milk, butter, and cheese. The colour given by annatto
+approaches very nearly the natural colouring matter of milk fat. It is
+guaranteed to preserve the same colour throughout the year, and is
+considered to be a legitimate colouring matter.
+
+ANNE, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland was born at Twickenham, near
+London, 6th Feb., 1664. She was the second daughter of James II, then Duke
+of York, and Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. With her
+father's permission she was educated according to the principles of the
+English Church. In 1683 she was married to Prince George, brother of King
+Christian V of Denmark. On the arrival of the Prince of Orange in 1688,
+Anne wished to remain with her father; but she was prevailed upon by Lord
+Churchill (afterwards Duke of Marlborough) and his wife to join the
+triumphant party. After the death of William III in 1702 she ascended the
+English throne. Her character was essentially weak, and she was governed
+first by Marlborough and his wife, and afterwards by Mrs. Masham. Most of
+the principal events of her reign are connected with the war of the Spanish
+Succession. The only important acquisition that England made by it was
+Gibraltar, which was captured in 1704. Another very important event of this
+reign was the union of England and Scotland under the name of Great
+Britain, which was accomplished in 1707. Anne seems to have long cherished
+the wish of securing the succession to her brother James, but this was
+frustrated by the internal dissensions of the cabinet. Grieved at the
+disappointment of her secret wishes, she fell into a state of weakness and
+lethargy, and died, 20th July, 1714. The reign of Anne was distinguished
+not only by the brilliant successes of the British arms, but also on
+account of the number of admirable and excellent writers who flourished at
+this time, among whom were Pope, Swift, and Addison. Anne bore her husband
+many children, all of whom died in infancy, except one son, the Duke of
+Gloucester, who died at the age of twelve.
+
+ANNE (of Austria), daughter of Philip III of Spain, was born at Madrid in
+1602, and in 1615 was married to Louis XIII of France. Richelieu, fearing
+the influence of her foreign connections, did everything he could to humble
+her. In 1643 her husband died, and she was left regent, but placed under
+the control of a council. But the Parliament overthrew this arrangement,
+and entrusted her with full sovereign rights during the minority of her son
+Louis XIV. Having brought upon herself the hatred of the nobles by her
+boundless confidence in Cardinal Mazarin, she was forced to flee from Paris
+during the wars of the Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposition, and
+was able in 1661 to transmit to her son unimpaired the royal authority. She
+spent the remainder of her life in retirement, and died 20th Jan., 1666.
+
+ANNEALING (an-[=e]l'ing), a process to which many articles of metal and
+glass are subjected after making, in order to render them more tenacious
+and which consists in heating them and allowing them to cool slowly. When
+the metals are worked by the hammer, or rolled into plates, or drawn into
+wire, they acquire a certain amount of brittleness, which destroys their
+usefulness, and has to be remedied by annealing. The tempering of steel is
+one kind of annealing. Annealing is particularly employed in glass-houses,
+and consists in putting the glass vessels, as soon as they are formed and
+while they are yet hot, into a furnace or oven, in which they are suffered
+to cool gradually. The toughness is greatly increased by cooling the
+articles in oil.
+
+ANNECY ([.a]n-s[=e]), an ancient town in France, department of
+Haute-Savoie, situated on the Lake of Annecy, 21 miles s. of Geneva;
+contains a cathedral and a ruinous old castle once the residence of the
+counts of Genevois; manufactures of cotton, leather, paper, and hardware.
+Pop. 15,622.--The lake is about 9 miles long and 2 broad.
+
+[Illustration: Lobworm (one of the Annelida)]
+
+ANNEL'IDA, or ANNULATA, an extensive division or class of Annulosa or
+articulate animals, so called because their bodies are formed of a great
+number of small rings, the outward signs of internal segmentation. The
+earth-worm, the lobworm, the nereis, and the leech belong to this division.
+They have red, rarely yellow or green, blood circulating in a double system
+of contractile vessels, a double ganglionated nervous cord, and respire by
+external branchiae, internal vesicles, or by the skin. Their organs of
+motion consist of bristles or _setae_, which are usually attached to the
+lateral surfaces of each segment, the bristles being borne on 'foot
+processes' or _parapodia_. The number of body segments varies. As many as
+400 may be found in some sea-worms. A complete digestive system is
+developed, consisting of a mouth--armed with horny jaws and a protrusible
+proboscis--gizzard, stomach, and intestine. See _Earth-worm_, _Leech_, &c.
+
+ANNEXATION, a term applied to the acquisition by a State of territory
+previously belonging to another Power, or independent. It is applicable not
+only to the extension of a State's sovereignty over adjoining territory,
+but also to an acquisition of a remote territory. The inhabitants of the
+annexed territory are absolved from their allegiance to their former
+sovereign. Such annexations in modern history were those of Alsace-Lorraine
+by Germany in 1871, of California by the United States, of Bosnia and
+Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, and of the Boer Republics by Great Britain.
+
+ANNFIELD PLAIN, a straggling colliery town (urban district) of England,
+Durham, about 7 miles south-west of Gateshead. Pop. (1921), 16,524.
+
+ANNOBON', or ANNOBOM, a beautiful Spanish island of Western Africa, south
+of the Bight of Biafra, about 4 miles long by 2 miles broad, and rising
+abruptly to the height of 3000 feet, richly covered with vegetation. Pop.
+2000.
+
+ANNONAY ([.a]n-o-n[=a]), a town in southern France, department of Ardeche,
+37 miles S.S.W. of Lyons, in a picturesque situation. It is the most
+important town of Ardeche, manufacturing paper and glove leather to a large
+extent, also cloth, felt, silk stuffs, gloves, hosiery, chemical manures,
+glue, gelatine, brushes, chocolate, and candles. There is an obelisk in
+memory of Joseph Montgolfier of balloon fame. Pop. 16,660.
+
+AN'NUAL, in botany, a plant that springs from seed, grows up, produces
+seed, and then dies, all within a single year or season. Among annual
+grasses may be noted all our cereals, barley, wheat, rye, and oats.
+
+AN'NUAL, in literature, the name given to a class of publications which at
+one time enjoyed an immense yearly circulation, and were distinguished by
+great magnificence both of binding and illustration, which rendered them
+much sought after as Christmas and New Year presents. Their contents were
+chiefly prose tales and ballads, lyrics, and other poetry. The earliest was
+the _Forget-me-not_, started in 1822, and followed next year by the
+_Friendship's Offering_. The _Literary Souvenir_ was commenced in 1824, and
+the _Keepsake_ in 1827. Among the names of the editors occur those of
+Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. S. C. Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessington,
+Mary Howitt, &c. The popularity of the annuals reached its zenith about
+1829, when no less than seventeen made their appearance; in 1856 the
+_Keepsake_, the last of the series, ceased to exist.
+
+ANNUAL REGISTER, an English publication commenced in 1758 by Dodsley, the
+publisher, and since continued in yearly volumes down to the present day.
+There was also an _Edinburgh Annual Register_, the historical part of which
+was for several years contributed by Sir Walter Scott and afterwards by
+Robert Southey. It commenced in 1808 and came to a close in 1827.
+
+ANNU'ITY, a periodical payment, made annually, or at more frequent
+intervals, and continuing either a certain number of years, or for an
+uncertain period, to be determined by a particular event, as the death of
+the recipient or annuitant, or that of the party liable to pay the annuity;
+or the annuity may be perpetual. An annuity is usually raised by the
+present payment of a certain sum as a consideration whereby the party
+making the payment, or some other person named by him, becomes entitled to
+an annuity, and the rules and principles by which this present value is to
+be computed have been the subjects of careful investigation. The present
+value of a perpetual annuity is evidently a sum of money that will yield an
+interest equal to the annuity, and payable at the same periods; and an
+annuity of this description, payable quarterly, will evidently be of
+greater value than one of the same amount payable annually, since the
+annuitant has the additional advantage of the interest on three of the
+quarterly payments until the expiration of the year. In other words, it
+requires a greater present capital to be put at interest to yield a given
+sum per annum, payable quarterly, than to yield the same annual sum payable
+at the end of each year. The present value of an annuity for a limited
+period is a sum which, if put at interest, will at the end of that period
+give an amount equal to the sum of all the payments of the annuity and
+interest; and, accordingly, if it be proposed to invest a certain sum of
+money in the purchase of an annuity for a given number of years, the
+comparative value of the two may be precisely estimated, the rate of
+interest being given. But annuities for uncertain periods, and particularly
+life annuities, are more frequent, and the value of the annuity is computed
+according to the probable duration of the life by which it is limited. Such
+annuities are often created by contract, whereby the Government or a
+private annuity office agrees, for a certain sum advanced by the purchaser,
+to pay a certain sum in yearly, quarterly, or other periodical payments to
+the person advancing the money, or to some other named by him, during the
+life of the annuitant. Or the annuity may be granted to the annuitant
+during the life of some other person, or during two or more joint lives, or
+during the life of the longest liver or survivor among a number of persons
+named. If a person having a certain capital, and intending to spend this
+capital and the income of it during his own life, could know precisely how
+long he should live, he might lend his capital at a certain rate during his
+life, and by taking every year, besides the interest, a certain amount of
+the capital, he might secure the same annual amount for his support during
+his life in such manner that he should have the same sum to spend every
+year, and consume precisely his whole capital during his life. But since he
+does not know how long he is to live, he agrees with the Government or an
+annuity office to take the risk of the duration of his life, and they agree
+to pay him a certain annuity for life in exchange for the capital which he
+proposes to invest in this way. The probable duration of his life therefore
+becomes a subject of computation; and for the purpose of making this
+calculation tables of longevity are made by noting the proportion of deaths
+at certain ages in the same country or district. Founding on a comparison
+of many such tables, the British Government has empowered the
+Postmaster-General to grant annuities at the following rates, which are
+probably more closely adjusted to their actual value than those of
+insurance companies and other dealers in annuities: To secure an immediate
+annuity of L100, the cost is, for males of 20 years, L2279, 3s. 4d.; for
+females of same age, L2482, 10s.; for males of 30 years, L2045, 8s. 4d.,
+for females, L2258, _6s._ 8d.; for males of 40 years, L1789, 6s. 8d.; for
+females, L1990; for males of 60, L1148, 6s. 8d.; females, L1275, 8s. 4d.;
+and so on. _Deferred_ annuities, that is, such as have their first payments
+postponed for a greater or less number of years, are also granted. We give
+the rates for an annuity of L100 deferred 20 years: Males aged 20, L848,
+6s. 8d.; females, L1014, 13s. 4d.; males aged 35, L557, 1s. 8d.; females,
+L697, 1s. 8d.; and so on. If a person on whose life the deferred annuity is
+to depend should die before payment commences, the purchase-money may be
+returned to his or her representatives, provided that an agreement to that
+effect had been made in the first instance, but in this case the
+purchase-money is necessarily higher. See _Insurance_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Baily, _Life Annuities and Assurances_; J. Henry, _Government Life Annuity
+Commutation Tables_.
+
+ANNULOI'DA, one of Professor Huxley's eight primary groups, a division
+(sub-kingdom) of animals, including the Rotifera, Scolecida (tape-worms,
+&c.), all which are more or less ring-like in appearance, and the
+Echinodermata, whose embryos show traces of annulation.
+
+ANNULO'SA, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals regarded by some as
+synonymous with the Arthropoda or Articulata; according to other
+systematists, including both the Articulata and Annulata or worms.
+
+ANNUNCIATION, the declaration of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary
+informing her that she was to become the mother of our
+Lord.--_Annunciation_ or _Lady Day_ is a feast of the Church in honour of
+the annunciation, celebrated on the 25th of March.--The Italian order of
+_Knights of the Annunciation_ was instituted by Amadeus VI, Duke of Savoy,
+in 1360. The king is always grand-master. The knights must be of high rank,
+and must already be members of the order of St. Mauritius and St. Lazarus.
+The decoration of the order consists of a golden shield suspended from a
+chain or collar of roses and knots, the letters F. E. R. T. being inscribed
+on the roses, and standing for _Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit_ (its bravery
+held Rhodes).--There are two orders of _nuns of the Annunciation_, one
+originally French, founded in 1501 by Joanna of Valois; the other Italian,
+founded in 1604 by Maria Vittoria Fornari of Genoa.
+
+ANNUNZIO ([.a]n-n[u:]nt'sy[=o]), Gabriele d', Italian poet, novelist, and
+dramatist, born at Pescara in 1863, his patronymic being Rapagnetta. He was
+educated at Prato and in Rome, and early took to literature and journalism.
+In 1898 he was elected a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, in
+which he joined the Socialist party. He came before the public when a
+schoolboy with a volume of verse called _Primo Vere_, to which
+others--naturally much more mature--were subsequently added. Several of his
+novels have been published in English, as: _The Child of Pleasure_, _The
+Victim_, _The Triumph of Death_, _The Virgin of the Rocks_, _The Fire of
+Life_. Some of these have been very successful, though disfigured to some
+extent by coarse realism and voluptuousness. He began to write plays later
+in life. Among them _Gioconda_, _The Dead City_, and _Francesca da Rimini_
+may be read in English versions, and _Gioconda_ and _Francesca_ have been
+performed on the English stage. His more recent works include: _Le Martyr
+de Saint Sebastien_ (1911), _Le Chevrefeuille_ (1914), _La Beffa di
+Buccari_ (1918), _Notturno_ (1918). D'Annunzio is the most prominent
+Italian writer of the present day, and in wealth of language and
+distinction of style stands far ahead of all others. He served in the
+European War from 1915-18, and was wounded. In Sept., 1919, he led a raid
+and occupied the port of Fiume. See _European War_ and _Fiume_.
+
+AN'OA, an animal (_Anoa depressicornis_) closely allied to the buffalo,
+about the size of an average sheep, very wild and fierce, inhabiting the
+rocky and mountainous localities of the Island of Celebes. The horns are
+straight, thick at the root, and set nearly in a line with the forehead.
+
+ANO'BIUM, a genus of coleopterous insects, the larvae of which often do
+much damage by their boring into old wood. By means of their heads they
+produce a loud, ticking sound in the wood, the so-called _death-watch_
+ticking. _A. stri[=a]tum_, a common species, when frightened, is much given
+to feigning death.
+
+AN'ODE, (Gr. _ana_, up, _hodos_, way), the positive pole of the voltaic
+current, being that part of the surface of a decomposing body which the
+electric current enters: opposed to _cathode_ (Gr. _kata_, down, _hodos_,
+way), the way by which it departs.
+
+AN'ODON, or ANODON'TA, a genus of lamellibranchiate bivalves, including the
+fresh-water mussels, without or with very slight hinge-teeth. See _Mussel_.
+
+AN'ODYNE, a medicine, such as an opiate or narcotic, which allays pain.
+
+ANOINTING, rubbing the body or some part of it with oil, often perfumed.
+From time immemorial the nations of the East have been in the habit of
+anointing themselves for the sake of health and beauty. The Greeks and
+Romans anointed themselves after the bath. Wrestlers anointed themselves in
+order to render it more difficult for their antagonists to get hold of
+them. In Egypt it was common to anoint the head of guests when they entered
+the house where they were to be entertained. In the Mosaic law a sacred
+character was attached to the anointing of the garments of the priests, and
+things belonging to the ceremonial of worship. The Jewish priests and kings
+were anointed when inducted into office, and were called the _anointed of
+the Lord_, to show that their persons were sacred and their office from
+God. In the Old Testament also the prophecies respecting the Redeemer style
+him _Messias_, that is, the _Anointed_, which is also the meaning of his
+Greek name Christ. The custom of anointing still exists in the Roman
+Catholic Church in the ordination of priests and the confirmation of
+believers and the sacrament of extreme unction. The ceremony is also
+frequently a part of the coronation of kings.
+
+[Illustration: Anomalure (_Anomalurus Peli_)]
+
+ANOM'ALURE (_Anomal[=u]rus_), a genus of rodent animals inhabiting the west
+coast of Africa, resembling the flying-squirrels, but having the under
+surface of the tail furnished for some distance from the root with a series
+of large horny scales, which, when pressed against the trunk of a tree, may
+subserve the same purpose as those instruments with which a man climbs up a
+telegraph pole to set the wires.
+
+ANOM'ALY, a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy, the angle which a
+line drawn from a planet to the sun has passed through since the planet was
+last at its perihelion or nearest distance to the sun. The _anomalistic
+year_ is the interval between two successive times at which the earth is in
+perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 minutes 48 seconds. In consequence of
+the advance of the earth's perihelion among the stars in the same direction
+as the earth's motion, and of the precession of the equinoxes, which
+carries the equinoxes back in the opposite direction to the earth's motion,
+the anomalistic year is about 4 minutes 40 seconds longer than the sidereal
+year, and about 25 minutes longer than the tropical or common year. The
+time of a complete revolution of the perihelion is computed at 108,000
+years.
+
+ANOMU'RA, a section of the crustaceans of the ord. Decapoda, with irregular
+tails not formed to assist in swimming, including the hermit-crabs and
+others.
+
+[Illustration: Anona or Sour-sop (_An[=o]na muric[=a]ta_)]
+
+ANO'NA, a genus of plants, the type of the nat. ord. Anonaceae. _A.
+squam[=o]sa_ (sweet-sop) grows in the West Indian Islands, and yields an
+edible fruit having a thick, sweet, luscious pulp. _A. muric[=a]ta_
+(sour-sop) is cultivated in the West and East Indies; it produces a large
+pear-shaped fruit, of a greenish colour, containing an agreeable
+slightly-acid pulp. The genus produces other edible fruits, as the common
+custard-apple or bullock's heart, from _A. reticul[=a]ta_, and the
+cherimoyer of Peru, from _A. Cherimolia_.
+
+ANONA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of trees and shrubs, having simple, alternate
+leaves, destitute of stipules, by which character they are distinguished
+from the Magnoliaceae, to which they are otherwise closely allied. They are
+mostly tropical plants of the Old and the New World, and are generally
+aromatic. See _Anona_.
+
+ANOPLOTHE'RIUM, an extinct genus of the Ungulata or Hoofed Quadrupeds,
+forming the type of a distinct family, which were in many respects
+intermediate between the swine and the true ruminants. These animals were
+pig-like in form, but possessed long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with two
+rudimentary toes. Some of them were as small as a guinea-pig, others as
+large as an ass. Six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars
+existed in each jaw, the series being continuous, no interval existing in
+the jaw. _A. comm[=u]ne_, from the Eocene rocks, is a familiar species.
+
+ANOPLU'RA, an order of apterous insects, of which the type is the genus
+Pedic[)u]lus or louse,
+
+ANOPSHEHR. See _Anupshahr_.
+
+ANOREXIA. See _Appetite_.
+
+ANOS'MIA, a disease consisting in a diminution or destruction of the power
+of smelling, sometimes constitutional, but most frequently caused by strong
+and repeated stimulants, as snuff, applied to the olfactory nerves.
+
+ANOURA. See _Anura_.
+
+ANQUETIL-DUPERRON ([.a]nk-t[=e]l-d[.u]-p[=a]-ro[n.]), Abraham Hyacinthe, a
+French orientalist, born 1731, died 1805. He studied theology for some
+time, but soon devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian.
+His zeal for the Oriental languages induced him to set out for India, where
+he prevailed on some of the Parsee priests to instruct him in the Zend and
+Pehlevi and to give him some of the Zoroastrian books. In 1762 he returned
+to France with a valuable collection of MSS. In 1771 he published his
+_Zend-Avesta_, a translation of the _Vendidad_, and other sacred books,
+which aroused much interest. Among his other works are _L'Inde en rapport
+avec l'Europe_ (1790), and a selection from the _Vedas_. His knowledge of
+the Oriental languages was by no means exact.
+
+ANSBACH. See _Anspach_.
+
+AN'SELM, St., a celebrated Christian philosopher and theologian, born at
+Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033, died at Canterbury 1109. At the age of
+twenty-seven (1060) he became a monk at Bec, in Normandy, whither he had
+been attracted by the celebrity of Lanfranc. Three years later he was
+elected prior, and in 1078 he was chosen abbot, which he remained for
+fifteen years. During this period of his life he wrote his first
+philosophical and religious works: the dialogues on _Truth_ and
+_Free-will_, and the treatises _Monologion_ and _Proslogion_; and at the
+same time his influence made itself so felt among the monks under his
+charge that Bec became the chief seat of learning in Europe. In 1093 Anselm
+was offered by William Rufus the archbishopric of Canterbury, and accepted
+it, though with great reluctance, and with the condition that all the lands
+belonging to the see should be restored. William II soon quarrelled with
+the archbishop, who would show no subservience to him, and would persist in
+acknowledging Pope Urban II in opposition to the antipope Clement. William
+ultimately had to give way. He acknowledged Urban as Pope, and conferred
+the pallium upon Anselm. The king became his bitter enemy, however, and so
+great were Anselm's difficulties that in 1097 he set out for Rome to
+consult with the Pope. Urban received him with great distinction, but did
+not venture really to take the side of the prelate against the king, though
+William had refused to receive Anselm again as archbishop, and had seized
+on the revenues of the see of Canterbury, which he retained till his death
+in 1100. Anselm accordingly remained abroad, where he wrote most of his
+celebrated treatise on the atonement, entitled _Cur Deus Homo_ (_Why God
+was made Man_). When William was succeeded by Henry I Anselm was recalled;
+but Henry insisted that he should submit to be reinvested in his see by
+himself, although the Popes claimed the right of investing for themselves
+alone. Much negotiation followed, and Henry did not surrender his claims
+till 1107, when Anselm's long struggle on behalf of the rights of the
+Church came to an end. Anselm was a great scholar, a deep and original
+thinker, and a man of the utmost saintliness and piety. Anselm's great
+achievement in philosophy was his ontological argument for the existence of
+God; and his importance in the ecclesiastical history of England cannot be
+exaggerated. The chief of his writings are the _Monologion_, the
+_Proslogion_, and the _Cur Deus Homo_. The first is an attempt to prove
+inductively the existence of God by pure reason without the aid of
+Scripture or authority; the second is an attempt to prove the same by the
+deductive method; the _Cur Deus Homo_ is intended to prove the necessity of
+the incarnation. Among his numerous other writings are more than 400
+letters. His life was written by his domestic chaplain and companion,
+Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, and is edited by M. Rule for the 'Rolls
+Series'. See _Scholasticism_. Cf. Pere Ragey, _Histoire de Saint Anselme_;
+J. M. Rigg, _Anselm of Canterbury_.
+
+ANS'GAR, or ANSHAR, called the _Apostle of the North_, born in 801 in
+Picardy, died in 864 or 865. He took the monastic vows while still in his
+boyhood, and in the midst of many difficulties laboured as a missionary in
+Denmark and Sweden. He died with the reputation of having made, if not the
+first, the most successful attempts to propagate Christianity in the North.
+
+AN'SON, George, Lord, celebrated English navigator, born 1697, died 1762.
+He entered the navy at an early age and became a commander in 1722, and
+captain in 1724. He was for a long time on the South Carolina station. In
+1740 he was made commander of a fleet sent to the South Sea, directed
+against the trade and colonies of Spain. The expedition consisted of five
+men-of-war and three smaller vessels, which carried 1400 men. After much
+suffering and many stirring adventures he reached the coast of Peru, made
+several prizes, and captured and burned the city of Paita. His squadron was
+now reduced to one ship, the _Centurion_, but with it he took the Spanish
+treasure galleon from Acapulco, and arrived in England in 1744 with
+treasure to the amount of L500,000, having circumnavigated the globe. His
+adventures and discoveries are described in the well-known _Anson's
+Voyage_, compiled from materials furnished by Anson. A few days after his
+return he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and not long after
+rear-admiral of the white. His victory over the French admiral Jonquiere,
+near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised him to the peerage, with the title of
+Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton. Four years afterwards he was made First Lord
+of the Admiralty. In 1758 he commanded the fleet before Brest, protected
+the landing of the British at St. Malo, Cherbourg, &c., and received the
+repulsed troops into his vessels. Finally, in 1761, he was appointed to
+convey the queen of George III to England.
+
+ANSO'NIA, a town of the United States, Conn., on the Nangatuck, with
+manufactures of brass and copper, and especially clocks. Pop. 17,643.
+
+ANSPACH ([.a]n'sp[.a]_h_), or ANSBACH, a town in Bavaria, at the junction
+of the Holzbach with the Lower Rezat, 24 miles south-west of Nuernberg.
+Anspach gave its name to an ancient principality or margravate, which had a
+territory of about 1300 sq. miles, with 300,000 inhabitants. in the end of
+the eighteenth century. The last margrave sold his possessions in 1791 to
+Prussia. It was occupied by the French in 1806, and transferred by Napoleon
+to Bavaria. The town has manufactures of trimmings, buttons, straw-wares,
+&c. Pop. 19,995.
+
+AN'STED, David Thomas, an English geologist, born 1814, died 1880. He was
+professor of geology at King's College, London, and assistant-secretary to
+the Geological Society, whose quarterly journal he edited for many years.
+
+AN'STER, John, LL.D., professor of civil law in the University of Dublin,
+born in County Cork, 1793, died 1867. He published a volume of poems, but
+is chiefly known by his fine translation of Goethe's _Faust_, Part I, 1835;
+Part II, 1864.
+
+AN'STEY, Christopher, an English poet, born 1724, died 1805. He was author
+of _The New Bath Guide_, a humorous and satirical production describing
+fashionable life at Bath in the form of a series of letters in different
+varieties of metre, which had a great reputation in its day, but is now
+almost forgotten.
+
+ANSTRUTHER (an'stru_th_-[.e]r; popularly an'st[.e]r), Easter and Wester,
+two small royal and police burghs of Scotland, in Fifeshire, forming, with
+the contiguous royal burgh of Cellardyke or Nether Kilrenny, one fishing
+and seaport town. Total pop. (1921), 4641.
+
+[Illustration: The Wood-ant (_Formica rufa_)
+
+1. Egg. 2. Larva. 3. Cocoon of fine white silk. 4. Young ant, taken out of
+cocoon. 5. Male ant. 6. Female ant. 7. Worker ant. (All magnified.)]
+
+ANT, the common name of hymenopterous (or membranous-winged) insects of
+various genera, of the family Formic[)i]dae, of which there are numerous
+species, at least 2000 being known. They are found in most temperate and
+tropical regions. They are small but powerful insects, and have long been
+noted for their remarkable intelligence and interesting habits. They are
+social insects, living in communities regulated by definite laws, each
+member of the society bearing a well-defined and separate part in the work
+of the colony. Each community consists of males; of females much larger
+than the males; and of barren females, otherwise called neuters, workers,
+or nurses. The neuters are wingless, and the males and females only acquire
+wings for their 'nuptial flight', after which the males perish, and the few
+females which escape the pursuit of their numerous enemies divest
+themselves of their wings, and either return to established nests, or
+become the foundresses of new colonies. The neuters perform all the labours
+of the ant-hill or abode of the community; they excavate the galleries,
+procure food, and feed the larvae or young ants, which have not got organs
+of motion. In fine weather they carefully convey them to the surface for
+the benefit of the sun's heat, and as attentively carry them to a place of
+safety either when bad weather is threatened or the ant-hill is disturbed.
+In like manner they watch over the safety of the nymphs or pupae about to
+acquire their perfect growth. Some communities possess a special type of
+neuters, known as 'soldiers', from the duties that specially fall upon
+them, and from their powerful biting jaws. There is a very considerable
+variety in the materials, size, and form of ant-hills, or nests, according
+to the peculiar nature or instinct of the species. Most of the British ants
+form nests in woods, fields, or gardens, their abodes being generally in
+the form of small mounds rising above the surface of the ground and
+containing numerous galleries and apartments. Some excavate nests in old
+tree-trunks. One little yellow ant (_Myrm[=i]ca domestica_) is common in
+houses in Britain in some localities. Some ants live on animal food, very
+quickly picking quite clean the skeleton of any dead animal they may light
+on. Others live on saccharine matter, being very fond of the sweet
+substance, called honey-dew, which exudes from the bodies of aphides, or
+plant-lice. These they sometimes keep in their nests, and sometimes tend on
+the plants where they feed; sometimes they even superintend their breeding.
+By stroking the aphides with their antennae they cause them to emit the
+sweet fluid, which the ants then greedily sip up. Various other insects are
+looked after by ants in a similar manner, or are found in their nests. It
+has been observed that some species, like the European Red Ant (_Form[=i]ca
+sanguin[)e]a_), resort to violence to obtain working ants of other species
+for their own use, plundering the nests of suitable kinds of their larvae
+and pupae, which they carry off to their own nests to be carefully reared
+and kept as slaves. In temperate countries male and female ants survive, at
+most, till autumn, or to the commencement of cool weather, though a very
+large proportion of them cease to exist long previous to that time. The
+neuters pass the winter in a state of torpor, and of course require no
+food. The only time when they require food is during the season of
+activity, when they have a vast number of young to feed. Some ants of
+Southern Europe feed on grain, and store it up in their nests for use when
+required. Some species have stings as weapons, others only their powerful
+mandibles, or an acrid and pungent fluid (formic acid) which they can emit.
+The name ant is also given to the neuropterous insects otherwise called
+Termites (q.v.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), _Ants,
+Bees, and Wasps_; H. W. Bates, _A Naturalist on the Amazons_; _Cambridge
+Natural History_.
+
+ANTAC'ID, an alkali, or any remedy for acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia
+and diarrhoea are the diseases in which antacids are chiefly employed. The
+principal antacids in use are magnesia, lime, and their carbonates, and the
+carbonates of potash and soda.
+
+ANTAE'US, the giant son of Poseidon (Neptune) and G[=e] (the Earth), who
+was invincible so long as he was in contact with the earth. Heracles
+(Hercules) grasped him in his arms and stifled him suspended in the air,
+thus preventing him from touching the earth.
+
+ANTAKIEH, or ANTAKIA. See _Antioch_.
+
+ANTAL'KALI, a substance which neutralizes an alkali, and is used
+medicinally to counteract an alkaline tendency in the system. All true
+acids have this power.
+
+ANTANANARIVO (an-tan-an-a-r[=e]'v[=o]), the capital of Madagascar, situated
+in the central province of Imerina, on rocky eminences rising from a plain.
+Until 1869 all buildings within the city were of wood or rush, but since
+the introduction of brick and stone, the whole city has been rebuilt. It
+contains two former royal palaces, immense timber structures; a Protestant
+and a Roman Catholic cathedral, mission churches, schools, &c. Antananarivo
+is the residence of the French governor of Madagascar, and there is a
+strong French garrison. It has manufactures of metal work, cutlery, silk,
+&c. Pop. (exclusive of the troops) 63,115.
+
+AN'TAR, an Arabian warrior and poet of the sixth century, author of one of
+the seven Moallakas (poems) hung up in the Kaaba at Mecca; hero of a
+romance analogous in Arabic literature to the Arthurian legend of the
+English. The romance of _Antar_ is composed in rhythmic prose interspersed
+with fragments of verse, many of which are attributed to Antar himself, and
+has been generally ascribed to Asmai (born A.D. 740, died about A.D. 830),
+preceptor to Harun-al-Rashid. It has been published in 32 vols. at Cairo
+(1889).
+
+ANTARCTIC (ant-aerk'tik), a term signifying the opposite of _Arctic_, and
+therefore relating to the southern pole or to the regions near it. The
+_Antarctic Circle_, which of course corresponds to the _Arctic Circle_, is
+a circle parallel to the equator and distant from the south pole 23deg 28',
+marking the area within which the sun does not set when on the tropic of
+Capricorn. The Antarctic Circle has been arbitrarily fixed on as the limits
+of the Antarctic Ocean, it being the average limit of the pack-ice; but the
+name is often extended to embrace a much wider area. The lands within or
+near the Antarctic Circle are but imperfectly known, and a very large area
+around the south pole is altogether unknown. The work of exploration has
+been hitherto baffled at various points by what seems an unsurmountable
+ice-barrier, which in some places is connected with masses of land and may
+as a whole belong to a great Antarctic continent. Among land-masses that
+have long been known to exist in the Antarctic Ocean, though our knowledge
+of them is very imperfect, are those to which have been attached the names
+Graham Land, Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, Enderby Land, South Shetland
+Islands, &c. The Antarctic regions are even colder and more inhospitable
+than the Arctic, and partly on account of their remoteness from the
+maritime nations there have been far fewer efforts at their exploration,
+the south pole being far less a goal of discovery than the north. See
+_South Polar Expeditions_.
+
+[Illustration: Ant-eater (_Myrmecoph[)a]ga jub[=a]ta_)]
+
+ANT-EATER, a name given to mammals of various genera that prey chiefly on
+ants, but usually confined to the genus Myrmecoph[)a]ga, ord. Edentata. In
+this genus the head is remarkably elongated, the jaws destitute of teeth,
+and the mouth furnished with a long, extensile tongue covered with
+glutinous saliva, by the aid of which the animals secure their insect prey.
+The eyes are particularly small, the ears short and round, and the legs,
+especially the fore-legs, very strong, and furnished with long, compressed,
+acute nails, admirably adapted for breaking into the ant-hills. The most
+remarkable species is the _Myrmecoph[)a]ga jub[=a]ta_, or ant-bear, a
+native of the warmer parts of South America. It is from 4 to 5 feet in
+length from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the black bushy tail,
+which is about 2 feet long. The body is covered with long hair,
+particularly along the neck and back. It is a harmless and solitary animal,
+and spends most of its time in sleep. Some are adapted for climbing trees
+in quest of the insects on which they feed, having prehensile tails. All
+are natives of South America. The name ant-eater is also given to the
+pangolins and to the aardvark. The echidna of Australia is sometimes called
+_porcupine ant-eater_.
+
+ANTECE'DENT, in grammar, the noun to which a relative or other pronoun
+refers; as, Solomon was the _prince who_ built the temple, where the word
+_prince_ is the antecedent of _who_.--In logic, that member of a
+hypothetical or conditional proposition which contains the condition, and
+which is introduced by _if_ or some equivalent word or words; as, if the
+sun is fixed, the earth must move. Here the first and conditional
+proposition is the _antecedent_, the second the _consequent_.
+
+ANTEDILU'VIAN, before the flood or deluge of Noah's time; relating to what
+happened before the deluge. In geology the term has been applied to
+organisms, traces of which are found in a fossil state in formations
+preceding the Diluvial (Glacial epoch), particularly to extinct animals
+such as the palaeotherium, the mastodon, &c.
+
+AN'TELOPE, the name given to the members of a large family of Ruminant
+Ungulata or Hoofed Mammalia, closely resembling the Deer in general
+appearance, but essentially different in nature from the latter animals.
+They are included with the Sheep and Oxen in the family of the Cavicornia
+or 'Hollow-horned' Ruminants. Their horns, unlike those of the Deer, are
+not deciduous, but are permanent; are never branched, but are often twisted
+spirally, and may be borne by both sexes. They are found in greatest number
+and variety in Africa. Well-known species are the chamois (European), the
+gazelle, the addax, the eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the springbok, the
+sasin or Indian antelope, and the prongbuck of America.
+
+[Illustration: Antennae
+
+1,1. Filiform Antennae of Cucujo Firefly of Brazil (_Pyroph[)o]rus
+lumin[=o]sus_). 2. Denticulate Antenna; 3. Bipinnate; 4. Lamellicorn; 5.
+Clavate; 6. Geniculate; 7. Antenna and Antennule of Crustacean.]
+
+ANTEN'NAE, the name given to the movable jointed organs of touch and
+hearing attached to the heads of insects, myriapods, &c., and commonly
+called horns or feelers. They present a very great variety of forms.
+
+ANTEQUERA ([.a]n-te-k[=a]'r[.a]), a city of Andalusia, in Spain, in the
+province of Malaga, a place of some importance under the Romans, with a
+ruined Moorish castle. It manufactures woollens, leather, soap, &c. Pop.
+32,360.
+
+ANT'EROS, in Greek mythology, the god of mutual love. According to some,
+however, Anteros is the enemy of love, or the god of antipathy; he was also
+said to punish those who did not return the love of others.
+
+ANTHE'LION, pl. ANTHELIA, a luminous ring, or rings, seen by an observer,
+especially in alpine and polar regions, around the shadow of his head
+projected on a cloud or fog-bank, or on grass covered with dew, 50 or 60
+yards distant, and opposite the sun when rising or setting. It is due to
+the diffraction of light.
+
+ANTHELMIN'THICS, or ANTHELMIN'TICS, a class of remedies used to destroy
+worms when lodged in the alimentary canal; classed as vermicides or
+vermifuges, according as the object is to kill the worms, or to expel them
+by purgation.
+
+AN'THEM, originally a hymn sung in alternate parts; in modern usage, a
+sacred tune or piece of music set to words taken from the Psalms or other
+parts of the Scriptures, first introduced into church service in
+Elizabeth's reign; a developed motet. The anthem may be for one, two, or
+any number of voices, but seldom exceeds five parts, and may or may not
+have an organ accompaniment written for it.
+
+[Illustration: Anthemion]
+
+ANTHE'MION, an ornament or ornamental series used in Greek and Roman
+decoration, which is derived from floral forms, more especially the
+honeysuckle. It was much used for the ornamentation of friezes and
+interiors, for the decoration of fictile vases, the borders of dresses, &c.
+
+AN'THEMIS, a genus of composite plants, comprising the camomile or
+chamomile.
+
+ANTHE'MIUS, a Greek mathematician and architect of Lydia; designed the
+church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and is credited with the invention
+of the dome; died A.D. 534.
+
+[Illustration: The Reproductive Organs of the Lily]
+
+AN'THER, the male organ of the flower; that part of the stamen which is
+filled with pollen.
+
+ANTHESTE'RIA, an annual Greek festival held in honour of all the gods, but
+especially in honour of Dionysus. It celebrated the beginning of spring,
+and the season when the wine of the previous vintage was considered fit for
+use.
+
+ANTHOCY'ANIN, the blue colour of flowers, a pigment obtained from those
+petals of flowers which are blue, by digesting them in spirits of wine.
+
+ANTHOL'OGY (Gr. _anthos_, a flower, and _legein_, to gather), the name
+given to several collections of short poems which have come down from
+antiquity. The first to compile a Greek anthology was Meleager, a Syrian,
+about 60 B.C. He entitled his collection, which contained selections from
+forty-six poets besides many pieces of his own, the _Garland_; a
+continuation of this work by Philip of Thessalonica in the age of Tiberius
+was the first entitled _Anthology_. Later collections are that of
+Constantine Cephalas, in the tenth century, who made much use of the
+earlier ones, and that of Maximus Planudes, in the fourteenth century, a
+monk of Constantinople, whose anthology is a tasteless series of extracts
+from the _Anthology_ of Cephalas, with some additions. The treasures
+contained in both, increased with fragments of the older poets, idylls of
+the bucolic poets, the hymns of Callimachus, epigrams from monuments and
+other works, have been published in modern times as the _Greek Anthology_.
+There is no ancient Latin anthology, the oldest being that of Scaliger
+(1573).
+
+AN'THON, Charles, LL.D., an American editor of classical school-books, and
+of works intended to facilitate the study of Greek and Latin literature;
+born 1797, died 1867. He was long a professor in Columbia College, New
+York.
+
+AN'THONY, St. the founder of monastic institutions, born near Heraclea, in
+Upper Egypt, A.D. 251. Giving up all his property he retired to the desert,
+where he was followed by a number of disciples, who thus formed the first
+community of monks. He died at the age of 105.--_St. Anthony's Fire_, a
+name given to erysipelas.
+
+AN'THRACENE (C_{14}H_{10}) occurs in coal-tar in small quantity, about
+0.25-0.45 per cent. During the distillation of tar a high-boiling fraction,
+boiling above 270deg C., is obtained; this is crude anthracene oil, a
+greenish oily substance which, on further distillation, yields a
+crystalline mass, 50 per cent anthracene. This is carefully purified by
+distillation and chemical treatment to separate the anthracene from the
+other substances occurring with it, and the product obtained is finally
+purified by crystallization. When pure it forms colourless crystalline
+scales melting at 216deg C., and having a violet fluorescence. It forms a
+series of derivatives, the most important being anthraquinone and alizarine
+and the numerous derivatives of these. Anthracene was originally a useless
+product in coal-tar distillation, but it became valuable as soon as it was
+discovered that alizarine--from which many dyes are manufactured directly
+or indirectly--could be prepared from it.
+
+AN'THRACITE, glance or blind coal, a non-bituminous coal of a shining
+lustre, approaching to metallic, and which burns without smoke, with a weak
+or no flame, and with intense heat. It consists of, on an average, 90 per
+cent carbon, 2 oxygen, 3 hydrogen, and 5 ashes. It has some of the
+properties of coal or charcoal, and, like that substance, represents an
+extreme alteration of vegetable substances by loss of gases, either during
+conditions of decay or after entombment among stratified rocks. It is found
+in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in large quantities in the United
+States (Pennsylvania), and near Swansea (South Wales). See _Coal_.
+
+AN'THRAX, a fatal disease to which animals are subject, always associated
+with the presence of an extremely minute micro-organism (_Bacillus
+anthr[)a]cis_) in the blood. It attacks cattle more frequently than other
+animals; sheep, horses, pigs, dogs, and fowls are liable to anthrax, but
+not cats. The mode of infection in animals is chiefly by ingestion. It may
+also be contracted through a wound or scratch in the skin, but this mode of
+infection is commoner in human beings than in animals. It frequently
+assumes an epizootic form, and extends over large districts, affecting all
+classes of animals which are exposed to the exciting causes. It is also
+called splenic fever, and is communicable to man, appearing as carbuncle,
+malignant pustule, or wool-sorter's disease.
+
+ANTHROPOL'ATRY, the worship of man, a word always employed in reproach;
+applied by the Apollinarians, who denied Christ's perfect humanity, towards
+the orthodox Christians.
+
+ANTHRO'POLITE, a petrifaction of the human body or skeleton, or of parts of
+the body, by the encrusting action of calcareous waters, and hence hardly
+to be considered fossil or sub-fossil.
+
+ANTHROPOL'OGY, the science of man, including the study of man's place in
+nature, that is, of the measurement of his agreement with and divergence
+from other animals and the history of the emergence of human
+characteristics; of the distinctive features and geographical distribution
+of the races of mankind, their customs and beliefs; of the remains of
+extinct types of the human family and the evidence relating to their modes
+of life. It puts under contribution all sciences which have man for their
+object, as anatomy, palaeontology, psychology, archaeology, history, and
+comparative religion. All the races of mankind that are now living, much as
+they differ in external appearance, such as colour of skin, character of
+hair, form of skull, face, and body, and stature, belong to one species,
+_Homo Sapiens_; but an earlier species of more brutal type, _H.
+neanderthalensis_, now completely extinct, is known from fossil remains
+found in Germany, Belgium, France, Gibraltar, and Croatia. Three more
+ancient and primitive types, probably representing distinct genera of the
+human family, have been discovered respectively at Piltdown, in Sussex
+(Eoanthropus), at Mauer, near Heidelberg (Palaeanthropus), and in Java, the
+Ape-man (Pithecanthropus). The Piltdown man may represent the very remote,
+but direct, ancestor of modern man; but the Heidelberg man and the Ape-man
+were probably divergent 'sports' whose descendants never became men of the
+modern type.
+
+In structure the gorilla reveals a close kinship with the human family, and
+was probably derived from a common ancestry which probably differentiated
+into man's forerunner and the gorilla's in Miocene times. Of existing races
+the aboriginal Australian is much the most primitive, and represents the
+survival of the earliest type of _Homo Sapiens_ soon after this species
+became differentiated from men of the Neanderthal species. The negro, whose
+home is tropical Africa, is primitive in some respects, but in others is
+highly specialized. He is distinguished by his black skin, flat nose,
+prominent jaws and thick everted lips, and so-called 'woolly' or
+'pepper-corn' hair. In stature he shows a wider range of variation than any
+other race, including, as he does, the tallest and the shortest varieties
+of mankind. The Bushman is a peculiarly distinct racial type now restricted
+to the deserts of South Africa. Though his skin is yellowish rather than
+black, he is akin to the negro. The Mongolian race probably assumed its
+distinctive features, yellowish skin, coarse black hair, and characteristic
+facial and bodily traits, in Eastern Asia; and the aboriginal population of
+America was sprung mainly from the less-specialized branch of this race.
+The so-called white races include three main stocks, a people of short
+stature, olive complexion, and long heads, the Mediterranean race; a taller
+people with fair hair and long heads, the Nordic race; and a short,
+thick-set, black-haired, broad-headed Alpine race, which made its way from
+Asia into Europe many centuries after the other two chief components of
+Europe's population. For long ages in every part of the world intermixture
+has been taking place in varying degrees between the different races of
+mankind, so that to-day probably no pure race exists. See _Ethnography_,
+_Ethnology_, _Man_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Anthropology_; D. G.
+Brinton, _Races and Peoples_; W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_; E.
+Carpenter, _Anthropology_; G. Elliott Smith, _The Migrations of Early
+Culture_; H. G. F. Spurrell, _Modern Man and his Forerunners_;
+_Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques_; _The Journal of the
+Anthropological Institute of Great Britain_.
+
+ANTHROPOM'ETRY, the systematic examination of the height, weight, and other
+physical characteristics of the human body. It was shown in the British
+Association Report of 1888 that variations in stature, weight, and
+complexion, existing in different districts of the British islands, are
+chiefly due to difference of racial origin.
+
+The Scotch male adults stand first in height (68.71 inches), the Irish
+second (67.90 inches), the English third (67.66 inches), and the Welsh last
+(66.66 inches). In weight the Scotch take the first place (165.3 lb.), the
+Welsh the second (158.3 lb.), the English the third (155.0 lb.), and the
+Irish the last (154.1 lb.). The average height of adult females is 4.71
+inches less than the male average, and their average weight 32.2 lb. under
+that of the males. The average height of the adult males of the principal
+races or nationalities of the world may be given as under; but it is
+acknowledged that more numerous measurements might alter some of the
+figures considerably: Polynesians 69.33 inches, Patagonians 69 inches,
+Negroes of the Congo 69 inches, Scotch 68.71 inches, Iroquois Indians 68.28
+inches, Irish 67.90 inches, United States (whites) 67.67 inches, English
+67.66 inches, Norwegians 67.66 inches, Zulus 67.19 inches, Welsh 66.66
+inches, Danes 66.65 inches, Dutch 66.62 inches, American Negroes 66.62
+inches, Hungarians 66.58 inches, Germans 66.54 inches, Swiss 66.43 inches,
+Belgians 66.38 inches, French 66.23 inches, Berbers 66.10 inches, Arabs
+66.08 inches, Russians 66.04 inches, Italians 66 inches, Spaniards 65.66
+inches, Esquimaux 65.10 inches, Papuans 64.78 inches, Hindus 64.76 inches,
+Chinese 64.17 inches, Poles 63.87 inches, Finns 63.60 inches, Japanese
+63.11 inches, Peruvians 63 inches, Malays 62.34 inches, Lapps 59.2 inches,
+Bosjesmans 52.78 inches. General average, 65.25 inches.
+
+ANTHROPOMOR'PHISM, the representation or conception of the Deity under a
+human form, or with human attributes and affections. _Anthropomorphism_ is
+based upon the natural inaptitude of the human mind for conceiving
+spiritual things except through sensuous images, and in its consequent
+tendency to accept such expressions as those of Scripture when it speaks of
+the eye, the ear, and the hand of God, of his seeing and hearing, of his
+remembering and forgetting, of his making man in his own image, &c., in a
+too literal sense. In a general sense anthropomorphism is the assumption of
+man that his own characteristics are present in beings or things widely
+different from himself, more particularly in forces of nature and gods. The
+term is, therefore, also applied to that doctrine which attributes to
+animals mental faculties of the same nature as those of man, though much
+lower in degree: strictly called _biological anthropomorphism_, to
+distinguish it from anthropomorphism proper, or _theological
+anthropomorphism_. Cf. E. Caird, _Evolution of Religion_; J. R.
+Illingworth, _Personality, Human and Divine_.
+
+ANTHROPOPH'AGI, man-eaters, cannibals. Cannibalism was practised in very
+ancient times; and though some peoples, as the New Zealanders and Fijians,
+have given it up in recent times, it is still practised over a wide area in
+Central Africa, where human flesh is a common article of food.
+Superstitious ideas are often associated with cannibalism among those who
+practise it. The Caribs were cannibals at the time of the Spanish conquest,
+and the word 'cannibal' is derived from their name. See _Cannibalism_.
+
+ANTHUS. See _Pipit_.
+
+ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS are guns so mounted that they may be pointed upward to
+fire directly against objects in the air. During the European War these
+guns, fitted with special appliances and ammunition, were used for defence
+against air-raids of the enemy, against Zeppelins and Gothas. The
+anti-aircraft guns are of various types, ranging from light machine-guns up
+to batteries of 3-inch and 6-inch guns. Some of them have brought down
+enemy machines flying at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet.
+
+ANTIBES ([.a][n.]-t[=e]b) (ancient ANTIPOLIS), a fortified town and seaport
+of France, department Alpes-Maritimes, on the Mediterranean, 11 miles
+S.S.W. of Nice; founded about 340 B.C. Pop. 12,198.
+
+ANTI-BURGHER SYNOD, a section of the Scottish Secession Church, which held
+its first meeting in Edinburgh in the house of Adam Gib on 10th April,
+1747. It was formed in consequence of a breach resulting from a controversy
+respecting the religious clause of the oath taken by burgesses in
+Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Perth. Those in favour of the oath were designated
+Burghers, whilst their opponents, who condemned the oath of the burgesses,
+became known as Anti-burghers. The union of the burgher and anti-burgher
+sections was brought about in 1820 through the exertions of John Jamieson,
+minister at the Anti-burgher Church in Nicholson Street, Edinburgh. See
+_United Free Church of Scotland_.
+
+AN'TICHLOR, the name given to any chemical substance, such as hyposulphite
+of sodium, employed to remove the small quantity of chlorine which
+obstinately adheres to the fibres of the cloth when goods are bleached by
+means of chlorine.
+
+AN'TICHRIST, a word occurring in the first and second _Epistles of St.
+John_, and nowhere else in Scripture, in passages having an evident
+reference to a personage real or symbolical mentioned or alluded to in
+various other passages both of the Old and New Testaments. The _idea
+itself_, however, of Antichrist can be traced back to the second century
+B.C., and appears first of all in the _Book of Daniel_. In every age the
+Church has held through all its sects some definite expectation of a
+formidable adversary of truth and righteousness prefigured under this name.
+Thus Roman Catholics have found Antichrist in heresy, and Protestants in
+Romanism. In one point the sects have generally been agreed, namely, in
+regarding the various intimations on this subject in the Old and New
+Testaments as a homogeneous declaration or warning, inspired by the spirit
+of prophecy, of danger to the true religion from some disaffection and
+revolt organized in the latter days by Satan. Most modern critics take a
+different view of the matter. They do not regard the various Scriptural
+writers who have dealt with this subject as having had any common
+inspiration or design. They believe that each writer from his own point of
+view, guided by mere human sagacity, gives expression in his predictions to
+his own individual apprehensions, or narrates as prediction what he already
+knows. Originally Antichrist is nothing else than the incarnate devil, and
+the idea of the battle of God with a human opponent, endowed with devilish
+wickedness, arose under the influence of historical conditions. It is the
+near political horizon which suggests the danger, or contemporary history
+the substance of the prophecy; thus the Antichrist of Daniel is Antiochus
+Epiphanes, that of St. John Nero, that of St. Paul some adversary of
+Christianity about to appear in the time of the Emperor
+Claudius.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Baring-Gould, _Curious Myths of the Middle
+Ages_; W. Bousset, _Antichrist_.
+
+ANTICLI'MAX, a sudden declension of a writer or speaker from lofty to mean
+thoughts or language, as in the well-known lines, quoted in Pope's
+_Martinus Scriblerus on the Art of Sinking in Poetry_ as from an anonymous
+author:
+
+  And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war,
+  Lieutenant-colonel to the Earl of Mar.
+
+Pope, Addison, and Fielding were masters in this art of sudden descent.
+
+[Illustration: _a_, _a._ Anticlinal line. _b._ Synclinal line]
+
+ANTICLI'NAL LINE OR AXIS, in geology, the ridge of a wave-like curve made
+by a series of superimposed strata, the strata dipping from it on either
+side as from the ridge of a house: a _synclinal line_ runs along the trough
+of such a wave.
+
+ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an association formed in England in 1836 to procure
+the repeal of the laws regulating or forbidding the importation of corn.
+The object of the league was attained in 1846.
+
+ANTICOS'TI, an island of Canada, in the mouth of the St. Lawrence, 125
+miles long by 30 miles broad. The interior is mountainous and wooded, but
+there is much good land, and it is well adapted for agriculture.
+
+ANTICY'CLONE, a phenomenon presenting some features opposite to those of a
+cyclone. It consists of a region of high barometric pressure, the pressure
+being greatest in the centre, with light winds flowing outwards from the
+centre, and not inwards as in the cyclone, accompanied with great cold in
+winter and with great heat in summer.
+
+ANTICYRA (an-tis'i-ra), the name of two towns of Greece, the one in
+Thessaly, the other in Phocis, famous for hellebore, which in ancient times
+was regarded as a specific against insanity and melancholy. Hence various
+jocular allusions in ancient writers (_Naviga Anticyram_, sail to
+Anticyra).
+
+AN'TIDOTE, a medicine to counteract the effects of poison.
+
+ANTIETAM (an-t[=e]'tam), a small stream in the United States which falls
+into the Potomac about 50 miles N.W. of Washington; scene of an indecisive
+battle between the Federal and Confederate armies, 17th Sept., 1862.
+
+ANTI-FEDERALISTS, the political party in the United States which after the
+formation of the Federal constitution in 1787 opposed its ratification.
+Whilst the Federalists were striving to turn the federation into a united
+nation, and stood for a strong Government and centralizing tendencies,
+their opponents, the Anti-Federalists, either more democratic, or
+pretending that a strong Government meant a 'disguised' monarchic power,
+endeavoured to preserve a loose disintegrated federation. The
+Anti-Federalist party was gradually transformed into the
+Democratic-Republican party, led by Jefferson.
+
+ANTIFRICTION METAL, a name given to various alloys of tin, zinc, copper,
+antimony, lead, &c., which oppose little resistance to motion, with great
+resistance to the effects of friction, so far as concerns the wearing away
+of the surfaces of contact. Babbitt's metal (50 parts tin, 5 antimony, 1
+copper) is one of them.
+
+ANTIGONE (an-tig'o-n[=e]), in Greek mythology, the daughter of Oedipus and
+Jocasta, celebrated for her devotion to her brother Polynices, for burying
+whom against the decree of King Creon she suffered death. She is the
+heroine of Sophocles' _Oedipus at Colonus_ and his _Antigone_; also of
+Racine's tragedy _Les Freres Ennemis_.
+
+ANTIG'ONISH, a town in the E. of Nova Scotia, in county of the same name;
+the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, with a cathedral, a college, and a
+good harbour. Pop. 1787.
+
+ANTIG'ONUS, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, born about 382 B.C.
+In the division of the empire, after the death of Alexander, Antigonus
+obtained Greater Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia as his dominion. But he soon
+managed to extend his power, being assisted by his warlike son, Demetrius
+Poliorc[=e]t[=e]s. Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus, who had also been
+generals of Alexander, alarmed by his ambition, united themselves against
+him; and a long series of contests ensued in Syria, Phoenicia, Asia Minor,
+and Greece, ending in 301 B.C. with the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in
+which Antigonus was defeated and slain, his dominions being divided among
+the conquerors.
+
+ANTIGONUS GON'ATAS, son of Demetrius Poliorc[=e]t[=e]s, and grandson of the
+above, succeeded his father in the kingdom of Macedon and all his other
+European dominions, but did not obtain actual possession of them for some
+years. He died, after a reign of forty-four years, 239 B.C.
+
+ANTIGUA (an-t[=e]'gwa), one of the British West Indies, the most important
+of the Leeward group; 28 miles long, 20 broad; area, 108 sq. miles. Its
+shores are high and rocky, and much indented by creeks and inlets
+furnishing several good harbours. The surface is diversified by hill and
+dale, but nowhere rises to a greater height than 1500 feet. A considerable
+portion of it is fertile, and the climate is healthy, but there is a
+scarcity of water, there being no streams and few springs, droughts are not
+infrequent, and hurricanes are apt to cause serious loss and damage. Chief
+products are sugar, cotton, and pineapples. The island has fairly good
+shipping connections with the United Kingdom, the United States, and
+Canada. Antigua is governed as a crown colony, the Islands of Barbuda and
+Redonda being attached to it. The capital, St. John, the residence of the
+governor of the Leeward Islands, stands on the shore of a well-sheltered
+harbour in the north-west part of the island. Falmouth (English Harbour) in
+the south has also an excellent harbour with a dockyard. The island was
+discovered by Columbus in 1493; the first settlement was made by the
+English in 1632. Since then, except for a short period of occupation by the
+French, it has been a British possession. Pop. 32,269 (1911).
+
+ANTI-JAC'OBIN, a famous magazine (1797-1818), the original object of which
+was to satirize the Jacobin principles of the Fox section of Whigs;
+principal contributors: Gifford, Canning, Frere, and Ellis.
+
+ANTI-LEBANON, the eastern of the two parallel ranges known as the Mountains
+of Lebanon in Palestine. See _Lebanon_.
+
+ANTILEGOM'ENA (things spoken against or objected to), a term applied by
+early Christian writers to the _Epistle to the Hebrews_, 2 _Peter_,
+_James_, _Jude_, 2 and 3 _John_, and the _Apocalypse_, which, though read
+in the churches, were not for some time received into the canon of
+Scripture.
+
+ANTILLES (an-til'[=e]z), another name for the West Indian Islands
+(excluding Bahamas). See _West Indies_.
+
+ANTILOCHUS (an-til'o-kus), in Greek legend, a son of Nestor, distinguished
+among the younger heroes who took part in the Trojan War by beauty,
+bravery, and swiftness of foot. He was slain by Memnon, but Achilles
+avenged his death.
+
+ANTIMACASS'AR, a covering for chairs, sofas, couches, &c., made of open
+cotton or worsted work, to preserve them from being soiled, as by the oil
+applied to the hair.
+
+ANTIMACHUS (an-tim'a-kus), a Greek poet who lived about 400 B.C., and wrote
+an epic called the _Thebais_ on the mythical history of Thebes, and a long
+elegy called _Lyd[=e]_, inspired by a mistress or wife of that name. Both
+works were full of mythological details. Only fragments of his writings
+remain, and from these it can be gathered that his style was rather
+laboured and artificial. Yet the Alexandrian grammarians ranked him next to
+Homer.
+
+AN'TIMONY (chemical symbol, Sb, from Lat. _stibium_; sp. gr. 6.7, atomic
+wt. 120.2), a brittle metal of a bluish-white or silver-white colour and a
+crystalline or laminated structure. It melts at 630.6deg C., and burns with
+a bluish-white flame. The mineral called stibnite or antimony-glance, is a
+tri-sulphide (Sb_2S_3), and is the chief ore from which the metal is
+obtained. It is found in many places, including France, Spain, Hungary,
+Italy, Canada, Australia, and Borneo. The metal, or, as it was formerly
+called, the _regulus of antimony_, does not rust or tarnish when exposed to
+the air. When alloyed with other metals it hardens them, and is therefore
+used in the manufacture of alloys, such as Britannia-metal, type-metal, and
+pewter. In bells it renders the sound more clear; it renders tin more white
+and sonorous as well as harder, and gives to printing types more firmness
+and smoothness. The salts of antimony are very poisonous. The protoxide is
+the active base of tartar emetic and James's powder, and is justly regarded
+as a most valuable remedy in many diseases.--_Yellow antimony_ is a
+preparation of antimony of a deep yellow colour, used in enamel and
+porcelain painting. It is of various tints, and the brilliancy of the
+brighter hues is not affected by foul air.
+
+ANTINO'MIANISM ('opposition to the law'), the name given by Luther to the
+inference drawn by John Agricola (1492-1566), from the doctrine of
+justification by faith, that the moral law is not binding on Christians as
+a rule of life. The term antinomian has since been applied to all doctrines
+and practices which seem to contemn or discountenance strict moral
+obligations. The Lutherans and Calvinists have both been charged with
+antinomianism, the former on account of their doctrine of justification by
+faith, the latter both on this ground and that of the doctrine of
+predestination. The charge is, of course, vigorously repelled by both.
+
+ANTIN'OMY, the opposition of one law or rule to another law or rule; in the
+Kantian philosophy, that natural contradiction which results from the law
+of reason, when, passing the limits of experience, we seek to conceive the
+complex of external phenomena, or nature, as a world or cosmos.
+
+ANTINOUS (an-tin'o-us), a young Bithynian whom the extravagant love of
+Hadrian has immortalized. He drowned himself in the Nile in A.D. 122.
+Hadrian set no bounds to his grief for his loss. He gave his name to a
+newly-discovered star, erected temples in his honour, called a city after
+him, and caused him to be adored as a god throughout the empire. Statues,
+busts, &c., of him are numerous.
+
+ANTIOCH (an'ti-ok), a town in Syria, famous in ancient times as the capital
+of the Greek Kings of Syria, on the left bank of the Orontes, about 21
+miles from the sea, in a beautiful and fertile plain. It was founded by
+Seleucus Nicator in 300 B.C., and named after his father Antiochus. In
+Roman times it was the seat of the Syrian governors, and the centre of a
+widely-extended commerce. It was called the 'Queen of the East' and 'The
+Beautiful'. Antioch is frequently mentioned in the New Testament, and it
+was here that the disciples of our Saviour were first called Christians
+(_Acts_, xi, 26). In the first half of the seventh century it was taken by
+the Saracens, and in 1098 by the Crusaders. They established the
+principality of Antioch, of which the first ruler was Bohemond, and which
+lasted till 1268, when it was taken by the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. In
+1516 it passed into the hands of the Turks. The modern Antioch, or
+_Antakieh_, has recently grown from a small place to a flourishing town.
+Pop. estimated at 30,000.--There was another Antioch, in Pisidia, at which
+St. Paul preached on his first missionary journey.
+
+[Illustration: Medal of Antiochus Epiphanes]
+
+ANTIOCHUS (an-t[=i]'o-kus), a name of several Graeco-Syrian kings of the
+dynasty of the Seleuc[)i]dae.--ANTIOCHUS I, called _S[=o]t[=e]r_
+('saviour'), was the son of Seleucus, general of Alexander the Great, and
+founder of the dynasty. He was born about 324 B.C., and succeeded his
+father in 280 B.C. During the greater part of his reign he was engaged in a
+protracted struggle with the Gauls who had crossed from Europe, and by whom
+he was killed in battle, 261 B.C.--ANTIOCHUS II, surnamed _Theos_ (god),
+succeeded his father, lost several provinces by revolt, and was murdered in
+246 B.C. by Laodic[=e], his wife, whom he had put away to marry
+Beren[=i]c[=e], daughter of Ptolemy.--ANTIOCHUS III, surnamed the _Great_,
+grandson of the preceding, was born 242 B.C., succeeded in 223 B.C. The
+early part of his reign embraced a series of wars against revolted
+provinces and neighbouring kingdoms, his expeditions extending to India,
+over Asia Minor, and afterwards into Europe, where he took possession of
+the Thracian Chersonese. Here he encountered the Romans, who had conquered
+Philip V of Macedon, and were prepared to resist his further progress.
+Antiochus gained an important adviser in Hannibal, who had fled for refuge
+to his Court; but he lost the opportunity of an invasion of Italy while the
+Romans were engaged in war with the Gauls, of which the Carthaginian urged
+him to avail himself. The Romans defeated him by sea and land, and he was
+finally overthrown by Scipio at Mount Sip[)y]lus, in Asia Minor, 190 B.C.,
+and very severe terms were imposed upon him. He was killed while plundering
+a temple in Elymais to procure money to pay the Romans.--ANTIOCHUS IV,
+called _Epiph[)a]nes,_ youngest son of the above, is chiefly remarkable for
+his attempt to extirpate the Jewish religion, and to establish in its place
+the polytheism of the Greeks. This led to the insurrection of the
+Maccabees, by which the Jews ultimately recovered their independence. He
+died 164 B.C.
+
+ANTIOQUIA ([.a]n-t[=e]-[=o]-k[=e]'[.a]), a town of South America, in
+Colombia, on the River Cauca; founded in 1542. Pop. 8730. It gives name to
+a department of the republic; area, 22,752 sq. miles. Pop. 739,434.
+Capital, Medellin.
+
+ANTIP'AROS (ancient, OLI[)A]ROS), one of the Cyclades Islands in the
+Grecian Archipelago, containing a famous stalactitic grotto or cave. It
+lies south-west of Paros, from which it is separated by a narrow strait,
+and has an area of 10 sq. miles, and about 700 inhabitants.
+
+ANTIP'ATER, a general and friend of Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander
+the Great. On the death of Alexander, in 323 B.C., the regency of Macedonia
+was assigned to Antipater, who succeeded in establishing the Macedonian
+rule in Greece on a firm footing. He died 317 B.C., at an advanced age.
+
+ANTIP'ATHY, a special dislike exhibited by individuals to particular
+objects or persons, usually resulting from physical or nervous
+organization. An antipathy is often an unaccountable repugnance to what
+people in general regard with no particular dislike, as certain sounds,
+smells, articles of food, &c., and it may be manifested by fainting or
+extreme discomfort.
+
+ANTIPHLOGIS'TIC, a term applied to medicines or methods of treatment that
+are intended to counteract inflammation, such as bloodletting, purgatives,
+diaphoretics, &c.
+
+AN'TIPHON, a Greek orator, born near Athens; founder of political oratory
+in Greece. His orations are the oldest extant, and he is said to have been
+the first who wrote speeches for hire. He was put to death for taking part
+in the revolution of 411 B.C., which established the oligarchic government
+of the Four Hundred. Antiphon seems to have specialized in homicide cases;
+his most celebrated speech is _On the Murder of Herodas_. Cf. Sir R. C.
+Jebb, _Attic Orators_; J. F. Dobson, _The Greek Orators_.
+
+ANTIPHON, or ANTIPH'ONY ('alternate song'), in the Christian Church a verse
+first sung by a single voice, and then repeated by the whole choir; or any
+piece to be sung by alternate voices.
+
+ANTIPODES (an-tip'o-d[=e]z), the name given relatively to people or places
+on opposite sides of the earth, so situated that a line drawn from one to
+the other passes through the centre of the earth and forms a true diameter.
+The longitudes of two such places differ by 180deg. The difference in their
+time is about twelve hours, and their seasons are reversed.
+
+ANTIPODES ISLANDS, a group of small uninhabited islands in the South
+Pacific Ocean, about 460 miles S.E. by E. of New Zealand; so called from
+being nearly antipodal to Greenwich. Antipodes Island rises to 1300 feet,
+and is largely covered with coarse grass; huts have been fitted up to
+shelter castaways.
+
+AN'TIPOPE, the name applied to those who at different periods have produced
+a schism in the Roman Catholic Church by opposing the authority of the
+Pope, under the pretence that they were themselves Popes. The Roman Church
+cannot admit that there ever existed two Popes; but the fact is, that in
+several cases the competitors for the papal chair were equally Popes; that
+is to say, the claims of all were equally good. Each was frequently
+supported by whole nations, and the schism was nothing but the struggle of
+political interests. Twenty-nine antipopes are enumerated in Church
+history; the last of them is Felix V, 1439-49.
+
+ANTIPYRET'ICS, medicines given for the purpose of reducing fever by
+lowering the patient's temperature, whether by causing perspiration or
+otherwise. Quinine, antipyrin, phenacetin, are common antipyretics. An
+aperient or purgative often serves the same purpose.
+
+ANTIPY'RIN, a drug obtained from coal-tar products, valuable in reducing
+fever and in relieving pain, being much used in nervous headache and
+neuralgia.
+
+AN'TIQUARIES, those devoted to the study of ancient times through their
+relics, as old places of burial, remains of ancient habitations, early
+monuments, implements or weapons, statues, coins, medals, paintings,
+inscriptions, books, and manuscripts, with the view of arriving at a
+knowledge of the relations, modes of living, habits, and general condition
+of the people who created or employed them. Societies or associations of
+antiquaries have been formed in all countries of European civilization. In
+Britain the Society of Antiquaries of London was founded in 1572, revived
+in 1717. and incorporated in 1751. The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
+was founded in 1780, incorporated in 1783, and has the management of a
+large national antiquarian museum in Edinburgh. One of the best-known
+antiquarian societies in Europe is the _Societe Royale des Antiquaires du
+Nord_ at Copenhagen.
+
+ANTIQUES (an-t[=e]ks'), a term specifically applied to the remains of
+ancient art, as statues, paintings, vases, cameos, and the like, and more
+especially to the works of Grecian and Roman antiquity.
+
+ANTIRRHINUM (an-ti-r[=i]'num) (from _anti_, instead of, and _rhis_, snout),
+a genus of annual or perennial plants of the nat. ord. Scrophulariaceae,
+commonly known as _snapdragon_, on account of the peculiarity of the
+blossoms, which, by pressing between the finger and thumb, may be made to
+open and shut like a mouth. They all produce showy flowers, and are much
+cultivated in gardens. Many varieties of some of them, such as the great or
+common snapdragon (_Antirrhinum majus_), have been produced by gardeners.
+The lesser snapdragon grows in sandy soil, and is found in cornfields in
+the south of England and Ireland.
+
+ANTISANA ([.a]n-t[=e]-s[:a]'n[.a]), a volcano in the Andes of Ecuador, 35
+miles S.E. by E. of Quito. Whymper, who ascended it in 1880, makes its
+height 19,260 feet.
+
+ANTIS'CIANS (Gr. _anti_, over against, _skia_, a shadow), those who live
+under the same meridian, at the same distance N. and S. of the equator, and
+whose shadows at noon consequently are thrown in contrary directions.
+
+ANTISCORBU'TICS, remedies against scurvy. Lemon-juice, ripe fruit, milk,
+salts of potash, green vegetables, potatoes, fresh meat, and raw or
+lightly-boiled eggs, are some of the principal foodstuffs containing
+antiscorbutic vitamines.
+
+ANTI-SEM'ITISM, hostility to the Jews (Semites), actively exhibited in
+severities and attacks of various kinds. The movement assumed vast
+proportions about 1880 and manifested itself in various countries,
+especially Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Roumania, and France. It may
+be attributed to different motives in different countries, but on the whole
+owed its origin not only to the fact of the Jews being a 'peculiar people'
+by race and religion, but also to the comparatively high position won by
+them in modern times in the financial and political worlds. The religious
+element is quite prominent in the popular attacks on the Jew, although
+modern anti-Semitism is essentially social and economic. In Western Russia
+there was a great outburst against the Jews in 1881, in which men, women,
+and children were slaughtered. The Government of the Tsar, by its
+anti-Jewish policy, may be said to have sanctioned this murderous outbreak,
+which was followed by harsh laws and actual persecutions, though afterwards
+there was a mitigation of the severity shown towards the Jews. Yet in 1903
+the world was startled by a terrible massacre of Jews at Kishinev, in
+Bessarabia, connived at by the authorities on the spot; and towards the end
+of 1905, in connection with the Russian revolutionary movement, there were
+dreadful massacres of Jews in Odessa, Kishinev, and other towns, the
+authorities being similarly involved. In Roumania, until 1919, the position
+of the Jews resembled what it was elsewhere in mediaeval times, and was
+less favourable than it was even under the Turks. In Germany the movement
+has been worked chiefly by politicians for their own ends, though the
+racial and religious question has also had some influence; and among the
+ignorant the belief that the Jews murder Christian children for ritual
+purposes has been revived, as also in Austria and in Hungary. In these
+countries the movement has been partly political, partly social and
+economic, partly religious. In France anti-Semitism has been employed
+chiefly as a weapon by monarchists and clericals as against republicanism,
+and by the Socialists as against capitalism, racial antipathy having also
+its influence on the movements. It reached its height in 1895 at the time
+of the Dreyfus affair. In Britain, too, anti-Semitism has of late made
+itself felt.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Leroy-Beaulieu, _Israel among the Nations_;
+Bernard Lazare, _L'anti-semitisme, son histoire et ses causes_.
+
+ANTISEP'TIC (Gr. _anti_, against, and _s[=e]pein_, to rot), an agent which
+destroys the germs of putrefaction or suppuration is called an antiseptic.
+Many substances act thus, e.g. chlorine, iodine, hypochlorous acid,
+sulphurous acid, camphor, creosote, iodoform, nascent oxygen ('Sanitas'),
+corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde ('Formalin'), potassium permanganate
+('Condy's Fluid'), carbolic acid (Lysol, Izal, Cyllin); lately aniline dyes
+have become prominent: of these flavine has proved the most useful addition
+to surgery of recent years. It was much used in the European War
+(1914-8).--_Antiseptics_ are also used for purifying surgical instruments,
+&c., and commercially as disinfectants. When introduced by Lister into
+surgical practice they led to revolutionary advances in surgery. The
+tendency of late years has been to abandon antiseptic for aseptic (sterile)
+mode of technique, but during the war (1914-8) there was a general return
+to antiseptic methods in surgery.
+
+ANTISPASMOD'IC, a medicine for the cure of spasms and convulsions; such
+belong largely to the class of ethers, as sulphuric ether, chloric ether,
+nitric ether, &c.
+
+ANTISTHENES (an-tis'the-n[=e]z), a Greek philosopher and the founder of the
+school of Cynics, born at Athens about 444 B.C. He was first a disciple of
+Gorgias and then of Socrates, at whose death he was present. His philosophy
+was a one-sided development of the Socratic teaching. He held virtue to
+consist in complete self-denial and in disregard of riches, honour, or
+pleasure of every kind. He himself lived as a beggar. He died in Athens at
+an advanced age.
+
+ANTIS'TROPHE. See _Strophe_.
+
+ANTI-SUBMARINE. See _Submarine_.
+
+ANTI-TAURUS, a mountain range of Anatolia, Asia Minor, extending from the
+Cicilian Taurus towards the north-east, and connecting the Taurus mountain
+system with Mount Ararat, Mount Elbruz, and the Caucasus. See _Taurus_.
+
+ANTITH'ESIS (opposition), a figure of speech consisting in a contrast or
+opposition of words or sentiments; as, 'When our vices _leave us_, we
+flatter ourselves we _leave them_'; 'The prodigal _robs his heir_, the
+miser _robs himself_'.
