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+Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 2
+       Amiel to Atrauli
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34074]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+are listed at the end of the text.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron";
+[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above";
+[n.] "n with dot below"; and so forth.
+
+THE
+
+NEW . GRESHAM
+
+ENCYCLOPEDIA
+
+VOLUME . I . PART . 2
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING
+COMPANY . _Limited_
+
+66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND
+LONDON W.C.2.
+1922
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+VOLUME I PART 2
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PLATES
+
+                                                                  Page
+
+  ANATOMY (Human Skeleton and Muscles)                            153
+
+  ARCHÆOLOGY (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages)    220
+
+  ARCHITECTURE                                                    224
+
+
+MAPS IN COLOUR
+
+  ASIA                                                            274
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
+the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
+transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--
+
+VOWELS
+
+[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.
+
+ä, as in _a_lms, Fr. _â_me, Ger. B_a_hn = á of Indian names.
+
+[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.
+
+a, as in f_a_t.
+
+[a:], as in f_a_ll.
+
+_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
+in Indian names.
+
+[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.
+
+e, as in m_e_t.
+
+[.e], as in h_e_r.
+
+[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.
+
+i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
+French and Italian words.
+
+_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eû_ne = Ger. long _ö_, as in S_ö_hne,
+G_ö_the (Goethe).
+
+eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _ö_ short.
+
+[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.
+
+o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.
+
+ö, as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.
+
+[=u] as in t_u_be.
+
+u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.
+
+[u:], as in b_u_ll.
+
+ü, as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _û_ as in d_û_, Ger. _ü_ long as in gr_ü_n,
+B_ü_hne.
+
+[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
+M_ü_ller.
+
+oi, as in _oi_l.
+
+ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.
+
+CONSONANTS
+
+Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
+have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
+The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
+being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
+explanation are the following:--
+
+ch is always as in ri_ch_.
+
+_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.
+
+g is always hard, as in _g_o.
+
+_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
+similar gutturals.
+
+[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.
+
+r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
+much more strongly trilled.
+
+s, always as in _s_o.
+
+th, as _th_ in _th_in.
+
+_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.
+
+w always consonantal, as in _w_e.
+
+x = ks, which are used instead.
+
+y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
+l[=e]ny).
+
+zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+AMIEL´, Henri Frédéric, French-Swiss philosophical writer and poet, born at
+Geneva, 1821, died there 1881. Educated at Geneva, he resided a
+considerable time abroad, especially in Germany, and was much influenced by
+German thought and science. On his return he first held the chair of
+æsthetics, and then that of philosophy. He published several volumes of
+poetry as well as other works, but he is best known by his _Journal
+Intime_, published after his death, and translated into English (1885),
+with a critical study by Mrs. Humphry Ward. It shows great critical and
+philosophical power, but is pessimistic.
+
+AMIENS ([.a]-m[=e]-a[n.]), a town of France, capital of the department of
+Somme, on the railway from Boulogne to Paris. It has a citadel, wide and
+regular streets, and several large open areas; a cathedral, one of the
+largest and finest Gothic buildings in Europe, founded in 1220 by Bishop
+Evrard, after designs made by the architect Robert de Luzarches. Having
+water communication with the sea by the Somme, which is navigable for small
+vessels, it has a large trade and numerous important manufactures,
+especially cotton and woollen goods. It was taken by the Germans in 1870,
+and again in 1914, by General von Kluck. Pop. (1911) 93,207.--The _Peace of
+Amiens_, concluded between Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Batavian
+Republic, 27th March, 1802, put an end for a time to the great war which
+had lasted since 1793.
+
+AMIR. See _Emir_.
+
+AMIRANTE ISLANDS ([.a]-m[=e]-r[.a]n´t[=a]), a group of eleven small islands
+in the Indian Ocean, lying south-west of the Seychelles, and forming a
+dependency of Mauritius.
+
+AMLWCH (am´lö_h_), a seaport in North Wales, Island of Anglesey. Pop.
+(1921), 2694 (urb. dist.).
+
+AMMANA´TI, Bartolomeo, a sculptor and architect, born at Florence in 1511,
+died 1592; executed the _Leda_ at Florence, a gigantic _Neptune_ for St.
+Mark's Place at Venice, a colossal _Hercules_ at Padua, and after the
+inundation in 1557, which destroyed all the bridges of the Arno, built the
+celebrated Trinity Bridge at Florence, finished in 1570. He was an imitator
+of Michael Angelo without his inspiration and genius.
+
+AMMERGAU ([.a]m´er-gou), a district in Upper Bavaria, having its centre in
+the villages of Ober and Unter Ammergau. The former village is famous on
+account of the Passion Play which is performed there, at intervals usually
+of ten years.
+
+[Illustration: Ammeter.--Front removed to show details.
+
+A. Large magnet. B. Soft-iron keeper magnetized by magnet and acting as
+resistance. D. Cylinder turning within B, and actuated by current entering
+at C1, and flowing through spiral wire (not shown) at base of D, and
+through coil on cylinder to terminal C2. E. Hair-spring regulating pointer.
+F. Pointer stops.]
+
+AM´METER (short for ampere-meter), an instrument used for the measurement
+of electric currents. For commercial use the scale is marked so as to read
+amperes directly, but for experimental purposes it is usual to have a scale
+with divisions numbered in tens, in which case the reading multiplied by a
+suitable constant gives the value of the current in amperes. By employing
+suitable shunts this admits of the one instrument being used for a number
+of ranges.
+
+The types of ammeter and the principles upon which they work are as
+follows: (_a_) _Soft-iron type_, the action of a magnetic field on a piece
+of soft iron; (_b_) _moving-coil type_ and _dynamometer type_, the action
+of a magnetic field on a current-carrying coil; (_c_) _hot-wire type_, the
+expansion of a conductor due to the heating produced by the current; (_d_)
+_induction type_, the action of a magnetic field on the eddy currents
+produced in a metal disc.
+
+The "soft-iron" ammeter can be used for both direct and alternating
+currents, is inexpensive, and is sufficiently accurate for commercial use.
+
+For direct-current measurements where a high degree of accuracy is of first
+importance, a "moving-coil" ammeter is invariably used.
+
+In alternating-current circuits its place is taken by the dynamometer type,
+which reads both direct and alternating currents.
+
+In cases where absence of inductance in the instrument is important, e.g.
+in the measurements in wireless-telegraph and telephone circuits, the
+"hot-wire" ammeter is used. It measures both direct and alternating
+currents, and, when properly used, has a high degree of accuracy.
+
+The "induction" type cannot be used for direct currents, and has the
+limitation that with alternating currents it will read correctly only at
+the frequency for which it is calibrated.
+
+Almost invariably an ammeter gives its full-scale reading when a small
+current, say of the order of one-tenth of an ampere, is passing through the
+instrument itself. In order to read larger currents a device is employed
+whereby a definite fraction of the current to be measured passes through
+the instrument.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Fleming, _A Handbook for the
+Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room_ (2 vols.); G. D. Aspinall Parr,
+_Electrical Measuring Instruments_.
+
+AMMIA´NUS MARCELLI´NUS, a Roman historian, born at Antioch in Syria about
+320, died about 390. He wrote in 31 books (of which the first 13 are lost)
+a history of the Cæsars, from Nerva to Valens, which was highly thought of
+by Gibbon for its fidelity. His MS. was printed for the first time at Rome
+in 1474.
+
+[Illustration: Ammon.]
+
+AM´MON (often called AMMON-RA, i.e. Ammon-Sun), an ancient Egyptian deity,
+one of the chief gods of the country, identified by the Greeks with their
+supreme god Zeus, while the Romans regarded him as the representative of
+Jupiter; represented as a ram, as a human being with a ram's head,
+ornamented with the solar disc, or simply with the horns of a ram. There
+was a celebrated temple of Ammon in the Oasis of Siwah in the Libyan
+desert.
+
+AMMON, Oasis of. See _Siwah_.
+
+AMMO´NIA, an alkaline substance, which differs from the other alkalies by
+being gaseous, and is hence sometimes called the _volatile alkali_. It is a
+colourless pungent gas, composed of nitrogen and hydrogen; formula, NH_3.
+It was first prepared by Priestley, who termed it _alkaline air_. He
+obtained it from sal-ammoniac by the action of lime, by which method it is
+yet generally prepared. It is used for many purposes, both in medicine and
+scientific chemistry; not, however, in the gaseous state, but frequently in
+solution in water, under the names of _liquid ammonia_, _aqueous ammonia_,
+or _spirits of hartshorn_. It is generally prepared from the ammoniacal
+liquor obtained as a by-product on distilling coal. Combined with acids,
+ammonia forms salts which are of immense value to agriculture. The
+well-known odour of farmyard manure is very largely due to the formation of
+ammonia during the rotting of the dung. Many animal substances, such as
+bones, clippings and shavings of horn, hoof, &c., and certain vegetable
+matters yield ammonia when heated. Sal-ammoniac is ammonium chloride.
+
+AMMONI´[)A]CUM, a gum-resinous exudation from an umbelliferous plant, the
+_Dor[=e]ma ammoni[)a]cum_. It has a fetid smell, is inflammable, soluble in
+water and spirit of wine; used as an antispasmodic, stimulant, and
+expectorant in chronic catarrh, bronchitic affections, and asthma; also
+used for plasters.
+
+AMMO´NIAPHONE, an instrument, consisting of a metallic tube containing some
+substance saturated with ammonia, peroxide of hydrogen, and a few
+flavouring compounds, fitted with a mouthpiece to breathe through, which is
+said to render the voice strong, clear, rich, and ringing by the inhalation
+of the ammoniacal vapour. It was invented by Dr. Carter Moffat, and was
+suggested by the presence of ammonia in some quantity in the atmosphere of
+Italy--the country of fine singers.
+
+[Illustration: Ammonites obtusus. Ammonites varians]
+
+AM´MONITES, a group of fossil cephalopods, now divided into a large number
+of genera, ranging from the Coal Measures (Texas) to the uppermost
+cretaceous strata. The ammonites differ from the nautili in having the tube
+connecting the chambers placed on the outer margin of the coiled shell,
+while the calcareous neck where it passes through the partitions is
+directed forwards. The partitions are much folded, producing markings like
+the fronds of ferns where they meet the inner wall of the shell. The name
+arises from confusion with a coiled gastropod, which was held to resemble
+the horns of the Egyptian deity Jupiter Ammon.
+
+AM´MONITES, a Semitic race frequently mentioned in Scripture, descended
+from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (_Gen._ xix, 38), often spoken of in
+conjunction with the Moabites. A predatory and Bedouin race, they inhabited
+the desert country east of Gad, their chief city being Rabbath-Ammon
+(Philadelphia). Wars between the Israelites and the Ammonites were
+frequent; they were overcome by Jephthah, Saul, David, Uzziah, Jotham, &c.
+They appear to have existed as a distinct people in the time of Justin
+Martyr, but have subsequently become merged in the aggregate of nameless
+Arab tribes.
+
+AMMO´NIUM, the name given to the hypothetical radicle (formula, NH_4) of
+ammonium salts. It functionates as a metal, has not been isolated, but it
+is believed to exist in an amalgam with mercury.
+
+AMMO´NIUS SAC´CAS, a Greek philosopher who lived about A.D. 175-240.
+Originally a porter in Alexandria, he derived his epithet from the carrying
+of _sacks_ of corn. The son of Christian parents, he abandoned their faith
+for the polytheistic philosophy of Greece. His teaching was historically a
+transition stage between Platonism and Neo-Platonism. Among his disciples
+were Plotinus, Longinus, Origen, &c. The books often attributed to him are
+by a Christian philosopher of the same name.
+
+AMMUNI´TION, another form of the word munition, with a more restricted
+meaning. It is now taken to include cartridges of all sorts for guns,
+howitzers, rifles, and all fire-arms. Ammunition comprises both cartridges
+in which explosive and missiles are combined to form one compact article,
+and also other forms of projectiles of which the explosive agent forms one
+portion and the actual missile the other. Bombs, grenades, shells, powder,
+and bullets are all included in the generic term ammunition. As a
+qualifying word used adjectivally it is found in ammunition-wagon,
+ammunition-carrier, ammunition-mules, ammunition-column, &c. In the British
+service the Royal Army Ordnance Corps is entrusted with the provision of
+supplies of ammunition generally, while the actual distribution in the
+field is the duty of the ammunition-column, a Royal Artillery organization.
+
+AM´NESTY (Gr. _amnestia_, forgetfulness), the releasing of a number of
+persons who have been guilty of political offences from the consequence of
+these offences. The earliest recorded amnesty in history is that of
+Thrasybulus at Athens, and the last act of amnesty passed in Britain was
+that of 1747, after the second Jacobite rebellion.
+
+AM´NION, the innermost membrane surrounding the fetus of mammals, birds,
+and reptiles.--In botany, a gelatinous fluid in which the embryo of a seed
+is suspended, and by which it is supposed to be nourished.
+
+AMO´AFUL, village near Kumassi, West Africa, at which the Ashanti were
+defeated by British troops under Wolseley, 31st Jan., 1874.
+
+[Illustration: Amoeba proteus.]
+
+AMOE´BA, a microscopic genus of rhizopodous Protozoa, of which _A.
+diffl[)u]ens_, common in freshwater ponds and ditches, is the type. It
+exists as a mass of protoplasm, and pushes its body out into finger-like
+processes or pseudopodia, and by means of these moves about or grasps
+particles of food. There is no distinct mouth, and food is engulfed within
+any portion of the soft sarcode body. Reproduction takes place by fission,
+or by a single pseudopodium detaching itself from the parent body and
+developing into a separate amoeba.
+
+AMOEBE´AN POETRY, poetry in which persons are represented as speaking
+alternately, as in some of Virgil's _Eclogues_.
+
+AMOL´, a town of Northern Persia, 76 miles N.E. of Teheran. Extensive ruins
+tell of former greatness, the most prominent being the mausoleum of Seyed
+Quam-u-deen, who died in 1378. Pop. in winter estimated at about 40,000.
+
+AMO´MUM, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Zinziberaceæ (ginger, &c.),
+natives of warm climates, and remarkable for the pungency and aromatic
+properties of their seeds. Some of the species yield Cardamoms, others
+Grains of Paradise.
+
+AMONTILLA´DO, a dry kind of sherry wine of a light colour, highly esteemed.
+
+AMOOR. See _Amur_.
+
+A´MOR, the god of love among the Romans, equivalent to the Gr. _Er[=o]s_.
+
+AMOR´GO (ancient AMORGOS), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the
+Eastern Cyclades, 22 miles long, 5 miles broad; area, 106 sq. miles; it has
+a town of the same name, with a castle and a large harbour. Pop. 3561.
+
+AM´ORITES, a powerful Canaanitish tribe at the time of the occupation of
+the country by the Israelites; occupied the whole of Gilead and Bashan, and
+formed two powerful kingdoms--a northern, under Og, who is called King of
+Bashan; and a southern, under Sihon, called King of the Amorites; first
+attacked and overthrown by Joshua; subsequently subdued, and made tributary
+or driven to mingle with the Philistines and other remnants of the
+Canaanitish nations.
+
+AMORPHOUS ROCKS or MINERALS, those having no regular structure, or without
+crystallization, even in the minutest particles.
+
+AMORPHOZO´A, a term applied to some of the lower groups of animals, as the
+sponges and their allies, which have no regular symmetrical structure.
+
+AMORTIZA´TION, in law, the alienation of real property to corporations
+(that is, in _mortmain_), prohibited by several English statutes.
+
+A´MOS, one of the minor prophets; flourished under the Kings Uzziah of
+Judah and Jeroboam II of Israel (810 to 784 B.C. by the common chronology).
+Though engaged in the occupations of a peasant he must have had a
+considerable amount of culture, and his book of prophecies has high
+literary merits. It contains denunciations of Israel and the surrounding
+nations, with promises of the Messiah.
+
+AMOY´, an important Chinese trading port, on a small island off the
+south-east coast opposite Formosa; has a safe and commodious harbour, and
+its merchants are among the wealthiest and most enterprising in China; one
+of the five ports opened to foreign commerce by the treaty of Nanking in
+1842. The privilege was confirmed and extended by the treaty of Tien-tsin
+in 1858, and the port is now open to all countries. Pop. 114,000.
+
+AMPEL´IDÆ. See _Chatterers_.
+
+AMPÈRE ([.a][n.]-p[=a]r), André-Marie, a celebrated French mathematician
+and philosopher, founder of the science of electro-dynamics, born at Lyons
+in 1775, died at Marseilles in 1836; professor of mathematical analysis at
+the Polytechnic School, Paris, and of physics at the College of France.
+What is known as _Ampère's Theory_ is that magnetism consists in the
+existence of electric currents circulating round the particles of magnetic
+bodies, being in different directions round different particles when the
+bodies are unmagnetized, but all in the same direction when they are
+magnetized.
+
+AMPÈRE, Jean-Jacques-Joseph-Antoine, historian and professor of French
+literature in the College of France; the only son of André-Marie Ampère;
+born at Lyons 1800, died 1864; chief works: _Histoire Littéraire de la
+France avant le 12^{_e_} siècle_ (1839); _Introduction à l'Histoire de la
+Littérature française au moyen âge_ (1841); _Littérature, Voyages et
+Poésies_ (1833); _La Grèce, Rome et Dante, Études Littéraires d'après
+Nature; l'Histoire romaine à Rome_ (4 vols. 8vo, 1856-64); _Promenades en
+Amérique_ (1855); _César, Scènes historiques_ (1859), full of hostile
+allusions to the French Empire.
+
+AMPERE (am´p[=a]r), in electricity, the unit employed in measuring the
+strength or intensity of an electric current, being equivalent to the
+current produced by the electro-motive force of one volt in a wire having
+the resistance of one ohm. The name (cf. _Farad_, _Coulomb_, _Watt_, &c.)
+is derived from that of the well-known physicist, Ampère. An _ampere-meter_
+or _ammeter_ is an instrument by which the strength of an electric current
+is given in amperes.