+
+ANTITOXIN, the name given to a class of bodies of unknown nature having the
+capacity of neutralizing the poisonous substances (toxins) by which certain
+bacteria produce disease. If such a toxin be introduced every few days in
+increasing doses, into, e.g., the horse, and if, after some months of this
+treatment, the animal be bled, its serum contains the antitoxin to the
+toxins used. The use of the antitoxin to the toxin of diphtheria is most
+efficacious in curing that disease, and the treatment has caused a great
+fall in the death-rate. It ought to be applied as soon as possible after
+signs appear in the throat. An antitoxic treatment is also applicable in
+cases of tetanus (lock-jaw), a disease liable to follow any wound
+contaminated with dirt, especially with manured soil. Less success has been
+achieved when the disease is fully established, but if the antitoxin be
+injected immediately after the wound has been incurred, then the subsequent
+development of the disease is prevented. This preventive treatment has been
+attended with marked effect in the case of wounds received in war, which it
+is almost impossible to keep free from contamination. Antitoxins were
+extensively used during the European War. (1914-8). In bacterial diseases
+other than those mentioned, sera have been produced by injecting into large
+animals dead and living bacteria, e.g. the organisms of epidemic
+cerebro-spinal meningitis (spotted fever), pneumonia, blood-poisoning, &c.,
+and these sera probably depend for their action on the presence of bodies
+similar to antitoxins. See _Bacteria_, _Diphtheria_.
+
+ANTI-TRADE WINDS, a name given to any of the upper tropical winds which
+move northward or southward in the same manner as the trade-winds which
+blow beneath them in the opposite direction. These great aerial currents
+descend to the surface after they have passed the limits of the
+trade-winds, and form the south-west or west-south-west winds of the north
+temperate, and the north-west or west-north-west winds of the south
+temperate zones.
+
+ANTITRINITA'RIANS, all who do not receive the doctrine of the divine
+Trinity, or the existence of three persons in the Godhead; especially
+applied to those who oppose such a doctrine on philosophical grounds, as
+contrasted with Unitarians, who reject the doctrine as not warranted by
+Scripture.
+
+AN'TITYPE, that which is correlative to a type; by theological writers the
+term is employed to denote the reality of which a _type_ is the prophetic
+symbol.
+
+AN'TIUM, in ancient Italy, one of the most ancient and powerful cities of
+Latium, the chief city of the Volsci, and often at war with the Romans, by
+whom it was finally taken in 338 B.C. It was 38 miles distant from Rome, a
+flourishing seaport, and became a favourite residence of the wealthy
+Romans. It was destroyed by the Saracens, but vestiges of it remain at
+Porto d'Anzo, near which many valuable works of art have been found.
+
+ANTIVARI ([.a]n-t[=e]'v[.a]-r[=e]), a seaport town on the eastern shore of
+the Adriatic, ceded to Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). Antivari
+was opened as a free port on 23rd Oct., 1909. It was occupied by the
+Austrians in 1916, and by the Italians in Nov., 1918. Pop. 2500.
+
+ANTLERS, the horns of the deer tribe, or the snags or branches of the
+horns.
+
+ANT-LION, the larva of a Neuropterous insect (_Myrmel[)e]on
+formic[=a]rius_), which in its perfect state greatly resembles a
+dragon-fly; curious on account of its ingenious method of catching the
+insects--chiefly ants--on which it feeds. It digs a funnel-shaped hole in
+the driest and finest sand it can find, and when the pit is deep enough,
+and the sides are quite smooth and sloping, it buries itself at the bottom
+with only its formidable mandibles projecting, and waits till some luckless
+insect stumbles over the edge, when it is immediately seized, its juices
+sucked, and the dead body jerked out. It inhabits Southern Europe.
+
+ANTOFAGAS'TA, a Chilian seaport on the Bay of Morena, and a territory of
+the same name taken from Bolivia in the war of 1879-82, and definitely
+ceded to Chile in 1885. The territory has an area of 46,408 sq. miles; pop.
+(1919), 235,506. The port is connected by railway with the silver and other
+mines lying inland, and exports silver, copper, cubic nitre, &c., partly
+from Bolivia. Pop. (1919), 69,175.
+
+ANTOINETTE ([.a][n.]-tw[.a]-net), Marie. See _Marie Antoinette_.
+
+ANTOKOLSKI, Mark, Russian sculptor of Jewish extraction, born at Vilna in
+1843. He studied at the Petrograd Academy of Fine Arts, and his earliest
+success was a wooden statue _The Jewish Tailor_ (1864). In 1868 he received
+a grant for travelling, and whilst in Italy he finished his famous statue,
+_Ivan the Terrible_. He was made an academician, and in 1878 was awarded
+the first prize for sculpture at the Paris International Exhibition. In
+1888 he settled permanently in Paris, where he died in 1902. His works
+include: _Peter the Great_ (1872), _Christ before the People_ (1874), _The
+Death of Socrates_ (1876), _Spinoza_ (1882), _Yermak_ and _The Sleeping
+Beauty_ (1900).
+
+ANTOMMARCHI (-m[:a]r'k[=e]), Carlo Francesco, Italian physician, born in
+Corsica in 1780, died in Cuba 1838. He was professor of anatomy at Florence
+when he offered himself as physician to Napoleon at St. Helena. Napoleon at
+first received him with reserve, but soon admitted him to his confidence,
+and testified his satisfaction with him by leaving him a legacy of 100,000
+francs. On his return to Europe he published _Les Derniers Moments de
+Napoleon_ (2 vols., 8vo, 1823).
+
+ANTONELL'I, Giacomo, cardinal, born 1806, died 1876. He was educated at the
+Grand Seminary of Rome, where he attracted the attention of Pope Gregory
+XVI, who appointed him to several important offices. On the accession of
+Pius IX in 1846 Antonelli was raised to the dignity of cardinal-deacon; two
+years later he became president and Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in
+1850 was appointed Secretary of State. During the sitting of the
+Oecumenical Council (1869-70) he was a prominent champion of the papal
+interest. He strongly opposed the assumption of the united Italian crown by
+Victor Emanuel.
+
+ANTONELL'O (of Messina), an Italian painter who died at Venice, probably in
+1493, and is said to have introduced oil-painting into Italy, having been
+instructed in it by Jan Van Eyck. Three works by him are in the National
+Gallery, London.
+
+ANTONI'NUS, ITINERARY OF. See _Itinerary_.
+
+ANTONI'NUS, Marcus Aurelius. See _Aurelius_.
+
+ANTONI'NUS, WALL OF, a barrier erected by the Romans across the isthmus
+between the Forth and the Clyde, in the reign of Antoninus Pius. Its
+western extremity was at or near Dunglass Castle, its eastern at Carriden,
+and the whole length of it exceeded 27 miles. It was constructed A.D. 140
+by Lollius Urbicus, the imperial legate, and consisted of a ditch 40 feet
+wide and 20 feet deep, and a rampart of stone and earth on the south side
+24 feet thick and 20 feet in height. It was strengthened at either end and
+along its course by a series of forts and watch-towers. It may still be
+traced at various points, and is commonly known as _Graham's Dyke_.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Antoninus Pius]
+
+ANTONI'NUS PIUS, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, Roman emperor, was born at
+Lavinium, near Rome, A.D. 86, died A.D. 161. In 120 A.D. he became consul,
+and he was one of the four persons of consular rank among whom Hadrian
+divided the supreme administration of Italy. He then went as proconsul to
+Asia, and after his return to Rome became more and more the object of
+Hadrian's confidence. In A.D. 138 he was selected by that emperor as his
+successor, and the same year he ascended the throne. He speedily put down
+the persecutions of the Christians, and carried on but a few wars. In
+Britain he extended the Roman dominion, and, by raising a new wall (see
+preceding article), put a stop to the invasions of the Picts and Scots. The
+senate gave him the surname _Pius_, that is, dutiful or showing filial
+affection, because to keep alive the memory of Hadrian he had built a
+temple in his honour. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius, his adopted son.
+
+ANTO'NIUS, Marcus (Mark Antony), Roman triumvir, born 83 B.C., was
+connected with the family of Caesar by his mother. Debauchery and
+prodigality marked his youth. To escape his creditors he went to Greece in
+58, and from thence followed the consul Gabinius on a campaign in Syria as
+commander of the cavalry. He served in Gaul under Caesar in 52 and 51. In
+50 he returned to Rome to support the interests of Caesar against the
+aristocratical party headed by Pompey, and was appointed tribune. When war
+broke out between Caesar and Pompey, Antony led reinforcements to Caesar in
+Greece, and in the battle of Pharsalia he commanded the left wing. He
+afterwards returned to Rome with the appointment of Master of the Horse and
+Governor of Italy (47). In 44 B.C. he became Caesar's colleague in the
+consulship. Soon after Caesar was assassinated, Antony, by the reading of
+Caesar's will, and by the oration which he delivered over his body, excited
+the people to anger and revenge, and the murderers were obliged to flee.
+After several quarrels and reconciliations with Octavianus, Caesar's heir
+(see _Augustus_), Antony departed to Cisalpine Gaul, which province had
+been conferred upon him against the will of the Senate. But Cicero
+thundered against him in his famous _Philippics_; the Senate declared him a
+public enemy, and entrusted the conduct of the war against him to
+Octavianus and the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. After a campaign of varied
+fortunes Antony fled with his troops over the Alps. Here he was joined by
+Lepidus, who commanded in Gaul, and through whose mediation Antony and
+Octavianus were again reconciled. It was agreed that the Roman world should
+be divided among the three conspirators, who were called _triumviri_.
+Antony was to take Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; and Octavianus, Africa and Sicily.
+They decided upon the proscription of their mutual enemies, each giving up
+his friends to the others, the most celebrated of the victims being Cicero
+the orator. Antony and Octavianus departed in 42 for Macedonia, where the
+united forces of their enemies, Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army,
+which was, however, speedily defeated at Philippi. Antony next visited
+Athens, and thence proceeded to Asia. In Cilicia he ordered Cleopatra,
+Queen of Egypt, to apologize for her insolent behaviour to the _triumviri_.
+She appeared in person, and her charms fettered him for ever. He followed
+her to Alexandria, where he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of
+the world, till he was aroused by a report that hostilities had commenced
+in Italy between his own relatives and Octavianus. A short war, followed,
+which was decided in favour of Octavianus before the arrival of Antony in
+Italy. A reconciliation was effected, which was sealed by the marriage of
+Antony with Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. A new division of the Roman
+dominions was now made (in 40), by which Antony obtained the East,
+Octavianus the West. After his return to Asia Antony gave himself up
+entirely to Cleopatra, assuming the style of an Eastern despot, and so
+alienating many of his adherents and embittering public opinion against him
+at Rome. At length war was declared at Rome against the Queen of Egypt, and
+Antony was deprived of his consulship and government. Each party assembled
+its forces, and Antony lost, in the naval battle at Actium, 31 B.C., the
+dominion of the world. He followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, and on the
+arrival of Octavianus his fleet and cavalry deserted, and his infantry was
+defeated. Deceived by a false report of her death which Cleopatra had
+disseminated, he fell upon his own sword (30 B.C.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mommsen,
+_Roman History_; Plutarch, _Lives_ (translated by Langhorne); De Quincey,
+_Essay on the Caesars_.
+
+ANTONOMA'SIA, in rhetoric, the use of the name of some office, dignity,
+profession, science, or trade instead of the true name of the person, as
+when _his majesty_ is used for a king, _his lordship_ for a nobleman; or
+when, instead of Aristotle, we say, _the philosopher_; or, conversely, the
+use of a proper noun instead of a common noun; as, a _Solomon_ for a wise
+man.
+
+ANTONY, Mark. See _Antonius_ (_Marcus_).
+
+ANTONY, ST. See _Anthony_.
+
+AN'TRIM, a county of Ireland, province of Ulster, in the north-east of the
+island; area, 702,654 acres, of which about a third are arable. The eastern
+and northern districts are comparatively mountainous, with tracts of heath
+and bog, but no part rises to a great height. The principal rivers are the
+Lagan and the Bann, which separate Antrim from Down and Londonderry
+respectively. The general soil of the plains and valleys is strong loam.
+Flax, oats, and potatoes are the principal agricultural produce. Cattle,
+sheep, swine, and goats are extensively reared. There are salt-mines and
+beds of iron-ore, which is worked and exported. A range of basaltic strata
+stretches along the northern coast, of which the celebrated Giant's
+Causeway is the most remarkable portion, the vast aggregates of natural
+rock pillars there being very striking. The interior also contains some
+scenes of picturesque beauty, particularly the fertile valley of the Lagan,
+between Belfast and Lisburn. Much of the scenery of the county, however, is
+dreary and monotonous. Lough Neagh, the largest lake of the United Kingdom,
+is principally in Antrim. Its waters are carried to the sea by the Bann,
+which is of no use for navigation, being obstructed by weirs and rocks. The
+spinning of linen and cotton yarn, and the weaving of linen and cotton, are
+the staple manufactures, but the cotton manufacture is small compared with
+that of linen. The principal towns are Belfast, Lisburn, Ballymena, Larne,
+and Carrickfergus. In 1898 Belfast, the former capital, was constituted
+into a county borough. About fifty per cent of the inhabitants are
+Presbyterians, being the descendants of Scottish immigrants of the
+seventeenth century. The county sends four members to Parliament; Belfast
+returns nine. Pop. (excluding Belfast) 193,864 (1911).--The town of Antrim,
+at the north end of Lough Neagh, is a small place with a pop. of 1826.
+
+ANT-THRUSH, a name given to certain passerine or perching birds having
+resemblances to the thrushes and supposed to feed largely on ants. They all
+have longish legs, short wings, and a short tail. The true ant-thrushes of
+the Old World belong to the genus Pitta. They chiefly inhabit southern and
+south-eastern Asia and the Eastern Archipelago, but are also found in
+Africa and Australia, and are birds of brilliant plumage, exhibiting black,
+white, scarlet, blue, and green in vivid contrast, there being generally no
+blending of colours by means of intermediate hues. These birds are not now
+regarded as allied to the thrushes, nor are they allied to the ant-birds,
+or ant-thrushes of the New World, which live among close foliage and
+bushes. Some of these are called ant-shrikes and ant-wrens. They belong to
+several genera.
+
+ANT'WERP (Du. and Ger. _Antwerpen_, Fr. _Anvers_), the chief port of
+Belgium, and one of the first on the Continent, the capital of a province
+of the same name, on the Scheldt, about 50 miles from the open sea. It lies
+in a fertile plain at an abrupt turn of the river, which is here from 160
+to 280 yards wide, and has a depth varying from 25 to 50 feet. It is
+strongly fortified, being completely surrounded on the land side by a
+semicircular inner line of fortifications, the defences being completed by
+an outer line of forts and outworks. Fine quays have been constructed along
+the river banks. The general appearance of the city is exceedingly
+picturesque, an effect produced by the numerous churches, convents, and
+magnificent public buildings, the stately antique houses that line its
+older thoroughfares, and the profusion of beautiful trees with which it is
+adorned. The older streets are tortuous and irregular, but those in the
+newer quarters are wide and regular. Some of the squares are very handsome.
+The cathedral, with a spire 400 feet high, one of the largest and most
+beautiful specimens of Gothic architecture in Belgium, contains Rubens'
+celebrated masterpieces, _The Descent from the Cross_, _The Elevation of
+the Cross_, and _The Assumption_. The other churches of note are St.
+James's, St. Andrew's, and St. Paul's, all enriched with paintings by
+Rubens, Vandyck, and other masters. Among the other buildings of note are
+the exchange, the town hall, the palace, the theatre, academy of the fine
+arts, picture and sculpture galleries, &c. The harbour accommodation is
+extensive and excellent, large new docks and quays having been recently
+built, and other works being under construction or contemplated. The
+shipping trade is now very large, Antwerp being a great centre of the
+world's commerce, and the goods being largely in transit. The entries of
+vessels in a year aggregate over 13,000,000 tons. Much of the trade is with
+Britain. There are numerous but not very important industries. Antwerp is
+mentioned as early as the eighth century, and in the eleventh and twelfth
+it had attained a high degree of prosperity. In the sixteenth century it is
+said to have had a pop. of 200,000, and it had then an extensive foreign
+trade. The wars between the Netherlands and Spain greatly injured its
+commerce, which was almost ruined by the closing of the navigation of the
+Scheldt in accordance with the peace of Westphalia (1648). It was only in
+the nineteenth century that its prosperity revived. In the European War
+(1914-8), the Germans, under General von Beseler, entered Antwerp on 7th
+Oct., 1914, and remained there until Nov., 1918. Pop. (1919), 322,857.--The
+province consists of a fertile plain 1093 sq. miles in area, and has a pop.
+of over 1,000,000.
+
+[Illustration: Anubis]
+
+ANU'BIS (_Anepo_ on the monuments), one of the deities of the ancient
+Egyptians, the son of Osiris by Isis. The Egyptian sculptures represent him
+with the head, or under the form, of a jackal, with long pointed ears. His
+office was to conduct the souls of the dead from this world to the next,
+and in the lower world he weighed the actions of the deceased previous to
+their admission to the presence of Osiris.
+
+ANUPSHAHR (_a_-noep'shaer), a town of Hindustan, United Provinces, on the
+Ganges, 75 miles S.E. of Delhi, a resort of Hindu pilgrims who bathe in the
+Ganges. Pop. 15,000.
+
+ANU'RA, or ANOU'RA (Gr. _an_, negative, _oura_, a tail), an ord. of
+Batrachians which lose the tail when they reach maturity, such as the frogs
+and toads.
+
+ANURADHAPURA. See _Anarajapura_.
+
+A'NUS, the opening at the lower or posterior extremity of the alimentary
+canal through which the excrement or waste products of digestion are
+expelled.
+
+AN'VIL, an instrument on which pieces of metal are laid for the purpose of
+being hammered. The common smith's anvil is generally made of seven pieces,
+namely, the core or body; the four corners for the purpose of enlarging its
+base; the projecting end, which contains a square hole for the reception of
+a set or chisel to cut off pieces of iron; and the beak or conical end,
+used for turning pieces of iron into a circular form, &c. These pieces are
+each separately welded to the core and hammered so as to form a regular
+surface with the whole. When the anvil has received its due form, it is
+faced with steel, and is then tempered in cold water. The smith's anvil is
+generally placed loose upon a wooden block. The anvil for heavy operations,
+such as the forging of ordnance and shafting, consists of a huge iron block
+deeply embedded, and resting on piles of masonry.
+
+ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' (jae[n.] b[.a]p-t[=e]st
+b[=o]r-g[=e]-nyoe[n.] dae[n.]-v[=e]l), a celebrated French geographer, born
+1697, died 1782; published a great number of maps and writings illustrative
+of ancient and modern geography.
+
+ANYNAKS, a negro tribe inhabiting the banks of the Upper Sobat (a tributary
+of the White Nile), between the Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia. They rebelled
+against British authority in 1912.
+
+ANZACS, a composite word used as the name of the British colonial troops in
+the Gallipoli undertaking. The men being from Australia and New Zealand,
+their organization was officially known as the Australian-New Zealand Army
+Corps. The full title, however, was much too cumbersome, and a clerk in one
+of the head-quarters offices at Zeitoun, where the troops were in training,
+hit upon the word _Anzacs_, formed from the initial letters of the long
+title. The Anzacs landed near Gaba Tepe, Gallipoli, on the morning of 25th
+April, 1915, and had their first encounter with the Germans on the Western
+Front on 6th May, 1916. In 1916 the word Anzac was officially adopted by
+the War Office.
+
+ANZIN ([.a][n.]-za[n.]), a town of France, department of Nord, about 1 mile
+north-west of Valenciennes, in the centre of an extensive coal-field, with
+blast-furnaces, forges, rolling-mills, foundries, &c. Pop. 14,325.
+
+AONIA, in ancient geography a name for part of Boeotia in Greece,
+containing Mount Helicon and the fountain Aganippe, both haunts of the
+muses.
+
+A'ORIST, the name given to one of the tenses of the verb in some languages
+(as the Greek), which expresses indefinite past time.
+
+AOR'TA, in anatomy, the great artery or trunk of the arterial system,
+proceeding from the left ventricle of the heart, and giving origin to all
+the arteries except the pulmonary. It first rises towards the top of the
+breast-bone, when it is called the _ascending aorta_; then makes a great
+curve, called the transverse or _great arch of the aorta_, whence it
+branches off to the head and upper extremities; thence proceeding towards
+the lower extremities, under the name of the _descending aorta_, it
+branches off to the trunk; and finally divides into the two iliacs, which
+supply the pelvis and lower extremities.
+
+AOSTA ([.a]-os't[.a]; ancient AUGUSTA PRAETORIA), a town of north Italy, 50
+miles N.N.W. of Turin, on the Dora-Baltea, with an ancient triumphal arch,
+remains of an amphitheatre, &c. Pop. 7000.
+
+AOUDAD (a-oe'dad), the _Ammotr[)a]gus tragel[)a]phus_, a quadruped allied
+to the sheep, most closely to the mouflon, from which, however, it may be
+easily distinguished by the heavy mane, commencing at the throat and
+falling as far as the knees. It is a native of North Africa, inhabiting the
+loftiest and most inaccessible rocks.
+
+APACHES ([.a]-pae'chez), a warlike race of North-American Indians,
+numbering between 5000 and 6000, and inhabiting Arizona, New Mexico, and
+Oklahoma. The final surrender of the tribe took place in 1886, but a few in
+Mexico still maintain their independence and hostility to the whites. The
+name _Apache_ was assumed by Parisian hooligans, notorious for their
+criminal outrages.
+
+AP'ANAGE, an allowance which the younger princes of a reigning house in
+some European countries receive from the revenues of the country, generally
+together with a grant of public domains, that they may be enabled to live
+in a manner becoming their rank.
+
+AP'ATITE, a translucent but seldom transparent mineral, which crystallizes
+in a regular six-sided prism, usually terminated by a truncated six-sided
+pyramid. It passes through various shades of colour, from white to yellow,
+green, blue, and occasionally red, scratches fluor-spar but is scratched by
+felspar, and has a specific gravity of about 3.5. It is a compound of
+calcium phosphate with calcium fluoride or chloride. It occurs principally
+in igneous rocks, particularly diorites. The very coarse-grained granites
+of Ontario contain apatite crystals of corresponding size, which have been
+picked out as a source of artificial phosphate manures. Apatite supplies to
+soils almost all the phosphorus available for plants in a state of nature.
+
+APE, a common name of a number of quadrumanous animals inhabiting the Old
+World (Asia and the Asiatic Islands, and Africa), and including a variety
+of species. The word _ape_ was formerly applied indiscriminately to all
+quadrumanous mammals; but it is now limited to the anthropoid or man-like
+monkeys. The family includes the chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-outang, &c.,
+and has been divided into three genera, Troglod[)y]tes, Simia, and
+Hylob[)a]tes. See _Chimpanzee_, _Gibbon_, _Gorilla_, _Monkey_, _Orang_, &c.
+
+APELDOORN (ae'pel-d[=o]rn), a town of Holland, province of Guelderland, 17
+miles north of Arnhem, with manufactures of paper. The royal palace Loo is
+here. Pop. 44,474.
+
+APELLES (a-pel'[=e]z), the most famous of the painters of ancient Greece
+and of antiquity, was born in the fourth century B.C., probably at
+Colophon. Ephorus of Ephesus was his first teacher, but attracted by the
+renown of the Sicyonian school he went and studied at Sicyon. In the time
+of Philip he went to Macedonia, and there a close friendship between him
+and Alexander the Great was established. The most admired of his pictures
+was that of Venus rising from the sea and wringing the water from her
+dripping locks. His portrait of Alexander with a thunderbolt in his hand
+was no less celebrated. He died about the end of the century. Among the
+anecdotes told of Apelles is the one which gave rise to the Latin proverb,
+'Ne sutor ultra crepidam'--'Let not the shoemaker go beyond the shoe'.
+Having heard a cobbler point out an error in the drawing of a shoe in one
+of his pictures he corrected it, whereupon the cobbler took upon him to
+criticize the leg, and received from the artist the famous reply.
+
+AP'ENNINES (Lat. _Mons Apenninus_), a prolongation of the Alps, forming the
+'backbone of Italy'. Beginning at Savona, on the Gulf of Genoa, the
+Apennines traverse the whole of the peninsula and also cross over into
+Sicily, the Strait of Messina being regarded merely as a gap in the chain.
+The average height of the mountains composing the range is about 4000 feet,
+and nowhere do they reach the limits of perpetual snow, though some summits
+exceed 9000 feet in height. Monte Corno, called also Gran Sasso d'Italia
+(Great Rock of Italy), which rises among the mountains of the Abruzzi, is
+the loftiest of the chain, rising to the height of 9541 feet, Monte Majella
+(9151) being next. Monte Gargano, which juts out into the Adriatic from the
+_ankle_ of Italy, is a mountainous mass upwards of 5000 feet high,
+completely separated from the main chain. On the Adriatic side the
+mountains descend more abruptly to the sea than on the western or
+Mediterranean side, and the streams are comparatively short and rapid. On
+the western side are the valleys of the Arno, Tiber, Garigliano, and
+Volturno, the largest rivers that rise in the Apennines, and the only ones
+of importance in the peninsular portion of Italy. They consist almost
+entirely of limestone rocks, and are exceedingly rich in the finest
+marbles. On the south slopes volcanic masses are not uncommon. Mount
+Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the continent of Europe, is an
+instance. The lower slopes are well clothed with vegetation, the summits
+are sterile and bare.
+
+APENRADE (ae'pen-rae-de), a seaport in Schleswig-Holstein, on a fiord of
+the Little Belt, beautifully situated, and carrying on a considerable
+fishing industry. Pop. 7800.
+
+APE'RIENT, a medicine which, in moderate doses, gently but completely opens
+the bowels: examples, castor-oil, Epsom salts, senna, &c.
+
+APET'ALOUS, a botanical term applied to flowers or flowering-plants which
+are destitute of petals or corolla.
+
+APHANIP'TERA, an order of wingless insects, composed of the different
+species of fleas. See _Flea_.
+
+APHA'SIA (Gr. _a_, not, and _phasis_, speaking), in pathology, a symptom of
+certain morbid conditions of the nervous system, in which the patient loses
+the power of expressing ideas by means of words, or loses the appropriate
+use of words, the vocal organs the while remaining intact and the
+intelligence sound. There is sometimes an entire loss of words as connected
+with ideas, and sometimes only the loss of a few. In one form of the
+disease, called _aphemia_, the patient can think and write, but cannot
+speak; in another, called _agraphia_, he can think and speak, but cannot
+express his ideas in writing. In a great majority of cases, where
+post-mortem examinations have been made, morbid changes have been found in
+the left frontal convolution of the brain.
+
+APHE'LION (Gr. _apo_, from, and _h[=e]lios_, the sun), that point of the
+orbit of the earth or any other planet which is remotest from the sun.
+
+APHE'MIA. See _Aphasia_.
+
+APHIDES (af'i-d[=e]z). See _Aphis_.
+
+[Illustration: Aphides
+
+Cabbage-leaf Plant-louse (_Aphis brassicae_)--1, 2. Male, natural size and
+magnified. 3, 4, Female, natural size and magnified.]
+
+APHIS, a genus of insects (called plant-lice) of the ord. Hemiptera, the
+type of the family Aph[)i]d[=e]s. The species are very numerous and
+destructive. The _A. rosae_ lives on the rose; the _A. fabae_ on the bean;
+the _A. hum[)u]li_ is injurious to the hop, the _A. granaria_ to cereals,
+and _A. lanig[)e]ra_ or woolly aphis equally so to apple trees. The aphides
+are furnished with an inflected beak, and feelers longer than the thorax.
+In the same species some individuals have four erect wings and others are
+entirely without wings. The feet are of the ambulatory kind, and the
+abdomen usually ends in two horn-like tubes, from which is ejected the
+substance called honey-dew, a favourite food of ants. (See _Ant_.) The
+aphides illustrate parthenogenesis; hermaphrodite forms produced from eggs
+produce viviparous wingless forms, which again produce others like
+themselves, and thus multiply during summer, one individual giving rise to
+millions. Winged sexual forms appear late in autumn, the females of which,
+being impregnated by the males, produce eggs.
+
+APHO'NIA (Gr. _a_, not, and _ph[=o]n[=e]_, voice), in pathology, the
+greater or less impairment, or the complete loss of the power of emitting
+vocal sound. The slighter and less permanent forms often arise from extreme
+nervousness, fright, and hysteria. Slight forms of structural aphonia are
+of a catarrhal nature, resulting from more or less congestion and
+tumefaction of the mucous and submucous tissues of the larynx and adjoining
+parts. Severer cases are frequently occasioned by serous infiltration into
+the submucous tissue, with or without inflammation of the mucous membrane
+of the larynx and of its vicinity. The voice may also be affected in
+different degrees by inflammatory affections of the fauces and tonsils; by
+tumours in these situations; by morbid growths pressing on or implicating
+the larynx or trachea; by aneurisms; and most frequently by chronic
+laryngitis and its consequences, especially thickening, ulceration, &c.
+
+APH'ORISM, a brief, sententious saying, in which a comprehensive meaning is
+involved, as 'Familiarity breeds contempt'; 'Necessity has no law'.
+
+APHRODITE (af-ro-di't[=e]), the goddess of love among the Greeks;
+counterpart of the Roman Venus. A festival called Aphrodisia was celebrated
+in her honour in various parts of Greece, but especially in Cyprus. See
+_Venus_.
+
+APHTHAE (af'th[=e]), a disease occurring especially in infants, but
+occasionally seen in old persons, and consisting of small white ulcers upon
+the tongue, gums, inside of the lips, and palate, resembling particles of
+curdled milk: commonly called _thrush_ or _milk-thrush_.
+
+A'PIA, the chief place and trading centre of the Samoa Islands, on the
+north side of the Island of Upolu. It has a wireless station.
+
+A'PIARY (Lat. _apis_, a bee), a place for keeping bees. The apiary should
+be well sheltered from strong winds, moisture, and the extremes of heat and
+cold. The hives should face the south or south-east, and should be placed
+on shelves 2 feet above the ground, and about the same distance from each
+other. There is no place for handling bees like the open air in suitable
+weather, and for this reason bee-houses, or bee-sheds, formerly in use, are
+not much in vogue now. As to the form of the hives and the materials of
+which they should be constructed there are great differences of opinion.
+The old dome-shaped straw _skep_ is still in general use among the
+cottagers of Great Britain. Its cheapness and simplicity of construction
+are in its favour, while it is excellent for warmth and ventilation; but it
+has the disadvantage that its interior is closed to inspection, and the
+honey can only be got out by stupefying the bees with the smoke of the
+common puff-ball or chloroform, or by fumigating with sulphur, which
+entails the destruction of the swarm. Wooden hives of square box-like form
+are now gaining general favour among bee-keepers. They usually consist of a
+large breeding chamber below and two sliding removable boxes called
+'supers' above for the abstraction of honey without disturbing the contents
+of the main chamber. It is of great importance that the apiary should be
+situated in the neighbourhood of good feeding grounds, such as gardens,
+clover-fields, or heath-covered hills. When their stores of honey are
+removed, the bees must be fed during the winter and part of spring with
+syrup or with a solution consisting of 2 lb. loaf-sugar to a pint of water.
+In the early spring slow and continuous feeding (a few ounces of syrup each
+day) will stimulate the queen to deposit her eggs, by which means the
+colony is rapidly strengthened and throws off early swarms. New swarms may
+make their appearance as early as May and as late as August, but swarming
+usually takes place in the intervening months. See _Bee-keeping_, _Hives_.
+
+APIC'IUS, Marcus Gabius, a Roman epicure in the time of Augustus and
+Tiberius, who, having exhausted his vast fortune on the gratification of
+his palate, and having _only_ about L80,000 left, poisoned himself that he
+might escape the misery of plain diet. The book of cookery published under
+the title of _Apicius_ was written by one Caelius, and belongs to a much
+later date.
+
+A'PION, a Greek grammarian, born in Egypt, lived in the reigns of Tiberius,
+Caligula, and Claudius, A.D. 15-54, and went to Rome to teach grammar and
+rhetoric. Among his works, one or two fragments only of which remain, was
+one directed against the Jews, which was replied to by Josephus.
+
+A'PIOS, a genus of leguminous climbing plants, producing edible tubers on
+underground shoots. An American species (_A. tuber[=o]sa_) has been used as
+a substitute for the potato, but its tubers, though numerous, are small.
+
+[Illustration: Apis]
+
+A'PIS, a bull to which divine honours were paid by the ancient Egyptians,
+who regarded him as a symbol of Osiris. At Memphis he had a splendid
+residence, containing extensive walks and courts for his entertainment, and
+he was waited upon by a large train of priests, who looked upon his every
+movement as oracular. He was not suffered to live beyond twenty-five years,
+being secretly killed by the priests and thrown into a sacred well. Another
+bull, characterized by certain marks, as a black colour, a triangle of
+white on the forehead, a white crescent-shaped spot on the right side, &c.,
+was selected in his place. His birthday was annually celebrated, and his
+death was a season of public mourning. See _Animal Worship_.
+
+A'PIS, a genus of insects. See _Bee_.
+
+A'PIUM, a genus of umbelliferous plants, including celery.
+
+APLACEN'TAL. See _Placenta_, _Marsupialia_, and _Echidna_.
+
+APLANAT'IC. See _Optics_, _Photography_.
+
+APLYSIA. See _Sea-hare_.
+
+APOC'ALYPSE (Gr. _apokalypsis_, a revelation), the name given to the last
+book of the New Testament, in the English version called _The Revelation of
+St. John the Divine_. Although a Christian work, the _Apocalypse_ belongs
+to a class of literature dealing with eschatological subjects and much in
+vogue among the Jews of the first century B.C. It is generally believed
+that the _Apocalypse_ was written by the apostle John in his old age (A.D.
+95-97) in the Isle of Patmos, whither he had been banished by the Roman
+Emperor Domitian. Anciently its genuineness was maintained by Justin
+Martyr, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and many others; while
+it was doubted by Dionysius of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom,
+and, nearer our own times, by Luther. The _Apocalypse_ has been explained
+differently by almost every writer who has ventured to interpret it, and
+has furnished all sorts of sects and fanatics with quotations to support
+their creeds or pretensions. The modern interpreters may be divided into
+three schools--namely, the _historical school_, who hold that the prophecy
+embraces the whole history of the Church and its foes from the time of its
+writing to the end of the world; the _Praeterists_, who hold that the whole
+or nearly the whole of the prophecy has been already fulfilled, and that it
+refers chiefly to the triumph of Christianity over Paganism and Judaism;
+and the _Futurists_, who throw the whole prophecy, except the first three
+chapters, forward upon a time not yet reached by the Church--a period of no
+very long duration, which is immediately to precede Christ's second coming.
+See _Bible_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. H. Charles, _Studies in the Apocalypse_;
+F. C. Burkitt, _Jewish and Christian Apocalypses_.
+
+APOCALYPTIC NUMBER, the mystic number 666 found in _Rev._ xiii, 18. As
+early as the second century ecclesiastical writers found that the name
+Antichrist was indicated by the Greek characters expressive of this number.
+By Irenaeus the word _Lateinos_ was found in the letters of the number, and
+the Roman Empire was therefore considered to be Antichrist. Protestants
+generally believe it has reference to the Papacy, and, on the other hand,
+Catholics connect it with Protestantism. It is, however, almost certain
+that the number refers to Nero, for by transliterating the Greek _Kaisar
+Neron_ into Hebrew, and adding together the sums denoted by the Hebrew
+letters, we obtain the number 666.
+
+APOCAR'POUS, in botany, a term applied to such fruits as are the produce of
+a single flower, and are formed of one carpel, or a number of carpels free
+and separate from each other.
+
+APOC'RYPHA (Gr., 'things concealed or spurious'), a term applied in the
+earliest churches to various sacred or professedly inspired writings,
+sometimes given to those whose authors were unknown, sometimes to those
+with a hidden meaning, and sometimes to those considered objectionable. The
+term is specially applied to the fourteen undermentioned books, which were
+written during the two centuries preceding the birth of Christ. They were
+written, not in Hebrew, but in Greek, and the Jews never allowed them a
+place in their sacred canon. They were incorporated into the Septuagint,
+and thence passed to the Vulgate. The Greek Church excluded them from the
+canon in 360 at the Council of Laodicea. The Latin Church treated them with
+more favour, but it was not until 1546 that they were formally admitted
+into the canon of the Church of Rome by a decree of the Council of Trent.
+The Anglican Church says they may be read for example of life and
+instruction of manners, but that the Church does not apply them to
+establish any doctrine. All other Protestant churches in Britain and
+America ignore them. The following fourteen books form the Apocrypha of the
+English Bible: The first and second _Books of Esdras_, _Tobit_, _Judith_,
+the rest of the _Book of Esther_, the _Wisdom of Solomon_, the _Wisdom of
+Jesus the son of Sirach_, or _Ecclesiasticus_, _Baruch the Prophet_, the
+_Song of the Three Children_, _Susanna and the Elders_, _Bel and the
+Dragon_, the _Prayer of Manasses_, and the first and second _Books of
+Maccabees_. Besides the Apocryphal books of the Old Testament there are
+many spurious books composed in the earlier ages of Christianity, and
+published under the names of Christ and his apostles, or of such immediate
+followers as from their character or means of intimate knowledge might give
+an apparent plausibility to such forgeries. These writings comprise: 1st,
+the _Apocryphal Gospels_, which treat of the history of Joseph and the
+Virgin before the birth of Christ, of the infancy of Jesus, and of the acts
+of Pilate; 2nd, the _Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles_; and 3rd, the
+_Apocryphal Apocalypses_, none of which have obtained canonical recognition
+by any of the churches.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wace, _The Apocrypha_; Porter, in
+Hastings' _Bible Dict._, i, pp. 111-23; W. D. F. Oesterley, _Book of the
+Apocrypha_; R. H. Charles, _Religious Development between the Old and the
+New Testaments_.
+
+APOCYNA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of dicotyledonous plants, having for its type the
+genus Apoc[)y]num or dog-bane. The species have opposite or sometimes
+whorled leaves without stipules; the corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, and
+with the stamens inserted upon it; fruit two-celled. The plants yield a
+milky juice, which is generally poisonous; several yield caoutchouc, and a
+few edible fruits. The bark of several species is a powerful febrifuge. To
+the order belongs the periwinkle (Vinca). See _Cow-tree_, _Periwinkle_,
+_Oleander_, _Tanghin_.
+
+AP'ODA. See _Proteolepadidae_.
+
+AP'ODAL FISHES, the name applied to such malacopterous fishes as want
+ventral fins. They constitute a small natural family, of which the common
+eel is an example.
+
+APO'DOESIS, in grammar, the latter member of a conditional sentence (or one
+beginning with _if_, _though_, &c.) dependent on the condition or
+_prot[)a]sis_; as, if it rain (_protasis_) I shall not go (_apodosis_).
+
+AP'OGEE (-j[=e]; Gr. _apo_, from, and _g[=e]_, the earth), that point in
+the orbit of the moon or a planet where it is at its greatest distance from
+the earth; also the greatest distance of the sun from the earth when the
+latter is in _aphelion_.
+
+APOL'DA, a town of Germany, in Saxe-Weimar, at which woollen goods are
+extensively manufactured. Pop. 22,610.
+
+APOLLINA'RIANS, a sect of Christians who maintained the doctrine that
+Christ had a human body and a human sensitive soul, but no human rational
+mind, the Divine Logos (the Word) taking the place of the mind, and that
+God was consequently united in him with the human body and the sensitive
+soul. Apollinaris, the author of this opinion, was, from A.D. 362 till at
+least A.D. 382, Bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, and a zealous opposer of the
+Arians. As a man and a scholar he was highly esteemed, and was among the
+most popular authors of his time. He formed a congregation of his adherents
+at Antioch, and made Vitalis their bishop. The _Apollinarians_, or
+_Vitalians_, as their followers were called, soon spread their settlements
+in Syria and the neighbouring countries, established several societies,
+with their own bishops, and one even in Constantinople; but many adherents
+drifted away to Monophysitism, and the sect soon became extinct.
+
+APOLLINA'RIS WATER, a natural aerated water, belonging to the class of
+acidulated soda waters, and derived from the Apollinarisbrunnen, a spring
+in the valley of the Ahr, near the Rhine, in Rhenish Prussia, forming a
+highly-esteemed beverage.
+
+[Illustration: Apollo Belvedere (Vatican, Rome)]
+
+APOL'LO, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (Latona), who, being persecuted by
+the jealousy of Hera (Juno), after tedious wanderings and nine days'
+labour, was delivered of him and his twin sister, Art[)e]mis (Diana), on
+the Island of Delos. Skilled in the use of the bow, he slew the serpent
+Python on the fifth day after his birth; afterwards, with his sister
+Art[)e]mis, he killed the children of Niob[=e]. He aided Zeus in the war
+with the Titans and the giants. He destroyed the Cyclopes, because they
+forged the thunderbolts with which Zeus killed his son and favourite
+Asklepios (Aesculapius). According to some traditions he invented the lyre,
+though this is generally ascribed to Hermes (Mercury). The brightest
+creation of polytheism, Apollo is also the most complex, and many aspects
+of the people's life were reflected in his cult. He was originally the
+sun-god; and though in Homer he appears distinct from Helios (the sun), yet
+his real nature is hinted at even here by the epithet Phoebus, that is, the
+radiant or beaming. In later times the view was almost universal that
+Apollo and Helios were identical. From being the god of light and purity in
+a physical sense, he gradually became the god of moral and spiritual light
+and purity, the source of all intellectual, social, and political progress.
+He thus came to be regarded as the god of song and prophecy, the god that
+wards off and heals bodily suffering and disease, the institutor and
+guardian of civil and political order, and the founder of cities. His
+worship was introduced at Rome at an early period, probably in the time of
+the Tarquins. Among the ancient statues of Apollo that have come down to
+us, the most remarkable is the one called _Apollo Belvedere_, from the
+Belvedere Gallery in the Vatican at Rome. This statue was discovered at
+Frascati in 1455, and purchased by Pope Julian II, the founder of the
+Vatican museum. It is a copy of a Greek statue of the third century B.C.,
+and dates probably from the reign of Nero.
+
+APOLLODO'RUS, a Greek writer who flourished 140 B.C. Among the numerous
+works he wrote on various subjects, the only one extant is his
+_Bibliothec[=e]_, which contains a concise account of the mythology of
+Greece down to the heroic age.
+
+APOLLO'NIUS OF PERGA, Greek mathematician, called the 'great geometer',
+flourished about 240 B.C., and was the author of many works, only one of
+which, a treatise on _Conic Sections_, partly in Greek and partly in an
+Arabic translation, is now extant.
+
+APOLLO'NIUS OF RHODES, a Greek rhetorician and poet, flourished about 230
+B.C. Of his various works we have only the _Argonautica_, an epic poem of
+considerable merit, though perhaps written with too much care and labour.
+It deals with the story of the Argonautic expedition.
+
+APOLLO'NIUS OF TY'ANA, in Cappadocia, a Pythagorean philosopher who was
+born in the beginning of the Christian era, early adopted the Pythagorean
+doctrines, abstaining from animal food and maintaining a rigid silence for
+five years. He travelled extensively in Asia, professed to be endowed with
+miraculous powers, such as prophecy and the raising of the dead, and was on
+this account set up by some as a rival to Christ. His ascetic life, wise
+discourses, and wonderful deeds obtained for him almost universal
+reverence, and temples, altars, and statues were erected to him. He died at
+Ephesus about the end of the first century. A narrative of his strange
+career, containing many fables, with, perhaps, a kernel of truth, was
+written by Philostratus about a century later.
+
+APOLLO'NIUS OF TYRE, the hero of a tale which had an immense popularity in
+the Middle Ages and which indirectly furnished the plot of Shakespeare's
+_Pericles, Prince of Tyre_. The story, originally in Greek, first appeared
+in the third century after Christ.
+
+APOLL'OS, a Jew of Alexandria, who learned the doctrines of Christianity at
+Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla, became a preacher of the gospel in
+Achaia and Corinth, and an assistant of Paul in his missionary work. Some
+have regarded him as the author of the _Epistle to the Hebrews_.
+
+APOLL'YON ('the Destroyer'), a name used in _Rev._ ix, 11 for the angel of
+the bottomless pit.
+
+APOLOGETICS (-jet'iks), this term, as used in Christian theology, does not
+carry with it the idea of excuse or regretful acknowledgment, but signifies
+a defensive or vindicatory statement, which accords with its meaning in the
+original Greek. In the conventional division of systematic theology
+apologetics comes first in order, and is followed by the disciplines of
+dogmatics and ethics, which expound Christian belief and Christian duty
+respectively. There is a tendency, however, in the more recent treatment of
+systematic theology, to include the defence or vindication of the various
+Christian doctrines within the dogmatic scheme, leaving to apologetics--in
+so far as it may be regarded as a separate discipline from dogmatics--the
+discussion of such general themes as religion and revelation, authority and
+inspiration, and the essence and truth of Christianity. Such discussions
+belong essentially to what is now often called philosophy of religion. The
+preference of the term philosophy of religion to that of apologetics is
+indicative at once of the wider theological outlook of our time and of the
+conciliatory, adaptable, and more sympathetic spirit in which the Christian
+apologist approaches the new thought and culture.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. B.
+Bruce, _Apologetics_; R. Mackintosh, _First Primer of Apologetics_; J. R.
+Illingworth, _Reason and Revelation_; A. E. Garvie, _A Handbook of
+Christian Apologetics_.
+
+APOLOGUE (ap'o-log), a story or relation of fictitious events intended to
+convey some useful truths. It differs from a parable in that the latter is
+drawn from events that take place among mankind, whereas the apologue may
+be founded on supposed actions of brutes or inanimate things. Aesop's
+fables are good examples of apologues.
+
+APOL'OGY, a term at one time applied to a defence of one who is accused, or
+of certain doctrines called in question. Of this nature is the _Apology of
+Socrates_ written by Plato; also a work with the same title sometimes
+attributed to Xenophon. The name passed over to Christian authors, who gave
+the name of apologies to the writings which were designed to defend
+Christianity against the attacks and accusations of its enemies,
+particularly the pagan philosophers, and to justify its professors before
+the emperors. Of this sort were those by Justin Martyr, Athenagoras,
+Tertullian, Tatian, and others.
+
+APONEURO'SIS, in anatomy, a name of certain greyish-white shining
+membranes, composed of interlacing fibres, sometimes continuous with the
+muscular fibre, and differing from tendons merely in having a flat form.
+They serve several purposes, sometimes attaching the muscles to the bones,
+sometimes surrounding the muscle and preventing its displacement, &c. See
+_Anatomy_.
+
+APOPHTHEGM (ap'o-them), a short pithy sentence or maxim. Julius Caesar
+wrote a collection of them, and we have a collection by Francis Bacon.
+
+APOPH'YLLITE, a species of mineral of a foliated structure and pearly
+lustre, called also fish-eye stone. It belongs to the Zeolite family, and
+is a hydrated silicate of lime and potash, containing also fluorine.
+
+AP'OPLEXY, sudden abolition of consciousness, followed after recovery of
+consciousness by persistent disturbance of sensation or voluntary motion,
+from suspension of the functions of the cerebrum, resulting from blocking
+or rupture of the blood-vessels of the brain. In a complete apoplexy the
+person falls suddenly, is unable to move his limbs or to speak, gives no
+proof of seeing, hearing, or feeling, and the breathing is stertorous or
+snoring, like that of a person in deep sleep. The premonitory symptoms of
+this dangerous disease are drowsiness, giddiness, dulness of hearing,
+frequent yawning, disordered vision, noise in the ears, vertigo, &c. It is
+most frequent between the ages of fifty and seventy. A large head, short
+neck, full chest, sanguine and plethoric constitution, and corpulency are
+generally considered signs of predisposition to it; but the state of the
+heart's action, with a plethoric condition of the vascular system, has a
+more marked influence. Out of sixty-three cases carefully investigated only
+ten were fat and plethoric, twenty-three being thin, and the rest of
+ordinary habit. The common predisposing causes are disease or senile
+changes in the blood-vessels and affections of the valves of the heart; but
+other factors may possibly play some part either as exciting or
+predisposing causes, such as long and intense thought, continued anxiety,
+habitual indulgence of the temper and passions, sedentary and luxurious
+living, sexual indulgence, intoxication, &c. More or less complete recovery
+from a first and second attack is common, but a third is almost invariably
+fatal.--Cf. Grasset, _Traite du systeme nerveux_.
+
+APOSIOPE'SIS, in rhetoric, a sudden break or stop in speaking or writing,
+usually for mere effect or a pretence of unwillingness to say anything on a
+subject; as, 'his character is such--but it is better I should not speak of
+_that_', or Virgil's "Quos ego--sed motos praestat componere fluctus"
+(_Aen._ I, 135).
+
+APOS'TASY (Gr. _apostasis_, a standing away from), a renunciation of
+opinions or practices and the adoption of contrary ones, usually applied to
+renunciation of religious opinions. It is always an expression of reproach.
+What one party calls _apostasy_ is termed by the other _conversion_.
+Catholics, also, call those persons _apostates_ who forsake a religious
+order or renounce their religious vows without a lawful dispensation.
+
+A POSTERIO'RI. See _A priori_.
+
+APOS'TLES (literally, persons sent out, from the Gr. _apostellein_, to send
+out), the twelve men whom Jesus selected to attend him during his ministry,
+and to promulgate his religion. Their names were as follows: Simon Peter,
+and Andrew his brother; James, and John his brother, sons of Zebedee;
+Philip; Bartholomew; Thomas; Matthew; James, the son of Alpheus; Lebbaeus
+his brother, called _Judas_ or _Jude_; Simon, the Canaanite; and Judas
+Iscariot. To these were subsequently added Matthias (chosen by lot in place
+of Judas Iscariot) and Paul. The Bible gives the name of apostle to
+Barnabas also, who accompanied Paul on his missions (_Acts_, xiv, 14). In a
+wider sense those preachers who first taught Christianity in heathen
+countries are sometimes termed apostles; for example, St. Denis, the
+apostle of the Gauls; St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany; St. Augustine,
+the apostle of England; Francis Xavier, the apostle of the Indies; Adalbert
+of Prague, apostle of Prussia Proper. During the life of the Saviour the
+apostles more than once showed a misunderstanding of the object of His
+mission, and during His sufferings evinced little courage and firmness of
+friendship for their great and benevolent Teacher. After His death they
+received the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, that they might be enabled
+to fulfil the important duties for which they had been chosen. According to
+one interpretation of _Matthew_, xvi, 18, Christ seems to appoint St. Peter
+the first of the apostles; and the Pope claims supreme authority from the
+power which Christ thus gave to St. Peter, of whom all the Popes, according
+to the Catholic dogma, are successors in an uninterrupted line.
+
+APOSTLES' CREED, a well-known formula or declaration of Christian belief,
+formerly believed to be the work of the apostles themselves, but it can
+only be traced to the fourth century. See _Creed_.
+
+APOSTOL'IC, or APOSTOL'ICAL, pertaining or relating to the
+apostles.--_Apostolic Church_, the Church in the time of the apostles,
+constituted according to their design. The name is also given to the four
+churches of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, and is claimed by the
+Roman Catholic Church, and occasionally by the Episcopalians.--_Apostolic
+Constitutions_ and _Canons_, a collection of regulations attributed to the
+apostles, but generally supposed to be spurious. They appeared in the
+fourth century, are divided into eight books, and consist of rules and
+precepts relating to the duty of Christians, and particularly to the
+ceremonies and discipline of the Church.--_Apostolic fathers_, the
+Christian writers who during any part of their lives were contemporary with
+the apostles. There are five--Clement, Barnabas, Hermas, Ignatius,
+Polycarp.--_Apostolic king_, a title granted by the Pope to the kings of
+Hungary, first conferred on St. Stephen, the founder of the royal line of
+Hungary, on account of what he accomplished in the spread of
+Christianity.--_Apostolic see_, the see of the Popes or Bishops of Rome: so
+called because the Popes profess themselves the successors of St. Peter,
+its founder.--_Apostolic succession_, the uninterrupted succession of
+bishops, and, through them, of priests and deacons (these three orders of
+ministers being called the _apostolical orders_), in the Church by regular
+ordination from the first apostles down to the present day. All Episcopal
+churches hold theoretically, and the Roman Catholic Church and many members
+of the English Church strictly, that such succession is essential to the
+officiating priest, in order that grace may be communicated through his
+administrations.
+
+APOSTOL'ICS, APOSTOLICI, or APOSTOLIC BRETHREN, the name given to certain
+sects who professed to imitate the manners and practice of the apostles.
+The last and most important of these sects was founded about 1260 by
+Gerhard Segarelli of Parma. They went barefooted, begging, preaching, and
+singing throughout Italy, Switzerland, and France; announced the coming of
+the kingdom of heaven and of purer times; denounced the papacy, and its
+corrupt and worldly church; and inculcated the complete renunciation of all
+worldly ties, of property, settled abode, marriage, &c. This society was
+formally abolished, 1286, by Honorius IV. In 1300 Segarelli was burned as a
+heretic, but another chief apostle appeared--Dolcino, a learned man of
+Milan. In self-defence they stationed themselves in fortified places whence
+they might resist attacks. After having devastated a large tract of country
+belonging to Milan they were subdued, A.D. 1307, by the troops of Bishop
+Raynerius, in their fortress Zebello, in Vercelli, and almost all
+destroyed. Dolcino was burned. The survivors afterwards appeared in
+Lombardy and in the south of France as late as 1368.
+
+APO'STR[)O]PH[=E] (Gr., 'a turning away from'), a rhetorical figure by
+which the orator changes the course of his speech, and makes a short
+impassioned address to one absent as if he were present, or to things
+without life and sense as if they had life and sense. The same term is also
+applied to a comma when used to contract a word, or to mark the possessive
+case, as in 'John's book'.
+
+APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT, the weight used in dispensing drugs, in which the
+pound (lb.) is divided into 12 ounces ([ounce]), the ounce into 8 drachms
+([drachm]), the drachm into 3 scruples ([scruple]), and the scruple into 20
+grains (grs.), the grain being equivalent to that in avoirdupois weight.
+
+APOTH'ECARY, in a general sense, one who keeps a shop or laboratory for
+preparing, compounding, and vending medicines, and for the making up of
+medical prescriptions. In England the term was long applied (as to some
+little extent still) to a regularly licensed class of medical
+practitioners, being such persons as were members of, or licensed by, the
+_Apothecaries' Company_ in London. The apothecaries of London were at one
+time ranked with the grocers, with whom they were incorporated by James I
+in 1606. In 1617, however, the apothecaries received a new charter as a
+distinct company. They were not yet regarded as having the right to
+prescribe, but only to dispense, medicines; but in 1703 the House of Lords
+conferred that right on them, and they afterwards became a well-established
+branch of the medical profession. In 1815 an Act was passed providing that
+no person should practise as an apothecary in any part of England or Wales
+unless after serving an apprenticeship of five years with a member of the
+society, and receiving a certificate from the society's examiners. As in
+country places every practitioner must be to some extent an apothecary,
+this Act gave the society an undue influence over the medical profession.
+Dissatisfaction therefore long prevailed, but nothing of importance was
+done till the Medical Act of 1858, which brought the desired reform. The
+Apothecaries' Society, governed by a master, two wardens, and twenty-two
+assistants, has prescribed a course of medical instruction and practice
+which candidates for the licence of the society must pass through. Since
+1874 apprenticeship has not been necessary.
+
+APOTHE'CIUM, in botany, the receptacle of lichens, consisting of the
+spore-cases or asci, and of the paraphyses or barren threads.
+
+APOTHEO'SIS (deification), a solemnity among the ancients by which a mortal
+was raised to the rank of the gods. The custom of placing mortals, who had
+rendered their countrymen important services, among the gods was very
+ancient among the Greeks. The Romans, for several centuries, deified none
+but Romulus, and first imitated the Greeks in the fashion of frequent
+apotheosis after the time of Caesar. From this period apotheosis was
+regulated by the decrees of the senate, and accompanied with great
+solemnities. Almost all the Roman emperors were deified.
+
+APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS (ap-pa-l[=a]'chi-an), also called ALLEGHANIES, a vast
+mountain range in N. America extending for 1300 miles from Cape Gaspe on
+the Gulf of St. Lawrence, s.w. to Alabama. The system has been divided into
+three great sections: the _northern_ (including the Adirondacks, the Green
+Mountains, the White Mountains, &c.), from Cape Gaspe to New York; the
+_central_ (including a large portion of the Blue Ridge, the Alleghanies
+proper, and numerous lesser ranges), from New York to the valley of the New
+River; and the _southern_ (including the continuation of the Blue Ridge,
+the Black Mountains, the Smoky Mountains, &c.), from the New River
+southwards. The chain consists of several ranges generally parallel to each
+other, the altitude of the individual mountains increasing on approaching
+the south. The highest peaks rise over 6600 feet (not one at all
+approaching the snow-level), but the mean height is about 2500 feet. Lake
+Champlain is the only lake of great importance in the system, but numerous
+rivers of considerable size take their rise here. Magnetite, hematite, and
+other iron ores occur in great abundance, and the coal-measures are among
+the most extensive in the world. Gold, silver, lead, and copper are also
+found in small quantities, while marble, limestone, fire-clay, gypsum, and
+salt abound. The forests covering many of the ranges yield large quantities
+of valuable timber, such as sugar-maple, white birch, beech, ash, oak,
+cherry tree, white poplar, white and yellow pine, &c., while they form the
+haunts of large numbers of bears, panthers, wild cats, and wolves.
+
+APPALACHICOLA (-chi-c[=o]'la), a river of the United States, formed by the
+Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers, which unite near the northern border of
+Florida; length, about 100 miles; it flows into the Gulf of Mexico, and is
+navigable.
+
+APPAM, the name of a British merchant ship of the Elder-Dempster line
+captured by the German raiding cruiser _Moewe_ (Sea-gull) on 16th Jan.,
+1916. A German prize crew succeeded in bringing the _Appam_ westward, and
+was able to pass the British cordon off Chesapeake Bay and to reach
+Norfolk, Virginia. The vessel was carrying, among others, an ex-governor of
+Sierra Leone and some military officers from the west coast of Africa, but
+the passengers were at once released and allowed to return to England.
+
+APPANAGE. See _Apanage_.
+
+APPA'RENT, among mathematicians and astronomers, applied to things as they
+appear to the eye, in distinction to what they really are. Thus they speak
+of apparent motion, magnitude, distance, height, &c. The _apparent
+magnitude_ of a heavenly body is the angle subtended at the spectator's eye
+by the diameter of that body, and this, of course, depends on the distance
+as well as the real magnitude of the body; _apparent motion_ is the motion
+a body seems to have in consequence of our own motion, as the motion of the
+sun from east to west, &c.
+
+APPARI'TION, according to a belief held by some, a disembodied spirit
+manifesting itself to mortal sight; according to the common theory an
+illusion involuntarily generated, by means of which figures or forms, not
+present to the actual sense, are nevertheless depicted with a vividness and
+intensity sufficient to create a temporary belief in their reality. Such
+illusions are now generally held to result from an over-excited brain, a
+strong imagination, or some bodily malady. In perfect health the mind not
+only possesses a control over its powers, but the impressions of the
+external objects alone occupy its attention, and the play of imagination is
+consequently checked, except in sleep, when its operations are relatively
+more feeble and faint. But in an unhealthy state of the mind, when its
+attention is partly withdrawn from the contemplation of external objects,
+the impressions of its own creation, or rather reproduction, will either
+overpower or combine themselves with the impressions of external objects,
+and thus generate illusions which in the one case appear alone, while in
+the other they are seen projected among those external objects to which the
+eyeball is directed. This theory explains satisfactorily a large majority
+of the stories of apparitions; still there are some which it seems
+insufficient to account for.--See _Crystal Gazing_, _Hypnotism_,
+_Spiritualism_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Podmore, _Modern Spiritualism_; F. W. H.
+Myers, _Human Personality, and its survival of bodily Death_.
+
+APPEAL', in legal phraseology, the removal of a cause from an inferior
+tribunal to a superior, in order that the latter may revise, and if it seem
+needful reverse or amend, the decision of the former. The supreme court of
+appeal for Great Britain is the House of Lords. Certain defects in
+connection with the settlement of appeals by this body were remedied by the
+Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876, while a new court of appeal was
+established as a division of the Supreme Court of Judicature. In Ireland
+there is also a Court of Appeal similar to that in England; while in
+Scotland the highest court is the Court of Session. From the decisions of
+the Indian and all colonial courts, and the courts of the Isle of Man and
+the Channel Islands, appeal may be made to the Privy Council. Appeals from
+the decisions of justices of a borough or county may be made to the
+quarter-sessions of either respectively, in cases of summary jurisdiction,
+or upon a point of law to divisional courts of the High Court of Justice,
+which was established at the same time as the Court of Appeal; from
+quarter-sessions, county and other inferior courts, to the High Court. In
+Scotland the Court of Session reviews the decisions of the county courts,
+there being an appeal from its decisions to the House of Lords.--In France
+the court of final appeal in all cases is the _cour de cassation_.--In the
+United States the system of appeals differs in different States.
+
+APPEARANCE IN LAW is the first formal act incumbent on a defendant who
+intends to resist the claim in the writ or action served upon him. It
+consists usually in lodging in court a written notice stating simply that
+the defendant intends to dispute the claim. Failure to enter appearance
+within the prescribed time entails decree passing against the defendant in
+absence, but procedure exists in all courts for enabling such decrees to be
+recalled within a limited period. Appearance should be entered under
+protest if it is desired to dispute the jurisdiction of the court or the
+regularity of the writ.
+
+APPENDICITIS, a disease which has become well known in recent times through
+the more accurate methods of diagnosis and the increased safety of surgical
+operation. It is caused by inflammation of the vermiform appendix, a
+narrow, hollow, worm-like body from 2 to 4 inches long, opening at one end
+into the large intestine and forming a cul-de-sac at the other. In
+appendicitis the inflammation begins in the appendix and frequently spreads
+to the neighbouring parts, causing inflammation of the caecum, a condition
+known as perityphlitis. The most frequent cause of appendicitis is a hard
+piece of insufficiently-digested food becoming lodged in the appendix.
+Occasionally orange pips, grape stones, &c., are the cause, though not so
+often as is popularly supposed.
+
+The symptoms are: abdominal pain (especially low down at the right side),
+fever, nausea, vomiting, constipation; these varying according to the
+intensity of the attack. Three types are recognized:
+
+1. A mild type, when the symptoms subside in a few days and the patient
+soon _appears_ to be in normal health.
+
+2. A severe type, in which, if left alone, the appendix bursts into the
+abdominal cavity and death from general peritonitis results.
+
+3. Another type, in which the inflammation in the appendix leads to the
+formation of a localized abscess, sometimes of great size.
+
+The treatment for the severe and for the abscess-forming types is
+essentially immediate operation; while for the mild type operation may
+either be performed at once or after the attack has passed off. Anyone who
+has had one attack of appendicitis is liable to have it repeated in a much
+severer form, hence the advisability of having the appendix removed after
+the first attack, however slight. During an attack, prior to surgical
+interference, complete rest in bed is essential. Abdominal pain should be
+treated with frequent hot fomentations, and the diet should be reduced to
+small quantities of fluid.
+
+APPENZELL ([.a]p'pen-tsel), a Swiss canton, wholly enclosed by the canton
+of St. Gall; area, 162 sq. miles. It is divided into two independent
+portions or half-cantons, Outer-Rhoden, which is Protestant, and
+Inner-Rhoden, which is Catholic. It is an elevated district, traversed by
+branches of the Alps; Mount Saentis in the centre being 8250 feet high. It
+is watered by the Sitter and by several smaller affluents of the Rhine.
+Glaciers occupy the higher valleys. Flax, hemp, grain, fruit, &c., are
+produced, but the wealth of Inner-Rhoden lies in its herds and flocks--that
+of Outer-Rhoden in its manufactures of embroidered muslins, gauzes,
+cambrics, and other cotton stuffs; also of silk goods and paper. The town
+of Appenzell (Ger. _Abtenzelle_, abbot's cell) is the capital of
+Inner-Rhoden, on the Sitter, with about 4300 inhabitants. Trogen is the
+capital of Outer-Rhoden, Herisau the largest town (pop. 11,000). Pop.
+Outer-Rhoden, 60,000; Inner-Rhoden, 15,000.
+
+APPERCEPTION. See _Metaphysics_.
+
+AP'PETITE, in its widest sense, means the natural desire for gratification,
+either of the body or the mind; but is generally applied to the recurrent
+and intermittent desire for food. A healthy appetite is favoured by work,
+exercise, plain living, and cheerfulness; absence of this feeling, or
+defective appetite (_anorexia_), indicates diseased action of the stomach,
+or of the nervous system or circulation, or it may result from vicious
+habits. Depraved appetite (_pica_), or a desire for unnatural food, as
+chalk, ashes, dirt, soap, &c., depends often in the case of children on
+vicious tastes or habits; in grown-up persons it may be symptomatic of
+dyspepsia, pregnancy or chlorosis. Insatiable or canine appetite or
+voracity (_bulimia_) when it occurs in childhood is generally symptomatic
+of worms; in adults common causes are pregnancy, vicious habits, and
+indigestion caused by stomach complaints or gluttony, when the gnawing
+pains of disease are mistaken for hunger.
+
+AP'PIAN, a Roman historian of the second century after Christ, a native of
+Alexandria, was governor and manager of the imperial revenues under
+Hadrian, Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, in Rome. He compiled in Greek a Roman
+history, from the earliest times to those of Augustus, in twenty-four
+books, of which only eleven have come down to us. Appian's style is not
+attractive, but he gives us much valuable information.
+
+APPIA'NI, Andrea, a painter, born at Milan in 1754, died in 1817. As a
+fresco-painter he excelled every contemporary painter in Italy. He
+displayed his skill particularly in the cupola of Santa Maria di S. Celso
+at Milan, and in the paintings representing the legend of Cupid and Psyche
+prepared for the walls and ceiling of the villa of the Archduke Ferdinand
+at Monza (1795). Napoleon appointed him royal court painter, and portraits
+of almost the whole of the imperial family were painted by him.
+
+APPIAN WAY, called _Regina Viarum_, the Queen of Roads: the oldest and most
+renowned Roman road, was constructed during the censorship of Appius
+Claudius Caecus (313-310 B.C.). It was built with large square stones on a
+raised platform, and was made direct from the gates of Rome to Capua, in
+Campania. It was afterwards extended through Samnium and Apulia to
+Brundusium, the modern Brindisi. It was partially restored by Pius VI, and
+between 1850 and 1853 it was excavated by order of Pius IX as far as the
+eleventh milestone from Rome.
+
+APPIUS CLAUDIUS, surnamed _Caecus_, or the blind, a Roman patrician,
+elected censor 312 B.C., which office he held four years. While in this
+position he made every effort to weaken the power of the Plebs, and
+constructed the road and aqueduct named after him. He was subsequently
+twice consul, and once dictator. In his old age he became blind, but in 280
+B.C. he made a famous speech in which he induced the senate to reject the
+terms of peace fixed by Pyrrhus. He is the earliest Roman writer of prose
+and verse whose name we know.
+
+APPIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSUS, one of the Roman _decemvirs_, appointed 451 B.C.
+to draw up a new code of laws. He and his colleagues plotted to retain
+their power permanently, and at the expiry of their year of office refused
+to give up their authority. The people were incensed against them, and the
+following circumstances led to their overthrow. Appius Claudius had
+conceived an evil passion for Virginia, the daughter of Lucius Virginius,
+then absent with the army in the war with the Aequi and Sabines. At the
+instigation of Appius, Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, claimed
+Virginia as the daughter of one of his own female slaves, and the
+_decemvir_, acting as judge, decided that in the meantime she should remain
+in the custody of the claimant. Virginius, hastily summoned from the army,
+appeared with his daughter next day in the forum, and appealed to the
+people; but Appius Claudius again adjudged her to Marcus Claudius. Unable
+to rescue his daughter, the unhappy father stabbed her to the heart. The
+_decemvirs_ were deposed by the indignant people 449 B.C., and Appius
+Claudius died in prison or was strangled.
+
+APPLE (_Pyrus Malus_), the fruit of a well-known tree of the nat. ord.
+Rosaceae, or the tree itself. The apple belongs to the temperate regions of
+the globe, over which it is almost universally spread and cultivated. The
+tree attains a moderate height, with spreading branches; the leaf is ovate;
+and the flowers are produced from the wood of the former year; but more
+generally from very short shoots or spurs from wood of two years' growth.
+The original of all the varieties of the cultivated apple is the wild crab,
+which has a small and extremely sour fruit, and is a native of most of the
+countries of Europe. Apples have been used as food and cultivated for
+upwards of 4000 years, and were probably introduced into Britain by the
+Romans. The greater number of the varieties now grown have, however, been
+cultivated only within the last century or so. To the facility of
+multiplying varieties by grafting is to be ascribed the amazing extension
+of the sorts of apples, the number of varieties known being over 2000. Many
+of the more marked varieties are known by general names, as pippins,
+codlins, rennets, &c. The oldest apple in cultivation is a variety called
+'the lady', which originated in Britain early in the seventeenth century.
+Apples for the table are characterized by a firm juicy pulp, a sweetish
+acid flavour, regular form, and beautiful colouring; those for cooking by
+the property of forming by the aid of heat into a pulpy mass of equal
+consistency, as also by their large size and keeping properties; apples for
+cider must have a considerable degree of astringency, with richness of
+juice. The propagation of apple trees is accomplished by seeds, cuttings,
+suckers, layers, budding, or grafting, the last being almost the universal
+practice. The tree thrives best in an open situation where it will receive
+the maximum amount of sunshine and protection from cold winds. The
+protection is particularly necessary in districts where cold winds and
+frosts prevail during the flowering season. The wood of the apple tree or
+the common crab is hard, close-grained, and often richly coloured, and is
+suitable for turning and cabinet work. The fermented juice (_verjuice_) of
+the crab is employed in cookery and medicine. Apples are largely imported
+into Great Britain from the Continent and the United States and Canada. The
+designation apple, with various modifying words, is applied to a number of
+fruits having nothing in common with the apple proper, as alligator-apple,
+love-apple, &c.--Cf. A. E. Wilkinson, _The Apple_.
+
+AP'PLEBY, county town of Westmorland, England, on the Eden, 28 miles S.S.E.
+of Carlisle. Disfranchised in 1832, it gave its name to a parliamentary
+division of the county until 1918. It has an old castle, the keep of which,
+called Caesar's Tower, is still fairly well preserved. Pop. (1921), 1786.
+
+APPLE OF DISCORD, according to the story in Greek mythology, the golden
+apple thrown into an assembly of the gods by the goddess of discord (Eris)
+bearing the inscription 'for the fairest'. Aphrod[=i]t[=e] (Venus), Hera
+(Juno), and Ath[=e]n[=e] (Minerva) became competitors for it, and its
+adjudication to the first by Paris so inflamed the jealousy and hatred of
+Hera to all of the Trojan race (to which Paris belonged) that she did not
+cease her machinations till Troy was destroyed.
+
+APPLE OF SODOM, a fruit described by old writers as externally of fair
+appearance, but turning to ashes when plucked; probably the fruit of
+_Sol[=a]num sodom[=e]um_.
+
+AP'PLETON, a city of Wisconsin, United States, 100 miles N.W. of Milwaukee
+by rail. It has many flour, paper, saw, and woollen mills, and other
+manufactories, and is the seat of a collegiate institute and of the
+Lawrence University. Pop. (1920), 19,561.
+
+APPLIQUE, in needlework or metal-work, a design or feature having the
+appearance of being independently made and attached to the surface of the
+object it adorns. When the ornament is sunk into the body of the object it
+is called _inlay_.
+
+APPOGGIATURA ([.a]p-poj-[.a]-toe'r[.a]), in music, a small additional note
+of embellishment preceding the note to which it is attached, and taking
+away from the principal note a portion of its time.
+
+APPOINT'MENT, a term in English law signifying the exercise of some power,
+reserved in a conveyance or settlement, of burdening, selling, or otherwise
+disposing of the lands or property conveyed. Such a reserved power is
+termed a _power of appointment_.
+
+APPOMATT'OX COURT-HOUSE, a village in Virginia, United States, 20 miles E.
+of Lynchburg. Here, on 9th April, 1865, General Lee surrendered to General
+Grant, and thus virtually concluded the American Civil War.
+
+APPONYI, Albert, Count, Hungarian statesman, born in 1846. Leader of the
+Conservative National party, he joined the Liberal party in 1899, and in
+1901 was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies. He was Minister of
+Education in 1906 and 1917, and again in 1918. In 1920 he was at the head
+of the delegation which came to Paris to settle the peace-terms with
+Hungary.
+
+APPOSI'TION, in grammar, the relation in which one or more nouns or
+substantive phrases or clauses stand to a noun or pronoun, which they
+explain or characterize without being predicated of it, and with which they
+agree in case; as Cicero, the _orator_, lived in the first century before
+Christ; the opinion, _that a severe winter is generally followed by a good
+summer_, is a vulgar error.
+
+APPRAI'SER, a person employed to value property, and duly licensed to do so
+by licence taken out every year. The valuation must be duly set down in
+writing, and there is a certain fixed scale of charges for the appraiser's
+services.
+
+APPREHEN'SION, the seizing of a person as a criminal whether taken in the
+act or on suspicion, and with or without a warrant, a warrant being
+necessary when the person apprehending is not present at the commission of
+the offence. See _Arrest_.
+
+APPREN'TICE, one bound by indenture to serve some particular individual or
+company of individuals for a specified time, in order to be instructed in
+some art, science, or trade. In England a person under the age of
+twenty-one cannot bind himself apprentice, and accordingly the usual way is
+for a relation or friend to become a contracting party to the indenture,
+and engage for the faithful performance of the agreement. An infant cannot
+be bound apprentice by his friends without his own expressed consent. In
+Scotland a boy under fourteen or a girl under twelve years of age cannot
+become a party to an indenture without the concurrence of a parent or
+guardian; above that age they may enter into an indenture of themselves,
+and thereby become personally bound. An indenture is determinable by the
+consent of the parties to it, and also by the death, bankruptcy, or
+retirement from business of the master. _Parish apprentices_ are bound out
+by the guardians of the poor to suitable persons, and in this case the
+consent of the apprentice is not necessary. The system of apprenticing by
+indenture is now much less common than formerly.--Cf. R. A. Bray, _Boy
+Labour and Apprenticeship_.
+
+APPROACH'ES, in field-engineering, an old-fashioned name for what are now
+called 'communication trenches'.
+
+APPROPRIA'TION. See _Impropriation_.
+
+APPRO'VER (ap-proe'v[.e]r), in English law, any accomplice in a crime who
+is allowed by the judges of jail-delivery to become king's evidence, that
+is, to be examined in evidence against his accomplices, it being understood
+that the approver will himself be pardoned upon making a full and open
+confession.
+
+APPROXIMA'TION, a term used in mathematics to signify a continual approach
+to a quantity required, when no process is known for arriving at it
+exactly. Although, by such an approximation, the exact value of a quantity
+cannot be discovered, yet, in practice, it may be found sufficiently
+correct; thus the diagonal of a square, whose sides are represented by
+unity, is [sqrt]2, the exact value of which quantity cannot be obtained;
+but its approximate value may be substituted in the nicest calculations.
+
+APPULEIUS. See _Apuleius_.
+
+AP'RICOT (_Prunus Armeni[)a]ca_), a fruit of the plum genus which was
+introduced into Europe from Asia more than three centuries before Christ,
+and into England from Italy in 1524. It is a native of Armenia and other
+parts of Asia and also of Africa. The apricot is a low tree, of rather
+crooked growth, with somewhat heart-shaped leaves and sessile flowers. The
+fruit is sweet, more or less juicy, of a yellowish colour, about the size
+of a peach, and resembling it in delicacy of flavour. Some of the best
+varieties are 'Frogmore Early', 'Moorpark', 'Royal', &c. The wood is
+coarsely grained and soft. Apricot trees are chiefly raised against walls,
+and are propagated by budding and grafting.
+
+APRIES ([=a]'pri-[=e]z), Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, the eighth king of
+the twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He succeeded his father Psammetichus in
+590 or 589 B.C. The Jews under Zedekiah revolted against their Babylonian
+oppressors and allied themselves with Apries, who was, however, unable to
+raise the siege of Jerusalem, which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. A still
+more unfortunate expedition against Cyrene brought about revolt in his
+army, in endeavouring to suppress which Apries was defeated and slain about
+570 B.C.
+
+A'PRIL (Lat. _Apr[=i]lis_, from _aperire_, to open, because the buds open
+at this time), the fourth month of the year. The strange custom of making
+fools on 1st April by sending people upon errands which end in
+disappointment, and raise a laugh at the expense of the person sent,
+prevails throughout Europe. It has been connected with the miracle plays of
+the Middle Ages, in which the Saviour was represented as having been sent,
+at this period of the year, from Annas to Caiaphas and from Pilate to
+Herod. This explanation, however, is perhaps itself a piece of April
+fooling. In France the party fooled is called _un poisson d'avril_, 'an
+April fish'; in Scotland, a 'gowk', or cuckoo.
+
+A PRIO'RI ('from what goes before'), a phrase applied to a mode of
+reasoning by which we proceed from general principles or notions to
+particular cases, as opposed to _a posteriori_ ('from what comes after')
+reasoning, by which we proceed from knowledge previously acquired.
+Mathematical proofs are of the _a priori_ kind; the conclusions of
+experimental science are _a posteriori_. It is also a term applied to
+knowledge independent of all experience.
+
+[Illustration: Apse--Church of Sta Maria in Trastevere, Rome]
+
+APSE, a portion of any building forming a termination or projection
+semicircular or polygonal in plan, and having a roof forming externally a
+semi-dome or semi-cone, or having ridges corresponding to the angles of the
+polygon; especially such a semicircular or polygonal recess projecting from
+the east end of the choir or chancel of a church, in which the altar is
+placed. The apse was developed from the somewhat similar part of the Roman
+basilicae, in which the magistrate (_praetor_) sat.
+
+AP'SHERON, a peninsula on the western shore of the Caspian Sea formed by
+the eastern extremity of the Caucasus Mountains. It extends for about 40
+miles, and terminates in Cape Apsheron. It yields immense quantities of
+petroleum. See _Baku_.
+
+[Illustration: _aa_, Apsides]
+
+APSIS, pl. AP'SIDES or APSI'DES, in astronomy, one of the two points of the
+orbit of a heavenly body situated at the extremities of the major axis of
+the ellipse formed by the orbit, one of the points being that at which the
+body is at its greatest and the other that at which it is at its least
+distance from its primary. In regard to the earth and the other planets,
+these two points are called the aphelion and perihelion; and in regard to
+the moon they are called the apogee and perigee. The line of the apsides
+has a slow forward angular motion in the plane of the planet's orbit, being
+retrograde only in the case of Venus. This in the earth's orbit produces
+the anomalistic year. See _Anomaly_.
+
+APT (aet; ancient APTA JULIA), a town of Southern France, department
+Vaucluse, 32 miles east by south of Avignon, with an ancient Gothic
+cathedral. Pop. 6336.
+
+AP'TERA (Gr. _apteros_, wingless), wingless insects, such as lice and
+certain others, popularly called _Spring-tails_, and composed of two
+groups, Collembola and Thysanura.
+
+[Illustration: Apteryx (_Apteryx Mantelli_)]
+
+AP'TERYX, a nearly extinct genus of cursorial birds, distinguished from the
+ostriches by having three toes with a rudimentary hallux, which forms a
+spur. They are natives of the South Island of New Zealand; are totally
+wingless and tailless, with feathers resembling hairs; about the size of a
+small goose; with long curved beak something like that of a curlew. They
+are entirely nocturnal, feeding on insects, worms, and seeds.--_A.
+austr[=a]lis_, called _Kiwi-kiwi_ from its cry, is the best-known species.
+
+APULEIUS, or APPULEIUS (ap-[=u]-l[=e]'us), author of the celebrated
+satirical romance in Latin called the _Golden Ass_, born at Madaura, in
+Numidia, about A.D. 125; the time of his death is unknown. He studied at
+Carthage, then at Athens, where he became warmly attached to the Platonic
+philosophy, and finally at Rome. Returning to Carthage he married a rich
+widow, whose relatives accused him of gaining her consent by magic, and the
+speech by which he successfully defended himself is still extant. Besides
+his _Golden Ass_ (which is also known as the _Metamorphoses_, and which was
+translated into English by W. Adlington in 1566), with its fine episode of
+Cupid and Psyche, he was also the author of many works on philosophy and
+rhetoric, some of which are still extant.
+
+APU'LIA, a department or division in the south-east of Italy, on the
+Adriatic, composed of the provinces of Foggia, Bari, and Lecce; area, 7376
+sq. miles. Pop. 2,237,791.
+
+APURE ([.a]-poe'r[=a]), a navigable river of Venezuela, formed by the
+junction of several streams which rise in the Andes of Colombia; it falls
+into the Orinoco.--_Apure_, one of the States of Venezuela, has a pop. of
+30,008.
+
+APURIMAC ([.a]-poe-r[=e]-m[.a]k'), a river of South America, which rises in
+the Andes of Peru, and, being augmented by the Vilcamayu and other streams,
+forms the Ucayale, one of the principal head-waters of the Amazon.--The
+department of Apurimac in Peru has an area of 8187 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+177,887.
+
+AQ'UA (Lat. for water), a word much used in pharmacy and old
+chemistry.--_Aqua fortis_ (= strong water), a weak and impure nitric acid.
+It has the power of eating into steel and copper, and hence is used by
+engravers, etchers, &c.--_Aqua marina_, a fine variety of beryl. See
+_Aquamarine_.--_Aqua regia_, or _aqua regalis_ (= royal water), a mixture
+of nitric and hydrochloric acids, with the power of dissolving gold and
+other precious metals.--_Aqua Tofana_, a poisonous fluid made about the
+middle of the seventeenth century by an Italian woman Tofana or Toffania,
+who is said to have procured the death of no fewer than 600 individuals by
+means of it. It consisted chiefly, it is supposed, of a solution of
+crystallized arsenic.--_Aqua vitae_ (= water of life), or simply _aqua_, a
+name familiarly applied to the _whisky_ of Scotland, corresponding in
+meaning with the _usquebaugh_ of Ireland, the _eau de vie_ (brandy) of the
+French.
+
+AQ'UAMARINE, a name given to some of the finest varieties of beryl of a
+sea-green or blue colour. Varieties of topaz are also so called.
+
+AQUA'RIUM, a vessel or series of vessels constructed wholly or partly of
+glass and containing salt or fresh water in which are kept living specimens
+of marine or fresh-water animals along with aquatic plants. In principle
+the aquarium is based on the interdependence of animal and vegetable life;
+animals consuming oxygen and exhaling carbonic acid, plants reversing the
+process by absorbing carbonic acid and giving out oxygen. The aquarium must
+consequently be stocked both with plants and animals, and for the welfare
+of both something like a proper proportion should exist between them. The
+simplest form of aquarium is that of a glass vase; but aquaria on a larger
+scale consist of a tank or a number of tanks with plate-glass sides and
+stone floors, and contain sand and gravel, rocks, sea-weeds, &c. By
+improved arrangements light is admitted from above, passing through the
+water in the tanks and illuminating their contents, while the spectator is
+in comparative darkness. The most important aquarium is at the zoological
+station at Naples. There is also one, on a smaller scale, at Plymouth,
+maintained by the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.
+Aquaria on a large scale have been constructed in connection with public
+parks or gardens, and the name is also given to places of public
+entertainment in which large aquaria are exhibited.--Cf. G. C. Bateman,
+_Fresh-water Aquaria_; M. J. Newbigin, _The Aquarium_.
+
+AQUARIUS (Lat., the Water-bearer), a sign of the zodiac which the sun
+enters about the 21st of Jan.: it now enters the formerly coincident
+constellation Aquarius about a month later.
+
+AQUATINT, a method of etching on copper by which a beautiful effect is
+produced, resembling a fine drawing in sepia or Indian ink. The special
+character of the effect is the result of sprinkling finely-powdered resin
+or mastic over the plate, and causing this to adhere by heat, the design
+being previously etched, or being now traced out. The nitric acid (aqua
+fortis) acts only in the interstices between the particles of resin or
+mastic, thus giving a slightly granular appearance.
+
+AQUA TOFA'NA. See _Aqua_.
+
+AQUA VITAE. See _Aqua_.
+
+AQ'UEDUCT (Lat. _aqua_, water, _duco_, to lead), an artificial channel or
+conduit for the conveyance of water from one place to another: more
+particularly applied to structures for conveying water from distant sources
+for the supply of large cities. Aqueducts were extensively used by the
+Romans, and many of them still remain in different places on the Continent
+of Europe, some being still in use. The Pont du Gard in the south of
+France, 14 miles from Nimes, is still nearly perfect, and is a grand
+monument of the Roman occupation of this country. The ancient aqueducts
+were constructed of stone or brick, sometimes tunnelled through hills, and
+carried over valleys and rivers on arches. The Pont du Gard spans the River
+Gard, and was built to convey to Nimes the water of springs rising in the
+neighbourhood of the modern Uzes. It is built of great blocks of stone; its
+height is 160 feet; length of the highest arcade, 882 feet. The aqueduct at
+Segovia, originally built by the Romans, has in some parts two tiers of
+arcades 100 feet high, is 2921 feet in length, and is one of the most
+admired works of antiquity. One of the most remarkable aqueducts of modern
+times is that constructed by Louis XIV for conveying the waters of the Eure
+to Versailles. The extensive application of metal pipes has rendered the
+construction of aqueducts of the old type less necessary; but what may be
+called aqueduct bridges are still frequently constructed in connection with
+canals and also with water-works for the supply of towns. Where canals
+exist canal aqueducts are common, since the water in any section of a canal
+must be kept on a perfect level.
+
+[Illustration: Aqueduct at Segovia]
+
+Many large towns now derive a supply of water from sources at a great
+distance, and in bringing the water to the place where it is required much
+tunnelling is often necessary as well as digging and excavating in the
+open. A tunnel furnishing a water channel may be driven through miles of
+rock strata of various kinds, and in many places it may have to be lined
+with concrete or cement wholly or partially, brick-work also being much
+employed. Instead of tunnelling, the channel may be formed on the plan of
+'cut and cover', being first cut in the ground and then covered over,
+leaving the surface much in the same state as before. And, of course, iron
+piping is often used in connection with such tunnels, the water being
+conveyed so far in an aqueduct of one kind, and so far in one of another
+kind, according as is deemed most suitable. In the Thirlmere aqueduct,
+which brings water to Manchester, there are 45 miles of cast-iron pipes, 37
+miles of cut-and-cover work, and 14 miles of tunnels proper. Pipes are
+naturally laid where valleys occur, and the water simply enters the pipes
+at one end and flows out at the other by the influence of gravity, there
+being a suitable chamber constructed at either end of the pipe line where
+there is a junction with a section of tunnel. Aqueduct bridges were first
+introduced into England in the eighteenth century, the first being the
+aqueduct at Barton Bridge conveying the Bridgewater Canal across the
+Irwell. In such bridges the water-channel may be made of cast iron. There
+are great aqueduct bridges on some of the Indian canals, such as the Nadrai
+bridge on the Lower Ganges Canal. In America water is often carried long
+distances in _flumes_ or open wooden channels, supported, where necessary,
+on trestles. Great wooden pipes are also common there, built of large
+staves and hooped round with iron or steel. These often rest on the surface
+of the ground without any covering.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Herschel,
+_Frontinus_; Wegmann, _Water-supply of City of New York_; J. F. Bateman,
+_The Manchester Waterworks_; J. M. Gale, _The Glasgow Waterworks_; A.
+Prescott Folwell, _Water Supply Engineering_.
+
+AQ'UEOUS HUMOUR, the limpid watery fluid which fills the space between the
+cornea and the crystalline lens in the eye.
+
+AQUEOUS ROCKS, composed of matter deposited by water from suspension or
+solution. Called also _sedimentary rocks_. See _Geology_.
+
+AQUIFOLIA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants; the holly tribe. The species consist
+of trees and shrubs, and the order includes the common holly (_Ilex
+Aquifolium_) and the _I. paraguayensis_, or Paraguayan tea tree.
+
+AQUILA ([.a]k'w[=e]-l[.a]), a town in Italy, capital of the province of
+Aquila, 55 miles north-east of Rome, the seat of a bishop, an attractive
+and interesting town with spacious streets and handsome palaces. In 1703
+and 1706 it suffered severely from earthquakes. Pop. 22,050.--The province
+has an area of 2493 sq. miles. Pop. 422,634.
+
+AQ'UILA, a companion of St. Paul (_Acts_, xviii, 2, 3). Expelled from Rome,
+he and his wife, Priscilla, settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed with
+them. They were converted to Christianity by the Apostle.
+
+AQ'UILA, a native of Pontus, flourished about A.D. 130. He became a Jewish
+proselyte, and made a close and accurate translation of the Hebrew
+Scriptures into Greek, extant only in fragments.
+
+AQ'UILA, name of a constellation in the northern hemisphere. See
+_Constellations_.
+
+AQUILA'RIA. See _Aloes-wood_.
+
+AQUILE'GIA. See _Columbine_.
+
+AQUILEIA (ak-wi-l[=e]'ya), an ancient city near the head of the Adriatic
+Sea, in Upper Italy, built by the Romans in 182 or 181 B.C. Commanding the
+N.E. entrance into Italy, it became important as a commercial centre and a
+military post, and was frequently the base of imperial campaigns. In 425 it
+was destroyed by Attila. The modern Aquileia or Aglar is a small place of
+some 1700 inhabitants, consisting chiefly of fishermen.
+
+AQUINAS (a-kw[=i]'nas; i.e. of Aquino), St. Thomas, a celebrated scholastic
+divine, born in 1225 or 1227, most probably at the castle of Rocco Secca,
+near Aquino. His father was Count of Aquino, in the kingdom of Naples. He
+was educated at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Casino, and at the
+University of Naples, where he studied for six years. About the age of
+seventeen he entered a convent of Dominicans, much against the wishes of
+his family. He attended the lectures of Albertus Magnus at Cologne, in
+whose company he visited Paris in 1245 or 1246. Here he became involved in
+the dispute between the university and the Begging Friars as to the liberty
+of teaching, advocating the rights claimed by the latter with great energy.
+In 1257 he received the degree of doctor from the Sorbonne, and began to
+lecture on theology, rapidly acquiring the highest reputation. In 1263 he
+is found at the Chapter of the Dominicans in London. In 1268 he was in
+Italy, lecturing in Rome, Bologna, and elsewhere. In 1271 he was again in
+Paris lecturing to the students; in 1272 he was professor at Naples. In
+1263 he had been offered the archbishopric of Naples by Clement IV, but
+refused the offer. He died, in 1274, on his way to Lyons to attend a
+general council for the purpose of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches. He
+was called, after the fashion of the times, the _angelic doctor_, and was
+canonized by John XXII. The most important of his numerous works, which are
+all written in Latin, are the _Summa Theologica_, which, although only
+professing to treat of theology, is in reality a complete and systematic
+summary of the knowledge of the time, and the _Summa Philosophica_. The
+work of St. Thomas consisted in an effort to harmonize the new scientific
+teachings of the age--derived from Arabian and Byzantine sources--with the
+doctrine of the Church, and to refute heresy. His disciples were known as
+_Thomists_. See _Thomism_.--Cf. P. Conway, _St. Thomas Aquinas_; and
+article in _Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics_.
+
+AQUITA'NIA, later AQUITAINE, a Roman province in Gaul, which comprehended
+the countries on the coast from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and from the
+sea to Toulouse. It was brought into connection with England by the
+marriage of Henry II with Eleanor, daughter of the last Duke of Aquitaine.
+The title to the province was for long disputed by England and France, but
+it was finally secured by the latter (1453).
+
+ARABAH', a deep rocky valley or depression in north-western Arabia, between
+the Dead Sea and Gulf of Akabah, a sort of continuation of the Jordan
+valley.
+
+ARABESQUE (ar'a-besk), a species of ornamentation for enriching flat
+surfaces, often consisting of fanciful figures, human or animal, combined
+with floral forms. There may be said to be three periods and distinctive
+varieties of arabesque--(_a_) the Roman or Graeco-Roman, introduced into
+Rome from the East when pure art was declining; (_b_) the Arabesque of the
+Moors as seen in the Alhambra, introduced by them into Europe in the Middle
+Ages; (_c_) Modern Arabesque, which took its rise in Italy in the
+Renaissance period of art. The arabesques of the Moors, who are prohibited
+by their religion from representing animal forms, consist essentially of
+complicated ornamental designs based on the suggestion of plant-growth,
+combined with extremely complex geometrical forms.
+
+ARABGIR ([.a]-r[.a]b-g[=e]r'), or ARABKIR', a town in Asia, 147 miles
+W.S.W. of Erzerum, noted for its manufacture of silk and cotton goods. Pop.
+between 20,000 and 30,000.
+
+ARA'BIA, a vast peninsula in the S.W. of Asia, bounded on the N. by the
+great Syro-Babylonian plain, N.E. by the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman,
+S. or S.E. by the Indian Ocean, and S.W. by the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez.
+Its length from N.W. to S.E. is about 1800 miles, its mean breadth about
+600 miles, its area approximately 1,200,000 sq. miles, its population
+probably less than 5,000,000. Roughly described, it exhibits a central
+table-land surrounded by a series of deserts, with numerous scattered
+oases, while around this is a line of mountains parallel to and approaching
+the coasts, and with a narrow rim of low grounds (_teh[=a]ma_) between them
+and the sea. In its general features Arabia resembles the Sahara, of which
+it may be considered a continuation. Like the Sahara, it has its wastes of
+loose sand, its stretches of bare rocks and stones, its mountains devoid of
+vegetation, its oases with their wells and streams, their palm-groves and
+cultivated fields--islands of green amidst the surrounding desolation.
+Rivers proper there are none. By the ancients the whole peninsula was
+broadly divided into three great sections--Arabia Petraea (containing the
+city Petra), Deserta (desert), and Felix (happy). The first and last of
+these answer roughly to the modern divisions of the region of Sinai in the
+N.W. and Yemen in the S.W., while the name _Deserta_ was vaguely given to
+the rest of the country. (See _Explorations, Modern_.) The principal
+divisions at the present are Madian in the north-west; south of this,
+Hejaz, Assir, and Yemen, all on the Red Sea, the last named occupying the
+south-western part of the peninsula, and comprising a _teh[=a]ma_ or
+maritime lowland on the shores of the Red Sea, with an elevated inland
+district of considerable breadth; Hadramaut on the south coast; Oman
+occupying the south-east angle; El-Hasa and Koveit on the Persian Gulf;
+El-Hamad (Desert of Syria), Nefud, and Jebel Shammar in the north; Nejd,
+the Central Highlands, which occupies a great part of the interior of the
+country, while south of it is the great unexplored Dahkna or sandy desert.
+Between 1902-5 a joint commission of British and Turkish officers laid down
+a boundary line defining the limits between Turkish territory and that of
+the independent Arab tribes in political relations with Great Britain.
+Nearly the whole of Southern Arabia came within the sphere of British
+influence. Madian belongs to Egypt; the Hejaz, Yemen, Bahr-el-Hasa, Koveit,
+&c., were more or less under the suzerainty of Turkey until 1914. The rest
+of the country is ruled by independent chiefs--sheikhs, emirs, and
+imams--while the title of sultan has been assumed by the chief of the
+Wahabis in Nejd, the sovereign of Oman (who has a subsidy from the Indian
+Government), and some petty princes in the south of the peninsula. On 9th
+June, 1916, the Grand Shereef of Mecca declared himself independent of the
+Turkish Government, and an Arab revolt spread rapidly. The Grand Shereef
+Hussein then announced to the Moslem world that the Shereefate of Mecca was
+henceforth independent, and on 4th Nov., 1916, he had himself formally
+proclaimed King, or Sultan, of Arabia. The status of the whole of Arabia
+was determined by the Peace Conference. (See _Hejaz_, _Mesopotamia_,
+_Syria_, _Sykes-Picot Treaty_.) The chief towns are Mecca, the birthplace
+of Mahomet; Medina, the place to which he fled from Mecca (A.D. 622), and
+where he is buried; Hodeida, a seaport exporting Mocha coffee; Aden, on the
+S.W. coast, belonging to Britain; Sana, the capital of Yemen; and Muscat,
+the capital of Oman. The chief towns of the interior are Hail, the
+residence of the Emir of Jebel Shammar; Oneizah, under the same ruler; and
+Rijadh, capital of Nejd and Hasa. The most flourishing portions of Arabia
+are in Oman, Hadramaut, and Nejd. In the two former are localities with
+numerous towns and villages and settled industrious populations like that
+of India or Europe.
+
+The climate of Arabia in general is marked by extreme heat and dryness.
+Aridity and barrenness characterize both high and low grounds, and the
+date-palm is often the only representative of vegetable existence. There
+are districts which in the course of the year are hardly refreshed by a
+single shower of rain. Forests there are few or none. Grassy pastures have
+their place supplied by steppe-like tracts, which are covered for a short
+season with aromatic herbs, serving as food for cattle. The date-palm
+furnishes the staple article of food; the cereals are wheat, barley, maize,
+and millet; various sorts of fruit flourish; coffee and many aromatic
+plants and substances, such as gum-arabic, benzoin, mastic, balsam, aloes,
+myrrh, frankincense, &c., are produced. There are also cultivated in
+different parts of the peninsula, according to the soil and climate, beans,
+rice, lentils, tobacco, melons, saffron, colocynth, poppies, olives, &c.
+Sheep, goats, oxen, the horse, the camel, ass, and mule supply man's
+domestic and personal wants. Among wild animals are gazelles, ostriches,
+the lion, panther, hyena, jackal, &c. Among mineral products are saltpetre,
+mineral pitch, petroleum, salt, sulphur, and several precious stones, as
+the carnelian, agate, and onyx. The people of Arabia, according to their
+own traditions, are derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs and the
+naturalized Arabs or Mustarab. They are leading either a settled
+agricultural life or a nomadic existence. In Southern Arabia the Jews form
+a large element in the towns' population. Commerce is largely in the hands
+of foreigners, among whom the Jews and Banians (Indian merchants) are the
+most numerous.
+
+The history of Arabia previous to Mahomet is obscure. The earliest
+inhabitants are believed to have been of the Semitic race. Jews in great
+numbers migrated into Arabia after the destruction of Jerusalem, and,
+making numerous proselytes, indirectly favoured the introduction of the
+doctrines of Mahomet. With his advent the Arabians revolted and united for
+the purpose of extending the new creed; and under the caliphs--the
+successors of Mahomet--they attained great power, and founded large and
+powerful kingdoms in three continents. (See _Caliphs_.) On the fall of the
+caliphate of Bagdad in 1258 the decline set in, and on the expulsion of the
+Moors from Spain the foreign rule of the Arabs came to an end. In the
+sixteenth century Turkey subdued Hejaz and Yemen, and received the nominal
+submission of the tribes inhabiting the rest of Arabia. The allegiance of
+Hejaz was renounced early in the European War; but Yemen achieved its
+independence in the seventeenth century, and maintained it till 1871, when
+the territory again fell into the hands of the Turks. In 1839 Aden was
+occupied by the British. Oman early became virtually independent of the
+caliphs, and grew into a well-organized kingdom. In 1507 its capital,
+Maskat or Muscat, was occupied by the Portuguese, who were not driven out
+till 1659. The Wahabis appeared towards the end of the eighteenth century,
+and took an important part in the political affairs of Arabia, but their
+progress was interrupted by Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, and they suffered
+a complete defeat by Ibrahim Pasha. He extended his power over most of the
+country, but the events of 1840 in Syria compelled him to renounce all
+claims to Arabia. The Hejaz thus again became subject to Turkish sway, and
+until 1914 Turkey continually extended its rule not only over Yemen, but
+also over the district of El-Hasa on the Persian Gulf.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir
+R. F. Burton, _Pilgrimage to Medina and Mecca_; E. Reclus, _Les Arabes_;
+C. M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_, and _Wanderings in Arabia_; G. W. Bury,
+_Arabia Infelix_; S. M. Zwemer, _Arabia, the Cradle of Islam._
+
+_Arabian Language and Literature._--The Arabic language belongs to the
+Semitic dialects, among which it is distinguished for its richness,
+softness, and high degree of development. By the spread of Islam it became
+the sole written language and the prevailing speech in all South-Western
+Asia and Eastern and Northern Africa, and for a time in Southern Spain, in
+Malta, and in Sicily; and it is still used as a learned and sacred language
+wherever Islam is spread. Almost a third part of the Persian vocabulary
+consists of Arabic words, and there is the same proportion of Arabic in
+Turkish. The Arabic language is written in an alphabet of its own, which
+has also been adopted in writing Persian, Hindustani, Turkish, &c. As in
+all Semitic languages (except the Ethiopic), it is read from right to left.
+The vowels are usually omitted in Arabic manuscripts, only the consonants
+being written.
+
+Poetry among the Arabs had a very early development, and before the time of
+Mahomet poetical contests were held and prizes awarded for the best pieces.
+The collection called the _Moallakat_ contains seven pre-Mahommedan poems
+by seven authors. Many other poems belonging to the time before Mahomet,
+some of equal age with those of the _Moallakat_, are also preserved in
+collections. Mahomet gave a new direction to Arab literature. The rules of
+faith and life which he laid down were collected by Abu-Bekr, first caliph
+after his death, and published by Othman, the third caliph, and constitute
+the _Koran_--the Mahommedan Bible. The progress of the Arabs in literature,
+the arts and sciences, may be said to have begun with the government of the
+caliphs of the family of the Abbassides, A.D. 749, at Bagdad, several of
+whom, as Harun al Rashid and Al Mamun, were munificent patrons of learning:
+and their example was followed by the Ommiades in Spain. In Spain were
+established numerous academies and schools, which were visited by students
+from other European countries; and important works were written on
+geography, history, philosophy, medicine, physics, mathematics, arithmetic,
+geometry, and astronomy. Most of the geography in the Middle Ages is the
+work of the Arabs, and their historians since the eighth century have been
+very numerous. The philosophy of the Arabs was of Greek origin, and derived
+principally from that of Aristotle. Numerous translations of the scientific
+works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers were made, principally by
+Christian scholars who resided as physicians at the Courts of the caliphs.
+These were diligently studied in Bagdad, Damascus, and Cordova, and, being
+translated into Latin, became known in the west of Europe. Of their
+philosophical authors the most celebrated are Alfarabi (tenth century), Ibn
+Sina or Avicenna (died A.D. 1037), Alghazzali (died 1111), Ibn Roshd or
+Averroes (twelfth century), called by pre-eminence The Commentator, &c. In
+medicine they excelled all other nations in the Middle Ages, and they are
+commonly regarded as the earliest experimenters in chemistry. Their
+mathematics and astronomy were based on the works of Greek writers, but the
+former they enriched, simplified, and extended. It was by them that algebra
+was introduced to the Western peoples, and the Arabic numerals were
+similarly introduced. Astronomy they especially cultivated, for which
+famous schools and observatories were erected at Bagdad and Cordova. The
+_Almagest_ of Ptolemy in an Arabic translation was early a textbook among
+them. Alongside of science poetry continued to be cultivated, but after the
+ninth or tenth centuries it grew more and more artificial. Among poets were
+Abu Nowas, Asmai, Abu Temmam, Motenabbi, Abul-Ala, Busiri, Tograi, and
+Hariri. Tales and romances in prose and verse were written. The tales of
+fairies, genii, enchanters, and sorcerers in particular passed from the
+Arabians to the Western nations, as in _The Thousand and One Nights._ Some
+of the books most widely read in the Middle Ages, such as _The Seven Wise
+Masters,_ the _Fables of Pilpay_ (or Bidpai), and the _Romance of Antar_
+found their way into Europe through the instrumentality of the Arabs. At
+the present day Arabic literature is almost confined to the production of
+commentaries and scholia, discussions on points of dogma and jurisprudence,
+and grammatical works on the classical language. There are a few newspapers
+published in Arabic.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Huart, _History of Arabic
+Literature;_ R. A. Nicholson, _Literary History of the Arabs._
+
+ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE. See _Moorish Architecture_, _Saracenic Architecture_.
+
+ARABIAN GULF. See _Red Sea_.
+
+ARABIAN NIGHTS, or THE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS, (Ar. Alf Layla wa-Layla), a
+celebrated collection of Eastern tales, based upon an old work, called
+_Hazar Afsana_, long current in the East, and supposed to have been derived
+by the Arabians from India, through the medium of Persia. They were first
+introduced into Europe in the beginning of the eighteenth century by means
+of the French translation of Antoine Galland. Of some of them no original
+MS. is known to exist; they were taken down by Galland from the oral
+communication of a Syrian friend. The story which connects the tales of
+_The Thousand and One Nights_ is as follows: The Sultan Shahriyar,
+exasperated by the faithlessness of his bride, made a law that every one of
+his future wives should be put to death the morning after marriage. At
+length one of them, Sheherazade, the generous daughter of the grand-vizier,
+succeeded in abolishing the cruel custom. By the charm of her stories the
+fair narrator induced the sultan to defer her execution every day till the
+dawn of another, by breaking off in the middle of an interesting tale which
+she had begun to relate. In the form we possess them these tales belong to
+a comparatively late period, though the exact date of their composition is
+not known. Lane, who published a translation of a number of the tales, with
+valuable notes, is of opinion that they took their present form some time
+between 1475 and 1525. Sir Richard Burton's complete English translation
+was issued in 16 vols. (1885-8).
+
+ARABIAN SEA, the part of the Indian Ocean between Arabia and India.
+
+ARABIC FIGURES, the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0; of Indian
+origin, introduced into Europe by the Moors. They did not come into general
+use till after the invention of printing.
+
+ARA'BI PASHA, Egyptian soldier and revolutionary leader, born 1839. In
+Sept., 1881, he headed a military revolt, and was for a time virtually
+dictator of Egypt. Britain interfered, and after a short campaign,
+beginning with the bombardment of Alexandria and ending with the defeat of
+Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir, he surrendered, and was banished to Ceylon, being
+pardoned in 1900. He died in obscurity in Cairo in 1911.
+
+ARABLE LAND, land which is fit for ploughing, and capable of being
+cultivated, as distinguished from grass-land, wood-land, common pasture,
+mountains, forests, morasses, and waste. In Government returns the term is
+applied to land that is actually under regular cultivation. The land
+capable of being cultivated amounts in England and Wales to about 25 per
+cent, and in Ireland to about 13 per cent. In the course of the last thirty
+or forty years there has, however, been a considerable diminution in the
+area of land actually cultivated, as a result of large foreign imports of
+grain and other agricultural products.
+
+ARABS. The Arabs, as a race, are of middle stature, of a powerful though
+slender build, and have a skin of a more or less brownish colour; in towns
+and the uplands often almost white. Their features are well cut, the nose
+straight, the forehead high. They are naturally active, intelligent, and
+courteous; and their character is marked by temperance, bravery, and
+hospitality. The first religion of the Arabs, the worship of the stars, was
+supplanted by the doctrines of Mahommedanism, which succeeded rapidly in
+establishing itself throughout Arabia. Besides the two principal sects of
+Islam, the Sunnites and the Shiites, there also exists, in considerable
+numbers, a third Mahommedan sect, the Wahabis, which arose in the latter
+half of the eighteenth century, and for a time possessed great political
+importance in the peninsula. The mode of life of the Arabs is either
+nomadic or settled. The nomadic tribes are termed Bedouins (or Bedawins),
+and among them are considered to be the Arabs of the purest blood.
+
+ARACACHA, or ARRACACHA (ar-a-kae'cha), a genus of umbelliferous plants of
+Southern and Central America. The root of _A. esculenta_ is divided into
+several lobes, each of which is about the size of a large carrot. These are
+boiled like potatoes and largely eaten in South America.
+
+ARACAN (ar-a-kan'), the most northern division of Lower Burmah, on the Bay
+of Bengal; chief town and seaport Akyab. It was ceded to the English in
+1826, as a result of the first Burmese war.
+
+ARACARI ([.a]-r[.a]-sae'r[=e]), native name of a genus of brilliant birds
+(Pteroglossus) closely allied to the toucans, but generally smaller;
+natives of the warm parts of South America.
+
+ARACATI ([.a]-r[.a]-k[.a]-t[=e]'), a Brazilian river-port, State of Ceara,
+on the River Jaguaribe, about 10 miles from its mouth. Exports hides and
+cotton. Pop. about 10,000.
+
+ARA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of monocotyledonous plants, mostly tropical, having
+the genus Arum as the type. Most of the species have tuberous roots
+abounding in starch, which forms a wholesome food after the acrid juice has
+been washed out. See _Arum_, _Caladium_, _Dumb-cane_.
+
+ARACHIS (ar'a-kis), a genus of leguminous plants much cultivated in warm
+climates, and esteemed a valuable article of food. The most remarkable
+feature of the genus is that when the flower falls the stalk supporting the
+small undeveloped fruit lengthens, and bending towards the ground pushes
+the fruit into the ground, when it begins to enlarge and ripen. The pod of
+_A. hypogoea_ (popularly called ground, earth, or pea nut) is of a
+pale-yellow colour, and contains two seeds the size of a hazel-nut, in
+flavour sweet as almonds, and yielding when pressed an excellent oil.
+
+ARACHNIDA (a-rak'ni-da; Gr. _arachn[=e]_, a spider), a class of Arthropoda
+or higher Annulose animals including the Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, Ticks,
+&c. They have the body divided into a number of segments or _somites_, some
+of which have always articulated appendages (limbs, &c.). There is often a
+pair of nervous ganglia in each somite, although in some forms (as spiders)
+the nervous system becomes modified and concentrated. They are oviparous
+and somewhat resemble insects, but they have a united head and thorax, and
+do not undergo a metamorphosis similar to insects. They respire by
+tracheae, by pulmonary sacs, or by the skin.
+
+AR'ACK, or AR'RACK, a spirituous liquor manufactured in the East Indies
+from a great variety of substances. It is often distilled from fermented
+rice, or it may be distilled from the juice of the coco-nut and other
+palms. Pure arack is clear and transparent, of a yellowish or straw colour,
+and with a peculiar but agreeable taste and smell; it contains at least 52
+to 54 per cent of alcohol.
+
+ARAD (o'rod), a town of the former kingdom of Hungary, on the Maros, 30
+miles north of Temeswar, divided by the river into O (Old) Arad and Uj
+(New) Arad, connected by a bridge; it has a fortress, and is an important
+railway centre, with a large trade and manufactures. The town is now within
+the confines of Roumania, Uj Arad being called Arodul Neo. Population of
+Old and New Arad together, 63,166.
+
+AR'ADUS (now RUAD), an inlet about a mile in circumference lying 2 miles
+off the Syrian coast, 35 miles N. of Tripolis; the site of the Phoenician
+stronghold Arvad, a city second only to Tyre and Sidon; now occupied by
+about 3000 people, mainly fishermen.
+
+ARAFAT', or JEBEL ER RAHMEH ('Mountain of Mercy'), a hill in Arabia, about
+200 feet high, with stone steps reaching to the summit, 15 miles south-east
+of Mecca; one of the principal objects of pilgrimage among Mahommedans, who
+say that it was the place where Adam first received his wife Eve after they
+had been expelled from Paradise and separated from each other 120 years. A
+sermon delivered on the mount constitutes one great ceremony of the _Hajj_;
+or pilgrimage to Mecca, and entitles the hearer to the name and privileges
+of a _Hajji_ or pilgrim.
+
+AR'AGO, Dominique Francois, a French physicist, born in 1786, died at Paris
+in 1853. After studying in the Polytechnic School at Paris, he was
+appointed a secretary of the Bureau des Longitudes. In 1806 he was
+associated with Biot in completing in Spain the measurements of Delambre
+and Mechain to obtain an arc of the meridian. Before he got back to France
+he had been shipwrecked and narrowly escaped being enslaved at Algiers. In
+1809 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences and appointed a professor at
+the Polytechnic School. He distinguished himself by his researches in the
+polarization of light, galvanism, magnetism, astronomy, &c. His discovery
+of the magnetic properties of substances devoid of iron, made known to the
+Academy of Sciences in 1824, procured him the Copley medal of the Royal
+Society of London in 1825. A further consideration of the same subject led
+to the equally remarkable discovery of the production of magnetism by
+electricity. He took part in the revolution of 1848, and held the office of
+Minister of War and Marine in the provisional Government. At the _coup
+d'etat_ of Dec., 1852, he refused to take the oath to the Government of
+Louis Napoleon, but the oath was not pressed. His works, which were
+posthumously collected and published, consist, besides his _Astronomie
+Populaire_, chiefly of contributions to learned societies, and biographical
+notices (_eloges_) of deceased members of the Academy of Sciences.
+
+ARAGO, Emmanuel, son of Dominique Francois, French advocate and politician,
+was born at Paris in 1812; called to the bar 1837; took part in the
+revolution of 1848; renounced politics after the _coup d'etat_ of Dec.,
+1852, but continued to practise at the bar. After the fall of the Empire he
+again took a prominent part in public affairs, and held several important
+offices. He is author of a volume of poems and many theatrical pieces. He
+died in 1896.
+
+ARAGO, Etienne, brother of Dominique Arago, born 1802, died 1892. He
+founded the journals _La Reforme_ and _Le Figaro_; was director of the
+Theatre du Vaudeville, 1829; took part in the revolution of 1848; was
+condemned to transportation, 1849; fled from France, but returned in 1859;
+was mayor of Paris during the Franco-Prussian war, and appointed archivist
+to the Ecole des Beaux Arts, 1878. He was author of upwards of 100 dramas,
+_La Vie de Moliere,_ _Les Bleus et les Blancs_, and other works.
+
+ARAGON', KINGDOM OF, a former province or kingdom of Spain, now divided
+into three provinces of Teruel, Huesca, and Saragossa; bounded on the N. by
+the Pyrenees, N.W. by Navarre, W. by Castile, S. by Valencia, and E. by
+Catalonia; length about 190 miles, average breadth 90 miles; area, 18,298
+sq. miles. It was governed by its own monarchs until the union with Castile
+on the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1469).
+
+ARAGO'NA, a town in Sicily, 8 miles N.N.E. of Girgenti. Pop. 16,000. In the
+neighbourhood is the mud volcano of Macculuba.
+
+ARAGONITE, a mineral formed of calcium carbonate crystallized in the
+rhombic system; specific gravity 2.94 (compare _Calcite_). Aragonite passes
+into calcite in the course of geological time, but is important as the
+mineral precipitated to form the oolitic limestones of warm seas, and from
+being the material of most molluscan shells. It was first found in Aragon.
+
+ARAGUAYA ([.a]-r[.a]-gw[=i]'[.a]), a Brazilian river, principal affluent of
+the Tocantins; rises about the 18th degree of S. lat.; in its course
+northwards forms the boundary between the two States of Matto Grosso and
+Goyaz, and falls into the Tocantins near lat. 6deg S.; length, about 1300
+miles, of which over 1000 are navigable.
+
+A'RAL, a salt-water lake in Asia, in Russian territory, about 150 miles W.
+of the Caspian Sea, between 43deg 42' and 46deg 44' N. lat., and 58deg 18'
+and 61deg 46' E. long.; length 270 miles, breadth 165; area, 26,650 sq.
+miles (or not much smaller than Scotland). It stands 240 feet above the
+level of the Caspian, and 160 feet above the Mediterranean. It receives the
+Amu Darya or Oxus and the Syr Darya or Jaxartes, and contains a multitude
+of sturgeon and other fish. It is encircled by desert sandy tracts, and its
+shores are without harbours. It has no outlet. The Aral contains a large
+number of small islands; steamers have been placed on it by the Russians.
+
+ARA'LIA, a genus of plants with small flowers arranged in umbels and
+succulent berries, the type of the nat. ord. Araliaceae, which is nearly
+related to the Umbelliferae, but the species are of a more shrubby habit.
+They are natives chiefly of tropical or sub-tropical countries, and in
+Britain are represented by the ivy; ginseng belongs to the order. From the
+pith of _A. papyrif[)e]ra_ is obtained the Chinese rice-paper.
+
+A'RAM, Eugene, a self-taught scholar whose unhappy fate has been made the
+subject of a ballad by Hood and a romance by Lord Lytton, was born in
+Yorkshire, 1704, executed for murder, 1759. In 1734 he set up a school at
+Knaresborough. About 1745 a shoemaker of that place, named Daniel Clarke,
+was suddenly missing under suspicious circumstances; and no light was
+thrown on the matter till full thirteen years afterwards, when an
+expression dropped by one Richard Houseman, respecting the discovery of a
+skeleton supposed to be Clarke's, caused him to be taken into custody. From
+his confession an order was issued for the apprehension of Aram, who had
+long quitted Yorkshire, and was at the time acting as usher at the
+grammar-school at Lynn. He was brought to trial on 3rd Aug., 1759, at York,
+where, notwithstanding an able and eloquent defence which he made before
+the court, he was convicted of the murder of Clarke, and sentenced to
+death. He was among the first to recognize the affinity of the Celtic to
+the other European languages, and under favourable circumstances might have
+done some valuable work in philological science.--Cf. W. Bristow, _The
+Genuine Account of the Life and Trial of Eugene Aram_.
+
+ARAMAE'AN, or ARAMAIC. See _Semitic Languages_, _Syriac_.
+
+AR'AN, an island lying off the W. coast of Donegal, Ireland, has an area of
+4335 acres, a lighthouse, and a pop. of 1308, chiefly engaged in
+fishing.--Also called _North Island of Aran_, or _Arranmore_.
+
+ARANE'IDAE, the spider family.
+
+ARAN ISLANDS, or SOUTH ISLANDS OF ARAN, three islands at the mouth of
+Galway Bay, off the W. coast of Ireland. The largest, Aranmore or
+Inishmore, comprises 7635 acres, and has a pop. of 2592; the next,
+Inishmaan, 2252 acres, pop. 473; and the least, Inishere, 1400 acres, pop.
+456. They are remarkable for a number of architectural remains of a very
+early date. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture and fishing.
+
+ARANJUEZ ([.a]-r[.a]n-_h_[u:]-eth'), a small town and palace in Spain, 30
+miles from Madrid, with splendid gardens laid out by Philip II. The Court
+used to reside here from Easter till the close of June, when the number of
+people increased from 4000 to 20,000. It has a wireless station. Pop.
+12,000.
+
+ARANY (o-ron'y), Janos, Hungarian poet, born 1817, died 1882. He was for
+some time a strolling player, but became professor of Latin at the Normal
+School of Szalonta, professor of Hungarian literature at Nagy Koeroes, and
+secretary of the Hungarian Academy. Author of _The Lost Constitution_,
+_Katalin_, and a series of three connected narrative poems on the fortunes
+of Toldi.
+
+ARAP'AHOES, a tribe of American Indians located near the head-waters of the
+Arkansas and Platte Rivers. They number in all about 2000.
+
+ARAPAIMA (a-ra-p[=i]'ma), a genus of South American fresh-water fishes,
+ord. Physostomi, family Osteoglossidae, one species of which (_A. gigas_)
+grows to the length of 15 or 16 feet, and forms a valuable article of food
+in Brazil and Guiana. It is covered with large bony scales, and has a bare
+and bony head.
+
+AR'ARAT, a celebrated mountain in Armenia, an isolated volcanic mass
+showing two separate cones known as the Great and Little Ararat, resting on
+a common base and separated by a deep intervening depression. The
+elevations are: Great Ararat, 16,916 feet; Little Ararat, 12,840 feet; the
+connecting ridge, 8780 feet. Vegetation extends to 14,200 feet, which marks
+the snow-line. According to the Bible Mount Ararat was the resting-place of
+the Ark when the waters of the Flood abated.
+
+ARARO'BA, or ARRAROBA, the powdered bark of _And[=i]ra arar[=o]ba_. See
+_Andira_.
+
+A'RAS (the ancient ARAXES), a river of Asia Minor, rising S. of Erzerum at
+the foot of the Bingol-dagh; it flows for some miles through South
+Caucasia, turning eastwards to the Erivan plain N. of Ararat. It then
+sweeps in a semi-circle mostly between Caucasia and Persia round to its
+confluence with the Kur, 60 miles from its mouth in the Caspian; length,
+500 miles.
+
+ARA'TUS, a Greek poet, born at Soli in Cilicia; lived about 270 B.C.; was a
+favourite of Ptolemy Philadelphus. His poem _Phaenomena_ is a version of a
+prose work on astronomy by Eudoxus; one verse of it is quoted by St. Paul
+in his address to the Athenians (_Acts_, xvii, 28).
+
+ARA'TUS OF SICYON, a statesman of ancient Greece, born 272 B.C. In 251 B.C.
+he overthrew the tyrant of Sicyon and joined that city to the Achaean
+League, which he greatly extended. He accepted the aid of Antigonus Doson,
+King of Macedon, against the Spartans, and became in time little more than
+the adviser of the Macedonian king, who had now made the League dependent
+on himself. He is said to have been poisoned by Philip V of Macedon, 213
+B.C.
+
+ARAUCA'NIANS, a South American native race in the southern part of Chile,
+occupying a territory stretching from about 37deg to 40deg of S. lat. They
+are warlike and more civilized than many of the native races of S. America,
+and maintained almost unceasing war with the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773,
+when their independence was recognized by Spain, though their territory was
+much curtailed. Their early contests with the Spaniards were celebrated in
+Ercilla's Spanish poem _Araucana_. With the Republic of Chile they were
+long at feud, and in 1861 had at their head a French adventurer named
+Antoine de Tounens, who claimed the title of king. In 1882 they submitted
+to Chile. The Chilian province of Arauco receives its name from them.
+
+[Illustration: Chile pine (_Araucaria imbric[=a]ta_)]
+
+ARAUCA'RIA, a genus of trees of the coniferous or pine order, indigenous to
+Australasia and South America. The species are large evergreen trees with
+pretty large, stiff, flattened, and generally imbricated leaves,
+verticillate spreading branches, and bearing large cones, each scale having
+a single large seed. The species _A. imbric[=a]ta_ (the Chile pine or
+monkey-puzzle), with hard, sharp, pointed leaves, was introduced into
+Britain in 1796. It is a native of the mountains of Southern Chile, where
+it forms vast forests and yields a hard durable wood. Its seeds are eaten
+when roasted. The Moreton Bay pine of New South Wales (_A. Cunninghamii_)
+supplies a valuable timber used in house and boat building, in making
+furniture, and in other carpenter work. A species, _A. excelsa_, or Norfolk
+Island pine, abounds in several of the South Sea Islands, where it attains
+a height of 220 feet with a circumference of 30 feet, and is described as
+one of the most beautiful of trees. Its foliage is light and graceful, and
+quite unlike that of _A. imbricata_, having nothing of its stiff formality.
+Its timber is of some value, being white, tough, and close-grained.
+
+ARAU'CO, a province of Chile, named from the Araucanian Indians; area, 2189
+sq. miles; pop. 73,260; capital, Lebu.
+
+ARAVAL'LI HILLS, a range of Indian mountains running N.E. and S.W. across
+the Rajputana country, which they separate into two natural
+divisions--desert plains on the N.W. and fertile lands on the S.E.; highest
+point, Mount Abu (5653 feet).
+
+ARAXES. See _Aras_.
+
+AR'B[)A]CES, one of the generals of Sardanapaelus, King of Assyria. He
+revolted and defeated his master, and became the founder of the Median
+Empire in 846 B.C.
+
+AR'BALIST. See _Cross-bow_.
+
+ARBE'LA (now ERBIL), a place in the vilayet of Bagdad, giving name to the
+decisive battle fought by Alexander the Great against Darius, at Gaugamela,
+about 50 miles distant from it, 1st Oct., 331 B.C.
+
+ARBITRAGE ([.a]r'bi-tr[.a]zh), or ARBITRATION OF EXCHANGES, an operation or
+calculation by which the currency of one country is converted into that of
+another through the medium of intervening currencies, for the purpose of
+ascertaining whether direct or indirect drafts and remittances are
+preferable.--_Arbitrageur_ ([.a]r'bi-tr[.a]-zheur) is one who makes
+calculations of currency exchanges. See _Stock Exchange_.
+
+ARBITRA'TION, the hearing and determination of a cause between parties in
+controversy, by a person or persons chosen by the parties. This may be done
+by one person, but it is common to choose more than one. Frequently two are
+nominated, one by each party, with a third, the _umpire_ (or, in Scotland,
+sometimes the _oversman_), who is called on to decide in case of the
+primary arbitrators differing. In such a case the umpire may be agreed upon
+either by the parties themselves, or by the arbitrators when they have
+received authority from the parties to the dispute to settle this point.
+The determination of arbitrators is called an _award_. By the law of
+England the authority of an arbitrator cannot be revoked by any of the
+parties without the leave of the court or of a judge.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Russell, _Arbitration_; Redman, _Arbitration_; Scots Law, see Bell, _On
+Arbitration_; American Law, see Morse, _Law of Arbitration_; R. G. Morris,
+_International Arbitration_.
+
+AR'BLAST. See _Cross-bow_.
+
+ARBO'GA, an old Swedish city, province of Westmannland; once an important
+commercial town, now only of historical interest from having been at one
+time a residence of the family of Vasa, the scene of Church assemblies and
+national diets, and for the antiquities in its neighbourhood. Pop. 5050.
+
+ARBOIS ([.a]r-bwae), a town of France, department of Jura; famous for its
+wines. Pop. 5000.
+
+ARBOR DAY, a day officially set apart in the United States for the annual
+planting of trees by the people, and especially by school-children. The
+custom was instituted in 1872.
+
+ARBORE'TUM (Lat. _arbor_, a tree), a place in which a collection of
+different trees and shrubs is cultivated for scientific or educational
+purposes. The largest arboretum in Britain, perhaps the finest in the whole
+world, is that of the Royal Gardens, at Kew, inaugurated in 1762, to which
+180 acres are now devoted. Next in celebrity are the arboreta at Edinburgh
+(Inverleith) and at Dublin (Glasnevin), the Botanical Gardens at Oxford,
+and the Botanic Gardens at Glasgow. Other arboreta are that of the Jardin
+des Plantes, Paris, and the Arnold Arboretum, at Jamaica Plain, Boston. The
+term arboretum has also been applied in a restricted sense, as in the
+_Arboretum Fruticetum Britannicum_, the monumental work by J. C. Loudon.
+
+AR'BORICULTURE includes the culture of trees and shrubs, as well as all
+that pertains to the preparation of the soil, the sowing of the seeds, and
+the treatment of the plants in their young state, the preparation of the
+land previous to their final transplantation, their just adaptation to soil
+and situation, their relative growth and progress to maturity, their
+management during growth, and the proper season and period for felling
+them.
+
+ARBOR VITAE (literally, 'tree of life'), the name of several coniferous
+trees of the genus Thuja, allied to the cypress, with flattened branchlets,
+and small imbricated or scale-like leaves. The name is derived from
+valuable medicinal properties having formerly been ascribed to the aromatic
+resin they mostly yield. Those generally cultivated in Britain are: the
+common Arbor Vitae (_Thuja occident[=a]lis_), a native of North America,
+where it grows to a height of 40 or 50 feet, introduced into Britain about
+1566; the giant Arbor Vitae or Red Cedar (_Thuja gigantea_), introduced in
+1854; and the Chinese Arbor Vitae (_Thuja orient[=a]lis_).
+
+ARBROATH (ar-br[=o]th'), or ABERBROTHOCK, a royal municipal and police
+burgh and seaport in the county of Forfar, Scotland, at the mouth of the
+small River Brothock. Its ancient abbey, founded by William the Lion in
+1178, and dedicated to Saints Mary and Thomas a Becket, is now a
+picturesque ruin. There are numerous flax and hemp spinning-mills and
+factories, and much canvas and linen is made; also tanning, shoemaking, and
+fishing, and a small shipping trade, but the harbour is bad. Pop. 19,499.
+It unites with Montrose, Forfar, Brechin, and Inverbervie (the Montrose
+burghs) in sending a member to Parliament.
+
+ARBUTH'NOT, John, an eminent physician and distinguished wit, born at
+Arbuthnot, Kincardineshire, Scotland, 1667, died 1735. He received the
+degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of St. Andrews, and went to
+London, where he soon distinguished himself by his writings and by his
+skill in his profession. In 1704 he was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society,
+and soon after he was appointed physician extraordinary, and then physician
+in ordinary to Queen Anne. About this time he became intimate with Swift,
+Pope, Gay, and other wits of the day. His writings, other than professional
+or scientific, include his contributions (in conjunction with Swift and
+Pope) to the _Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus_, _History of John Bull_, _Art
+of Political Lying_, &c. He was conspicuous not only for learning and wit,
+but also for worth and humanity.
+
+AR'BUTUS, a genus of plants belonging to the Ericaceae, or heath order, and
+comprising a number of small trees and shrubs, natives chiefly of Europe
+and N. America. _Arb[)u]tus Un[)e]do_ abounds near the lakes of Killarney,
+where its fine foliage adds charms to the scenery. The bright red or yellow
+berries, somewhat like the strawberry, have an unpleasant taste and
+narcotic properties. The Corsicans make wine from them. The trailing
+arbutus or may-flower of N. America, a plant with fragrant and beautiful
+blossoms, is _Epigaea repens_, of the same nat. ord.
+
+ARC, a portion of a curved line, especially of a circle. It is by means of
+circular arcs that all angles are measured.--_Electric_ or _Voltaic arc_,
+the luminous arc of intense brightness and excessively high temperature
+which is formed by an electric current in crossing over the interval of
+space between the carbon points of an electric lamp. See _Arc-light_.
+
+ARC, Jeanne d'. See _Joan of Arc_.
+
+AR'CA, a genus of bivalve molluscs, family Arcadae, whose shells are known
+as _ark-shells_.
+
+ARCACHON ([.a]r-k[.a]-sh[=o][n.]), a town of S.W. France, department
+Gironde, on the almost landlocked basin of Arcachon, a much-frequented
+bathing-place, with great oyster-breeding establishments. It is connected
+by railway with Bordeaux. Pop. 10,266.
+
+ARCADE, a series of arches supported on piers or pillars, used generally as
+a screen and support of a roof, or of the wall of a building, and having
+beneath the covered part an ambulatory as round a cloister, or a footpath
+with shops or dwellings, as frequently seen in old Italian towns. Sometimes
+a porch or other prominent part of an important building is treated with
+arcades. At the present day Bologna, Padua, and Berne have fine examples of
+mediaeval arcaded streets, and among more modern work various streets in
+Turin, and the Rue de Rivoli, Paris, are lined with arcades, with shops
+underneath. In mediaeval architecture the term arcade is also applied to a
+series of arches supported on pillars forming an ornamental dressing or
+enrichment of a wall, a mode of treatment of very frequent occurrence in
+the towers, apses, and other parts of churches. In modern use the name
+arcade is often applied to a passage or narrow street containing shops
+arched over and covered with glass, as for example the Burlington Arcade,
+London, the Royal Arcade at Newcastle, and the Galleria Vittorio Emmanuele
+in Milan.
+
+ARCA'DIA, the central and most mountainous portion of the Peloponnesus
+(Morea), the inhabitants of which in ancient times were celebrated for
+simplicity of character and manners. Their occupation was almost entirely
+pastoral, and thus the country came to be regarded as typical of rural
+simplicity and happiness. At the present day Arcadia forms a nomarchy of
+the kingdom of Greece. Area, 2028 sq. miles. Pop. 162,324.
+
+ARCA'DIUS, born in 377, died 408; son of the Emperor Theodosius, on whose
+death in 395 the empire was divided, he obtaining the East, and his brother
+Honorius the West. He proved a feeble and pusillanimous prince.
+
+ARCANUM, THE GREAT (meaning secret), a term applied in the Middle Ages to
+the highest problems of alchemy and the discovery of the supposed great
+secrets of nature, such as the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life.
+See _Alchemy_.
+
+ARCATURE, in architecture, a small arcade built into a wall or applied
+against it, decorative rather than structural. Arcatures occur in
+Anglo-Norman churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
+
+ARCESILAUS ([.a]r-ses-i-l[=a]'us), a Greek philosopher, the founder of the
+second or middle academy, was born about 315 B.C., died 239 B.C. He left no
+writings, and of his opinions so little is known that it has been doubted
+whether he was a strict Platonist or a sceptic.
+
+[Illustration: Parts of an Arch
+
+_a._ Abutments. _i._ Impost. _p._ Piers. _v._ Voussoirs or arch-stones.
+_k._ Keystone. s. Springers. _In._ Intrados. _Ex._ Extrados. ]
+
+[Illustration: Lancet. Horse-shoe.]
+
+[Illustration: Segmental. Semicircular.]
+
+[Illustration: Ogee. Equilateral.]
+
+ARCH, a structure composed of separate pieces, such as stones or bricks,
+having the shape of truncated wedges, arranged on a curved line, so as to
+retain their position by mutual pressure. The separate stones which compose
+the arch are called _voussoirs_ or _arch-stones_; the extreme or lowest
+voussoirs are termed _springers_, and the uppermost or central one is
+called the _keystone_. The under or concave side of the voussoirs is called
+the _intrados_, and the upper or convex side the _extrados_ of the arch.
+The supports which afford resting and resisting points to the arch are
+called _piers_ and _abutments_. The upper part of the pier or abutment,
+where the arch rests--technically where it _springs from_--is the _impost_.
+The _span_ of an arch is in circular arches the length of its chord, and
+generally the width between the points of its opposite imposts whence it
+springs. The _rise_ of an arch is the height of the highest point of its
+intrados above the line of the imposts; this point is sometimes called the
+_under side of the crown_, the highest point of the extrados being the
+_crown_. Arches are designated in various ways, as from their shape
+(circular, elliptic, &c.), or from the resemblance of the whole contour of
+the curve to some familiar object (lancet arch, horse-shoe arch), or from
+the method used in describing the curve, as equilateral, three-centred,
+four-centred, ogee, and the like; or from the style of architecture to
+which they belong, as Roman, pointed, and Saracenic arches.--_Triumphal
+arch_, originally a simple decorated arch under which a victorious Roman
+general and army passed in triumph. At a later period the triumphal arch
+was a richly-sculptured, massive, and permanent structure, having an
+archway passing through it, with generally a smaller arch on either side.
+The name is sometimes given to an arch, generally of wood decorated with
+flowers or evergreens, erected on occasion of some public rejoicing, &c.
+
+ARCHAEAN (aer-k[=e]'an) ROCKS (Gr. _archaios_, ancient), the oldest rocks
+of the earth's crust, mostly crystalline in character, and embracing
+granites, gneisses, mica-schists, &c., all devoid of fossil remains. These
+rocks underlie a group of stratified and igneous masses that are usually
+distinguished from them as Huronian; the first beds with a well-marked
+fauna (lowest Cambrian) lie above the Huronian, and the Huronian and the
+Archaean groups are often conveniently classed together as pre-Cambrian,
+and are separated from the stratified and fossiliferous formations, which
+indeed have chiefly taken origin from them. The core of the Malvern range,
+and the rocks of N.W. Sutherland, are examples of Archaean masses in Great
+Britain.
+
+ARCHAEOL'OGY (Gr. _archaios_, ancient, and _logos_, a discourse), the study
+of antiquity, or the science which takes cognizance of the history of
+nations and peoples as evinced by the remains, architectural, implemental,
+or otherwise, which belong to the earlier epoch of their existence. In a
+more extended sense the term embraces every branch of knowledge which bears
+on the origin, religion, laws, languages, science, arts, and literature of
+ancient peoples. It is to a great extent synonymous with _prehistoric
+annals_, as a large if not the principal part of its field of study extends
+over those periods in the history of the human race in regard to which we
+possess almost no information derivable from written records. Archaeology
+divides the primeval period of the human race, more especially as exhibited
+by remains found in Europe, into the _stone_, the _bronze_, and the _iron_
+ages, these names being given in accordance with the materials employed for
+weapons, implements, &c., during the particular period. The _stone_ age has
+been subdivided into the _palaeolithic_ and _neolithic_, the former being
+that older period, in which the stone implements were not polished as they
+are in the latter and more recent period. The _bronze_ age, which admits of
+a similar subdivision, is that in which implements were of copper or
+bronze. In this age the dead were burned and their ashes deposited in urns
+or stone chests, covered with conical mounds of earth or cairns of stones.
+Gold and amber ornaments appear in this age. The _iron_ age is that in
+which implements, &c., of iron begin to appear, although stone and bronze
+implements are found along with them. The word _age_ in this sense (as
+explained under _Age_) simply denotes the stage at which a people has
+arrived. The phrase stone age, therefore, merely marks the period before
+the use of bronze, the bronze age that before the employment of iron, among
+any specific people. See _Excavations_; _Crete_; _Egypt_; &c--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Sir J. Evans, _Stone Implements of Great Britain_; Boyd-Dawkins, _Early Man
+in Britain_; J. Geikie, _Prehistoric Europe_; R. Munro, _Lake Dwellings of
+Europe_; Sir W. Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_; H. R. Hall, _Aegean
+Archaeology_; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Methods and Aims in Archaeology_;
+A. P. F. Michaelis, _A Century of Archaeological Discoveries_.
+
+[Illustration: Archaeopteryx macrura, a fossil lizard-tailed bird]
+
+ARCHAEOPTERYX (aer-k[=e]-op'te-riks), a fossil bird from the oolitic
+limestone of Solenhofen, of the size of a rook, and differing from all
+known birds in having two free claws representing the thumb and forefinger
+projecting from the wing, and about twenty tail vertebrae free and
+prolonged as in mammals.
+
+ARCHANGEL (aerk'[=a]n-jel; Gr. prefix, _arch-_, denoting chief), an angel
+of superior or of the highest rank. The only archangel mentioned by name in
+Scripture is Michael in the _Epistle of Jude_.
+
+ARCHANGEL (aerk-[=a]n'jel), a seaport, capital of the Russian government of
+same name, on the right bank of the Northern Dvina, about 20 miles above
+its mouth in the White Sea. Below the town the river divides into several
+branches and forms a number of islands, on one of which, called Sollenbole,
+is the harbour. The houses are mostly of wood; the place has some
+manufactures and an important trade, exporting linseed, flax, tow, tallow,
+train-oil, mats, timber, pitch and tar, &c. The port is closed for six
+months by ice. Archangel, founded in 1584, was long the only port which
+Russia possessed. Pop. 43,388.--The province, which before the Russian
+revolution extended from the Ural Mountains to Finland, had an area of
+326,063 sq. miles. Pop. 483,500.--For the Archangel Expedition of 1918, see
+_Murmansk_, _Russia_.
+
+ARCHANGEL'ICA. See _Angelica_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ARCHAEOLOGY: ANTIQUITIES OF THE STONE, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES
+
+[Illustration: OLDER STONE AGE: 1, Flint Pick. 2, Carved Mammoth Tusk. 3,
+Double Scraper. 4, Barbed Harpoon Heads. LATER STONE AGE: 5, Pick of Deer
+Antler. 6, Flint and Pyrites. 7, Stone Celt in Haft. 8, Arrowhead. 9, Bowl.
+BRONZE AGE: 10, Celt. 11, Drinking-cup. 12, Ornamental Pin. 13, Spear-head.
+14, Bronze Tweezers. 15, 16, Gold Bracelets. 17, Engraved Pin. 18, Short
+Sword. 19, Spectacle Brooch. 20, Razor. EARLY IRON AGE: 21, Bronze Brooch.
+22, Bone Hand-comb for weaving. 23, Bronze Mirror. 24, Bronze Jug. 25,
+Bronze Spoon. 26, Iron Currency Bars. 27, Bronze Brooch.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ARCHBISHOP (aerch-), a chief bishop, or bishop over other bishops; a
+metropolitan prelate. The establishment of this dignity is to be traced up
+to an early period of Christianity, when the bishops and inferior clergy
+met in the capitals to deliberate on spiritual affairs, and the bishop of
+the city where the meeting was held presided. In England there are two
+archbishops--those of Canterbury and York; the former styled _Primate of
+all England_, the latter _Primate of England_. The Archbishop of Canterbury
+is the first peer of the realm, having precedence before all great officers
+of the Crown and all dukes not of royal birth. He crowns the sovereign, and
+when he is invested with his archbishopric he is said to be enthroned. He
+can grant special licences to marry at any time or place, and can confer
+degrees otherwise to be obtained only from the universities. He is
+addressed by the titles of _your grace_ and _most reverend father in God_,
+and writes himself _by divine providence_, while the Archbishop of York and
+the bishops only write _by divine permission_. The first Archbishop of
+Canterbury was Augustine, appointed A.D. 598 by Ethelbert. Next in dignity
+is the Archbishop of York, between whom and the Archbishop of Canterbury
+the Lord High-Chancellor of England has his place in precedency. The first
+Archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed in 622. The incomes of the sees
+are L15,000 and L10,000 respectively. An Archbishop of Wales was first
+appointed in 1920. Scotland had two archbishops--St. Andrews and Glasgow.
+Ireland had four, but the Episcopal Church has but two--Armagh and Dublin,
+the former being _Primate of all Ireland_, the latter _Primate of Ireland_.
+There are four Roman Catholic archbishops in England and
+Wales--Westminster, Cardiff, Birmingham, and Liverpool; two in
+Scotland--St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and Glasgow; four in Ireland--Armagh,
+Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam.
+
+ARCHDEACON (aerch-), in England, an ecclesiastical dignitary next in rank
+below a bishop, having a certain jurisdiction over a part of the diocese.
+From two to four archdeacons are appointed by the bishops, under whom they
+perform their duties, and they hold courts which decide cases subject to an
+appeal to the bishop.
+
+ARCHDUKE, a title peculiar to the royal family of Austria--the Habsburgs,
+who ruled until 1918.
+
+ARCHELAUS ([.a]r-k[=e]-l[=a]'us), the name of several personages in ancient
+history, one of whom was the son of Herod the Great. He received from
+Augustus the sovereignty of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. The people, tired
+of his tyrannical and bloody reign, accused him before Augustus, who
+banished him to Gaul.
+
+ARCHER, William, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at Perth,
+Scotland, in 1856. Educated at Edinburgh University, he went to London
+after some experience of journalism at Edinburgh, and after a visit to
+Australia was called to the bar, and was dramatic critic for _The World_
+from 1884 to 1905. Subsequently he has been dramatic critic for _The
+Tribune_ and _The Nation_. He has done much to introduce Ibsen to the
+English public, by translating his dramas and otherwise, and has written
+_English Dramatists of To-day_; _A Life of Macready_; _About the Theatre:
+Essays and Studies_; _Masks or Faces?: a Study on the Psychology of
+Acting_; _The Theatrical World_ (a collection of his dramatic criticisms)
+(5 vols.); _Study and Stage_; _America To-Day_ (the result of a visit in
+1900); _Poets of the Younger Generation_; _Real Conversations_ (the result
+of a series of interviews with persons of note); _Through Afro-America_
+(1910); _The Life, Trial, and Death of Francisco Ferrer_ (1911);
+_Play-Making_ (1912); _The Thirteen Days_ (1915); _India and the Future_
+(1917); _War is War_.
+
+ARCHER-FISH, a name given to the _Tox[)o]tes jacul[=a]tor_, a scaly-finned,
+acanthopterygian fish, about 6 inches long, inhabiting the seas around
+Java, which has the faculty of shooting drops of water to the distance of 3
+or 4 feet at insects, thereby causing them to fall into the water, when it
+seizes and devours them. The soft, and even the spiny portions of their
+dorsal fins are so covered with scales as to be scarcely distinguishable
+from the rest of the body.
+
+[Illustration: Assyrian Archer]
+
+ARCH'ERY, the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. The use of these
+weapons in war and the chase dates from the earliest antiquity. Ishmael, we
+learn from _Gen_. xxi, "became an archer". The Egyptians, Assyrians,
+Persians, Parthians, excelled in the use of the bow; and while the Greeks
+and Romans themselves made little use of it, they employed foreign archers
+as mercenaries. Coming to much more recent times, we find the Swiss famous
+as archers, but they generally used the arbalist or cross-bow, and were no
+match for their English rivals, who preferred the long-bow. (See _Bow_.)
+The English victories of Cressy, Poietiers, and Agincourt, gained against
+apparently overwhelming odds, may be ascribed to the bowmen. Archery
+disappeared gradually as firearms came into use, and as an instrument of
+war or the chase the bow is now confined to the most savage tribes of both
+hemispheres. But though the bow has been long abandoned among civilized
+nations as a military weapon, it is still cherished as an instrument of
+healthful recreation, encouraged by archery clubs or societies, which have
+been established in many parts of Britain. The oldest, and by far the most
+historically important of these societies, is the Royal Company of Archers,
+called also the King's Body-guard for Scotland, formed originally, it is
+said, by James I, but constituted in its present form by an Act of the
+Privy Council of Scotland, in 1676, and having its head-quarters in
+Edinburgh, counting among its members many of the nobility and gentry of
+the northern kingdom, and holding annual meetings, where prizes are
+competed for. In recent years a number of clubs have been formed in the
+United States. Archery has the merit of forming a sport open to women as
+well as men.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Garrard, _The Arte of Warre_; E. S.
+Morse, _Archery, Ancient and Modern_; H. A. Ford, _The Theory and Practice
+of Archery_.
+
+[Illustration: Egyptian Archer with arrow-heads and stone-tipped reed
+arrow]
+
+ARCHES, COURT OF, the chief and most ancient consistory court, belonging to
+the archbishopric of Canterbury, for the debating of spiritual causes. It
+is named from the church in London, St. Mary le Bow, or Bow Church (so
+called from a fine _arched_ crypt), where it was formerly held. The
+jurisdiction of this court extends over the province of Canterbury. The
+office of president or dean is now merged in that of the judge appointed by
+the Public Worship Regulation Act (1874). The court now sits in the library
+of Lambeth Palace.
+
+ARCHIL, or ORCHIL ([.a]r'kil, or'kil), a red, violet, or purple colouring
+matter obtained from various kinds of lichens, the most important of which
+are the _Roccella tinctoria_ and the _R. fuciformis_, natives of the rocks
+of the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, Mozambique and Zanzibar, South
+America, &c., and popularly called dyer's-moss. The dye is used for
+improving the tints of other dyes, as from its want of permanence it cannot
+be employed alone; but the aniline colours have largely superseded it.
+Cudbear and litmus are of similar origin.
+
+ARCHILOCHUS ([.a]r-kil'o-kus) OF PAROS, one of the earliest Ionian lyric
+poets, the first Greek poet who composed iambic verses according to fixed
+rules. He flourished about 700 B.C. His iambic poems were renowned for
+force of style, liveliness of metaphor, and a powerful but bitter spirit of
+satire. In other lyric poems of a graver character he was also considered
+as a model. All his works are lost but a few fragments.
+
+ARCHIMAN'DRITE, in the Greek Church, an abbot or abbot-general, who has the
+superintendence of many abbots and convents. The title dates from the
+fourth century.
+
+ARCHIME'DEAN SCREW, a machine for raising water, said to have been invented
+by Archimedes. It is formed by winding a tube spirally round a cylinder so
+as to have the form of a screw, or by hollowing out the cylinder itself
+into a double or triple-threaded screw and enclosing it in a water-tight
+case. When the screw is placed in an inclined position and the lower end
+immersed in water, by causing the screw to revolve, the water may be raised
+to a limited extent.
+
+ARCHIMEDES ([.a]r-ki-m[=e]'d[=e]z), a celebrated ancient Greek physicist
+and geometrician, born at Syracuse, in Sicily, about 287 B.C. He devoted
+himself entirely to science, and enriched mathematics with discoveries of
+the highest importance, upon which the moderns have founded their
+admeasurements of curvilinear surfaces and solids. Archimedes is the only
+one among the ancients who has left us anything satisfactory on the theory
+of mechanics and on hydrostatics. He first taught the hydrostatic principle
+to which his name is attached, "that a body immersed in a fluid loses as
+much in weight as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid", and
+determined by means of it that an artist had fraudulently added too much
+alloy to a crown which King Hiero had ordered to be made of pure gold. He
+discovered the solution of this problem while bathing; and it is said to
+have caused him so much joy that he hastened home from the bath undressed,
+and crying out, _Eur[=e]ka! Eur[=e]ka!_ 'I have found it, I have found it!'
+Practical mechanics also received a great deal of attention from
+Archimedes, who boasted that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point he could
+move the world. He is the inventor of the compound pulley, probably of the
+endless screw, the Archimedean screw, &c. During the siege of Syracuse by
+the Romans he is said to have constructed many wonderful machines with
+which he repelled their attacks, and he is stated to have set on fire their
+fleet by burning-glasses. At the moment when the Romans gained possession
+of the city by assault (212 B.C.), tradition relates that Archimedes was
+slain while sitting in the market-place contemplating some mathematical
+figures which he had drawn in the sand.
+
+ARCHIPEL'AGO, a term originally applied to the Aegean, the sea lying
+between Greece and Asia Minor, then to the numerous islands situated
+therein, and subsequently to any cluster of islands. In the Grecian
+Archipelago the islands nearest the European coast lie together almost in a
+circle, and for this reason are called the _Cyclades_ (Gr. _kyklos_, a
+circle); those nearest the Asiatic, being farther from one another, the
+_Sporades_ ('scattered'). (See these articles, and _Negropont_, _Scio_,
+_Samos_, _Rhodes_, _Cyprus_, &c.) The Malay, Indian, or Eastern
+Archipelago, on the east of Asia, includes Borneo, Sumatra, and other large
+islands.
+
+ARCHITEC'TURE, in a general sense, is the art of designing and constructing
+houses, bridges, and other buildings for the purposes of civil life; or, in
+a more limited but very common sense, that branch of the fine arts which
+has for its object the production of edifices not only convenient for their
+special purpose, but characterized by unity, beauty, and often
+grandeur.--The first habitations of man were such as nature afforded, or
+cost little labour to the occupant--caves, huts, and tents. But as soon as
+men rose in civilization and formed settled societies they began to build
+more commodious and comfortable habitations. They bestowed more care on the
+materials, preparing bricks of clay or earth, which they at first dried in
+the air, but afterwards baked by fire; and subsequently they smoothed
+stones and joined them at first without, and at a later period with, mortar
+or cement. After they had learned to build houses, they erected temples for
+their gods on a larger and more splendid scale than their own dwellings.