+
+AMPHIB´IA, a class of vertebrate animals, which in their early life breathe
+by gills or branchiæ, and afterwards partly or entirely by lungs. The Frog,
+breathing in its tadpole state by gills and afterwards throwing off these
+organs and breathing entirely by lungs in its adult state, is an example of
+the latter phase of amphibian existence. The Proteus of the underground
+caves of Central Europe exemplifies forms in which the gills of early life
+are retained throughout life, and in which lungs are developed in addition
+to the gills. A second character of this group consists in the presence of
+two occipital 'condyles', or processes by means of which the skull
+articulates with the spine or vertebral column; Reptiles possessing one
+condyle only. The class is divided into four orders: the Ophiomorpha (or
+serpentiform), represented by the Blindworms, in which limbs are wanting
+and the body is snake-like; the Urodela or 'Tailed' Amphibians, including
+the Newts, Proteus, Siren, &c.; the Anoura, or Tailless Amphibia,
+represented by the Frogs and Toads; and the Labyrinthodontia, which
+includes the extinct forms known as Labyrinthodons. The term Amphibia was
+originally employed by Linnæus in his _Systema Naturæ_, and adopted by
+Cuvier in his _Tableau Elémentaire_. See _Batrachia_.
+
+AMPHIBOL´OGY, in logic, an equivocal phrase or sentence, not from the
+double sense of any of the words, but from its admitting a double
+construction, as 'The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose'.
+
+AMPHIC´TYONIC LEAGUE (or COUNCIL), in ancient Greece, a confederation of
+tribes for the protection of religious worship, but which also discussed
+questions of international law, and matters affecting their political
+union. The most important was that of the twelve northern tribes which met
+alternately at Delphi and Thermopylæ. The tribes sent two deputies each,
+who assembled with great solemnity; composed the public dissensions, and
+the quarrels of individual cities, by force or persuasion; punished civil
+and criminal offences, and particularly transgressions of the law of
+nations, and violations of the temple of Delphi. Its calling on the States
+to punish the Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the Sacred Wars,
+595-586, 448-447, 357-346 B.C.
+
+AMPHI´ON, in Greek mythology, son of Zeus and Anti[)o]p[=e], and husband of
+Ni[)o]b[=e]. He had miraculous skill in music, being taught by Mercury, or,
+according to others, by Apollo. In poetic legend he is said to have availed
+himself of his skill when building the walls of Thebes--the stones moving
+and arranging themselves in proper position at the sound of his lyre. See
+_Zethus_.
+
+AMPHIOXUS. See _Lancelet_.
+
+[Illustration: Amphipoda
+
+1. Shore-jumper (_Orchestia littoralis_), 2. Portion showing the
+respiratory organs _a a a_.]
+
+AMPHIP´ODA, an order of sessile-eyed malacostracan crustaceans, with feet
+directed partly forward and partly backward. Many species are found in
+springs and rivulets, others in salt water. The sand-hopper and
+shore-jumper are examples.
+
+AMPHIP´ROSTYLE, in architecture, said of a structure having the form of an
+ancient Greek or Roman oblong rectangular temple, with a prostyle or
+portico on each of its ends or fronts, but with no columns on its sides or
+flanks.
+
+AMPHISBÆ´NA (Gr., from _amphis_, both ways, and _bainein_, to go), a genus
+of serpentiform, limbless, lacertilian reptiles; body cylindrical,
+destitute of scales, and divided into numerous annular segments; the tail
+obtuse, and scarcely to be distinguished from the head, whence the belief
+that it moved equally well with either end foremost. There are several
+species, found in tropical America. They feed on ants and earthworms, and
+were formerly, but erroneously, deemed poisonous. In Greek mythology the
+amphisbæna was a serpent believed to possess two heads.
+
+AMPHIS´CII (Gr. _amphi_, on both sides, and _skia_, shadow), a term
+sometimes applied to the inhabitants of the intertropical regions, whose
+shadows at noon in one part of the year are cast to the north and in the
+other to the south, according as the sun is in the southern or northern
+signs.
+
+[Illustration: Amphitheatre at Pompeii]
+
+AMPHITHE´ATRE, an ancient Roman building of an oval form without a roof,
+having a central area (the _arena_) encompassed with rows of seats, rising
+higher as they receded from the centre, on which people used to sit to view
+the combats of gladiators and of wild beasts, and other sports. The first
+amphitheatre at Rome was that constructed by C. Scribonius Curio, 59 B.C.
+The Colosseum at Rome is the largest of all the ancient amphitheatres,
+being capable of containing 100,000 persons, 87,000 of whom occupied
+numbered and reserved seats. That at Verona is one of the best examples
+remaining. Its dimensions are 502 feet by 401, and it is 98 feet high. The
+name means 'both-ways theatre', or 'theatre all round', the theatre forming
+only a semicircular building.
+
+AMPHITRI´T[=E], in Greek mythology, daughter of Oce[)a]nus and Tethys, or
+of Nereus and Doris, and wife of Poseidon (or Neptune), represented as
+drawn in a chariot of shells by Tritons, with a trident in her hand. In the
+Homeric poems she is the personification of the Sea, and her marriage to
+Poseidon is alluded to in a number of scenes depicted on ancient monuments.
+Such are a bas-relief in the glyptothek at Munich and a mosaic in the
+museum at Naples.
+
+AMPHIT´RYON, in Greek legend, King of Thebes, son of Alcæus, and husband of
+Alcmena. Plautus, and after him Molière, have made an amour of Jupiter with
+Alcmena the subject of amusing comedies.
+
+AMPHIU´MA, a genus of amphibians which frequent the lakes and stagnant
+waters of North America. The adults retain the clefts at which the gills of
+the tadpole projected.
+
+[Illustration: Amphora
+From a Roman specimen in the British Museum]
+
+AM´PH[)O]RA, a vessel used by the Greeks and Romans for holding liquids;
+commonly tall and narrow, with two handles and a pointed end which fitted
+into a stand or was stuck in the ground to enable it to stand upright; used
+also as a cinerary urn, and as a liquid measure--Greek = 9 gallons; Roman =
+6 gallons.
+
+AMPLEX´ICAUL, in botany, said of a leaf that embraces and nearly surrounds
+the stem.
+
+AM´PLITUDE, in astronomy, the distance of any celestial body (when referred
+by a secondary circle to the horizon) from the east or west points.
+
+AMPTHILL, a market-town of England, Bedfordshire, about 7 miles south-west
+of Bedford. Pop. (1921), 2269.
+
+AMPUL´LA, the Latin name for a vessel bellying out like a jug, which
+contained unguents for the bath; also a vessel for drinking at table. The
+ampulla has also been employed for ceremonial purposes, such as holding the
+oil or chrism used in various Church rites and for anointing monarchs at
+their coronation. The ampulla of the English sovereigns now in use is an
+eagle, weighing about 10 oz., of the purest chased gold, which passed
+through various hands to the Black Prince. The ampulla of the French kings,
+kept at Rheims in the tomb of St. Remy, was destroyed in 1793.
+
+AMPUTA´TION, in surgery, that operation by which a member is separated from
+the body.
+
+AMRA´OTI, a town of British India in Berár; it is celebrated for its
+cotton, and is a place of good trade. Pop. 35,000. The district has an area
+of 4733 sq. miles. Pop. 876,000.
+
+AM´RITSIR, or AMRITSAR ('the pool of immortality'), a flourishing
+commercial town of India, capital of a district of the same name, in the
+Punjab, the centre of the Sikh religion since the end of the sixteenth
+century. It has considerable manufactures of shawls and silks; and receives
+its name from the sacred pond constructed by Ram Das, the apostle of the
+Sikhs, in which the Sikhs and other Hindus immerse themselves that they may
+be purified from all sin. Pop. 152,756.--The district of Amritsir has an
+area of 1601 sq. miles. Pop. 900,000.
+
+AM´RU, originally an opponent, and subsequently a zealous supporter of
+Mahomet, and one of the ablest of the Mahommedan warriors. He brought Egypt
+under the power of the Caliph Omar in 638, and governed it wisely till his
+death in 663. The burning of the famous Alexandrian Library has been
+generally attributed to him, though only on the authority of a writer who
+lived six centuries later.
+
+AM´STERDAM (that is, 'the dam of the Amstel'), one of the chief commercial
+cities of Europe, capital of Holland (but not the residence of the
+sovereign), situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Y or Ij, an
+arm of the Zuider-Zee. On account of the lowness of the site of the city
+the greater part of it is built on piles. It is divided by numerous canals
+into about 90 islands, which are connected by nearly 300 bridges. Many of
+the streets have a canal in the middle with broad brick-paved quays on
+either side, planted with rows of trees; the houses are generally of brick,
+many of them six or seven stories high, with pointed gables turned to the
+streets. Among the public buildings are the old stadthouse, the work of
+Jacob van Kempen, commenced in 1648 and finished in 1655, which is now a
+royal palace, the interior being decorated by the Dutch painters and
+sculptors of the seventeenth century with their masterpieces; the
+justiciary hall, an imitation of a Greek temple; the town hall (fourteenth
+century); the exchange, a handsome building, constructed in 1836 on the
+site of the old bourse built in 1608; the Palace of National Industry; the
+national museum; and the central railway station. The old church is a
+structure of the fourteenth century with stained-glass windows painted by
+Digman in the fifteenth century. The chief educational institutions of the
+kingdom are here, including the city university, a free university,
+gymnasiums and other secondary schools, the national picture gallery or
+museum, containing many masterpieces of Dutch artists, &c. Among its
+numerous industries may be mentioned as a speciality the cutting and
+polishing of diamonds. It has also factories and workshops dealing with
+wool, cotton, silk, tobacco, leather, machinery, and metal goods, glass,
+liqueurs, cocoa, &c. The harbour, formed by the Y, lies along the whole of
+the north side of the city, and is surrounded by various docks and basins.
+The trade is very great, being much facilitated by the great ship-canal (15
+miles long, opened 1876, admitting the largest vessels) connecting the Y
+directly with the North Sea at Y-Muiden, where the entrance is between two
+long piers projecting into the sea. Another canal of much less importance,
+the North Holland Canal (46 miles long, 20 feet deep), connects Amsterdam
+with the Helder. Between the harbour and the Zuider Zee the Y is now
+crossed by a great dam in which are locks to admit vessels and regulate the
+amount of water in the North Sea Canal. The oversea trade of Amsterdam has
+immensely increased since the opening of the great canal, and the foreign
+trade of the kingdom practically centres in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. There
+is also a large trade with the interior by railway, river, and canal. In
+the beginning of the thirteenth century Amsterdam was but a fishing
+village. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries it had attained some
+importance, especially through the Baltic trade. The ruin of Antwerp
+through the troubles with Spain was greatly to its advantage, and during
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Amsterdam was one of the
+wealthiest and most flourishing cities in the world. Its forced alliance
+with France ruined its trade, but since 1813 its commerce has revived.
+Amsterdam is the birthplace of Spinoza and of the painters van de Velde and
+van der Neer. Pop. (1919), 647,120.
+
+AMSTERDAM, a town of New York State, United States, on the Mohawk River and
+the Erie Canal, 33 miles N.W. of Albany; a busy manufacturing town. Pop.
+(1920), 33,524.
+
+AMSTERDAM, New, a town in British Guiana, on the east side of the River
+Berbice, near the sea, with some trade as a seaport. Pop. 8903.
+
+AMSTERDAM ISLAND, a small and almost inaccessible island in the Indian
+Ocean, about halfway in a direct line between the Cape of Good Hope and
+Tasmania. It is sparsely provided with vegetation, and inhabited only by
+sea-birds, but it was taken possession of by France in 1893, along with the
+neighbouring St. Paul. It was discovered by the Dutch in 1633.
+
+AMSTETTEN, a town in Lower Austria, on the Ybbs, and on the railway from
+Vienna to Linz. In 1805 a victory was gained here by the French under Murat
+over the Russians under Bagration. Pop. 3760.
+
+AMUCK´, or AMUK, to run, a phrase applied to natives of the Eastern
+Archipelago, who are occasionally seen to rush out in a frantic state of
+temporary mental derangement, making indiscriminate and murderous assaults
+on all that come in their way.
+
+AMU-DARYA. See _Oxus_.
+
+AMU-DARYA, district. See _Turkestan_.
+
+AM´ULET, a piece of stone, metal, &c., marked with certain figures or
+characters, which people in some countries wear about them, superstitiously
+deeming them a protection against diseases, enchantments, witchcraft, &c.
+According to Pliny the elder, the _bulla_, or amulet, was first hung by
+Tarquinius Priscus on the neck of his son. Articles that archæologists have
+decided to be amulets have been found dating from prehistoric times, and
+they were commonly worn in ancient times by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans,
+as they still are by Persians, Arabs, and many other peoples. See _Charms_.
+
+AMUNDSEN, Captain Roald, Norwegian polar explorer, born at Borge, Norway,
+16th July, 1872. He was first-lieutenant on the _Belgica_ during the
+Belgian south polar expedition, 1897-9. He then planned an expedition to
+the area of the north magnetic pole and a north-west passage by water. On
+17th June, 1903, he embarked from Christiania on the small sailing vessel
+the _Gjöa_, with a company of six men, and reached King William Land, where
+the vessel remained for two years. Here he made his headquarters, and by
+numerous excursions was able to prove that the north magnetic pole has no
+stationary position, but is in continual movement. On 11th July, 1906, his
+vessel reached the Behring Strait, and on 30th August entered the Pacific.
+After his return Amundsen began his preparations for an Antarctic
+expedition, and on 9th August, 1910, he sailed from Norway on Nansen's
+ship, the _Fram_, and reached the South Pole on 7th March, 1912. He
+published an account of his North-West Passage expedition, entitled
+_Sydpolen. Den norske Sydpolsfaerd med_ Fram _1910-12_. An English
+translation was published in 1913. Amundsen started on a North Polar
+Expedition in 1918.
+
+AMUR´, or AMOOR´, one of the largest rivers of Eastern Asia, formed by the
+junction of the Rivers Shilka and Argun; flows first in a south-eastern and
+then in a north-eastern direction till it falls into an arm of the Sea of
+Okhotsk, opposite the Island of Sakhalin, after a course of 1500 miles. It
+forms, for a large portion of its course, part of the boundary-line between
+the Russian and the Chinese dominions, and is navigable throughout for four
+months in the year.--_Amoor Territory._ In 1858 Russia acquired from China
+the territory on the left bank of the Upper and Middle Amoor, together with
+that on both banks of the Lower Amoor. The western portion of the territory
+was organized as a separate province, with the name of the Amoor (area,
+154,795 sq. miles. Pop. 261,500). The eastern portion was joined to the
+Maritime Province of Eastern Siberia.
+
+AM´URATH, or MURAD, the name of several Ottoman sultans. See _Ottoman
+Empire_.
+
+AMYCLÆ (a-m[=i]´kl[=e]), a town of ancient Greece, the chief seat of the
+Achæans in Laconia, a short distance from Sparta, by which it was conquered
+about 800 B.C.
+
+AMYG´DALOID (Gr. _amygdal[=e]_, an almond), meaning 'almond-shaped', a term
+used in anatomy and geology.
+
+AMYG´DALUS, the genus to which the almond belongs.
+
+AM´YL, in chemistry, a hypothetic radicle believed to exist in many
+compounds, especially the fusel-oil series, and having the formula
+C_5H_{11}.--_Amyl Nitrite_, or _Nitrite of Amyl_, an amber-coloured fluid,
+smelling and tasting like essence of pears, which has been employed as an
+anæsthetic and also in relieving cardiac distress, as in angina pectoris.
+
+AM´YLENE (C_5H_{10}), an ethereal liquid with an aromatic odour, prepared
+from fusel-oil. It possesses anæsthetic properties, and has been tried as a
+substitute for chloroform, but is very dangerous.
+
+AMYL´IC ALCOHOL, one of the products of the fermentation of grain, &c.,
+commonly known by the name of fusel-oil (q.v.).
+
+AMYOT (ä-mi-[=o]), Jacques, French writer and scholar, whose translations
+from the Greek have themselves become classics, was born in 1513, and died
+Bishop of Auxerre in 1593, having been for twelve years a professor of
+classics at Bourges, and having enjoyed the patronage of Margaret of
+Navarre and Henry II. His chief translations are those of Plutarch's
+_Lives_ and his _Morals_, the _Aethiopica_ of Heliodorus, and the _Daphnis
+and Chloe_ of Longus. Sir Thomas North's English translation of Plutarch
+(1575), of which Shakespeare made much use, was derived from that of Amyot.
+
+AMYRIDA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees or shrubs,
+the leaves, bark, and fruit of which abound in fragrant resinous and
+balsamic juices. Myrrh, frankincense, and the gum-elemi of commerce are
+among their products. Among the chief genera of the order are _Amyris_,
+_Balsamodendron_, _Boswellia_, and _Canarium_.
+
+A´NA, the neuter plural termination of Latin adjectives in _-[=a]nus_,
+often forming an affix with the names of eminent men to denote a collection
+of their memorable sayings--thus _Scaligeriana_, _Johnsoniana_, the sayings
+of Scaliger, of Johnson; or to denote a collection of anecdotes, or gossipy
+matter, as in _boxiana_. Hence, as an independent noun, books recording
+such sayings; the sayings themselves.
+
+ANABAP´TISTS (from the Gr. _anabaptizein_, to rebaptize), a name given to a
+Christian sect by their adversaries, because, as they objected to infant
+baptism, they rebaptized those who joined their body. Their doctrine is
+based upon the words of Christ in _St. Mark_, xvi, 16. The founder of the
+sect appears to have been Nicolas Storch, a disciple of Luther's, who seems
+to have aimed also at the reorganization of society based on civil and
+political equality. Gathering round him a number of fiery spirits, among
+whom was Thomas Münzer, he incited the peasantry of Suabia and Franconia to
+insurrection--the doctrine of a community of goods being now added to their
+creed. This insurrection was quelled in 1525, when Münzer was put to the
+torture and beheaded. After the death of Münzer the sectaries dispersed in
+all directions, spreading their doctrines wherever they went. In 1534 the
+town of Münster in Westphalia became their centre of action. Under the
+leadership of Bockhold and Matthias their numbers increased daily, and
+being joined by the restless spirits of the adjoining towns, they soon made
+themselves masters of the town and expelled their adversaries. Matthias
+became their prophet, but he fell in a sally against the Bishop of Münster,
+Count Waldeck, who had laid siege to the city. Bockhold then became leader,
+assuming the name of John of Leyden, King of the New Jerusalem, and Münster
+became a theatre of all the excesses of fanaticism, lust, and cruelty. The
+town was eventually taken (June, 1535), and Bockhold and a great many of
+his partisans suffered death. This was the last time that the movement
+assumed anything like political importance. In the meantime some of the
+apostles, who were sent out by Bockhold to extend the limits of his
+kingdom, had been successful in various places, and many independent
+teachers, who preached the same doctrines, continued active in the work of
+founding a new empire of pure Christians. It is true that they rejected the
+practice of polygamy, community of goods, and intolerance towards those of
+different opinions which had prevailed in Münster; but they enjoined upon
+their adherents the other doctrines of the early Anabaptists, and certain
+heretical opinions in regard to the humanity of Christ, occasioned by the
+controversies of that day about the sacrament. The most celebrated of those
+Anabaptist prophets were Melchior Hoffmann, the founder of the Hoffmannists
+or Millenarians; Galenus Abrahamssohn, from whom the sect of the Galenists
+were called; and Simon Menno, founder of various sects known as Mennonites.