+The Egyptians are the most ancient nation known to us among whom
+architecture had attained the character of a fine art. Other ancient
+peoples among whom it had made great progress were the Babylonians, whose
+most celebrated buildings were temples, palaces, and hanging gardens; the
+Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, was rich in splendid buildings; the
+Phoenicians, whose cities, Sidon, Tyre, &c., were adorned with equal
+magnificence; and the Israelites, whose temple was a wonder of
+architecture. But comparatively few architectural monuments of these
+nations have remained till our day.
+
+This is not the case with the architecture of Egypt, however, of which we
+possess ample remains in the shape of pyramids, temples, sepulchres,
+obelisks, &c. Egyptian chronology is far from certain, but the greatest of
+the architectural monuments of the country, the pyramids of Ghizeh, are at
+least as old as 2800 or 2700 B.C. The Egyptian temples had walls of great
+thickness and sloping on the outside from bottom to top; the roofs were
+flat, and composed of blocks of stone reaching from one wall or column to
+another. The columns were numerous, close, and very thick, generally
+without bases, and exhibiting great variety in the designs of their
+capitals. The principle of the arch, though known, was not employed for
+architectural purposes. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes carved in stone,
+and on the walls sculptures in outline of deities and animals, with
+innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects which belong to this
+style.
+
+[Illustration: Egyptian--Restoration of Temple of Luxor]
+
+The earliest architectural remains of Greece are of unknown antiquity, and
+consist of massive walls built of huge blocks of stone. In historic times
+the Greeks developed an architecture of noble simplicity and dignity. The
+discoveries in Crete and Argolis have shown that Greek architecture owes
+much less than was supposed to Egyptian and Chaldaean architecture. It is
+considered to have attained its greatest perfection in the age of Pericles,
+or about 460-430 B.C. The great masters of this period were Phidias,
+Ictinus, Callicrates, &c. All the extant buildings are more or less in
+ruins. The style is characterized by beauty, harmony, and simplicity in the
+highest degree. Distinctive of it are what are called the _orders_ of
+architecture, by which term are understood certain modes of proportioning
+and decorating the column and its superimposed entablature. The Greeks had
+three orders, called respectively the _Doric_, _Ionic_, and _Corinthian_.
+(See articles under these names.) Greek buildings were abundantly adorned
+with sculptures, and painting was extensively used, the details of the
+structures being enriched by different colours or tints. Lowness of roofs
+and the absence of arches were distinctive features of Greek architecture,
+in which, as in that of Egypt, horizontality of line is another
+characteristic mark. The most remarkable public edifices of the Greeks were
+temples, of which the most famous is the Parthenon at Athens. Others exist
+in various parts of Greece as well as in Sicily, Southern Italy, Asia
+Minor, &c., where important Greek communities were early settled. Their
+theatres were semicircular on one side and square on the other, the
+semicircular part being usually excavated in the side of some convenient
+hill. This part, the auditorium, was filled with concentric seats, and
+might be capable of containing 20,000 spectators. A number exist in Greece,
+Sicily, and Asia Minor, and elsewhere. By the end of the Peloponnesian War
+(_c._ 400 B.C.) the best period of Greek architecture was over; a noble
+simplicity had given place to excess of ornament. After the death of
+Alexander the Great (323 B.C.) the decline was still more marked.
+
+[Illustration: Byzantine--Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople]
+
+Among the Romans there was no original development of architecture as among
+the Greeks, though they early took the foremost place in the construction
+of such works as aqueducts and sewers, the arch being in early and
+extensive use among this people. As a fine art, however, Roman architecture
+had its origin in copies of the Greek models, all the Grecian orders being
+introduced into Rome, and variously modified. Their number, moreover, was
+augmented by the addition of two new orders--the _Tuscan_ and the
+_Composite_. The Romans became acquainted with the architecture of the
+Greeks soon after 200 B.C., but it was not till about two centuries later
+that the architecture of Rome attained (under Augustus) its greatest
+perfection. Among the great works now erected were temples, aqueducts,
+amphitheatres, magnificent villas, triumphal arches, monumental pillars,
+&c. The _amphitheatre_ differed from the theatre in being a completely
+circular or rather elliptical building, filled on all sides with ascending
+seats for spectators and leaving only the central space, called the
+_arena_, for the combatants and public shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous
+structure of this kind. The _thermae_, or baths, were vast structures in
+which multitudes of people could bathe at once. Magnificent tombs were
+often built by the wealthy. Remains of private residences are numerous, and
+the excavations at Pompeii in particular have thrown great light on the
+internal arrangements of the Roman dwelling-house. Almost all the
+successors of Augustus embellished Rome more or less, erected splendid
+palaces and temples, and adorned, like Hadrian, even the conquered
+countries with them. But after the period of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Roman
+architecture is considered to have been on the decline. The refined and
+noble style of the Greeks was neglected, and there was an attempt to
+embellish the beautiful more and more. This decline was all the more rapid
+at a later time owing to the disturbed state of the Empire and the
+incursions of the barbarians.
+
+In Constantinople, after its virtual separation from the Western Empire,
+arose a style of art and architecture which was practised by the Greek
+Church during the whole of the Middle Ages. This is called the Byzantine
+style. The church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, built by Justinian
+(reigned 527-565), offers the most typical specimen of the style, of which
+the fundamental principle was an application of the Roman arch, the dome
+being the most striking feature of the building. In the most typical
+examples the dome or cupola rests on four pendentives.
+
+After the dismemberment of the Roman Empire the beautiful works of ancient
+architecture were almost entirely destroyed by the Goths, Vandals, and
+other barbarians in Italy, Greece, Asia, Spain, and Africa; or what was
+spared by them was ruined by the fanaticism of the Christians. A new style
+of architecture now arose, two forms of which, the Lombard and the Norman
+Romanesque, form important phases of art. The Lombard prevailed in North
+Italy and South Germany from the eighth or ninth to the thirteenth century
+(though the Lombard rule came to an end in 774); the Norman Romanesque
+flourished, especially in Normandy and England, from the eleventh to the
+middle of the thirteenth century. The semicircular arch is the most
+characteristic feature of this style. With the Lombard Romanesque were
+combined Byzantine features, and buildings in the pure Byzantine style were
+also erected in Italy, as the church of St. Mark at Venice.
+
+ARCHITECTURE
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The conquests of the Moors introduced a fresh style of architecture into
+Europe after the eighth century--the Moorish or Saracenic. This style
+accompanied the spread of Mahommedanism after its rise in Arabia in the
+seventh century. The edifices erected by the Moors and Saracens in Spain,
+Egypt, and Turkey are distinguished, among other things, by a peculiar form
+of the arch, which forms a curve constituting more than half a circle or
+ellipse. A peculiar flowery decoration, called _arabesque_, is a common
+ornament of this style, of which the building called the Alhambra (q.v.) is
+perhaps the chief glory.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Romanesque--Galilee Chapel, Durham Cathedral]
+
+The Germans were unacquainted with architecture until the time of
+Charlemagne. He introduced into Germany the Byzantine and Romanesque
+styles. Afterwards the Moorish or Arabian style had some influence upon
+that of the Western nations, and thus originated the mixed style which
+maintained itself till the middle of the thirteenth century. Then began the
+modern Gothic style, which grew up in France, England, and Germany. Its
+striking characteristics are its pointed arches, its pinnacles and spires,
+its large buttresses, clustered pillars, vaulted roofs, profusion of
+ornament, and, on the whole, its lofty, bold character. Its most
+distinctive feature, as compared with the Greek or the Egyptian style, is
+the predominance in it of perpendicular or rising lines, producing forms
+that convey the idea of soaring or mounting upwards. Its greatest
+capabilities have been best displayed in ecclesiastical edifices. The
+Gothic style is divided into four principal epochs: the Early Pointed, or
+general style of the thirteenth century; the Decorated, or style of the
+fourteenth century; the Perpendicular, practised during the fifteenth and
+early part of the sixteenth centuries; and the Tudor, or general style of
+the sixteenth century. This style lasted in England up to the seventeenth
+century, being gradually displaced by that branch of the Renaissance or
+modified revival of ancient Roman architecture which is known as the
+_Elizabethan style_, and which is perhaps more purely an English style than
+any other that can be named.
+
+The rise of the Renaissance style in Italy is the greatest event in the
+history of architecture after the introduction of the Gothic style. The
+Gothic style had been introduced into the country and extensively employed,
+but had never been thoroughly naturalized. The Renaissance is a revival of
+the classic style based on the study of the ancient models; and having
+practically commenced in Florence about the beginning of the fifteenth
+century, it soon spread with great rapidity over Italy and the greater part
+of Europe. The most illustrious architects of this early period of the
+style were Brunelleschi, who built at Florence the dome of the cathedral,
+the Pitti Palace, &c., besides many edifices at Milan, Pisa, Pesaro, and
+Mantua; Alberti, who wrote an important work on architecture, and erected
+many beautiful churches; Bramante, who began the building of St. Peter's,
+Rome, and Michael Angelo, who erected its magnificent dome. On St. Peter's
+were also employed Raphael, Peruzzi, and San Gallo. The noblest building in
+this style of architecture in Britain is St. Paul's, London, the work of
+Sir Christopher Wren.
+
+[Illustration: Italian Gothic--Doges' Palace, Venice]
+
+Since the Renaissance period there has been no architectural development
+requiring special note. In buildings erected at the present day some one of
+the various styles of architecture is employed according to taste. Modern
+dwelling-houses have necessarily a style of their own as far as stories and
+apartments and windows and chimneys can give them one. In general the
+Grecian style, as handed down by Rome and modified by the Italian
+architects of the Renaissance, from its right angles and straight
+entablatures, is more convenient, and fits better with the distribution of
+our common buildings, than the pointed and irregular Gothic. But the
+occasional introduction of the Gothic outline and the partial employment of
+its ornaments has undoubtedly an agreeable effect both in public and
+private edifices; and we are indebted to it, among other things, for the
+spire, a structure exclusively Gothic, which, though often misplaced, has
+become an object of general approbation and a pleasing landmark to cities
+and villages. The works most characteristic of the present day are the
+large bridges, viaducts, &c., in many of which iron is the sole or most
+characteristic portion of the material.
+
+[Illustration: Renaissance--St. Peter's, Rome]
+
+A few words may be added on the architecture of India and China. Although
+many widely-differing styles are to be found in India, the oldest and only
+true native style of Indian ecclesiastical architecture is the Buddhist,
+the earliest specimens dating from 250 B.C. Among the chief objects of
+Buddhist art are _stupas_ or _topes_, built in the form of large towers,
+and employed as _dagobas_ to contain relics of Buddha or of some noted
+saint. Other works of Buddhist art are temples or monasteries excavated
+from the solid rock, and supported by pillars of the natural rock left in
+their places. Buddhist architecture is found in Ceylon, Tibet, Java, &c.,
+as well as in India. The most remarkable Hindu or Brahmanical temples are
+in Southern India. They are pyramidal in form, rising in a series of
+stories. The Saracenic or Mohammedan architecture afterwards introduced
+into India is, of course, of foreign origin. The Chinese have made the
+_tent_ the elementary feature of their architecture; and of their style any
+one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are depicted upon
+common chinaware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper side, as if made
+of canvas instead of wood. (For further information see _Greek_, _Roman_,
+_Gothic_, _English_, _French_, _Russian Architecture_; and _Building_,
+_Fine Arts_, _Arch_, _Column_, _Aqueduct_, _Corinthian_, _Doric_, _Ionic_,
+_Theatre_, &c.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Ruskin, _Seven Lamps of Architecture_;
+E. A. Freeman, _History of Architecture_; Viollet-le-Duc, _How to build a
+House_; J. T. Micklethwaite, _Modern Parish Churches_; H. H. Statham,
+_Architecture for General Readers_ and _Critical History of Architecture_;
+J. Fergusson, _History of Architecture in all Countries_; F. M. Simpson, _A
+History of Architectural Development_; _Cyclopedia of Architecture_.
+
+ARCHITRAVE (aer'ki-traev), in architecture, the part of an entablature
+which rests immediately on the heads of the columns, being the lowest of
+its three principal divisions, the others being the _frieze_ and the
+_cornice_.
+
+ARCHIVES (aer'k[=i]vz). See _Records_.
+
+ARCHIVOLT (aer'ki-volt), in architecture, the ornamental band of mouldings
+on the face of an arch and following its contour.
+
+ARCHONS (aer'konz), the chief magistrates of ancient Athens, chosen to
+superintend civil and religious concerns. They were nine in number; the
+first was properly the _arch[=o]n_, or _arch[=o]n ep[=o]n[)y]mos_, by whose
+name the year was distinguished in the public records; the second was
+called _arch[=o]n basileus_, or king archon, who exercised the functions of
+high priest; the third, _polemarchos_, or general of the forces. The other
+six were called _thesmoth[)e]tai_, or legislators.
+
+ARCHYTAS ([.a]r-k[=i]'tas), an ancient Greek mathematician, statesman, and
+general, who flourished about 400 B.C., and belonged to Tarentum in
+Southern Italy. The invention of the analytic method in mathematics is
+ascribed to him, as well as the solution of many geometrical and mechanical
+problems. He constructed various machines and automata, among the most
+celebrated of which was his flying pigeon. He was a Pythagorean in
+philosophy, and Plato and Aristotle are said to have been both deeply
+indebted to him. Only inconsiderable fragments of his works are extant.
+
+ARCIS-SUR-AUBE ([.a]r-s[=e]-s[.u]r-[=o]b), a small town of France,
+department Aube, at which, in 1814, was fought a battle between Napoleon
+and the Allies, after which the latter marched to Paris. Pop. 3000.
+
+ARC-LIGHT, a certain kind of electric light in which the illuminating
+source is the current of electricity passing between two sticks of carbon
+kept a short distance apart, one of them being in connection with the
+positive, the other with the negative terminal of a battery or dynamo.
+
+ARCO, a town of Tyrol, near Lake Garda, a favourite winter resort of
+invalids. Pop. 3800.
+
+ARCOLE ([.a]r'ko-l[.a]), a village in North Italy, 15 miles S.E. of Verona,
+celebrated for the battles of 15th, 16th, and 17th Nov., 1796, fought
+between the French under Bonaparte and the Austrians, in which the latter
+were defeated with great slaughter.
+
+ARCOS' DE LA FRONTE'RA, a city of Spain, 30 miles E. by N. from Cadiz, on
+the Guadalete, here crossed by a stone bridge, on a sandstone rock 570 feet
+above the level of the river. On the highest part of the rock stands the
+castle of the dukes of Arcos, partly in ruins. The principal manufactures
+are leather, hats, and cordage. Pop. 13,980.
+
+AR'COT, two districts and a town of India, within the Presidency of
+Madras.--_North Arcot_ is an inland district with an area of 7616 sq.
+miles. The country is partly flat and partly mountainous, where intersected
+by the Eastern Ghats. Pop. 2,200,000.--_South Arcot_ lies on the Bay of
+Bengal, and has two seaports, Cuddalor and Porto Novo. Area 5217 sq. miles.
+Pop. 2,170,000.--The town _Arcot_ is in North Arcot, on the Palar, about 70
+miles W. by S. of Madras. There is a military cantonment at 3 miles'
+distance. The town contains handsome mosques, a nabob's palace in ruins,
+and the remains of an extensive fort. Arcot played an important part in the
+wars which resulted in the ascendancy of the British in India. It was taken
+by Clive, 31st Aug., 1751, and heroically defended by him against an
+apparently overwhelming force under Raja Sahib. Pop. 11,475.
+
+ARCTIC ([.a]rk'tik), an epithet given to the north pole from the proximity
+of the constellation of the Bear, in Greek called _arktos_. The _Arctic
+Circle_ is an imaginary circle on the globe, parallel to the equator, and
+23deg 28' distant from the north pole. This and its opposite, the
+_Antarctic_, are called the two polar circles.
+
+ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See _North Polar Expeditions_.
+
+ARCTIC OCEAN, that part of the water surface of the earth which surrounds
+the north pole, and washes the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and
+America; its southern boundary roughly coinciding with the Arctic Circle
+(lat. 66deg 30' N.). It encloses many large islands, and contains large
+bays and gulfs which deeply indent the northern shores of the three
+continents. Its great characteristic is ice, which is perpetual nearly
+everywhere.
+
+ARCTIC REGIONS, the regions round the north pole, and extending from the
+pole on all sides to the Arctic Circle in lat. 66deg 30' N. The Arctic or
+North Polar Circle just touches the northern headlands of Iceland, cuts off
+the southern and narrowest portion of Greenland, crosses Fox's Strait north
+of Hudson's Bay, whence it goes over the American continent to Behring's
+Strait. Thence it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth of the Obi, then crossing
+Northern Russia, the White Sea, and the Scandinavian Peninsula, returns to
+Iceland. Though much skill and heroism have been displayed in the
+exploration of this portion of the earth, there is still an area round the
+pole estimated at 2,500,000 sq. miles, which is a blank to geographers.
+Many have adopted the belief in the existence of an open polar sea about
+the north pole. But this belief is not supported by any positive evidence.
+Valuable minerals, fossils, &c., have been discovered within the Arctic
+regions. In the archipelago north of the American continent excellent coal
+frequently occurs. The mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland. Fossil ivory
+is obtained in islands at the mouth of the Lena. In Scandinavia, parts of
+Siberia, and north-west America, the forest region extends within the
+Arctic Circle. The most characteristic of the natives of the Arctic regions
+are the Esquimaux. The most notable animals are the white-bear, the
+musk-ox, the reindeer, and the whalebone whale. Fur-bearing animals are
+numerous. The most intense cold ever registered in those regions was 74deg
+below zero F. The aurora borealis is a brilliant phenomenon of Arctic
+nights. See _North Polar Expeditions_.
+
+ARC'TIUM. See _Burdock_.
+
+ARC'TOMYS. See _Marmot_.
+
+ARCTU'RUS, or ALPHA BOOETIS, a fixed star of the first magnitude in the
+constellation of Booetes (the Ploughman), is one of the brightest stars in
+the northern heavens, yellow in colour. Its light is believed to be
+intrinsically at least 140 times as brilliant as the sun's, and to take
+over 40 years to reach us. It is notable as having a comparatively large
+proper motion.
+
+ARDAHAN', a small fortified town about 6400 feet above the sea, between
+Kars and Batum in Armenia. It was captured by the Russians in 1877, and
+ceded to them by the Berlin Treaty, 1878. It was handed over to Turkey by
+the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, but the Turkish troops evacuated it
+after the armistice in 1918.
+
+AR'DEA, the genus to which the heron belongs, type of the family
+Ard[=e]idae, which includes also cranes, storks, bitterns, &c.
+
+AR'DEBIL, or ARDABIL, a Persian town, province of Azerbaijan, near the
+Karasu, a tributary of the Aras, about 40 miles from the Caspian, in an
+elevated and healthy situation; it has mineral springs and a considerable
+trade. Pop. 16,000.
+
+ARDECHE ([.a]r-d[=a]sh), a department in the south of France (Languedoc),
+on the west side of the Rhone, taking its name from the River Ardeche,
+which rises within it, and falls into the Rhone after a course of 46 miles;
+area, 2144 sq. miles. It is generally of a mountainous character, and
+contains the culminating point of the Cevennes. Silk and wine are produced.
+Annonay is the principal town, but Privas is the capital. Pop. (1921),
+294,308.
+
+ARDEN, FOREST OF, a wood in Warwickshire. Shakespeare is supposed to have
+used it as a setting for _As You Like It_.
+
+ARDENNES ([.a]r-den'), an extensive tract of hilly land stretching over a
+large portion of the north-east of France and south-west of Belgium.
+Anciently the whole tract formed one immense forest (_Arduenna Silva_ of
+Caesar); but large portions are now occupied by cultivated fields and
+populous towns.
+
+ARDENNES ([.a]r-den'), a frontier department in the north-east of France;
+area, 2027 sq. miles, partly consisting of the Forest of Ardennes. There
+are extensive slate-quarries, numerous ironworks, and important
+manufactures of cloth, ironware, leather, glass, earthenware, &c. It was
+the scene of many battles during the European War (1914-8). Chief towns,
+Mezieres (the capital), Rocroi, and Sedan. Pop. 277,791.
+
+ARDNAMURCHAN (-mur'_h_an) POINT, the most westerly point of the Island of
+Great Britain, in Argyllshire, having a lighthouse, 180 feet above
+sea-level, visible 18 to 20 miles off.
+
+AR'DOCH, a parish in south Perthshire, celebrated for its Roman remains,
+one, a camp, being the most perfect existing in Scotland.
+
+ARDROSS'AN, a seaport of Scotland, in Ayrshire, on the Firth of Clyde. It
+has a large harbour and shipbuilding yards, and is a centre of steamship
+services with Arran, Ireland, and Douglas, I.O.M. Pop. (1921), 7214.
+
+ARDS'LEY, East and West, an urban district or town of England, W. Riding of
+Yorkshire, several miles north-west of Wakefield, with collieries,
+iron-mines, ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921), 7058.
+
+ARE (aer), the unit of the French land measure, equal to 100 sq. metres, or
+1076.44 English sq. feet. A _hectare_ is 100 ares, equal to 2.47 English
+acres. The tenth part of an are is called a _deciare_, and a hundredth part
+a _centiare_.
+
+A'REA, the superficial content of any figure or space, the quantity of
+surface it contains in terms of any unit. See _Mensuration_.
+
+ARE'CA, a genus of lofty palms with pinnated leaves, and a drupe-like fruit
+enclosed in a fibrous rind. _A. Cat[)e]chu_ of the Coromandel and Malabar
+coasts is the common areca palm which yields areca or betel-nuts, and also
+the astringent juice catechu. _A. olerac[)e]a_ is the cabbage tree or
+cabbage palm of the West Indies. With lime and the leaves of the
+betel-pepper, the areca-nuts when green form the celebrated masticatory of
+the East. They are an important article in Eastern trade.
+
+ARECIBO ([.a]-re-th[=e]'b[=o]), a seaport town on the north coast of the
+Island of Porto Rico. Pop. 9612.
+
+AREIOPAGUS. See _Areopagus_.
+
+ARE'NA, the enclosed space in the central part of the Roman amphitheatres,
+in which took place the combats of gladiators or wild beasts. It was
+usually covered with sand or saw-dust to prevent the gladiators from
+slipping, and to absorb the blood. See _Amphitheatre_.
+
+ARENACEOUS ROCKS include all sediments in which quartz sand is the most
+important constituent. Owing to its resistance to comminution and to
+chemical attack, quartz accumulates in sea-beaches while other mineral
+matter becomes removed. Hence sands gather near a shore and ultimately
+become consolidated by various natural cements into sandstones, those
+cemented by silica being styled quartzites. Sand-dunes in deserts or on
+coasts are unconsolidated arenaceous rock-masses.
+
+AR'ENDAL a seaport of Southern Norway, exporting timber, wood pulp, and
+iron, and owning numerous ships. It is a well-built place, having been
+rebuilt since the great fire of 1868. Wood pulp, paper, and cotton are
+manufactured. Pop. 11,000.
+
+ARENENBERG CASTLE (mediaeval, NARRENBERG), a castle and estate in the Swiss
+Canton Thurgau, the possession of Queen Hortense, who died there in 1837.
+In 1855 it became the property of the Empress Eugenie.
+
+ARENGA, a term sometimes used as the generic name of the areng or gomuti
+palm, which is then botanically designated _Arenga saccharifera_. See
+_Gomuti_.
+
+ARENIC'OLA. See _Lobworm_.
+
+ARE'OLAR TISSUE, an assemblage of fibres in bundles, pervading almost every
+part of the animal structure, and connected with each other so as to form
+innumerable small cavities, the whole serving as a means by which the
+various organs and parts of organs are connected together. It is called
+also _Cellular Tissue_ and _Connective Tissue_. The fibres are of two
+kinds--white fibrous tissue and yellow elastic fibrous tissue, and
+interspersed among the bundles or occupying the cellular cavities are cells
+and corpuscles of several kinds. It is a tissue found in large quantities
+under the skin, covering the muscles, the blood-vessels, and nerves, and in
+various parts forming a kind of protective covering for delicate and
+important organs. It is because of its general distribution, and because of
+its binding various structures together, that it is called
+_connective_.--In botany the term is sometimes applied to the
+_non_-vascular substance, composed entirely of untransformed cells, which
+forms the soft substance of plants.
+
+AREOM'ETER (from Gr. _araios_, thin, _metron_, a measure), an instrument
+for measuring the specific gravity of liquids; a _hydrometer_ (q.v.).
+
+AREOP'AGUS, the oldest of the Athenian courts of justice, an assembly
+having a position more august than an ordinary court, and in its best days
+exercising a general supervision over public morals. It obtained its name
+from its place of meeting, on the Hill of Ares (Mars), near the Acropolis
+or citadel of Athens. Another explanation connects the word with _Arae_
+(Curses), commonly known as _Semnae_ (Awful Goddesses), who were the
+guardians of the hill. It existed from very remote times, and the crimes
+tried before it were wilful murder, poisoning, robbery, and arson, while it
+had under its control also dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the
+State and in religion. Its meetings were held in the open air, and its
+members were selected from those who had held the office of archon. The
+tribunal eventually lost many of its powers, but it continued to exist in
+name at least as late as the time of Cicero or later, having had an
+existence of seven or eight hundred years.
+
+AREQUIPA ([.a]-r[=a]-k[=e]'p[.a]), a city of Peru, capital of a province of
+same name, situated in a fertile valley, 7850 feet above sea-level, at a
+distance of about 55 miles from the coast and on the railway which runs
+from its port Mollendo inland to Puno on Lake Titicaca. Behind the city
+rises the volcano of Arequipa, or Peak of Misti (20,328 feet). The climate
+is healthy but the locality is liable to earthquakes, one of which almost
+completely destroyed the town in 1868, after which it was rapidly rebuilt.
+A considerable trade is carried on through Mollendo, there being a large
+transit trade with the interior, and the town carries on various
+industries, manufacturing cotton and woollen goods, &c. It was founded in
+1540. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000.--The province has an area of 21,947 sq. miles,
+and a pop. of 229,007.
+
+ARES ([=a]'r[=e]z). See _Mars_.
+
+ARETHU'SA, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Nereus and Doris, a nymph
+changed by Art[)e]mis into a fountain in order to free her from the pursuit
+of the river-god Alpheus. This fountain was said to exist in the small
+Island of Ortygia, near Syracuse, and was fabled to have a subterranean
+connection with the River Alpheus in Greece.
+
+ARETINO (ae-r[=a]-t[=e]'noe), Guido. See _Guido_.
+
+ARETINO, Pietro, Italian poet, born at Arezzo 1492, died at Venice 1556,
+the natural son of a nobleman called Luigi Bacci. He early displayed a
+talent for satirical poetry, and when still a young man was banished from
+Arezzo on account of a sonnet against indulgences. He went to Perugia, and
+thence to Rome (1517), where he secured the papal patronage, but
+subsequently lost it through writing licentious sonnets. Through the
+influence of the Medici family he found an opportunity to insinuate himself
+into the favour of Francis I. In 1527 Aretino went to Venice, where he
+acquired powerful friends, among them the Bishop of Vicenza. By his
+devotional writings he regained the favour of the Roman Court. He called
+himself 'the divine', and 'the scourge of princes', but he was also their
+abject flatterer, and that solely to obtain money. The obscenity of some of
+his writings was such that his name has become proverbial for
+licentiousness. Among them are five comedies and a tragedy.
+
+AREZZO ([.a]-ret's[=o]; ancient ARRETIUM), a city of Central Italy, capital
+of a province of the same name in Tuscany, near the confluence of the
+Chiana with the Arno. It has a noble cathedral, containing some fine
+pictures and monuments; remains of an ancient amphitheatre, &c. It was one
+of the twelve chief Etruscan towns, and in later times fought long against
+the Florentines, to whom it had finally to succumb. It is the birthplace of
+Maecenas, Petrarch, Pietro Aretino, Redi, and Vasari. Pop. 50,093.--The
+province of Arezzo contains 1274 sq. miles, and 292,763 inhabitants (1915).
+
+AR'GAL, ARGOL, or TARTAR, a hard crust formed on the sides of vessels in
+which wine has been kept, red or white according to the colour of the wine.
+It is an impure bitartrate of potassium.
+
+[Illustration: Argali (_Ovis ammon_)]
+
+AR'GALI, a species of wild sheep (_Capr[)o]vis Arg[)a]li_ or _Ovis ammon_)
+found on the mountains of Siberia, Central Asia, and Kamtchatka. It is 4
+feet high at the shoulders, and proportionately stout in its build, with
+horns nearly 4 feet in length measured along the curve, and at their base
+about 19 inches in circumference. It lives in small herds. This true argali
+must not be confounded with the North-African wild sheep, called the
+bearded argali and known as the arni, the Algerian moufflon, and the
+Barbary sheep.
+
+AR'GALL, Sir Samuel (1572-1639), one of the early English adventurers to
+Virginia. He planned and executed the abduction of Pocahontas, the daughter
+of the Indian chief Powhattan, in order to secure the ransom of English
+prisoners. He was deputy-governor of Virginia (1617-9), and was accused of
+many acts of rapacity and tyranny. In 1620 he served in an expedition
+against Algiers, and was knighted by James I.
+
+AR'GAND LAMP, a lamp named after its inventor, Aime _Argand_, a Swiss
+chemist and physician (born 1755, died 1803), the distinctive feature of
+which is a burner forming a ring or hollow cylinder covered by a chimney,
+so that the flame receives a current of air both on the inside and on the
+outside.
+
+ARGAUM ([.a]r-g[.a]'[u:]m), a village of India, in Berar, celebrated for
+the victory of General Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) over the Mahrattas
+under Scindia and the Rajah of Berar, 29th Nov., 1803.
+
+AR'GELANDER, Friedrich Wilhelm August, German astronomer, born in 1799. He
+added to the knowledge of the progressive motion of the solar system in
+space, and published a catalogue of 560 stars having 'proper motion'. His
+works include: _Atlas des noerdlichen gestirnten Himmels_ (1857), _Neue
+Uranometrie_ (1843), &c. He died in 1875.
+
+ARGEMONE ([.a]r-jem'o-n[=e]), a small genus of ornamental American plants
+of the poppy order. From the seeds of _A. mexic[=a]na_ is obtained an oil
+very useful to painters. The handsomest species is _A. grandifl[=o]ra_,
+which has large flowers of a pure white colour.
+
+ARGENSOLA ([.a]r-_h_en-s[=o]'l[.a]), Lupercio and Bartolome Leonardo de,
+brothers, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, the former in 1565, died in 1613;
+the latter born in 1566, died in 1631. Lupercio produced tragedies and
+lyric poems; Bartolome a number of poems and a historical work, _The
+Conquest of the Moluccas_. Their writings are singularly alike in
+character, and are reckoned among the Spanish classics. The tragedies are
+of the heavy Senecan type, but the satirical writings of both brothers are
+full of pungent wit of a pleasing kind.
+
+ARGENSON ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-s[=o][n.]), Marc Pierre de Voyer, Comte d',
+celebrated French statesman, born in 1696, died 1764. After holding a
+number of subordinate offices he became minister for foreign affairs, and
+succeeded in bringing about the Congress of Breda, which was the prelude to
+that of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was present at the battle of Fontenoy, and was
+exiled to his estate for some years through the machinations of Madame
+Pompadour. His _Considerations sur le Gouvernement de la France_ was a very
+advanced study on the possibility of combining with a monarchic form of
+government democratic principles and local self-government. _Les Essais, ou
+Loisirs d'un Ministre d'Etat_, published in 1785, is a collection of
+characters and anecdotes in the style of Montaigne.
+
+AR'GENT, in coats of arms, the heraldic term expressing silver: represented
+in engraving by a plain white surface.
+
+ARGENTAN ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-tae[n.]), a French town, department of Orne
+(Normandy), with an old castle and some manufactures. Pop. 6300.
+
+ARGENTEUIL ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-teu-y[.e]), a town in France, department
+Seine-et-Oise, 7 miles below Paris; it has an active trade in wine, fruit,
+and vegetables. Pop. 24,282.
+
+ARGENTIE'RA, or KIM[=O]LI (ancient, CIM[=O]LUS), an island in the Grecian
+Archipelago, one of the Cyclades, about 18 miles in circumference, rocky
+and sterile. It produces a detergent chalk called _Cimolian earth_ (q.v.),
+used in washing and bleaching. Pop. 1337.
+
+AR'GENTINE, a silvery-white slaty variety of calc-spar, containing a little
+silica with laminae usually undulated. It is found in primitive rocks and
+frequently in metallic veins.--Argentine is also the name of a small
+British fish (_Scop[)e]lus bore[=a]lis_) less than 2 inches long and of a
+silvery colour.
+
+AR'GENTINE REPUBLIC, formerly called the United Provinces of LA PLATA, a
+vast country of South America, the extreme length of which is 2300 miles,
+and the average breadth a little over 500 miles, the total area 1,153,119
+sq. miles. It consists of fourteen provinces, ten territories, and one
+federal district. It is bounded on the N. by Bolivia; on the E. by
+Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; on the S. by the Antarctic
+Ocean; and on the W. by the Andes. It comprises four great natural
+divisions: (1) the Andine region, containing the provinces of Mendoza, San
+Juan, Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy; (2) the Pampas,
+containing the provinces of Santiago, Santa Fe, Cordova, San Luis, and
+Buenos Ayres, with the territories Formosa, Pampa, and Chaco; (3) the
+Argentine 'mesopotamia', between the Rivers Parana and Uruguay, containing
+the provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and the territory Misiones; (4)
+Patagonia, including the eastern half of Tierra del Fuego. With the
+exception of the N.W., where lateral branches of the Andes run into the
+plain for 150 or 200 miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which is hilly,
+the characteristic feature of the country is the great monotonous and level
+plains called 'pampas'. In the north these plains are partly
+forest-covered, but all the central and southern parts present vast
+treeless tracts, which afford pasture to immense herds of horses, oxen, and
+sheep, and are varied in some places by brackish swamps, in others by salt
+steppes. The great water-course of the country is the Parana, having a
+length of fully 2000 miles from its source in the mountains of Goyaz,
+Brazil, to its junction with the Uruguay, where begins the estuary of La
+Plata. The Parana is formed by the union of the Upper Parana and Paraguay
+Rivers, near the N.E. corner of the State. Important tributaries are the
+Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado. The Parana, Paraguay, and Uruguay
+are valuable for internal navigation. Many of the streams which tend
+eastward terminate in marshes and salt lakes, some of which are rather
+extensive. Not connected with the La Plata system are the Colorado and the
+Rio Negro, the latter formerly the southern boundary of the State,
+separating it from Patagonia. The source of the Negro is Lake Nahuel Huapi,
+in Patagonia (area, 1200 sq. miles), in the midst of magnificent scenery.
+The level portions of the country are mostly of tertiary formation, and the
+river and coast regions consist mainly of alluvial soil of great fertility.
+In the pampas clay have been found the fossil remains of extinct mammalia,
+some of them of colossal size.
+
+European grains and fruits, including the vine, have been successfully
+introduced, and large areas are now under wheat, maize, flax, and other
+crops, another source of wealth consisting in the countless herds of cattle
+and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the pampas, and which
+multiply there very rapidly. Gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and
+iron, besides marble, jasper, precious stones, and bitumen, are found in
+the mountainous districts of the N.W., while petroleum wells have been
+discovered on the Rio Vermejo; but the development of this mineral wealth
+has hitherto been greatly retarded by the want of proper means of
+transport. As a whole there are not extensive forests in the State except
+in the region of the Gran Chaco (which extends also into Bolivia), where
+there is known to be 60,000 sq. miles of timber. Thousands of square miles
+are covered with thistles, which grow to a great height in their season.
+Cacti also forms great thickets. Peach and apple trees are abundant in some
+districts. The native fauna includes the puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the
+llama, the alpaca, the vicuna, armadillos, the rhea or nandu, a species of
+ostrich, &c. The climate is agreeable and healthy, 97deg being about the
+highest temperature experienced. The rainfall is very scanty in some
+districts, and is nowhere very large.
+
+As a whole this vast country is very thinly inhabited, some parts of it as
+yet being very little known. The native Indians were never very numerous,
+and have given little trouble to the European settlers. Tribes of them yet
+in the savage state still inhabit the less-known districts, and live by
+hunting and fishing. Some of the Gran Chaco tribes are said to be very
+fierce, and European travellers have been killed by them. The European
+element is strong in the republic, more than half the population being
+Europeans or of pure European descent. Large numbers of immigrants arrive
+from Southern Europe, the Italians having the preponderance among those of
+foreign birth. The typical inhabitants of the pampas are the _Gauchos_, a
+race of half-breed cattle-rearers and horse-breakers; they are almost
+continually on horseback, galloping over the plains, collecting their herds
+and droves, taming wild horses, or catching and slaughtering cattle. In
+such occupations they require a marvellous dexterity in the use of the
+lasso and bolas.
+
+The River La Plata was discovered in 1512 by the Spanish navigator Juan
+Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata territory had been brought into the
+possession of Spain by the end of the sixteenth century. In 1810 the
+territory cast off the Spanish rule, and in 1816 the independence of the
+United States of the Rio de la Plata was formerly declared, but it was long
+before a settled government was established. The present constitution dates
+from 1853, being modified in 1866 and 1898. The executive power is vested
+in a president--elected by the representatives of the fourteen provinces
+for a term of six years. A national congress of two chambers--a Senate and
+a House of Deputies--wields the legislative authority, and the republic is
+making rapid advances in social and political life. The national revenue
+for 1918 amounted to about L32,860,306, while the expenditure amounted to
+L34,407,074; the public debt was, at the end of 1916, about L120,000,000.
+There are about 22,000 miles of railway opened. The external commerce is
+important, the chief exports being beef and mutton, wheat, maize, and
+linseed, wool, skins and hides, tallow. The imports are chiefly
+manufactured goods. The trade is largely with Britain and France, and is
+increasing rapidly, the exports having advanced from L9,000,000 in 1876 and
+L73,200,000 in 1908 to L201,360,000 in 1920. The imports in 1920 were
+L170,820,000. The chief denomination of money is the dollar or _peso_,
+value (in gold) 4s. Buenos Ayres (or Aires) is the capital. Other towns are
+Rosario, Cordova, La Plata, Tucuman, Mendoza, and Santa-Fe. The population
+of the republic, which is rapidly increasing by immigration, was, in 1905,
+5,678,197, and 8,284,266 in 1918; of the capital, 1,637,155
+(1918).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854 to
+1904_; W. H. Hudson, _The Naturalist in La Plata_; Keane and Markham,
+_Central and South America_ (in Stanford's _Compendium of Geography and
+Travel_); Martinez and Lewandowski, _Argentine in the Twentieth Century_;
+Sir John Foster Fraser, _The Amazing Argentine_; H. Stephens, _Illustrated
+Descriptive Argentina_; _The Argentine Year Book_.
+
+AR'GENTITE, sulphide of silver, a blackish or lead-grey mineral, a valuable
+ore of silver found in the crystalline rocks of many countries.
+
+ARGENTOMETER. See _Hydrometer_.
+
+ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS are rocks in which clay prevails (including shales and
+slates).
+
+ARGIVES ([.a]r'j[=i]vz), or ARGIVI, the inhabitants of Argos; used by Homer
+and other ancient authors as a generic appellation for all the Greeks.
+
+AR'GO. See _Argonauts_.
+
+ARGOL. See _Argal_.
+
+ARGOLIS. See _Argos_.
+
+ARGON, a gas which is fairly widely distributed in the free state and is a
+constant constituent of the atmosphere, of which it forms about 1 per cent
+by volume. It was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay in 1894.
+During their determinations of the density of nitrogen they noticed that
+the density of nitrogen derived from the air differed from the density of
+nitrogen derived from ammonia and other compounds of nitrogen, and after a
+series of very careful experiments they succeeded in isolating a new gas,
+which they named Argon. The gas occurs in sea and river water, in plants,
+in the blood of animals, and the gases issuing from volcanoes and mineral
+springs. It is always in the free state and never in combination, and is
+associated with nitrogen. It is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, and
+may be liquefied and solidified. It is heavier than air, and is chemically
+a very inert substance. It is usually referred to as one of the _rare_
+gases of the atmosphere. Argon is manufactured in fairly large quantity
+from air, making use of the inertness of the substance compared to oxygen
+and nitrogen, the chief constituents of the air. Several methods are in
+use, e.g. nitrogen may be removed by passing it repeatedly over red-hot
+magnesium; thus the nitrogen is absorbed and the argon left. When oxygen
+and nitrogen of air are absorbed by a mixture of 90 per cent calcium
+carbide and 10 per cent calcium chloride previously heated to redness _in
+vacuo_, a gas becoming richer and richer in argon is obtained. Another
+method of preparing argon is by fractionation of liquid air. It is used for
+filling electric bulbs.
+
+[Illustration: Argonaut--Female]
+
+AR'GONAUT, a molluscous animal of the genus Argonauta, belonging to the
+dibranchiate or two-gilled cuttle-fishes, distinguished by the females
+possessing a single-chambered external shell, not organically connected
+with the body of the animal. The males have no shell and are of much
+smaller size than the females. The shell is fragile, translucent, and
+boat-like in shape; it serves as the receptacle of the ova or eggs of the
+female, which sits in it with the respiratory tube or 'funnel' turned
+towards the carina or 'keel'. This famed mollusc swims only by ejecting
+water from its funnel, and it can crawl in a reversed position, carrying
+its shell over its back like a snail. The account of its floating on the
+surface of the sea, with its sail-shaped arms extended to catch the breeze,
+and with the six other arms as oars, is a mere fable. The argonaut, or
+_paper-nautilus_, must be carefully distinguished from the
+_pearly-nautilus_ or nautilus proper (_Nautilus Pompilius_).
+
+ARGONAUTS, in the legendary history of Greece, those heroes who performed a
+hazardous voyage to Colchis, a far-distant country at the eastern extremity
+of the Euxine (Black Sea), with Jason in the ship _Argo_, for the purpose
+of securing a golden fleece, which was preserved suspended upon a tree, and
+under the guardianship of a sleepless dragon. By the aid of Medea, daughter
+of the King of Colchis, Jason was enabled to seize the fleece, and, after
+many strange adventures, to reach his home at Iolcos in Thessaly. Among the
+Argonauts were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus and
+Theseus.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. R. Hope Moncrieff, _Classic Myth and Legend_;
+Kingsley, _The Heroes_; N. Hawthorne, _The Wonder-book_.
+
+ARGO-NAVIS, the southern constellation of the Ship, is almost entirely
+invisible in Britain. It contains Canopus, next to Sirius the brightest
+fixed star. In the great nebula in Argo is situated the remarkable star Eta
+Argus. It is variable, generally faint, but in 1837 it became temporarily
+one of the brightest stars in the sky.
+
+ARGONNE, a district of France, between the Rivers Meuse, Marne, and Aisne,
+celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez against the Prussians in 1792, and
+for the military movements and actions which took place therein previous to
+the battle of Sedan, in 1870.
+
+ARGONNE, BATTLE OF. When, in the autumn of 1914, the Allies retreated
+towards the Marne, the German Crown Prince's army endeavoured to invest
+Verdun. His right wing advanced through the thick and extensive forest of
+Argonne, but took precipitate flight after the battle of the Marne before
+the army of General Sarrail. In the summer of 1915 the Crown Prince
+endeavoured to hack his way through the French Argonne lines, using much
+heavy artillery, poison-gas, liquid-fire, and tear-shells. A final effort
+to break through was made in September, between Le Four de Paris and
+Vienne-le-Chateau, but, after gaining a footing in the first line of French
+trenches, the Germans were hurled back by a dashing counter-attack. The
+great salient from the Argonne to St. Mihiel was the salvation of Verdun.
+
+AR'GOS, a town of Greece, in the north-east of the Peloponnesus, between
+the Gulfs of Aegina and Nauplia or Argos. This town and the surrounding
+territory of Argolis were famous from the legendary period of Greek history
+onwards. Here, besides Argos, was Mycenae, where Agamemnon ruled. Modern
+Argos is a straggling place of 10,000 inhabitants, with some ancient
+remains. The territory Argolis forms a nomarchy of Greece. Pop., Argolis
+and Corinthia, 153,172. The capital is Nauplia.
+
+ARGOS'TOLI, a city of the Ionian Islands, capital of Cephalonia, and the
+residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. 14,000.
+
+AR'GOSY, a poetical name for a large merchant-vessel; derived from
+_Ragusa_, a port which was formerly more celebrated than now, and whose
+vessels did a considerable trade with England. It is popularly but
+erroneously connected with the ship _Argo_ in which Jason sailed. See
+_Argonauts_.
+
+ARGOT (Fr.; [.a]r-g[=o]), the jargon, slang, or peculiar phraseology of a
+class or profession; originally the conventional slang of thieves and
+vagabonds, invented for the purpose of disguise and concealment. Some of
+Francois Villon's poems are written in argot.--Cf. W. von Knoblauch,
+_Dictionary of Argot_.
+
+ARGUIM, or ARGUIN ([.a]r-gwim', [.a]r-gwin'), a small island on the west
+coast of Africa, not far from Cape Blanco, formerly a centre of trade. Its
+possession was violently disputed between the Portuguese, Dutch, English,
+and French.
+
+AR'GUMENT, a term sometimes used as synonymous with the _subject_ of a
+discourse, but more frequently appropriated to any kind of method employed
+for the purpose of confuting or at least silencing an opponent. Logicians
+have reduced arguments to a number of distinct heads, such as the
+_argumentum ad judicium_, which founds on solid proofs and addresses to the
+judgment; the _argumentum ad verecundiam_, which appeals to the modesty or
+bashfulness of an opponent by reminding him of the great names or
+authorities by whom the view disputed by him is supported; the _argumentum
+ad ignorantiam_, the employment of some logical fallacy towards persons
+likely to be deceived by it; and the _argumentum ad hominem_, an argument
+which presses a man with consequences drawn from his own principles and
+concessions, or his own conduct. See _Fallacy_, _Logic_.
+
+ARGUMENT OF THE PEOPLE, the document set forth by the Council of the Army
+on 15th Jan., 1649, fifteen days before the execution of King Charles I.
+See _Levellers_.
+
+AR'GUS, in Greek mythology, a fabulous being, said to have had a hundred
+eyes, placed by Juno to guard Io. Hence 'argus-eyed', applied to one who is
+exceedingly watchful.
+
+[Illustration: Argus-pheasant (_Argus gigant[=e]us_)]
+
+ARGUS-PHEASANT (_Argus gigant[=e]us_), a large, beautiful, and very
+singular species of pheasant, found native in the south-east of Asia, more
+especially in Sumatra and some of the other islands. The males measure from
+5 to 6 feet from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail, which
+has two greatly-elongated central feathers. The plumage is exceedingly
+beautiful, the secondary quills of the wings, which are longer than the
+primary feathers, being each adorned with a series of ocellated or eye-like
+spots (whence the name--see _Argus_) of brilliant metallic hues. The
+general body plumage is brown.
+
+ARGYLL, or ARGYLE ([.a]r-g[=i]l'), an extensive county in the south-west of
+the Highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland and partly of
+islands belonging to the Hebrides group, the chief of which are Islay,
+Mull, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Luing, Lismore, and Colonsay, with Iona and
+Staffa. On the land side the mainland is bounded north by Inverness; east
+by Perth and Dumbarton; elsewhere surrounded by the Firth of Clyde and its
+connections and the sea; area, 3255 sq. miles (or over 2,000,000 acres), of
+which the islands comprise about 1000 sq. miles. It is greatly indented by
+arms of the sea, which penetrate far inland, the most important of these
+being Loch Sunart, Loch Linnhe (the extremities of which are Loch Eil and
+Loch Leven), Loch Etive, Loch Fyne, Loch Tarbert, Loch Riddon, Loch
+Striven, and Loch Long. The mainland is divided into six districts of
+Northern Argyle, Lorn, Argyle, Cowal, Knapdale, and Kintyre; the two first
+being subdivided into the sub-districts of Lochiel, Ardgour, Sunart,
+Ardnamurchan, Morven, and Appin. The county is exceedingly mountainous, the
+chief summits being Bidean-nam-Bian (3766 feet), Ben Laoigh (3708 feet),
+Ben Cruachan (3611 feet), Benmore, in Mull (3185 feet), the Paps of Jura
+(2565 feet), and Ben Arthur or the Cobbler (2891 feet). There are several
+lakes, the principal of which is Loch Awe. Cattle and sheep are reared in
+numbers, and fishing is largely carried on, as is also the making of
+whisky. There is but little arable land. The chief minerals are slate,
+marble, limestone, and granite. County town, Inveraray; others,
+Campbeltown, Oban, and Dunoon. Pop. (1921), 76,856.
+
+ARGYLL, CAMPBELLS OF, a historic Scottish family, raised to the peerage in
+the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more eminent
+members are: Archibald, 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of Flodden,
+1513.--Archibald, 5th Earl, attached himself to the party of Mary of Guise,
+and was the means of averting a collision between the Reformers and the
+French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency after Mary's abdication,
+but afterwards commanded her troops at the battle of Langside; died
+1575.--Archibald, 8th Earl and 1st Marquess, born 1598: a zealous partisan
+of the Covenanters; created a marquess by Charles I. It was by his
+persuasion that Charles II visited Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in
+1651. At the Restoration he was committed to the Tower, and afterwards sent
+to Scotland, where he was tried for high treason, and beheaded in
+1661.--Archibald, 9th Earl, son of the preceding, served the king with
+great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and was excluded from the general
+pardon by Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he
+refused to take the required oath except with a reservation. For this he
+was tried and sentenced to death. He managed to escape to Holland, from
+whence he returned with a view of aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan,
+however, failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was
+beheaded in 1685.--Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding,
+died 1703; took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-9, which placed
+William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important
+appointments and the title of duke.--John, 2nd Duke and Duke of Greenwich,
+son of the above, born 1678, died 1743; served under Marlborough at the
+battles of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges
+of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in his own country for
+his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had the military command in
+Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar's
+army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and forced the Pretender to quit the
+kingdom. He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his political career was
+full of intrigue. He is the Duke of Argyll in Scott's _Heart of
+Midlothian_.--George Douglas Campbell, K.G., K.T., &c., 8th Duke (of United
+Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early took a part in politics,
+especially in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In
+1852 he became Lord Privy Seal under Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord
+Palmerston in 1859; Postmaster-General in 1860; Secretary for India from
+1868 to 1874; again Lord Privy Seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to
+agree with his colleagues on their Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wrote
+_The Reign of Law_, _Scotland as it Was and as it Is_, &c.--John Douglas
+Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of, son of the 8th Duke and a daughter of the
+2nd Duke of Sutherland, was born in 1845, and succeeded his father in 1900.
+He completed his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, sat in Parliament
+as member for Argyllshire, 1868-78, was Governor-General of Canada from
+1878 to 1883, and again sat in Parliament as member for South Manchester
+from 1895 to 1900, as a Liberal-Unionist. He married the Princess Louise of
+Great Britain, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871. He died in 1914.
+His works include: _The United States after the War_, _Imperial
+Federation_, _Canadian Pictures_, _Memories of Canada and Scotland_, _Life
+of Lord Palmerston_, _Tales and Poems_, _The Psalms in English Verse_,
+_Life and Times of Queen Victoria_, _Yesterday and To-day in Canada_, &c.
+
+ARGYLL AND SUTHERLAND HIGHLANDERS (Princess Louise's), raised by the 5th
+Duke of Argyll (1794), received their present title in 1872. The regiment
+served under Sir David Baird in Cape Colony, and at Balaklava made itself
+immortal as Sir Colin Campbell's 'thin red line'. It was further
+distinguished in the European War at Gheluvelt, Le Cateau, and the second
+battle of Ypres.
+
+ARGYRO-CASTRO ([.a]r'gi-r[=o]-), a town in Albania, 40 miles north-west of
+Janina; built on three ridges intersected by deep ravines, across which are
+several bridges. It was occupied by the Greeks in 1916. Pop. about 10,000.
+
+ARGYROPU'LOS, Johannes, one of the principal revivers of Greek learning in
+the fifteenth century. Born in Constantinople 1415, died at Rome 1486.
+
+ARIA, in music. See _Air_.
+
+ARIADNE (a-ri-ad'ne), in Greek mythology, a daughter of Minos, King of
+Crete. She gave Theseus a clue of thread to conduct him out of the
+labyrinth after his defeat of the Minotaur. Theseus abandoned her on the
+Isle of Naxos, where she was found by Dionysus, who married her.
+
+ARIA'NA, the ancient name of a large district in Asia, forming a portion of
+the Persian Empire; bounded on the north by the provinces of Bactriana,
+Margiana, and Hyrcania; east by the Indus; south by the Indian Ocean and
+the Persian Gulf; west by Media.
+
+ARIANO (ae-r[=e]-ae'n[=o]), a town in South Italy, province of Avellino, 44
+miles north-east of Naples, the seat of a bishop, with a handsome
+cathedral. Pop. 17,650.
+
+AR'IANS, the adherents of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius, who, about A.D.
+318, promulgated the doctrine that Christ was a created being inferior to
+God the Father in nature and dignity, though the first and noblest of all
+created beings; and also that the Holy Spirit is not God, but created by
+the power of the Son. Arianism has been defined as an attempt to determine
+the relations of the Persons of the Trinity on a basis of distinction and
+subordination. It does not seem to have sprung from any strong ethical
+impulse; its philosophy was pagan, and the object of the leaders political
+rather than religious. The doctrines were condemned by the Council of
+Nicaea in 325. Arius died in 336, and after his death his party gained
+considerable accessions, including several emperors, and for a time held a
+strong position. Since the middle of the seventh century, however, the
+Arians have nowhere constituted a distinct sect, although similar opinions
+have been advanced by various theologians in modern times. The Arian
+controversy was revived in England during the eighteenth century by William
+Whiston and Dr. Samuel Clarke.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. M. Gwatkin, _Studies of
+Arianism_; J. H. Newman, _Arians of the Fourth Century_; J. H. Colligan,
+_Arian Movement in England_.
+
+ARICA ([.a]-r[=e]'k[.a]), a seaport of Chile, 30 miles S. of Tacna;
+previous to 1880 it belonged to Peru. It has suffered frequently from
+earthquakes, being in 1868 almost entirely destroyed, part of it being also
+submerged by an earthquake wave. Pop. about 4000. It has a wireless
+station.
+
+ARICA. See _Tacna-Arica Dispute_.
+
+ARICHAT (-shat'), a seaport town and fishing station of Nova Scotia, on a
+small bay, south coast of Madame Island. Pop. about 2500.
+
+ARIEGE ([.a]-r[=e]-[=a]zh), a mountainous department of France, on the
+northern slopes of the Pyrenees, comprising the ancient countship of Foix
+and parts of Languedoc and Gascony. The principal rivers are the Ariege,
+Arize, and Salat, tributaries of the Garonne. Sheep and cattle are reared;
+the arable land is small in quantity. Chief town, Foix. Area, 1892 sq.
+miles. Pop. (1921), 172,851.
+
+A'RIEL, a symbolic name for Jerusalem in the Old Testament; in the
+demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's
+_Tempest_, Ariel was the "tricksy spirit" whom Prospero had in his service.
+
+ARIES ([=a]'ri-[=e]z; Lat.), the Ram, a northern constellation. It is the
+first of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which the sun enters at the vernal
+equinox, about the 21st of March. The "First Point in Aries" is where the
+equator cuts the ecliptic in the ascending node, from which point the right
+ascensions of heavenly bodies are reckoned on the equator, and their
+longitudes upon the ecliptic. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes the
+sign Aries no longer corresponds with the constellation Aries, which it did
+2000 years ago.
+
+[Illustration: Aril, Fruit of Nutmeg]
+
+AR'IL, or ARIL'LUS, in some plants, as in the nutmeg, an extra covering of
+the seed, outside of the true seed-coats, proceeding from the placenta,
+partially investing the seed, and falling off spontaneously. It is either
+succulent or cartilaginous, coloured, elastic, rough, or knotted. In the
+nutmeg it is known as _mace_.
+
+ARIMAS'PIANS, in ancient Greek traditions, a people who lived in the
+extreme north-east of the ancient world. They were said to be one-eyed and
+to carry on a perpetual war with the gold-guarding griffins, whose gold
+they endeavoured to steal. Cf. Milton, _Paradise Lost_, II, 943.
+
+ARIMATHAE'A, a town of Palestine, identified with the modern _Ramleh_, 22
+miles W.N.W. of Jerusalem.
+
+ARI'ON, an ancient Greek poet and musician, born at Methymna, in Lesbos,
+flourished about 625 B.C. He lived at the Court of Periander of Corinth,
+and afterwards visited Sicily and Italy. Returning from Tarentum to Corinth
+with rich treasures, the avaricious sailors resolved to murder him. Apollo,
+however, having informed him in a dream of the impending danger, Arion in
+vain endeavoured to soften the hearts of the crew by the power of music. He
+then threw himself into the sea, when one of a shoal of dolphins, which had
+been attracted by his music, received him on his back and bore him to land.
+The sailors, having returned to Corinth, were confronted by Arion and
+convicted of their crime. The lyre of Arion, and the dolphin which rescued
+him, became constellations in the heavens. A fragment of a hymn to
+Poseidon, ascribed to Arion, is extant.
+
+ARIOS'TO, LUDOVI'CO, one of the most celebrated poets of Italy, was born at
+Reggio, in Lombardy, 8th Sept., 1474, of a noble family; died 6th June,
+1533. His lyric poems in the Italian and Latin languages, distinguished for
+ease and elegance of style, introduced him to the notice of the Cardinal
+Ippolito d'Este, son of Duke Ercole I of Ferrara. In 1503 Ippolito employed
+him in his service and used his counsel in the most important affairs. In
+this service he began and finished, in ten or eleven years, his immortal
+poem, the _Orlando Furioso_, which was published in 1515, and immediately
+became highly popular. He afterwards entered the service of Alfonso I, Duke
+of Ferrara, the cardinal's brother, a lover of the arts, who put much
+confidence in him. After quelling disturbances that had broken out in the
+wild and mountainous Garfagnana, he returned to Ferrara, where he employed
+himself in the composition of his comedies, and in putting the last touches
+to his _Orlando_. The _Orlando Furioso_ is a continuation of the _Orlando
+Innamorato_ of Bojardo, details the chivalrous adventures of the paladins
+of the age of Charlemagne, and extends to forty-six cantos. The best
+English translation is that of Rose (1823). Cf. E. Gardner, _Ariosto: the
+Prince of Court Poets_; J. S. Nicholson, _Life and Genius of Ariosto_.
+
+ARISH. See _El Arish_.
+
+ARISTAEUS, in Greek mythology, son of Apollo and Cyrene, the introducer of
+bee-keeping. Cf. Virgil, _Georgics_, IV, 315-558.
+
+ARISTARCHUS (a-ris-taer'kus), an ancient Greek grammarian, born at
+Samothrace 220 B.C., died at Cyprus 143 B.C. He edited Homer's poems with
+the greatest acuteness and ability, endeavouring to restore the text to its
+genuine state, and to clear it of all interpolations and corruptions; hence
+the phrase, Aristarchian criticism. His edition of Homer furnished the
+basis of all subsequent ones.
+
+ARISTARCHUS, an ancient Greek astronomer belonging to Samos, flourished
+about 155 B.C., and first asserted the revolution of the earth about the
+sun; also regarded as the inventor of the sun-dial.
+
+ARIS'TEAS, a personage of ancient Greek legend, represented to have lived
+over many centuries, disappearing and reappearing by turns.
+
+ARISTIDES (a-ris-t[=i]'d[=e]z), a statesman of ancient Greece, for his
+strict integrity surnamed the _Just_. He was one of the ten generals of the
+Athenians when they fought with the Persians at Marathon, 490 B.C. Next
+year he was eponymous archon, and in this office enjoyed such popularity
+that he excited the jealousy of Themistocles, who succeeded in procuring
+his banishment by ostracism (about 483). Three years after, when Xerxes
+invaded Greece with a large army, the Athenians hastened to recall him, and
+Themistocles now admitted him to his confidence and councils. In the battle
+of Plataea (479) he commanded the Athenians, and had a great share in
+gaining the victory. To defray the expenses of the Persian war he persuaded
+the Greeks to impose a tax, which should be paid into the hands of an
+officer appointed by the States collectively, and deposited at Delos. The
+confidence which was felt in his integrity appeared in their entrusting him
+with the office of apportioning the contribution. He died at an advanced
+age about 468 B.C., so poor that he was buried at the public expense.
+
+ARISTIP'PUS (c. 425-366 B.C.), a disciple of Socrates, and founder of a
+philosophical school among the Greeks, which was called the _Cyrenaic_,
+from his native city Cyr[=e]n[=e], in Africa; flourished 380 B.C. His moral
+philosophy differed widely from that of Socrates, and was a science of
+refined voluptuousness. His fundamental principles were--that all human
+sensations may be reduced to two, pleasure and pain. Pleasure is a gentle,
+and pain a violent emotion. All living beings seek the former and avoid the
+latter. Happiness is nothing but a continued pleasure, composed of separate
+gratifications; and as it is the object of all human exertions, we should
+abstain from no kind of pleasure. Still we should always be governed by
+taste and reason in our enjoyments. His doctrines were taught only by his
+daughter Ar[)e]t[=e], and by his grandson Aristippus the younger, by whom
+they were systematized. Other Cyrenaics compounded them into a particular
+doctrine of pleasure, and are hence called _Hedonici_. His writings are
+lost.
+
+ARISTOC'RACY (Gr. _aristos_, best, _kratos_, rule), a form of government by
+which the wealthy and noble, or any small privileged class, rules over the
+rest of the citizens. The term has now become almost entirely social in
+meaning, and is mostly applied to the nobility or chief persons in a State.
+
+ARISTOGEITON (-g[=i]'ton), a citizen of Athens, whose name is rendered
+famous by a conspiracy (514 B.C.) formed in conjunction with his friend
+Harmodius against the tyrants Hippias and Hipparchus, the sons of
+Pisistratus. Both Aristogeiton and Harmodius lost their lives through their
+attempts to free the country, and were reckoned martyrs of liberty.
+
+ARISTOLOCHIA (-l[=o]'ki-a), a genus of plants, the type of the ord.
+Aristolochiaceae, which consists of dicotyledonous monochlamydeous plants,
+with an inferior 3-6-celled fruit, found for the most part in the hotter
+parts of the world, and in many cases used medicinally on account of their
+tonic and stimulating properties. The genus has emmenagogic qualities,
+especially the European species _A. rotunda_, _A. longa_, and _A.
+Clemat[=i]tis_. _A. bracte[=a]ta_ is used in India as an anthelminthic; _A.
+odoratissima_, a West Indian species, is a valuable bitter and
+alexipharmic. _A. serpentaria_ is the Virginian snake-root, popularly
+regarded as a remedy for snake bites.
+
+ARISTOPHANES (-tof'a-n[=e]z), the greatest comic poet of ancient Greece,
+born at Athens probably about the year 455 B.C., died 375 B.C. Little is
+known of his life. He appeared as a poet in 427 B.C., and having indulged
+in some sarcasms on the powerful demagogue Cleon, was ineffectually accused
+by the latter of having unlawfully assumed the title of an Athenian
+citizen. He afterwards revenged himself on Cleon in his comedy of the
+_Knights_, in which he himself acted the part of Cleon, because no actor
+had the courage to do it. Of fifty-four (or forty-four) comedies attributed
+to him, eleven only remain; believed to be the flower of the ancient
+comedy, and distinguished by wit, humour, and poetry, as also by grossness.
+In them there is constant reference to the manners, actions, and public
+characters of the day, the freedom of the old Greek comedy allowing an
+unbounded degree of personal and political satire. The names of his extant
+plays are _Acharnians_, _Knights_, _Clouds_, _Wasps_, _Peace_, _Birds_,
+_Lysistrata_, _Thesmophoriazusae_, _Frogs_, _Ecclesiasuzae_, and
+_Plutus_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. B. Rogers, _Complete Works of Aristophanes,
+with verse translation_ (by far the best translation); Hookham-Frere,
+_Translation_ (five plays only); Couat, _Aristophane et l'ancienne comedie
+attique_.
+
+AR'ISTOTLE (Gr. _Aristot'eles_), a distinguished philosopher and naturalist
+of ancient Greece, the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy, was
+born in 384 B.C. at Stagira, in Macedonia; died at Chalcis, 322 B.C. His
+father, Nicomachus, was physician to Amyntas II, King of Macedonia, and
+claimed to be descended from Aesculapius. Aristotle had lost his parents
+before he came, at about the age of seventeen, to Athens to study in the
+school of Plato. With that philosopher he remained for twenty years, became
+pre-eminent among his pupils, and was known as the 'Intellect of the
+School'. Upon the death of Plato, 348 B.C., he took up his residence at
+Atarneus, in Mysia, on the invitation of his former pupil Hermeias, the
+ruler of that city, on whose assassination by the Persians, 343 B.C., he
+fled to Mitylene with his wife Pythias, a near relative of Hermeias. During
+his residence at Mitylene he received an invitation from Philip of Macedon
+to superintend the education of his son Alexander, then in his fourteenth
+year. This relationship between the great philosopher and the future
+conqueror continued for five or six years, during which the prince was
+instructed in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, logic, ethics, and politics, and
+in those branches of physics which had even then made some considerable
+progress. On Alexander succeeding to the throne Aristotle continued to live
+with him as his friend and councillor till he set out on his Asiatic
+campaign (334 B.C.). He returned to Athens and established his school in
+the Lyceum, a gymnasium attached to the temple of Apollo Lyceius, which was
+assigned to him by the State. He delivered his lectures in the wooded walks
+of the Lyceum while walking up and down with his pupils. From the action
+itself, or more probably from the name of the walks (_peripatoi_), his
+school was called Peripatetic. Pupils gathered to him from all parts of
+Greece, and his school became by far the most popular in Athens. The
+statement that he had two circles of pupils, the _exoteric_ and the
+_esoteric_ has given rise to much controversy. By some it has been held
+that Aristotle published during his lifetime popular discourses with a view
+to make way for his doctrines in Athenian society, then impregnated with
+Platonic theories, and that these are called exoteric in contradistinction
+to those in which are embodied his matured opinions. It was during the time
+of his teaching at Athens that Aristotle is believed to have composed the
+great bulk of his works. But it is not possible to speak with any certainty
+about the chronology of his writings, as the references may be additions of
+editors. On the death of Alexander a revolution occurred in Athens hostile
+to the Macedonian interests with which Aristotle was identified. He
+therefore retired to Chalcis, where he soon after died. Sir Charles
+Walston, in 1891, opened a tomb near Eretria which he supposed to be that
+of Aristotle. According to Strabo he bequeathed all his works to
+Theophrastus, who, with other disciples of Aristotle, amended and continued
+them. They afterwards passed through various hands, till, about 50 B.C.,
+Andronicus of Rhodes put the various fragments together and classified them
+according to a systematic arrangement. Many of the books bearing his name
+are spurious, others are of doubtful genuineness. The whole are generally
+divided into logical, theoretical, and practical. The logical works are
+comprehended under the title _Organon_ (Instrument). The theoretical are
+divided into physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The physical works
+(including those on natural history) are on the _General Principles of
+Physical Science_, _The Heavens_, _Generation and Destruction_,
+_Meteorology_, _Natural History of Animals_, _On the Parts of Animals_, _On
+the Generation of Animals_, _On the Locomotion of Animals_, _On the Soul_,
+_On Memory_, _Sleep and Waking_, _Dreams_, _Divination_. In mathematics
+there are two treatises, _On Indivisible Lines_ and _Mechanical Problems_.
+_The Metaphysics_ consist of fourteen books; the title (_Ta meta ta
+Physika_, 'the things following the Physics',) is the invention of an
+editor. The practical works embrace ethics, politics, economics, and
+treatises on art, and comprise the _Nicomachaean Ethics_ (so called because
+dedicated to his son, Nicomachus), _The Politics_, _Oeconomics_, _Poetry_,
+and _Rhetoric_. Among the lost works are the dialogues and others termed
+exoteric. A treatise _On the Constitution of Athens_ was discovered in
+1891. His style is devoid of grace and elegance. His works were first
+printed in a Latin translation, with the commentaries of Averroes, at
+Venice in 1489; the first Greek edition was that of Aldus Manutius (5
+vols., 1495-8). See _Peripatetic Philosophy_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Blakesley,
+_Life of Aristotle_; S. H. Butcher, _Poetics_ (with translation and
+excursus); R. Shute, _History of the Aristotelian Writings_; J. C. Wilson,
+_Aristotelian Studies_; E. Zeller, _Aristotle and the Earlier
+Peripatetics_; E. Barker, _Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle_.
+
+ARISTOX'ENUS, an ancient Greek musician and philosopher of Tarentum, born
+about 324 B.C. He studied music under his father Mnesias, and philosophy
+under Aristotle, whose successor he aspired to be. He endeavoured to apply
+his musical knowledge to philosophy, and especially to the science of mind,
+but it only appears to have furnished him with far-fetched analogies and
+led him into a kind of materialism. We have a work on the _Elements of
+Harmony_ by him.
+
+ARITH'METIC (Gr. _arithmos_, number) is primarily the science of numbers.
+As opposed to algebra it is the practical part of the science. Although the
+processes of arithmetical operations are often highly complicated, they all
+resolve themselves into the repetition of four primary
+operations--addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Of these
+the two latter are only complex forms of the two former, and subtraction
+again is merely a reversal of the process of addition. Little or nothing is
+known as to the origin and invention of arithmetic. Some elementary
+conception of it is in all probability coeval with the first dawn of human
+intelligence. In consequence of their rude methods of numeration, the
+science made but small advance among the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and
+Romans, and it was not until the introduction of the decimal scale of
+notation and the Arabic, or rather Indian, numerals into Europe that any
+great progress can be traced. In this scale of notation every number is
+expressed by means of the ten digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, by
+giving each digit a local as well as its proper or natural value. The value
+of every digit increases in a tenfold proportion from the right towards the
+left; the distance of any figure from the right indicating the power of 10,
+and the digit itself the number of those powers intended to be expressed:
+thus 3464 = 3000 + 400 + 60 + 4 = 3 x 10^3 + 4 x 10^2 + 6 x 10 + 4. The
+earliest arithmetical signs appear to have been hieroglyphical, but the
+Egyptian hieroglyphics were too diffuse to be of any arithmetical value.
+The units were successive strokes to the number required, the ten an open
+circle, the hundred a curled palm-leaf, the thousand a lotus flower, ten
+thousand a bent finger. The letters of the alphabet afforded a convenient
+mode of representing figures, and were used accordingly by the Chaldeans,
+Hebrews, and Greeks. The first nine letters of the Hebrew alphabet
+represented the units, the second nine tens, the remaining four together
+with five repeated with additional marks, hundreds; the same succession of
+letters with added points was repeated for thousands, tens of thousands,
+and hundreds of thousands. The Greeks followed the same system up to tens
+of thousands. They wrote the different classes of numbers in succession as
+we do, and they transferred operations performed on units to numbers in
+higher places; but the use of different signs for the different ranks
+clearly shows a want of full perception of the value of place as such. They
+adopted the letter M as a sign for 10,000 and by combining this mark with
+their other numerals they could note numbers as high as 100,000,000. The
+Roman numerals, which are still used in marking dates or numbering
+chapters, were almost useless for purposes of computation. From one to four
+were represented by vertical strokes [I], [II], [III], [IIII], five by [V],
+ten by [X], fifty by [L], one hundred by [square C], afterwards [C], five
+hundred by [D], a thousand by [M]. These signs were derived from each other
+according to particular rules, thus [V] was the half of [X], [inverted V]
+being also used; [L] was likewise the half of [C]. [M] was artistically
+written [M] and [cIc*] and [Ic*], afterwards [D], became five hundred.
+[ccI] represented 5000, [ccIc*c*] 10,000, [Ic*c*c*] 50,000, [cccIc*c*c*]
+100,000. They were also compounded by addition and subtraction, thus [IV]
+stood for four, [VI] for six, [XXX] for thirty, [XL] for forty, [LX] for
+sixty. Arithmetic is divided into _abstract_ and _practical_: the former
+comprehends notation, numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication,
+division, measures and multiples, fractions, powers and roots; the latter
+treats of the combinations and practical applications of these and the
+so-called rules, such as reduction, compound addition, subtraction,
+multiplication, and division, proportion, interest, profit and loss, &c.
+Another division is _integral_ and _fractional_ arithmetic, the former
+treating of integers, or whole numbers, and the latter of fractions.
+Decimal fractions were invented in the sixteenth century, and logarithms,
+embodying the last great advance in the science, in the seventeenth
+century.
+
+ARITHMET'ICAL, pertaining to arithmetic or its operations.--_Arithmetical
+mean_, the middle term of three quantities in arithmetical progression, or
+half the sum of any two proposed numbers; thus 11 is the arithmetical mean
+to 8 and 14.--_Arithmetical progression_, a series of numbers increasing or
+decreasing by a common difference, as 1, 3, 5, 7, &c.--_Arithmetical
+signs_, certain symbols used in arithmetic, and indicating processes or
+facts. The common signs used in arithmetic are the following: [plus sign]
+signifying that the numbers between which it is placed are to be added;
+[minus sign] - that the second is to be subtracted from the first; [times
+sign] that the one is to be multiplied by the other; [divide sign] that the
+former is to be divided by the latter; [equals sign] signifies that the one
+number is equal to the other; [proportional signs - colons] are the signs
+placed between the members of a proportional series, as 4 : 6 :: 8 : 12. A
+small figure placed on the right hand of another at the top signifies the
+corresponding power of the number beside which it is placed, as 5^2, 4^3,
+meaning the square of 5 and the cube of 4. [cube root] placed before or
+over a number signifies the square root of that number; with a figure it
+signifies the root of a higher power, as [cube root], which means cube
+root. A period placed to the left of a series of figures indicates that
+they are decimal fractions.
+
+A'RIUS, the originator of the Arian heresy. See _Arians_.
+
+ARIZO'NA, a former territory of the United States, admitted into the union
+as a sovereign State on 14th Feb., 1912, is bounded south by Mexico, west
+by California and Nevada (the River Colorado forming the greater part of
+the boundary), north by Utah, and east by New Mexico; area, 113,956 sq.
+miles. The surface is generally mountainous, but many fertile and
+well-watered valleys lie between the ridges. Part of the surface consists
+of deserts often entirely destitute of vegetation. The territory belongs to
+the basin of the Colorado, which passes through a portion of it, besides
+forming the boundary; while the Gila and Little Colorado, tributaries of
+the Colorado, traverse it from east to west. The canyons of the Colorado
+form a wonderful feature, the river flowing for hundreds of miles in a deep
+rocky channel with walls rising perpendicularly to the height of 1500 to
+6000 feet. In some parts timber is plentiful. The rainfall is small, and
+irrigation has been employed for agricultural purposes. Large tracts of
+elevated land have been found excellently adapted as pastures for sheep and
+cattle. The territory is rich in copper, gold, silver, lead, and other
+minerals, and mining is largely carried on, with much copper smelting and
+refining. The capital is Phoenix. Pop. 29,053. The Southern and the Santa
+Fe Pacific Railways traverse it. Pop. (1920), 333,903 (of which 171,468 are
+white), exclusive of Apaches and other Indians on reservations (area,
+29,017 sq. miles; pop. (1920), 42,400).
+
+ARJISH DAGH, the loftiest peak of the peninsula of Asia Minor, at the
+western extremity of the Anti-Taurus Range, 13,150 feet; an extinct
+volcano; on the N. and N.E. slopes are extensive glaciers.
+
+ARK, the name applied in our translation of the Bible to the boat or
+floating house in which Noah resided during the flood or deluge; to the
+floating vessel of bulrushes in which the infant Moses was laid; and to the
+chest in which the tables of the law were preserved--the _ark of the
+covenant_. This last was made of shittim-wood, overlaid within and without
+with gold, about 3 3/4 feet long by 2 1/4 feet high and broad, and over it
+were placed the golden covering or mercy-seat and the two cherubim. It was
+placed in the sanctuary of the temple of Solomon; before his time it was
+kept in the tabernacle, and was moved about as circumstances dictated. At
+the captivity it appears to have been either lost or destroyed.
+
+ARKANSAS (ar'kan-s[a:] or ar-kan'sas), one of the United States of America,
+bounded north by Missouri; east by the Mississippi, which separates it from
+the States of Mississippi and Tennessee; south by Louisiana and Texas; and
+west by the Indian Territory and Texas; area, 53,335 sq. miles. The surface
+in the east is low, flat, and swampy, densely wooded, and subject to
+frequent inundations from the numerous streams which water it. Towards the
+centre it becomes more diversified, presenting many undulating slopes and
+hills of moderate elevation. In the west it rises still higher, being
+traversed by a range of hills called the Ozark, which attains a height of
+2000 feet, some peaks rising to 3000. In various parts the prairies are of
+great extent; the forests also are extensive, principally of oak, hickory,
+ash, cotton, linden, maple, locust, and pine. Coal and other minerals are
+worked. The principal rivers, all tributaries of the Mississippi, are the
+Arkansas, the Red River, the St. Francis, and the Washita. Near the centre
+of the State are warm springs, much resorted to for chronic rheumatic and
+paralytic affections. The climate is subject to great extremes of heat and
+cold, and in the lower districts is unhealthy to new settlers. The staple
+products are cotton and maize; fruit is tolerably abundant. Many districts
+are admirably adapted for grazing, and great numbers of excellent cattle
+are reared. Arkansas was colonized as early as 1685 by the French. As part
+of Louisiana it was purchased by the United States in 1803. It was made
+into a separate territory in 1819, and admitted into the Union in 1836. It
+was one of the seceding States. The capital is Little Rock. The enumerated
+population in 1920 was 1,750,995.
+
+ARKANSAS, a river of the United States, which gives its name to the above
+State, the largest affluent of the Mississippi after the Missouri. It rises
+in the Rocky Mountains, about lat. 39deg N., long. 107deg W., flows in a
+general south-easterly direction through Colorado, Kansas, the Indian
+Territory, and lastly through the State of Arkansas, and after a course of
+2170 miles enters the Mississippi. During greater part of the year it is
+navigable for steamboats for 800 miles.
+
+ARKITE. See _Explosives_.
+
+ARK'LOW, a town in Ireland, County Wicklow, on the right bank of the Avoca,
+which falls into the sea about 500 yards below the town; the scene of a
+severe fight during the rebellion of 1798. Fishing is the chief industry.
+Pop. 5042.
+
+[Illustration: Arkwright's Water Frame]
+
+ARK'WRIGHT, Sir Richard, famous for his inventions in cotton-spinning, was
+born at Preston, in Lancashire, in 1732, died 1792. The youngest of
+thirteen children, he was bred to the trade of a barber. When about
+thirty-five years of age he gave himself up exclusively to the subject of
+inventions for spinning cotton. The thread spun by Hargreaves' jenny could
+not be used except as weft, being destitute of the firmness or hardness
+required in the longitudinal threads or warp. But Arkwright supplied this
+deficiency by the invention of the _spinning-frame_, which spins a vast
+number of threads of any degree of fineness and hardness, leaving the
+operator merely to feed the machine with cotton and to join the threads
+when they happen to break. His invention introduced the system of spinning
+by rollers, the carding, or _roving_ as it is technically termed (that is,
+the soft, loose strip of cotton), passing through one pair of rollers, and
+being received by a second pair, which is made to revolve with (as the case
+may be) three, four, or five times the velocity of the first pair. By this
+contrivance the roving is drawn out into a thread of the desired degree of
+tenuity and hardness. His inventions being brought into a pretty advanced
+state, Arkwright removed to Nottingham in 1768 in order to avoid the
+attacks of the same lawless rabble that had driven Hargreaves out of
+Lancashire. Here his operations were at first greatly fettered by a want of
+capital; but two gentlemen of means having entered into partnership with
+him, the necessary funds were obtained, and Arkwright erected his first
+mill, which was driven by horses, at Nottingham, and took out a patent for
+spinning by rollers in 1769. As the mode of working the machinery by
+horse-power was found too expensive, he built a second factory on a much
+larger scale at Cromford, in Derbyshire, in 1771, the machinery of which
+was turned by a water-wheel. Having made several additional discoveries and
+improvements in the processes of carding, roving, and spinning, he took out
+a fresh patent for the whole in 1775, and thus completed a series of the
+most ingenious and complicated machinery. Notwithstanding a series of
+law-suits in defence of his patent rights, and the destruction of his
+property by mobs, he amassed a large fortune. He was knighted by George III
+in 1786.
+
+ARLBERG ([.a]rl'ber_h_), a branch of the Rhaetian Alps, in the west of
+Tyrol, between it and Vorarlberg, pierced by the fourth longest railway
+tunnel in the world. It is 6 1/2 miles long, and was finished in Nov.,
+1883, and connects the valley of the Inn with that of the Rhine, and the
+Austrian railway system with the Swiss railways.
+
+AR'LECDON, an urban district of England, in Cumberland, 4 miles east of
+Whitehaven, with coal and iron mines. Pop. (1921), 5152.
+
+ARLES ([.a]rl; ancient, AREL[=A]TE), a town of Southern France, department
+Bouches du Rhone, 17 miles south-east of Nismes. It was an important town
+at the time of Caesar's invasion, and under the later emperors it became
+one of the most flourishing towns on the farther side of the Alps. It still
+possesses numerous ancient remains, of which the most conspicuous are those
+of a Roman amphitheatre, which accommodated 24,000 spectators. It has a
+considerable trade, manufactures of silk, &c., and furnishes a market for
+the surrounding country. Pop. 16,746.
+
+AR'LINGTON, Henry Bennet, Earl of, member of the Cabal ministry, and one of
+the scheming creatures of Charles II, born 1618, died 1685. He is supposed
+to have lived and died a Roman Catholic.
+
+AR'LON, a Belgian town, capital province of Luxemburg, a thriving town,
+with manufactures of ironware, leather, tobacco, &c. Pop. 12,012.
+
+ARM, the upper limb in man, connected with the thorax or chest by means of
+the scapula or shoulder-blade, and the clavicle or collar-bone. It consists
+of three bones, the arm-bone (_hum[)e]rus_), and the two bones of the
+fore-arm (_radius_ and _ulna_), and it is connected with the bones of the
+hand by the _carpus_ or wrist. The head or upper end of the arm-bone fits
+into the hollow called the _glenoid cavity_ of the scapula, so as to form a
+joint of the ball-and-socket kind, allowing great freedom of movement to
+the limb. The lower end of the humerus is broadened out by a projection on
+both the outer and inner sides (the outer and inner _condyles_), and has a
+pulley-like surface for articulating with the fore-arm to form the
+elbow-joint. This joint somewhat resembles a hinge, allowing of movement
+only in one direction. The ulna is the inner of the two bones of the
+fore-arm. It is largest at the upper end, where it has two processes, the
+_coronoid_ and the _olecranon_, with a deep groove between to receive the
+humerus. The radius--the outer of the two bones--is small at the upper and
+expanded at the lower end, where it forms part of the wrist-joint. The
+muscles of the upper arm are either _flexors_ or _extensors_, the former
+serving to bend the arm, the latter to straighten it by means of the
+elbow-joint. The main flexor is the _biceps_, the large muscle which may be
+seen standing out in front of the arm when a weight is raised. The chief
+opposing muscle of the biceps is the _triceps_. The muscles of the fore-arm
+are, besides flexors and extensors, _pronators_ and _supinators_, the
+former turning the hand palm downwards, the latter turning it upwards. The
+same fundamental plan of structure exists in the limbs of all vertebrate
+animals.
+
+ARMA'DA, the Spanish name for any large naval force; usually applied to the
+Spanish fleet vaingloriously designated the _Invincible Armada_, intended
+to act against England A.D. 1588. It was under the command of the Duke of
+Medina-Sidonia, and consisted of 130 great war vessels, larger and stronger
+than any belonging to the English fleet, with 30 smaller ships of war, and
+carried 19,295 marines, 8460 sailors, 2088 slaves, and 2630 cannon. It had
+scarcely quitted Lisbon on 29th May, 1588, when it was scattered by a
+storm, and had to be refitted in Corunna. It was to co-operate with a land
+force collected in Flanders under the Prince of Parma, and to unite with
+this it proceeded through the English Channel towards Calais. In its
+progress it was attacked by the English fleet under Lord Howard, who, with
+his lieutenants, Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, endeavoured by dexterous
+seamanship and the discharge of well-directed volleys of shot to destroy or
+capture the vessels of the enemy. The great lumbering Spanish vessels
+suffered severely from their smaller opponents, which most of their shot
+missed. Arrived at length off Dunkirk, the armada was becalmed, thrown into
+confusion by fire-ships, and many of the Spanish vessels destroyed or
+taken. The Duke of Medina-Sidonia, owing to the severe losses, at last
+resolved to abandon the enterprise, and conceived the idea of reconveying
+his fleet to Spain by a voyage round the north of Great Britain; but storm
+after storm assailed his ships, scattering them in all directions, and
+sinking many. Some went down on the cliffs of Norway, others in the open
+sea, others on the Scottish coast, others on the coast of Ireland. In all,
+seventy-two large vessels and over 10,000 men were lost.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+J. A. Froude, _Spanish Story of the Armada_; Sir J. K. Laughton, _State
+Papers relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada_; J. R. Hale, _Story of
+the Great Armada_.
+
+ARMADALE, a town of Scotland, Linlithgowshire, in coal and iron district.
+Pop. 4739.
+
+[Illustration: Armadillos--Left, Hairy Armadillo. Right, Kappler's
+Armadillo]
+
+ARMADI'LLO (genus Das[)y]pus), an edentate mammal peculiar to South
+America, consisting of various species, belonging to a family intermediate
+between the sloths and ant-eaters. They are covered with a hard bony shell,
+divided into belts, composed of small separate plates like a coat of mail,
+flexible everywhere except on the forehead, shoulders, and haunches, where
+it is not movable. The belts are connected by a membrane which enables the
+animal to roll itself up like a hedgehog. These animals burrow in the
+earth, where they lie during the daytime, seldom going abroad except at
+night. They are of different sizes: the largest, _Dasypus gigas_, being 3
+feet in length without the tail, and the smallest only 10 inches. They
+subsist chiefly on fruits and roots, sometimes on insects and flesh. They
+are inoffensive, and their flesh is esteemed good food.--There is a genus
+of isopodous Crustacea called Armadillo, consisting of animals allied to
+the wood-lice, capable of rolling themselves into a ball.
+
+ARMAGEDDON (-ged'don), the great battlefield of the Old Testament, where
+the chief conflicts took place between the Israelites and their
+enemies--the table-land of Esdraelon in Galilee and Samaria, in the centre
+of which stood the town of Megiddo, on the site of the modern Lejjun: used
+figuratively in the _Apocalypse_ to signify the place of 'the battle of the
+great day of God'. It may, however, be _har migdo_, his fruitful mountain,
+'the mountain land of Israel'. The phrase 'an Armageddon' expresses any
+great slaughter or final conflict, and has been frequently applied to the
+Great War of 1914-8. During this war severe fighting took place in Sept.,
+1918, on the field of Armageddon, the entrance to the passes of Megiddo.
+The battle ended in an overwhelming victory for General Allenby's armies.
+See _Megiddo_.
+
+ARMAGH ([.a]r-mae'), a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster;
+surrounded by Monaghan, Tyrone, Lough Neagh, Down, and Louth; area, 328,086
+acres, of which about a half is under tillage. The north-west of the county
+is undulating and fertile. The northern part, bordering on Lough Neagh,
+consists principally of extensive bogs. On the southern border is a range
+of barren hills. The chief rivers are the Blackwater, which separates it
+from Tyrone; the Upper Bann, which discharges itself into Lough Neagh; and
+the Callan, which falls into the Blackwater. There are several small lakes.
+The manufacture of linen is carried on very extensively. Armagh, Lurgan,
+and Portadown are the chief towns. The county sends three members to
+Parliament. Pop. 120,291.--The county town, _Armagh_, is situated partly on
+a hill, about half a mile from the Callan. It has a Protestant cathedral
+crowning the hill, a Gothic building dating from the eighth century,
+repaired and beautified recently; a new Roman Catholic cathedral in the
+pointed Gothic style, and various public buildings. It is the see of an
+archbishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, who is primate of all
+Ireland, and is a place of great antiquity. Pop. 7356.
+
+ARMAGNAC ([.a]r-m[.a]-ny[.a]k), an ancient territory of France, in the
+province of Gascony, some of the counts of which hold prominent places in
+the history of France. Bernard VII, son of John II, surnamed the Hunchback,
+succeeded his brother, John III, in 1391, and was called to Court by
+Isabella of Bavaria, with the view of heading the Orleans in opposition to
+the Burgundian faction, where he no sooner gained the ascendancy than he
+compelled the queen to appoint him Constable of France. He showed himself a
+merciless tyrant, and became so generally execrated that the Duke of
+Burgundy, to whom Isabella had turned for help, found little difficulty in
+gaining admission into Paris, and even seizing the person of Armagnac, who
+was cast into prison in 1418, when the exasperated populace burst in and
+killed him and his followers. John V, grandson of the above, who succeeded
+in 1450, made himself notorious for his crimes. He was assassinated in his
+castle of Lectoure in 1473 by an agent of Louis XI, against whom he was
+holding out.
+
+AR'MATURE, a term applied to the piece of soft iron which is placed across
+the poles of permanent or electro-magnets for the purpose of receiving and
+concentrating the attractive force. In the case of permanent magnets it is
+also important for preserving their magnetism when not in use, and hence it
+is sometimes termed the _keeper_. It produces this effect in virtue of the
+well-known law of induction, by which the armature, when placed near or
+across the poles of the magnet, is itself converted into a temporary magnet
+with reversed poles, and these, reacting upon the permanent magnet, keep
+its particles in a state of constant magnetic tension, or, in other words,
+in that constrained position which is supposed to constitute magnetism. A
+horse-shoe magnet should therefore never be laid aside without its
+armature; and in the case of straight bar-magnets two should be placed
+parallel to each other, with their poles reversed, and a keeper or armature
+across them at both ends. The term is also applied to the core and coil of
+the electro-magnet, which revolves before the poles of the permanent magnet
+in the magneto-electric machine.
+
+ARME BLANCHE, a term applied to the rapier and duelling-foil, and
+frequently also to all weapons other than fire-arms. The phrase is
+particularly applied to the sabres and lances carried by cavalry, but also
+to the bayonet.
+
+ARME'NIA, a mountainous country of Western Asia, of great historical
+interest as the original seat of one of the oldest civilized peoples in the
+world. The name Armenia occurs in the _Vulgate_, but the Hebrew name is
+Ararat. It has an area of about 120,000 sq. miles, and is intersected by
+the Euphrates, which divides it into the ancient divisions, Armenia Major
+and Armenia Minor. The country is an elevated plateau, enclosed on several
+sides by the ranges of Taurus and Anti-Taurus, and partly occupied by other
+mountains, the loftiest of which is Ararat. Several important rivers take
+their rise in Armenia, namely, the Kur or Cyrus, and its tributary the Aras
+or Araxes, flowing east to the Caspian Sea; the Halys or Kizil-Irmak,
+flowing north to the Black Sea; and the Tigris and Euphrates, which flow
+into the Persian Gulf. The chief lakes are Van and Urumiyah. The climate is
+rather severe. The soil is on the whole productive, though in many places
+it would be quite barren were it not for the great care taken to irrigate
+it. Wheat, barley, tobacco, hemp, grapes, and cotton are raised; and in
+some of the valleys apricots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts are grown.
+The inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine Armenian stock, a branch of the
+Aryan or Indo-European race; but besides them, in consequence of the
+repeated subjugation of the country, various other races have obtained a
+footing. The total number of Armenians is estimated at 2,900,000, of whom
+one-half are in Armenia. The remainder, like the Jews, are scattered over
+various countries, and are generally engaged in commercial pursuits. They
+everywhere retain, however, their distinct nationality.
+
+Little is known of the early history of Armenia, but it was a separate
+State as early as the eighth century B.C., when it became subject to
+Assyria, as it also did subsequently to the Medes and the Persians. It was
+conquered by Alexander the Great in 325 B.C., but regained its independence
+about 190 B.C. Its king, Tigranes, son-in-law of the celebrated
+Mithrid[=a]tes, was defeated by the Romans under Lucullus and Pompey
+between 69-66 B.C., but was left on the throne. Since then its fortunes
+have been various under the Romans, Parthians, Byzantine emperors,
+Persians, Saracens, and Turks. Until quite recently Armenia had no
+political existence, having been partitioned between Turkey, Persia, and
+Russia, the last acquiring considerable portions in 1829 and 1878. The hope
+of the Armenians to see their country formed into an autonomous province
+administered by Christians was frustrated by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.
+The advanced party amongst the Armenians, therefore, determined to obtain
+their object by the production of disturbances and the spread of a
+revolutionary movement. The Porte retaliated by wholesale massacres of the
+Armenians in 1896, 1904, and 1908. The Armenian revolutionary and national
+parties in the meantime continued their activity and propaganda. Armenia
+proclaimed its independence in Aug., 1918. In Jan., 1920, the Supreme
+Council of the Allied Governments recognized the Armenian Republic of
+Erivan. A mandate for Armenia was also offered to the United States of
+America, but it was refused by the American Senate in May, 1920. On 18th
+March, 1922, Soviet Russia concluded a treaty with Turkey, giving to the
+latter most of Armenia. Batum was attached to Georgia. See _Erivan_,
+_Russia_, _Turkey_.
+
+The Armenians received Christianity at an early date, most probably at the
+beginning of the third century, although native historians maintain that
+several of the apostles preached in Armenia. The real apostle of Armenia
+was Gregory the Illuminator, in the third century. During the Monophysitic
+disputes they held with those who rejected the twofold nature of Christ,
+and being dissatisfied with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451)
+they separated from the Greek Church in 536. The Popes had at different
+times attempted to gain them over to the Roman Catholic faith, but have not
+been able to unite them permanently and generally with the Roman Church.
+There are, however, small numbers here and there of United Armenians, who
+acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, agree in their doctrines
+with the Catholics, but retain their peculiar ceremonies and discipline.
+But the far greater part are yet Monophysites, and have remained faithful
+to their old religion and worship. Their doctrine differs from the orthodox
+chiefly in their admitting only one nature in Christ, and believing the
+Holy Spirit to proceed from the Father alone. Their sacraments are seven in
+number. They adore saints and their images, but do not believe in
+purgatory. Their hierarchy differs little from that of the Greeks. The
+_Catholicus_, or head of the Church, has his seat at Etchmiadzin, a
+monastery near Erivan, the capital of former Russian Armenia, on Mount
+Ararat.
+
+The Armenian language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, and
+is most closely connected with the Iranic group. The Old Armenian or Haikan
+language, which is still the literary and ecclesiastical language, is
+distinguished from the New Armenian, the ordinary spoken language, which
+contains a large intermixture of Persian and Turkish elements. The most
+flourishing period of Armenian literature extended from the fourth to the
+fourteenth century. It then declined, but a revival began in the
+seventeenth century, and at the present day wherever any extensive
+community of Armenians has settled they have set up a printing-press. The
+Armenian Bible, translated from a Syriac version, and revised by means of
+the Septuagint, by Isaac the Great and St. Mesrop, early in the fifth
+century, is a model of the classic style.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. N. and H.
+Buxton, _Travel and Politics in Armenia_; N. T. Gregor, _History of
+Armenia_; W. L. Williams, _Armenia, Past and Present_.
+
+ARMENTIERES ([.a]r-m[.a][n.]-ty[=a]r), a town in France, department Nord,
+10 miles W.N.W. of Lille, on the Lys. The town had extensive manufactures
+of linen and cotton goods and an extensive trade. The Germans captured
+Armentieres by massed assault early in April, 1918, after methodically
+shelling the town for about two years and destroying almost every building
+in it. The enemy's offensive was intended to achieve greater results.
+Indeed, its object was to break through to the Channel ports. It began on
+9th April, after artillery preparation, from La Bassee to Armentieres.
+When, however, the battle of Armentieres died down, the enemy plan to break
+through to the coast had been definitely and finally frustrated. German
+losses were extremely heavy, their attacks having been made with massed
+troops. (See _Ypres_.) Pop. 28,086.
+
+ARM'FELT, Gustav Moritz, Count of, Swedish soldier, born 1757, died 1814.
+Though he had been highly favoured and loaded with honours by Gustavus III,
+he incurred the enmity of the Duke of Sudermania, guardian of the young
+king, Gustavus IV, and was deprived of all his titles and possessions. He
+was restored to his fortune and honours in 1799, when Gustavus IV attained
+his majority, and held several high military posts. Ultimately, however, he
+entered the Russian service, was made count, chancellor of the University
+of Abo, president of the department for the affairs of Finland, member of
+the Russian Senate, and served in the campaign against Napoleon in 1812.
+
+ARMIDA ([.a]r-m[=e]'d[.a]), a beautiful enchantress in Tasso's _Jerusalem
+Delivered_, who succeeds in bringing the hero Rinaldo, with whom she had
+fallen violently in love, to her enchanted gardens. Here he completely
+forgets the high task to which he had devoted himself, until messengers
+from the Christian host having arrived at the island, Rinaldo escapes with
+them by means of a powerful talisman. In the sequel Armida becomes a
+Christian.
+
+AR'MILLARY SPHERE (Lat. _armilla_, a hoop), an astronomical instrument
+consisting of an arrangement of rings, all circles of one sphere, intended
+to represent the principal circles of the celestial globe, the rings
+standing for the meridian of the station, the ecliptic, the tropics, the
+arctic and antarctic circles, &c., in their relative positions. Its main
+use is to give a representation of the apparent motions of the celestial
+bodies.
+
+ARMIN'IANS, a sect or party of Christians, so called from Jacobus
+_Arminius_ or Harmensen. (See _Arminius_.) They were called also
+_Remonstrants_, from their having presented a _remonstrance_ to the
+States-general in 1610. The Arminian doctrines are: (1) Conditional
+election and reprobation, in opposition to absolute predestination. (2)
+Universal redemption, or that the atonement was made by Christ for all
+mankind, though none but believers can be partakers of the benefit. (3)
+That man, in order to exercise true faith, must be regenerated and renewed
+by the operation of the Holy Spirit, which is the gift of God; but that
+this grace is not irresistible and may be lost, so that men may relapse
+from a state of grace and die in their sins. Arminianism being a revolt
+against certain aspects of Calvinism, especially the absolutism of the
+eternal decrees, its doctrines were vehemently attacked by the Calvinists
+of Holland, and were condemned by the Synod of Dort in 1619. The Arminians,
+in consequence, were treated with great severity; many of them fled to, and
+spread in, other countries, and though there is no longer any particular
+sect to which the name is exclusively applied, many bodies are classed as
+Arminians, as being opposed to the Calvinists on the question of
+predestination.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Regenboog, _Historie der Remonstranten_;
+Caspar Brandt, _Life of Arminius_ (English translation by J. Guthrie);
+W. B. Pope, _Compendium of Christian Theology_ (3 vols.).
+
+ARMIN'IUS, an ancient German hero celebrated by his fellow-countrymen as
+their deliverer from the Roman yoke, born about 18-16 B.C., assassinated
+A.D. 19. Having been sent as a hostage to Rome, he served in the Roman
+army, and was raised to the rank of _eques_. Returning home, he found the
+Roman governor, Quintilius Varus, making efforts to Romanize the German
+tribes near the Rhine. Placing himself at the head of the discontented
+tribes he completely annihilated the army of Varus, consisting of three
+legions, in a three days' battle fought in the Teutoburg Forest. For some
+time he baffled the Roman general Germanicus, and after many years'
+resistance to the vast power of the Empire he drew upon himself the hatred
+of his countrymen by aiming at the regal authority, and was assassinated. A
+national monument to his memory was inaugurated on the Grotenburg, near
+Detmold, in 1875.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: see Tacitus, _Annals_ (translated by
+Murphy); O. Kemmer, _Arminius_; F. W. Fischer, _Armin und die Roemer_.
+
+ARMINIUS, Jacobus (properly Jakob Harmensen), founder of the sect of
+Arminians or Remonstrants, born in South Holland in 1560, died 1609. He
+studied at Utrecht, in the University of Leyden, and at Geneva, where his
+chief preceptor in theology was Theodore Beza (1582). On his return to
+Holland he was appointed minister of one of the churches in Amsterdam, and
+chosen to undertake the refutation of a work which strongly controverted
+Beza's doctrine of predestination; but he happened to be convinced by the
+work which he had undertaken to refute. Elected in 1603 professor of
+divinity at Leyden, he openly declared his opinions, and was involved in
+harassing controversies, especially with his fellow professor Gomarus.
+These contests, with the continual attacks on his reputation, at length
+impaired his health and brought on a complicated disease, of which he died.
+See _Arminians_.
+
+AR'MITAGE, Edward, English historical painter, born 1817, died 1896. He
+studied under Delaroche at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, was one of the
+ablest pupils of that painter, and in 1842 exhibited at the Salon (in the
+Louvre) a picture of _Prometheus Bound_. At the exhibition of cartoons for
+historical pictures in Westminster Hall (1843) he obtained a premium of
+L300 for his design of _Caesar's First Invasion of Britain_. Other similar
+premiums were gained by his _Spirit of Religion_ (1845), and _Battle of
+Meeanee_ (1847--L500). He now went to study at Rome, and exhibited at the
+Academy in 1848 his _Henry VIII and Katherine Parr_, and his _Trafalgar_
+(_Death of Nelson_). He had pictures in most of the subsequent Academy
+exhibitions up nearly to the time of his death. In 1867 he was elected an
+associate, and in 1872 a full academician. He did much for the restoration
+of fresco painting in England. A large number of his pictures were biblical
+in subject, such as _Ahab and Jezebel_, _Esther's Banquet_, _The Remorse of
+Judas_, _Joseph and Mary_, _Herod's Birthday Feast_, &c. As professor of
+painting to the Royal Academy he delivered lectures on painting, which were
+published in 1883. In 1898 appeared a volume of his _Pictures and
+Drawings_.
+
+ARMOR'ICA (from two Celtic words signifying 'upon the sea'), a name
+anciently applied to all north-western Gaul, afterwards limited to what is
+now Brittany. Hence _Armoric_ is one name for Breton or the language of the
+inhabitants of Brittany, a Celtic dialect closely allied to Welsh.
+
+ARMOUR. See _Arms_.
+
+ARMOURED CAR, a self-propelled car completely protected by bullet-proof
+armour-plating. Such a car is a stage in the development of mechanical
+warfare, i.e. warfare by means of a self-propelled, armed, and manned
+machine. The idea is a very ancient one, some form of protected vehicle
+having been in use among the Chinese in almost prehistoric times. The
+modern armoured car is constructed on a strongly-engined chassis, and is
+provided with a bullet-proof armour-plating both for engine and crew. This
+armour is continued low down over the wheels. The armament of such a car
+consists of two heavy machine-guns, firing through slits in the
+armour-plating of the body of the car.
+
+ARMOUR-PLATES, iron or steel plates with which the sides of vessels of war
+are covered with the view of rendering them shot-proof. See _Iron-clad
+Vessels_.
+
+ARMS, COAT OF, or ARMORIAL BEARINGS, a collective name for the devices
+borne on shields, on banners, &c., as marks of dignity and distinction,
+and, in the case of family and feudal arms, descending from father to son.
+They were first employed by the Crusaders, and became hereditary in
+families at the close of the twelfth century. They took their rise from the
+knights painting their banners or shields each with a figure or figures
+proper to himself, to enable him to be distinguished in battle when clad in
+armour. See _Heraldry_.
+
+ARMS, COLLEGE OF. See _Herald_.
+
+[Illustration: Armour, from the effigy of Sir Richard Peyton, in Tong
+Church, Shropshire]
+
+ARMS and ARMOUR. The former term is applied to weapons of offence, the
+latter to the various articles of defensive covering used in war and
+military exercises, especially before the introduction of gunpowder.
+Weapons of offence are divisible into two distinct sections--firearms, and
+arms used without gunpowder or other explosive substance. The first arms of
+offence would probably be wooden clubs, then would follow wooden weapons
+made more deadly by means of stone or bone, stone axes, slings, bows and
+arrows with heads of flint or bone, and afterwards various weapons of
+bronze. Subsequently a variety of arms of iron and steel was introduced,
+which comprised the sword, javelin, pike, spear or lance, dagger, axe,
+mace, chariot scythe, &c.; with a rude artillery consisting of catapults,
+ballistae, and battering-rams. From the descriptions of Homer we know that
+almost all the Grecian armour, defensive and offensive, in his time was of
+bronze; though iron was sometimes used. The lance, spear, and javelin were
+the principal weapons of this age among the Greeks. The bow is not often
+mentioned. Among ancient nations the Egyptians seem to have been most
+accustomed to the use of the bow, which was the principal weapon of the
+Egyptian infantry. Peculiar to the Egyptians was a defensive weapon
+intended to catch and break the sword of the enemy. With the Assyrians the
+bow was a favourite weapon; but with them lances, spears, and javelins were
+in more common use than with the Egyptians. Most of the large engines of
+war--chariots with scythes projecting at each side from the axle,
+catapults, and ballistae--seem to have been of Assyrian origin. During the
+historical age of Greece the characteristic weapon was a heavy spear from
+21 to 24 feet in length. The sword used by the Greeks was short, and was
+worn on the right side. The Roman sword was from 22 to 24 inches in length,
+straight, two-edged, and obtusely pointed, and as by the Greeks was worn on
+the right side. It was used principally as a stabbing weapon. It was
+originally of bronze. The most characteristic weapon of the Roman legionary
+soldier, however, was the _pilum_, which was a kind of pike or javelin,
+some 6 feet or more in length. The pilum was sometimes used at close
+quarters, but more commonly it was thrown. The favourite weapons of the
+ancient Germanic races were the battle-axe, the lance or dart, and the
+sword. The weapons of the Anglo-Saxons were spears, axes, swords, knives,
+and maces or clubs. The Normans had similar weapons, and were well
+furnished with archers and cavalry. The cross-bow was a comparatively late
+invention introduced by the Normans. Gunpowder was not used in Europe to
+discharge projectiles till the beginning of the fourteenth century. Cannon
+are first mentioned in England in 1338, and there seems to be no doubt that
+they were used by the English at the siege of Cambrai in 1339. The
+projectiles first used for cannon were of stone. Hand fire-arms date from
+the fifteenth century. At first they required two men to serve them, and it
+was necessary to rest the muzzle on a stand in aiming and firing. The first
+improvement was the invention of the match-lock, about 1476; this was
+followed by the wheel-lock, and about the middle of the seventeenth century
+by the flint-lock, which was in universal use until it was superseded by
+the percussion-lock, the invention of a Scottish clergyman early in the
+nineteenth century. The needle-gun dates from 1838. The only important
+weapon not a fire-arm that has been invented since the introduction of
+gunpowder is the bayonet, which is believed to have been invented about
+1650. See _Cannon_, _Musket_, _Rifle_, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Greek Armour]
+
+[Illustration: Roman Armour--Soldiers wearing Cuirass]
+
+[Illustration: Chain Armour]
+
+[Illustration: Horse-armour of Maximilian I of Germany _a_, Chamfron. _b_,
+Manefaire. _c_, Poitrinal, poitrel, or breastplate. _d_, Croupiere or
+buttock-piece.]
+
+[Illustration: Allecret (Light Plate) Armour, A.D. 1540]
+
+Some kind of defensive covering was probably of almost as early invention
+as weapons of offence. The principal pieces of defensive armour used by the
+ancients were shields, helmets, cuirasses, and greaves. In the earliest
+ages of Greece the shield is described as of immense size, but in the time
+of the Peloponnesian War (about 420 B.C.) it was much smaller. The Romans
+had two sorts of shields: the _scutum_, a large oblong rectangular
+highly-convex shield, carried by the legionaries; and the _parma_, a small
+round or oval flat shield, carried by the light-armed troops and the
+cavalry. In the declining days of Rome the shields became larger and more
+varied in form. The helmet was a characteristic piece of armour among the
+Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. Like all other body armour it was
+usually made of bronze. The helmet of the historical age of Greece was
+distinguished by its lofty crest. The Roman helmet in the time of the early
+emperors fitted close to the head, and had a neck-guard and hinged
+cheek-pieces fastened under the chin, and a small bar across the face for a
+visor. Both Greeks and Romans wore cuirasses, at one time of bronze, but
+afterwards of flexible materials. Greaves for the legs were worn by both,
+but among the Romans usually on one leg. The ancient Germans had large
+shields of plaited osier covered with leather; afterwards their shields
+were small, bound with iron, and studded with bosses. The Anglo-Saxons had
+round or oval shields of wood, covered with leather, and having a boss in
+the centre; and they had also corselets, or coats of mail, strengthened
+with iron rings. The Normans were well protected by mail; their shields
+were somewhat triangular in shape, their helmets conical. In Europe
+generally metal armour was used from the tenth to the eighteenth century,
+and at first consisted of a tunic made of iron rings firmly sewn flat upon
+strong cloth or leather. The rings were afterwards interlinked one with
+another so as to form a garment of themselves, called _chain-mail_. Another
+variety of this flexible armour was known as _banded-mail_. This consisted
+of rings sewn upon a fabric foundation, the whole being covered with
+leather. In addition to this, 'scale armour', which had been in use from
+the very earliest periods of history, was still in common fashion in the
+thirteenth century. By degrees the suit of mail was reinforced by the
+addition of pieces of plate on the breast, knees, elbows, and arms, and by
+the end of the fourteenth century the full suit of plate had been evolved,
+the mail being only worn as a skirt round the waist or as a coif attached
+to the helmet. The golden age of plate armour is the middle of the
+fifteenth century, when the design was light and graceful, and at the same
+time fully protective. In the sixteenth century, when 'shock tactics' of
+cavalry were the order of the day, the 'war harness' became heavier. This
+was particularly noticeable in the armour for the joust or tournament, in
+which sport the aim of the contestants was to score points and not to
+inflict injury. Many of these jousting armours weigh over 80 lb. The
+weapons in use through the whole of the plate-armour period were the lance,
+the sword, the axe or war-hammer, the long-bow, and the cross-bow. The
+introduction of fire-arms in the fourteenth century was one of the causes
+which led to the increase of weight in armour, for the armourer was
+continually improving and strengthening his products to make them proof
+against musket and pistol, and he generally succeeded, but by doing so
+increased the weight till it became insupportable. In the seventeenth
+century leg armour was abandoned, and by the end of the civil war the
+popular defence was the steel cap and breastplate. In the eighteenth
+century armour entirely disappeared, except for ceremonial, and was thought
+to be entirely obsolete till it was revived in the recent war in the form
+of the steel shrapnel-helmet, which was favoured by all the Allies and also
+by the enemy. The German troops occasionally used heavy body armour.
+Daggers and clubs, weapons likewise thought to be obsolete, were frequently
+used by all combatants, especially on raids.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Hutton, _The
+Sword of the Centuries_; H. S. Cowper, _The Art of Attack_; C. ffoulkes,
+_Armour and Weapons_; C. H. Ashdown, _British and Foreign Arms and Armour_;
+C. Hall, _Modern Weapons of War by Land_.
+
+ARMSTRONG, John, Scottish poet and physician, born about 1709, died 1779.
+After studying medicine in Edinburgh he settled in London. In 1744 he
+published his chief work, the _Art of Preserving Health_, a didactic poem.
+This work raised his reputation to a height which his subsequent efforts
+scarcely sustained. In 1746 he became physician to a hospital for soldiers,
+and in 1760 he was appointed physician to the forces which went to Germany.
+After his return to London he published a collection of his _Miscellanies_,
+which contained, however, nothing valuable. He afterwards visited France
+and Italy, and published an account of his tour under the name of Lancelot
+Temple. His last production was a volume of _Medical Essays_.
+
+ARMSTRONG, William George, Lord, engineer and mechanical inventor, born at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, 10th Nov., 1810. He was trained as a solicitor, and
+practised as such for some time. Among his early inventions were the
+hydro-electric machine, a powerful apparatus for producing frictional
+electricity, and the hydraulic crane. In 1847 the Elswick works, near
+Newcastle, were established for the manufacture of his cranes and other
+heavy iron machinery, and these works are now among the most extensive of
+their kind. Here the first rifled ordnance gun which bears his name was
+made in 1854. His improvements in the manufacture of guns and shells led to
+his being appointed engineer of rifled ordnance under Government, and he
+was knighted in 1858. This appointment came to an end in 1863, since which
+time his ordnance has taken a prominent place in the armaments of different
+countries. He was made a peer, as Baron Armstrong, in 1887. He died 27th
+Dec., 1900.
+
+ARMSTRONG GUN, a kind of cannon, so called from its inventor. It has an
+inner tube or core of steel, rifled with numerous shallow grooves, the tube
+being surrounded by a jacket of spirally-coiled bars of wrought iron, so
+disposed as to bring the metal into the most favourable position for the
+strain to which it is to be exposed. His first guns were small, but larger
+ones were soon made, and afterwards those of the very highest calibre. The
+breech-loading principle was also adopted in them, and special provision to
+effect this satisfactorily was invented by him. The improved shells
+introduced by him were of the elongated and pointed type now so well known,
+the charge being inserted in a special chamber behind the bore.
+
+ARMY, a collection of bodies of men armed, disciplined, and organized for
+war. The essence of a modern army is that it shall be composed of organized
+units each under its own commander, grouped in formations of
+ever-increasing size, and owing allegiance through these commanders to one
+supreme head. Discipline and organization are essential, or such a force
+becomes merely a collection of armed men.
+
+In the early days of our history every able-bodied man was, to a greater or
+lesser extent, a possible fighting man, and all had arms of one kind or
+another. Consequently, when an army was required, landowners and county
+authorities were ordered to provide the troops necessary. Every free
+landowner between the ages of sixteen and sixty was liable to service,
+which was limited to two months in a year. This was the Saxon 'fyrd'
+system. Later it was improved on by the institution of 'Thane's Service',
+which made it incumbent on the more considerable landowners to appear fully
+armed and mounted, and to serve for the whole campaign. The horse, however,
+was only used as a means of locomotion: for fighting purposes their riders
+dismounted, as did the dragoons of the seventeenth century and the mounted
+infantry of still more modern times. The fyrd was an unorganized and
+undisciplined force and entirely ephemeral in its nature, so that we find
+the Danish kings of England casting about for some more permanent force,
+which came into existence under the title of the 'House Carles', or Royal
+Guard. With the Norman Conquest the fyrd was largely supplanted by the
+feudal system of knight's service, according to which the country was
+divided into knight's fees, each of which had to provide its quotum of men.
+The gradual appearance of the custom of avoiding service by payments of
+money--in time regulated under the name of scutage--led to the employment
+of paid mercenaries, who for some two centuries were almost invariably
+foreigners. In the twelfth century it was found that sufficient troops
+could not be provided under these two systems, so the fyrd was
+re-established as a National Militia by the Assize of Arms, and in the next
+century further steps were taken to protect it under the Statute of
+Winchester. In the fourteenth century the archer, with his longbow, became
+a very important part of the fighting forces of England, and an army of
+those days consisted of the heavily-armed and armoured knights and
+men-at-arms for shock action, and the unarmoured archers for 'volley
+action', to use a later term. With the gradual disappearance of the foreign
+mercenaries, it became the custom for the king to issue indents to certain
+influential subjects for the raising of paid troops. From this custom arose
+the free companies, which, in time, became nothing more or less than
+commercial undertakings. The indents were accepted, and the men enlisted
+primarily for what could be got out of the business of fighting, either in
+the shape of ransom or the sack of towns. Some attempt was also made at
+tactical organization, and an army of the period was divided into vanguard,
+battle, and rearguard. Artillery also was beginning to be developed in
+Germany for siege purposes. The sixteenth century saw the first formation
+of companies into regiments, though as yet of no fixed strength. Arms were
+also modernized, and by the end of the century muskets, 18-feet pikes, and
+swords, were the arms of infantry instead of the varied assortment of
+halberds, pikes, muskets, harquebuses, and longbows common at the
+beginning. Elizabeth introduced the press-gang as an aid to recruiting, and
+abolished the white coat of the soldier in favour of a long red or blue
+cassock. In the next century Cromwell's new model army became the first
+standing army of England, and, though it was disbanded by Act of Parliament
+at the Restoration, one of its regiments--Monk's--remained, and is now the
+Coldstream Guards. After this regiments were raised from time to time on
+one pretext or another, and the nucleus of a standing army became a _fait
+accompli_, though it was for a long time considered more as an appanage of
+the king than as a national institution. With the standing army came the
+first beginnings of civilian control, a Secretary-at-War being appointed in
+1660. He had, however, no responsibility, and was subordinate to the
+commander-in-chief, and it was not till 1710 that he assumed his present
+responsibility to Parliament. During the eighteenth century the strength of
+the army rose or fell according to the state of the military barometer and
+the success or otherwise of the various recruiting expedients, among which
+was the first attempt at a short-service system in 1703. In 1871-2 the old
+numbering in regiments was abolished and a territorial designation
+substituted. According to this scheme, the first twenty-five regiments, all
+of which had already two battalions, were grouped together, the rest being
+joined arbitrarily to form new regiments under county designations. With
+these regiments were affiliated the militia and volunteer battalions, which
+have now been amalgamated into the Special Reserve and the Territorial
+Force.
+
+For the requirements of the war of 1914-8 the Empire, as a whole, including
+India, raised and maintained a total of 8,654,467 men, of which the
+contribution of the United Kingdom was over 6,000,000. Casualties for the
+whole Empire were 3,060,616, of which the United Kingdom has for her share
+nearly 2,500,000, including 666,083 killed, 1,644,786 wounded, and 140,312
+missing.
+
+During 1918 the combatant strength of all arms of the British army in
+France fluctuated between 1,293,000 in March and 1,164,790 in November,
+while the rifle or infantry strength was from 616,000 to 416,748 during the
+same periods. From the date of the armistice to 31st Dec., 1919, the
+following number of demobilizations and discharges were effected:--
+
+Demobilized.--Officers, 144,144; other ranks, 3,332,882.
+
+Discharged as medically unfit.--Officers, 23,476; other ranks, 207,500.
+
+Discharged from reserves.--Other ranks, 143,603.
+
+The modern British army is governed by the Army Council (instituted 1904),
+presided over by the Secretary of State for War. This Council, which
+consists of five military and five civilian members, including the
+president, works through the War Office, of which the principal departments
+are in charge of one or other of the members of the Council. On the
+military side these departments are those of the Chief of the Imperial
+General Staff, the Adjutant-General to the Forces, the
+Quartermaster-General to the Forces, and the Master-General of the
+Ordnance. For administrative and training purposes the United Kingdom is
+divided into seven Commands and the London District. When necessary,
+Commands are further subdivided into Districts. The army, generally
+speaking, consists of (1) the Regular Army, (2) the Territorial Force, and
+(3) the Reserves. The service battalions, which formed such a large and
+important part of the army in the war, do not, properly speaking, form part
+of the permanent military forces, though the organization of the army as a
+whole is such that it is capable of expansion to any extent by the process
+of raising new battalions and affiliating them to existing regular or
+territorial units. The regular army comprises the Household Cavalry,
+Cavalry of the Line, the Royal Regiment of Artillery, the Corps of Royal
+Engineers, the Brigade of Guards, and Infantry of the Line. In addition
+there are administrative troops and services such as the Royal Army Service
+Corps, the Royal Army Medical Corps, with its allied service Queen
+Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service, the Royal Army Ordnance
+Corps, and others. Other corps brought into existence during the war, such
+as the Tank and Machine-gun Corps, have at present no permanent status. In
+the future, however, machine-gun companies will form an integral portion of
+each battalion of the regular army.
+
+Under the conditions of the war the old national method of voluntary
+recruitment was found to be insufficient, and recourse was had to the
+principle of universal military service. Under the Military Service Acts
+the age limit was gradually raised till it finally included all men up to
+the age of fifty. Exceptions were made in the case of munition-workers, or
+those employed on work of national importance. Since the signature of the
+Treaty of Peace the army so raised was gradually demobilized till, by 31st
+March, 1920, it had decreased to 400,000, including 100,000 Indians paid by
+the Imperial Government. Concurrently with demobilization, voluntary
+enlistment was reintroduced, and the post-war army is once more a voluntary
+one, in which men serve under very much improved conditions as to pay and
+prospects. The period of service under this system is twelve years, of
+which seven normally are with the colours and five in the reserve: in
+certain cases modifications of these periods are allowed, and, in addition,
+a soldier may be allowed to extend his colour service to the full twelve
+years, or, in exceptional cases, to complete twenty-one years for pension.
+Discharge or transfer to the reserve is ordinarily granted on completion of
+the agreed period of service. Pay of all ranks was very materially improved
+in 1919. Whereas formerly a private soldier on enlistment received 1s. a
+day, he now receives 2s. 9d., and after two years' service 3s. 6d. To this
+last amount is added, under very reasonable conditions, a further daily sum
+of 6d. proficiency pay. A sergeant now gets 7s. a day instead of from 2s.
+4d. to 3s. 4d., and a regimental sergeant-major 14s. instead of 5s. or 6s.
+Add to these rates of pay free rations, free housing, free medical
+attendance, and, in the future, doubtless free education, and it must be
+admitted that the present-day soldier is not badly paid. The rate of pay is
+a flat rate for all arms, special allowances being given where necessary.
+
+The Household Cavalry comprises the 1st and 2nd Life Guards and the Horse
+Guards (Blues). In peace-time they serve only in London and Windsor. They
+alone retain the old cavalry rank of corporal of horse instead of sergeant.
+Cavalry of the line consists of dragoon guards, dragoons, hussars, and
+lancers. The dragoon guards are numbered separately from 1 to 7, while
+dragoons, hussars, and lancers run consecutively from 1 to 21. A regiment
+of cavalry is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of 25 officers
+and 497 other ranks. Each regiment is organized in three squadrons
+commanded by majors, while a squadron is divided into four troops, each
+under a subaltern officer, troops being further subdivided into sections
+under non-commissioned officers. Cavalry regiments, except hussars, carry
+guidons or standards for ceremonial purposes. These differ from the colours
+of infantry in that they are not consecrated and are carried by
+non-commissioned officers instead of by officers. Hussars carry no
+standards. There are six cavalry depots for recruiting and
+preliminary-training purposes, i.e. for lancers at Woolwich, hussars at
+Scarborough, Bristol, and Dublin, and dragoons at Newport (Mon.) and
+Dunbar. The Cavalry Special Reserve consists of the Irish Horse and King
+Edward's Horse, and during the war reserve cavalry regiments were
+maintained.
+
+The Royal Regiment of Artillery comprises batteries of horse artillery
+designated by letters of the alphabet, and batteries of field, siege,
+heavy, and mountain by numbers. A battery, with some exceptions in the case
+of the heaviest type, consists of six guns or howitzers, horse artillery
+having 13-pounder guns, and field artillery 18-pounder guns or 4.5-inch
+howitzers. Horse artillery is intended to act with cavalry, and is
+therefore provided with a rather lighter gun. It can go anywhere that
+cavalry can go, and all the gun detachments are mounted. Field artillery
+works with infantry, and the gun detachments either walk or are carried on
+the limbers, only the officers, certain non-commissioned officers, and
+specialists such as scouts, range-finders, and trumpeters being mounted.
+
+A battery is commanded by a major, with a captain as second-in-command, and
+is organized in three sections of two guns each under a subaltern. These
+sections are again subdivided into subsections of one gun each under a
+sergeant. Each gun is drawn by six horses, the driver of the leading pair
+being responsible for direction and pace. A corporal in the Royal Artillery
+is known as a bombardier, and the rank and file as gunners or drivers,
+according to their special duties, though drivers are also trained to some
+extent as gunners.
+
+Heavy and siege artillery have come into their own in the late war, and
+consist roughly of all armament heavier than that of field artillery.
+Sixty-pounders and 4.7-inch howitzers form heavy batteries, while guns of 6
+inch and upwards drawn by mechanical transport or mounted on railway trucks
+are known as siege batteries. Mountain artillery, of which most of the
+batteries are in India, is armed with 2.95-inch screw guns capable of being
+dismantled and carried piecemeal on mules. Another form is found on the
+west coast of Africa, where carriers take the place of mules. These guns
+are brought into action very quickly, but their shell-power is small.
+
+The corps of Royal Engineers is responsible for the construction and
+maintenance of barracks, fortifications, and other military works, and for
+the personnel required for search-lights and electrical communications of
+the coast and anti-aircraft defences. With few exceptions the personnel of
+the corps is recruited entirely from skilled tradesmen and artisans. For
+service in the field, Royal Engineer units known as field squadrons and
+field companies accompany the fighting troops, and carry a certain amount
+of bridging material and tools. More highly specialized units carry out
+such services as mining, heavy bridging, railway, survey, and sound-ranging
+work. An important feature of Royal Engineer work in war is the supply of
+materials and stores, for which purpose an elaborate organization is
+provided in addition to the units already noted.
+
+The Brigade of Guards--the infantry of the household troops--comprises the
+five regiments of foot-guards. These are the Grenadier, the Coldstream, the
+Scots, the Irish, and the Welsh Guards of from one to three battalions
+each. Being household troops these regiments are subject to certain special
+regulations and have certain privileges. As a general rule they serve only
+in London, Windsor, or Aldershot, and only leave England for active
+service, though individual battalions have served in the past both in Cairo
+and Gibraltar.
+
+The infantry, of which there are sixty-eight regiments of from two to four
+battalions each, provides the bulk of the army. Infantry is formed into
+regiments for recruiting and territorial distribution purposes, but the
+battalion is the actual unit both for fighting and administration. In many
+cases the Army List gives the name of an officer holding the appointment of
+colonel of the regiment: this is in all cases a purely honorary appointment
+and entails no duties or responsibilities. An infantry battalion is
+commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of 32 officers and 1000
+other ranks. Both in peace and war a battalion is divided into
+head-quarters and four companies, each of the latter having six officers,
+including the company commander, who is a major or senior captain.
+Subalterns command platoons. For recruiting purposes for infantry of the
+line the country is divided into Regimental Districts, in which are located
+the depots of the regiment concerned: these depots are commanded by a
+senior officer of one of the battalions of the regiment with the necessary
+staff for training purposes. Recruits are usually first trained at the
+depot and later transferred to the battalion requiring them. The Regimental
+Districts are again combined into larger districts in which are situated
+the Record Offices dealing with the regiments of the district. The
+denomination of the district dealing with any particular regiment is shown
+in the Army List in brackets. The principles of interior organization are
+the same throughout the army, and as they can be best illustrated with the
+example of an infantry battalion a short description of this organization
+follows. Owing to the continual growth of military science, the improvement
+in arms and means of destruction generally, and the confusion and noise
+inseparable from a modern battle, the size of the personally-controlled
+unit has gradually decreased till, in the present day, in the British army,
+it is accepted as an axiom that no larger number of men than six can be
+conveniently controlled in battle by one man. In former days companies,
+battalions, and even larger formations were both controlled and received
+their executive orders direct from their commanders--and to such an extent
+was this carried that Fortescue, in his _History of the British Army_,
+notes that Marlborough was in the habit of putting his whole army through
+the platoon exercise by means of flags and bugle-calls. This, of course,
+was not actually in face of the enemy, but the principle is the same. The
+stress of modern war now makes individual control of large bodies
+impossible, and the British army is therefore organized both for peace and
+war in a series of units of ever-increasing size, each under its own
+commander, who is responsible to his immediate superior for the well-being,
+training, and leading of his command. Taking the infantry organization as
+an example, we find that in the lowest stage, that of the 'section', the
+command is both personal and direct, in that the corporal controls and
+commands the six men composing his fighting unit personally and directly by
+word of mouth. In peace-time, and for administrative and training purposes,
+the section may reach to ten men, who live, work, and play together. In the
+next stage--that of the 'platoon', consisting of four sections--we find the
+control is rather less personal and direct, in that the platoon commander,
+a subaltern, controls his command largely through his subordinates, the
+section commanders. A further stage is that of the 'company', which
+consists of four platoons and company head-quarters. A company is commanded
+by a major or senior captain, has a captain as second-in-command, and a
+company sergeant-major and quartermaster-sergeant to assist in running it.
+Here again the control is less direct though still personal. The next stage
+is the amalgamation of companies into a battalion, consisting of a
+head-quarters and four companies. Battalion head-quarters consist of a
+lieutenant-colonel commanding, a major second-in-command, an adjutant, and
+a quartermaster. Certain other officers, when required, and the regimental
+sergeant-major and quartermaster-sergeant, and various other ranks make up
+the total of some 130. The commanding officer of a battalion is directly
+responsible for the well-being of his command, for its training,
+discipline, equipment, and general efficiency. In carrying on his duties he
+works through his company commanders, and with the assistance of the
+regimental staff mentioned above, so that we have a direct chain of command
+and responsibility from the corporal commanding a section of six to ten men
+through platoons and companies to the lieutenant-colonel commanding a
+battalion of some thousand men. A detail of armament made possible by the
+enormous increase of machine-guns necessitated during the war is
+interesting. Thirty-two Lewis-guns are now provided for each infantry
+battalion, and are distributed to alternate sections in a platoon. Thus in
+each platoon two sections are known as rifle sections and two as Lewis-gun
+sections, and these arms are normally used by the respective sections; but
+men of all sections are trained in the use of both rifle and Lewis-gun.
+
+When we come to formations larger than a battalion, we find the system of
+control and command becoming less and less personal and direct, as in all
+such formations the commander works to a less or greater extent through his
+staff. Roughly speaking, the staff is of two divisions, the one consisting
+of the general staff branch and the other of the branch of the adjutant and
+quartermaster-general. Again speaking very generally, the general staff is
+charged with duties bearing directly on military operations, while officers
+of the adjutant and quartermaster-general's branch deal more with
+administrative questions. Officers of the general staff are known as
+general staff officers, while those of the other branch are called, for
+example, assistant or deputy-assistant adjutant or quartermaster-general,
+according to their several duties.
+
+The formation in which distinct and separate units are first collected
+under one superior commander is known as a brigade. This, according to
+present establishment, consists of three battalions and a trench-mortar
+battery, the whole under a general officer called a brigadier-general,
+assisted by a staff of two officers--a brigade-major and a staff-captain.
+Since March, 1920, however, the title of brigadier-general has been altered
+to 'colonel-commandant'. The strength of a brigade is something over 3000
+of all ranks. In a division, which is the next highest formation, and which
+is commanded by a major-general with a staff of three general staff
+officers and three officers belonging to the A.G. and Q.M.G. branch, we
+find the first appearance of a mixed force. It is not a force of 'all
+arms', as cavalry is not included, but, in addition to infantry (three
+brigades), it has a considerable strength in artillery, besides engineers
+and the necessary administrative troops. Two or more divisions, together
+with a cavalry regiment and certain other troops, form an 'army corps', and
+two or more corps go to make up an 'army'. These are not at present
+peace-time formations of the British army.
+
+Of the administrative troops and services already mentioned, the Royal Army
+Service Corps provides for the material wants of the army both in the way
+of food and transport. It is organized in companies designated by numerals.
+
+The Royal Army Medical Corps provides the personnel and organization for
+the medical and sanitary services of the army. In peace-time this service
+is organized on a garrison basis, hospitals being established where
+required for the use of all troops in that particular garrison. For war
+purposes medical officers are still attached to regiments, and in addition
+the corps provides the personnel and organization necessary for field
+ambulances, casualty clearing-stations, hospital trains and ships, and
+various classes of fixed hospitals. The corps is organized in numbered
+companies, and the rank and file are trained in first aid and ambulance
+duties generally. It is administered by a director-general of Army Medical
+Services with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is an officer of the
+adjutant-general's department.
+
+The other departments and administrative services of the army consist of
+the Royal Army Ordnance Corps, dealing generally with munitions of war; the
+Army Pay Department; the Royal Army Chaplains' Department; and the Royal
+Army Veterinary Corps, of which the functions are sufficiently designated
+by their title. In addition, there are manufacturing establishments at
+Woolwich Arsenal and elsewhere.
+
+The Army Reserve consists of men who have completed their term of colour
+service, or service with a unit, and have thus passed into civil life,
+though still remaining liable for a period of years to be recalled to the
+colours if mobilization is ordered.
+
+The Special Reserve was formed under the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act
+of 1907 out of the old militia. It consists generally of one battalion to
+each regiment of infantry, and is numbered consecutively with regular
+battalions of the regiment. It will, in the future, probably be again known
+as the Militia.
+
+The Royal Marines--artillery and infantry, or the 'blue' and the 'red'
+marines, Kipling's "soldier and sailor too"--are not part of the army
+proper, as they are administered entirely by the Admiralty. They are,
+however, amenable to the Army Act when serving ashore. The term of service
+is for twelve years, which may be extended to make up twenty-one. Men may
+be transferred to or from the army at their own request.
+
+The Territorial Force, or, as it is to be called in future, the Territorial
+Army, is raised entirely on a county or territorial basis. It was
+originally created by the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act of 1907 out of
+a nucleus of the old yeomanry and volunteers. It is raised and administered
+by County Associations in each county and principal city. These
+associations consist of a president, chairman, military representative, and
+co-opted members. The administration of the Territorial Army is carried out
+by the County Associations in accordance with schemes provided by the Army
+Council, while all questions of training are reserved to the War Office.
+The Territorial Army consists of all arms, including machine-gun corps and
+the necessary administrative services: its full war establishment is fixed
+at approximately 345,000 of all ranks, though, for the present, only some
+60 per cent of them are to be enlisted. The rejuvenated Territorial Army is
+to be in all respects a true second line of imperial defence,
+self-contained and self-supporting, while the regular army and its special
+reserve of militia battalions form the first line. Defence entails a
+certain amount of offence to bring it to a successful issue: it has
+therefore been decided that the new Territorial Army will not be relegated
+merely to the duty of guarding the country from invasion, but will, in a
+national emergency, be entitled to take its place under its own
+organization in the fighting line in any part of the world where its
+services may be required. This will entail enlistment for general service,
+but the interest of the force and of individuals composing it are
+safeguarded by the proviso that before the Territorial Army can be ordered
+out of the country an Act authorizing the movement be passed by Parliament.
+It is further provided that the Territorial Army will on no account be
+called on to supply drafts for regular regiments, and that in case fresh
+regiments have to be raised on the lines of the New Army, the machinery of
+the Territorial Army will be used to organize them. Enlistment will be for
+three or four years, according to whether a man has served during the
+European War (1914-8) or not; age limits are normally between 18 and 38.
+The army is to be organized in one cavalry (yeomanry) division of 12
+regiments, and 14 infantry divisions each under a selected general officer,
+either regular or territorial. Pay and allowances during training periods
+will be as in the regular army, and in addition certain bounties will be
+obtainable. Training periods will be fifteen days in camp annually, besides
+a minimum number of drills and a musketry course. On completion of colour
+service a man will pass to the Territorial Reserve.
+
+The New Army, consisting of the 'service battalions' of existing regiments,
+is a product of the war. When, on the outbreak of war, many new regiments
+were rapidly raised, they were affiliated to regular regiments with
+consecutive numbers after the territorial battalions, and this organization
+was continued and extended to cope with the personnel obtained under the
+Military Service Acts.
+
+Educational establishments connected with the army include the Staff
+College, the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, and the Royal Military
+Academy at Woolwich. At the Staff College officers obtain a course of
+instruction and study to fit them for service on the staff of the army. At
+Sandhurst, where the course of instruction is two years, some 700 gentlemen
+cadets are trained for commissions in the guards, cavalry, and infantry of
+the line, and the Indian army. At Woolwich gentlemen cadets desirous of
+entering the Royal Artillery or the Royal Engineers receive their training.
+In addition to these there are schools of gunnery and engineering, the
+Small Arms School at Hythe, the School of Physical Training at Aldershot,
+and many others: while, for sons and orphans of soldiers, there are the
+Duke of York's Royal Military School and the Royal Hibernian School. The
+Royal Hospital, Chelsea, and the Royal Hospital, Kilmainham, Dublin, are
+institutions for the care of old and distressed soldiers. In every garrison
+there are garrison schools for soldiers under fully qualified army
+schoolmasters, while in the future there is likely to be a very great
+increase in educational facilities of all kinds for the rank and file of
+the army. The training of the British army for war now embraces a variety
+of subjects, and at the Royal Military College and Academy the gentlemen
+cadets are not only taught the principles and practice of their future
+profession, but are also instructed in the methods of imparting their
+knowledge to others. For example, the course of training at the Royal
+Military College embraces drill and weapon training--under which head is
+included musketry (both theory and practice) and bayonet work--physical
+training, and riding. As part of the physical-training course they receive
+instruction as to the best methods of organizing regimental
+assaults-at-arms and sports. Among the more academic subjects are military
+history and tactics, field sketching and topography, field engineering,
+military law and administration, and elementary hygiene. A great deal of
+practical work is done, and the course of two years is designed to fit a
+young officer, on joining his regiment, to undertake the entire charge and
+training of his troop or platoon. At the Royal Military Academy extra
+subjects, such as artillery work and more advanced engineering, are also
+taught.
+
+As to the soldier's training generally, drill is insisted on as an aid to
+discipline, which it undoubtedly is, and exact performance of the various
+movements ordered is expected. In other branches of training more
+individuality is allowed, and the days when the bayonet-exercise was
+performed by a battalion to the music of the regimental band having passed,
+considerable latitude as to positions and execution is permitted in this
+particular branch, attention being principally concentrated on inculcating
+the 'offensive spirit'. The modern soldier also learns how to use a
+Lewis-gun, to throw or fire a grenade, what to do in case of a gas attack,
+the rudiments of field engineering, and how to keep himself healthy.
+
+In addition to the more generally-known units of the army there are certain
+corps which, though raised in the colonies, still form part of the army,
+and which are administered by the imperial authorities. Under this head are
+the Royal Malta Artillery (local service); the West India Regiment (two
+battalions) and the West African Regiment, both for general service and
+both administered by the War Office. Among other colonial corps maintained
+by the imperial Government, though not forming part of the regular army,
+are the West African Frontier Force (Nigeria) and the King's African Rifles
+(East Africa). Both these are administered by the Colonial Office.
+
+_Dominions._--The military forces of the self-governing dominions are
+raised and organized under the laws of such dominions.
+
+Those of the Commonwealth of Australia are organized on a system of
+compulsory military training for all males between the ages of twelve and
+twenty-six. In the earlier stages boys are trained in cadet corps, from
+which they pass to the Citizen Army, and from there, having attained the
+age of twenty-six, to recognized rifle clubs. The annual period of training
+in the Citizen Army is sixteen days. When the scheme is in full working
+order this force will consist of twenty-three 4-battalion brigades of
+infantry, twenty-three regiments of light horse, fifty-six 4-gun batteries,
+and the necessary complement of engineers and administrative troops. During
+the war this organization was in abeyance, and regiments were raised as
+required for overseas service, and, though proposals for conscription were
+negatived, the commonwealth still managed to send some 330,000 men to the
+various theatres of war out of 417,000 raised. The casualties, killed,
+wounded, and missing, were 210,724.
+
+The Commonwealth also maintains a small permanent force of trained
+professional soldiers.
+
+The New Zealand forces are also organized on the principle of universal
+training for all males. The details differ somewhat from those in favour in
+Australia, but the principle is the same, i.e. that every male should be
+trained for home defence. Boys of from twelve to eighteen years of age are
+trained in cadet corps, from which they pass to regiments of the
+Territorial Force, and from twenty-five to thirty belong to the reserve.
+Cadets do annually a specified number of drills, while the territorial
+training extends to seven clear days, a musketry course, and certain drills
+every year. For the purposes of the war, conscription was introduced in
+1916, and 220,000 men were raised between 1914 and 1918, out of which the
+casualties were nearly 57,000.
+
+Canada, unlike Australia and New Zealand, has no system of graduated
+military training. The military forces of the dominion are organized as a
+militia under a Minister of Militia and Defence working with a Council.
+This militia is recruited by voluntary enlistment, and, on the outbreak of
+war, consisted of a permanent force of 3000 and some 60,000 men who had
+received militia training. This made possible the rapid dispatch to France
+of a division which, by 1916, had increased to a corps of four divisions
+and a cavalry brigade. Like the Mother Country and New Zealand, Canada
+introduced conscription in 1917, and during the war raised nearly 641,000
+men and suffered 206,149 casualties, of which 56,110 were killed, 149,733
+wounded, and 306 missing.
+
+The Union of South Africa divides its military forces into the permanent
+force and the citizen force. There is also a coast-defence force. The
+permanent force consists of the five regiments of the South African Mounted
+Rifles. South Africa's greatest military effort during the war was directed
+towards German South-West and East Africa, but some 27,000 men were
+enlisted for and sent to Europe out of a total number of 136,000 raised.
+This total does not include coloured troops. The casualties were 18,000.
+
+In other self-governing portions of the Empire troops were raised as
+required, and in the West and East African colonies the existing formations
+of native troops were considerably increased for service in suitable
+portions of the various theatres of war. The official statement of troops
+raised shows under the heading of 'other colonies' 134,837, including
+coloured troops from South Africa and the West Indies. The casualties among
+them amounted to 7519.
+
+_The Army in India._--The military forces in India consist of those units
+of British cavalry, artillery, and infantry temporarily serving in the
+country, and the Indian army proper, consisting of regiments recruited from
+among the native inhabitants and normally serving there. Enlistment is
+voluntary and for general service, one of the promises made by a man on
+enrolment being "to go wherever ordered by land and sea and not to allow
+caste usages to interfere with his duties as a soldier". The Indian army,
+as a disciplined and organized force, dates from the years between 1748 and
+1758. In 1748 Major Stringer Lawrence arrived in Madras with a commission
+from the Company as commander-in-chief. His first act was to form the
+existing European independent companies into regiments; his second to raise
+certain native independent companies. In 1758 he formed these companies in
+their turn into battalions, which he designated 'coast sepoys', and which
+still exist under their present names of the 61st Pioneers and following
+numbers. His system was extended to the other presidencies, and at the
+period of the mutiny, in 1857, the native army in India consisted of some
+230,000 regular troops, besides irregulars. When the post-mutiny
+reconstruction took place, the army was reorganized on an irregular basis
+instead of as regular regiments on the British model. According to this new
+system, the number of British officers in a regiment was considerably
+reduced; native officers were given command of troops and companies, while
+the British officer's command became the squadron, or wing. Native
+artillery, with the exception of certain mountain batteries, was abolished,
+and cavalry was reconstituted on the Silladar system, whereby, in
+consideration of a larger monthly pay than was given to the infantry sepoy,
+the trooper, or sowar, provided his own horse and sword. The system thus
+introduced virtually remains to the present day, though it has been
+modified and improved to suit later conditions. The infantry officer's
+command has decreased from the wing of four companies to the double company
+of two, and it is now known as a company and is organized in four platoons
+on the British service model, platoons being commanded by Indian officers.
+Of late years the number of British officers with an Indian regiment has
+been increased to twelve, and at the present time a committee is sitting in
+India to deliberate on the future construction of the army. It is therefore
+impossible to give details of its future strength. This, just before the
+war, was some 160,000, organized in 38 regiments of cavalry, the corps of
+guides, 3 regiments of sappers and miners, 118 regiments of infantry of 1
+battalion each, and 10 regiments of Gurkhas of 2 battalions each. There
+were also 13 mountain batteries. The 'Imperial Service Troops', of which
+many contingents took part in the war, are raised, paid, and maintained by
+princes and chiefs as a contribution to the defence of the country, while
+their training is supervised by British inspecting officers. The 'Indian
+Defence Force', which has lately replaced the volunteers, and in which
+service is compulsory for Europeans, is available for home defence only.
+During the war India, by voluntary enlistment, provided 1,401,350 men. Of
+these many new regiments were formed, and second, third, and fourth
+battalions added to existing regiments. Casualties were very nearly
+114,000, including some 48,000 killed. Native Indian officers of cavalry
+are known as ressaldars, ressaiders, and jemadars, while those of the
+infantry are called subadars and jemadars. In each regiment the senior
+Indian officer is called ressaldar or subadar-major.
+
+The army in India, by which is meant all military forces in India, is
+administered by a commander-in-chief, who is a member of council. The
+head-quarter staff includes a military secretary, the chief of the general
+staff, an adjutant and a quartermaster-general, director-general of
+ordnance and military works, and a director of medical
+services.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hon. J. W. Fortescue, _History of the British
+Army_; C. W. C. Oman, _A History of the Art of War: Middle Ages_; C. H.
+Firth, _Cromwell's Army_; C. Walton, _History of the British Standing Army,
+1660-1700_; War Office, _Army Book for the British Empire_; F. N. Maude,
+_Evolution of Modern Strategy_; G. F. R. Henderson, _The Science of War_;
+C. Romagny, _Histoire generale de l'armee nationale_; Heimann, _L'Armee
+allemande_.
+
+ARMY ACT. See _Military Law_.
+
+[Illustration: Army Worm]
+
+ARMY WORM, the very destructive larva of the moth _Helioph[)i]la_ or
+_Leucania unipuncta_, so called from its habit of marching in compact
+bodies of enormous number, devouring almost every green thing it meets. It
+is about 1-1/2 inches long, greenish in colour, with black stripes, and is
+found in various parts of the world, but is particularly destructive in
+North America. The larva of _Sci[)a]ra militaris_, a European two-winged
+fly, is also called army worm.
+
+ARNAT'TO, or ANNOTTA. See _Annatto_.
+
+ARNAULD ([.a]r-n[=o]), the name of a French family, several members of
+which greatly distinguished themselves.--Antoine, an eminent French
+advocate, was born 1560, died 1619. Distinguished as a zealous defender of
+the cause of Henry IV, and for his powerful and successful defence of the
+University of Paris against the Jesuits in 1594. His family formed the
+nucleus of the sect of the Jansenists (see _Jansenius_) in France.--His son
+Antoine, called the _Great Arnauld_, was born 6th Feb., 1612, at Paris,
+died 9th Aug., 1694, at Brussels. He devoted himself to theology, and was
+received in 1641 among the doctors of the Sorbonne. He engaged in all the
+quarrels of the French Jansenists with the Jesuits, the clergy, and the
+Government, was the chief Jansenist writer, and was considered their head.
+Excluded from the Sorbonne, he retired to Port Royal, where he wrote, in
+conjunction with his friend Nicole, a celebrated system of logic (hence
+called the _Port Royal Logic_). On account of persecution he fled, in 1679,
+to the Netherlands. His works, which are mainly controversies with the
+Jesuits or the Calvinists, are very voluminous.--His brother Robert, born
+1588, died 1674, retired to Port Royal, where he wrote a translation of
+Josephus, and other works.--Robert's daughter Angelique, born 1624, died
+1684, was eminent in the religious world, and was subjected to persecution
+on account of her unflinching adherence to Jansenism.
+
+AR'NAUTS. See _Albania_.
+
+ARNDT ([.a]rnt), Ernst Moritz, German patriot and poet, was born 1769, died
+1860. He was appointed professor of history at Greifswald in 1806, and
+stirred up the national feeling against Napoleon in his work _Geist der
+Zeit_ (_Spirit of the Time)_. In 1812-3 he zealously promoted the war of
+independence by a number of pamphlets, poems, and spirited songs, among
+which it is sufficient to refer to his _Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland?_,
+_Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess_, and _Was blasen die Trompeten?
+Husaren, heraus!_, which were caught up and sung from one end of Germany to
+the other. In 1817 he married a sister of the theologian Schleiermacher,
+and settled at Bonn in order to undertake the duties of professor of
+history. He was, however, suspended till 1840 on account of his liberal
+opinions, when he was restored to his chair on the accession of Frederick
+William IV.
+
+ARNDT, Johann, celebrated German mystic theologian, born 1555, died 1621.
+His principal work, _Wahres Christenthum_ (True Christianity), is still
+popular in Germany, and has been translated into almost all European
+languages. Another of his publications is _Paradiesgaertlein_, translated
+into English (The Garden of Paradise).
+
+ARNE ([.a]rn), Thomas Augustine, English composer, born at London 1710,
+died 1778. His first opera, _Fair Rosamond_, was performed in 1733 at
+Lincoln's-Inn Fields, and was received with great applause. Then followed a
+version of Fielding's _Tom Thumb_, altered into _The Opera of Operas_, a
+musical burlesque. His style in the _Comus_ (1738) is still more original
+and cultivated. To him we owe the national air _Rule, Britannia_,
+originally given in a popular piece called the _Masque of Alfred_. After
+having composed two oratorios and several operas he received the degree of
+Doctor of Music at Oxford. He composed, also, music for several of the
+songs in Shakespeare's dramas, and various pieces of instrumental music.
+
+ARNEE', one of the numerous Indian varieties of the buffalo _(Bub[)a]lus
+arni)_, remarkable as being the largest animal of the ox kind known. It
+measures about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and from 9 to 10 1/2 feet long
+from the muzzle to the root of the tail. It is found chiefly in the forests
+at the base of the Himalayas.
+
+ARN'HEM, or ARNHEIM, a town in Holland, province of Gelderland, 18 miles
+south-west of Zutphen, on the right bank of the Rhine. Pleasantly situated,
+it is a favourite residential resort, and it contains many interesting
+public buildings; manufactures cabinet wares, mirrors, carriages,
+mathematical instruments, &c.; has paper-mills, and its trade is important.
+In 1795 it was stormed by the French, who were driven from it by the
+Prussians in 1813. Pop. 70,664 (1917).