+Menno's principles are contained in his _Principles of the True Christian
+Faith_ (1556), a work which is held as authoritative on points of doctrine
+and worship among the Baptist communities at the present day. The
+application of the term Anabaptist to the general body of Baptists
+throughout the world is unwarranted, because these sects have nothing in
+common with the bodies which sprung up in various countries of Europe
+during the Reformation, except the practice of adult baptism. The Baptists
+themselves repudiate the name Anabaptist, as they claim to baptize
+according to the original institution of the rite, and never repeat baptism
+in the case of those who in their opinion have been so baptized. It is
+under the designation of Mennonites that they exist to-day, principally in
+Holland, Germany, and the United States.
+
+AN´ABAS. See _Climbing-perch_.
+
+ANAB´ASIS (Gr. _anabasis_, a march up country), the title of Xenophon's
+celebrated account of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his
+brother Artaxerxes, King of Persia. The title is also given to Arrian's
+work which records the campaigns of Alexander the Great.
+
+AN´ABLEPS, a genus of fishes of the perch family, found in the rivers of
+Guiana, consisting of but one species, remarkable for a peculiar structure
+of the eyes, in which there is a division of the iris and cornea, by
+transverse ligaments forming two pupils, and making the whole eye appear
+double. The young are brought forth alive.
+
+ANABOLISM (Gr. _ana_, up, and _bolé_, a throw), a biological term suggested
+by Michael Foster, and used by Gaskell in 1886, and meaning the building-up
+of organic life, or the process by which a substance is transformed into
+another which is more complex. Anabolism is the constructive phase of
+metabolism (q.v.).
+
+ANACANTHI´NI (Gr. neg. prefix _an_, and _akantha_, a spine), an order of
+osseous fishes, including the cod, plaice, &c., with spineless fins,
+cycloid or ctenoid scales, the ventral fins either absent or below the
+pectorals, and ductless swim-bladder.
+
+ANACARDIA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees and
+shrubs which secrete an acrid resinous juice, which is often used as a
+varnish. Mastic, Japan lacquer, and Martaban varnish are some of their
+products. The cashoo or cashew (genus Anacardium), the pistacia, sumach,
+mango, &c., are members of the order.
+
+ANACH´ARIS, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Hydrocharidaceæ, the species of
+which grow in ponds and streams of fresh water; water-thyme or water-weed.
+It appeared in Britain in the nineteenth century. _A. Alsinastrum_ has been
+introduced from North America into European rivers, canals, and ponds, and
+by its rapid growth in dense tangled masses tends to choke them so as
+materially to impede navigation. The plants in our canals perfect no seed,
+their spread being due to vegetative vigour only.
+
+ANACH´RONISM, an error of chronology by which things are represented as
+coexisting which did not coexist; applied also to anything foreign to or
+out of keeping with a specified time. Thus it is an anachronism when
+Shakespeare, in _Troilus and Cressida_, makes Hector quote Aristotle. There
+are anachronisms in the _Cid_ and the _Nibelungenlied_, and also in Dante's
+_Inferno_, when the poet introduces pagan mythology into the Christian
+hell.
+
+ANACOLU´THON, a want of grammatical and logical sequence in the structure
+of a sentence.
+
+[Illustration: Anaconda (_Python tigris_)]
+
+ANACON´DA, the popular name of two of the largest species of the serpent
+tribe, viz. a Ceylonese species of the genus Python (_P. tigris_), said to
+have been met with 33 feet long; and _Eunectes mur[=i]nus_, a native of
+tropical America, allied to the boa-constrictor, and the largest of the
+serpent tribe, attaining the length of 40 feet. They frequent swamps and
+rivers, are without poison fangs, and kill their victims by constriction.
+
+ANACONDA, a town of the United States, Montana, with the largest
+copper-smelting works in the world. Pop. (1920), 11,668.
+
+ANAC´REON, an amatory lyric Greek poet of the sixth century B.C., native of
+Teos, in Ionia. Only a few fragments of his works have come down to us; the
+collection of odes that usually passes under the name of Anacreon is mostly
+the production of a later time, the poetry of the real Anacreon being much
+less frivolous.
+
+ANADYOM´[)E]N[=E] (Gr., 'she who comes forth'), a name given to
+Aphrodit[=e] (Venus) when she was represented as rising from the sea, as in
+the celebrated painting by Apelles, painted for the temple of Æsculapius at
+Cos, and afterwards in the temple of Julius Caesar at Rome.
+
+ANADYR ([.a]-nä´d[=e]r), the most easterly of the larger rivers of Siberia
+and of all Asia; rises in the Stanovoi Mountains, and falls into the Gulf
+of Anadyr; length, 600 miles.
+
+ANÆ´MIA (Gr., 'want of blood'), a medical term applied to an unhealthy
+condition of the body, in which there is a diminution of the red corpuscles
+which the blood should contain. The principal symptoms are paleness and
+general want of colour in the skin, languor, emaciation, want of appetite,
+fainting, palpitation, &c.
+
+ANÆSTHE´SIA, or ANÆSTHE´SIS, a state of insensibility to pain, produced by
+inhaling chloroform, or by the application of other anæsthetic agents.
+
+ANÆSTHET´ICS are medical agents chiefly used in surgical operations for the
+abolition of pain. They are divided into (1) _general anæsthetics_, those
+in which complete unconsciousness is produced; (2) _local anæsthetics_,
+those which act upon the nerves of a limited area alone.
+
+The earliest record of attempts to produce anæsthesia is to be found in the
+thirteenth century. Since then many agents have been tried. The first
+scientific effort was in 1800, when Sir Humphry Davy experimented with
+nitrous oxide, but without practical result. In 1844 Wells, an American
+dentist, used nitrous oxide, also without result. In 1846 Morton, another
+American dentist, used ether, and from that time it was increasingly used
+in America. In the same year the first operation under ether was performed
+in University College Hospital, London. In 1847 Sir James Simpson
+(Edinburgh) introduced chloroform. Through his influence it was soon
+largely used throughout England and Scotland, and continued to be the chief
+anæsthetic till about the end of the nineteenth century, when ether again
+became popular in England. To-day, in England, as always in the United
+States, ether is the most widely-used anæsthetic. Much controversy exists
+regarding the respective merits of ether and chloroform. The general
+opinion is, that ether is on the whole safer, but more liable, in the
+British climate, to be followed by bronchitis; while there are various
+conditions when chloroform is still preferable. They are frequently
+combined in use. _Nitrous-oxide gas_ (laughing gas) is much used in
+dentistry. Lately, nitrous oxide has been used with ether; while ether and
+oxygen together were much used with the British Expeditionary Force in
+France during the European War (1914-8). The administration of all
+anæsthetics is helped when the patient is given a hypodermic injection of
+morphia shortly before. _Twilight sleep_, increasingly used in childbirth,
+is the production of a partial anæsthesia by the administration of
+scopolamin morphine. _Local anæsthetics_ are much used in minor surgery,
+and with proper technique act effectively. Cocaine was the first of these,
+and is still widely used. Of later developments, eucaine and novocaine are
+best known. Spinal anæsthesia is the injection of stovaine or similar
+substance into the spinal cord, producing anæsthesia of a large part of the
+body, varying according to the site of the injection.
+
+ANAGAL´LIS, a genus of the nat. ord. Primulaceæ, to which belongs the
+Pimpernel, the 'poor man's weather-glass'. See _Pimpernel_.
+
+ANAGNI ([.a]-nän´y[=e]), a town of Italy, province of Rome; the seat of a
+bishopric erected in 487. Pop. 10,400.
+
+AN´AGRAM, the transposition of the letters of a word or words so as to form
+a new word or phrase, a connection in meaning being frequently preserved;
+thus, _evil_, _vile_; _Horatio Nelson_, _Honor est a Nilo_ (honour is from
+the Nile). The seventeenth century was the golden age of the anagram, but
+it was employed by the Hebrews and the Greeks.
+
+ANAHUAC ([.a]-n[.a]-w[.a]k´; Mex., 'near the water'), an old Mexican name
+applied to the plateau of the city of Mexico, from the lakes situated
+there, generally elevated from 6000 to 9000 feet above the sea.
+
+AN´AKIM, the posterity of Anak, the son of Arba, noted in sacred history
+for their fierceness and loftiness of stature. Their stronghold was
+Kirjath-arba or Hebron, which was taken and destroyed by Caleb and the
+tribe of Judah.
+
+ANAKOLU´THON. See _Anacoluthon_.
+
+ANALEP´TIC, a restorative or invigorating medicine or diet.
+
+AN´ALOGUE, in comparative anatomy an organ in one species or group having
+the same function as an organ of different structure in another species or
+group, as the wing of a bird and that of an insect, both serving for
+flight. Organs in different animals having a similar anatomical structure,
+development, and relative position, independent of function or form, such
+as the arm of a man and the wing of a bird, are termed _homologues_.
+
+ANAL´OGY is the mode of reasoning from resemblance to resemblance. When we
+find on attentive examination resemblances in objects apparently diverse,
+and in which at first no such resemblances were discovered, a presumption
+arises that other resemblances may be found by further examination in these
+or other objects likewise apparently diverse. It is on the belief in a
+unity in nature that all inferences from analogy rest. The general
+inference from analogy is always perfectly valid. Wherever there is
+resemblance, similarity or identity of cause somewhere may be justly
+inferred; but to infer the particular cause without particular proof is
+always to reason falsely. Analogy is of great use and constant application
+in science, in philosophy, and in the common business of life.
+
+ANAL´YSIS, the resolution of an object, whether of the senses or the
+intellect, into its component elements. The word was introduced by Boyle in
+the seventeenth century. In philosophy it is the mode of resolving a
+compound idea into its simple parts, in order to consider them more
+distinctly, and arrive at a more precise knowledge of the whole. It is
+opposed to _synthesis_, by which we combine and class our perceptions, and
+contrive expressions for our thoughts, so as to represent their several
+divisions, classes, and relations.
+
+Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the widest sense, the expression and
+development of the functions of quantities by calculation; in a narrower
+sense the resolving of problems by algebraic equations. The analysis of the
+ancients was exhibited only in geometry, and made use only of geometrical
+assistance, whereby it is distinguished from the analysis of the moderns,
+which extends to all measurable objects, and expresses in equations the
+mutual dependence of magnitudes. Analysis is divided into lower and higher,
+the lower comprising, besides arithmetic and algebra, the doctrines of
+functions, of series, combinations, logarithms, and curves, the higher
+comprising the differential and integral calculus, and the calculus of
+variations.
+
+In chemistry, analysis is the process of decomposing a compound substance
+with a view to determine either (_a_) what elements it contains
+(_qualitative analysis_), or (_b_) how much of each element is present
+(_quantitative analysis_). Thus by the first process we learn that water is
+a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and by the second that it consists of
+one part of hydrogen by weight to eight parts of oxygen. As a means of
+testing soils and feeding-stuffs, analysis has given important results; it
+has enabled Liebig to solve the problem of plant-nutrition.
+
+ANAM. See _Annam_.
+
+ANAMOR´PHOSIS, a term denoting a drawing executed in such a manner as to
+present a distorted image of the object represented, but which, when viewed
+from a certain point, or reflected by a curved mirror or through a
+polyhedron, shows the object in its true proportions.
+
+AN´[)A]NAS. See _Pine-apple_.
+
+ANAPA´, a seaport of Russia in province Kuban, on the Black Sea, 50 miles
+south-east of Kertsh, constructed by the Turks in 1781, and formerly
+fortified. Pop. about 7000.
+
+AN´APÆST, in prosody, a foot consisting of two short and one long syllable,
+or two unaccented and one accented syllable, e.g.
+
+   )  )  ___  )    )   __    )   )   __   )  )   __
+  The As-syr-ian came down like the wolf on the fold.
+          --(Byron´s _The Destruction of Sennacherib_.)
+
+AN´APLASTY, a surgical operation to repair superficial lesions, or make up
+for lost parts, by the employment of adjacent healthy structure or tissue.
+Artificial noses, &c., are thus made.
+
+ANARAJAPOO´RA, or ANURADHAPURA, a ruined city, the ancient capital of
+Ceylon, built about 540 B.C., and said to have covered an area of 300 sq.
+miles, doubtless a great exaggeration. There are still several dagobas in
+tolerable preservation, but the great object of interest is the sacred
+Bo-tree planted over 2000 years, and probably the oldest historical tree in
+the world, but shattered by a storm in 1887.
+
+AN´ARCHISTS, a revolutionary sect or body setting forth as the social ideal
+the extreme form of individual freedom, holding that all government is
+injurious and immoral, and that the destruction of every social form now
+existing must be the first step to the creation of a new social system.
+According to Herbert Spencer, anarchism is the doctrine of _laisser faire_.
+Anarchists usually look upon Diderot as one of their pioneers, and quote
+his lines: "La nature n'a fait ni serviteurs ni maîtres. Je ne veux ni
+donner ni reçevoir de lois." Historically, however, it is Proudhon who may
+be considered as the father of anarchism. The recognition of the anarchists
+as an independent sect may be dated from the secession of Bakunin and his
+followers from the Social Democrats at the congress of the Hague in 1872,
+since which they have maintained an active propaganda. Their principal
+journals have been _La Révolte_ (Paris), the _Freiheit_ (New York),
+_Liberty_ (Boston), and the _Anarchist_ (London). Among modern philosophers
+of anarchism are Elisée Reclus and Prince Kropotkin.
+
+ANARTHROP´ODA, one of the two great divisions (the Arthropoda being the
+other) of the Annulosa, or ringed animals, in which there are no
+articulated appendages. It includes the leeches, earth-worms, tube-worms,
+&c.
+
+A´NAS, a genus of web-footed birds, containing the true ducks.
+
+ANASARCA. See _Dropsy_.
+
+ANASTA´SIUS I, Emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, A.D. 491, at the age of
+sixty. He was a member of the imperial life-guard, and owed his elevation
+to Ariadne, widow of Zeno, whom he married forty days after the death of
+her husband. He distinguished himself by suppressing the combats between
+men and wild beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale of offices, building
+the fortifications  of Constantinople, &c. His support of the heretical
+Eutychians led to a dangerous rebellion. He died A.D. 518.
+
+ANASTAT´ICA, a genus of cruciferous plants, including the Rose of Jericho
+(_A. hierochuntica_). See _Rose of Jericho_.
+
+ANASTATIC PRINTING, a process by which the perfect facsimile of a page of
+type or an engraving, old or new, can be reproduced and printed in the
+manner of a lithograph. The print or page to be transferred is dipped in
+diluted nitric acid, and, while moist with dilute acid, it is laid face
+downwards on a polished zinc plate and passed through a roller-press. The
+zinc is immediately corroded by the acid contained in the paper, excepting
+on those parts occupied by the ink of the type or engraving. The ink, while
+rejecting the acid, is loosened by it, and deposits a thin film on the
+zinc, thus protecting it from the action of the acid. The result is that
+those parts are left slightly raised in relief and greasy. The plate is
+then treated as in ordinary lithographic printing (q.v.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+F. H. Collins, _Authors' and Printers' Dictionary_; C. T. Jacobi,
+_Printing_; J. Southward, _Modern Printing_.
+
+ANASTOMO´SIS, in animals and plants, the inosculation of vessels, or the
+opening of one vessel into another, as an artery into another artery, or a
+vein into a vein. By means of anastomosis, if the course of a fluid is
+arrested in one vessel it can proceed along others. It is by anastomosis
+that circulation is re-established in amputated limbs, and in aneurism when
+the vessel is tied.
+
+ANATH´EMA, originally a gift hung up in a temple (Gr., _anatith[=e]mi_, to
+lay up), and dedicated to some god, a votive offering; but it gradually
+came to be used for _expulsion_, _curse_. The Roman Catholic Church
+pronounces the sentence of anathema against heretics, schismatics, and all
+who wilfully pursue a course of conduct condemned by the Church. The
+subject of the anathema is declared an outcast from the Church, all the
+faithful are forbidden to associate with him, and the utter destruction of
+his body and soul is foretold.
+
+ANAT´IDÆ, a family of swimming birds, including the Ducks, Swans, Geese,
+&c.
+
+ANATO´LIA (from Gr. _anatol[=e]_, the sunrise, the Orient), the modern name
+of Asia Minor (q.v.).
+
+ANATOLIAN RAILWAY. See _Bagdad Railway, Turkey_.
+
+ANATOMY
+
+[Illustration]
+
+ANAT´OMY, in the literal sense, means simply a cutting up, but is now
+generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating
+the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view
+to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science
+which treats of the internal structure of organized bodies. By means of the
+dissection of the human body the surgeon and physician acquire the
+knowledge of the geography of the territory in which all their professional
+operations are carried on. _Comparative anatomy_ is the science which
+compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of
+man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes. The anatomy of an
+animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the
+succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult
+form (_developmental_ or _embryotical anatomy_); with reference to the
+general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (_general
+anatomy_, _histology_); with reference to the changes in structure of
+organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (_morbid_
+or _pathological anatomy_); or with reference to the function, use, or
+purpose performed by the organs or parts (_teleological_ or _physiological
+anatomy_). According to the parts of the body described, the different
+divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, _osteology_, the
+description of the bones; _myology_, of the muscles; _arthrology_, of the
+ligaments and sinews; _splanchnology_, of the viscera or internal organs,
+in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver,
+spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, &c. _Angiology_ describes the vessels
+through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the
+blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic
+vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are
+distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and
+carrying them back into the blood. _Neurology_ describes the system of the
+nerves and of the brain; _dermatology_ treats of the skin.--Among
+anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and
+preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be
+preserved (1) by macerating the body so as to obtain the bones of the
+skeleton; or (2) by treating the body or some part of it with alcohol,
+formalin, or other preservative, which renders its tissues imperishable.