+
+ARNHEM LAND, a portion of the northern territory of S. Australia, lying
+west of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and forming a sort of peninsula.
+
+AR'NI, a town of Madras, on the Cheyair River, 16 miles south of Arcot;
+formerly a large military station; stormed by Clive in 1751, and scene of
+defeat of Hyder Ali by Sir Eyre Coote in 1782. Pop. 5050.
+
+AR'NICA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositae, containing eighteen
+species, one of which is found in Central Europe, _A. mont[=a]na_
+(leopard's bane or mountain tobacco), but is not a native of Britain. It
+has a perennial root, a stem about 2 feet high, bearing on the summit
+flowers of a dark golden yellow. In every part of the plant there is an
+acrid resin and a volatile oil, and in the flowers an acrid bitter
+principle called _arnicin_. The root contains also a considerable quantity
+of tannin. A tincture of it is employed as an external application to
+wounds and bruises. It was introduced into English gardens about the middle
+of the eighteenth century.
+
+AR'NIM, Elisabeth von, a German writer, also known as Bettina, wife of
+Louis Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet Clemens Brentano; born at
+Frankfort in 1785, died at Berlin 1859. Even in her childhood she
+manifested an inclination towards eccentricities and poetical peculiarities
+of many kinds. She entered into correspondence with Goethe, for whom she
+entertained a violent passion, although he was then in his sixtieth year.
+In 1835 she published Goethe's _Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde_ (Goethe's
+Correspondence with a Child), containing, among others, the letters that
+she alleged to have passed between her and Goethe. Her later writings dealt
+with subjects like the emancipation of the Jews, and the abolition of
+capital punishment. Her husband, Ludwig Achim von Arnim, born at Berlin in
+1781, died 1831, distinguished himself as a writer of novels. In concert
+with her brother, Clemens Brentano, he published a collection of popular
+German songs and ballads entitled _Des Knaben Wunderhorn_.--Her daughter,
+Gisela von Arnim, is known in literature by her _Dramatische Werke_ (3
+vols., 1857-63).
+
+AR'NO (ancient ARNUS), a river of Italy which rises in the Etruscan
+Apennines, makes a sweep to the south and then flows westwards, divides
+Florence into two parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4 miles below it, into the
+Tuscan Sea, after a course of 130 miles.
+
+ARNO'BIUS, an early Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca
+Veneria, in Numidia, and in 303 became a Christian; he died about 326. He
+wrote seven books of _Disputationes adversus Gentes_ (or _Adversus
+Nationes_), in which he refuted the objections of the heathens against
+Christianity. This work betrays a defective knowledge of Christianity, but
+is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology.
+
+ARNOLD, an urban district or town of England, Nottinghamshire, 3 miles
+north-east of Nottingham, with lace and hosiery manufactures, &c. It has a
+church built in the twelfth century, and a tower dating from the fifteenth
+century and restored in 1868 and 1877. Pop. 11,800.
+
+AR'NOLD, Benedict, a general in the American army during the War of
+Independence, born in 1741. He rendered his name infamous by his attempt to
+betray the strong fortress of West Point, with all the arms and immense
+stores which were there deposited, into the hands of the British. The
+project failed through the capture of Major Andre, when Arnold made his
+escape to the British lines. He received a commission as brigadier-general
+in the British army, and took part in several marauding expeditions. He
+subsequently settled in the West Indies, and ultimately came to London,
+where he died in 1801.
+
+AR'NOLD, Sir Edwin, K.C.I.E., poet, Sanskrit scholar, and journalist, born
+1832. Educated at Oxford, where he took the Newdigate prize for a poem
+entitled the _Feast of Belshazzar_ in 1852, he was successively second
+master in King Edward VI's College at Birmingham, and principal of the
+Sanskrit College at Poonah in Bombay. In 1861 he joined the editorial staff
+of the _Daily Telegraph_, with which he was henceforth connected. He died
+in 1904. He was author of _Poems, Narrative and Lyrical_; translations from
+the Greek and Sanskrit; _The Light of Asia_, a poem on the life and
+teaching of Buddha; _The Light of the World_; _Pearls of the Faith_; _Lotus
+and Jewel_, &c.
+
+AR'NOLD, Matthew, English critic, essayist, and poet, was born at Laleham,
+near Staines, 1822, being a son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He was educated at
+Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford, and became a Fellow of Oriel College. He was
+private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, 1847-51; appointed inspector of
+schools, 1851; professor of poetry at Oxford, 1858; published _A Strayed
+Reveller and other poems_, 1848; _Empedocles on Etna_, 1853; _Merope_,
+1858; _Essays in Criticism_, 1865; _On the Study of Celtic Literature_,
+1867; _Schools and Universities on the Continent_, 1868; _St. Paul and
+Protestantism_, 1870; _Literature and Dogma_, 1873; _Last Essays on Church
+and Religion_, 1877; _God and the Bible_, 1878; _Discourses on America_,
+1885, &c. He received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh, and that of
+D.C.L. from Oxford, and lectured in Britain and in America. He died in
+1888. A complete edition of his works in 15 vols. appeared in
+1905.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. W. Paul, _Matthew Arnold_ (English Men of Letters
+Series); G. Saintsbury, _Matthew Arnold_ (Modern English Writers Series);
+G. W. E. Russell, _Matthew Arnold_ (Literary Lives Series); F. Bickley,
+_Matthew Arnold and his Poetry_.
+
+AR'NOLD, Thomas, headmaster of Rugby School, and professor of modern
+history in the University of Oxford, born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight,
+in 1795, died 1842. He entered Oxford in his sixteenth year, and in 1815 he
+was elected Fellow of Oriel College, and both in that year and 1817 he
+obtained the chancellor's prize for Latin and English essays. After taking
+deacon's orders he settled at Laleham, near Staines, where he employed
+himself in preparing young men for the universities. In 1828 he was
+appointed headmaster of Rugby School, and devoted himself to his new duties
+with the greatest ardour. While giving due prominence to the classics, he
+deprived them of their exclusiveness by introducing various other branches
+into his course, and he was particularly careful that the education which
+he furnished should be in the highest sense moral and Christian. His
+success was remarkable. Not only did Rugby School become crowded beyond any
+former precedent, but the superiority of Dr. Arnold's system became so
+generally recognized that it may be justly said to have done much for the
+general improvement of the public schools of England. In 1841 he was
+appointed professor of modern history at Oxford, and delivered his
+introductory course of lectures with great success. His chief works are his
+edition of Thucydides, his _History of Rome_ (unhappily left unfinished),
+and his _Sermons_. There is an admirable memoir of him by A. P. Stanley,
+Dean of Westminster (London, 2 vols., 1845).--Cf Lytton Strachey, _Eminent
+Victorians_.
+
+AR'NOLD OF BRESCIA, an Italian religious and political reformer and martyr
+of the twelfth century. He was one of the disciples of Abelard, and
+attracted a considerable following by preaching against the corruption of
+the clergy. Excommunicated by Innocent II, he withdrew to Zuerich, but soon
+reappeared in Rome, where he was taken and burned (1155).
+
+ARNOLD-FORSTER, Hugh Oakeley, grandson of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, and adopted
+son of the late W. E. Forster, M.P., whose wife was his aunt, was born in
+1855, died in 1909. He was educated at Rugby and University College,
+Oxford. He sat as member of Parliament for West Belfast from 1892, for
+Croydon from 1906, as a Liberal Unionist, was Parliamentary Secretary to
+the Admiralty from 1900 to 1903, then Secretary of State for War, a
+position which he held till Dec., 1905, having put forward sweeping
+proposals for the improvement of our army. He wrote on various subjects,
+especially books for popular instruction, including _How to Solve the Irish
+Land Question_, _The Citizen Reader_, _This World of Ours_, _Things New and
+Old_, _In a Conning Tower_, _A History of England_, _English Socialism of
+To-day_, _Military Needs and Military Policy_, &c.
+
+AR'NON, a river in Palestine, the boundary between the country of the
+Moabites and that of the Amorites, afterwards of the Israelites, a
+tributary of the Dead Sea. It is now called Wady-el-Mojib.
+
+AR'NOT, or AR'NUT, a name of the agreeably flavoured farinaceous tubers of
+the earth-nut or pig-nut (_Bunium flexu[=o]sum_ and _B. Bulbocast[)a]num_).
+See _Earth-nut_.
+
+AR'NOTT, Dr. Neil, an eminent physician and physicist, was born at
+Arbroath, 1788, died 1874. Having graduated as M.A. at Aberdeen, he then
+studied medicine, and was appointed a surgeon in the East India Company's
+naval service. In 1811 he commenced practice in London. In 1837 he was
+appointed extraordinary physician to the queen. In 1827 he published
+_Elements of Physics_, and in 1838 a treatise on _Warming and Ventilation_,
+&c. He is widely known as the inventor of a stove which is regarded as one
+of the most economical arrangements for burning fuel, a ventilating
+chimney-valve, and his water-bed for the protection of the sick against
+bed-sores. In 1869 he gave L1000 to each of the four Scottish universities
+and L2000 to London University for the promotion of the study of physics.
+He was a strong advocate of a scientific as opposed to a purely classical
+education.
+
+ARNPRIOR, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 35 miles west of Ottawa, on
+the right bank of the River Ottawa, where it is joined by the Madawaska,
+and with important railway connections. Pop. 4405.
+
+ARNSBERG ([.a]rnz'ber_h_), a town in Prussia, province Westphalia, capital
+of the district of same name, on the Ruhr. Pop. 10,256.--The district of
+Arnsberg has an area of 2972 sq. miles, and a population of 2,400,000.
+
+ARNSTADT ([.a]rn'st[.a]t), a town of Germany, in Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,
+11 miles south by west of Erfurt, upon the Gera, which divides it into two
+parts. It has manufactures in leather, &c., and a good trade in grain and
+timber. Pop. 17,907.
+
+ARNSWALDE ([.a]rnz'v[.a]l-de), a town of Prussia, province Brandenburg, 39
+miles south-east of Stettin. Pop. 8730.
+
+AR'NULF, great-grandson of Charlemagne, elected King of Germany in A.D.
+887; invaded Italy, captured Rome, and was crowned emperor by the Pope
+(896); died A.D. 898.
+
+AROI'DEAE. See _Araceae_.
+
+AR'OLSEN, a German town, capital of Waldeck. Pop. 2793.
+
+AROMAT'ICS, drugs, or other substances which yield a fragrant smell, and
+often a warm pungent taste, as calamus (_Ac[=o]rus Cal[)a]mus_), ginger,
+cinnamon, cassia, lavender, rosemary, laurel, nutmegs, cardamoms, pepper,
+pimento, cloves, vanilla, saffron. Some of them are used medicinally as
+tonics, stimulants, &c.
+
+AROMATIC VINEGAR, a very volatile and powerful perfume made by adding the
+essential oils of lavender, cloves, &c., and often camphor, to
+crystallizable acetic acid. It is a powerful excitant in fainting, languor,
+and headache.
+
+ARO'NA, an ancient Italian town near the south extremity of Lago Maggiore.
+Pop. 4474. In the vicinity is the colossal statue of San Carlo Borromeo, 70
+feet in height, exclusive of pedestal 42 feet high.
+
+AROOS'TOOK, a river of the north-eastern United States and New Brunswick, a
+tributary of the St. John, length 120 miles.
+
+AROU'RA, or ARU'RA, an ancient Egyptian measure of surface, according to
+Herodotus the square of 100 cubits, containing, 21,904 sq. feet.
+
+ARPAD, founder of the Magyar monarchy, born about 870, died 907. See
+_Hungary_.
+
+ARPEGGIO ([.a]r-pej'[=o]), the distinct sound of the notes of an
+instrumental chord; the striking the notes of a chord in rapid succession,
+as in the manner of touching the harp instead of playing them
+simultaneously.
+
+ARPENT ([.a]r-pae[n.]), formerly a French measure of land, equal to
+five-sixths of an English acre; but it varied in different parts of France;
+the Parisian arpent contained 32,400 sq. feet, the common arpent 40,000 sq.
+feet.
+
+ARPINO ([.a]r-p[=e]'n[=o]; ancient ARPINUM), a town of Southern Italy,
+province of Caserta, celebrated as the birthplace of Gaius Marius and
+Cicero. It manufactures woollens, linen, paper, &c. Pop. 10,309.
+
+ARQUA ([.a]r'kw[.a]), a village of Northern Italy, about 13 miles
+south-west of Padua, where the poet Petrarch died, 18th July, 1374. A
+monument has been erected over his grave. Pop. 1700.
+
+AR'QUEBUS, a hand-gun; a species of fire-arm of the sixteenth century,
+resembling a musket. It was fired from a forked rest, and sometimes cocked
+by a wheel, and carried a ball that weighed nearly 2 ounces. A larger kind
+used in fortresses carried a heavier shot.
+
+ARRACA'CHA. See _Aracacha_.
+
+ARRACAN'. See _Aracan_.
+
+AR'RACK. See _Arack_.
+
+AR'RAGON. See _Aragon_.
+
+AR'RAH, a town of British India, in Shahabad district, Bengal, rendered
+famous during the mutiny of 1857 by the heroic resistance of a body of
+twenty civilians and fifty Sikhs, cooped up within a detached house, to a
+force of 3000 sepoys, who were ultimately routed and overthrown by the
+arrival of a small European reinforcement. Pop. 46,170.
+
+ARRAIGNMENT (ar-r[=a]n'-), the act of calling or setting a prisoner at the
+bar of a court to plead guilty or not guilty to the matter charged in an
+indictment or information. In Scots law the term is _calling the
+diet_.--The _Clerk of Arraigns_ is an officer attached to assize courts and
+to the Old Bailey, who assists in the arraignment of prisoners, and puts
+formal questions to the jury.
+
+AR'RAN, an island of Scotland, in the Firth of Clyde, part of Bute county;
+length, north to south, 20 miles; breadth, about 10 miles; area, 165 sq.
+miles, or 105,814 acres, of which about 15,000 are under cultivation. It is
+of a wild and romantic appearance, particularly the northern half, where
+the island attains its loftiest summit in Goatfell, 2866 feet high. The
+coast presents several indentations, of which that of Lamlash, forming a
+capacious bay, completely sheltered by Holy Island, is one of the best
+natural harbours in the west of Scotland. On the small island of Pladda,
+about a mile from the south shore, a lighthouse has been erected. The
+geology of Arran has attracted much attention, as furnishing within a
+comparatively narrow space distinct sections of the great geological
+formations; while the botany possesses almost equal interest, both in the
+variety and the rarity of many of its plants. Among objects of interest are
+relics of Danish forts, standing stones, cairns, &c. Lamlash and Brodick
+are villages. The island is a favourite resort of summer visitors, and is
+reached by steamer from Ardrossan. Pop. 8294.
+
+ARRAN, EARLS OF. See _Hamilton, Family of_.
+
+ARRANGEMENT, in music, the adaptation of a composition to voices or
+instruments for which it was not originally written; also, a piece so
+adapted.
+
+AR'RAN ISLANDS. See _Aran_.
+
+ARRARO'BA. See _Araroba_.
+
+ARRAS ([.a]-rae), a town of France, capital of the department
+Pas-de-Calais, well built, with several handsome squares and a citadel,
+cathedral, public library, botanic garden, museum, and numerous flourishing
+industries. In the Middle Ages it was famous for the manufacture of
+tapestry, to which the English applied the name of the town itself
+(arrazo). The battle of Arras was fought and Vimy Ridge taken by the Allies
+on 9th April, 1917. Pop. 24,200.
+
+ARREST' is the apprehending or restraining of one's person, which, in civil
+cases, can take place legally only by process in execution of the command
+of some court or officers of justice; but in criminal cases any man may
+arrest without warrant or precept, and every person is liable to arrest
+without distinction, but no man is to be arrested unless charged with such
+a crime as will at least justify holding him to bail when taken. _Magna
+Charta_ and the _Habeas Corpus Act_ are the two great statutes for securing
+the liberty of the subject against unlawful arrests and suits.
+
+ARREST'MENT, in Scots law, a process by which a creditor may attach money
+or movable property which a third party holds for behoof of his debtor. In
+1870 an Act was passed for Scotland which provides that only that part of
+the weekly wages of labourers, and of workpeople generally, which is in
+excess of 20_s_. is liable to arrestment for debt.
+
+ARREST OF JUDGMENT, in law, the staying or stopping of a judgment after
+verdict, for causes assigned. Courts have power to arrest judgment for
+intrinsic causes appearing upon the face of the record; as when the
+declaration varies from the original writ; when the verdict differs
+materially from the pleadings; or when the case laid in the declaration is
+not sufficient in point of law to found an action upon.
+
+ARRE'TIUM. See _Arezzo_.
+
+ARRHENATH'ERUM, a genus of oat-like grasses, of which _A. elatius_,
+sometimes called French rye-grass, is a valuable fodder plant.
+
+ARRHENIUS, Svante August, famous Swedish physicist and chemist, born 19th
+Feb., 1859, at Wyk, near Upsala. He was educated at the Universities of
+Upsala (1876-81) and Stockholm (1881-4), spent two years in travelling, and
+after doing much original research was appointed professor of physics at
+the University of Stockholm. To him is due the establishment of the theory
+of electrolytic dissociation, supplying a reasonable explanation of many
+chemical phenomena otherwise insoluble. He subsequently extended the
+application of the electrolytic theory to the phenomena of atmospheric
+electricity. His dissertation _Sur la conductibilite galvanique des
+electrolytes_ appeared in 1884. Among his other works is _Worlds in the
+Making_ (English translation, 1908).
+
+AR'RIA, the heroic wife of a Roman named Caec[=i]na Paetus. Paetus was
+condemned to death in A.D. 42 for his share in a conspiracy against the
+emperor Claudius, and was encouraged to suicide by his wife, who stabbed
+herself and then handed the dagger to her husband with the words, 'It does
+not hurt, Paetus!'
+
+AR'RIAN, or FLAVIUS ARRIANUS, a Greek historian, native of Nicomedia,
+flourished in the second century, under the emperor Hadrian and the
+Antonines. He was first a priest of Ceres; but at Rome he became a disciple
+of Epictetus, was honoured with the citizenship of Rome, and was advanced
+to the senatorial and even consular dignities. His extant works are: _The
+Expedition of Alexander_, in seven books; a book _On the Affairs of India_;
+an _Epistle to Hadrian_; a _Treatise on Tactics_; a _Periplus of the Euxine
+Sea_; a _Periplus of the Red Sea_; and his _Enchiridion_, a moral treatise,
+containing the discourses of Epictetus.
+
+AR'RIS, in architecture, the line in which the two straight or curved
+surfaces of a body, forming an exterior angle, meet each other.
+
+ARRO'BA (Spanish), a weight formerly used in Spain, and still used in the
+greater part of Central and South America. In the States of Spanish origin
+its weight is generally equal to 25.35 lb. avoirdupois; in Brazil it equals
+32.38 lb.--Also a measure for wine, spirits, and oil, ranging from 2-3/4
+gallons to about 10 gallons.
+
+ARROEE, Danish island. See _Aeroee_.
+
+ARRONDISSEMENT. See _France_.
+
+ARROW. See _Archery, Bow_.
+
+ARROWHEAD (Sagittaria), a genus of aquatic plants found in all parts of the
+world within the torrid and temperate zones, nat. ord. Alismaceae,
+distinguished by possessing barren and fertile flowers, with a three-leaved
+calyx and three coloured petals. The common arrowhead (_S. sagittifolia_),
+the only native species in Britain, is known by its arrow-shaped leaves
+with lanceolate straight lobes.
+
+ARROWHEADED CHARACTERS. See _Cuneiform Writing_.
+
+ARROW LAKE, an expansion of the Columbia River, in British Columbia,
+Canada; about 95 miles long from N. to S.; often regarded as forming two
+lakes--Upper and Lower Arrow Lake.
+
+ARROWROCK DAM. See _Dams_ and _Reservoirs_.
+
+[Illustration: Arrow-root (_Maranta arundin[=a]c[)e]a_)]
+
+ARROW-ROOT, a starch largely used for food and for other purposes.
+Arrow-root proper is obtained from the rhizomes or rootstocks of several
+species of plants of the genus Maranta (nat. ord. Marantaceae), and perhaps
+owes its name to the scales which cover the rhizome, which have some
+resemblance to the point of an arrow. Some, however, suppose that the name
+is due to the fact of the fresh roots being used as an application against
+wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows, and others say that _arrow_ is a
+corruption of _ara_, the Indian name of the plant. The species from which
+arrow-root is most commonly obtained is _M. arundin[=a]c[)e]a_, hence
+called the _arrow-root plant_. Brazilian arrow-root, or tapioca meal, is
+got from the large fleshy root of _Manihot utilissima_, after the poisonous
+juice has been got rid of; East Indian arrow-root, from the large
+rootstocks of _Curc[)u]ma angustifolia_; Chinese arrow-root, from the
+creeping rhizomes of _Nelumbium speci[=o]sum_; English arrow-root, from the
+potato; Portland arrow-root, from the corms of _Arum macul[=a]tum_; and
+Oswego arrow-root, from Indian corn. Analyses made in 1902 and 1906 show
+that the idea generally held of the nourishing qualities of arrow-root is a
+delusion, and that the proteids, which are true muscle-builders, are
+present in an extremely small extent. Arrow-root, however, mixed with eggs,
+milk, and flavourings, is largely used in the dietary of invalids.
+
+ARROWSMITH, Aaron, a distinguished English chartographer, born 1750, died
+1823; he raised the execution of maps to a perfection it had never before
+attained.--His nephew, John, born 1790, died 1873, was no less
+distinguished in the same field; his _London Atlas of Universal Geography_
+may be specially mentioned.
+
+ARROYO ([.a]r-r[=o]'yo), the name of two towns of Spain, in Estremadura,
+the one, called Arroyo del Puerco (pop. 5727), about 10 miles west of
+Caceres; the other, called Arroyo Molinos de Montanches, about 27 miles
+south-east of Caceres, memorable from the victory gained by Lord Hill over
+a French force under General Gerard, 28th Oct., 1811.
+
+AR'RU (or AROO) ISLANDS, a group belonging to the Dutch, south of western
+New Guinea, and extending from north to south about 127 miles. They are
+composed of coralline limestone, nowhere exceeding 200 feet above the sea,
+and are well wooded and tolerably fertile. The natives belong to the Papuan
+race, and some of them are Christians. The chief exports are trepang,
+tortoise-shell, pearls, mother-of-pearl, and edible birds'-nests. Pop. of
+group about 20,000.
+
+ARSA'CES, the founder of a dynasty of Parthian kings (256 B.C.), who,
+taking their name from him, are called Arsacidae. There were thirty-one in
+all. See _Parthia_.
+
+AR'SAMAS, a manufacturing town in the Russian government of Nijni-Novgorod,
+on the Tesha, 250 miles east of Moscow, with a cathedral and large convent.
+Pop. 12,000.
+
+AR'SENAL, a royal or public magazine or place appointed for the making,
+repairing, keeping, and issuing of military stores. An arsenal of the first
+class should include factories for guns and gun-carriages, small-arms,
+small-arms ammunition, harness, saddlery, tents, and powder; a laboratory
+and large store-houses. In arsenals of the second class workshops take the
+place of the factories. The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, which manufactures
+warlike implements and stores for the army and navy, was formed about 1720,
+and comprises factories, laboratories, &c., for the manufacture and final
+fitting up of almost every kind of arms and ammunition. Great quantities of
+military and naval stores are kept at the dockyards of Chatham, Portsmouth,
+Plymouth, and Pembroke. In France there are various arsenals or depots of
+war-material, which is manufactured at Mezieres, Toulouse, Besancon, &c.;
+the great naval arsenals are Brest and Toulon. Until 1919 the chief German
+arsenals were at Spandau, Strassburg, and Dantzig. The chief Austrian
+arsenal was the immense establishment at Vienna, which included
+gun-factory, laboratory, small-arms and carriage factories, &c. Russia had
+her principal arsenal at Petrograd, with supplementary factories of arms
+and ammunition at Briansk, Kiev, and elsewhere. In Italy Turin is the
+centre of the military factories. There are a number of arsenals in the
+United States, but individually they are of little importance.
+
+AR'SENIC (symbol AS, atomic weight 75), a common element usually found
+combined with metals as arsenides, the commonest of which is arsenical
+pyrites, FeAsS. It has a steel colour and high metallic lustre, and
+tarnishes on exposure to the air, first changing to yellow, and finally to
+black. In hardness it equals copper; it is extremely brittle, and very
+volatile, beginning to sublime before it melts. It burns with a blue flame,
+and emits a smell of garlic. Its specific gravity is 5.76. It forms
+compounds with most of the metals. Combined with sulphur it forms orpiment
+and realgar, which are the yellow and red sulphides of arsenic. Orpiment is
+the true _arsenicum_ of the ancients. With oxygen arsenic forms two
+compounds, the more important of which is arsenious oxides or arsenic
+trioxide (As_4O_6), which is the _white arsenic_, or simply _arsenic_ of
+the shops. It is usually seen in white, glassy, translucent masses, and is
+obtained by sublimation from several ores containing arsenic in combination
+with metals, particularly from arsenical pyrites. Of all substances arsenic
+is that which has most frequently occasioned death by poisoning, both by
+accident and design. The best remedies against the effects of arsenic on
+the stomach are ferric hydroxide or magnesic hydroxide, or a mixture of
+both, with copious draughts of bland liquids of a mucilaginous consistence,
+which serve to procure its complete ejection from the stomach. Oils and
+fats generally, milk, albumen, wheat-flour, oatmeal, sugar or syrup, have
+all proved useful in counteracting its effect. Like many other virulent
+poisons it is a safe and useful medicine, especially in skin diseases, when
+judiciously employed. It is used as a flux for glass, and also for forming
+pigments. The arsenite of copper (Scheele's green) and a double arsenite
+and acetate of copper (emerald green) were formerly largely used to colour
+paper-hangings for rooms; but as poisonous gases are liable to be given
+off, the practice has been to a great extent abandoned. Arsenic compounds
+have been used for colouring confectionery, and other articles, bright
+green, but their chief industrial use is in the preparation of
+insecticides. Arsenic is found in crude oil of vitriol, and occasionally in
+products such as grape-sugar, beer, &c., in the manufacture of which oil of
+vitriol is employed. Plants die when placed in a solution of arsenic, but
+corn is often steeped in such a solution, previous to planting, for
+preventing smut, and the growth of the future plant is not injured thereby.
+
+ARSHIN ([.a]r-sh[=e]n'), a Russian measure of length equal to 28 inches.
+
+ARSIN'OE, a city of ancient Egypt on Lake Moeris, said to have been founded
+about 2300 B. C., but renamed after Arsinoe, wife and sister of Ptolemy II
+of Egypt, and called also _Crocodilopolis_, from the sacred crocodiles kept
+at it.
+
+AR'SIS, a term applied in prosody to that syllable in a measure where the
+emphasis is put; in elocution, the elevation of the voice, in distinction
+from _thesis_, or its depression. _Arsis_ and _thesis_, in music, are the
+strong position and weak position of the bar, indicated by the down-beat
+and up-beat in marking time.
+
+AR'SON, in English law, the malicious burning of a dwelling-house or
+outhouse of another man, which by the common law is felony, and which, if
+any person is therein, is capital. Also, the wilful setting fire to any
+church, chapel, warehouse, mill, barn, agricultural produce, ship,
+coal-mine, and the like. In Scotland it is called _wilful fire-raising_,
+and in both England and Scotland it is a considerable aggravation of the
+crime if the burning is to defraud insurers.
+
+ART, in its most extended sense, as distinguished from nature on the one
+hand and from science on the other, has been defined as every regulated
+operation or dexterity by which organized beings pursue ends which they
+know beforehand, together with the rules and the result of every such
+operation or dexterity. Science consists in _knowing_, art in _doing_. In
+this wide sense it embraces what are usually called the useful arts. In a
+narrower and purely aesthetic sense it designates what are more
+specifically termed the fine arts, as architecture, sculpture, painting,
+music, and poetry. The useful arts have their origin in positive practical
+needs, and restrict themselves to satisfying them. The fine arts minister
+to the sentiment of taste through the medium of the beautiful in form,
+colour, rhythm, or harmony. See _Fine Arts_, _Painting_, _Sculpture_,
+&c.--In the Middle Ages it was common to give certain branches of study the
+name of arts.--Cf. A. C. R. Carter, _History of Art_, _The Year's Art_.
+
+ART COLLECTIONS. See _Collections, Artistic_.
+
+ART, Teaching of. With the advent of the present industrial age the
+teaching of art has undergone a profound change. The fine and the
+industrial arts have been equally affected. In mediaeval times, and in the
+earlier classic ages, the system of apprenticeship prevailed, and all
+teaching of the arts and of the artistic crafts was given by masters of the
+various arts or trades to the apprentices who worked under their guidance
+as assistants. Standards of excellence were maintained by trade guilds, who
+enforced rules as to workmanship as well as rules for the economic
+conditions of each trade or craft. The painter of pictures, or of mural
+decorations, was trained in the same way as any other craftsman, working as
+an apprentice under a master.
+
+When, in the last century, machinery driven by steam-power took the place
+of hand labour in industry, the small independent workshops gradually
+disappeared, as the industrial centres increased in those localities where
+coal or raw material was most easily obtained; and, as the processes of
+each trade or craft became more and more subdivided and specialized, the
+old system of apprenticeship, which had become unnecessary, broke down. The
+teaching and tradition of the small independent craft workshops had no
+counterpart in the new centralized industrial systems. Even the painters of
+pictures needed no longer to prepare their own materials, for special
+industries arose, and mechanical processes were developed, for the work
+which formerly had been done in the artists' workshops by apprentices. The
+fine arts in this way suffered the loss of their old systems of teaching
+and instruction.
+
+To meet the need for a revival of art teaching in the crafts and other
+industries, there arose a movement towards the centralization of teaching
+in schools of art during the latter half of the nineteenth century.
+Following the impulse given to that movement by the great exhibition in
+1850, the British Government founded the schools of science and art in
+London and in most of the important provincial towns. Earlier in the
+century bodies of artists had founded national academies for the teaching
+of art; and the teaching of drawing was gradually adopted as a part of
+ordinary school education. Step by step training in schools of art or
+technical schools took the place of the teaching formerly given during
+apprenticeship in every craft workshop. The ancient guilds were replaced by
+the new trades unions, but these took no part in the maintenance of
+artistic standards nor of quality in workmanship.
+
+At the present time the teaching of art begins with the early school
+lessons in drawing, and is carried on in special technical classes or
+schools of art, where teachers of the 'fine arts' and of the artistic
+crafts give instruction to students preparing for professional work. In a
+few of the artistic trades the system of apprenticeship still survives, but
+the teaching given by that means is usually supplemented by attendance at a
+school of art or technical school. Under the Education Act of 1918
+attendance at technical classes in the daytime became compulsory for
+apprentices in all industrial trades.
+
+The subject of art teaching was formerly disregarded by the universities,
+but has become definitely within their province since the founding of the
+Slade professorships at Oxford, Cambridge, and London Universities, and of
+the professorship of fine art at the University of Edinburgh.
+
+The chief schools of art in Great Britain are the schools of the Royal
+Academy in London, the Slade School at University College, London, and the
+Royal College of Art at South Kensington, also the Central School of Arts
+and Crafts, and the other large metropolitan schools of the London County
+Council.
+
+In most of the English provincial towns are municipal or other schools of
+art under the control of the Board of Education.
+
+In Scotland the chief schools are the four central institutions--the
+Edinburgh College of Art, and the schools of art of Glasgow, Aberdeen, and
+Dundee. In each of these a diploma is given on the satisfactory completion
+of a prescribed course of study.
+
+In Ireland the chief schools are those of the Royal Hibernian Academy in
+Dublin, and the provincial schools of art under the Department of
+Agriculture and Technology.
+
+On the Continent the chief centre of artistic training has for many years
+been in Paris. Advanced students from most European and American art
+schools spend some of the later period of their study in the schools of
+Paris, in painting, in sculpture, or in architecture. There is, naturally,
+a valuable incentive and stimulation due to this gathering together of
+advanced students from all countries, as well as to the high academic
+tradition and sense of style of the French.
+
+The 'atelier' system, which is followed in the French schools, is simple
+and personal. The expenses of an 'atelier', or studio, are borne by a group
+of students by the consent and under the guidance of an artist of
+reputation, who visits the 'atelier' at stated intervals, but is not
+concerned in its administration. In this way the relations between the
+professor and his pupils are extremely direct and personal. Most of the
+distinguished artists of Paris are attached to some 'atelier' to which
+chosen pupils are admitted.
+
+There are also in Paris excellent schools for training in the applied arts,
+schools for furniture-making, printing, jewellery, and other artistic
+trades. These are on private foundations, but also receive State aid.
+
+The teaching of art that is given at the present day as a part of ordinary
+general education attempts little more than a training in the elements of
+drawing, with some practice in the use of colour. The purpose of the
+drawing lesson is the attainment of skill in the representation of objects
+rather than the training of the aesthetic sense, or of artistic judgment or
+taste.
+
+In the schools of art opportunities are provided for training in drawing
+and painting, sculpture, and architecture, and in the general principles of
+design in these arts, and in many of the artistic crafts and industrial
+processes. In some localities, where particular industries or artistic
+trades are concentrated, special schools for artistic and technical
+training are provided. The present tendency is towards the development of
+special schools for particular artistic trades or professions.
+
+A complete system of training in any art must of necessity include: (1)
+actual technical practice; (2) teaching of the canons of workmanship of the
+art; (3) acquaintance with its historical development, especially with the
+notable examples and the highest achievements of past masters in the art.
+
+ARTA (ancient AMBRACIA), a gulf, town, and river of north-western Greece.
+The town was transferred by Turkey to Greece in 1881 (pop. 8000). It stands
+on the River Arta, which for a considerable distance above its mouth formed
+a part of the boundary between Greece and Turkey.--The province of Arta has
+an area of 395 sq. miles, and a pop. of 52,400.
+
+ARTAXERX'ES (Old Pers. _Artakhsathra_, 'the mighty'), the name of several
+Persian kings:--1. ARTAXERXES, surnamed Longim[)a]nus, succeeded his father
+Xerxes I, 465 B.C. He subdued the rebellious Egyptians, terminated the war
+with Athens, governed his subjects in peace, and died 425 B.C.--2.
+ARTAXERXES, surnamed Mnemon, succeeded his father Darius II in the year 405
+B.C. After having vanquished his brother Cyrus he made war on the Spartans,
+who had assisted his enemy, and forced them to abandon the Greek cities and
+islands of Asia to the Persians. On his death, 359 B.C., his son Ochus
+ascended the throne under the name of--3. ARTAXERXES OCHUS (359 to 339
+B.C.). After having overcome the Phoenicians and Egyptians, and displayed
+great cruelty in both countries, he was poisoned by his general Bagoas.
+
+ARTE'DI, Peter, a Swedish naturalist, born 1705, drowned at Amsterdam 1735.
+He studied at Upsala, turned his attention to medicine and natural history,
+and was a friend of Linnaeus. His _Bibliotheca Ichthyologica_ and
+_Philosophia Ichthyologica_, together with a life of the author, were
+published at Leyden in 1738.
+
+ARTEL, a name for co-operative associations in Russia. These associations
+were known in ancient Russia as _drushina_ or _wataga_. The artels
+originally consisted of bodies of men associating for the purpose of
+jointly undertaking a piece of work and dividing the profits. Artels were
+formed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries for the co-operation of
+their members in hunting and fishing. Inspired and stimulated by the
+Schulze-Delitzsch associations established in Germany, the Russian artels
+have extended their activity to various branches of industrial life. There
+are now consum artels, credit artels, and insurance artels, but the most
+important are the artisan and industrial artels. Some of the artels,
+however, are little more than trade guilds with mutual responsibility.
+
+AR'T[)E]MIS, an ancient Greek divinity, identified with the Roman Diana.
+She was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto or Latona, and was the twin
+sister of Apollo, born in the Island of Delos. She is variously represented
+as a huntress, with bow and arrows; as a goddess of the nymphs, in a
+chariot drawn by four stags; and as the moon-goddess, with the crescent of
+the moon above her forehead. She was a maiden divinity, never conquered by
+love, except when Endymion made her feel its power. She demanded the
+strictest chastity from her worshippers, and she is represented as having
+changed Actaeon into a stag, and caused him to be torn in pieces by his own
+dogs, because he had secretly watched her as she was bathing. The Artemisia
+was a festival celebrated in her honour at Delphi. The famous temple of
+Artemis at Ephesus was considered one of the wonders of the world, but the
+goddess worshipped there was very different from the huntress goddess of
+Greece, being of Eastern origin, and regarded as the symbol of fruitful
+nature.
+
+ARTEMI'SIA, Queen of Caria, in Asia Minor, about 352-350 B.C., sister and
+wife of Maus[=o]lus, to whom she erected in her capital, Halicarnassus, a
+monument, called the Mausol[=e]um, which was reckoned among the seven
+wonders of the world.
+
+ARTEMI'SIA, a genus of plants of numerous species, nat. ord. Compositae,
+comprising mugwort, southernwood, and wormwood. Certain alpine species are
+the flavouring ingredient in absinthe. See _Wormwood_.
+
+ARTEMI'SIUM, a promontory in Euboea, an island of the Aegean, near which
+several naval battles between the Greeks and Persians were fought, 480 B.C.
+
+AR'TEMUS WARD. See _Browne, Charles Farrar_.
+
+AR'TERIES, the system of cylindrical vessels or tubes, membranous, elastic,
+and pulsatile, which convey the blood from the heart to all parts of the
+body, by ramifications which, as they proceed, diminish in size and
+increase in number, and terminate in minute capillaries uniting the ends of
+the arteries with the beginnings of the veins. There are two principal
+arteries or arterial trunks: the _aorta_, which rises from the left
+ventricle of the heart and ramifies through the whole body, sending off
+great branches to the head, neck, and upper limbs, and downwards to the
+lower limbs, &c.; and the _pulmonary artery_, which conveys venous blood
+from the right ventricle to the lungs, to be purified in the process of
+respiration.
+
+ARTERIOT'OMY, the opening or cutting of an artery for the purpose of
+blood-letting, as, for instance, to relieve pressure of the brain in
+apoplexy.
+
+[Illustration: Artesian Well. A. A. Outcrops of pervious stratum (C) acting
+as collecting areas. B and D. Impervious stratum.]
+
+ARTE'SIAN WELLS, so called from the French province of Artois, where they
+appear to have been first used on an extensive scale, are perpendicular
+borings into the ground through which water rises to the surface of the
+soil, producing a constant flow or stream, the ultimate sources of supply
+being higher than the mouth of the boring, and the water thus rising by the
+well-known law. They are generally sunk in valley plains and districts
+where the lower pervious strata are bent into basin-shaped curves. The rain
+falling on the outcrops of these saturates the whole porous bed, so that
+when the bore reaches it the water by hydraulic pressure rushes up towards
+the level of the highest portion of the strata. The supply is sometimes so
+abundant as to be used extensively as a moving power, and in arid regions
+for fertilizing the ground, to which purpose artesian springs have been
+applied from a very remote period. Thus many artesian wells have been sunk
+in the Algerian Sahara, which have proved an immense boon to the district.
+The water of most of these is potable, but a few are a little saline,
+though not to such an extent as to influence vegetation. The hollows in
+which London and Paris lie are both perforated in many places by borings of
+this nature. At London they were first sunk only to the sand, but
+afterwards into the chalk. One of the most celebrated artesian wells is
+that of Grenelle, near Paris, 1798 feet deep, completed in 1841, after
+eight years' work. Artesian wells are now common in many countries, and
+have been sunk to the depth of a mile or more. As the temperature of water
+from great depths is invariably higher than that at the surface, artesian
+wells have been made to supply warm water for heating manufactories,
+greenhouses, hospitals, fish-ponds, &c. They have also been made in the
+United States and Australia for the purpose of irrigation. Petroleum wells
+are generally of the same technical description. Artesian wells are now
+made with larger diameters than formerly, and altogether their construction
+has been rendered much more easy in modern times. See _Boring_.
+
+ARTEVELD, or ARTEVELDE ([.a]r'te-velt, [.a]r'te-vel-de), the name of two
+men distinguished in the history of the Low Countries.--1. Jacob van, a
+brewer of Ghent, born about 1300, was selected by his fellow-townsmen to
+lead them in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. In 1338 he
+was appointed captain of the forces of Ghent, and for several years
+exercised a sort of sovereign power. A proposal to make the Black Prince,
+son of Edward III of England, Governor of Flanders led to an insurrection
+in which Arteveld lost his life (1345).--2. Philip, son of the former, at
+the head of the forces of Ghent gained a great victory over the Count of
+Flanders, Louis II, and for a time assumed the state of a sovereign prince.
+His reign proved short-lived. The Count of Flanders returned with a large
+French force, fully disciplined and skilfully commanded. Arteveld was rash
+enough to meet them in the open field at Roosebeke, between Courtrai and
+Ghent, in 1382, and fell with 25,000 Flemings.
+
+ARTHRI'TIS (Gr. _arthron_, a joint), any inflammatory distemper that
+affects the joints, particularly chronic rheumatism or gout.
+
+ARTHRO'DIA, a species of articulation, in which the head of one bone is
+received into a shallow socket in another; a ball-and-socket joint.
+
+ARTHROP'ODA, one of the two primary divisions (Anarthropoda being the
+other) into which modern naturalists have divided the sub-kingdom Annulosa,
+having the body composed of a series of segments, some always being
+provided with articulated appendages. The division comprises Crustaceans,
+Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Insects.
+
+ARTHROZO'A, a name sometimes given to all articulated animals, including
+the arthropoda and worms.
+
+ARTHUR, Chester Alan, twenty-first President of the United States, born
+1830, died 1886, was the son of Scottish parents, his father being pastor
+of Baptist churches in Vermont and New York. He chose law as a profession,
+and practised in New York. As a politician he became a leader in the
+Republican party. During the civil war he was energetic as
+quarter-master-general of New York in getting troops raised and equipped.
+He was afterwards collector of customs for the port of New York. In 1880 he
+was elected Vice-President, succeeding as President on the death of
+Garfield in 1881.
+
+AR'THUR, KING, an ancient British hero of the sixth century, son of Uther
+Pendragon and the Princess Igerna, wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall. He
+married Guinevere, or Ginevra; established the famous order of the Round
+Table; and reigned, surrounded by a splendid Court, twelve years in peace.
+After this, as the poets relate, he conquered Denmark, Norway, and France,
+slew the giants of Spain, and went to Rome. From thence he is said to have
+hastened home on account of the faithlessness of his wife, and Modred, his
+nephew, who had stirred up his subjects to rebellion. He subdued the
+rebels, but died in consequence of his wounds, on the Island of Avalon. The
+story of Arthur is supposed to have some foundation in fact, and has ever
+been a favourite subject with our romanticists and our poets. It is
+generally believed that Arthur was one of the last great Celtic chiefs who
+led his countrymen from the west of England to resist the settlement of the
+Saxons in the country. But many authorities regard him as a leader of the
+Cymry of Cumbria and Strath-Clyde against the Saxon invaders of the east
+coast and the Picts and Scots north of the Forth and the Clyde. See
+_Grail_, _Merlin_, _Round Table_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Rhys, _Studies in the
+Arthurian Legend_; W. Lewis Jones, _King Arthur in History and Legend_.
+
+ARTHUR'S SEAT, a picturesque hill within the King's Park in the immediate
+vicinity of Edinburgh; has an altitude of 822 feet; descends rollingly to
+the N. and E. over a base each way of about five furlongs; presents an
+abrupt shoulder to the S., and breaks down precipitously to the W. It is
+composed of a diversity of eruptive rocks, with some interposed and
+up-tilted sedimentary ones; and derives its name somehow from the legendary
+King Arthur.
+
+AR'TIAD (Gr. _artios_, even-numbered), in chemistry, a name given to an
+element of even equivalency, as a dyad, tetrad, &c.: opposed to a perissad,
+an element of uneven equivalency, such as a monad, triad, &c.
+
+ARTICHOKE (_Cyn[)a]ra Scol[)y]mus_), sometimes called 'the Globe
+Artichoke', a well-known plant of the nat. ord. Compositae, somewhat
+resembling a thistle, with large divided prickly leaves. The erect
+flower-stem terminates in a large round head of numerous imbricated oval
+spiny scales which surround the flowers. The fleshy bases of the scales
+with the large receptacle are the parts that are eaten. Artichokes were
+introduced into England early in the sixteenth century. The Jerusalem
+artichoke (a corruption of the It. _girasole_, a sunflower), or _Helianthus
+tuber[=o]sus_, is a species of sunflower, whose roots are used like
+potatoes; it was introduced into England in the early part of the
+seventeenth century.
+
+ARTICLE, in grammar, a part of speech used before nouns to limit or define
+their application. In English _a_ or _an_ is usually called the indefinite
+article (the latter form being used before a vowel sound), and _the_, the
+definite article, but they are also described as adjectives. _An_ was
+originally the same as _one_, and _the_ as _that_. In Latin there were no
+articles, and Greek has only the definite article.
+
+ARTICLES, LORDS OF THE, in Scottish history, a committee chosen equally
+from each estate or division of Parliament to prepare the various measures,
+which, when completed, were laid before the Parliament for adoption or
+rejection. They were first appointed in 1369, and gradually became a
+recognized part of the Scottish legislative machinery. Abolished 1690.
+
+ARTICLES, THE SIX, in English ecclesiastical history, articles imposed by a
+statute (often called the Bloody Statute) passed in 1541, the thirty-third
+year of the reign of Henry VIII. They decreed the acknowledgment of
+transubstantiation, the sufficiency of communion in one kind, the
+obligation of vows of chastity, the propriety of private masses, celibacy
+of the clergy, and auricular confession. Acceptance of these doctrines was
+made obligatory on all persons under the severest penalties; the Act,
+however, was relaxed in 1544, and repealed in 1549.
+
+ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, of the Church of England, a statement of the
+particular points of doctrine, thirty-nine in number, maintained by the
+English Church; first promulgated by a convocation held in London in
+1562-3, and confirmed by royal authority; founded on and superseding an
+older code issued in the reign of Edward VI. The first five articles
+contain a profession of faith in the Trinity; the incarnation of Jesus
+Christ, His descent to hell, and His resurrection; the divinity of the Holy
+Ghost. The three following relate to the canon of the Scripture. The eighth
+article declares a belief in the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds.
+The ninth and following articles contain the doctrine of original sin, of
+justification by faith alone, of predestination, &c. The nineteenth,
+twentieth, and twenty-first declare the Church to be the assembly of the
+faithful; that it can decide nothing except by the Scriptures. The
+twenty-second rejects the doctrine of purgatory, indulgences, the adoration
+of images, and the invocation of saints. The twenty-third decides that only
+those lawfully called shall preach or administer the sacraments. The
+twenty-fourth requires the liturgy to be in English. The twenty-fifth and
+twenty-sixth declare the sacraments effectual signs of grace (though
+administered by evil men), by which God excites and confirms our faith.
+They are two: baptism and the Lord's supper. Baptism, according to the
+twenty-seventh article, is a sign of regeneration, the seal of our
+adoption, by which faith is confirmed and grace increased. In the Lord's
+supper, according to article twenty-eight, the bread is the communion of
+the body of Christ, the wine the communion of his blood, but only through
+faith (article twenty-ninth); and the communion must be administered in
+both kinds (article thirty). The twenty-eighth article condemns the
+doctrine of transubstantiation, and the elevation and adoration of the
+host; the thirty-first rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous;
+the thirty-second permits the marriage of the clergy; the thirty-third
+maintains the efficacy of excommunication. The remaining articles relate to
+the supremacy of the king, the condemnation of Anabaptists, &c. They were
+ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. All candidates for ordination must
+subscribe these articles, but they are not binding upon laymen, except
+judges and certain university officials. This formulary is now accepted by
+the Episcopalian Churches of Scotland, Ireland, and America.
+
+ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION are the rules framed by a company for the
+administration of its affairs. Public companies usually have separate
+articles of their own, but this is not essential. When a registered company
+has no articles, its business procedure is regulated by the statutory form,
+found in Schedule 1 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act, 1908, and known
+as Table A. When separate articles are used they must be printed, signed,
+stamped, and filed along with the memorandum of association. Unlike the
+memorandum, the articles may be altered at any time, by special resolution,
+provided the alteration is within the powers given by the memorandum. Thus,
+where preferred shares are created by the memorandum, their privileges are
+more secure than if merely issued under the articles. The articles are
+intended merely for internal administration, and, while binding in
+questions between the company and its members as such, they do not affect
+third parties, unless the company has acted _ultra vires_ and this was
+discoverable from the articles, which the public can inspect at a nominal
+fee.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir F. B. Palmer, _Company Law_; A. Coles, _Guide for
+the Company Secretary_; A. F. Topham, _Principles of Company Law_.
+
+ARTICLES OF WAR. See _Military Law_.
+
+ARTICULA'TA, the third great section of the animal kingdom according to the
+arrangement of Cuvier, applied to invertebrates such as insects and worms,
+in which the body displays a jointed structure. The name is now obsolete.
+See _Arthropoda_.
+
+ARTICULA'TION, in anatomy a joint; the joining or juncture of the bones.
+This is of three kinds: (1) _Diarthr[=o]sis_, or a movable connection, such
+as the ball-and-socket joint; (2) _Synarthr[=o]sis_, immovable connection,
+as by suture, or junction by serrated margins; (3) _Symphysis_, or union by
+means of another substance, by a cartilage, tendon, or ligament.
+
+ARTIFICIAL LIMBS. Artificial limbs of a primitive kind have been in use
+from very early times; but, as the material of which they were made was
+perishable, few specimens have been preserved. In the museum of the Royal
+College of Surgeons in London there is a good specimen of a Roman
+artificial leg which is believed to date back to the third century B.C.
+This leg is made of wood, covered with thin bronze; it has an iron
+sole-plate, and was fastened on by means of a waist-belt.
+
+In Irish legend we are told of Nuada, who led the tribe of the Dananns back
+to Ireland, having an artificial hand made of silver; from this he received
+the name of Argetlam or Silver-handed. In mediaeval times Goetz von
+Berlichingen, who lost his right hand at the siege of Landshut (1505), had
+a hand made of iron to supply its place.
+
+Great improvements have been made in the manufacture of artificial limbs
+during the last fifty years. After the Franco-Prussian war the French
+Government adopted an artificial arm and hand known as the 'Beaufort' and
+issued it to the soldiers who required it. This hand had a movable thumb
+controlled by a cord passing up the arm and fastened to a loop band over
+the opposite shoulder. An Englishman named Heather Bigg invented a hand
+with a movable thumb which was worked by a piston and controlled by a
+rubber ball fastened under the arm-pit. These designs have been improved
+upon from time to time, and an artificial hand can now be made which is
+capable of opening and closing at will, and of lifting and holding light
+articles.
+
+Artificial legs vary in design, from the simple pin leg to ingenious
+contrivances such as the 'Anglesey' leg, which is made of seasoned willow
+wood with steel ankles and knee-joints. This 'Anglesey' leg is the standard
+best-quality limb in Great Britain. The German artificial-limb makers use
+leather instead of wood. These leather legs fit comfortably, but are too
+heavy, as they have to be supported by steel bands.
+
+ARTILLERY, all ordnance such as guns and howitzers as opposed to small arms
+and machine-guns. The term is also used for the troops who serve these
+arms.
+
+Generally speaking, artillery is divided into field, heavy, and siege
+artillery. For details of organization see _Army_. The earliest form of
+artillery was a metal tube which was placed in a convenient position on the
+ground. The charge of gunpowder was ignited by placing a match to a hole
+bored at the closed end, and the resulting explosion forced the
+projectile--a stone--more or less in the required direction. Later on this
+primitive weapon was provided with wheels. In another form one man fired it
+while a second man supported it on his shoulder. In the later Middle Ages
+guns of various calibres were known by the names of birds of prey or
+reptiles; among such were falcons and falconets, culverins and
+demi-culverins. The fourteenth century saw the development of artillery for
+siege purposes--chiefly by the Germans--and in the next century it began to
+be employed in open warfare; while in 1537 the present Honourable Artillery
+Company was formed in London to encourage the use of all 'weapons of
+volley'. These weapons of volley were not even confined to fire-arms, but
+included bows and cross-bows. The earliest English troops raised as
+artillery personel were called the Regiment of Firelocks. Of late years
+artillery science has made almost inconceivable progress, thanks to which,
+_inter alia_, it is no longer necessary for the target to be visible from
+the gun-position. This fact, combined with the use of smokeless powder,
+makes the locating of hostile batteries exceedingly difficult. All field
+artillery, by which is meant guns and howitzers, which accompany mobile
+troops are designed on the quick-firing principle, by which the inevitable
+recoil at the moment of firing is absorbed by an arrangement known as the
+recoil-carriage, thus preventing any movement of the gun-carriage proper,
+and avoiding unnecessary labour for the gun-detachments, while at the same
+time allowing the men composing it to remain under cover of the shield with
+which the guns are provided. With the quick-firing gun, propellent and
+projectile are combined in one cartridge similar to that in use with small
+arms; with the howitzer they are separated. This difference is due to the
+fact that whereas guns are designed for a flat trajectory with a deep zone
+of fire-effect, howitzers are intended for high-angle fire with an almost
+vertical fall of shrapnel-bullets. This effect is produced by varying the
+charge for different ranges. A field battery consists of 6 guns or
+howitzers and 12 ammunition-wagons. Both guns and wagons are of the
+limbered type, i.e. in two detachable parts, and the weight behind the team
+of an English gun is approximately 2 tons.
+
+As to tactical principles, it is recognized that the function of artillery
+is to assist the other arms, that it cannot by itself win a battle, and
+that its true _metier_ is to prepare the way for and assist the infantry.
+During 1914-18 some 700,000 officers and men served with the Royal
+Regiment.
+
+ARTILLERY COMPANY, THE HONOURABLE, the oldest existing body of volunteers
+in Great Britain, instituted in 1537, revived in 1610. It comprises six
+companies of infantry, besides artillery, and furnishes a guard of honour
+to the sovereign when visiting the city of London. Previous to 1842 the
+Company elected their own officers, but since that date they have been
+appointed by the Crown.
+
+ARTILLERY SCHOOLS, institutions established for the purpose of giving a
+special training to the officers, and in some cases the men, belonging to
+the artillery service. In Great Britain the artillery schools are at
+Woolwich and Shoeburyness. The Department of Artillery studies at Woolwich
+give artillery officers the means of continuing their studies after they
+have completed the usual course at the Royal Military College, and of
+qualifying for appointments requiring exceptional scientific attainments.
+The School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness gives instruction in gunnery to
+officers and men, and conducts all experiments connected with artillery and
+stores. The sands at the mouth of the Thames afford ample opportunity for
+artillery practice and firing at long ranges. The Royal Artillery
+Institution at Woolwich contains a museum, lecture-room, and
+printing-press, from which professional and scientific papers are
+periodically issued.
+
+ARTIODAC'TYLA (Gr. _artios_, even numbered, _dakt[)y]los_, a finger or
+toe), a section of the Ungulata or hoofed mammals, comprising all those in
+which the number of the toes is even (two or four), including the
+ruminants, such as the ox, sheep, deer, &c., and also a number of
+non-ruminating animals, as the hippopotamus and the pig.
+
+ARTISANS' AND LABOURERS' DWELLINGS ACT, an English Act of Parliament passed
+in 1868 to empower town councils and other local authorities to demolish or
+improve dwellings unfit for human habitation, and to build and maintain
+better dwellings in lieu thereof. Other Acts for the same object were
+passed in 1875, 1879, and 1882. See _Housing_.
+
+ARTOCARPA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants, the bread-fruit order, by some
+botanists ranked as a sub-order of the Urticaceae or nettles. They are
+trees or shrubs, with a milky juice, which in some species hardens into
+caoutchouc, and in the cow-tree (_Bros[)i]mum Galactodendron_) is a milk as
+good as that obtained from the cow. Many of the plants produce an edible
+fruit, of which the best known is the bread-fruit (Artocarpus).
+
+ARTOIS ([.a]r-twae), a former province of France, anciently one of the
+seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, now almost completely included in
+the department of Pas-de-Calais.
+
+ARTOIS, THE BATTLE OF. See _European War_.
+
+ARTS, the name given to certain branches of study in the Middle Ages,
+originally called the 'liberal arts' to distinguish them from the 'servile
+arts' or mechanical occupations. These arts were usually given as grammar,
+dialectics, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Hence
+originated the terms 'art classes', 'degrees in arts', 'Master of Arts',
+&c., still in common use in universities, the faculty of arts being
+distinguished from those of divinity, law, medicine, or science. See
+_University_.
+
+ARTSYBASHEV, Mikhail, Russian author, born in 1878. After a number of short
+stories he wrote, at the age of twenty-five, a novel entitled _Sanin_,
+published in 1907, which placed him at once among the most famous
+contemporary Russian authors. Whatever opinion literary critics may hold of
+this novel, his wonderful realism, simplicity of style, and psychological
+analysis cannot be disputed.
+
+ART UNIONS, associations for encouraging art, an object which they mainly
+pursue by disposing of pictures, sculptures, &c., by lottery among
+subscribers. They seem to have originated in France during the time of
+Napoleon I. They soon afterwards took root in Germany, where they have been
+very successful. The first art union established in Britain was that at
+Edinburgh in 1834. Art unions were legalized by the Art Unions Act, 1846
+See _Lottery_.
+
+ARTVIN, a town in the Republic of Georgia, in the Caucasus, about 35 miles
+inland from Batum. Pop. 6720.
+
+ARUBA ([.a]-roe'b[.a]), an island off the north coast of Venezuela,
+belonging to Holland (a dependency of Curacoa), about 30 miles long and 7
+broad; surface generally rock, quartz being abundant, and containing
+considerable quantities of gold; a phosphate which is exported for manure
+is also abundant. The climate is healthy. Pop. 9481 (1916).
+
+ARU ISLANDS. See _Arru Islands_.
+
+[Illustration: Cuckoo Pint or Wake Robin (_Arum macul[=a]tum_).
+
+1, Spadix. 2, Stamen. 3, Female flower. 4, Fruit.]
+
+A'RUM, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Araceae. _A. macul[=a]tum_ (the common
+wake-robin, lords-and-ladies, or cuckoo pint) is abundant in woods and
+hedges in England and Ireland, but is rare in Scotland. It has acrid
+properties, but its corm yields a starch which is known by the name of
+Portland sago or arrowroot. At one time this was prepared to a considerable
+extent in Portland Island. All the species of this genus develop much heat
+during flowering.
+
+AR'UNDEL, a town in Sussex, England, on the River Arun, 4 miles from its
+mouth, the river being navigable to the town for vessels of 250 tons. The
+castle of Arundel, the chief residence of the dukes of Norfolk, stands on a
+knoll on the north-east side of the town. Pop. (1921), 2741.
+
+AR'UNDEL, Thomas, third son of Richard FitzAlan, Earl of Arundel, born
+1352, died 1413. He was Chancellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury.
+He concerted with Bolingbroke to deliver the nation from the oppression of
+Richard II, and was a bitter persecutor of the Lollards and followers of
+Wycliffe.
+
+ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, a series of ancient sculptured marbles discovered by
+William Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece at the expense of and for
+Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who lived in the time of James I and
+Charles I, and was a liberal patron of scholarship and art. After the
+Restoration they were presented by the grandson of the collector to the
+University of Oxford. Among them is the _Parian Chronicle_, a chronological
+account of the principal events in Grecian, and particularly in Athenian,
+history, during a period of 1186 years, from the reign of Cecrops (1450
+B.C.) to the archonship of Diognetus (264 B.C.).
+
+ARUN'DO. See _Phragmites_.
+
+ARUSPICES (a-rus'pi-s[=e]z), or HARUSPICES, a class of priests in ancient
+Rome, of Etrurian origin, whose business was to inspect the entrails of
+victims killed in sacrifice, and by them to foretell future events.
+
+ARUWIMI, a large river of equatorial Africa, a tributary of the Congo, on
+the north bank.
+
+ARVAL BROTHERS (_Fratres Arv[=a]les_), a college or company of twelve
+members elected for life from the highest ranks in ancient Rome, so called
+from offering annually public sacrifices for the fertility of the fields
+(Lat. _arvum_, a field).
+
+ARVE ([.a]rv), a river rising in the Savoyan Alps, passes through the
+valley of Chamonix, and falls into the Rhone near Geneva, after a course of
+about 50 miles.
+
+ARVIC'OLA, a genus of rodent animals, sub-ord. Muridae or Mice. There are
+three British species. _A. amphibia_ is the water-vole (or water-rat), and
+_A. agrestis_ is the field-vole or short-tailed field-mouse. They are
+prolific animals, having three or four litters in the year, each consisting
+of from four to ten young.
+
+A'RYAN, or INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. See _Indo-European Family_.
+
+AS, a Roman weight of 12 ounces, answering to the libra or pound, and equal
+to 237.5 grains avoirdupois, or 327.1873 grammes French measure. In the
+most ancient times of Rome the copper or bronze coin which was called _as_
+actually weighed an _as_, or a pound, but in 264 B.C. it was reduced to 2
+ounces, in 217 to 1 ounce, and in 191 to 1/2 ounce.
+
+[Illustration: As (half real size)--Specimen in British Museum]
+
+A'SA, great grandson of Solomon and third King of Judah; he ascended the
+throne at an early age, and distinguished himself by his zeal in rooting
+out idolatry with its attendant immoralities. He died after a prosperous
+reign of forty-one years.
+
+ASAFE'TIDA, or ASAFOETIDA, a fetid inspissated sap from Central Asia, the
+solidified juice of the _Narthex Asafetida_, a large umbelliferous plant.
+It is used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic, and in cases of flatulency, in
+hysteric paroxysms, and other nervous affections. Notwithstanding its very
+disagreeable odour it is used as a seasoning in the East, and sometimes in
+Europe. An inferior sort is the product of certain species of Ferula.
+
+ASAGRAE'A. See _Sabadilla_.
+
+ASA'MA, an active volcano of Japan, about 50 miles north-west of Tokio,
+8260 feet high.
+
+A'SAPH, a Levite and psalmist appointed by David as leading chorister in
+the divine services. His office became hereditary in his family, or he
+founded a school of poets and musicians, which were called, after him, "the
+sons of Asaph". See _Psalms_.
+
+ASAPH, ST., a small cathedral city and bishop's see in Wales, 15 miles
+north-west of Flint; founded about 550 by St. Kentigern or St. Mungo,
+bishop of Glasgow, and named after his disciple St. Asaph, from whom both
+the diocese and town took their name. The cathedral was built about the
+close of the fifteenth century; it consists of a choir, a nave, two aisles,
+and a transept. Pop. 1833.
+
+ASARABAC'CA, a small hardy European plant, nat. ord. Aristolochiaceae
+(_As[)a]rum europoeum_). Its leaves are acrid, bitter, and nauseous, and
+its root is extremely acrid. Both the leaves and root were formerly used as
+an emetic. It entered into the composition of medicated snuffs recommended
+in cases of headache.
+
+AS'ARUM. See _Asarabacca_.
+
+ASBEN, AIR, or AHIR, a kingdom of Africa, in the Sahara. It consists of a
+succession of mountain groups and valleys, with a generally western slope,
+and attains in its highest summits a height of over 5000 feet. The valleys
+are very fertile, and often of picturesque appearance. The inhabitants are
+Tuaregs or Berbers, with an admixture of negro blood. They live partly in
+villages, partly as nomads. The country is nominally ruled over by a
+sultan, who resides in the capital, Agades. Pop. about 60,000.
+
+ASBES'TOS, or ASBESTUS, a remarkable and highly-useful mineral, a fibrous
+variety of several members of the hornblende family, composed of separable
+filaments, with a silky lustre. The fibres are sometimes delicate,
+flexible, and elastic; at other times stiff and brittle. It is
+incombustible, and anciently was wrought into a soft, flexible cloth, which
+was used as a shroud for dead bodies. In modern times it has been
+manufactured into incombustible cloth, gloves, felt, paper, &c.; is
+employed in gas-stoves; is much used as a covering to steam boilers and
+pipes; is mixed with metallic pigments, and used as a paint on wooden
+structures, roofs, partitions, &c., to render them fire-proof, and is
+employed in various other ways, the manufacture having recently greatly
+developed. Some varieties are compact, and take a fine polish, others are
+loose, like flax or silky wool. _Ligniform asbestos_, or _mountain-wood_,
+is a variety presenting an irregular filamentous structure, like wood.
+_Rock-cork_, _mountain-leather_, _fossil-paper_, and _fossil-flax_ are
+varieties. Asbestos is found in many parts of the world, but is chiefly
+supplied by Italy, Canada, and Australia. Mineralogically it is distinct
+from chrysotile, which is used for similar purposes.
+
+ASBJOERNSEN ([.a]s'byeurn-sen), Peter Kristen, born 1812, died 1885, a
+distinguished Norwegian naturalist and collector of the popular tales and
+legends, fairy stories, &c., of his native country.
+
+ASBURY PARK, a small town on the coast of New Jersey, United States, a
+great summer resort. Its population increases during the summer months from
+10,000 to 100,000.
+
+AS'CALON, or ASH'KELON, a ruined town of Palestine, on the sea-coast, 40
+miles W.S.W. of Jerusalem. It was occupied by the Crusaders under Richard I
+after a great battle with Saladin (1192) and by General Allenby's troops in
+Nov., 1917.
+
+ASCA'NIUS, the son of Aeneas and Creusa, and the companion of his father's
+wanderings from Troy to Italy.
+
+AS'CARIS. See _Nematoda_.
+
+ASCEN'SION (discovered on Ascension Day), an island of volcanic origin
+belonging to Britain, near the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean, about
+lat. 7deg 55' S.; long. 14deg 25' W.; 700 miles north-west of St. Helena;
+area, about 34 sq. miles. Pop. 196 (1914). It is retained by Britain as a
+naval sanatorium, coaling and victualling station, and store depot. It has
+a steam factory, naval and victualling yards, hospitals, and a coal depot.
+It is celebrated for its turtle, which are the finest in the world. Wild
+goats are plentiful, and oxen, sheep, pheasants, guinea-fowl, and rabbits
+have been introduced, and thrive well. The village of Georgetown, the seat
+of government, stands on the west side of the island, which is governed
+under the admiralty by a naval officer.
+
+ASCENSION, RIGHT, of a star or other heavenly body, in astronomy, the arc
+of the equator intercepted between the first point of Aries and that point
+of the equator which comes to the meridian at the same instant with the
+star.
+
+ASCENSION DAY, the day on which the ascension of the Saviour is
+commemorated, often called _Holy Thursday_: a movable feast, always falling
+on the Thursday but one before Whitsuntide.
+
+ASCET'ICISM and ASCET'ICS (from the Gr. _ask[=e]sis_, meaning practice,
+bodily exercise, or athletic training). The early Christians, who devoted
+themselves to severe exercises of piety and strove to distinguish
+themselves from the world by abstinence from sensual enjoyments and by
+voluntary penances, adopted the name to signify the practice of spiritual
+things. Ascetics and asceticism have played an important part in the
+Christian Church, but the principle of striving after a higher and more
+spiritual life by subduing the animal appetites and passions has no
+necessary connection with Christianity. Thus there were ascetics among the
+Jews previous to Christ, and asceticism was inculcated by the Stoics, while
+in its most extreme form it may still be seen among the Brahmans and
+Buddhists. Monasticism was but one phase of asceticism. It must also be
+borne in mind that in the history of asceticism, pagan, Christian, Jewish,
+and Mohammedan, we are often dealing not only with religious but distinctly
+abnormal temperaments. See _Monasticism_.
+
+ASCH ([.a]sh), a town of Czecho-Slovakia, in the extreme north-western
+corner of former Bohemia, with manufactures of cotton, woollen, and silk
+goods, bleachfields, dyeworks, &c. Pop. 21,583.
+
+ASCHAFFENBURG ([.a]-sh[.a]f'en-boer_h_), a town of Bavaria, on the Main and
+Aschaff, 26 miles E.S.E. of Frankfort. The chief edifice is the castle of
+Johannisberg, built between 1605 and 1614, and for centuries the summer
+residence of the Elector. There are manufactures of coloured paper,
+tobacco, liqueurs, &c. Pop. 29,891.
+
+ASCHAM (as'kam), Roger, a learned Englishman, born in 1515 of a respectable
+family in Yorkshire, died 1568. He was entered at St. John's College,
+Cambridge, 1530, and was elected fellow in 1534 and tutor in 1537. He was
+Latin secretary to Edward VI and also to Mary. He was tutor to Princess
+Elizabeth during her girlhood, and he became her secretary after she
+ascended the throne. In 1544 he wrote his _Toxophilus, or Schole of
+Shooting_, in praise of his favourite amusement and exercise--archery.
+Between 1563 and 1568 he wrote his _Scholemaster_, a treatise on the best
+method of teaching children Latin. Some of his writings, including many
+letters, were in Latin. He wrote the best English style of his time. His
+life was written by Dr. Johnson to accompany an edition of his works
+published in 1769.
+
+ASCHERSLEBEN ([.a]sh'[.e]rz-l[=a]-ben), a town of Prussian Saxony, in the
+district of Magdeburg, near the junction of the Eine with the Wipper.
+Industries: woollens, machinery and metal goods, sugar, paper, &c. Pop.
+28,968.
+
+ASCID'IA (Gr. _askos_, a wine-skin), the name given to the 'Sea-squirts' or
+main section of the Tunicata, a class of animals of low grade, resembling a
+double-necked bottle, of a leathery or gristly nature, found at low-water
+mark on the sea-beach, and dredged from deep water attached to stones,
+shells, and fixed objects. One of the prominent openings admits the food
+and the water required in respiration, the other is the excretory aperture.
+A single _ganglion_ represents the nervous system, placed between the two
+apertures. Male and female reproductive organs exist in each ascidian. They
+pass through peculiar phases of development, the young ascidian appearing
+like a tadpole-body. They may be _single_ or _simple_, _social_ or
+_compound_. In _social ascidians_ the peduncles of a number of individuals
+are united into a common tubular stem, with a partial common circulation of
+blood. In these animals evolutionists see a link between the Mollusca and
+the Vertebrata.
+
+[Illustration: Ascidians
+
+1, Perophora: _a_, mouth; _b_, vent; _c_, intestinal canal; _d_, stomach;
+_e_, common tubular stem. 2, Ascidia echinata. 3, Ascidia virginea. 4,
+Cynthia quadrangularis. 5, Botryllus violaceus.]
+
+ASCLEPLIADA'CEAE, an order of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, the distinguishing
+characteristic of which is that the anthers adhere to the five stigmatic
+processes, the whole sexual apparatus forming a single mass. The
+pollination arrangements are peculiar, recalling those of orchids. The
+members of this order are shrubs, or sometimes herbaceous plants,
+occasionally climbing, almost always with a milky juice. Many of them are
+employed as purgatives, diaphoretics, tonics, and febrifuges, and others as
+articles of food. Asclepias is the typical genus. See _Asclepias_,
+_Calotropis_, _Stapelia_, _Stephanotis_.
+
+ASCLE'PIADES (-d[=e]z), the name of a number of ancient Greek
+writers--poets, grammarians, &c--of whom little is known, and also of
+several ancient physicians, the most celebrated of whom was _Asclepiades_,
+of Bithynia, who acquired considerable repute at Rome about the beginning
+of the first century B.C.
+
+ASCLE'PIAS, or SWALLOW-WORT, a genus of plants, the type and the largest
+genus of the nat. ord. Asclepiadaceae. Most of the species are North
+American herbs, having opposite, alternate, or verticillate leaves. Many of
+them possess powerful medicinal qualities. _A. decumbens_ is diaphoretic
+and sudorific, and has the singular property of exciting general
+perspiration without increasing in any sensible degree the heat of the
+body; _A. curassavica_ is emetic, and its roots are frequently sent to
+England as ipecacuanha; the roots of _A. tuber[=o]sa_ are famed for
+diaphoretic properties. Many other species are also used as medicines, and
+several are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.
+
+ASCLEPIOS. See _Aesculapius_.
+
+AS'COLI, or ASCOLI PICENO (ancient, ASC[)U]LUM), a province in Central
+Italy.--The capital of the province, also called _Ascoli Piceno_, episcopal
+see of the Marches (the ancient Asc[)u]lum), is situated 90 miles
+north-east of Rome and contains, among several handsome new buildings, the
+remains of temples, an ancient theatre, &c. It has also many fine
+pre-Renaissance buildings, such as the Gothic Church S. Francesco and the
+Palazzo del Commune. At Castel Trosino, near Ascoli, a necropolis of the
+seventh century was discovered in 1895. Population of the town, 28,882; of
+the province, 261,835 (1915).
+
+AS'COLI SATRIANO (ancient, ASC[)U]LUM AP[)U]LUM), a town of S. Italy,
+province Foggia. Pop. 9700.
+
+ASCOMYCE'TES (-t[=e]z), one of the main subdivisions of the Eumycetes or
+Higher Fungi, distinguished by their principal spores being produced in
+organs called _asci_. Typically, an _ascus_ is a cylindrical or club-shaped
+structure containing at maturity eight _ascospores_, which are usually
+liberated explosively and thereafter dispersed by the wind. As a rule
+numerous asci are massed together in a layer or _ascus-hymenium_, which is
+variously disposed on a more or less massive fruit-body, according to the
+form and structure of which the group is further subdivided into a number
+of sections and families, the chief being Erysiphales, Plectascineae,
+Pyrenomycetes, Discomycetes (q.v.).
+
+ASCO'NIUS (Quintus A. Pedianus), a Roman writer of the first century A.D.,
+who wrote a life of Sallust, a reply to the detractors of Virgil, and
+commentaries on Cicero's orations, some of which are extant.
+
+AS'COT, an English race-course adjacent to the S.W. extremity of the great
+park of Windsor. The races, which take place in the second week in June,
+constitute, for value of stakes and quality of horses, the best meeting of
+the year, as it is the most fashionable.
+
+AS'GARD (literally, gods' yard, or the abode of the gods), in Scandinavian
+mythology the home of the gods or _Aesir_, rising, like the Greek Olympus,
+from _midgard_, or the middle world, that is, the earth. It was here that
+Odin and the rest of the gods, the twelve Aesir, dwelt--the gods in the
+mansion called Gladsheim, the goddesses dwelling in Vingulf. Walhalla, in
+which heroes slain in battle dwelt, was also here. Below the boughs of the
+ash tree Yggdrasill the gods assembled every day in council.
+
+ASGILL (as'gil), John, an eccentric English writer, a lawyer by profession,
+born 1659, died 1738. In 1699 he published a pamphlet to prove that
+Christians were not necessarily liable to death, death being the penalty
+imposed for Adam's sin and Christ having satisfied the law. Having crossed
+over to Ireland, he was beginning to get into a good practice, and was
+elected to the Irish House of Commons, when his pamphlet was ordered to be
+burned by the public hangman, and he himself was expelled the House. His
+whole subsequent life was passed in pecuniary and other troubles, mostly in
+the Fleet or within the rules of the King's Bench.