+
+Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned
+Hippocrates the younger (460-377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B.C.),
+Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria (about 300 B.C.), Celsus (53
+B.C.-A.D. 37), and Galen of Pergamus (A.D. 130-200), the most celebrated of
+all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time till the revival
+of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its
+progress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed
+dissection, and published a _System of Anatomy_ which was a textbook in the
+schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of
+Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and
+many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth
+century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered
+the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the
+circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the
+Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned anatomists of later times we can only
+mention Malpighi, Boerhaave, William and John Hunter, the younger Meckel,
+Bichat, Rosenmüller, Quain, Sir A. Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Joh. Müller,
+Gegenbaur, Owen, and Huxley.
+
+Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for
+enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for
+dissection. An Act of some years previously had, it is true, empowered a
+criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly-qualified persons
+the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was
+far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high
+prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice
+of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the
+notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a
+statute was passed in 1832, which was intended to make provision for the
+wants of surgeons, students, or other duly-qualified persons, by
+permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of
+persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, &c. The Act also
+appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and
+required persons practising the operations to obtain a licence. Relatives
+may effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though
+the deceased had expressed a desire for it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. J.
+Cunningham, _Textbook of Anatomy_; J. Quain, _Elements of Anatomy_; A. M.
+Buchanan, _Manual of Anatomy_; A. Thomson, _Anatomy for Art Students_.
+
+ANAXAG´ORAS, an ancient Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, born at
+Clazomenæ, in Ionia, probably about 500 B.C. When only about twenty years
+of age he settled at Athens, and soon gained a high reputation, and
+gathered round him a circle of renowned pupils, including Pericles,
+Euripides, Socrates, &c. At the age of fifty he was publicly charged with
+impiety and condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual
+banishment. He thereupon went to Lampsacus, where he died about 428.
+Anaxagoras belonged to the atomic school of Ionic philosophers. He held
+that there was an infinite number of different kinds of elementary atoms,
+and that these, in themselves motionless and originally existing in a state
+of chaos, were put in motion by an eternal, immaterial, spiritual,
+elementary being, _Nous_ (Intelligence), from which motion the world was
+produced. His conception of _Nous_ as the first cause of movement marks a
+great advance in the history of philosophical thought, for he thus placed
+spirit above matter. The stars were, according to him, of earthy materials;
+the sun a glowing mass, about as large as the Peloponnesus; the earth was
+flat; the moon a dark, inhabitable body, receiving its light from the sun;
+the comets wandering stars.
+
+ANAXIMAN´DER, an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, was born at Miletus in
+611 B.C., and died 547. The fundamental principle of his philosophy is that
+the source of all things is an undefined substance infinite in quantity.
+The firmament is composed of heat and cold, the stars of air and fire. The
+sun occupies the highest place in the heavens, has a circumference
+twenty-eight times larger than the earth, and resembles a cylinder, from
+which streams of fire issue. The moon is likewise a cylinder, nineteen
+times larger than the earth. The earth has the shape of a cylinder, and is
+placed in the midst of the universe, where it remains suspended. His
+philosophy is thus a step in advance of the theories of Thales, the
+conception of the Infinite, however vague, being superior to the idea of
+water constituting the first principle of all things. Anaximander occupied
+himself a great deal with mathematics and geography. To him is credited the
+invention of geographical maps and the first application of the _gnomon_ or
+style fixed on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices and equinoxes.
+
+ANAXIMENES (an-aks-im´e-n[=e]z) OF MILETUS, an ancient Greek (Ionic)
+philosopher, according to whom air was the first principle of all things.
+Finite things were formed from the infinite air by compression and
+rarefaction produced by eternally existent motion; and heat and cold
+resulted from varying degrees of density of the primal element. He
+flourished about 550 B.C.
+
+ANBURY (an´be-ri) (called also CLUB-ROOT and FINGERS AND TOES), a disease
+in turnips, in which knobs or excrescences are formed on the root, which is
+then useless for feeding purposes. Some authorities distinguish anbury
+proper from 'fingers and toes' in turnips, setting it down as a distinct
+disease due to a fungus, while in the other case the roots simply assume a
+bad habit of growth through some unknown influence.
+
+ANCACHS ([.a]n-k[.a]ch´), a department of Peru, between the Andes and the
+Pacific; area, 16,562 sq. miles. Capital Hararaz. Pop. 500,000.
+
+ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, an ancient and widespread practice, displayed in its most
+characteristic form in modern China and ancient Rome, which apparently was
+based upon the belief that dead parents or ancestors, represented by images
+or 'ancestral tablets', could be revived by appropriate ceremonies, such as
+burning incense or offering libations, and give the benefit of their wisdom
+to their descendants who performed the vitalizing ritual and asked for
+their advice upon, or their sanction for, actions affecting the welfare of
+the family. The earliest deity was a dead king (Osiris), whose advice was
+sought by his son and successor. Hence in primitive religions, in which an
+endless variety of modifications of these more ancient beliefs has arisen,
+ancestor-worship may take the form of pious devotion to an actual ancestor
+or to a supernatural deity. As many of the most ancient gods were
+identified with animals, the dead ancestor, or his soul, is believed by
+many peoples to become incarnate in the appropriate animal, which is
+accorded the special veneration of a god or supernatural adviser, and set
+apart as sacred. Ancestor-worship still survives in a great variety of
+forms among various peoples.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive
+Culture_; F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_; D. G.
+Brinton, _Religions of Primitive Peoples_.
+
+ANCHISES (an-k[=i]´s[=e]z), the father of the Trojan hero Æneas, who
+carried him off on his shoulders at the burning of Troy and made him the
+companion of his voyage to Italy. This voyage, which is not mentioned in
+the Homeric legend, is described by Virgil in his _Æneid_. He died at
+Drepanum, in Sicily.
+
+[Illustration: Modern Stockless Anchor (Hall's Patent)]
+
+AN´CHOR, an implement for holding a ship or other vessel at rest in the
+water. In ancient times large stones or crooked pieces of wood heavily
+weighted with metal were used for this purpose. The anchor now used is of
+iron, formed with a strong _shank_, at one extremity of which is the
+_crown_, from which branch out two _arms_, terminating in broad _palms_ or
+_flukes_, the sharp extremity of which is the _peak_ or _bill_; at the
+other end of the shank is the _stock_ (fixed at right angles to the plane
+of the arms), behind which is the _ring_, to which a cable can be attached.
+The principal use of the stock is to cause the arms to fall so as one of
+the flukes shall enter the ground. Many anchors are made nowadays without a
+stock. The anchors of the largest size carried by men-of-war are the _best_
+and _small bowers_, the _sheet_, and the _spare_, to which are added the
+_stream_ and the _kedge_, which are used for anchoring in a stream or other
+sheltered place and for warping the vessel from one place to another. Many
+improvements and novelties in the shape and construction of anchors have
+been introduced within recent times. The principal names connected with
+those alterations are those of Lieutenant Rodgers, who introduced the
+_hollow-shanked anchor_ with the view of increasing the strength without
+adding to the weight; Porter, who made the arms and flukes movable by
+pivoting them to the stock instead of fixing them immovably, causing the
+anchor to take a readier and firmer hold, and avoiding the chance of the
+cable becoming foul; Trotman, who further improved on Porter's invention;
+and M. Martin, whose anchor is of very peculiar form, and is constructed so
+as to be self-canting, the arms revolving through an angle of 30° either
+way, and the sharp points of the flukes being always ready to enter the
+ground.
+
+[Illustration: Type of Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, &c.]
+
+AN´CHORITES, or AN´CHORETS (Gr. _anachor[=e]tai_, persons who have
+withdrawn themselves from the world), in the early Church a class of
+religious persons who generally passed their lives in cells, from which
+they never removed. Their habitations were, in many instances, entirely
+separated from the abodes of other men, sometimes in the depth of
+wildernesses, in pits or caverns; at other times several of these
+individuals fixed their habitations in the vicinity of each other, but they
+always lived personally separate. The continual prevalence of fierce wars,
+civil commotions, and persecutions at the beginning of the Christian era
+must have made retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of
+quiet and contemplative minds. This spirit, however, soon led to fanatical
+excesses; many anchorites went without proper clothing, wore heavy chains,
+and we find at the close of the fourth century Simeon Stylites passing
+thirty years on the top of a column without ever descending from it, and
+finally dying there. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity became blended
+with the Grecian philosophy and strongly tinged with the peculiar notions
+of the East, the anchorites were most numerous; in Europe there were
+comparatively few, and on the development and establishment of the monastic
+system they completely disappeared. See _Asceticism_.
+
+ANCHOVY (an-ch[=o]´vi), a small fish of the Herring family, all the
+species, with exception of the common anchovy (_Engraulis
+encrasich[)o]lus_) and _E. meletta_ (both Mediterranean species),
+inhabitants of the tropical seas of India and America. The common anchovy,
+so esteemed for its rich and peculiar flavour, is not much larger than the
+middle finger. It is caught in vast numbers in the Mediterranean, and
+frequently on the coasts of France, Holland, and the south of England, and
+pickled for exportation. A favourite sauce is made by pounding the pickled
+fish in water, simmering for a short time, adding a little cayenne pepper,
+and straining the whole through a hair-sieve.
+
+ANCHO´VY-PEAR (_Grias caulifl[=o]ra_), a tree of the nat. ord. Myrtaceæ, a
+native of Jamaica, growing to the height of 50 feet, with large leaves and
+large white flowers, and bearing a fruit somewhat bigger than a hen's egg,
+which is pickled and eaten like the mango, and strongly resembles it in
+taste.
+
+ANCHU´SA. See _Alkanet_.
+
+ANCHYLO´SIS. See _Ankylosis_.
+
+ANCIENT LIGHTS, in English law, windows or other openings which have been
+in existence for at least twenty years, and during that time have enjoyed
+the access of light without interruption, go that a right is established
+against the obstruction of the light by a neighbouring proprietor.
+
+ANCILLON ([.a][n.]-s[=e]-y[=o][n.]), Jean Pierre Frédéric, an author and
+statesman of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1767 (where his father
+was pastor of the French reformed church); died there in 1837. He became
+professor of history in the military academy at Berlin, and in 1806 he was
+charged with the education of the crown-prince. He successively occupied
+several important offices of state, being at last appointed Minister of
+Foreign Affairs. He wrote on philosophy, history, and politics, partly in
+French, partly in German.
+
+ANCKARSTRÖM. See _Ankarström_.
+
+ANCO´NA, a seaport of Italy, capital of the province of the same name, on
+the Adriatic, 130 miles N.E. of Rome, with harbour works begun by Trajan,
+who built the ancient mole or quay. A triumphal arch of white marble,
+erected in honour of Trajan, stands on the mole. Ancona is a station of the
+Italian fleet, and the commerce is increasing. The town is indifferently
+built, but has some remarkable edifices, among others, the cathedral. There
+is a colossal statue of Count Cavour. Ancona is said to have been founded
+about four centuries B.C., by Syracusan refugees. It fell into the hands of
+the Romans in the first half of the third century B.C., and became a Roman
+colony. Pop. 68,430. The province has an area of 748 sq. miles. Pop.
+333,381.
+
+ANCONA FOWL. See _Poultry_.
+
+ANCRE (ä[n.]-kr), Concino Concini, Marshal and Marquis d', was a native of
+Florence, and on the marriage of Marie de' Médici to Henri IV, in 1600,
+came in her suite to France, where he obtained rapid promotion, more
+especially after the assassination of the king (1610). He became
+successively Governor of Normandy, Marshal of France, and last of all,
+Prime Minister. Being thoroughly detested by all classes, at last a
+conspiracy was formed against him, and he was shot dead on the bridge of
+the Louvre in 1617.
+
+ANCRE, BATTLE OF. This battle was the final one in the British offensive in
+France in 1916. It began on 13th Nov. after a two day's preliminary
+bombardment of the German salient, on both sides of the River Ancre, from
+Beaumont-Hamel to St. Pierre Divion. One area of extraordinary strength was
+the Y ravine which stretches from Beaumont-Hamel plateau towards the river.
+The assaults on both banks of the river were vigorous and determined. A
+fierce struggle was waged in the Y ravine, which Scottish troops ultimately
+cleared with the bayonet. Beaumont-Hamel having fallen, the British line
+was extended well beyond it. Further gains were made on the following day.
+The prisoners captured numbered 7200. This brilliant action paved the way
+for further successes in the spring.
+
+AN´CUS MAR´CIUS, according to the traditionary history of Rome the fourth
+king of that city, who succeeded Tullus Hostilius, 638, and died 614 B.C.
+He was the son of Numa's daughter, and sought to imitate his grandfather by
+reviving the neglected observances of religion. He is said to have built
+the wooden bridge across the Tiber known as the Sublician, constructed the
+harbour of Ostia, and built the first Roman prison.
+
+ANCY´RA. See _Angora_.
+
+ANDALU´SIA (Sp. _Andalucia_), a large and fertile district in the south of
+Spain, bounded N. by Estremadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia, S. by the
+Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Portugal and the Atlantic; area, about 33,777
+sq. miles, comprising the modern provinces of Seville, Huelva, Cadiz, Jaen,
+Cordova, Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. It is traversed throughout its whole
+extent by ranges of mountains, the loftiest being the Sierra Nevada, many
+summits of which are covered with perpetual snow (Mulahacen is 11,678
+feet). Minerals abound, and several mines have been opened by English
+companies, especially in the province of Huelva, where the Tharsis and Rio
+Tinto copper-mines are situated. The principal river is the Guadalquivir.
+The vine, myrtle, olive, palm, banana, carob, &c., grow abundantly in the
+valley of the Guadalquivir. Wheat, maize, barley, and many varieties of
+fruit grow almost spontaneously; besides which, honey, silk, and cochineal
+form important articles of culture. The horses and mules are the best in
+the Peninsula; the bulls are sought for bull-fighting over all Spain; sheep
+are reared in vast numbers. Agriculture is in a backward state, and the
+manufactures are by no means extensive. The Andalusians are descended in
+part from the Moors, of whom they still preserve decided characteristics.
+Andalusia is still famous for its bull-fighters. Pop. 3,828,916.
+
+ANDALUSIAN FOWL. See _Poultry_.
+
+AN´DAMANS, a chain of islands on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, the
+principal being the North, Middle, South, and Little Andamans. Middle
+Andaman is about 60 miles long, and 15 or 16 miles broad; North and South
+Andaman are each about 50 miles long. The Andamanese, about 1315 in number
+(1911), are mostly in a state of nature, living almost naked in the rudest
+habitations. They are small (generally much less than 5 feet), well-formed,
+and active, skilful archers and canoeists, and excellent swimmers and
+divers. These islands have been used since 1858 as a penal settlement by
+the Indian Government, the settlement being at Port Blair, on South
+Andaman. Here rice, coffee, pineapples, nutmegs, &c., are grown, while the
+jungle has been cleared off the neighbouring hills. The natives in the
+vicinity of the settlement have become to some extent civilized. The
+climate is humid, but the settlement is healthy. Pop. 18,000.
+
+ANDANTE ([.a]n-d[.a]n´t[=a]; It., 'at a walking pace'), in music, denotes a
+movement somewhat slow, graceful, distinct, and soothing. The word is also
+applied substantively to that part of a sonata or symphony having a
+movement of this character. In Handel's music one often meets the
+expression _andante allegro_, which is equivalent to _andante con moto_.
+
+ANDELYS, LES (l[=a]z ä[n.]d-l[=e]z), two towns in France called
+respectively Grand and Petit Andely, distant half a mile from each other,
+in the department of Eure, on the right bank of the Seine, 19 miles S.E. of
+Rouen. Grand Andely dates from the sixth century, its church, built in the
+thirteenth century, is one of the finest in the department. Petit Andely
+owes its origin to Richard Coeur de Lion, who, in 1195, built here the
+Château Gaillard, in its time one of the strongest fortresses in France,
+but now wholly a ruin. Pop. 5530.
+
+ANDENNE´, a town of Belgium, province of Namur, on the right bank of the
+Meuse and 10 miles east of Namur; manufactures delftware, porcelain,
+tobacco-pipes, paper, &c. Pop. 7803.
+
+ANDERNACH ([.a]n´der-n[.a]_ch_), a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the left
+bank of the Rhine, 10 miles N.W. of Coblentz, partly surrounded with walls.
+Pop. 9800.
+
+AN´DERSEN, Hans Christian, a Danish novelist, poet, and writer of fairy
+tales, was born of poor parents at Odense, 2nd April, 1805. He learned to
+read and write in a charity school, from which he was taken when only nine
+years old, and was put to work in a manufactory in order that his earnings
+might assist his widowed mother. In his leisure time he eagerly read
+national ballads, poetry, and plays, and wrote several tragedies full of
+sound and fury. In 1819 he went to Copenhagen, but failed in getting any of
+his plays accepted, and in securing an appointment at the theatre, having
+to content himself for some time with unsteady employment as a joiner. His
+abilities at last brought him under the notice of Councillor Collin, a man
+of considerable influence, who procured for him free entrance into a
+Government school at Slagelse. From this school he was transferred to the
+university, and soon became favourably known by his poetic works. Through
+the influence of Oehlenschläger and Ingermann he received a royal grant to
+enable him to travel, and in 1833 he visited Italy, his impressions of
+which he published in _The Improvvisatore_ (1835)--a work which rendered
+his fame European. The scene of his following novel, _O. T._, was laid in
+Denmark, and in _Only a Fiddler_ he described his own early struggles. In
+1835 appeared the first volume of his _Fairy Tales_, of which successive
+volumes continued to be published year by year at Christmas, and which have
+been the most popular and widespread of his works. Among his other works
+are _Picture-books without Pictures_--conversations of the author with the
+moon, who came to visit the poet in his garret; _A Poet's Bazaar_--the
+result of a voyage in 1840 to the East; and a number of dramas. In 1845 he
+received an annuity from the Government. He visited England in 1848, and
+acquired such a command of the language that his next work, _The Two
+Baronesses_, was written in English. In 1855 he published an autobiography,
+under the title _My Life's Romance_, an English translation of which,
+published in 1871, contained additional chapters by the author, bringing
+the narrative to 1867. Among his later works we may mention, _To Be or Not
+To Be_ (1857); _Tales from Jutland_ (1859); _The Ice Maiden_ (1863). He
+died 4th Aug, 1875, having had the pleasure of seeing many of his works
+translated into most of the European languages.