+
+ASH (_Frax[)i]nus_), a genus of deciduous trees belonging to the nat. ord.
+Oleaceae, having imperfect flowers and a seed-vessel prolonged into a thin
+wing at the apex (called a _samara_). There are a good many species,
+chiefly indigenous to North America. The common ash (_F. excelsior_), the
+only species indigenous to Central and Northern Europe, has a smooth bark,
+and grows tall and rather slender. The branches are flattened; the leaves
+have five pairs of pinnae, terminated by an odd one, dark-green in colour;
+lanceolate, with serrated edges. The flowers are produced in loose spikes
+from the sides of the branches, and are succeeded by flat seeds which ripen
+in autumn. It is one of the most useful of British trees on account of the
+excellence of its hard tough wood and the rapidity of its growth, but often
+suffers greatly from a canker caused by the fungus _Nectria ditissima_.
+There are many varieties of it, as the weeping-ash, the curled-leaved ash,
+the entire-leaved ash, &c. The flowering or manna ash (_F. Ornus_), by some
+placed in a distinct genus (Ornus), is a native of the south of Europe and
+Palestine. It yields the substance called manna, which is obtained by
+making incisions in the bark, when the juice exudes and hardens. Among
+American species are the white ash (_F. americana_), with lighter bark and
+leaves; the red or black ash (_F. pubescens_), with a brown bark; the black
+ash (_F. sambucifolia_), the blue ash, the green ash, &c. They are all
+valuable trees. The mountain-ash or rowan belongs to a different order.
+
+[Illustration: Common Ash (_Frax[)i]nus excelsior_)
+
+1, Hermaphrodite flower. 2, Anthers of male flower.]
+
+ASH, or ASHES, the incombustible residue of organic bodies (animal or
+vegetable) remaining after combustion; in common usage, any incombustible
+residue of bodies used as fuel; as a commercial term, the word generally
+means the ashes of vegetable substances, from which are extracted the
+alkaline matters called potash, pearl-ash, kelp, barilla, &c.
+
+ASHAN'GO, a region in the interior of Southern Africa between lat. 1deg and
+2deg S., and between the Ogowe and the Lower Congo, a mountainous country
+in the French territory. The inhabitants belong to the Bantu stock, and
+among them are a dwarfish people, the Obongo, said to be about 4-1/2 feet
+high at most.
+
+ASHANTI', a British territory in West Africa belonging to the Gold Coast
+Colony, of which it forms a large inland portion, under a chief
+commissioner; area about 20,000 sq. miles. It is in great part hilly,
+well-watered, and covered with dense tropical vegetation, and rich forests
+with excellent timber trees. The country round the towns, however, is
+carefully cultivated. The crops are chiefly rice, maize, millet,
+sugar-cane, cocoa, and yams, the last forming the staple vegetable food of
+the natives. Rubber is also a product. The domestic animals are cows,
+horses of small size, goats, and a species of hairy sheep. The wild animals
+include the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, lion, hippopotamus, &c. Birds
+are numerous, and crocodiles and other reptiles abound. Gold is abundant,
+and mining concessions are now successfully worked. The Ashantis make
+excellent cotton and silk cloths, articles in gold and other metals,
+earthenware, leather, &c. Ashanti used to form a kingdom ruled
+despotically, human sacrifices being very common. It is now under British
+administration, and attention is given to education, sanitation,
+agriculture, means of communication, &c. There are Government schools at
+Coomassie and Sunyani and a number of missionary schools. The chief town is
+Coomassie (or Kumassi), now reached by a railway from the coast (length 168
+miles); its population is 24,000. The British first came in contact with
+the Ashantis in 1807, and hostilities continued off and on till 1826, when
+they were driven from the sea-coast. Immediately after the transfer of the
+Dutch settlements on the Gold Coast to Britain in 1872--when the entire
+coast remained in British hands--the Ashantis reclaimed the sovereignty of
+the tribes round the settlement of Elmina. This brought on a war, leading
+to a British expedition in 1874, in which Coomassie was captured. In 1896
+the country became a British protectorate. In 1901 a rebellion had to be
+put down, and next year Ashanti was fully annexed. Pop. 287,814
+(1911).--Cf. R. A. Freeman, _Travels and Life in Ashantee and Jaman_.
+
+ASH'BOURNE, a town of England, in Derbyshire, 12 miles N.W. of Derby, with
+manufactures of cottons and lace. Pop. 4039.
+
+ASH'BURTON, a town in Devonshire, England, 16 miles S.W. of Exeter, a
+parliamentary borough till 1868, and till 1918 giving name to a
+parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), 2362.
+
+ASH'BURTON, Alexander Baring, Lord, a British statesman and financier, born
+1774, died 1848. A younger son of Sir Francis Baring, he was bred to
+commercial pursuits, which for some years kept him in the United States and
+Canada, and in 1810 he became head of the great firm of Baring Brothers &
+Co. He sat in Parliament from 1806 to 1835, when he was raised to the
+peerage, after being a member of Peel's Government (1834-5).
+
+ASH'BURTON TREATY, a treaty concluded at Washington, 1842, by Alexander
+Baring, Lord Ashburton, and the President of the United States; it defined
+the boundaries between the States and Canada, &c.
+
+ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH (ash'bi-del-a-zoech'), a town in Leicestershire, England,
+on the borders of Derbyshire, with manufactures of hosiery, leather, &c.
+Pop. (1921), 4983.
+
+ASH'DOD, a place on the coast of Palestine, formerly one of the chief
+cities of the Philistines, now an insignificant village.
+
+A'SHER, one of Jacob's sons, and founder of the tribe called after him, who
+occupied a fertile territory in Palestine along the coast between Carmel
+and Lebanon.
+
+ASHE'RA, an ancient Semitic goddess whose symbol was the phallus. In the
+Revised Version of the Old Testament this word is used to translate what in
+the Authorized Version is translated "grove", as connected with the
+idolatrous practices into which the Jews were prone to fall.
+
+ASH'FORD, a thriving town of England, in Kent, situated near the confluence
+of the upper branches of the River Stour, with large locomotive and
+railway-carriage works. It gives name to a parliamentary division of the
+county. Pop. (1921), 14,355.
+
+ASHINGTON, an urban district or town of England, Northumberland, north-east
+of Morpeth, and about 2 miles from the sea, in a district of collieries.
+Pop. (1921), 29,406.
+
+ASHI'RA, a native race or people of Western Equatorial Africa, to the south
+of the Ogowe River, in the French Congo Territory.
+
+ASH'LAND, a city of the United States, in Wisconsin. Pop. (1920),
+11,334.--Also a city of Kentucky. Pop. (1920), 14,729.
+
+ASH'LAR, masonry consisting of stones squared and smoothed in front and
+built in regular courses.
+
+ASHLEY, LORD. See _Shaftesbury, First Earl of_.
+
+ASHMEAD-BARTLETT, Sir Ellis, English politician, born in 1849. He entered
+Parliament in 1880, and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from 1885 to 1892.
+He served in the Graeco-Turkish and South African wars, and was knighted in
+1892. He died in 1902.
+
+ASH'MOLE, Elias, English antiquary, born 1617, died 1692. He became a
+chancery solicitor in London, but afterwards studied at Oxford, taking up
+mathematics, physics, chemistry, and particularly astrology. He published
+_Theatrum Chymicum_ in 1652. On the Restoration he received the post of
+Windsor Herald, and other appointments both honourable and lucrative. In
+1672 appeared his _History of the Order of the Garter_. He presented to the
+University of Oxford his collection of rarities, to which he afterwards
+added his books and MSS., thereby commencing the Ashmolean Museum.
+
+ASH'TAROTH. See _Astarte_.
+
+ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD, a town of Lancashire, England, 4 miles from Wigan,
+with collieries, cotton-mills, &c. Pop. (1921), 22,489.
+
+ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Lancashire,
+England, 6 miles east of Manchester, on the north bank of the River Tame, a
+well-built place, with handsome streets and public buildings. The chief
+employment is the cotton manufacture, but there are also collieries and
+ironworks, which employ a great many persons. Pop. 51,080; (municipal
+borough) (1921), 43,333.
+
+ASHTON-UPON-MERSEY, a town or urban district of England, Cheshire, on the
+south side of the Mersey, several miles south-west of Manchester. Pop.
+(1921), 7780.
+
+ASHURA'DA, a small island in the S.E. corner of the Caspian, formed by
+Russia into a trading station.
+
+ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, so called from a custom in the
+Western Church of sprinkling ashes that day on the heads of penitents, then
+admitted to penance. The period at which the fast of Ash-Wednesday was
+instituted is uncertain; but it probably dates from the eighth century at
+least. In the Roman Catholic Church the ashes are now strewn on the heads
+of all the clergy and people present. In the Anglican Church Ash-Wednesday
+is regarded as an important fast day.
+
+ASIA, the largest of the great divisions of the earth; length, from the
+extreme south-western point of Arabia, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, to
+the extreme north-eastern point of Siberia--East Cape, or Cape Vostochni,
+in Behring's Strait--6900 miles; breadth, from Cape Chelyuskin, in Northern
+Siberia, to Cape Romania, the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula,
+5300 miles; area estimated at 17,250,000 sq. miles, about a third of all
+the land of the earth's surface. On three sides, N., E., and S., the ocean
+forms its natural boundary, while in the W. the frontier is marked mainly
+by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, the Black
+Sea, the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal, and the Red Sea. There is no proper
+separation between Asia and Europe, the latter being really a great
+peninsula of the former. Asia, though not so irregular in shape as Europe,
+is broken in the S. by three great peninsulas, Arabia, Hindustan, and
+Farther India, while the east coast presents peninsular projections and
+islands, forming a series of sheltered seas and bays, the principal
+peninsulas being Kamtshatka and Corea. The principal islands are those
+forming the Malay or Asiatic Archipelago, which stretch round in a wide
+curve on the S.E. of the continent. Besides the larger islands--Sumatra,
+Java, Borneo, Celebes, Mindanao, and Luzon (in the Philippine group)--there
+are countless smaller islands grouped round these. Other islands are
+Ceylon, in the S. of India; the Japanese Islands and Sakhalin on the E. of
+the continent; Formosa, S.E. of China; Cyprus, S. of Asia Minor; and New
+Siberia and Wrangell, in the Arctic Ocean.
+
+The mountain systems of Asia are of great extent, and their culminating
+points are the highest in the world. The greatest of all is the Himalaya
+system, which lies mainly between long. 70deg and 100deg E. and lat. 28deg
+and 37deg N. It extends, roughly speaking, from north-west to south-east,
+its total length being about 1500 miles, forming the northern barrier of
+Hindustan. The loftiest summits are Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high,
+Godwin-Austen, 28,265, and Kanchinjinga, 28,156. The principal passes,
+which rise to the height of 18,000 to 20,000 feet, are the highest in the
+world. A second great mountain system of Central Asia, connected with the
+north-western extremity of the Himalaya system by the elevated region of
+Pamir (about long. 70deg-75deg E., lat. 37deg-40deg N.), is the Thian-Shan
+system, which runs north-eastward for a distance of 1200 miles. In this
+direction the Altai, Sayan, and other ranges continue the line of
+elevations to the north-eastern coast. A north-western continuation of the
+Himalaya is the Hindu Kush, and farther westward a connection may be traced
+between the Himalaya mass and the Elburz range (18,460) feet, south of the
+Caspian, and thence to the mountains of Kurdistan, Armenia, and Asia Minor.
+
+There are vast plateaux and elevated valley regions connected with the
+great central mountain systems, but large portions of the continent are low
+and flat. Tibet forms the most elevated table-land in Asia, its mean height
+being estimated at 15,000 feet. On its south is the Himalayan range, while
+the Kuen-Lun range forms its northern barrier. Another great but much lower
+plateau is that which comprises Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Persia, and
+which to the north-west joins into the plateau of Asia Minor. The principal
+plain of Asia is that of Siberia, which extends along the north of the
+continent and forms an immense alluvial tract sloping to the Arctic Ocean.
+Vast swamps or peat-mosses called _tundras_ cover large portions of this
+region. South-west of Siberia, and stretching eastward from the Caspian, is
+a low-lying tract consisting to a great extent of steppes and deserts, and
+including in its area the Sea of Aral. In the east of China there is an
+alluvial plain of some 200,000 sq. miles in extent; in Hindustan are plains
+extending for 2000 miles along the south slope of the Himalaya; and between
+Arabia and Persia, watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, is the plain of
+Mesopotamia or Assyria, one of the richest in the world. Of the deserts of
+Asia the largest is that of Gobi (long. 90deg-120deg E., lat. 40deg-48deg
+N.), large portions of which are covered with nothing but sand or display a
+surface of bare rock. An almost continuous desert region may also be traced
+from the desert of North Africa through Arabia (which is largely occupied
+by bare deserts), Persia, and Baluchistan to the Indus.
+
+POLITICAL MAP OF ASIA
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Some of the largest rivers of Asia flow northward to the Arctic Ocean--the
+Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena. The Hoang-Ho and Yang-tse, and the Amoor,
+are the chief of those which flow into the Pacific. The Ganges,
+Brahmaputra, Irawadi, and Indus flow into the Indian Ocean. The Persian
+Gulf receives the united waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris. There are
+several systems of inland drainage, large rivers falling into lakes which
+have no outlet.
+
+The largest lake of Asia (partly also European) is the Caspian Sea, which
+receives the Kur from the Caucasus (with its tributary the Aras from
+Armenia), and the Sefid Rud and other streams from Persia (besides the
+Volga from European Russia, and the Ural, which is partly European, partly
+Asiatic). The Caspian lies in the centre of a great depression, being 83
+feet below the level of the Sea of Azov. East from the Caspian is the Sea
+of Aral, which, like the Caspian, has no outlet, and is fed by the Rivers
+Amu-Darya (Oxus) and Syr-Darya. Still farther east, to the north of the
+Thian-Shan Mountains, and fed by the Ili and other streams, is Lake
+Balkhash, also without an outlet and very salt. Other lakes having no
+communication with the ocean are Lob Nor, in the desert of Gobi, receiving
+the River Tarim, and the Dead Sea, far below the level of the
+Mediterranean, and fed by the Jordan. The chief fresh-water lake is Lake
+Baikal, in the south of Siberia, between long. 104deg and 110deg E., a
+mountain lake from which the Yenisei draws a portion of its waters.
+
+Geologically speaking, large areas of Asia are of comparatively recent
+date, the lowlands of Siberia, for instance, being submerged during the
+tertiary period, if not more recently. Many geologists believe that
+subsequently to the glacial period there was a great sea in Western Asia,
+of which the Caspian and Aral Seas are the remains. The desiccation of
+Central Asia is still going on, as is also probably the upheaval of a great
+part of the continent. The great mountain chains and elevated plateaux are
+of ancient origin, however, and in them granite and other crystalline rocks
+are largely represented. Active volcanoes are only met with in the extreme
+east (Kamtchatka) and in the Eastern Archipelago. From the remotest times
+Asia has been celebrated for its mineral wealth. In the Altai and Ural
+Mountains gold, iron, lead, and platinum are found; in India and other
+parts rubies, diamonds, and other gems are, or have been, procured; salt in
+Central Asia; coal in China, India, Central Asia, &c.; petroleum in the
+districts about the Caspian and in Burmah; bitumen in Syria; while silver,
+copper, sulphur, &c., are found in various parts.
+
+Every variety of climate may be experienced in Asia, but as a whole it is
+marked by extremes of heat and cold and by great dryness, this in
+particular being the case with vast regions in the centre of the continent
+and distant from the sea. The great lowland region of Siberia has a short
+but very hot summer, and a long but intensely cold winter, the rivers and
+their estuaries being fast bound with ice, and at a certain depth the soil
+is hard frozen all the year round. The northern part of China to the east
+of Central Asia has a temperate climate with a warm summer, and in the
+extreme north a severe winter. The districts lying to the south of the
+central region, comprising the Indian and Indo-Chinese Peninsulas, Southern
+China, and the adjacent islands, present the characteristic climate and
+vegetation of the southern temperate and tropical regions modified by the
+effects of altitude. Some localities in Southern Asia have the heaviest
+rainfall anywhere known. As the equator is approached the extremes of
+temperature diminish till at the southern extremity of the continent they
+are such as may be experienced in any tropical country. Among climatic
+features are the monsoons of the Indian Ocean and the eastern seas, and the
+cyclones or typhoons, which are often very destructive.
+
+The plants and animals of Northern and Western Asia generally resemble
+those of similar latitudes in Europe (which is really a prolongation of the
+Asiatic continent), differing more in species than in genera. The principal
+mountain trees are the pine, larch, and birch; the willow, alder, and
+poplar are found in lower grounds. In the central region European species
+reach as far as the Western and Central Himalaya, but are rare in the
+Eastern. They are here met by Chinese and Japanese forms. The lower slopes
+of the Himalaya are clothed almost exclusively with tropical forms. Higher
+up, between 4000 and 10,000 feet, are found all the types of trees and
+plants that belong to the temperate zone, there being extensive forests of
+conifers. Here is the native home of the deodar cedar. The south-eastern
+region, including India, the Eastern Peninsula, and China, with the
+islands, contains a vast variety of plants useful to man and having here
+their original habitat, such as the sugar-cane, rice, cotton, and indigo,
+pepper, cinnamon, cassia, clove, nutmeg, and cardamoms, banana, coco-nut,
+areca, and sago palms; the mango and many other fruits, with plants
+producing a vast number of drugs, caoutchouc, and gutta-percha. The forests
+of India and the Malay Peninsula contain oak, teak, sal, and other timber
+woods, besides bamboos, palms, sandal-wood, &c. The palmyra palm is
+characteristic of Southern India; while the talipot palm flourishes on the
+western coast of Hindustan, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula. The cultivated
+plants of India and China include wheat, barley, rice, maize, millet,
+sugar-cane, tea, coffee, indigo, cotton, jute, opium, tobacco, &c. In North
+China and the Japanese Islands large numbers of deciduous trees occur, such
+as oaks, maples, limes, walnuts, poplars, and willows, the genera being
+European but the individual species Asiatic. Among cultivated plants are
+wheat, and in favourable situations rice, cotton, the vine, &c. Coffee,
+rice, sugar, &c., are extensively grown in some of the islands of the
+Asiatic Archipelago. In Arabia and the warmer valleys of Persia,
+Afghanistan, and Baluchistan aromatic shrubs are abundant. Over large parts
+of these regions the date palm flourishes and affords a valuable article of
+food. Gum-producing acacias are, with the date palm, the commonest trees in
+Arabia. African forms are found extending from the Sahara along the desert
+region of Asia.
+
+Nearly all the mammals of Europe are found in Northern Asia, with numerous
+additions to the species. Central Asia is the native land of the horse, the
+ass, the ox, the sheep, and the goat. Both varieties of the camel, the
+single and the double humped, are Asiatic. To the inhabitants of Tibet and
+the higher plateaux of the Himalaya the yak is what the reindeer is to the
+tribes of the Siberian plain, almost their sole wealth and support. The
+elephant, of a different species from that of Africa, is a native of
+tropical Asia. The Asiatic lion, which inhabits Arabia and Persia, and
+still exists in the north-west of India, is smaller than the African
+species. Bears are found in all parts, the white bear in the far north, and
+other species in the more temperate and tropical parts. The tiger is the
+most characteristic of the larger Asiatic Carnivora. It is found in Armenia
+and throughout the entire continent, being absent, however, from the
+greater portion of Siberia and from the high table-land of Tibet; it is
+found also in Sumatra, Java, and Bali. In South-Eastern Asia and the
+islands we find the rhinoceros, buffalo, ox, deer, squirrels, porcupines,
+&c. In birds nearly every order is represented. Among the most interesting
+forms are the hornbills, the peacock, the Impey pheasant, the tragopan or
+horned pheasant, and other gallinaceous birds, the pheasant family being
+very characteristic of South-Eastern Asia. It was from Asia that the common
+domestic fowl was introduced into Europe. The tropical parts of Asia abound
+in monkeys, of which the species are numerous. Some are tailed, others,
+such as the orang, are tailless, but none have prehensile tails like the
+American monkeys. In the Malay Archipelago marsupial animals, so
+characteristic of Australia, first occur in the Moluccas and Celebes, while
+various mammals common in the western part of the Archipelago are absent. A
+similar transition towards the Australian type takes place in the species
+of birds. (See _Wallace's Line_.) Of marine mammals the dugong is peculiar
+to the Indian Ocean; in the Ganges is found a peculiar species of dolphin.
+At the head of the reptiles stands the Gangetic crocodile, frequenting the
+Ganges and other large rivers. Among the serpents are the cobra de capello,
+one of the most deadly snakes in existence; there are also large boas and
+pythons, besides sea and fresh-water snakes. The seas and rivers produce a
+great variety of fish. The Salmonidae are found in the rivers flowing into
+the Arctic Ocean. Two rather remarkable fishes are the climbing perch and
+the archer-fish. The well-known goldfish is a native of China.
+
+Asia is mainly peopled by races belonging to two great ethnographic types,
+the Caucasic or fair type, and the Mongolic or yellow. To the former belong
+the Aryan, or Indo-European, and the Semitic races, both of which mainly
+inhabit the south-west of the continent; to the latter belong the Malays
+and Indo-Chinese in the S.E., as well as the Mongolians proper (Chinese,
+&c.), occupying nearly all the rest of the continent. To these may be added
+certain races of doubtful affinities, as the Dravidians of Southern India,
+the Cingalese of Ceylon, the Ainos of Yesso, and some negro-like tribes
+called Negritos, which inhabit Malacca and the interior of several of the
+islands of the Eastern Archipelago. The total population is estimated at
+823,000,000, or more than half that of the whole world, of which
+330,000,000 inhabit Chinese territory, 302,000,000 British, and 25,000,000
+Russian. Portions of Asia are under the control of European Powers (Russia,
+Great Britain, Holland, France), of the United States of America, China,
+and Japan. The chief States are China, Japan, Corea, Siam, Afghanistan,
+Persia, and Arabia. The chief religions are the Brahmanism of India, the
+Buddhism of Burmah, China, &c., the creeds of Confucius and Lao-tse in
+China, and the various forms of Mahommedanism in Arabia, Persia, India, &c.
+More than a half of the whole population profess some form of Buddhism.
+Several native Christian sects are found in India, Armenia, Kurdistan, and
+Syria.
+
+Asia is generally regarded as the cradle of the human race. It possesses
+the oldest historical documents, and, next to the immediately contiguous
+kingdom of Egypt, the oldest historical monuments in the world. The Old
+Testament contains the oldest historical records which we have of any
+nation in the form of distinct narrative. The period at which Moses wrote
+was probably 1500 or 1600 years before the Christian era. His and the later
+Jewish writings confine themselves almost exclusively to the history of the
+Hebrews; but in Babylonia, as in Egypt, civilization had made great
+advances long before this time. The earliest seat of the Aryan race some
+assign to the banks of the Oxus. Hence, perhaps from the pressure of the
+Mongolian tribes to the north, they spread themselves to the south-east and
+south-west, finally occupying Northern India, Persia, and other parts of
+Western Asia, and spreading into Europe, perhaps about 2000-1500 B.C. In
+China authentic history extends back probably to about 1000 B.C., with a
+long preceding period of which the names of dynasties are preserved without
+chronological arrangement. The kingdoms of Assyria, Babylonia, Media, and
+Persia predominated by turns in South-Western Asia. In regard to the
+history of these monarchies, much light has been obtained from the
+decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions. The arms of the Pharaohs
+extended into Asia, but their conquests there were short-lived. From Cyrus
+(559 B.C.), who extended the empire of Persia from the Indus to the
+Mediterranean, while his son, Cambyses, added Egypt and Libya to it, to the
+conquest of Alexander (330 B.C.) Persia was the dominant Power in Western
+Asia. Alexander's great empire became broken up into separate kingdoms,
+which were finally absorbed in the Roman Empire, and this ultimately
+extended to the Tigris. Soon after the most civilized portions of the three
+continents had been reduced under one empire, the great event took place
+which forms the dividing-line of history, the birth of Christ and the
+spread of Christianity. In A.D. 226 a protracted struggle began between the
+newer Persian Empire and the Romans, which lasted till the advent of
+Mahomet, and the conquests of the Arabians. Persia was the first great
+conquest of Mahomet's followers. Syria and Egypt soon fell before their
+arms, and within forty years of the celebrated flight of Mahomet from Mecca
+(the _Hejra_), the sixth of the caliphs, or successors of the Prophet, was
+the most powerful sovereign of Asia. The Mongols next became the dominant
+race. In 999 Mahmud, whose father, born a Turkish slave, became Governor of
+Ghazni, conquered India, and established his rule. The dynasty of the
+Seljuk Tartars was established in Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium, and Kharism,
+and was distinguished for its struggles with the Crusaders. Othman, an emir
+of the Seljuk sultan of Iconium, established the Ottoman Empire in 1300.
+About 1220 Genghis Khan, an independent Mongol chief, made himself master
+of Central Asia, conquered Northern China, overran Turkestan, Afghanistan,
+and Persia; his successors took Bagdad and abolished the caliphate. In Asia
+Minor they overthrew the Seljuk dynasty. One of them, Timur or Tamerlane,
+carried fire and sword over Northern India and Western Asia, defeated and
+took prisoner Bajazet, the descendant of Othman (1402), and received
+tribute from the Greek emperor. The Ottoman Empire soon recovered from the
+blow inflicted by Timur, and Constantinople was taken and the Eastern
+Empire finally overthrown by the Sultan Mohammed II in 1453. China
+recovered its independence about 1368 and was again subjected by the Manchu
+Tartars (1618-45), soon after which it began to extend its empire over
+Central Asia. Siberia was conquered by the Cossacks on behalf of Russia
+(1580-4). The same country effected a settlement in the Caucasus about
+1786, and has since continued to make steady advances into Central Asia.
+The discovery by the Portuguese of the passage to India by the Cape of Good
+Hope led to their establishment on the coast of the peninsula (1498). They
+were speedily followed by the Spanish, Dutch, French, and British. The
+struggle between the two last Powers for the supremacy of India was
+completed by the destruction of the French settlements (1760-5). At present
+the forms of government in Asia range from the primitive rule of the nomad
+sheik to the constitutional monarchy of Japan.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sven Hedin,
+_Through Asia_; H. F. Blanford, _Elementary Geography of India, Burma, and
+Ceylon_; Max. Mueller, _The Sacred Books of the East_; A. Little, _The Far
+East_; R. Cobbold, _Innermost Asia_; Colonel A. Durand, _The Making of a
+Frontier_; J. G. C. Chamberlain, _Continents and their Peoples_; E.
+Huntington, _The Pulse of Asia_; E. C. Hannah, _Eastern Asia_.
+
+ASIA, CENTRAL, a designation loosely given to the regions in the centre of
+Asia east of the Caspian, also called Turkestan, and formerly Tartary. The
+eastern portion belongs to China, the western to Russia. Russian Central
+Asia comprises the Kirghiz Steppe (Uralsk, Turgai, Akmolinsk,
+Semipalatinsk, &c.), and what was the government-general of Turkestan till
+1918, besides the territory of the Turkomans, or Transcaspia and Merv. See
+_Turkestan, Republic of_.
+
+ASIA MINOR, the most westerly portion of Asia, being the peninsula lying
+west of the Upper Euphrates, and forming part of Asiatic Turkey. It forms
+an extensive plateau, with lofty mountains rising above it, the most
+extensive ranges being the Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which border it on the
+south and south-east, and rise to over 10,000 feet. There are numerous
+salt- and freshwater lakes. The chief rivers are the Kizil-Irmak (Halys),
+Sakaria (Sangarius), entering the Black Sea; and the Sarabat (Hermus) and
+Menderes (Maeander), entering the Aegean. The coast regions are generally
+fertile, and have a genial climate; the interior is largely arid and
+dreary. Valuable forests and fruit-trees abound. Smyrna is the chief town.
+_Anatolia_ is an equivalent name. See _European War_; _Turkey_.
+
+ASIAGO, a town in Italy in the province of Vicenza, capital of the Seven
+Communes (Sette Communi). In the great European War several battles were
+fought on the Asiago Plateau. The town was evacuated by the Italians on
+28th May, 1916, but retaken on 25th June, 1916. See _European War_.
+
+ASIATIC SOCIETIES, learned bodies instituted for the purpose of collecting
+information respecting the different countries of Asia, such as the Asiatic
+Society of Bengal, founded in 1784 by Sir William Jones; and the Royal
+Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, established by Colebrooke,
+and opened in 1823. There are similar societies on the European Continent
+and in America, such as the Societe Asiatique at Paris, founded in 1822;
+the Oriental Society of Germany (Deutsche Morgenlaendische Gesellschaft),
+founded in 1845; and the Oriental Society at Boston, founded in 1842.
+
+ASIPHONA'TA, or ASIPHON'IDA, an order of lamellibranchiate, bivalve
+molluscs, destitute of the siphon or tube through which, in the Siphonata,
+the water that enters the gills is passed outwards. It includes the
+oysters, the scallop-shells, the pearl-oyster, the mussels, and in general
+the most useful and valuable molluscs.
+
+ASIR. See _Hejaz_.
+
+ASKABAD', the administrative centre of the Russian province of Transcaspia,
+situated in the Akhal Tekke oasis, and occupied by Skobelev in Jan., 1881,
+after the sack of Geok Tepe. Its distance from Merv is 232 miles, from
+Herat 388 miles. Pop. 54,000.
+
+AS'KEW, Anne, a victim of religious persecution, born 1521, martyred 1546.
+She was a daughter of Sir William Askew of Lincolnshire, and was married to
+a wealthy neighbour named Kyme, who, irritated by her Protestantism, drove
+her from his house. In London, whither she went probably to procure a
+divorce, she spoke against the dogmas of the old faith, and, being tried,
+was condemned to death as a heretic. Being put to the rack to extort a
+confession concerning those with whom she corresponded, she continued firm,
+and was then taken to Smithfield, chained to a stake, and burned.
+
+ASKJA ([.a]sk'y[.a]), a volcano near the centre of Iceland, first brought
+into notice by an eruption in 1875. Its crater is 17 miles in
+circumference, surrounded by a mountain-ring from 500 to 1000 feet high,
+the height of the mountain itself being between 4000 and 5000 feet.
+
+AS'MANNSHAUSEN (-hou-zn), a Prussian village on the Rhine, in the district
+of Wiesbaden, celebrated for its wine. Many judges prefer the red wine of
+Asmannshausen to the best Burgundy, but it retains its merits for three or
+four years only.
+
+ASMO'DAI, or ASMO'DEUS, an evil spirit, who, as related in the book of
+Tobit, slew seven husbands of Sara, daughter of Raguel, but was driven away
+into the uttermost parts of Egypt by the young Tobias under the direction
+of the angel Raphael. Asmodai signifies a desolater, a destroying angel,
+identical with the demon A[=e]shma of the Zend-Avesta. He is represented in
+the Talmud as the prince of demons who drove King Solomon from his kingdom.
+
+ASMONAE'ANS, a family of high priests and princes who ruled over the Jews
+for about 130 years, from 153 B.C., when Jonathan, son of Mattathias, the
+great-grandson of Chasmon or Asmonaeus, was nominated to the
+high-priesthood.
+
+ASNIERES (aen-y[=a]r), a town on the Seine, a N.W. suburb of Paris, a
+favourite boating resort of the Parisians. Pop. 42,583.
+
+ASO'KA, an Indian sovereign who reigned from 264 to 228 B.C. over the whole
+of Northern India, grandson of Chandragupta or Sandracottus. He embraced
+Buddhism, and forced his subjects also to become converts. Many temples and
+_stupas_, or brick cupolas, still remaining are attributed to him.
+
+ASO'KA (_Jonesia as[=o]ca_), an Indian tree, nat. ord. Leguminosae, having
+a lovely flower, showing orange, scarlet, and bright-yellow tints; sacred
+to the god Siva, and often mentioned in Indian literature.
+
+ASO'PUS, the name of several rivers in Greece, of which the most celebrated
+is in Boeotia.
+
+[Illustration: Asp (_Naja haje_)]
+
+ASP, or ASPIC (_Naja_, or _Vip[)e]ra haje_), a species of viper found in
+Egypt, resembling the cobra de capello or spectacle-serpent of the East
+Indies, and having a very venomous bite. When approached or disturbed it
+elevates its head and body, swells out its neck, and appears to stand erect
+to attack the aggressor. Hence the ancient Egyptians believed that the asps
+were guardians of the spots they inhabited, and the figure of this reptile
+was adopted as an emblem of the protecting genius of the world. The
+balancing motions made by it in the endeavour to maintain the erect
+attitude have led to the employment of the asp as a dancing serpent by the
+African jugglers. The "deaf adder that stoppeth her ear" of _Psalm_ lviii,
+4, 5 is translated asp in the margin, and seems to have been this species.
+Cleopatra is said to have committed suicide by means of an asp's bite, but
+the incident is generally associated with the Cerastes or horned viper, not
+with the haje. The name asp is also given to a viper (_Vipera aspis_)
+common on the continent of Europe.
+
+ASPARAGINE, or AMINOSUCCINAMIC ACID, CH_2CONH_2, CH(NH_2)COOH, is a white
+crystalline substance of unpleasant acid taste found in the shoots of
+asparagus, in potato and dahlia tribes, and in many other plants, from
+which it may be extracted by means of water.
+
+ASPAR'AGUS (_Aspar[)a]gus officin[=a]lis_), a plant of the order Liliaceae,
+the young shoots of which, cut as they are emerging from the ground, are a
+favourite culinary vegetable. In Greece, and especially in the southern
+steppes of Russia and Poland, it is found in profusion; and its edible
+qualities were esteemed by the ancients. Pliny states that asparagus was in
+his time cultivated in gardens, particularly at Ravenna. The best asparagus
+is grown in gardens near the sea, and hundreds of acres are devoted to its
+cultivation in Holland and Belgium. It grows wild in Essex and
+Lincolnshire, but does not attain nearly to the size of the cultivated
+plant. It is usually raised from seed; and the plants should remain three
+years in the ground before they are cut; after which, for several years,
+they will continue to afford a regular annual supply. The beds are
+protected by straw or litter in winter. Its diuretic properties are
+ascribed to the presence of a crystalline substance found also in the
+potato, lettuce, &c.
+
+ASPA'SIA, a celebrated woman of ancient Greece, was born at Miletus, in
+Ionia, but passed a great part of her life at Athens, where her house was
+the general resort of the most distinguished men in Greece. She won the
+affection of Pericles, who united himself to Aspasia as closely as was
+permitted by the Athenian law, which declared marriage with a foreign woman
+illegal. Her power in the State has often been exaggerated, but it is
+beyond question that her genius left its mark upon the administration of
+Pericles. In 432-431 B.C. she was accused of impiety, and was only saved
+from condemnation by the eloquence and tears of Pericles. After his death
+(429 B.C.) Aspasia is said to have attached herself to a wealthy but
+obscure cattle-dealer of the name of Lysicles, whom she raised to a
+position of influence in Athens. Nothing more is known of her life. She had
+a son by Pericles, who was legitimated (430 B.C.) by a special decree of
+the people. There is a bust bearing her name in the Pio Clementino Museum
+in the Vatican.
+
+ASPATRIA, a town (urban district) of England, Cumberland, 8 miles
+north-east of Maryport, with an agricultural college. Pop. 3340.
+
+AS'PE, a town of Southern Spain, province of Alicante. Pop. (1921), 3525.
+
+AS'PECT, in astrology, denotes the situation of the planets with respect to
+each other. There are five different major aspects: the sextile, when the
+planets are 60deg distant; quartile, when they are 90deg distant; trine,
+when 120deg distant; opposition, when 180deg distant; and conjunction, when
+both are in the same longitude. The aspects were classed by astrologers as
+_benign_, _malignant_, or _indifferent_, according to their fancied
+influences upon human affairs.
+
+ASPECT OF LAND. See _Exposure_.
+
+AS'PEN, or trembling poplar (_P[=o]p[)u]lus trem[)u]la_), a species of
+poplar indigenous to Britain and to most mountainous regions throughout
+Europe and Asia. It is a beautiful tree of rapid growth and extremely
+hardy, with nearly circular toothed leaves, smooth on both sides, and
+attached to footstalks so long and slender as to be shaken by the slightest
+wind; wood light, porous, soft, and of a white colour, useful for various
+purposes.
+
+ASPER, or ASPRE, a small Turkish coin, of which there are 120 in the
+piastre, value 1/54d.
+
+ASPERGILL'US, the brush used in Roman Catholic churches for sprinkling holy
+water on the people. It is said to have been originally made of hyssop.
+
+AS'PERN and ESSLINGEN (or ESSLING) (es'ling-en), two villages east of
+Vienna, and on the opposite bank of the Danube; celebrated as the chief
+contested positions in the bloody but indecisive battle fought between the
+Archduke Charles and Napoleon I, 21st and 22nd May, 1809, when it was
+estimated that the Austrians lost a third of their army, and the French no
+less than half.
+
+ASPER'ULA, the woodruff genus of plants.
+
+ASPHALT, or ASPHAL'TUM, the most common variety of bitumen; also called
+mineral pitch. Asphalt is a compact, glossy, brittle, black or brown
+mineral, which breaks with a polished fracture, melts easily with a strong
+pitchy odour when heated, and when pure burns without leaving any ashes. It
+is found in the earth in many parts of Asia, Europe, and America, and in a
+soft or liquid state on the surface of the Dead Sea, which, from this
+circumstance, was called _Asphalt[=i]tes_. It is of organic origin, the
+asphalt of the great Pitch Lake of Trinidad being derived from bituminous
+shales, containing vegetable remains in the process of transformation.
+Asphalt is produced artificially in making coal-gas. During the process
+much tarry matter is evolved and collected in retorts. If this be
+distilled, naphtha and other volatile matters escape, and asphalt is left
+behind. It is sometimes called _Jew's Pitch_.
+
+ASPHALTE (or ASPHALT) ROCK, a limestone impregnated with bitumen, found in
+large quantities in various localities in Europe, as in the Val de Travers,
+Neufchatel, Switzerland; in the department of Ain in France; in Alsace,
+Hanover, Holstein, Sicily, &c. These rocks contain a variable quantity of
+bitumen (from 7 or 8 to 20 or 30 per cent) naturally diffused through them.
+The Val de Travers asphalt was discovered in 1710. In 1837 an English
+patent was taken out for its application to roads, pavements, terraces,
+areas, roofs, &c. Since then other asphalte-rocks, as well as artificial
+preparations made by mixing bitumen, gas-tar, pitch, or other materials
+with sand, chalk, &c., have been brought into competition with it.
+
+AS'PHODEL (_Asphod[)e]lus_), a genus of plants, ord. Liliaceae, consisting
+of perennials, with fasciculated fleshy roots, flowers arranged in racemes,
+six stamens inserted at the base of the perianth, a sessile almost
+spherical ovary with two cells, each containing two ovules; fruit a capsule
+with three cells, in each of which there are, as a rule, two seeds. Two
+species are cultivated in Britain as garden flowers, the yellow asphodel
+(_Asphodelus lut[)e]us_) and the white asphodel (_Asphodelus albus_). The
+English word 'daffodil' is a perversion of asphodel. The _Asphodelus
+ram[=o]sus_, which attains a height of 5 feet, is cultivated in Algeria and
+elsewhere, its tubercles yielding a very pure alcohol, and the residue,
+together with the stalks and leaves, being used in making pasteboard and
+paper. The asphodel was a favourite plant among the ancients, who were in
+the habit of planting it round their tombs. In Greek religion it is
+associated with Persephone, the dead, and the underworld.
+
+ASPHYX'IA, literally, the state of a living animal in which no pulsation
+can be perceived, but the term is more particularly applied to a suspension
+of the vital functions from causes hindering respiration. The normal
+accompaniments of death from asphyxia are dark fluid blood, a congested
+brain and exceedingly congested lungs, the general engorgement of the
+viscera, and an absence of blood from the left cavities of the heart while
+the right cavities and pulmonary artery are gorged. The restoration of
+asphyxiated persons has been successfully accomplished at long periods
+after apparent death. The attempt should be made to maintain the heat of
+the body and to secure the inflation of the lungs as in the case of the
+apparently drowned. See _Respiratory System_.
+
+ASPHYXIATING GAS. See _Poison Gas_.
+
+ASPIC, a dish consisting of a clear savoury meat jelly, containing fowl,
+game, fish, &c.
+
+ASPIDISTRA, a genus of plants of the lily family, comprising three or four
+species, natives of China and Japan, being plants with large smooth oblong
+lanceolate leaves, rising from an underground rhizome, and with campanulate
+flowers of a dull purplish or brownish colour. They are now very common in
+Britain, being especially cultivated as indoor plants.
+
+ASPID'IUM, a genus of ferns, nat. ord. Polypodiaceae, comprising the
+shield-fern and male-fern.
+
+AS'PINWALL. See _Colon_.
+
+AS'PIRATE, a name given to any sound like our _h_, to the letter _h_
+itself, or to any mark of aspiration, as the Greek rough breathing ([Greek:
+h]). Such characters or sounds as the Sanskrit _kh_, _gh_, _bh_, and the
+Greek _ch_, _th_, _ph_, are called _aspirates_.
+
+AS'PIRATOR, an instrument used to promote the flow of a gas from one vessel
+into another by means of a liquid. The simplest form of aspirator is a
+cylindrical vessel containing water, with a pipe at the upper end which
+communicates with the vessel containing the gas, and a pipe at the lower
+end also, with a stopcock and with its extremity bent up. By allowing a
+portion of the water to run off by the pipe at the lower part of the
+aspirator a measured quantity of air or other gas is sucked into the upper
+part.
+
+ASPLE'NIUM, a genus of ferns, of the nat. ord. Polypodiaceae. Nine species
+are found in Britain, among them the well-known Wall-rue.
+
+ASPROMON'TE, a mountain of Italy in the south-west of Calabria, where
+Garibaldi was wounded and taken prisoner with the greater part of his army,
+in Aug., 1862.
+
+ASPROPOT'AMO. See _Achelous_.
+
+ASPULL, a town (urban district) of England, Lancashire, 2 or 3 miles
+north-east of Wigan, with large collieries and other works. Pop. 7851.
+
+ASQUITH, Herbert Henry, prominent politician of the Liberal party, born in
+1852, educated at City of London School and Balliol College, Oxford, where
+he graduated with high distinction. Called to the Bar in 1876, he became
+Q.C. in 1890; in 1886 was elected member of Parliament for East Fife, and
+held his seat for this constituency uninterruptedly until Dec., 1918, when
+he was defeated. From 1892 to 1895 he was Home Secretary, being also made a
+Privy Councillor in the former year. Both in regard to the South African
+War and various other questions, when out of office, he spoke more in
+harmony with the views of Lord Rosebery than with those of Sir H.
+Campbell-Bannerman, but under the latter he accepted the post of Chancellor
+of the Exchequer in the ministry formed in Dec., 1905. On the retirement of
+Sir Henry in 1908 he succeeded him as Prime Minister. He at once hastened
+to draw up the Liberal reform programme, the list of measures including the
+Lloyd George Budget (1909), the Parliament Act (1911), the Insurance Act,
+and the Irish Home Rule Bill. In May, 1915, a cabinet crisis having
+resulted from disagreements, Asquith formed a Coalition Government, eight
+Unionists being admitted. Towards the end of 1916 there was a feeling in
+the country not only that the Coalition cabinet of twenty-three ministers
+was unwieldy, but that Mr. Asquith's Government was not sufficiently
+energetic and showed too much hesitation in dealing with the vital problems
+of the war. Mr. Asquith therefore resigned on 5th Dec., 1916, and Mr. Lloyd
+George formed a new ministry. Unseated in the General Election of 1918, Mr.
+Asquith accepted the invitation to stand for Paisley in 1920. He was
+returned by a majority of 2834.
+
+AS'RAEL, the Mahommedan angel of death, who takes the soul from the body.
+
+ASS (_Equus as[)i]nus_), a species of the horse genus, supposed by Darwin
+to have sprung from the wild variety (_Asinus toeni[)o]pus_) found in
+Abyssinia; by some writers to be a descendant of the _on[)a]ger_ or wild
+ass, inhabiting the mountainous deserts of Tartary, &c.; and by others to
+have descended from the kiang or djiggetai (_A. hemi[)o]nus_) of
+South-Western Asia. The ass was used in Egypt long before the horse, and it
+played an important part in Homeric Greece. According to Aristotle,
+however, it was unknown in his time in Pontus, Scythia, and in the land of
+the Celts. The ass seems to have been introduced into England in the days
+of Ethelred, but did not become common before the end of the seventeenth
+century. Both in colour and size the ass is exceedingly variable, ranging
+from dark grey and reddish brown to white, and from the size of a
+Newfoundland dog in North India to that of a good-sized horse. In the
+south-western countries of Asia and in Egypt, in some districts of Southern
+Europe, as in Spain, and in Kentucky and Peru, great attention has been
+paid to selection and interbreeding, with a result no less remarkable than
+in the case of the horse. Thus in Syria there appear to be four distinct
+breeds: a light and graceful animal used by ladies, an Arab breed reserved
+for the saddle, an ass of heavier build in use for ploughing and draft
+purposes, and the large Damascus breed. The efforts made to raise the
+deteriorated British breed have only been partially successful. The male
+ass is mature at two years of age, the female still earlier. The she-ass
+carries her young eleven months. The teeth of the young ass follow the same
+order of appearance and renewal as those of the horse. The life of the ass
+does not usually exceed thirty years. It is in general much healthier than
+the horse, and is maintained in this condition by a smaller quantity and
+coarser quality of food; it is superior to the horse in its ability to
+carry heavy burdens over the most precipitous roads, and is in no respect
+its inferior in intelligence, despite the reputation for stupidity which it
+has borne from very ancient times. The skin is used as parchment to cover
+drums, &c., and in the East is made into shagreen. The hybrid offspring of
+the horse and the female ass is the hinny, that of the ass and the mare is
+the mule; but the latter is by far the larger and more useful animal.
+Asses' milk, long celebrated for its sanative qualities, more closely
+resembles that of a woman than any other. It is very similar in taste, and
+throws up an equally fluid cream, which is not convertible into butter.
+
+ASSA. See _Piave, Battles of the_; _European War_.
+
+ASSAB', a bay of Africa on the south-west coast of the Red Sea, belonging
+to the Italian territory of Eritrea, which has been acquired since Italy
+established here a colony and free port in 1881.
+
+ASSAFOETIDA. See _Asafetida_.
+
+ASSAI-PALM (as-[=i]; _Euterpe olerac[)e]a_), a native of tropical S.
+America, only about 4 inches in diameter and 60 or 80 feet high, with a
+crown of leaves, beneath which a small fruit grows on branched horizontal
+spadices. The pulp of the fruit mixed with water is used as a beverage.
+
+ASSAL', a salt lake in North-Eastern Africa, in Adal.
+
+ASSAM', one of the fifteen provinces of British India, separated from
+Eastern Bengal and reconstituted in 1912; area, 53,015 sq. miles. It forms
+a series of fertile valleys watered by the Brahmaputra and its tributaries,
+the valley of the Brahmaputra, which is the main one, consisting of rich
+alluvial plains, either but little elevated above the river, or so low that
+large extents of them are flooded for three or four days once or twice in
+the year, while the course of the river often changes. The climate is
+marked by great humidity, and malarious diseases are common in the low
+grounds; otherwise it is not unhealthy. The whole province, except the
+cultivated area, may be designated as forest, the trees including teak,
+sal, sissoo, the date and sago palm, the areca palm (the betel-nut tree),
+the Indian fig tree, &c. The article of most commercial importance is tea,
+which was first exported in 1838, and the yield of which is now over
+100,000,000 pounds annually. Other crops raised are rice, Indian corn,
+pulse, oil-seeds, sugar-cane, hemp, jute, potatoes, &c. In the jungles and
+forests roam herds of elephants, the rhinoceros, tiger, buffalo, leopard,
+bear, wild hog, jackal, fox, goat, and various kinds of deer. Among
+serpents are the python and the cobra. Pheasants, partridges, snipe, wild
+peacock, and many kinds of water-fowl abound. Coal, petroleum, and
+limestone are found in abundance; iron is smelted to a small extent;
+gold-dust is met with; lime is exported to Bengal. There is no single
+Assamese nationality, and the Assamese language is merely a modern dialect
+of Bengali. Pop. 6,713,635, 3,637,828 of whom are Hindus, 1,886,528
+Mahommedans, 66,430 Christians, 10,506 Buddhists, the rest being chiefly
+hill tribes of aboriginal faiths. The labourers in the tea-gardens are
+mostly drawn from Bengal. In 1826 Assam became a possession of Britain,
+being taken from the Burmese, who had made themselves masters of it about
+the end of the eighteenth century. The largest town is Sylhet (pop.
+14,000).--Cf. E. A. Gait, _History of Assam_.
+
+AS'SAPAN (_Sciuropt[)e]rus volucella_), the flying-squirrel of N. America,
+a little animal with folds of skin along its sides which enable it to take
+leaps of 40 or 50 yards.
+
+ASSASS'INS (from _hashsh[=a]sh[=i]n_, drinkers of _hashish_), an Asiatic
+order or society having the practice of assassination as its most
+distinctive feature, founded by Hassan Ben Sabbah, the Himyarite, a _dai_
+or missionary of the heterodox Mahommedan sect the Ismailites. The society
+grew rapidly in numbers, and in 1090 the Persian fortress of Alamut fell
+into their hands. Other territories were added, and the order became a
+recognized military power. Its organization comprised seven ranks, at its
+head being the Sheikh-al-Jebala or 'Old man of the mountains'. Upon a
+select band fell the work of assassination, to which they were stimulated
+by the intoxicating influence of _hashish_. For nearly two centuries they
+maintained their power under nine sheikhs. Hassan, after a long and
+prosperous reign, died in 1124. Most of his successors died violent deaths
+at the hands of relatives or dependents. After proving themselves strong
+enough to withstand the powerful sultans Noureddin and Saladin, and making
+themselves feared by the Crusaders, the _Assassins_ were overcome by the
+Tartar leader Hulaku. The last chief, Rokneddin, was killed for an act of
+treachery subsequent to his capture, and his death was followed by a
+general massacre of the assassins, in which 12,000 perished. Dispersed
+bands led a roving life in the Syrian mountains, and it is alleged that in
+the Druses and other small existing tribes their descendants are still to
+be found. See _Crusades_; _Khoja_.
+
+ASSAULT', in law, an attempt or offer, with force and violence, to do a
+corporal hurt to another, as by striking at him with or without a weapon.
+If a person lift up or stretch forth his arm and offer to strike another,
+or menace anyone with any staff or weapon, it is an assault in law.
+Assault, therefore, does not necessarily imply a hitting or blow, because
+in trespass for assault and battery a man may be found guilty of the
+assault and acquitted of the battery. But every battery includes an
+assault.
+
+ASSAYE, or ASSYE (as-s[=i]'), a village in Southern India, in Hyderabad,
+where Wellington (then Major-General Wellesley) gained a famous victory in
+1803. With only 4500 troops at his disposal he completely routed the
+Mahratta force of 50,000 men and 100 guns. The victory, however, cost him
+more than a third of his men.
+
+ASSAYING, the estimation of the amount of pure metal present in an ore or
+an alloy. The term was originally applied to testing of gold and silver
+only. It is now usually applied to the determination of the quantity of
+valuable metal in an ore or alloy, and is also sometimes applied to the
+estimation of any element which may affect the value of the ore.
+
+Assaying, therefore, means the estimation of one or more metals in an ore
+or alloy. Before an assay can be made, an average sample of the material
+must be obtained. If an ore, pieces of material are taken from different
+parts of the vein or, if already mined, from different parts of the dump.
+The pieces are crushed up finely and divided into four equal parts. Two of
+these parts are then mixed and divided into four again, and so on until an
+average sample has been obtained. In the case of metals in ingots or bars,
+samples are obtained by drilling and chipping corners or edges. Coins,
+which are never homogeneous, may be rolled out into a thin sheet and cut
+into small pieces. A preliminary examination is made to determine the
+constituents. Finally an assay of the substance is made. The methods used
+are determined by the metals and the proportions of these present in the
+ore or alloy. Originally the term assaying was applied to dry methods, i.e.
+the substance was heated in a special crucible with a suitable flux, and a
+bead of metal was obtained which was weighed. An assay now may be carried
+out in various ways, for example, by fusing with a reducing agent and
+obtaining a bead of metal, or by dissolving the substance to be assayed in
+suitable solvent and precipitating the metal as an insoluble salt, or
+volumetric methods may be used. Dry assaying is still used for gold. The
+assay depends on first heating the gold ore or alloy with lead in a porous
+crucible, that is, _cupelling_ it. Lead oxidizes on heating in a furnace;
+part volatilizes, and part of the oxide is absorbed by the cupel and
+carries with it oxides of other metals with the exception of gold and
+silver. The proportion of lead must be regulated, depending on the metals
+alloyed with gold. A bead is obtained containing gold and silver. This is
+beaten out into a thin plate, and then rolled out until it is thin enough
+to be rolled up by hand. The gold alloy is rolled up in the fingers into a
+cornette and treated with nitric acid. This dissolves silver, leaving a
+brittle cornette of gold, which is thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed.
+All gold alloys and silver alloys must be assayed, and their fineness
+stamped on them. The Goldsmith's Company of London is the statutory
+assay-master of England.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. and J. J. Beringer, _A Text-book
+of Assaying_; E. A. Wraight, _Assaying in Theory and Practice_; J. Park, _A
+Text-book of Practical Assaying_.
+
+AS'SEGAI (from Ar. _as-zahayah_), a spear used as a weapon among the
+Kaffirs of S. Africa, made of hard wood tipped with iron, and used for
+throwing or thrusting.
+
+ASSEMBLY, GENERAL, the supreme ecclesiastical court of the Established
+Church of Scotland, consisting of delegates from every presbytery,
+university, and royal burgh in Scotland. It has the countenance of a
+representative of the king, styled the Lord High Commissioner, who is
+always a nobleman. It holds its meetings annually and (according to the
+present practice) in the month of May, usually sitting for ten or twelve
+days. In its judicial capacity as a court of review, and as the court of
+last resort, the General Assembly has a right to determine finally every
+question brought from the inferior courts, by reference, complaint, or
+appeal. It possesses, besides, a general superintendence of the discipline
+of the Church, of the management of the inferior courts, of the conduct of
+the clergy, and of the morals of the people. In its legislative capacity it
+has the power of enacting statutes with regard to every subject of
+ecclesiastical cognizance, which are binding on the Assembly itself, on the
+inferior courts, and on the individual members of the Church. But by an Act
+of Assembly in 1697, from its substance and design named the Barrier Act,
+every proposition for a new law must first be considered in the form of an
+overture; and though it should be approved of by the Assembly it cannot be
+enacted as a statute till it has been first transmitted to the several
+presbyteries of the Church for their consideration, and has received the
+sanction of at least a majority of the presbyteries. The United Free Church
+of Scotland has also a General Assembly similar in its constitution and
+functions to that of the Established Church, and the same is the case with
+the Presbyterian Churches of Ireland and America.
+
+ASSEMBLY, NATIONAL (France), a body set up in France on the eve of the
+Revolution. Upon the convocation of the States-General by Louis XVI the
+privileged nobles and clergy refused to deliberate in the same chamber with
+the commons or _tiers-etat_ (third estate). The latter, therefore, on the
+proposition of the Abbe Sieyes, constituted themselves an _assemblee
+nationale_, with legislative powers (17th June, 1789). They bound
+themselves by oath not to separate until they had furnished France with a
+constitution, and the Court was compelled to give its assent. In the 3250
+decrees passed by the Assembly were laid the foundations of a new epoch,
+and, having accomplished this task, it dissolved itself, 30th Sept., 1791.
+
+ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES. See _Westminster Assembly_.
+
+ASSEMBLY, THE RIGHT OF, is an essential principle of popular government, as
+understood by the British and American constitutions. The right of British
+citizens to assemble peaceably for any purpose which is not strictly
+prohibited by law is implied in the right of petition, as affirmed in the
+Bill of Rights (q.v.). Unlawful assembly, which is a criminal offence, is
+distinguished from the offence of riot. Whilst the latter is an actual
+attempt to carry an unlawful purpose into effect, the former is defined as
+"an assembly with intent to carry out a common purpose which may lead to a
+breach of the peace".
+
+AS'SEN, chief town of the province of Drenthe, Holland. Pop. 13,000.
+
+ASSENT', THE ROYAL, is the approbation given by the sovereign in Parliament
+to a Bill which has passed both Houses, after which it becomes a law. It
+may either be done in person, when the sovereign comes to the House of
+Peers and the assent (in Norman French) is declared by the Clerk of
+Parliament; or it may be done by letters-patent under the great seal,
+signed by the sovereign.
+
+AS'SER, JOHN, a learned British ecclesiastic, originally a monk of St.
+David's, distinguished as the instructor, companion, and biographer of
+Alfred the Great, who appointed him abbot of two or three different
+monasteries, and finally Bishop of Sherborne, where he died in 908 or 910.
+His life of Alfred, written in Latin in 893 (_Annales Rerum Gestarum
+Aelfredi Magni_), is of very great value, though its authenticity has been
+questioned. There are several English translations of it.
+
+ASSESSED TAXES, taxes charged upon persons by means of a schedule or paper
+sent to each, and strictly including such taxes as the income-tax, the
+house-tax, local rates, &c. In Britain the so-called assessed taxes include
+those upon servants, carriages, dogs, armorial bearings, &c., though these
+are really excise licence duties.
+
+ASSES'SOR, a person appointed to ascertain and fix the amount of taxes,
+rates, &c.; or a person who sits along with the judges in certain courts,
+and assists them with his professional knowledge.
+
+AS'SETS (Fr. _assez_, enough), property or goods available for the payment
+of a bankrupt or deceased person's obligations. Assets are personal or
+real, the former comprising all goods, chattels, &c., devolving upon the
+executor as saleable to discharge debts and legacies. In commerce and
+bankruptcy the term is often used as the antithesis of 'liabilities', to
+designate the stock in trade and entire property of an individual or an
+association.--_Intangible_ (or fictitious) assets are those not represented
+by any existing value, e.g. goodwill; _liquid_ assets are cash,
+investments, or other immediately available funds.
+
+ASSIDE'ANS, HASIDE'ANS, or HASIDIM ('the pious'), one of the two great
+sects into which, after the Babylonish captivity, the Jews were divided
+with regard to the observance of the law--the Hasidim accepting it in its
+later developments, the Zadikim professing adherence only to the law as
+given by Moses. See _Pharisees_, _Talmudists_, _Rabbinists_.
+
+ASSIEN'TO, the permission of the Spanish Government to a foreign nation to
+import negro slaves from Africa into the Spanish colonies in America, for a
+limited time, on payment of certain duties. It was accorded to the
+Netherlands about 1552, to the Genoese in 1580, and to the French Guinea
+Company (afterwards the Assiento Company) in 1702. In 1713 the celebrated
+_Assiento Treaty_ with Britain for thirty years was concluded at Utrecht.
+By this contract the British obtained the right to send yearly a ship of
+500 tons, with all sorts of merchandise, to the Spanish colonies. This led
+to frequent abuses and contraband trade; acts of violence followed, and in
+1739 a war broke out between the two Powers. At the peace of
+Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, four years more were granted to the British; but
+by the Treaty of Madrid, two years later, L100,000 sterling were promised
+for the relinquishment of the two remaining years, and the contract was
+annulled.
+
+ASSIGNATS ([.a]s-[=e]-ny[.a]), the name of the national paper currency in
+the time of the French Revolution. Assignats to the value of 400,000,000
+francs were first struck off by the Constituent Assembly, with the
+approbation of the king, 19th April, 1790, to be redeemed with the proceeds
+of the sale of the confiscated goods of the Church. On the 27th Aug. of the
+same year Mirabeau urged the issuing of 2,000,000,000 francs of new
+assignats, which caused a dispute in the Assembly. Vergasse and Dupont, who
+saw that the plan was an invention of Claviere for his own enrichment,
+particularly distinguished themselves as the opponents of the scheme.
+Mirabeau's exertions, however, were seconded by Pethion, and 800,000,000
+francs more were issued. They were increased by degrees to 45,578,000,000,
+and their value rapidly declined. In the winter of 1792-3 they lost 30 per
+cent, and, in spite of the law to compel their acceptance at their nominal
+value, they continued to fall, till in the spring of 1796 they had sunk to
+one three hundred and forty-fourth their nominal value. This depreciation
+was due partly to the want of confidence in the stability of the
+Government, partly to the fact that the coarsely-executed and
+easily-counterfeited assignats were forged in great numbers. They were
+withdrawn by the Directory from the currency, and at length redeemed by
+mandats at one-thirtieth of their nominal value.
+
+ASSIGNEE', a person appointed by another to transact some business, or
+exercise some particular privilege or power. Formerly the persons appointed
+under a commission of bankruptcy, to manage the estate of the bankrupt on
+behalf of the creditors, were so called, but now they are called
+_trustees_.
+
+ASSIGN'MENT is a transfer by deed of any property, or right, title, or
+interest in property, real or personal. Assignments are usually given for
+leases, mortgages, and funded property.
+
+ASSINIBOI'A, the smallest of the four districts into which that portion of
+the north-western territories of Canada now forming the provinces of
+Saskatchewan and Alberta was divided in 1882. It lay on the west of
+Manitoba, with Saskatchewan on the north and Alberta on the west, the
+United States on the south. The name is now given to an electoral district
+of the province of Saskatchewan. The region contains much good wheat land.
+Regina was the capital, as it now is of the new province.
+
+ASSINIBOINE, a river of Canada, which flows through Manitoba and joins the
+Red River at Winnipeg, about 40 miles above the entrance of the latter into
+Lake Winnipeg, after a somewhat circuitous course of about 500 miles from
+the west and north-west. Steamers ply on it for over 300 miles.
+
+ASSIOUT. See _Siout_.
+
+ASSISI ([.a]s-s[=e]'s[=e]), a small town in Italy, in the province of
+Umbria, 20 miles north of Spoleto, the see of a bishop, and famous as the
+birthplace of St. Francis d'Assisi. The splendid church built over the
+chapel where the saint received his first impulse to devotion is one of the
+finest remains of mediaeval Gothic architecture.
+
+ASSI'ZES, a term chiefly used in England to signify the sessions of the
+courts held at Westminster prior to Magna Charta, but thereafter appointed
+by successive enactments to be held annually in every county. Twelve
+judges, who are members of the highest courts in England, twice in every
+year perform a _circuit_ into all the counties into which the kingdom is
+divided (the counties being grouped into seven circuits), to hold these
+assizes, at which both civil and criminal cases are decided. Occasionally
+this circuit is performed a third time for the purpose of jail-delivery. In
+London and Middlesex, instead of circuits, courts of _nisi prius_ are held.
+At the assizes all the justices of the peace of the county are bound to
+attend. Special commissions of assize are granted for inquest into certain
+causes. In Scotland the term _assize_ is still applicable to the jury in
+criminal cases.
+
+Among the more important historic uses of the term _assize_ are its
+application to any sitting or deliberative council, and its transference
+thence to their ordinances, decrees, or assessments. In the latter sense we
+have the Assizes of Jerusalem, a code of feudal laws formulated in 1099
+under Godfrey of Bouillon; the Assizes of Clarendon (1166), of Northampton
+(1176), and of Woodstock (1184); also the _assisae venalium_ (1203), for
+regulating the prices of articles of common consumption; the Assize of Arms
+(1181), an ordinance for organizing the national militia, &c.
+
+ASSMANSHAUSEN. See _Asmannshausen_.
+
+ASSOCIATED COUNTIES, a term applied to Essex, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk,
+and Hertford, with, subsequently, Huntingdon and Lincoln. The association
+was formed in 1642 to raise an army for the Parliament and keep the war out
+of their own districts. The successive leaders were Lord Grey of Wark, the
+Earl of Manchester, and Cromwell.
+
+ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, a doctrine of both psychological and philosophical
+import. In psychology the term is used to comprise the conditions under
+which one idea is able to recall another to consciousness. It is,
+therefore, the doctrine which deals with the reproduction of past
+experience by a present object of consciousness. The phrase 'association of
+ideas' was first introduced by Locke, and dealt with by Berkeley and
+Hartley, who became the founder of the so-called _Associationist School_.
+
+ASS'ONANCE, in poetry, a term used when the terminating words of lines have
+the same vowel sound but make no proper rhyme. Such verses, having what we
+should consider false rhymes, are regularly employed in Spanish poetry; but
+cases are not wanting in leading British poets. Mrs. Browning not only used
+them frequently, but justified the use of them.
+
+ASSOUAN ([.a]s-s[=o]-[.a]n'), or ASWAN (_Sy[=e]n[=e]_), a town of Upper
+Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile, below the first cataract, opposite the
+Island of Elephantine. The granite quarries of the Pharaohs are here. Pop.
+15,000.
+
+ASSOUAN DAM, a great dam constructed across the Nile in Upper Egypt, near
+Assouan, at the foot of the first cataract. It is about a mile and a
+quarter long, and is provided with a large number of sluices in two tiers.
+It was originally built to a height of about 96 feet between 1898 and 1902,
+and raised to a height of 112 feet above bed-rock between 1907 and 1911. It
+is intended to regulate the supply of water for irrigation purposes to the
+country lower down, the water being stored up at the time when the river is
+high, and allowed to escape when it is required for the crops. When the
+reservoir is full it forms a lake about 130 miles long. The dam was planned
+by Sir William Willcocks, and the work carried out under Sir William
+Garstin and Sir Benjamin Baker, at a cost of L5,000,000 (Egyptian).
+
+ASSUMP'SIT, in English law, an action to recover compensation for the
+non-performance of a _parole_ promise; that is, a promise not contained in
+a deed under seal. Assumpsits are of two kinds, _express_ and _implied_.
+The former are where the contracts are actually made in word or writing;
+the latter are such as the law implies from the justice of the case; e.g.
+employment to do work implies a promise to pay.
+
+ASSUMPTION. See _Asuncion_.
+
+ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF, the ecclesiastical festival celebrating the
+miraculous ascent into Heaven of the Virgin Mary's body as well as her
+soul, kept on the 15th of August. The legend first appeared in the third or
+fourth century, and the festival was instituted some three centuries later.
+
+ASSURANCE. See _Insurance_.
+
+[Illustration: Assyrian bas-relief from the Palace of Nimrud showing
+Lion-hunting about 884 B.C.]
+
+ASSYR'IA (the ASSHUR of the Hebrews, ATHURA of the ancient Persians), an
+ancient monarchy in Asia, intersected by the upper course of the Tigris,
+and having the Armenian Mountains on the north and Babylonia on the south;
+area, about 50,000 sq. miles; surface partly mountainous, hilly, or
+undulating, partly a portion of the fertile Mesopotamian plain. The
+numerous remains of ancient habitations show how thickly this vast flat
+must have once been peopled; now, for the most part, it is a mere
+wilderness. Geographically and historically, however, Assyria and Babylonia
+are interdependent, and the Assyrians and Babylonians are ethnographically
+and linguistically the same race. Whereas, however, the classical authors
+speak of Assyria to the exclusion of Babylonia, the decipherment of the
+inscriptions has proved that Babylonia was the mother-country, and that
+Assyria, except during a period of eight centuries, was a dependency of the
+former. This discovery coincides with the contents of the tenth chapter of
+_Genesis_. See _Babylonia_.
+
+AST, Georg Anton Friedrich, German philosopher, 1776-1841. He wrote on
+aesthetics and the history of philosophy, but is best known as an editor of
+Plato, whose works he published with a Latin translation and commentary.
+
+AS'TACUS. See _Crayfish_.
+
+ASTAR'TE, a Syrian goddess, probably corresponding to the _Ashtaroth_ of
+the Hebrews, and representing the productive power of nature. She was a
+moon-goddess. Some regard her as corresponding to _Hera_ (_Juno_), and
+others identify her with _Aphrodit[=e]_.
+
+ASTATIC NEEDLE, a magnetic needle having another needle of the same
+intensity fixed parallel to it, the poles being reversed, so that the
+needles neutralize one another, and are unaffected by the earth's
+magnetism; used in the _astatic galvanometer_.
+
+AS'TER, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositae, comprehending several
+hundred species, scattered over Europe and Asia, but mostly natives of
+North America. Many are cultivated as ornamental plants. One, _A.
+Tripolium_, is native in Britain, and is found in salt marshes, having a
+pretty purple flower. Asters generally flower late in the season, and some
+are hence called Michaelmas or Christmas Daisies. The China Aster, not an
+aster proper (_Aster_ or _Callist[)e]phus chinensis_), is a very showy
+annual, of which there are many varieties.
+
+ASTERABAD'. See _Astrabad_.
+
+ASTE'RIA, a name applied to a variety of corundum, which displays an
+opalescent star of six rays of light when cut with certain precautions; and
+also to the _cat's-eye_, which consists of quartz, and is found especially
+in Ceylon.
+
+ASTER'IDAE. See _Asteroidea_.
+
+AS'TERISK, the figure of a star, thus *, used in printing and writing, as a
+reference to a passage or note in the margin, or to fill the space when a
+name, or the like, is omitted.
+
+ASTEROI'DEA, the ord. of the Echinodermata to which the star-fishes belong.
+See _Star-fishes_.
+
+AS'TEROIDS, PLANETOIDS, or MINOR PLANETS, a numerous group of very small
+planets revolving round the sun, in the great majority of cases at mean
+distances, intermediate between those of Mars and Jupiter, in orbits of
+large eccentricity at considerable inclination to the ecliptic. The
+diameter of the largest is not supposed to exceed 450 miles, while most of
+the others are very much smaller. Over one thousand are known, and new
+members are being constantly discovered. The first to be discovered was
+Ceres, on 1st Jan., 1801, and within seven years more Pallas, Juno, and
+Vesta were seen. The diminutive size of these four bodies, and resemblances
+in their orbits, gave rise to the opinion that they were but the fragments
+of a planet that had formerly existed and had been brought to an end by
+some catastrophe. For nearly forty years investigations were carried on,
+but no more planets were discovered till 8th Dec., 1845, when a fifth
+planet in the same region of the solar system was discovered. The rapid
+succession of discoveries that followed was for a time taken as a
+corroboration of the disruption theory, but the breadth of the zone
+occupied makes the hypothesis of a shattered planet more than doubtful. In
+recent years a few have been discovered which are at times considerably
+within the orbit of Mars, the nearest perihelia being less than 15 million
+miles beyond the earth's orbit. Another group, known as the 'Trojan
+Planets', has been found, whose mean distances are practically identical
+with that of Jupiter. The total mass of the asteroids cannot exceed
+one-fourth that of the earth, and is probably much less. See _Planets_.
+
+ASTEROL'EPIS, a genus of primitive ganoid fishes, found only in a fossil
+state in the Old Red Sandstone. They were about 1 foot long, and the head
+and body were enclosed in armour of strong bony plates.
+
+ASTHMA (ast'ma), difficulty of respiration, returning at intervals, with a
+sense of stricture across the chest and in the lungs, a wheezing, hard
+cough at first, but more free towards the close of each paroxysm, with a
+discharge of mucus, followed by a remission. Asthma is essentially a spasm
+of the muscular tissue which is contained in the smaller bronchial tubes.
+It generally attacks persons advanced in years, and seems, in some
+instances, to be hereditary. The exciting causes are various--accumulation
+of blood or viscid mucus in the lungs, noxious vapours, a cold and foggy
+atmosphere, or a close, hot air, flatulence, accumulated faeces, violent
+passions, organic diseases in the thoracic viscera, &c. In recent years a
+treatment first used by Dr. Alexander Francis has come into prominence. By
+far the most important part of the treatment consists in obviating or
+removing the several exciting causes. It seldom proves fatal except as
+inducing dropsy, consumption, &c.
+
+ASTI ([.a]s't[=e]), a town of Northern Italy, province of Alessandria, 28
+miles E.S.E. of Turin, the see of a bishop, with an old cathedral. In the
+Middle Ages it was one of the most powerful republics of Northern Italy. It
+was the birthplace of Alfieri, the poet, whose statue adorns the principal
+square. There is also an equestrian statue of King Humbert. The industries
+comprise silk, matches, gold, mosaic wares, &c. A favourite wine is
+produced in the neighbourhood. Asti, anciently _Asta_, was a place of some
+importance under the Roman emperors, and in the Middle Ages was an
+independent republic. Pop. 41,252.
+
+ASTIG'MATISM (Gr. _a_, not, _stigma_, spot, mark), a malformation or
+imperfection, congenital or accidental, of the globe of the eye, in
+consequence of which the individual does not see objects clear and
+distinct, but with a blurred outline. It is due to the cornea or
+transparent outer coat of the eye not being regularly spherical, but having
+different degrees of curvature in different directions. Usually the degree
+of convexity is not the same horizontally as it is vertically, so that the
+rays from an object, instead of converging into one focus, meet in more
+than one. If a person with this defect is looking at vertical lines crossed
+by horizontal ones he will see the one set more distinctly than the other,
+though a slight movement will enable him to see the other distinctly also,
+but not at the same time. Almost all eyes are more or less astigmatic, but
+persons only become aware of it when it is excessive. Special lenses are
+required to correct it--usually lenses plane in one direction and concave
+or convex in the other. Short sight or long sight is often associated with
+astigmatism, so that suitable spectacles cannot be very easily provided.
+
+ASTLE, Thomas, English antiquary, born 1735, died 1803. He was a trustee of
+the British Museum and keeper of the public records in the Tower. His chief
+work, _The Origin and Progress of Writing_, appeared in 1784, and the
+portion dealing with mediaeval handwriting is still of value. He formed a
+famous collection of MSS., the most valuable portion of which is now in the
+British Museum.
+
+ASTOM'ATA, one of the two groups into which the Protozoa are divided with
+regard to the presence or absence of a mouth, of which organ the Astomata
+are destitute. The group comprises two classes, Gregarinida and Rhizopoda.
+See _Stomatoda_.
+
+ASTON MANOR, formerly a municipal and parliamentary borough of
+Warwickshire, England, situated about 1-1/2 miles E.N.E. of Birmingham, and
+engaged in similar branches of industry. It was incorporated with
+Birmingham in 1911 and gives its name to one of its parliamentary
+divisions. Pop. 75,029.
+
+ASTOR, John Jacob, born near Heidelberg, Germany, 1703, died at New York,
+1848. In 1783 he emigrated to the United States, settled at New York, and
+became extensively engaged in the fur trade. In 1811 the settlement of
+Astoria, founded by him, near the mouth of the Columbia River, was formed
+to serve as a central depot for the fur trade between the lakes and the
+Pacific. He subsequently engaged in various speculations, and died worth
+L4,000,000, leaving L80,000 to found the Astor Library in New York. This
+institution is contained in a splendid building, enlarged in 1859 at the
+cost of his son, and comprises about 260,000 volumes. Since 1895 it has
+formed part of the New York public library.--His great-grandson, William
+Waldorf Astor, born in 1848, died in 1919, naturalized in England in 1899,
+was made a baron in 1916 and a viscount in 1917.
+
+ASTOR, LADY. Nancy Witcher, Viscountess Astor, married the second Viscount
+Astor in 1906. She is a daughter of the late Colonel Chiswell Dabney
+Langhorne, of Virginia, United States. In Nov., 1919, she was elected
+member of Parliament for the Sutton division of Plymouth, and was the first
+woman to take a seat in the House of Commons.
+
+ASTOR'GA, a city of Spain, province of Leon; the _Asturica Augusta_ of the
+Romans. It figured prominently during the Peninsular War; it was taken by
+the French after an obstinate defence, 1810, and retaken by the Spaniards,
+1812. Pop. 5682.
+
+ASTO'RIA, a town of Oregon, United States, on the Columbia River, with
+numerous salmon-canning establishments. Pop. 10,595. See _Astor_.
+
+ASTRABAD', a town of Persia, province of same name, about 24 miles E. of
+the Caspian. It was formerly the residence of the Kajar princes, the
+ancestors of the present Persian dynasty. It is very unhealthy, but is
+still the centre of a considerable trade. Pop. estimated at from 10,000 to
+30,000. The province of Astrabad has an area of 5800 sq. miles, and a pop.
+of 150,000.
+
+ASTRAE'A, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Zeus and Themis, the goddess
+of justice. During the golden age she dwelt on earth, but on that age
+passing away she withdrew from the society of men and was placed among the
+stars, where she forms the constellation Virgo. The name was given to one
+of the asteroids, discovered in 1845. It revolves round the sun in 1511.10
+solar days, and is about 2-1/2 times the distance of the earth from the
+sun.
+
+AS'TRAGAL, in architecture, a small semicircular moulding, with a fillet
+beneath it, which surrounds a column in the form of a ring, separating the
+shaft from the capital.
+
+ASTRAG'ALUS, a genus of papilionaceous plants, herbaceous or shrubby, and
+often spiny. _A. gummifer_ yields gum tragacanth.
+
+ASTRAG'ALUS, the upper bone of the foot supporting the tibia; the buckle,
+ankle, or sling bone. It is a strong irregularly-shaped bone, and is
+connected with the others by powerful ligaments.
+
+ASTRAKHAN ([.a]s-tr[.a]-_h_[.a]n'), a Russian city, capital of government
+of same name, on an elevated island in the Volga, about 30 miles above its
+mouth in the Caspian, communicating with the opposite banks of the river by
+numerous bridges. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop and has a large
+cathedral, as well as places of worship for Mahommedans, Armenians, &c. The
+manufactures are large and increasing, and the fisheries (sturgeon, &c.)
+very important. It is the chief port of the Caspian, and has regular steam
+communication with the principal towns on its shores. In 1919 the town was
+made a naval base by the Bolshevist Government of Moscow. Pop. 163,800,
+composed of various races.--The government (or province) has an area of
+91,042 sq. miles. It consists almost entirely of two vast steppes,
+separated from each other by the Volga, and forming for the most part arid
+sterile deserts. In 1918 the district of Astrakhan proclaimed its autonomy
+and independence of Moscow. Pop. 1,427,500.
+
+ASTRAKHAN, a name given to sheepskins with a curled woolly surface obtained
+from a variety of sheep found in Bukhara, Persia, and Syria; also a rough
+fabric with a pile in imitation of this.
+
+ASTRALITE. See _Explosives_.
+
+ASTRAL SPIRITS, spirits formerly believed to people the heavenly bodies or
+the aerial regions. In the Middle Ages they were variously conceived as
+fallen angels, souls of departed men, or spirits originating in fire, and
+belonging neither to heaven, earth, nor hell. Paracelsus regarded them as
+demoniacal in character.
+
+ASTRIN'GENT, a medicine which contracts the organic textures and canals of
+the body, thereby checking or diminishing excessive discharges. The chief
+astringents are the mineral acids, alum, lime-water, chalk, salts of
+copper, zinc, iron, lead, silver; and among vegetables catechu, kino,
+oak-bark, and galls.
+
+ASTROCA'RYUM, a genus of tropical American palms, species of which yield
+oil and valuable fibre. Tucum oil and tucum thread are obtained from _A.
+vulg[=a]re_.
+
+AS'TROLABE, an instrument formerly used for taking the altitude of the sun
+or stars, now superseded by the quadrant and sextant. The name was also
+formerly given to an armillary sphere.--Cf. Chaucer, _Treatise on the
+Astrolabe_.
+
+ASTROLABE BAY, an inlet on the N.E. coast of Australian New Guinea.
+
+ASTROL'OGY, literally, the science or doctrine of the stars. The name was
+formerly used as equivalent to astronomy, but is now restricted in meaning
+to the pseudo-science which pretends to enable men to judge of the effects
+and influences of the heavenly bodies on human and other mundane affairs,
+and to foretell future events by their situations and conjunctions. As
+usually practised, the whole heavens, visible and invisible, were divided
+by great circles into twelve equal parts, called _houses_. As the circles
+were supposed to remain immovable, every heavenly body passed through each
+of the twelve houses every twenty-four hours. The portion of the zodiac
+contained in each house was the part to which chief attention was paid, and
+the position of any planet was settled by its distance from the boundary
+circle of the house, measured on the ecliptic. The houses had different
+names and different powers, the first being called the house of life, the
+second the house of riches, the third of brethren, the sixth of marriage,
+the eighth of death, and so on. The part of the heavens about to rise was
+called the _ascendant_, the planet within the house of the ascendant being
+_lord of the ascendant_. The different _aspects_ of the planets were of
+great importance. To _cast a person's nativity_ (or _draw his horoscope_)
+was to find the position of the heavens at the instant of his birth, which
+being done, the astrologer, who knew the various powers and influences
+possessed by the sun, the moon, and the planets, could predict what the
+course and termination of that person's life would be. The temperament of
+the individual was ascribed to the planet under which he was born, as
+_saturnine_ from _Saturn_, _jovial_ from _Jupiter_, _mercurial_ from
+_Mercury_, _&c._, words which are now used with little thought of their
+original meaning. The virtues of herbs, gems, and medicines were supposed
+to be due to their ruling planets. The history of astrology, which was the
+foster-sister of astronomy, goes back to the early days of the human race.
+Egyptians and Hindus, as well as the nations on the Euphrates and Tigris,
+were zealous astrologers. The Christian Church strongly opposed the
+teachings of astrology, but its study spread among Jews and Arabs during
+the Middle Ages. Francis Bacon abused the astrologers of his day, and Swift
+wrote against them his famous _Prediction for the Year 1708, by Isaac
+Bickerstaff, Esq._--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. H. Bennet, _Astrology_; G. Wilde,
+_Chaldean Astrology Up-to-date_; A. Maury, _La Magie et l'astrologie a
+l'antiquite et au moyen age_; A. J. Pearce, _Textbook of Astrology_.
+
+ASTRON'OMY (from Gr. _astron_, a heavenly body, and _nemein_, to classify
+or arrange) is that science which investigates the motions, distances,
+magnitudes, and various phenomena of the heavenly bodies. The science may
+be divided into several branches. _Descriptive astronomy_ denotes merely a
+presentation of astronomical facts in a systematic but popular form;
+_practical astronomy_ treats of the instruments used in observing the
+celestial bodies, the methods of their employment, and the manner of
+deducing results from the observations; investigation of the causes of the
+motions of these bodies was formerly termed _physical astronomy_, but now
+generally _dynamical_ or _gravitational astronomy_; _physical astronomy_ or
+_astro-physics_ is the comparatively modern branch which deals with their
+physical conditions, radiation, temperature, and chemical constitution.
+Recent years have added two new fields of investigation which are full of
+promise for the advancement of astronomical science. The first of
+these--_celestial photography_--has furnished us with invaluable
+light-pictures of the sun, moon, and other bodies, and has recorded the
+existence of myriads of stars invisible even to the best telescopes; while
+the second, _spectrum analysis_, now employed by many scientists, reveals
+to us a knowledge of the physical constituents of the universe, telling us
+for instance that in the sun (or his atmosphere) there exist many of the
+elements familiar to us on the earth. It is also applied to the
+determination of the velocities with which stars are approaching, or
+receding from, our system; and to the measurement of movements taking place
+within the solar atmospheric envelopes. From analysis of some of the
+unresolved nebulae the inference is drawn that they are not star-swarms but
+simply incandescent gas; whence a second inference results favourable to
+the hypothesis of the gradual condensation of nebulae, and the successive
+evolutions of suns and systems.
+
+The most remote period to which we can go back in tracing the history of
+astronomy refers us to a time about 2500 B.C., when the Chinese are said to
+have recorded the simultaneous conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars,
+Mercury, and the moon. This remarkable phenomenon is found, by calculating
+backward, to have taken place 2460 B.C. Astronomy has also an undoubtedly
+high antiquity in India. The mean annual motion of Jupiter and Saturn was
+observed as early as 3062 years B.C.; tables of the sun, moon, and planets
+were formed, and eclipses calculated. In the time of Alexander the Great,
+the Chaldeans or Babylonians had carried on astronomical observations for
+1900 years. They regarded comets as bodies travelling in extended orbits,
+and predicted their return; and there is reason to believe that they had
+correct ideas regarding the solar system. The priests of Egypt gave
+astronomy a religious character; but their knowledge of the science is
+testified to only by their ancient zodiacs and the position of their
+pyramids with relation to the cardinal points. It was among the Greeks that
+astronomy took a more scientific form. Thales of Miletus (born 639 B.C.)
+predicted a solar eclipse, and his successors held opinions which are in
+many respects wonderfully in accordance with modern ideas. Pythagoras (500
+B.C.) and his followers formed theories of the planetary system. They
+taught the sphericity and revolution of the earth, but placed an imaginary
+'Central Fire', not the sun itself, at the centre of the system. Great
+progress was made in astronomy under the Ptolemies, and we find Timochares
+and Aristyllus employed about 300 B.C. in making useful planetary
+observations. But Aristarchus of Samos (born 267 B.C.) is said, on the
+authority of Archimedes, to have far surpassed them, by teaching the double
+motion of the earth around its axis and around the sun. A hundred years
+later Hipparchus determined more exactly the length of the solar year, and
+the eccentricity of the ecliptic, discovered the precession of the
+equinoxes, and even undertook a catalogue of the stars. It was in the
+second century after Christ that Claudius Ptolemy, a famous mathematician
+of Pelusium in Egypt, propounded the system that bears his name, viz., that
+the earth was the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and
+planets revolved around it in the following order: nearest to the earth was
+the sphere of the moon; then followed the spheres of Mercury, Venus, the
+Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; then came the sphere of the fixed stars;
+these were succeeded by two _crystalline_ spheres and an outer sphere named
+the _primum mobile_ or first movable, which last was again circumscribed by
+the _coelum empyreum_, of a cubic shape, wherein happy souls found their
+abode. The Arabs began to make scientific astronomical observations about
+the middle of the eighth century, and for 400 years they prosecuted the
+science with assiduity. Ibn-Yunis (A.D. 1000) made important observations
+of the perturbations and eccentricities of Jupiter and Saturn. In the
+sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus, born in 1473, introduced the system
+that bears his name, and which recognized the sun's central place in the
+solar system, and that all the other bodies, the earth included, revolve
+around it. This arrangement of the universe (see _Copernicus_) came at
+length to be generally received on account of the simplicity it substituted
+for the complexities and difficulties of the theory of Ptolemy. The
+observations and calculations of Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer, born in
+1546, continued over many years, were of the highest value, and secured for
+him the title of regenerator of practical astronomy. His assistant and
+pupil, Kepler, born in 1571, was enabled, principally from the data
+provided by his master's labours, to arrive at those laws which have made
+his name famous: 1. That the planets move, not in circular, but in
+elliptical orbits, of which the sun occupies a focus. 2. That the radius
+vector, or imaginary straight line joining the sun and any planet, moves
+over equal spaces in equal times. 3. That the squares of the times of the
+revolutions of the planets are as the cubes of their mean distances from
+the sun. Galileo, who died in 1642, advanced the science by his
+observations and by the new revelations he made through his telescopes,
+which established the truth of the Copernican theory. Newton, born in 1642,
+carried physical astronomy suddenly to comparative perfection. Accepting
+Kepler's laws as a statement of the facts of planetary motion, he deduced
+from them his theory of gravitation. The science was enriched towards the
+close of the eighteenth century by the discovery by Herschel of the planet
+Uranus and its satellites, the resolution of the Milky Way into myriads of
+stars, and the investigation of nebulae and of double and triple stars. The
+splendid analytical researches of Lalande, Lagrange, Delambre, and Laplace
+mark the same period. The nineteenth century opened with the discovery of
+the first four minor planets; and the existence of another planet
+(Neptune), more distant from the sun than Uranus, was, in 1845,
+independently predicted by Leverrier and Adams. Of late years the sun has
+attracted a number of observers, the spectroscope and photography having
+been especially fruitful in this field of investigation. By various methods
+the sun's mean distance has been ascertained within very small limits of
+error, and found to be nearly 93,000,000 miles. Many additions have been
+made to the known secondary planets or satellites, including some with
+retrograde motions. A vast number of asteroids has been discovered, and the
+width of the zone occupied by them found to be much more extensive. Much
+success has been achieved in ascertaining the parallax of fixed stars.
+
+The objects with which astronomy has chiefly to deal are the earth, the
+sun, the moon, the planets, the fixed stars, comets, nebulae, and meteors.
+The stellar universe is composed of an unknown host of stars, many millions
+in number. Those visible to the naked eye were in ancient times grouped
+into the constellations still recognized. The nebulae are cloud-like
+patches of light scattered all over the heavens. Some of them have been
+resolved into star-clusters, but many of them are masses of incandescent
+gas. Of the so-called fixed stars, many form binary or multiple systems,
+the members revolving in orbits under each other's attractions, while other
+more scattered groups are moving clusters, travelling in parallel paths
+through space like flocks of birds. Variable stars and extinct or dark
+stars are also known. The fixed stars preserve, at least to unaided vision,
+an unalterable relation to each other, because of their vast distance from
+the earth. Their apparent movement from east to west is the result of the
+earth's revolution on its axis in twenty-four hours from west to east. The
+planets have not only an apparent, but also a real and proper motion,
+since, like our earth, they revolve around the sun in their several orbits
+and periods. The nearest of these bodies to the sun is _Mercury_. _Venus_,
+the second planet from the sun, is to us the brightest and most beautiful
+of all the planets. The _Earth_ is the first planet accompanied by a
+satellite or moon. _Mars_, the next planet, has two satellites, discovered
+in 1877. Its surface has a variegated character, and the existence of land,
+water, snow, and ice has been inferred. The _Asteroids_, of which over 1000
+are known, form a broad zone of small bodies, at distances from a little
+beyond the earth's to that of Jupiter. _Jupiter_, the largest planet, has
+at least nine satellites, of which the two outermost have retrograde
+motion. Its surface is diversified by spots, markings, and bands parallel
+to its equator. _Saturn_, with its nine or more satellites and broad thin
+rings in its equatorial plane, is, perhaps, the most striking telescopic
+object in the heavens. _Ur[)a]nus_--discovered by Herschel in 1781--is
+accompanied by four satellites. _Neptune_, the farthest removed from the
+sun, has one satellite, the motion of which is retrograde. Besides the
+planets, quite a number of comets are known to be members of the solar
+system. The physical constitution of these bodies is still one of the
+enigmas of astronomy. The observation of meteors has recently attracted
+much attention. They are seen in largest numbers in the autumn months.
+Meteor streams are supposed to represent the results of the disintegration
+of comets. Among the more modern astronomers we may mention: Gustav
+Kirchhoff, G. B. Donati, Christian Doppler, H. C. Vogel, Sir William
+Huggins, Simon Newcomb, and Sir David Gill. See _Earth_, _Sun_, _Moon_,
+_Planet_, _Comet_, _Stars_, _Asteroids_, _Celestial Photography_,
+_Spectrography_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. N. Lockyer, _Dawn of Astronomy_;
+Sir G. C. Lewis, _Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients_; Sir.
+F. W. Dyson, _Astronomy_; Sir R. Ball, _Atlas, and Popular Guide to the
+Heavens_; G. P. Serviss, _Astronomy with an Opera-glass_; _The Pleasures of
+the Telescope_; A. M. Clerke, _History of Astronomy during the 19th
+Century_, H. Macpherson, _Romance of Modern Astronomy_; C. A. Young,
+_General Astronomy_; G. F. Chambers, _Handbook of Astronomy_ (3 vols.);
+E. W. Maunder, _Astronomy of the Bible_; A. C. D. Crommelin, _The Star
+World_; Agnes Giberne, _Sun, Moon, and Stars_ (popular).
+
+ASTROPALIA, an island in the Aegean Sea. It was occupied during the Balkan
+war of 1912 by the Italians under Admiral Presbitero and General d'Ameglio.
+
+ASTROPHYSICS. See _Spectroscopy_.
+
+ASTUR. See _Goshawk_.
+
+ASTU'RIA, or THE ASTURIAS, a Spanish principality, now forming the province
+of Oviedo, on the north coast of Spain; an alpine region, with steep and
+jagged mountain ridges, valuable minerals, luxuriant grazing lands, and
+fertile well-watered valleys. The heir apparent of Spain has borne since
+1388 the title of Prince of the Asturias. See _Spain_.
+
+ASTY'AGES (-j[=e]z), last king of the Medes, 593-558 B.C., deposed by
+Cyrus, an event which transferred the supremacy from the Medes to the
+Persians.
+
+ASUNCION ([.a]-s[u:]n-th[=e]-on'), or NUESTRA SENORA DE LA ASUNCION (Eng.
+_Assumption_), the chief city of Paraguay, on the River Paraguay,
+picturesquely situated and with good public buildings. It was founded in
+1537 on the feast of the Assumption. Its trade is mostly in the yerba tea,
+hides, tobacco, oranges, &c. It was taken and plundered by the Brazilians
+in 1869. A railway runs for a short distance into the interior. Pop.
+(1920), 99,836.
+
+[Illustration: Aswail (_Ursus labi[=a]tus_)]
+
+AS'WAIL, the native name for the sloth-bear (_Ursus labi[=a]tus_) of the
+mountains of India, an uncouth, unwieldy animal, with very long black hair,
+inoffensive when not attacked. Its usual diet consists of roots,
+bees'-nests, grubs, snails, ants, &c. Its flesh is in much favour as an
+article of food. When captured young it is easily tamed.
+
+ASY'LUM, a sanctuary or place of refuge, where criminals and debtors
+sheltered themselves from justice, and from which they could not be taken
+without sacrilege. Temples were anciently asylums, as were Christian
+churches in later times. (See _Sanctuary_.) The term is now usually applied
+to an institution for receiving, maintaining, and, so far as possible,
+ameliorating the condition of persons labouring under certain bodily
+defects or mental maladies; sometimes also a refuge for the unfortunate.
+
+ASYLUM, RIGHT OF. See _Extradition_.
+
+ASYMPTOTE (as'im-t[=o]t), in geometry, a line which is continually
+approaching a curve, but never meets it, however far either of them may be
+prolonged. This may be conceived as a tangent to a curve at an infinite
+distance. See _Conic Sections_.
+
+ASYN'DETON, a figure of speech by which connecting words are omitted; as 'I
+came, I saw, I conquered', or Cicero's 'Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit'.
+
+ATACAMA ([.a]-t[.a]-kae'm[.a]), a desert region on the west coast of S.
+America belonging to Chile, partly in the province of Atacama, partly in
+the territory of Antofagasta. It mainly consists of a plateau extending
+from Copiapo northward to the River Loa, and lies between the Andes and the
+sea. It forms the chief nitrate district of Chile, there being also rich
+silver-mines, while gold is also found, as well as argentiferous lead,
+copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron; with guano on the coast. The northern
+portion belonged to Bolivia until 1904. The Chilian province of Atacama has
+an area of 30,711 sq. miles, and a pop. of 63,893.
+
+ATACA'MITE, a combination of the hydroxide and chloride of copper,
+occurring abundantly in some parts of South America, as at Atacama, whence
+it has its name. It is worked as an ore in South America, and is exported
+to England.
+
+ATAHUAL'PA, the last of the Incas, succeeded his father in 1529 on the
+throne of Quito, whilst his brother Huascar obtained the kingdom of Peru.
+They soon made war against each other, when the latter was defeated, and
+his kingdom fell into the hands of Atahualpa. The Spaniards, taking
+advantage of these internal disturbances, with Pizarro at their head
+invaded Peru, and advanced to Atahualpa's camp. Here, while Pizarro's
+priest was telling the Inca how the Pope had given Peru to the Spaniards,
+fire was opened on the unsuspecting Peruvians, Atahualpa was captured, and,
+despite the payment of a vast ransom in gold, was executed (1533).
+
+ATALAN'TA, in Greek mythology, a famous huntress of Arcadia. She was to be
+obtained in marriage only by him who could outstrip her in a race, the
+consequence of failure being death. One of her suitors obtained from
+Aphrod[=i]t[=e] (Venus) three golden apples, which he threw behind him, one
+after another, as he ran. Atalanta stopped to pick them up, and was not
+unwillingly defeated. There was another Atalanta belonging to Boeotia, who
+cannot very well be distinguished, the same stories being told about both.
+
+ATAMAN. See _Hetman_.
+
+AT'AVISM (Lat. _at[)a]vus_, an ancestor), in biology, the tendency to
+reproduce the ancestral type in animals or plants which have become
+considerably modified by breeding or cultivation; the reversion of a
+descendant to some peculiarity of a more or less remote ancestor. See
+_Mendelism_, _Natural Selection_, _Evolution_, _Heredity_. The term
+_atavism_ is also frequently used in sociological literature, in the sense
+of reversion to more primitive types, as explanation of criminal instincts
+and pathological phenomena.
+
+ATAXY, or ATAXIA, in medicine, irregularity in the animal functions, or in
+the symptoms of a disease. See _Locomotor Ataxy_.
+
+ATBA'RA, the most northerly tributary of the Nile. It rises in the
+Abyssinian highlands, receives several large tributaries, and enters the
+Nile about 18deg N. The town of Atbara is situated about 380 miles S.E. of
+Wadi Halfa. The battle of Atbara, between the British under Earl Kitchener
+(then Sir Herbert), and the followers of the Mahdi, was fought on 8th
+April, 1898.
+
+ATCHAFALAY'A ('Lost Water'), a river of the United States, an outlet of the
+Red River which strikes off before the junction of that river with the
+Mississippi, flows southward, and enters the Gulf of Mexico by Atchafalaya
+Bay. Its length is about 225 miles.
+
+ATCHEEN'. See _Acheen_.
+
+ATCH'ISON, a city of Kansas, United States, on the Missouri, about 30 miles
+from Leavenworth, an important railway centre with an increasing trade.
+Pop. (1920), 12,630.
+
+A'T[=E], among the Greeks, the goddess of hate, injustice, crime, and
+retribution, daughter of Zeus according to Homer, but of [)E]ris (Strife)
+according to Hesiod.
+
+AT'ELES, a genus of American monkeys. See _Spider-monkey_.
+
+ATELIERS NATIONAUX ([.a]-tl-y[=a] n[.a]-syo-n[=o]), or national workshops,
+were established by the French Provisional Government in 1848. They
+interfered much with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw
+themselves on the Government for work. The breaking up of the system led to
+disorders, but it was abolished in July, 1848.
+
+ATELLA'NAE FAB'ULAE (called also OSCAN PLAYS), a kind of light interlude,
+in ancient Rome, performed not by the regular actors, but by freeborn young
+Romans; it originated from the ancient _Atella_, a city of the Oscans. They
+were the origin of the Italian _commedie dell'arte_. Cf. Munk, _De Fabulis
+Atellanis_.
+
+ATESH'GA (the place of fire), a sacred place of the Guebres or Persian
+fire-worshippers, on the Peninsula of Apsheron, on the W. coast of the
+Caspian, visited by large numbers of pilgrims, who bow before the sacred
+flames which issue from the bituminous soil.
+
+ATH (aet), a fortified town of Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, on the
+Dender; it carries on weaving, dyeing, and printing cottons. It was the
+scene of fighting in Nov., 1918. Pop. 11,108.
+
+ATHABAS'CA, a river and lake of Canada. The river rises on the eastern
+slopes of the Rocky Mountains not far from Mount Hooker, in the province of
+Alberta, flows N.E. and N., and falls into Lake Athabasca after a course of
+about 600 miles.--_Lake Athabasca_, or Lake of the Hills, is about 190
+miles S.S.E. of the Great Slave Lake, to which its waters are carried by
+means of the Slave River. It is about 200 miles in length from east to
+west, and 35 miles wide where widest, but narrows to a point at either
+extremity.--The former district of _Athabasca_, in 1905 divided between the
+two new provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, had British Columbia on the
+west, Keewatin on the east, Alberta and Saskatchewan districts on the
+south, the parallel of 60deg on the north, being crossed by the Athabasca
+and the Peace Rivers. Lake Athabasca is partly in Alberta, partly in
+Saskatchewan.
+
+ATHALI'AH, daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, and wife of Joram, King of
+Judah. After the death of her son Ahaziah, she opened her way to the throne
+by the murder of forty-two princes of the royal blood. She reigned six
+years; in the seventh the high-priest Jehoiada placed Joash, the young son
+of Ahaziah, who had been secretly preserved, on the throne of his father,
+and Athaliah was slain. Cf. 2 _Kings_, xi. The story of Athaliah supplied
+Racine with the plot of one of his most famous tragedies.
+
+ATHANA'SIAN CREED, a creed or exposition of Christian faith, supposed
+formerly to have been drawn up by St. Athanasius, though this opinion is
+now generally rejected, and the composition often ascribed to Hilary,
+Bishop of Arles (about 430). It is an explicit avowal of the doctrines of
+the Trinity (as opposed to Arianism, of which Athanasius was a great
+opponent) and of the incarnation, and contains what are known as the
+'damnatory clauses', in which it declares that damnation must be the lot of
+those who do not believe the true and catholic faith. It is contained in
+the _Book of Common Prayer_, to be read on certain
+occasions.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. J. A. Hort, _Two Dissertations_; G. D. W.
+Ommanney, _Critical Dissertation on the Athanasian Creed_; J. A. Robinson,
+_The Athanasian Creed_; E. C. S. Gibson, _The Three Creeds_; R. O. P.
+Taylor, _Athanasian Creed in the Twentieth Century_.
+
+ATHANA'SIUS, ST., Archbishop of Alexandria, a renowned father of the
+Church, born in that city about A.D. 296, died 373. While yet a young man
+he attended the Council at Nice (325), where he gained the highest esteem
+of the fathers by the talents which he displayed in the Arian controversy.
+He had a great share in the decrees passed here, and thereby drew on
+himself the hatred of the Arians. Shortly afterwards he was appointed
+Archbishop of Alexandria. The complaints and accusations of his enemies at
+length induced the Emperor Constantine to summon him in 334 before the
+Councils of Tyre and Jerusalem, when he was suspended, and afterwards
+banished to Treves. The death of Constantine put an end to this banishment,
+and Constantius recalled the holy patriarch. His return to Alexandria
+resembled a triumph. Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 342. Again
+in 355 he was sentenced to be banished, when he retired into those parts of
+the desert which were entirely uninhabited. He was followed by a faithful
+servant, who, at the risk of his life, supplied him with the means of
+subsistence. Here Athanasius composed many writings, full of eloquence, to
+strengthen the faith of the believers, or expose the falsehood of his
+enemies. When Julian the Apostate ascended the throne, toleration was
+proclaimed to all religions, and Athanasius returned to his former position
+at Alexandria. His next controversy was with the heathen subjects of
+Julian, who excited the emperor against him, and he was obliged to flee in
+order to save his life. The death of the emperor and the accession of
+Jovian (363) again brought him back; but Valens becoming emperor, and the
+Arians recovering the superiority, he was once more compelled to flee. He
+concealed himself in the tomb of his father, where he remained four months,
+until Valens allowed him to return. From this period he remained
+undisturbed in his office till he died. Of the forty-six years of his
+official life he spent twenty in banishment, and the greater part of the
+remainder in defending the Nicene Creed. Athanasius was not so much a
+speculative theologian as a great Christian pastor (cf. L. Duchesne,
+_Histoire ancienne. de l'Eglise_, 1907). His writings, which are in Greek,
+are on polemical, historical, and moral subjects. The polemical treat
+chiefly of the doctrines of the Trinity, the incarnation of Christ, and the
+divinity of the Holy Spirit. The historical ones are of the greatest
+importance for the history of the Church. See _Athanasian Creed_.
+
+A'THEISM (Gr. _a_, priv., and _Theos_, God), the disbelief of the existence
+of a God or supreme intelligent being; the doctrine opposed to _theism_ or
+_deism_. The term has been often loosely used as equivalent with
+_infidelity_ generally, with deism, with pantheism, and with the denial of
+immortality. The most famous exponents of atheism were La Mettrie, Holbach,
+Feuerbach, and Carl Vogt; whilst Comte and Haeckel have put forward systems
+of thought essentially atheistic.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Flint, _Anti-theistic
+Theories_; J. S. Blackie, _Natural History of Atheism_; F. A. Lange,
+_History of Materialism_.
+
+ATH'ELING, a title of honour among the Anglo-Saxons, meaning one who is of
+noble blood. The title was gradually confined to the princes of the blood
+royal, and in the ninth and tenth centuries was used exclusively for the
+sons or brothers of the reigning king.
+
+ATHELING, Edgar. See _Edgar Atheling_.
+
+ATH'ELNEY, formerly an island in the midst of fens and marshes, now drained
+and cultivated in Somersetshire, England, about 7 miles southeast of
+Bridgwater. Alfred the Great took refuge in it during a Danish invasion,
+and afterwards founded an abbey there.
+
+ATH'ELSTAN, King of England, born 895, died 941, succeeded his father,
+Edward the Elder, in 925. He was victorious in his wars with the Danes of
+Northumberland, and the Scots, by whom they were assisted. After a signal
+overthrow of his enemies at Brunanburgh he governed in peace and with great
+ability.
+
+ATH[=E]'NA, or ATH[=E]N[=E], a Greek goddess, identified by the Romans with
+Minerva, the representative of the intellectual powers; the daughter of
+Zeus (Jupiter) and M[=e]tis (that is, wisdom or cleverness). According to
+the legend, before her birth Zeus swallowed her mother, and Athena
+afterwards sprang from the head of Zeus with a mighty war shout and in
+complete armour. In her character of a wise and prudent warrior she was
+contrasted with the fierce Ares (Mars). In the wars of the giants she slew
+Pallas and Enceladus. In the wars of the mortals she aided and protected
+heroes. She is also represented as the patroness of the arts of peace. The
+sculptor, the architect, and the painter, as well as the philosopher, the
+orator, and the poet, considered her their tutelar deity. She is also
+represented among the healing gods. In all these representations she is the
+symbol of the thinking faculty, the goddess of wisdom, science, and art;
+the latter, however, only in so far as invention and thought are
+comprehended. In the images of the goddess a manly gravity and an air of
+reflection are united with female beauty in her features. As a warrior she
+is represented completely armed, her head covered with a gold helmet. As
+the goddess of peaceful art she appears in the dress of a Grecian matron.
+To her insignia belong the Aegis, the Gorgon's head, the round Argive
+buckler; and the owl, the cock, the serpent, an olive branch, and a lance
+were sacred to her. All Attica, but particularly Athens, was sacred to her,
+and she had numerous temples there. Her most brilliant festival at Athens
+was the Panathenaea.
+
+ATHENAE'UM, the temple of Athena or Minerva, at Athens, frequented by
+poets, learned men, and orators. The same name was given at Rome to the
+school which Hadrian established on the Capitoline Mount for the promotion
+of literary and scientific studies. In modern times the same name is given
+to literary clubs and establishments connected with the sciences. It is
+also the title of several literary periodicals.
+
+ATHENAE'US, a Greek rhetorician and grammarian, who lived at the end of the
+second and beginning of the third century after Christ, author of an
+encyclopaedic work, in the form of conversation, called _The Professors at
+the Dinner-table_ (_Deipnosophistae_), which is a rich but ill-arranged
+treasure of historical, antiquarian, philosophical, grammatical, &c.,
+knowledge.
+
+ATHENAG'ORAS, a Platonic philosopher of Athens, a convert to Christianity,
+who wrote a Greek _Apology for the Christians_, addressed to the Emperor
+Marcus Aurelius, in 177, one of the earliest that appeared.
+
+ATH'ENS (Gr. _Ath[=e]nai_, Lat. _Ath[=e]nae_), anciently the capital of
+Attica and centre of Greek culture, now the capital of the kingdom of
+Greece. It is situated in the central plain of Attica, about 4 miles from
+the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Aegina, an arm of the Aegean Sea running in
+between the mainland and the Peloponnesus. It is said to have been founded
+about 1550 B.C. by Cecrops, the mythical Pelasgian hero, and to have borne
+the name Cecropia until under Erechtheus it received the name of Athens in
+honour of Ath[=e]n[=e]. The Acropolis, an irregular oval crag 150 feet
+high, with a level summit 1000 feet long by 500 in breadth, was the
+original nucleus of the city, which, according to tradition, was extended
+by Theseus when Athens became the head of the confederate Attic States. The
+three chief eminences near the Acropolis--the Areopagus to the north-west,
+the Pnyx to the south-west, and the Museum to the south of the Pnyx--were
+thus included within the city boundary as the sites of its chief public
+buildings, the city itself, however, afterwards taking a northerly
+direction. On the east ran the Ilissus and on the west the Cephissus, while
+to the south-west lay three harbours--Phalerum, the oldest and nearest; the
+Piraeus, the most important; and Munychia, the Piraean Acropolis. At the
+height of its prosperity the city was connected with its harbours by three
+massive walls (the 'long walls'). The architectural development of Athens
+may be dated from the rule of the Pisistratids (560-510 B.C.), who are
+credited with the foundation of the huge temple of the Olympian Zeus,
+completed by Hadrian seven centuries later, the erection of the Pythium or
+temple of the Pythian Apollo, and of the Lyceum or temple of Apollo
+Lyceus--all near the Ilissus; and to whom were due the enclosure of the
+Academy, a gymnasium and gardens to the north of the city, and the building
+of the Agora with its Portico or Stoa, Bouleuterium or Senate-house,
+Tholus, and Prytaneum. With the foundation of Athenian democracy under
+Clisthenes, the Pnyx or place of public assembly, with its semicircular
+area and cyclopean wall, first became of importance, and a commencement was
+made of the Dionysiac theatre (theatre of Dionysus or Bacchus) on the south
+side of the Acropolis. After the destruction wrought by the Persians in 480
+B.C., Themistocles reconstructed the city upon practical lines and with a
+larger area, enclosing the city in new walls 7-1/2 miles in circumference,
+erecting the north wall of the Acropolis, and developing the maritime
+resources of the Piraeus; while Cimon added to the southern fortifications
+of the Acropolis, placed on it the temple of Wingless Victory, planted the
+Agora with trees, laid out the Academy, and built the Theseum on an
+eminence north of the Areopagus; his brother-in-law, Peisianax, erected the
+famous Stoa Poecil[=e], a hall with walls covered with paintings (whence
+the _Stoics_ got their name). Under Pericles the highest point of artistic
+development was reached. An Odeum was erected on the east of the Dionysiac
+theatre for the recitations of rhapsodists and musicians; and with the aid
+of the architects Ict[=i]nus, Callicrates, and Mnesicles, and of the
+sculptor Phidias, the Acropolis was perfected. Covering the whole of the
+western end rose the Propylaea, the splendid structure through which the
+Acropolis was entered, constructed of Pentelic marble and consisting of a
+central gateway portico with two wings in the form of Doric temples. Just
+outside the Propylaea was the small temple of Wingless Victory. A short
+distance within the entrance stood the bronze statue of Athena Promachus, a
+colossal work of Phidias, 66 feet high, showing the goddess in complete
+armour and leaning on a lance. Beyond it to the left was the Erechtheum,
+the shrine of Athena Polias, guardian of the city, containing a very
+ancient and sacred statue of Athena in olive-wood; while to the right, on
+the highest part of the Acropolis, was the marble Parthenon or temple of
+Athena, the crowning glory of the whole. This renowned structure, still
+glorious in its ruins, was built under the auspices of Pericles, Phidias
+being the sculptor and artistic adviser, and Ict[=i]nus and Callicrates the
+architects. It is in the Doric style, and among its numerous sculptures
+were fifty life-size statues, while in the interior was a chryselephantine
+(gold and ivory) figure of the goddess, 39 feet high. (See _Parthenon_.)
+Minor statues and shrines occupied the rest of the area of the Acropolis,
+which was for the time wholly appropriated to the worship of the guardian
+deities of the city. The Acropolis museum, a building of recent date,
+contains an interesting and valuable collection of works of art found here.
+In the interval between the close of the Peloponnesian War and the battle
+of Chaeronea few additions were made to the city. But the long walls and
+Piraeus, destroyed by Lysander, were restored by Conon, and under the
+orator Lycurgus the Dionysiac temple was completed, the Panathenaic stadium
+commenced, and the choragic monuments of Lysicrates and Thrasyllus erected.
+Later on Ptolemy Philadelphus gave Athens the Ptolemaeum near the Theseum,
+Attalus I the stoa north-east of the Agora, Eumenes II that near the great
+theatre, and Antiochus Epiphanes carried on the Olympieum. Under the Romans
+it continued a flourishing city, Hadrian in the second century adorning it
+with many new buildings, and constructing an aqueduct, finished by his son
+Antoninus Pius. At this time also a wealthy citizen, Herodes Atticus, did
+much to beautify the city, and in particular constructed an Odeum, the
+ruins of which are still conspicuous. Indeed Athens was at no time more
+splendid than under the Antonines, when Pausanias visited and described it.
+But after a time Christian zeal, the attacks of barbarians, and robberies
+of collectors made sad inroads among the monuments. About A.D. 420 paganism
+was totally annihilated at Athens, and when Justinian closed even the
+schools of the philosophers, the reverence for buildings associated with
+the names of the ancient deities and heroes was lost. The Parthenon was
+turned into a church of the Virgin Mary, and St. George stepped into the
+place of Theseus. Finally, in 1456, the place fell into the hands of the
+Turks. The Parthenon became a mosque, and in 1687 was greatly damaged by an
+explosion at the siege of Athens by the Venetians. Enough, however, remains
+of it and of the neighbouring structures to attest the splendour of the
+Acropolis; while of the other buildings of the city, the Theseum, or temple
+of Theseus, and the Horologium, or temple of the Winds, are admirably
+preserved, as are also structures belonging to the Pnyx, Panathenaic
+stadium (restored and again used for games), &c. The Theseum, indeed, is
+said to be the best preserved building of all ancient Greece, and is hardly
+less imposing than the Parthenon. Of more than a hundred columns that
+belonged to the Olympieum or temple of the Olympian Zeus, completed by
+Hadrian, only fifteen are still standing. Soon after the commencement of
+the war of liberation in 1821 the Turks surrendered Athens, but captured it
+again in 1826-7. The Great Powers now intervened to bring about the
+independence of Greece. The Turks evacuated Athens in 1833, and the troops
+of King Otho then entered the city. In 1835 it became the royal residence,
+and it soon began to make rapid progress, though its natural position is by
+no means advantageous. The modern city mostly lies north, north-east, and
+north-west of the Acropolis, and consists mainly of straight and well-built
+streets. Among the principal buildings are the royal palace, a stately
+building with a facade of Pentelic marble (completed 1843), the university,
+the academy of science, national museum of archaeology, public library,
+exhibition building, polytechnic institute, theatre, and observatory. There
+are two universities, the National University, opened in 1836, and the
+Capodistrian University with 3250 students. There are valuable museums, in
+particular the National Museum and that in the Polytechnic School, which
+contains the Schliemann collection, &c. These are constantly being added to
+by excavations. There are four foreign archaeological schools or
+institutes, the French, German, American, and British. The Zappeion or
+exhibition building is a handsome structure, erected at the expense of the
+brothers Zappas to exhibit Greek industries. Tramways have been made in the
+principal streets, and the city is connected by tramway and railway (6
+miles) with its port, the Piraeus. Athens has also railway connection with
+the north and west of the kingdom as well as with the Peloponnesus. The
+Piraeus is the chief Greek centre of trade and industry. Water is brought
+from Mount Pentelicus on the north-east, the aqueduct begun by Hadrian
+being utilized in supplying the city. Pop. 167,479, and including the
+Piraeus 241,058.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. A. Gardner, _Ancient Athens_; J. E.
+Harrison, _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_; W. Warde Fowler,
+_The City-State_, chapter vi; W. M. Leake, _Topography of Athens and the
+Demi_; C. H. Weller, _Athens and its Monuments_.
+
+ATHENS, the name of many places in the United States, the chief being in
+Georgia, and containing the Georgia University and the State college of
+agriculture. It carries on the cotton manufacture, has manufactures of
+agricultural implements, &c., and is a centre of trade. It was founded in
+1801. Pop. 14,913.
+
+ATH'ERINE (_Ather[=i]na_), the name of a genus of small fishes abundant in
+the Mediterranean and caught in British waters, especially on the coasts of
+the south of England, some of them being highly esteemed as food. They are
+also known as _Sand-smelts_. There are two British species.
+
+ATHERO'MA, in pathology, a term applied to a change that may take place in
+the inner coat of an artery, consisting in a kind of fatty degeneration,
+leading to an aneurism or bursting. Also an encysted tumour containing
+matter of a curdy appearance.
+
+ATH'ERSTONE, a town in Warwickshire, England, 8 miles S.E. of Tamworth, and
+equidistant (100 miles) from London, Liverpool, and Lincoln. It has
+manufactures of hats, and is the reputed birthplace of the poet Drayton.
+Pop. (1921), 20,849 (rural district).
+
+ATH'ERTON, town of England, Lancashire, 13 miles north-west of Manchester;
+cotton-factories, collieries, and ironworks give chief employment to the
+inhabitants. Pop. (1921), 19,863.
+
+ATHLETES (ath'l[=e]ts; Gr. _athl[=e]tai_, from _athlos_, a contest,
+_athlon_, a prize), originally, in ancient Greece, combatants who took part
+and contended for a prize (_athlon_) in the public games. The profession
+was an honourable one; tests of birth, position, and character were
+imposed, and crowns, statues, special privileges, and pensions were among
+the rewards of success. (See _Games_.) The word is used in a similar sense
+at the present day, but is more especially applied to persons who can
+exhibit feats of strength. Games and athletic competitions, if they do not
+hold such an honourable position to-day as they did in antiquity, are still
+practised with great enthusiasm and excite the keenest interest in their
+patrons.
+
+ATHLETIC SPORTS, a general name for certain physical exercises demanding a
+special natural ability, and embodying a variety of events which
+conventionally include not only running and jumping but such feats of
+strength as putting the weight and throwing the hammer. The selection of
+these events at any athletic meeting is a somewhat arbitrary one, and the
+inclusion of those which require strength and skill rather than speed and
+agility rests more on a traditional than a logical basis. A particular
+feature which distinguishes these exercises as athletic sports is the
+presence of the idea of competition; thus running and walking, as isolated
+exercises, can be called 'sports' only when men compete against one
+another, although the factor of competition may be only indirectly present,
+as when an athlete endeavours to beat a record.
+
+In this country athletic sports have long been a national characteristic,
+and records, more or less authentic, have been handed down for the last
+hundred years or more. Until comparatively recently, such sports have been
+the prerogative of the British Isles; but during the last thirty years the
+United States have adopted them with enormous enthusiasm and success, and
+more recently still the vogue has extended throughout the Continent, and
+good results have been obtained by representatives from France, Germany,
+Italy, Austria, Sweden, and Finland, as well as from all the Colonies. In
+this country no school, no matter how small or how humble its pretensions,
+fails to hold its athletic meeting annually. The same applies to all
+colleges of the leading universities, Oxford and Cambridge, the best
+representatives of which compete against one another, whilst the smaller
+universities hold similar competitions. In addition, a large number of
+clubs are in existence throughout the country for the promotion and
+encouragement of sports, the whole system of athletics being under the
+Amateur Athletic Association (founded in 1880), whose rules and regulations
+for the correct maintenance of athletics in the best interests of
+amateurism are regarded as a standard throughout the world. Under its
+auspices an annual meeting--the Amateur Championships--is held. This
+meeting is open to the whole world, and many of the championships have been
+held at one time or another by distinguished visitors from America, the
+Colonies, and the Continent. At the time of writing, the association is
+considering the project of holding two distinct annual meetings, one of
+which shall, as hitherto, be unrestricted, the other confined to residents
+in the British Isles. This, which is the most important meeting of the
+year, has taken place uninterruptedly since its origin in 1866 with the
+exception of the military interval, 1915-8, and has been successfully
+resumed in 1919. For the past fourteen or fifteen years the meeting has
+been held in London on the first Saturday in July, and this practice will
+probably be a permanent one, although hitherto the venue was, in rotation,
+London, the Midlands, and the North. The university and inter-university
+meetings are held before Easter, the former at the respective university
+towns, the latter at Queen's Club, London. Among other important
+representative contests may be mentioned the Public Schools' Championships
+(usually in April), the United Hospitals' Championships, the Irish, the
+Scottish, the Welsh, the Midland and the Northern Counties' Championships.
+During the war, athletics were practically restricted to the services, and
+the Army Athletic Championships, held in Aug., 1919, was a successful
+reunion of soldier athletes from the various theatres of war, and included,
+for the first time in history, coloured troops.
+
+The standard inter-university meeting comprises ten events, namely, flat
+races--100 yards, 1/4 mile, 1/2 mile, 1 mile, and 3 miles; 120-yards hurdle
+race; the high jump and long jump; putting the weight and throwing the
+hammer. These events appear in the programme of the Amateur Championship
+meeting, with the substitution of a 4-miles race for the 3 miles, and the
+addition of a 220-yards race, a 2-miles walking race, a 2-miles
+steeplechase (representing a miniature cross-country event), and the pole
+jump. A relay race, in which four representatives from each club run half a
+mile, a quarter of a mile, 220 yards, and 220 yards respectively, is also
+included as a standard event; whilst at the 1919 meeting a race of 440
+yards over hurdles appeared for the first time, and will probably occupy a
+permanent place in the programme. Two additional Amateur Championship
+events, 7-miles walk and 10-miles flat race, are usually held at a separate
+meeting in the spring.
+
+In addition to the preceding British meetings, a great International
+contest, the Olympic Games, is held every four years in a country selected
+by the Olympic committee. This meeting is truly international, the last
+before 1914 having taken place at Stockholm in 1912, when representatives
+from the most distant parts of the world competed with representatives from
+every country in Europe in a remarkably elaborate programme, which
+included, in addition to the preceding, such feats as throwing the javelin
+and the discus, and the classic 'Marathon race' over the traditional
+distance of 26-1/4 miles. The 1920 Olympic meeting was arranged to take
+place at Antwerp.
+
+Although many excellently arranged athletic sports are held successfully
+upon a grass course, at any important meeting the races are contested upon
+a properly-constructed cinder-path, a quarter or a third of a mile in
+length, and in shape an oval flattened on two sides so as to include as
+much straight as possible. The width of the running path is variable, but
+18 to 24 feet may be regarded as an average. The centre is of grass, and
+spaces are prepared for the hurdle race, for the jumps, and the other
+events which are described as the _field_, as opposed to _track_, events.
+
+Flat races are classified as 'sprint races', 'middle distance' and 'long
+distance' races, although the distinction between these is somewhat
+arbitrary. Whether or no a man is actually capable of running the whole
+distance in question at full speed, the term 'sprint' is applied to those
+distances in which an attempt is made to put forth a continuous maximum
+effort. The limit is, by general consent, fixed at 300 yards. At any good
+meeting the 100-yards race will be run in 10 seconds; at the very best
+meeting this time will be beaten; and many runners have been credited with
+9-4/5 seconds, a few, under exceptional conditions, with 9-3/5 seconds. The
+record for 220 yards is 21-1/5 seconds. Middle-distance running includes
+races from a quarter mile to a mile, and races are held at 440 yards, 600
+yards, 880 yards, 1000 yards, 1 mile, and very occasionally at 3/4 mile.
+With modern specialization, however, it is rare to find any one runner
+capable of supremacy at more than one of these distances. The 1/4 mile is
+the common ground for the sprinter and the middle-distance runner, and 48
+seconds has been beaten on several occasions, although it may be said that
+anything inside 50 seconds is a first-class performance. The record for 600
+yards is 1 minute 11 seconds. The 1/2-mile race has demonstrated latterly,
+perhaps, the greatest advance of all; and whilst anything under 2 minutes
+may still be regarded as a good performance, a championship event will most
+always be won in 3 or 4 seconds faster time; whilst at an Olympic meeting
+the wonderful record of 1 minute 52-1/2 seconds has been made. The mile,
+which was originally regarded as a long-distance event, is now legitimately
+considered as within the capacity of a middle-distance runner. At any
+first-class meeting 4 minutes 20 seconds will be accomplished, and any
+diminution of this time may be regarded as of superlative merit. The
+record, which has stood since 1886, is 4 minutes 12-3/4 seconds, although a
+recent performance in America, which is a tiny fraction of a second faster,
+has yet to be passed. Over 1 mile, long-distance running begins, and, as
+considerable staying-power is required, it is not unusual to find one man
+prove champion at 4 miles and 10 miles, and even the 1-mile race in the
+same year. No runner has yet achieved the capacity of running 12 miles
+within the hour, although two or three have been within a few hundred yards
+of this distance. About ten years ago the fashion became a craze of
+contesting 'Marathon races' in which all sorts of distances, quite
+independent of the classic 26-1/4 miles, were employed. At rare intervals
+very long-distance running, such as 50 miles, is indulged in. For any
+distance over 20 miles a special form of endurance is called for, rather
+than orthodox running in good style. As a competition 'walking' is an
+unsatisfactory exercise, because of the extreme difficulty in deciding when
+the athlete is still fulfilling the orthodox regulation as to what
+constitutes fair 'heel and toe', inasmuch as the style of a man who is
+ostensibly walking, yet actually progressing at a rate faster than 9 miles
+an hour (faster than the average untrained person can run), is exceedingly
+difficult to analyse. About fifteen years ago long-distance walking became
+exceedingly popular, and hundreds of competitors attempted the classic walk
+to Brighton and back.
+
+The usual hurdle race is over 120 yards, with ten flights of hurdles 10
+yards apart, so that a distance of 15 yards separates the start from the
+first flight, and the same distance the last flight from the finish. The
+hurdles are 3-1/2 feet high, with perfectly-level top rails. In correct
+'hurdling' the 'three-stride method' is essential, that is to say, three
+strides are taken on the flat between the hurdles, and the athlete rises 6
+feet from the obstacle, taking it in his stride, so that retardation of
+speed is reduced to a minimum. The skill and accuracy of an accomplished
+hurdler is remarkable, and the race is frequently run inside 16 seconds; a
+record of 15 seconds, and even a trifle less, has been accomplished.
+
+In this country, running long jump and high jump (and to a less extent the
+pole jump) alone are practised to any extent, although as occasional events
+the standing high and long jumps are contested, and, still less frequently,
+the old-fashioned hop, step, and jump. In the long jump the athlete employs
+all the impetus he can acquire by a sprint of about 30 yards. The ideal
+aimed at is to run at the fastest speed which is consistent with reaching
+the taking-off board with accuracy, and then to leap as high as possible. A
+fraction of an inch under 25 feet has been cleared on two occasions,
+although it may be said that anything over 24 feet is exceptional, and that
+any jumper capable of 23 feet consistently has a good chance to win an
+Amateur Championship. The high jump requires skill of a very peculiar
+character. Whilst the novice regards this feat as dependent on momentum,
+and takes a correspondingly long run to acquire speed, the crack performer
+employs his capacity of manipulating his body and limbs so as to cross the
+bar in a horizontal position. In this way the prodigious height of 6 feet 7
+inches has been cleared. In general it may be said that first-class jumping
+begins at 6 feet.
+
+Pole jumping, a particularly pretty event to watch, has never been
+practised to any great extent in this country, and, in fact, does not even
+appear to be so popular here as twenty years ago. The pole employed is of
+light but strong bamboo about 14 feet long, with a sharp ferrule at one
+end, which is stuck firmly into the ground. By the help of the pole, which
+is firmly grasped near the other end, the jumper elevates himself to the
+bar, over which he throws his legs and his body, finally relinquishing his
+hold of the pole, to fall on the opposite side. Recent years have witnessed
+the development of great skill in this event, particularly by the
+Americans, Canadians, and Swedes, and 13 feet has been cleared.
+
+The weight or shot is an iron ball weighing 16 lb., which must be put with
+one hand only from the shoulder within a circle of 7 feet diameter.
+Although great strength is essential, skill in utilizing the whole of the
+body plays a very important part. Over 50 feet has been put on several
+occasions.
+
+The 'hammer' is a ball of lead or iron attached by a wire to a handle. The
+total length must not exceed four feet; the weight of the whole must be at
+least 16 lb. The performer grasps the handle with one or both hands, and,
+standing within a 7-foot circle, swings the ball round and round to acquire
+impetus, which is then increased by rapid rotatory movements of his body.
+Once again skill and co-ordination must be wedded to strength. A crack
+performer has thrown over 175 feet.
+
+Throwing the javelin and discus are classical rather than popular events,
+and their cultivation is fashionable only when an Olympic contest is
+imminent. Among other 'strong-men' contests, which have long been favourite
+sports in Scotland, are tossing the _caber_ and putting the stone. The
+latter is usually a very heavy implement weighing about 56 lb.; the 'caber'
+is the trunk of a fir or other tree, freed from branches, which is held
+upright close to the chest by the smaller end, and thrown so as to alight
+on the heavier end.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Encyclopaedia of Sports and Games_;
+_Annual Sporting and Athletic Register_; F. A. M. Webster, _The Evolution
+of the Olympic Games, 1829_ B.C.-A.D. _1914_; G. Le Roy, _Athletisme_;
+E. W. Hjertberg, _Athletics in Theory and Practice_; P. Withington, _The
+Book of Athletics_.
+
+ATHLONE', a town of Ireland, divided by the Shannon into two parts, one in
+Westmeath, the other in Roscommon; about 76 miles west of Dublin. Its
+position has made it one of the chief military depots, and a centre of
+trade by river, canal, and railway. It manufactures woollen goods, linens,
+&c. Up to 1885 it sent one member to Parliament. Pop. 7500.
+
+ATH'OLL, or ATHOLE, a mountainous and romantic district in the north of
+Perthshire, Scotland, giving the title to a duke of the Murray family who
+owns a large area there.
+
+ATHOR, HATHOR, or HET-HER, an Egyptian goddess, identified with
+Aphrod[=i]t[=e] or Venus. Her symbol was the cow bearing on its head the
+solar disc and hawk-feather plumes. Her chief temple was at Denderah. From
+her the third month of the Egyptian year derived its name.
+
+A'THOS (now HAGION OROS or MONTE SANTO, that is, Holy Mountain), a mountain
+6700 feet high, terminating the most eastern of the three peninsulas of
+Macedonia that jut in parallel directions into the Archipelago. The name,
+however, is frequently applied to the whole peninsula, which is about 30
+miles long by 5 broad. It is covered with forests, and plantations of
+olive, vine, and other fruit-trees. Both the surface and coast-line are
+irregular. The Persian fleet under Mardonius was wrecked here in 493 B.C.,
+and to avoid a similar calamity Xerxes caused a canal, of which traces may
+yet be seen, to be cut through the isthmus that joins the peninsula to the
+mainland. On the peninsula there are situated about twenty monasteries and
+a multitude of hermitages, which contain from 6000 to 8000 monks and
+hermits of the order of St. Basil. The libraries of the monasteries are
+rich in literary treasures and manuscripts. Every nation belonging to the
+Greek Church has here one or more monasteries of its own, which are
+annually visited by pilgrims. After having passed in the fifteenth century
+from the sovereignty of the Greek Emperors of Byzantium to that of the
+Sultans, it fell again into the hands of the Greeks, who occupied it in
+Nov., 1912. Each of the twenty monasteries is a little republic in itself,
+and until 1912 they used to pay an annual tribute of nearly L4000 to the
+Turks, and were governed by a synod of twenty monastic deputies and four
+presidents meeting weekly. They are now ruled either by abbots chosen for
+life, or by a board of overseers elected for a certain number of years. The
+revenue of the community is derived from pilgrims, and from a considerable
+trade in amulets, rosaries, crucifixes, images, and wooden furniture.
+
+ATHY', a town in Ireland, county of Kildare, 37 miles south-west of Dublin,
+on the Barrow, which is here joined by the Grand Canal. Its chief trade is
+in corn. Pop. 3535.
+
+ATIT'LAN, a lake and mountain of Central America in Guatemala. The lake is
+about 24 miles long and 10 broad; the mountain is an active volcano 12,160
+feet high.
+
+ATLAN'TA, a city in the United States, capital of Georgia, on an elevated
+ridge, 7 miles south-east of the Chattahoochee River. It is an important
+railway centre; carries on a large trade in grain, paper, cotton, flour,
+and especially tobacco, and possesses flour-mills, paper-mills, ironworks,
+&c. Here are Atlanta University for negro men and women, a theological
+college, a medical college, &c. Atlanta suffered severely during the Civil
+War, and a battle was fought there on 22nd July, 1864. A fire which broke
+out on 21st May, 1917, caused damage estimated at more than L1,000,000.
+Pop. (1920), 200,600.
+
+ATLAN'TES, or TELAM[=O]NES, in architecture, male figures used in place of
+columns or pilasters for the support of an entablature or cornice. Female
+figures so employed are termed _caryatides_.
+
+ATLANTIC CITY, a fashionable watering-place of the United States, on the
+coast of New Jersey. It is an important air port, and has an aerodrome
+covering about 160 acres. Pop. 50,682.
+
+ATLANTIC OCEAN, the vast expanse of sea lying between the west coasts of
+Europe and Africa and the east coasts of North and South America, and
+extending from the Arctic to the Antarctic Ocean; greatest breadth, between
+the west coast of Northern Africa and the east coast of Florida, 4150
+miles; least breadth, between Norway and Greenland, 930 miles. The total
+area of the North Atlantic (including the inland seas) is 13,262,000 sq.
+miles; the area of the South Atlantic is 12,627,000 sq. miles. The
+principal inlets and bays are Baffin's and Hudson's Bays, the Gulf of
+Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, the North Sea, the Bay of Biscay, and the Gulf
+of Guinea. The principal islands north of the equator are Iceland, the
+Faroe and British Islands, the Azores, Canaries, and Cape Verde Islands,
+Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the West India Islands; and south of the
+equator, Ascension, St. Helena, and Tristan da Cunha.
+
+The great currents of the Atlantic are the Equatorial Current (divisible
+into the Main, Northern, and Southern Equatorial Currents), the Gulf
+Stream, the North African and Guinea Current, the Southern Connecting
+Current, the Southern Atlantic Current, the Cape Horn Current, Rennel's
+Current, and the Arctic Current. The current system is primarily set in
+motion by the trade-winds which drive the water of the intertropical region
+from Africa towards the American coasts. The Main Equatorial Current,
+passing across the Atlantic, is turned by the S. American coast, along
+which it runs at a rate of 30 to 50 miles a day, till, having received part
+of the North Equatorial Current, it enters the Gulf of Mexico. Issuing
+thence between Florida and Cuba under the name of the Gulf Stream, it flows
+with a gradually-expanding channel nearly parallel to the coast of the
+United States. It then turns north-eastward into the mid-Atlantic, the
+larger proportion of it passing southward to the east of the Azores to
+swell the North African and Guinea Current created by the northerly winds
+off the Portuguese coast. The Guinea Current, which takes a southerly
+course, is divided into two on arriving at the region of the north-east
+trades, part of it flowing east to the Bight of Biafra and joining the
+South African feeder of the Main Equatorial, but the larger portion being
+carried westward into the North Equatorial drift. Rennel's Current, which
+is possibly a continuation of the Gulf Stream, enters the Bay of Biscay
+from the west, curves round its coast, and then turns north-west towards
+Cape Clear. The Arctic Current runs along the east coast of Greenland
+(being here called the Greenland Current), doubles Cape Farewell, and flows
+up towards Davis' Strait; it then turns to the south along the coasts of
+Labrador and the United States, from which it separates the Gulf Stream by
+a cold band of water. Immense masses of ice are borne south by this current
+from the Polar seas. In the interior of the North Atlantic there is a large
+area comparatively free from currents, called the Sargasso Sea, from the
+large quantity of sea-weed (of the genus Sargassum) which drifts into it. A
+similar area exists in the South Atlantic. In the South Atlantic the
+portion of the Equatorial Current which strikes the American coast below
+Cape St. Roque flows southward at the rate of from 12 to 20 miles a day
+along the Brazil coast under the name of the Brazil Current. It then turns
+eastward and forms the South Connecting Current, which, on reaching the
+South African coast, turns northward into the Main and Southern Equatorial
+Currents. Besides the surface currents, an under current of cold water
+flows from the poles to the equator, and an upper current of warm water
+from the equator towards the poles.
+
+The greatest depth as yet discovered is north of Porto Rico, in the West
+Indies, namely 27,360 feet. Cross-sections of the North Atlantic between
+Europe and America show that its bed consists of two great valleys lying in
+a north-and-south direction, and separated by a ridge, on which there is an
+average depth of 1800 fathoms. The mean depth of the North Atlantic is 2047
+fathoms, that of the South Atlantic 2067 fathoms. A ridge, called the
+_Wyville-Thomson Ridge_, with a depth of little more than 200 fathoms above
+it, runs from near the Butt of Lewis to Iceland, cutting off the colder
+water of the Arctic Ocean from the warmer water of the Atlantic. The South
+Atlantic, of which the greatest depth yet found is over 3000 fathoms,
+resembles the North Atlantic in having an elevated plateau or ridge in the
+centre with a deep trough on either side. The saltness and specific gravity
+of the Atlantic gradually diminish from the tropics to the poles, and also
+from within a short distance of the tropics to the equator. In the
+neighbourhood of the British Isles the salt has been stated at one
+thirty-eighth of the weight of the water. The North Atlantic is the
+greatest highway of ocean traffic in the world. It is also a great area of
+submarine communication, by means of the telegraphic cables that are laid
+across its bed. See _Oceanography_.
+
+ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See _Telegraph_.
+
+ATLAN'TIDES (-d[=e]z), a name given to the Pleiades, which were fabled to
+be the seven daughters of Atlas or of his brother Hesperus.
+
+ATLAN'TIS, an island which, according to Plato, existed in the Atlantic
+over against the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), was the home
+of a great nation, and was finally swallowed up by the sea. The legend has
+been accepted by some as fundamentally true; but others have regarded it as
+the outgrowth of some early discovery of the New World.
+
+ATLAN'TOSAURUS, a gigantic fossil reptile, ord. Dinosauria, obtained in the
+upper Jurassic strata of the Rocky Mountains, attaining a length of 110
+feet or more.
+
+ATLAS, an extensive mountain system in North Africa, starting near Cape Nun
+on the Atlantic Ocean, traversing Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis, and
+terminating on the coast of the Mediterranean; divided generally into two
+parallel ranges, running W. to E., the Greater Atlas lying towards the
+Sahara and the Lesser Atlas towards the Mediterranean. The principal chain
+is about 1500 miles long, and the principal peaks rise above or approach
+the line of perpetual congelation, Miltsin in Morocco being 11,400 feet
+high, and Tizi Likumpt being 13,150. The highest elevation is perhaps Tizi
+Tamyurt, estimated at fully 15,000 feet. Silver, antimony, lead, copper,
+iron, &c., are among the minerals. The vegetation is chiefly European in
+character, except on the low grounds and next the desert.
+
+ATLAS, in Greek mythology, the name of a Titan whom Zeus condemned to bear
+the vault of heaven.--The same name is given to a collection of maps and
+charts, and was first used by Gerard Mercator in the sixteenth century, the
+figure of Atlas bearing the globe being given on the title-pages of such
+works.
+
+ATLAS, in anatomy, is the name of the first vertebra of the neck, which
+supports the head. It is connected with the occipital bone in such a way as
+to permit of the nodding movement of the head, and rests on the second
+vertebra or _axis_, their union allowing the head to turn from side to
+side.
+
+AT'LAS, a kind of silk or silk-satin fabric of Eastern manufacture.
+
+ATMIDOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the evaporation from water, ice,
+or snow. It somewhat resembles Nicholson's hydrometer, being constructed so
+as to float in water and having an upright graduated stem, on the top of
+which is a metal pan. Water, ice, or snow is put into the pan, so as to
+sink the zero of the stem to a level with the cover of the vessel, and as
+evaporation goes on the stem rises, showing the amount of evaporation in
+grains.
+
+ATMOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the amount of evaporation from a
+moist surface in a given time. It is often a thin hollow ball of porous
+earthenware in which is inserted a graduated glass tube. The cavity of the
+ball and tube being filled with water and the top of the tube closed, the
+instrument is exposed to the free action of the air; the relative rapidity
+with which the water transuding through the porous substance is evaporated
+is marked by the scale on the tube as the water sinks.
+
+AT'MOSPHERE, primarily the gaseous envelope which surrounds the earth; but
+the term is applied to that of any orb. Twilight effects show that the
+atmosphere is sufficiently dense up to a height of 40 miles to scatter or
+reflect to an appreciable degree the sun's rays, while the phenomena of
+meteors, which are rendered luminous through friction, show that it
+extends, though in extremely attenuated form, to 100 or even 200 or more
+miles. It exerts on every part of the earth's surface a pressure of about
+15 (14.73) lb. per sq. inch. The existence of this atmospheric pressure was
+first proved by Torricelli, who thus accounted for the rush of a liquid to
+fill a vacuum, and who, working out the idea, produced the first barometer.
+The average height of the mercurial column counterbalancing the atmospheric
+weight at the sea-level is a little less than 30 inches; but the pressure
+varies from hour to hour, and, roughly speaking, diminishes in geometrical
+progression with arithmetical increase in altitude. Of periodic variations
+there are two maxima of daily pressure, occurring when the temperature is
+about the mean of the day, and two minima, when it is at its highest and
+lowest respectively; but the problems of diurnal and seasonal oscillations
+have yet to be fully solved. The pressure upon the human body of average
+size is no less than 14 tons, but as it is exerted equally in all
+directions no inconvenience is caused by it. It is sometimes convenient to
+take the atmospheric pressure as a standard for measuring other fluid
+pressures; thus the steam pressure of 30 lb. per sq. inch on a boiler is
+spoken of as a pressure of two atmospheres.
+
+The atmosphere, first subjected to analysis by Priestley and Scheele in the
+latter part of the eighteenth century, consists practically of oxygen and
+nitrogen in the almost constant proportion of 20.81 volumes of oxygen to
+79.19 volumes of nitrogen, or, by weight, 23.01 parts of oxygen to 76.99 of
+nitrogen. The gases are associated together, not as a chemical compound,
+but as a mechanical mixture. Upon the oxygen present depends the power of
+the atmosphere to support combustion and respiration, the nitrogen acting
+as a diluent to prevent its too energetic action. It had long been known
+that atmospheric nitrogen appeared to have a very slightly greater density
+than nitrogen obtained from other sources. Lord Rayleigh and Sir William
+Ramsay found that the fact was due to a still more inert gas which forms
+nearly 1 per cent of the air, and which had not previously been separated
+from nitrogen. This has been named _argon_. Besides these gases, the
+atmosphere also contains aqueous vapour in variable quantity, ozone,
+carbonic acid gas, traces of ammonia, nitric acid, and, in towns,
+sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid gas. In addition to its gaseous
+constituents the atmosphere is charged with dust, bacteria, &c. For other
+gases which are present in traces, see _Neon_. See _Climate_;
+_Meteorology_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Flammarion, _L'Atmosphere_; Sir Napier
+Shaw, _The Weather Map_.
+
+ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE, name given by early inventors to engines in which the
+piston is restored to the bottom of its stroke by atmospheric pressure.
+
+ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY, so called in consequence of the motive power being
+derived from the pressure of the atmosphere, or from compressed air. The
+idea of thus obtaining motion was first suggested by the French engineer
+Papin, about 200 years ago. In 1810, and again in 1827, Medhurst published
+a scheme for 'propelling carriages through a close-fitting air-tight tunnel
+by forcing in air behind them'; and in 1825 a similar project was patented
+by Vallance of Brighton. About 1835 H. Pinkus, an American residing in
+England, patented a pneumatic railway. The carriages were to travel on an
+open line of rails, along which a cast-iron tube of between 3 and 4 feet
+diameter was to be laid, having a longitudinal slit from 1 to 2 inches wide
+and closed by a flexible valve along its upper side, through which a
+connection could be formed between the leading carriage and a piston
+working within the tube. This method was improved by Messrs. Clegg &
+Samuda, who in 1840 tried some experiments on a portion of the West London
+Railway with sufficient success to induce the Government to advance a loan
+to the Dublin and Kingstown Railway Company, for the construction of a
+pneumatic line from Kingstown to Dalkey. It was opened for passenger
+traffic at the end of 1843, and was worked for many months. The London and
+Croydon Company subsequently obtained powers for laying down an atmospheric
+railway by the side of their other line from London to Croydon, and in
+experimental trips in 1845 a speed of 30 miles an hour was obtained with
+sixteen carriages, and of 70 miles with six carriages. But during the
+intense heat of the summer of 1846 the iron tube frequently became so hot
+as to melt the composition which sealed the valve, and the line had to be
+worked by locomotives. The mechanical difficulty of commanding a sufficient
+amount of rarefaction led to the abandonment of the system for railway
+purposes. It has been revived, however, for the conveyance of letters and
+parcels in towns by means of tubes of moderate diameter laid beneath the
+streets. See _Pneumatic Dispatch_.
+
+[Illustration: Atoll]
+
+ATOLL', the Polynesian name for coral islands of the ringed type enclosing
+a lagoon in the centre. They are found chiefly in the Pacific in
+archipelagos, and occasionally are of large size. Suadiva Atoll is 44 miles
+by 34; Rimsky 54 by 20. See _Coral_.
+
+ATOMIC THEORY, a theory as to the existence and properties of atoms (see
+_Atoms_); especially, in chemistry, the theory accounting for the fact that
+in compound bodies the elements combine in certain constant proportions, by
+assuming that all bodies are composed of ultimate atoms, the weight of
+which is different in different kinds of matter. It is associated with the
+name of Dalton, who systematized and extended the imperfect results of his
+predecessors. On its practical side the atomic theory asserts three _Laws
+of Combining Proportions_: (1) The Law of Constant or Definite Proportions,
+teaching that in every chemical compound the nature and relative weights of
+the constituent elements are definite and invariable; thus water invariably
+consists of 8 parts by weight of oxygen to 1 part by weight of hydrogen;
+(2) The Law of Multiple Proportions, according to which the several
+proportions in which one element unites with a given weight of another
+invariably bear towards each other a simple relation; thus 1 part by weight
+of hydrogen unites with 8 parts by weight of oxygen to form water, and with
+16 (i.e. 8x2) parts of oxygen to form peroxide of hydrogen; (3) The Law of
+Combination in Reciprocal Proportions, that the proportions in which two
+elements combine with a third also represent the proportions in which, or
+in some simple multiple of which, they will themselves combine; thus in
+olefiant gas hydrogen is present with carbon in the proportion of 1 to 6,
+and in carbonic oxide, oxygen is present with carbon in the proportion of 8
+to 6, 1 to 8 being also the proportions in which hydrogen and oxygen
+combine with each other. The theory that these _proportional numbers_ are,
+in fact, nothing else but the relative weights of atoms so far accounts for
+the phenomena that the existence of these laws might have been predicted by
+the aid of the atomic hypothesis long before they were actually discovered
+by analysis. In themselves, however, the laws do not prove the theory of
+the existence of ultimate particles of matter of a certain relative weight;
+and although many chemists, even without expressly adopting the atomic
+theory itself, have followed Dalton in the use of the terms _atom_ and
+_atomic weight_, in preference to _proportion_, _combining weight_,
+_equivalent_, and the like, yet in using the word _atom_ it should be held
+in mind that it merely denotes the combining weights of the elements. These
+will remain the same whether the atomic hypothesis which suggested the
+employment of the term be true or false. Dalton supposed that the atoms are
+spherical, and invented certain symbols to represent the mode in which he
+conceived they might combine. The latest atomic hypothesis is one which
+assigns an electrical structure to the atom. See _Chemistry_;
+_Electricity_; _Matter_. Cf. H. E. Roscoe and A. Harden, _New View of
+Dalton's Atomic Theory_; Sir J. J. Thomson, _Atomic Theory_.
+
+ATOMIC WEIGHTS. See _Chemistry_; _Molecular Weights_.
+
+ATOMISTS. See _Atoms_.
+
+ATOMS, for many years regarded as the ultimate indivisible particles of the
+chemical elements. The idea originated with some of the ancient
+philosophers (the atomists), more especially Democritus (450 B.C.),
+Epicurus, and Lucretius (99-55 B.C.), and was developed into a definite
+theory by Dalton (1804). According to Dalton the atoms of any one element
+are alike in all their properties, but differ from the atoms of other
+elements, and when chemical combination occurs it takes place between the
+atoms of the combining elements (see _Chemistry_). Various views have been
+held with regard to the nature of atoms. Newton regarded them as hard,
+ponderable particles, perfectly unalterable, and concluded that the
+difference between substances was due to different kinds of atoms. Lord
+Kelvin propounded the view that the properties of atoms might be explained
+by those of vortices or vortex rings in a homogeneous frictionless fluid.
+As a result of the researches of British and French physicists on radium,
+the latest view is that matter and electricity are closely connected, that
+atoms are not indivisible, but complex aggregates containing positive and
+negative electrons, the differences between the atoms depending mainly on
+the numbers of these electrons and their velocity. See _Radium_.
+
+ATONEMENT, in Christian theology, the special work of Christ effected by
+His life, sufferings, and death. The first explicit exposition of the
+evangelical doctrine of the atonement is ascribed to Anselm, Archbishop of
+Canterbury, in 1093.
+
+ATRATO ([.a]-trae't[=o]), a river of S. America, in the north-west of
+Colombia, emptying itself by nine mouths into the Gulf of Darien; it is
+navigable by steamers of some size for 250 miles, and has long been the
+subject of schemes for establishing water-communication between the
+Atlantic and Pacific.
+
+ATRAULI, a town of India, United Provinces, Aligarh district, clean, well
+built, and with a good trade. Pop. 16,560.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Corrections made to printed original.
+
+Article Animalcule. "but most of them are strictly microscopic.":
+'miscroscopic' in original.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1
+Part 2, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 2 ***
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