+
+ANDERSON, a town of the United States, Indiana, on the west branch of White
+River, 32 miles north-east of Indianapolis, with various manufacturing
+works. Pop. 23,856.
+
+ANDERSON, Elizabeth Garrett, M.D., born in 1836, maiden name Garrett,
+married Mr. J. S. Anderson of the Orient Line of steamers. She studied
+medicine, but met with many obstacles, the study of medicine by women being
+then discouraged on all hands; at last she was licensed to practise by the
+Apothecaries' Society in 1865, and afterwards passed examinations at the
+University of Paris and obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine. From
+1866 to 1890 she was senior physician to the New Hospital for Women; from
+1876 to 1898 lecturer on medicine in the London School of Medicine for
+Women. She did much to aid in opening the medical profession to women. In
+1908 she was elected Mayor of Aldeburgh, being the first woman to hold the
+position of mayor in England. She died on 17th Dec., 1917. Her daughter
+Louisa Garrett Anderson, born in 1873, went to France in 1914 as Joint
+Organiser of and Chief Surgeon to the Women's Hospital Corps, Voluntary
+Unit.
+
+ANDERSON, James, a Scottish writer on political and rural economy, born at
+Hermiston in 1739, died in 1808. In 1790 he started the _Bee_, which ran to
+eighteen volumes, and contains many useful papers on agricultural,
+economical, and other topics. Some of his other publications, _Recreations
+in Agriculture_, _Natural History_, &c., contain anticipations of theories
+afterwards propounded by Malthus and Ricardo.
+
+ANDERSON, John, F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy in the University
+of Glasgow, born 1726, died 1796. By his will he directed that the whole of
+his effects should be devoted to the establishment of an educational
+institution in Glasgow, to be denominated _Anderson's University_, for the
+use of the unacademical classes. According to the design of the founder,
+there were to be four colleges--for arts, medicine, law, and
+theology--besides an initiatory school. As the funds, however, were totally
+inadequate to the plan, it was at first commenced with only a single course
+of lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry. The institution gradually
+enlarged its sphere of instruction, coming nearer and nearer to the
+original design of its founder, the medical school in particular possessing
+a high reputation. In 1886 it was incorporated with other institutions to
+form the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College (now Glasgow Royal
+Technical College), Anderson's College medical school, however, retaining a
+distinct position.
+
+ANDERSON, Joseph, Scottish antiquary, born in 1832, became a school
+teacher, was for some years newspaper editor, and in 1870 was appointed
+keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. His chief works
+embody the lectures delivered by him as Rhind lecturer in archæology to the
+Society of Antiquaries of Scotland: _Scotland in Early Christian Times_,
+_Scotland in Pagan Times_, and the _Early Christian Monuments of Scotland_.
+He also edited _The Orkneyinga Saga_, _The Oliphants in Scotland_, and
+Drummond's _Ancient Scottish Weapons_. He died in 1916.
+
+ANDERSON, Robert, M.D., Scottish biographical writer, born 1750, died 1830.
+He furnished biographical and critical notices for _A Complete Edition of
+the Poets of Great Britain_ (1792-5), and was for a time editor of the
+_Edinburgh Magazine_.
+
+ANDERSSON, Carl Jan, an African traveller, born in Sweden in 1827, died in
+the land of the Ovampos, in Western Africa, in July, 1867. He published
+_Lake Ngami, or Discoveries in South Africa_ (London, 2 vols., 1856), and
+_The Okavango River_ (London, 1861). The observations of his last voyage
+were published in 1875 in _Notes of Travel in South Africa_.
+
+ANDES (an´d[=e]z), or, as they are called in Spanish South America,
+CORDILLERAS (ridges) DE LOS ANDES, or simply CORDILLERAS, a range of
+mountains stretching along the whole of the west coast of South America,
+from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama and the Caribbean Sea. In absolute
+length (4500 miles) no single chain of mountains approaches the Andes, and
+only a certain number of the higher peaks of the Himalayan chain rise
+higher above the sea-level; which peak is the highest of all is not yet
+settled. Several main sections of this huge chain are distinguishable. The
+Southern Andes present a lofty main chain, with a minor chain running
+parallel to it on the east, reaching from Tierra del Fuego and the Straits
+of Magellan, northward to about lat. 28° S., and rising in Aconcagua to a
+height of 23,080 feet. North of this is the double chain of the Central
+Andes, enclosing the wide and lofty plateaus of Bolivia and Peru, which lie
+at an elevation of more than 12,000 feet above the sea. The mountain system
+is here at its broadest, being about 500 miles across. Here are also
+several very lofty peaks, as Illampu or Sorata (21,484 feet), Sahama
+(21,054 feet), Illimani (21,024 feet). Farther north the outer and inner
+ranges draw closer together, and in Ecuador there is but a single system of
+elevated masses, generally described as forming two parallel chains. In
+this section are crowded together a number of lofty peaks, most of them
+volcanoes, either extinct or active. Of the latter class are Pichincha
+(15,918 feet), with a crater 2500 feet deep; Tunguragua (16,685 feet);
+Sangay (17,460 feet); and Cotopaxi (19,550 feet). The loftiest summit here
+appears to be Chimborazo (20,581 feet); others are Antisana (19,260 feet)
+and Cayambe (19,200 feet). Northward of this section the Andes break into
+three distinct ranges, the east-most running north-eastward into Venezuela,
+the westmost running north-westward to the Isthmus of Panama. In the
+central range is the volcano of Tolima (17,660 feet). The western slope of
+the Andes is generally exceedingly steep, the eastern much less so, the
+mountains sinking gradually to the plains. The whole range gives evidence
+of volcanic action, but it consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks.
+Thus mountains may be found rising to the height of over 20,000 feet, and
+fossiliferous to their summits (as Illimani and Sorata or Illampu). There
+are about thirty volcanoes in a state of activity. The loftiest of these
+burning mountains seems to be Gualateïri, in Peru (21,960 feet). The
+heights of the others vary from 13,000 to 20,000 feet. All the districts of
+the Andes system have suffered severely from earthquakes, towns having been
+either destroyed or greatly injured by these visitations. Peaks crowned
+with perpetual snow are seen all along the range, and glaciers are also met
+with, more especially from Aconcagua southwards. The passes are generally
+at a great height, the most important being from 10,000 to 15,000 feet.
+Railways have been constructed to cross the chain at a similar elevation.
+The Andes are extremely rich in the precious metals, gold, silver, copper,
+platinum, mercury, and tin all being wrought; lead and iron are also found.
+The llama and kindred species--the guanaco, vicuña, and alpaca--are
+characteristic of the Andes. Among birds, the condor is the most
+remarkable. The vegetation necessarily varies much according to elevation,
+latitude, rainfall, &c., but generally is rich and varied. Except in the
+south and north little rain falls on the western side of the range, and in
+the centre there is a considerable desert area. On the east side the
+rainfall is heavy in the equatorial regions, but in the south is very
+scanty or altogether deficient. From the Andes rise two of the largest
+water systems of the world--the Amazon and its affluents, and the La Plata
+and its affluents. Besides which, in the north, from its slopes flow the
+Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some tributaries to the Orinoco. The
+mountain chain pressing so close upon the Pacific Ocean, no streams of
+importance flow from its western slopes. The number of lakes is not great;
+the largest and most important is that of Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau.
+In the Andes are towns at a greater elevation than anywhere else in the
+world, the highest being the silver-mining town of Cerro de Pasco (14,270
+feet), the next being Potosi.
+
+AN´DESIN, a kind of felspar containing both soda and lime, and named from
+being first obtained in the Andes.
+
+AN´DESITE, a name given to a crystalline volcanic rock or group of rocks of
+very wide occurrence, consisting mostly of felspar mixed with other
+ingredients, especially hornblende and augite, often also hypersthene and
+mica, the four chief varieties being named accordingly. Andesite is often
+porphyritic in character, with large crystals of felspar scattered through
+it. These rocks are commonly eruptive products of volcanoes of the tertiary
+or more recent periods, and the name was given by C. L. von Buch on account
+of their prevalence in the lavas of volcanoes of the Andes. The Ochils and
+other hills of middle Scotland largely consist of andesite.
+
+ANDIJAN´, a town of Russian Turkestan, Ferghana, south of the Syr-Darya, a
+terminus of the Transcaspian Railway, 73 miles north-east of Khokand. Pop.
+82,235.
+
+ANDI´RA, a genus of leguminous American trees, with fleshy plum-like
+fruits. The wood is suitable for building purposes. The bark of _A.
+inermis_, or cabbage tree, is narcotic, and is used as an anthelminthic
+under the name of _worm-bark_ or _cabbage bark_. The powdered bark of _A.
+arar[=o]ba_ is used as a remedy in certain skin diseases, as herpes.
+
+ANDIRON (and´[=i]-[.e]rn), a horizontal iron bar raised on short legs, with
+an upright standard at one end, used to support pieces of wood when burning
+in an open hearth, one andiron being placed on either side of the hearth.
+
+ANDKHOO, or ANDKHOUI ([.a]nd-_h_ö´, [.a]nd-_h_ö´i), a town of Afghanistan,
+about 200 miles south of Bokhara, on the commercial route to Herat. Pop.
+estimated at 15,000.
+
+ANDOCIDES (an-dos´i-d[=e]z), an Athenian orator, born about 440 B.C., died
+about 393 B.C. He took an active part in public affairs, and was four times
+exiled; the first time along with Alcibiades, for profaning the Eleusinian
+mysteries. Several of his orations are extant, one called _On the
+Mysteries_ being the best.
+
+ANDOR´RA, or ANDORRE´, a small nominally independent State in the Pyrenees,
+south of the French department of Ariége, with an area of about 191 sq.
+miles. It has been a separate State for six hundred years, is governed by
+its own civil and criminal codes, and has its own courts of justice, the
+laws being administered by two judges, one of whom is chosen by France, the
+other by the Bishop of Urgel, in Spain. The little State pays an annual due
+of 960 francs to France, and 460 pesetas to the Bishop of Urgel. The chief
+industry is the rearing of sheep and cattle. The commerce is largely in
+importing contraband goods into Spain. The inhabitants, who speak the
+Catalan dialect of Spanish, are simple in their manners, their wealth
+consisting mainly of cattle and sheep. The village of Old Andorra is the
+capital. Pop. 5231.
+
+AN´DOVER, a town in England, in Hants, 12 miles north by west of
+Winchester, with a fine church, and a trade in corn, malt, &c. Interesting
+Roman remains have been found in the vicinity. Pop. (1921), 8569.
+
+AN´DOVER, a town in Massachusetts, 25 miles N.N.W. of Boston, chiefly
+remarkable for its literary institutions--Phillip's Academy, founded in
+1778; the Andover Theological Seminary, founded in 1807; and Abbot Academy,
+a girls' school, founded in 1829. Pop. 7300.
+
+ANDRASSY ([.a]n-drä´sh[=e]), Count Julius, Hungarian statesman, born 1823,
+died in 1890. He took part in the revolution of 1848, was condemned to
+death, but escaped and went into exile. He was appointed Premier when
+self-government was restored to Hungary in 1867; became imperial Minister
+for Foreign Affairs in 1871, but retired from public life in 1879.
+
+ANDRASSY, Julius, Hungarian statesman, son of the preceding. He was born in
+1860, and entered the Reichstag in 1884. He became Minister of the Interior
+in 1906, and retained that office until 1909. In 1912 he represented
+Austria at the conference on the Balkan question. In 1918 he was appointed
+Minister for Foreign Affairs, but soon resigned.
+
+ANDRÉ (an´dr[=a]), Major John, adjutant-general in the British army during
+the American revolutionary war. Employed to negotiate the defection of the
+American general Arnold, and the delivery of the works at West Point, he
+was apprehended in disguise, 23rd Sept., 1780, within the American lines;
+declared a spy from the enemy, and hanged 2nd Oct., 1780. His remains were
+brought to England in 1821 and interred in Westminster Abbey, where a
+monument has been erected to his memory.
+
+ANDREA DEL SARTO. See _Sarto_.
+
+ANDREÆ ([.a]n´dre-[=a]), Johann Valentin, German author, born 1586, died
+1654. He was the author of numerous tracts, several of them of an amusing
+and satirical character. He was long believed to be the founder of the
+celebrated Rosicrucian order, an opinion that received a certain support
+from some of his works, but in all probability the real intention of the
+writer was to ridicule the folly of contemporary alchemists.
+
+AN´DREASBERG, ST., a mining town of the Harz Mountains, in Prussia, 57
+miles S.S.E. of Hanover. Pop. about 4000.
+
+ANDREEV, Leonid Nicolaievitsh, Russian author, born in 1871, died in 1919.
+He studied law at the Universities of Moscow and Petrograd, but finding his
+practice unremunerative he became a police-court reporter for a daily
+paper. At the age of twenty-three he attempted suicide, driven to it by his
+miserable circumstances and struggle for existence. His first story, _About
+a Poor Student_, based upon his own experiences, attracted but little
+attention, and his literary career really began when Gorky discovered his
+talent. He was one of the most prolific Russian writers, the short story
+being his speciality. He was a mystic and a fatalist, like so many of his
+compatriots. His works include: _The Red Laugh_ (1905); _The Seven who were
+Hanged_ (1909); _Judas Iscariot and the Others_ (1910); _A Dilemma_ (1910);
+_Silence and Other Stories_, &c. His works have been translated into many
+European languages.
+
+ANDREW, ST., brother of St. Peter, and the first disciple whom Christ
+chose. He is said to have preached in Scythia, in Thrace and Asia Minor,
+and in Achaia (Greece), and according to tradition he was crucified by
+order of the Roman governor Ægeas at Patræ, now Patras, in Achaia, on a
+cross of the form X (decussate cross), now known as a St. Andrew's cross.
+The Russians revere him as the apostle who brought the gospel to them; the
+Scots, as the patron saint of their country. The day dedicated to him is
+30th Nov. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted by Peter the Great
+in 1698. For the Scottish Knights of St. Andrew or the Thistle, see
+_Thistle_.
+
+AN´DREWES, Lancelot, an eminent and learned bishop of the English Church,
+born in London in 1555, died at Winchester 1626; was high in favour both
+with Queen Elizabeth and James I. In 1605 he became Bishop of Chichester;
+in 1609 was translated to Ely, and appointed one of the king's
+privy-councillors; and in 1618 he was translated to Winchester. He was one
+of those engaged in preparing the authorized version of the Scriptures. He
+left sermons, lectures, and other writings.
+
+AN´DREWS, ST., an ancient city and parliamentary burgh in Fifeshire,
+Scotland, 31 miles north-east from Edinburgh; was erected into a royal
+burgh by David I in 1140, and after having been an episcopal, became an
+archiepiscopal see in 1472, and was for long the ecclesiastical capital of
+Scotland. The cathedral, now in ruins, was begun about 1160, and took 157
+years to finish. The old castle, founded about 1200, and rebuilt in the
+fourteenth century, is also an almost shapeless ruin. In it James III was
+born and Cardinal Beaton assassinated, and in front of it George Wishart
+was burned. There are several other interesting ruins. The trade and
+manufactures are of no importance, but the town is in favour as a
+watering-place. Golf is much played here. Pop. 7597.--The _University of
+St. Andrews_, the oldest of the Scottish universities, founded in 1411,
+consists of the united colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard and the
+college of St. Mary, both at St. Andrews, and embraces also University
+College, Dundee. In 1579 the colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard were
+restricted to the teaching of arts and medicine, and that of St. Mary to
+theology. In 1747 the two former colleges were united by Act of Parliament.
+University College, Dundee, was founded in 1880. The united college of St.
+Salvator and St. Leonard has a principal (who is also principal of the
+university) and twelve professors, and the college of St. Mary has a
+principal and four professors. Degrees, open to women as well as men, are
+conferred in arts, divinity, science, medicine, and law; and the university
+also confers the diploma and title of L.L.A. (Lady Literate in Arts). The
+number of students is 420. In connection with the university is a library,
+founded in 1612 and containing about 150,000 printed volumes and 150 MSS.
+The university unites with the other three Scottish universities in
+returning three members to Parliament. Madras College or Academy, founded
+by Dr. Bell of Madras, the principal secondary school of the place,
+provides accommodation for upwards of 1500 scholars.
+
+AN´DREWS, Thomas, chemist, was born at Belfast in 1813; studied chemistry
+at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson, and for a short time in Paris; then
+medicine at Belfast, Dublin, and Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.D. at
+the last place. After practising and teaching chemistry for ten years in
+Belfast, he became vice-president of the Northern College there, which in
+1849 was converted into Queen's College, and Andrews now became professor
+of chemistry in the college, a post which he held till 1879. He died in
+1885, having received various academic distinctions in the course of his
+life. His name is associated with valuable researches on the heat of
+chemical combustion, and on the nature of ozone, but especially with the
+discovery of the existence of a critical temperature for every gas, above
+which it cannot be liquefied by any pressure, however great. He wrote many
+scientific papers, which have been published in a collective form by P. G.
+Tait and A. Crum Brown.
+
+AN´DRIA, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, with a fine cathedral,
+founded in 1046; the Church of Sant' Agostino, with a beautiful Pointed
+Gothic portal; a college; manufactures of majolica, and a good trade. Pop.
+53,274.
+
+ANDROCLUS, or ANDROCLES, a Roman slave who once pulled a thorn out of a
+lion's paw and dressed the wound. Androclus was afterwards condemned to be
+thrown to the lions in the Circus Maximus, and encountered the same lion
+that he had helped; the beast, instead of attacking him, fawned on him and
+caressed him. The story is told by Aulus Gellius, _Noctes Atticæ_, v, 14.
+
+ANDROE´CIUM, in botany, the male system of a flower; the aggregate of the
+stamens.
+
+ANDROMACHE (an-drom´a-k[=e]), in Greek legend, wife of Hector, and one of
+the most attractive women of Homer's _Iliad_. The passage describing her
+parting with Hector, when he was setting out to battle, is well known and
+much admired (_Iliad_, vi, 369-502). Euripides and Racine have made her the
+chief character of tragedies.
+
+ANDROM´[)E]DA, in Greek mythology, daughter of the Ethiopian king Cepheus
+and of Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia having boasted that her daughter surpassed
+the Nereids, if not H[=e]ra (Juno) herself, in beauty, the offended
+goddesses prevailed on their father, Poseid[=o]n (Neptune), to afflict the
+country with a horrid sea-monster, which threatened universal destruction.
+To appease the offended god, Andromeda was chained to a rock, but was
+rescued by Perseus; and after death was changed into a constellation. The
+legend forms the subject of tragedies by Euripides and Sophocles, and Ovid
+introduced it into his _Metamorphoses_.
+
+ANDROM´EDA. See _Ericaceæ_.
+
+ANDRONI´CUS, the name of four emperors of Constantinople.--ANDRONICUS I,
+Comnenus, born 1110, murdered 1185.--ANDRONICUS II, Palæologus, born 1258,
+died 1332. His reign is celebrated for the invasion of the
+Turks.--ANDRONICUS III, Palæologus the Younger, born 1296, died
+1341.--ANDRONICUS IV, Palæologus, reigned in the absence of John IV. In
+1373 he gave way to his brother Manuel, and died a monk.
+
+ANDRONI´CUS, Livius, the most ancient of the Latin dramatic poets;
+flourished about 240 B.C.; by origin a Greek, and long a slave. A few
+fragments of his works have come down to us.
+
+ANDRONI´CUS of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher who lived at Rome in the
+time of Cicero. He arranged Aristotle's works in much the same form as they
+retain in present editions.
+
+ANDRONI´CUS CYRRHESTES (sir-es´t[=e]z), a Greek architect about 100 B.C.,
+who constructed at Athens the Tower of the Winds, an octagonal building,
+still standing. On the top was a Triton, which indicated the direction of
+the wind. Each of the sides had a sort of dial, and the building formerly
+contained a clepsydra or water-clock.
+
+ANDROPO´GON, a large genus of grasses, mostly natives of warm countries.
+_A. Schoenanthus_ is the sweet-scented lemon-grass of conservatories.
+Others also are fragrant.
+
+AN´DROS (now ANDRO), one of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, the
+most northerly of the Cyclades; about 25 miles long and 6 or 7 broad; area,
+100 sq. miles. A considerable trade is done in silk, wine, olives, figs,
+oranges, and lemons. Andro or Castro, the capital, has a good port. Pop.
+18,809.
+
+ANDROS ISLANDS, a group of isles belonging to the Bahamas, lying south-west
+of New Providence, not far from the east entrance to the Gulf of Florida.
+The passages through them are dangerous. Pop. 7545.
+
+ANDRUSSOVO, a Russian village in the government of Smolensk. A treaty was
+signed here between Poland and Russia (1667).
+
+ANDUJAR ([.a]n-_d_ö-_h_är´), a town in Spain, in Andalusia, 50 miles E.N.E.
+of Cordova, on the Guadalquivir, which is here crossed by a fine bridge;
+manufactures a peculiar kind of porous earthen water-bottles and jugs
+(_alcarazas_). Pop. 16,500.
+
+AN´ECDOTE, originally some particular about a subject not noticed in
+previous works on that subject; now any particular or detached incident or
+fact of an interesting nature; a single passage of private life.
+
+ANEGA´DA, a British West Indian island, the most northern of the Virgin
+group, 10 miles long by 4½ broad; contains numerous salt ponds, from which
+quantities of salt are obtained. Pop. 200.
+
+ANELECTRIC, a body not easily electrified.
+
+ANELECTRODE, the positive pole of a galvanic battery.
+
+[Illustration: Beckley's Improved Robinson Cup Anemometer]
+
+ANEMOM´ETER (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind, _metron_, measure), an instrument for
+measuring the force and velocity of the wind. This force is usually
+measured by the pressure of the wind upon a square plate attached to one
+end of a spiral spring (with its axis horizontal), which yields more or
+less according to the force of the wind, and transmits its motion to a
+pencil which leaves a trace upon paper moved by clockwork. Various
+instruments have been devised for this purpose, but the one most commonly
+adopted by meteorological stations is after the type invented by Dr.
+Robinson of Armagh. It consists of four hemispherical cups A attached to
+the ends of equal horizontal arms, forming a horizontal cross which turns
+freely about a vertical axis B. By means of an endless screw carried by the
+axis a train of wheelwork is set in motion; and the indication is given by
+a hand which moves round a dial; or in some instruments by several hands
+moving round different dials like those of a gas-meter. It is found that
+the centre of each cup moves with a velocity which is almost exactly
+one-third of that of the wind. There are various other forms of the
+instrument, one of which is portable, and is especially intended for
+measuring the velocity of currents of air passing through mines, and the
+ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public buildings. The direction
+of the wind as indicated by a vane can also be made to leave a continuous
+record by various contrivances; one of the most common being a pinion
+carried by the shaft of a vane, and driving a rack which carries a pencil.
+
+ANEM´[)O]N[=E] (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind), wind-flower, a genus of plants
+belonging to the Buttercup family (Ranunculaceæ), containing about ninety
+species, found in temperate regions, three of them occurring in Britain:
+the white-flowered (_A. nemor[=o]sa_), the only one truly native; the
+blue-flowered (_A. apenn[=i]na_); and the yellow-flowered (_A.
+ranunculoides_), a common European species naturalized in some parts of
+Britain. Several species are cultivated as florists' flowers.
+
+ANEMOPH´ILOUS, said of flowers that are fertilized by the wind conveying
+the pollen.
+
+ANEM´OSCOPE, any contrivance indicating the direction of the wind;
+generally applied to a vane which turns a spindle descending through the
+roof to a chamber where, by means of a compass-card and index, the
+direction of the wind is shown.
+
+ANEROID BAROMETER. See _Barometer_.
+
+ANE´THUM, a genus of plants; dill.
+
+ANEU´RIN, a poet and prince of the Cambrian Britons who flourished in the
+seventh century, author of an epic poem, the _Gododin_, relating the defeat
+of the Britons of Strathclyde by the Saxons at the battle of Cattraeth. See
+_Celtic Literature_.
+
+AN´EURISM, or ANEURYSM (Gr. _aneurysma_, a widening), the dilatation or
+expansion of some part of an artery. Aneurisms arise partly from the too
+violent motion of the blood, and partly from degenerative changes occurring
+in the coats of the artery, diminishing their elasticity. They are
+therefore more frequent in the great branches; in particular, in the
+vicinity of the heart, in the arch of the aorta, and in the extremities,
+where the arteries are exposed to frequent injuries by stretching, violent
+bodily exertions, thrusts, falls, and contusions. An internal aneurism may
+burst and cause death.
+
+ANGARA´, a Siberian river which flows into Lake Baikal at its N. extremity,
+and leaves it near the S.W. end, joining the Yenisei as the Lower Angara or
+Upper Tunguska.
+
+ANGEL (Gr. _angelos_, a messenger), one of those spiritual intelligences
+who are regarded as dwelling in Heaven and employed as the ministers or
+agents of God. To these the name of good angels is sometimes given, to
+distinguish them from bad angels, who were originally created to occupy the
+same blissful abode, but lost it by rebellion. The Old Testament represents
+them as messengers of the Divine will, and Christ spoke of them more than
+once (_St. Matt._ xviii, 10; _St. Luke_, xv, 10). Generally, however,
+Scripture speaks of angels with great reserve, Michael and Gabriel alone
+being mentioned by name in the canonical books, while Raphael is mentioned
+in the Apocrypha. The angels are represented in Scripture as in the most
+elevated state of intelligence, purity, and bliss, ever doing the will of
+God so perfectly that we can seek for nothing higher or better than to aim
+at being like them. There are indications of a diversity of rank and power
+among them, and something like angelic orders--Michael, Gabriel, Raphael,
+Uriel, &c., seraphim and cherubim. They are represented as frequently
+taking part in communications made from heaven to earth, as directly and
+actively ministering to the good of believers, and shielding or delivering
+them from evils incident to their earthly lot. That every person has a good
+and a bad angel attendant on him was an early belief, and is held to some
+extent yet. Roman Catholics, since St. Ambrosius, who died in 397, show a
+certain veneration or worship to angels, and beg their prayers and their
+kind offices. The New Testament, however, formally forbidding such
+veneration (_Col._ ii, 18, &c.), Protestants consider this unlawful.
+
+[Illustration: Angel of Queen Elizabeth]
+
+ANGEL, a gold coin introduced into England in the reign of Edward IV, and
+coined down to the Commonwealth, so named from having the representation of
+the archangel Michael piercing a dragon upon it. It had different values in
+different reigns, varying from 6s. 8d. to 10s.
+
+ANGEL-FISH, a fish, _Squat[=i]na ang[)e]lus_, nearly allied to the sharks,
+very ugly and voracious, preying on other fish. It is from 6 to 8 feet
+long, and takes its name from its pectoral fins, which are very large,
+extending horizontally like wings when spread. This fish connects the rays
+with the sharks, but it differs from both in having its mouth placed at the
+extremity of the head. It is common on the south coasts of Britain, and is
+also called _Monk-fish_ and _Fiddle-fish_.
+
+ANGEL´ICA, a genus of umbelliferous plants, one of which, _A. sylvestris_,
+a tall plant bearing large umbels of white flowers tinged with pink, is
+common in wet places in Britain, and was formerly believed to possess
+_angelic_ properties as an antidote to poison, a specific against
+witchcraft, &c. The name is also given to an allied plant, the
+_Archangelica officin[=a]lis_, found on the banks of rivers and ditches in
+the north of Europe, once generally cultivated as an esculent, and still
+valued for its medicinal properties. It has a large fleshy aromatic root,
+and a strong-furrowed branched stem as high as a man. It is cultivated for
+its agreeable aromatic odour and carminative properties. Its blanched
+stems, candied with sugar, form a very agreeable sweetmeat, possessing
+tonic and stomachic qualities.
+
+ANGELICO ([.a]n-jel´i-k[=o]), FRA, the common appellation of _Fra Giovanni
+da Fiesole_, one of the most celebrated of the early Italian painters. Born
+1387, he entered the Dominican order in 1407, and was employed by Cosmo de'
+Medici in painting the monastery of St. Mark and the church of St.
+Annunziata with frescoes. These pictures gained him so much celebrity that
+Pope Nicholas V invited him to Rome to ornament his private chapel in the
+Vatican, and offered him the archbishopric of Florence, which Angelico
+declined. He died at, Rome 1455. He has been called the 'painter of
+seraphic dreams'. His works were considered unrivalled in finish and in
+sweetness and harmony of colour, and were made the models for religious
+painters of his own and succeeding generations.
+
+ANGELN ([.a]ng´eln), a district in Schleswig of about 300 sq. miles,
+bounded N. by the Bay of Flensburg, S. by the Schlei, E. by the Baltic, the
+only continental territory which has retained the name of the Angles.
+
+ANGELO ([.a]n´je-l[=o]), Michael. See _Buonarotti_.
+
+AN´GELUS, in the Roman Catholic Church, a short form of prayer in honour of
+the incarnation, consisting mainly of versicles and responses, the angelic
+salutation three times repeated, and a collect, so named from the word with
+which it commences, '_Angelus_ Domini' (Angel of the Lord). Hence, also,
+the bell tolled in the morning, at noon, and in the evening to indicate the
+time when the angelus is to be recited. The prayer is attributed to St.
+Bonaventura, and in Germany and Italy it is called 'Ave Maria'.
+
+ÅNGERMANN (ong´er-m[.a]n), a Swedish river which falls into the Gulf of
+Bothnia, noted for its fine scenery. It is navigable for nearly 70 miles
+for vessels of 600 tons.
+
+ANGERMÜNDE ([.a]ng´er-mün-de), a town in Prussia, on Lake Münde, 42 miles
+north-east of Berlin. Pop. 8200.
+
+ANGERS ([.a][n.]-zh[=a]), a town and river-port of France, capital of the
+department of Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of the province of Anjou, on the
+banks of the Maine, 5½ miles from the Loire, 150 miles south-west of Paris.
+It has an old castle, built by Louis IX, once a place of great strength,
+now used as a prison, barrack, and powder-magazine; a fine cathedral of the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with very fine old painted windows; is
+the seat of a bishop, and has a school of arts and manufactures; a public
+library, an art-gallery, a large modern hospital, the remains of a hospital
+founded by Henry II of England in 1155; courts of law, theatre, &c. It
+manufactures sail-cloth, hosiery, leather, and chemicals; foundries, &c. In
+the neighbourhood are immense slate-quarries. Pop. 83,786.
+
+ANGEVINS (an´je-vins), natives of Anjou, often applied to the race of
+English sovereigns called Plantagenets (q.v.). Anjou became connected with
+England by the marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, with Geoffrey V,
+Count of Anjou. The Angevin kings of England were Henry II, Richard I,
+John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and Richard II.
+
+ANGILBERT, ST., the most celebrated poet of his age, secretary and friend
+of Charlemagne, whose daughter, Bertha, he married. In the latter part of
+his life he retired to a monastery, of which he became abbot. Died 814.
+
+ANGINA PECTORIS (an´ji-na pek´to-ris), or HEART-SPASM, a disease
+characterized by an extremely acute constriction, felt generally in the
+lower part of the sternum, and extending along the whole side of the chest
+and into the corresponding arm, a sense of suffocation, faintness, and
+apprehension of approaching death: seldom experienced by any but those with
+organic heart-disease. The disease rarely occurs before middle age, and is
+more frequent in men than in women. Those liable to attack must lead a
+quiet, temperate life, avoiding all scenes which would unduly rouse their
+emotions. The first attack is occasionally fatal, but usually death occurs
+as the result of repeated seizures. The paroxysm may be relieved by
+opiates, or the inhalation, under due precaution, of anæsthetic vapours.
+
+ANGIOSPERM (an´ji-o-sp[.e]rm), a term for any plant which has its seeds
+enclosed in a seed-vessel. Exogens are divided into those whose seeds are
+enclosed in a seed-vessel, and those with seeds produced and ripened
+without the production of a seed-vessel. The former are _angiosperms_, and
+constitute the principal part of the species; the latter are _gymnosperms_,
+and chiefly consist of the Coniferæ and Cycadaceæ.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+ANGLE, the point where two lines meet, or the meeting of two lines in a
+point. A _plane rectilineal angle_ is formed by two straight lines which
+meet one another, but are not in the same straight line; it may be
+considered the degree of opening or divergence of the two straight lines
+which thus meet one another. A _right angle_ is an angle formed by a
+straight line falling on another perpendicularly, or an angle which is
+measured by an arc of 90 degrees. When a straight line, as A B (fig. 1),
+standing on another straight line C D, makes the two angles A B C and A B D
+equal to one another, each of these angles is called a _right angle_. An
+_acute angle_ is that which is less than a right angle, as E B C. An
+_obtuse angle_ is that which is greater than a right angle, as E B D. Acute
+and obtuse angles are both called _oblique_, in opposition to right angles.
+_Exterior_ or _external angles_, the angles of any rectilineal figure
+without it, made by producing the sides; thus, if the sides A B, B C, C A
+of the triangle A B C (fig. 2) be produced to the points F D E, the angles
+C B F, A C D, B A E are called _exterior_ or _external angles_. A _solid
+angle_ is that which is made by more than two plane angles meeting in one
+point and not lying in the same plane, as the angle of a cube. A _spherical
+angle_ is an angle on the surface of a sphere, contained between the arcs
+of two great circles which intersect each other.
+
+ANGLER (_Lophius piscatorius_), also from its habits and appearance called
+FISHING-FROG and SEA-DEVIL, a remarkable fish often found on the British
+coasts. It is from 3 to 5 feet long; the head is very wide, depressed, with
+protuberances, and bearing long separate movable tendrils; the mouth is
+capacious, and armed with formidable teeth. Its voracity is extreme, and it
+is said to lie concealed in the mud, and attract the smaller fishes within
+its reach by gently waving the filamentous appendages on its head.
+
+ANGLES, a Low German tribe who in the earliest historical period had their
+seats in the district about Angeln, in the duchy of Schleswig, and who in
+the fifth century and subsequently crossed over to Britain along with bands
+of Saxons and Jutes (and probably Frisians also), and colonized a great
+part of what from them has received the name of England, as well as a
+portion of the Lowlands of Scotland. The Angles formed the largest body
+among the Germanic settlers in Britain, and founded the three kingdoms of
+East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.
+
+ANGLESEY (ang´gl-s[=e]), or ANGLESEA ('the Angles' Island'), an island and
+county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea, separated from the mainland by the
+Menai Strait; 20 miles long and 17 miles broad; area, 176,630 acres. The
+surface is comparatively flat, and the climate is milder than that of the
+adjoining coast. The chief agricultural products are oats and barley,
+wheat, rye, potatoes, and turnips. Numbers of cattle and sheep are raised.
+Anglesey yields a little copper, lead, silver, ochre, &c. The Menai Strait
+is crossed by a magnificent suspension-bridge, 580 feet between the piers
+and 100 feet above high-water mark, and also by the great Britannia Tubular
+Railway Bridge. The chief market-towns are Beaumaris, Holyhead, Llangefni,
+and Amlweh. The county returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921),
+51,695.
+
+ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, Marquess of, English soldier and statesman,
+was the eldest son of Henry, first Earl of Uxbridge, and was born in 1768.
+He was educated at Oxford, and in 1790 entered Parliament as member for the
+Carnarvon boroughs. In 1793 he entered the army, and in 1794 he took part
+in the campaign in Flanders under the Duke of York. In 1808 he was sent
+into Spain with two brigades of cavalry to join Sir John Moore, and in the
+retreat to Coruña commanded the rear-guard. In 1812 he became, by his
+father's death, Earl of Uxbridge. On Napoleon's escape from Elba he was
+appointed commander of the British cavalry, and at the battle of Waterloo,
+by the charge of the heavy brigade, overthrew the Imperial Guard. For his
+services he was created Marquess of Anglesey. In 1828 he became
+Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland and made himself extremely popular, but was
+recalled in consequence of favouring Catholic Emancipation. He was again
+Lord-Lieutenant in 1830, but lost his popularity by his opposition to
+O'Connell and his instrumentality in the passing of the Irish Coercion
+Acts; and he quitted office in 1833. From 1846-52 he was Master-General of
+the Ordnance. He died in 1854.
+
+ANGLICANISM, the term is capable of a wider use, but is usually employed as
+descriptive of the type of doctrine formulated by the Church of England in
+the period of the Protestant Reformation. The two most notable formularies
+of that period are the Confession of Faith, known as the Thirty-nine
+Articles, which assumed its present shape in 1571, and the Liturgy, known
+as the Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1559 in what was substantially its
+present shape. By the Clerical Subscription Act of 1865 assent is required
+to both Prayer Book and Articles. The Articles are not and never were
+binding upon laymen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mgr. Moyes, _Aspects of Anglicanism_;
+F. Y. Kinsman, _Principles of Anglicanism_.
+
+ANGLING, the art of catching fish with a hook or _angle_ (A. Sax. _angel_)
+baited with worms, small fish, flies, &c. We find occasional allusions to
+this pursuit among the Greek and Latin classical writers; it is mentioned
+several times in the Old Testament, and it was practised by the ancient
+Egyptians. The first reference to angling in England is a passage in a
+tract, entitled _Piers Fulham_, supposed to have been written about the
+year 1420. The oldest work on the subject in English is the _Treatyse of
+Fysshinge with an Angle_, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with a
+treatise on hunting and hawking, the whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana
+Berners or Barnes, prioress of a nunnery near St. Albans. Walton's
+inimitable discourse on angling was first printed in 1653. The chief
+appliances required by an angler are a rod, line, hooks, and baits. Rods
+are made of various materials, and of various sizes. The cane rods are
+lightest, and where fishing-tackle is sold they most commonly have the
+preference; but in country places the rod is often of the angler's own
+manufacture. Rods are commonly made in separate joints, so as to be easily
+taken to pieces and put up again. They are made to taper from the butt end
+to the top, and are usually possessed of a considerable amount of
+elasticity. In length they may vary from 10 feet to more than double that
+length, with a corresponding difference in strength--a rod for salmon being
+necessarily much stronger than one suited for ordinary burn trout. The
+_reel_, an apparatus for winding up the line, is attached to the rod near
+the lower end, where the hand grasps it while fishing. The best are usually
+made of brass, are of simple construction, and so made as to wind or unwind
+freely and rapidly. That part of the line which passes along the rod and is
+wound on the reel is called the _reel line_, and may vary from 20 to 100
+yards in length, according to the size of the water and the habits of the
+fish angled for; it is usually made of twisted horse-hair and silk, or of
+oiled silk alone. The casting line, which is attached to this, is made of
+the same materials, but lighter and finer. To the end of this is tied a
+piece of fine gut, on which the hook, or hooks, are fixed. The casting or
+gut lines should decrease in thickness from the reel line to the hooks. The
+hook, of finely-tempered steel, should readily bend without breaking, and
+yet retain a sharp point. It should be long in the shank and deep in the
+bend; the point straight and true to the level of the shank; and the barb
+long. Their sizes and sorts must of course entirely depend on the kind of
+fish that is angled for. Floats formed of cork, goose and swan quills, &c.,
+are often used to buoy up the hook so that it may float clear of the
+bottom. For heavy fish or strong streams a cork float is used; in slow
+water and for lighter fish quill floats. _Baits_ may consist of a great
+variety of materials, natural or artificial. The principal natural baits
+are worms: common garden worms, brandlings, and red worms, maggots, or
+gentles (the larvæ of blow-flies such as are found on putrid meat),
+insects, small fish (as minnows), salmon roe, &c. The artificial flies so
+much used in angling for trout and salmon are composed of hairs, furs, and
+wools of every variety, mingled with pieces of feathers, and secured
+together by plaited wire, or gold and silver thread, marking-silk, wax, &c.
+The wings may be made of the feathers of domestic fowls, or any others of a
+showy colour. Some angling authorities recommend that the artificial flies
+should be made to resemble as closely as possible the insects on which the
+fish is wont to feed, but experience has shown that the most capricious and
+unnatural combinations of feather, fur, &c., have been often successful
+where the most realistic imitations have failed. Artificial minnows, or
+other small fish, are also used by way of bait, and are so contrived as to
+spin rapidly when drawn through the water in order to attract the notice of
+the fish angled for. Angling, especially with the fly, demands a great deal
+of skill and practice, the casting of the line properly being the initial
+difficulty. Nowhere is the art pursued with greater success and enthusiasm
+than in Britain and the United States.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Fishing_ (vol. i),
+_Salmon and Trout_ (vol. ii), _Pike and Coarse Fish_ (Badminton Library);
+H. G. Hutchinson, _Fishing_ (2 vols., Country Life series); Viscount Grey,
+_Fly Fishing_; Gathorne-Hardy, _The Salmon_; Marquess of Granby, _The
+Trout_; H. T. Sheringham, _Elements of Angling_; W. M. Gallichan, _The
+Complete Fisherman_.
+
+ANGLO-CATHOLIC, a term sometimes used to designate those churches which
+hold the principles of the English Reformation, the Anglican or Established
+Church of England and the allied churches. The term is also applied to that
+party in the English Church which favours doctrines and religious forms
+closely approaching those of the Roman Catholic Church, objects to be
+called Protestant, and corresponds closely with the _Ritualistic_ section
+of the Church.
+
+ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. See _Sudan_.
+
+[Illustration: Saxon Architecture. Doorway, Earl's Barton, Northampton]
+
+ANGLO-SAXONS, the name commonly given to the nation or people formed by the
+amalgamation of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain in
+the fifth and sixth centuries after Christ, the Anglo-Saxons being simply
+the English people of the earlier period of English history. The tribes who
+were thus the ancestors of the bulk of the English-speaking nationalities
+came from North Germany, where they inhabited the parts about the mouths of
+the Elbe and Weser, and the first body of them who gained a footing in
+Britain are said to have landed in 449, and to have been led by Hengist and
+Horsa. From the preponderance of the Angles the whole country came to be
+called _Engla-land_, that is, the land of the Angles or English.
+
+Many scholars object to the term 'Anglo-Saxon' as being inaccurate and open
+to misinterpretation. Correctly used, Anglo-Saxon means _English-Saxon_, as
+distinguished from the Old-Saxon of the Continent; incorrectly used, as it
+has been too frequently, it is taken as = Angle + Saxon, a union of Angle
+and Saxon. Camden (1551-1623) is responsible for the widespread use of the
+term; ignorance is responsible for the misuse. Many scholars prefer to
+apply the term 'Old English' to the language and people of England before
+A.D. 1100, partly because this term is more accurate and partly because its
+use helps to emphasize the essential continuity of the language.
+
+The whole Anglo-Saxon community was frequently spoken of as consisting of
+the _eorls_ and the _ceorls_, or the nobles and common freemen. The former
+were the men of property and position, the latter were the small
+landholders, handicraftsmen, &c., who generally placed themselves under the
+protection of some nobleman, who was hence termed their _hláford_ or lord.
+Besides these there was the class of the serfs or slaves (_theówas_), who
+might be either born slaves or freemen who had forfeited their liberty by
+their crimes, or whom poverty or the fortune of war had brought into this
+position. They served as agricultural labourers on their masters' estates,
+and were mere chattels, as absolutely the property of their master as his
+cattle.
+
+The king (_cyning_, _cyng_) was at the head of the State; he was the
+highest of the nobles and the chief magistrate. He was not looked upon as
+ruling by any Divine Right, but by the will of the people, as represented
+by the _witan_ (wise men) or great council of the nation. The new king was
+not always the direct and nearest heir of the late king, but one of the
+royal family whose abilities and character recommended him for the office.
+He had the right of maintaining a standing army of household troops, the
+duty of calling together the _witan_, and of laying before them public
+measures, with certain distinctions of dress, dwelling, &c., all his
+privileges being possessed and exercised by the advice and consent of the
+_witena-gemót_ or parliament (literally, 'meeting of the wise'). Next in
+rank and dignity to the king were the _ealdormen_, who were the chief witan
+or counsellors, and without whose assent laws could not be made, altered,
+or abrogated. They were at the head of the administration of justice in the
+shires, possessing both judicial and executive authority, and had as their
+officers the _scír-geréfan_ or sheriffs. The ealdormen led the _fyrd_ or
+armed force of the county, and the ealdorman, as such, held possession of
+certain lands attached to the office, and was entitled to a share of fines
+and other moneys levied for the king's use and passing through his hands.
+The whole executive government may be considered as a great aristocratical
+association, of which the ealdormen were the members, and the king little
+more than the president. The ealdorman and the king were both surrounded by
+a number of followers called _thegnas_ or thanes, who were bound by close
+ties to their superior. The king's thanes were the higher in rank; they
+possessed a certain quantity of land, smaller in amount than that of an
+ealdorman, and they filled offices connected with the personal service of
+the king or with the administration of justice. The _scir-geréfa_
+(shire-reeve or sheriff) was also an important functionary. He presided at
+the county court along with the ealdorman and bishop, or alone in their
+absence; and he had to carry out the decisions of the court, levy fines,
+collect taxes, &c. The shires were divided into hundreds and tithings, the
+latter consisting of ten heads of families, who were jointly responsible to
+the State for the good conduct of any member of their body. For the trial
+and settlement of minor causes there was a hundred court held once a month.
+The place of the modern Parliament was held by the _witena-gemót_. Its
+members, who were not elected, comprised the æthelings or princes of the
+blood royal, the bishops and abbots, the ealdormen, the thanes, the
+sheriffs, &c.
+
+One of the peculiar features of Anglo-Saxon society was the _wergyld_,
+which was established for the settling of feuds. A sum, paid either in kind
+or in money, was placed upon the life of every freeman, according to his
+rank in the State, his birth, or his office. A corresponding sum was
+settled for every wound that could be inflicted upon his person; for nearly
+every injury that could be done to his civil rights, his honour, or his
+domestic peace, &c. From the operation of this principle no one from king
+to peasant was exempt.
+
+[Illustration: Ploughing
+From an Anglo-Saxon Calendar in the British Museum.]
+
+Agriculture, including especially the raising of cattle, sheep, and swine,
+was the chief occupation of the Anglo-Saxons. Gardens and orchards are
+frequently mentioned, and vineyards were common in the southern counties.
+The forests were extensive, and valuable both from the mast they produced
+for the swine, and from the beasts of the chase which they harboured.
+Hunting was a favourite recreation among the higher ranks, both lay and
+clerical. Fishing was largely carried on, herrings and salmon being the
+principal fish caught; and the Anglo-Saxon whaling vessels used to go as
+far as Iceland. The manufactures were naturally of small moment. Iron was
+made to some extent, and some cloth, and saltworks were numerous. In
+embroidery and working of gold the English were famous over Europe. There
+was a considerable trade at London, which was frequented by Normans,
+French, Flemings, and the merchants of the Hanse towns. Our Anglo-Saxon
+forefathers were notorious for their excess in eating and drinking, and in
+this respect formed a strong contrast to their Norman conquerors. Ale,
+mead, and cider were the common beverages, wine being limited to the higher
+classes. Pork and eels were favourite articles of food. The houses were
+rude structures, but were often richly furnished and hung with fine
+tapestry. The dress of the people was loose and flowing, composed chiefly
+of linen, and often adorned with embroidery. The men wore their hair long
+and flowing over their shoulders. Christianity was introduced among the
+Anglo-Saxons in the end of the sixth century by St. Augustine, who was sent
+by Pope Gregory the Great, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.
+Kent, then under King Ethelred, was the first place where it took root, and
+thence it soon spread over the rest of the country. The Anglo-Saxon Church
+long remained independent of Rome, notwithstanding the continual efforts of
+the Popes to bring it under their power. It was not till the tenth century
+that this result was brought about by Dunstan. Many Anglo-Saxon
+ecclesiastics were distinguished for learning and ability, but the
+Venerable Bede holds the first place.
+
+_Anglo-Saxon Language._--The Anglo-Saxon language, which is simply the
+earliest form of English, claims kinship with Dutch, Icelandic, Danish,
+Swedish, and German, especially with the Low German dialects (spoken in
+North Germany). It was called by those who spoke it _Englisc_ (English).
+The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature show different dialects, of
+which the northern and the southern were the principal. The former was the
+first to be cultivated as a literary language, but afterwards it was
+supplanted in this respect by the southern or that of Wessex. It is in the
+latter that the principal Anglo-Saxon works are written. The Anglo-Saxon
+alphabet was substantially the same as that which we still use, except that
+some of the letters were different in form, while it had two characters
+either of which represented the sounds of _th_ in _thy_ and in _thing_.
+Nouns and adjectives are declined much as in German or in Latin. The
+pronouns of the first and second person had a dual number, 'we two' or 'us
+two' and 'you two', besides the plural for more than two. The infinitive of
+the verb is in _-an_, the participle in _-ende_, and there is a gerund
+somewhat similar in its usage to the Latin gerund. The verb had four
+moods--indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, but only two
+tenses, the present (often used as a future) and the past. Other tenses and
+the passive voice were formed by auxiliary verbs. Anglo-Saxon words
+terminated in a vowel much more frequently than the modern English, and
+altogether the language is so different that it has to be learned quite
+like a foreign tongue. Yet, notwithstanding the large number of words of
+Latin or French origin that our language now contains, and the changes it
+has undergone, its framework, so to speak, is still Anglo-Saxon. Many
+chapters of the New Testament do not contain more than 4 per cent of
+non-Teutonic words, and as a whole it averages perhaps 6 or 7.
+
+The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in
+prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period,
+one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to
+England. The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is the ancient epic of
+_Beowulf_, extending to more than 6000 lines. Beowulf is a Scandinavian
+prince, who slays a monster named Grendel, after encountering supernatural
+perils, and is at last slain in a contest with a frightful dragon. Its
+scene appears to be laid entirely in Scandinavia. Its date is uncertain;
+parts of it may have been brought over at the emigration from Germany,
+though in its present form it is much later than this. The poetical remains
+include a number of religious poems, or poems on sacred themes;
+ecclesiastical narratives, as lives of saints and versified chronicles;
+psalms and hymns; secular lyrics; allegories, gnomic poems, riddles, &c.
+The religious class of poems was the largest, and of these Cædmon's
+(flourished about 660) are the most remarkable. His poems consist of
+paraphrases of considerable portions of the Bible history, and treat of the
+creation, the temptation, the fall, the exodus of the Israelites, the story
+of Daniel, the incarnation, and the harrowing of hell, or release of the
+ransomed souls by Christ. Other most interesting poems are those ascribed
+to Cynewulf, the _Christ_, _Elene_, and _Juliana_, the subjects
+respectively being Christ, the finding of the cross by the Empress Helena,
+and the life of Juliana. Rhyme was not used in Anglo-Saxon poetry,
+alliteration being employed instead, as in the older northern poetry
+generally. The style of the poetry is highly elliptical, and it is full of
+harsh inversions and obscure metaphors.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Brooch
+
+Ornament on front (left) is formed by means of plates of thin gold and
+wire, with bosses of ivory and red glass.]
+
+The Anglo-Saxon prose remains consist of translations of portions of the
+Bible, homilies, philosophical writings, history, biography, laws, leases,
+charters, popular treatises on science and medicine, grammars, &c. Many of
+these were translations from the Latin. The Anglo-Saxon versions of the
+Gospels, next to the Moeso-Gothic, are the earliest scriptural translations
+in any modern language. The Psalms are said to have been translated by
+Bishop Aldhelm (died 709), and also under Alfred's direction; and the
+_Gospel of St. John_ by Bede; but it is not known who were the authors of
+the extant versions. A translation of the first seven books of the Bible is
+believed to have been the work of Ælfric, who was Abbot of Ensham and lived
+about the beginning of the eleventh century. We have also eighty homilies
+from his pen, several theological treatises, a Latin grammar, &c. King
+Alfred was a diligent author, besides being a translator of Latin works. We
+have under his name translations of Boethius' _De Consolatione
+Philosophiæ_, the _Universal History_ of Orosius, Bede's _Ecclesiastical
+History_, the _Pastoral Care_ of Gregory the Great, &c. The most valuable
+to us of the Anglo-Saxon prose writings is the _Saxon Chronicle_, as it is
+called, a collection of annals recording important events in the history of
+the country, and compiled in different religious houses. Of this
+_Chronicle_ there are seven MSS. in existence, and the latest text comes
+down to 1154. A considerable body of laws remains, as well as a large
+number of charters. The whole of the literature has never yet been printed.
+For Anglo-Saxon history, see _England_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: (History) H. M.
+Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge); (Language) Sweet,
+_Anglo-Saxon Primer_ and _Reader_; (Literature) B. ten Brink, _Geschichte
+der Englischen Litteratur_; Stopford A. Brooke, _English Literature, from
+the beginning to the Norman Conquest_; Henry Morley, _English Writers_
+(vols. i and ii).
+
+ANGLO-SAXON LAW. Series of laws written in the vernacular, and unique among
+Teutonic peoples, were issued from the seventh century onwards by
+Æthelberht, Hlothhere, Eadric, and Withraed, Kings of Kent, by Ine, King of
+Wessex, by Alfred, Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmund, Edgar, Æthelred,
+and Canute, in addition to a number of important by-laws and regulations of
+various kinds, which bear no king's name. We hear, also, of laws issued by
+other kings which have been lost, and there must have been a considerable
+body of traditional law which was never committed to writing. What laws are
+extant, show us a society mainly agricultural, divided by birth into a
+noble, a free peasant, and a servile class. There was also a dependent
+class in Kent, intermediate between the freeman and the slave. The
+strongest social ties were those of the kindred, and the relationship
+between lord and man.
+
+The laws were issued by the king and his councillors. Cases were decided by
+the production of oaths which varied in value according to the rank of the
+swearer, or by the several forms of the ordeal. No distinction was made
+between civil and criminal law, and even homicide could be atoned for by
+payment of a sum varying according to the social status of the dead man.
+The object of the laws was to restrict private vengeance, to prevent and
+punish theft (primarily of cattle), to stop dishonest trading, to secure
+the persons and residences of the people, to enforce the mutual obligations
+of relatives, and masters and men, to provide adequate defence for the
+kingdom by means of garrisoned boroughs and a well-armed mounted infantry,
+to protect the helpless, and to safeguard the rights of the Church and its
+servants.
+
+The early laws present considerable difficulty owing to their antiquity.
+The laws of Æthelberht are the earliest records in the English language,
+though, like many of the other laws, they are only preserved in a MS. of
+the twelfth century. The standard edition is Liebermann's _Gesetze der
+Angelsachsen_ (Halle, A. S. Max Niemeyer).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pollock and
+Maitland, _History of English Law_; H. M. Chadwick, _Studies in Anglo-Saxon
+Institutions_.
+
+ANGO´LA, a Portuguese territory in Western Africa, south of the Congo,
+extending from the sea to Rhodesia, and from about lat. 6° S. to lat. 17°
+S. (area, 484,800 sq. miles; pop. 4,119,000). It is a country of varied
+features, and its resources, as yet hardly known, are probably very great.
+The province is rich in malachite, copper, iron, petroleum, and salt;
+rubber supplies are becoming exhausted. The Coanza (Kwanza) is the largest
+river. The capital is the seaport of Loanda; other ports are Benguella (or
+Benguela) and Mossamedes. Three railways now run inland from these places.
+It exports coffee, hides, gum, rubber, wax, &c.
+
+ANGOLA PEA (_Caj[=a]nus indicus_). See _Pigeon Pea_.
+
+ANGO´NILAND, a district of South Africa, lying to the west of the southern
+half of Lake Nyassa, and partly in British Central Africa, partly in
+Rhodesia. It is a plateau with an average height of 4000 feet, the name
+being derived from the Angoni, a race of mixed Zulu blood, who used to make
+murderous raids on their neighbours, and have given much trouble to the
+missionaries and others.
+
+ANGO´RA (ancient, ANCY´RA), a town in Asia Minor, 215 miles E.S.E. of
+Constantinople, with considerable remains of Byzantine architecture, and
+relics of earlier times, both Greek and Roman, such as the remnants of the
+Monumentum Ancyranum, raised in honour of the Emperor Augustus, and giving
+us much valuable information about his public life and work. All the
+animals of this region are long haired, especially the goats (see _Goat_),
+sheep, and cats. This hair forms an important export as well as the fabric
+called camlet here manufactured from it; other exports being goats' skins,
+dye-stuffs, gums, honey and wax, &c. A railway connects it with Skutari.
+Pop. 32,000. In 1920 Kemal Pasha set up a National Government at Angora,
+and refused to recognize the Treaty of Sèvres. A treaty concluded with
+France was ratified by the Angora Government on 23rd Oct., 1921.
+
+ANGOSTU´RA, or CIUDAD BOLIVAR, a city of Venezuela, capital of the province
+of Bolivar, on the Orinoco, about 240 miles from the sea, with governor's
+residence, a college, a handsome cathedral, and a considerable trade,
+steamers and sailing-vessels ascending to the town. Exports: gold, cotton,
+indigo, tobacco, coffee, cattle, &c.; imports: manufactured goods, wines,
+flour, &c. Pop. 17,535.
+
+ANGOSTURA BARK, the aromatic bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly from
+_Galip[=e]a officin[=a]lis_, a tree of 10 to 20 feet high, growing in the
+northern regions of South America; nat. ord. Rutaceæ. The bark is valuable
+as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also used for a kind of bitters. From this
+bark being adulterated, indeed sometimes entirely replaced, by the
+poisonous bark of _Strychnos Nux-Vomica_, its use as a medicine has been
+almost given up.
+
+ANGOULÊME ([.a][n.]-gö-l[=a]m), an ancient town of Western France, capital
+of department Charente, on the Charente, 60 miles N.N.E. of Bordeaux, on
+the summit of a rocky hill. It has a fine old cathedral, built in the
+twelfth century and restored in 1875, a beautiful modern town hall, built
+in 1858, a lyceum, public library, natural history museum, &c. There are
+manufactures of paper, woollens, and linens; distilleries, sugar-works,
+tanneries, &c. Calvin lived here for three years (1527-30). Pop. 38,211.
+
+ANGRA DO HEROISMO, the chief seaport of Terceira, one of the Azores, with
+the only convenient harbour in the whole group. It has a cathedral, a
+military college and arsenal, &c., and is the residence of the
+Governor-General of the Azores, and of the foreign consuls. Pop. 10,057.
+
+ANGRA PEQUENA ([.a]n´gr[.a] pe-k[=a]´n[.a]; Port. 'little bay'), a bay on
+the coast of former German S.W. Africa, where the Bremen commercial firm
+Lüderitz in 1883 acquired a strip of territory and established a trading
+station. In 1884, notwithstanding some weak protests of the British,
+Germany took under her protection the whole coast territory from the Orange
+River to 26° S. lat., and soon after extended the protectorate to the
+Portuguese frontier, but not including the British settlement of Walvis
+Bay. Angra Pequena, called by the Germans Lüderitzbucht, was captured by
+the South African forces in Sept., 1915. See _South-West Africa_.
+
+ANGRI ([.a]n´gr[=e]), a town of Southern Italy, 12 miles N.W. of Salerno,
+in the centre of a region which produces grapes, cotton, and tobacco in
+great quantities. In the vicinity of Angri, Teias, King of the Ostrogoths,
+was defeated by Narses. Pop. 11,574.
+
+ANGUILLA (an-gwil´la). See _Eel_.
+
+ANGUILLA (ang-gil´a), or SNAKE ISLAND, one of the British West India
+Islands, 60 miles N.E. of St. Kitts; about 20 miles long, with a breadth
+varying from 3 to 1¼ miles; area, 35 sq. miles. A little sugar, cotton,
+tobacco, and maize is grown. There is a saline lake in the centre, which
+yields salt. Pop. 4075, of whom 100 are white.
+
+ANGUIS (ang´gwis). See _Blind-worm_.
+
+ANGUS (ang´gus), a name of Forfarshire.
+
+AN´HALT, formerly a duchy of North Germany, lying partly in the plains of
+the Middle Elbe, and partly in the valleys and uplands of the Lower Harz,
+and almost entirely surrounded by Prussia; area, 888 sq. miles. All sorts
+of grain, wheat especially, are grown in abundance; also flax, rape,
+potatoes, tobacco, hops, and fruit. Excellent cattle are bred. The
+inhabitants are principally occupied in agriculture, though there are some
+iron-works and manufactures of woollens, linens, beet-sugar, tobacco, &c.
+The dukes of Anhalt traced their origin to Bernard (1170-1212), son of
+Albert the Bear. In time the family split up into numerous branches, and
+the territory was afterwards held by three dukes (Anhalt-Köthen,
+Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau). In 1863 the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau
+became sole heir to the three duchies. The united principality,
+incorporated in the German Empire, had one vote in the Bundesrath and two
+in the Reichstag. The executive power, previous to the changes resulting
+from the European War, was vested in the duke, and the legislative in a
+Diet of thirty-six members. The reigning duke in 1918 was Eduard, who
+succeeded his brother on 21st April, 1918. With the outbreak of the
+revolution in Germany in 1918 Anhalt became a republic, but its status in
+the German Republic still remains to be determined. Pop. (1919), 331,258,
+almost all Protestants. The chief towns are Dessau, Bernburg, Köthen, and
+Zerbst.
+
+AN´HOLT, an island belonging to Denmark, in the Cattegat, midway between
+Jutland and Sweden, 7 miles long, 4½ broad, largely covered with
+drift-sand, and surrounded by dangerous banks and reefs. Pop. 300.
+
+ANHY´DRIDE, a chemical term synonymous with acidic oxide (see _Chemistry_)
+and applied to those oxides which unite with water to form acids. They were
+formerly called _anhydrous acids_.
+
+ANHY´DRITE, anhydrous sulphate of calcium, a mineral presenting several
+varieties of structure and colour. The _vulpinite_ of Italy possesses a
+granular structure, resembling a coarse-grained marble, and is used in
+sculpture. Its colour is greyish-white, intermingled with blue.
+
+ANI (ä´n[=e]), a ruined city in Armenia, formerly the residence of the
+Armenian dynasty of the Bagratidæ, having in the eleventh century a
+population of 100,000 and 1000 churches. In the thirteenth century it was
+taken by the Tartars, and was destroyed by an earthquake in 1319.
+
+ANICHE ([.a]-n[=e]sh), a town or village in the French department Nord,
+arrondissement Douai, with coal-mines, glass-works, chemical-works, &c.
+Pop. 6927.
+
+ANIENE ([.a]-n[=e]-[=a]´n[=a]). See _Anio_.
+
+AN´ILINE, C_6H_5NH_2, is an extremely important substance as it forms the
+starting-point in the preparation of a large number of substances. It was
+first prepared by Unverdorben, in 1826, by distillation of indigo. Aniline
+is present in small quantity in coal-tar, and is prepared commercially from
+benzene by transforming it by means of nitric acid into nitro-benzene and
+reducing this with scrap-iron and hydrochloric acid. The substance can also
+be prepared by reducing nitro-benzene electrolytically. It is a liquid of
+peculiar odour, boiling at 182° C., colourless when quite pure, but rapidly
+darkening in colour on standing, so that commercial aniline is usually
+dark-brown. It is a basic substance, and forms crystalline salts with
+acids. The salts, like aniline itself, become coloured on exposure to air.
+Aniline contains the characteristic chemical group NH_2, the amino group,
+and substances containing this group react with nitrous acid at 0° C.,
+forming diazonium compounds; these combine readily with phenols, naphthols,
+and other amino compounds to form azo compounds, highly-coloured compounds
+many of which are dyes. Many dyes are prepared from aniline, e.g.
+rosaniline, magenta, methylene blue, aniline blue, &c., also some
+explosives, e.g. tetranitraniline, which is a powerful explosive prepared
+by nitrating aniline and the substance tetranitromethylaniline, "tetryl",
+used in detonators. Several medicinal substances are also prepared from
+aniline, for instance, antifebrin and atoxyl.
+
+AN´ILISM, aniline poisoning, a name given to the aggregate of symptoms
+which often show themselves in those employed in aniline works, resulting
+from the inhalation of aniline vapours. It may be either acute or chronic.
+In a slight attack of the former kind, the lips, cheeks, and ears become of
+a bluish colour, and the person's walk may be unsteady; in severe cases
+there is loss of consciousness. Chronic anilism is accompanied by
+derangement of the digestive organs and of the nervous system, headaches,
+eruptions on the skin, muscular weakness, &c.
+
+ANIMAL, an organized and sentient living being. Life in the earlier periods
+of natural history was attributed almost exclusively to animals. With the
+progress of science, however, it was extended to plants. In the case of the
+higher animals and plants there is no difficulty in assigning the
+individual to one of the two great kingdoms of organic nature, but in their
+lowest manifestations the vegetable and animal kingdoms are brought into
+such immediate contact that it becomes almost impossible to assign them
+precise limits, and to say with certainty where the one begins and the
+other ends. From _form_ no absolute distinction can be fixed between
+animals and plants. Many animals, such as the sea-shrubs, sea-mats, &c., so
+resemble plants in external appearance that they were, and even yet
+popularly are, looked upon as such. With regard to _internal structure_ no
+line of demarcation can be laid down, all plants and animals being, in this
+respect, fundamentally similar; that is, alike composed of molecular,
+cellular, and fibrous tissues. Neither are the chemical characters of
+animal and vegetable substances more distinct. Animals contain in their
+tissues and fluids a larger proportion of nitrogen than plants, whilst
+plants are richer in carbonaceous compounds than the former. In some
+animals, moreover, substances almost exclusively confined to plants are
+found. Thus the outer wall of the Sea-squirts contains _cellulose_, a
+substance largely found in plant-tissues; whilst _chlorophyll_, the
+colouring-matter of plants, occurs in Hydra and many other lower animals.
+_Power of motion_, again, though broadly distinctive of animals, cannot be
+said to be absolutely characteristic of them. Thus many animals, as
+oysters, sponges, corals, &c., in their mature condition are rooted or
+fixed, while the embryos of many plants, together with numerous
+fully-developed forms, are endowed with locomotive power by means of
+vibratile, hair-like processes called cilia. The distinctive points between
+animals and plants which are most to be relied on are those derived from
+the _nature and mode of assimilation of the food_. Plants feed on
+_inorganic matters_, consisting of water, ammonia, carbonic acid, and
+mineral matters. They can only take in food which is presented to them in a
+_liquid_ or _gaseous_ state. The exceptions to these rules are found
+chiefly in the case of plants which live _parasitically_ on other plants or
+animals, in which cases the plant may be said to feed on organic matters,
+represented by the juices of their hosts. Animals, on the contrary, require
+_organized_ matters for food. They feed either upon plants or upon other
+animals. But even carnivorous animals can be shown to be dependent upon
+plants for subsistence; since the animals upon which Carnivora prey are in
+their turn supported by plants. Animals, further, can subsist on _solid_
+food in addition to liquids and gases; but many animals (such as the
+Tapeworms) live by the mere imbibition of fluids which are absorbed by
+their tissues, such forms possessing no distinct digestive system. Animals
+require a due supply of _oxygen gas_ for their sustenance, this gas being
+used in respiration. Plants, on the contrary, require _carbonic acid_. The
+animal exhales or gives out carbonic acid as the part result of its
+tissue-waste, whilst the plant, taking in this gas, is enabled to decompose
+it into its constituent carbon and oxygen. The plant retains the former for
+the uses of its economy, and liberates the oxygen, which is thus restored
+to the atmosphere for the use of the animal. Animals receive their food
+into the interior of their bodies, and assimilation takes place in their
+internal surfaces. Plants, on the other hand, receive their food into their
+external surfaces, and assimilation is effected in the external parts, as
+is exemplified in the leaf-surfaces under the influence of sunlight. Cf.
+T. J. Parker and W. A. Haswell, _Text-Book of Zoology_; _Cambridge Natural
+History_.
+
+ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. See _Chemistry_.
+
+ANIMALCULE (an-i-mal´k[=u]l), a general name given to many forms of animal
+life from their minute size. The larger examples are just visible to the
+naked eye, but most of them are strictly microscopic. Some are pigmented,
+but the majority are colourless. The term is not applicable to a particular
+zoological type, but it is customary to confine it to the 'Protozoa',
+'Rotifera', or 'Wheel Animalcules'.
+
+ANIMAL HEAT. All animals possess a certain amount of heat or temperature
+which is necessary for the performance of vital action. The only classes of
+animals in which a constantly-elevated temperature is kept up are birds and
+mammals. The bodily heat of the former varies from 39.4° to 43.9° C., and
+of the latter from 35.5° to 40.5° C. The mean or average heat of the human
+body is about 99° F., and it never falls much below this in health. Below
+birds, animals are named 'cold-blooded', this term meaning in its
+strictly-physiological sense that their temperature is usually that of the
+medium in which they live, and that it varies with that of the surrounding
+medium. The temperature of 'warm-blooded' animals is remarkably constant,
+although there are individual variations. In man this variation is slight,
+amounting only to fractions of a degree. The cause of the evolution of heat
+in the animal body is referred to the union (by a process resembling
+ordinary combustion) of the carbon and hydrogen of the system with the
+oxygen taken in from the air in the process of respiration.
+
+ANIMAL MAGNETISM. See _Hypnotism_, _Mesmer_.
+
+ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO, an offence against which societies have been formed
+and laws passed in England and other countries. According to English law,
+if any person shall cruelly beat, ill-treat, overdrive, abuse, or torture
+any domestic animal, he shall forfeit a sum not exceeding £5 for every such
+offence. Bull-baiting, cock-fighting, and the like are also prohibited.
+Provision is also made for the punishment of persons unlawfully and
+maliciously killing, maiming, or wounding cattle, dogs, birds, beasts, and
+other animals.
+
+ANIMAL WORSHIP, a practice found to prevail, or to have prevailed, in the
+most widely-distant parts of the world, both the Old and the New, but
+nowhere to such an amazing extent as in ancient Egypt, notwithstanding its
+high civilization. Nearly all the more important animals found in the
+country were regarded as sacred in some part of Egypt, and the degree of
+reverence paid to them was such that throughout Egypt the killing of a hawk
+or an ibis, whether voluntary or not, was punished with death. The worship,
+however, was not, except in a few instances, paid to them as actual
+deities. The animals were merely regarded as sacred to the deities, and the
+worship paid to them was symbolical.
+
+AN´IMA MUN´DI. See _Pantheism_.
+
+ANIMÉ (an´i-me), a resin obtained from the trunk of an American tree
+(_Hymenæa Courbaril_). It is of a transparent amber colour, has a light,
+agreeable smell, and is soluble in alcohol. It strongly resembles copal,
+and, like it, is used in making varnishes. See _Copal_.
+
+AN´IMISM, the system of medicine propounded by Stahl, and based on the idea
+that the soul (_anima_) is the seat of life. In modern usage the term is
+applied to express the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual
+beings, and especially to the tendency, common among savage races, to
+attribute souls or spirits to inanimate things, and to explain phenomena
+not due to obvious natural causes by attributing them to spiritual agency.
+Amongst the beliefs of animism is that of a human apparitional soul,
+bearing the form and appearance of the body, and living after death a sort
+of semi-human life.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_;
+Andrew Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_.
+
+ANIO (now ANI[=E]NE or TEVER[=O]NE), a river in Italy, a tributary of the
+Tiber, which it enters from the east a short distance above Rome, renowned
+for the natural beauties of the valley through which it flows, and for the
+remains of ancient buildings there situated, as the villas of Mæcenas and
+the Emperor Hadrian.
+
+ANISE (an´is; _Pimpinella An[=i]sum_), an annual plant of the nat. ord.
+Umbelliferæ, a native of Eastern Asia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean coasts,
+and cultivated in Spain, France, Italy, Malta, &c., whence the fruit,
+popularly called _aniseed_, is imported. This fruit is ovate, with ten
+narrow ribs, between which are oil-vessels. It has an aromatic smell, and
+is largely employed to flavour liqueurs (aniseed or anisette), sweetmeats,
+&c. _Star-anise_ is the fruit of an evergreen Asiatic tree (_Illicium
+anis[=a]tum_), nat. ord. Magnoliaceæ, and is brought chiefly from China.
+Its flavour is similar to that of anise, and it is used for the same
+purposes. An essential oil is obtained from both kinds of anise, and is
+used for scenting soaps and in the preparation of cordials.
+
+ANJOU ([.a][n.]-zhö), an ancient province of France, now forming the
+department of Maine-et-Loire, and parts of the departments of
+Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, and Sarthe; area, about 3000 sq. miles. In 1060
+the province passed into the hands of the House of Gatinais, of which
+sprang Count Godfrey V, who, in 1127, married Matilda, daughter of Henry I
+of England, and so became the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings. Anjou
+remained in the possession of the English kings up to 1204, when John lost
+it to the French king Philip Augustus. In 1226 Louis VIII bestowed this
+province on his brother Charles; but in 1328 it was reunited to the French
+Crown. John I raised it to the rank of a duchy, and gave it to his son
+Louis. Henceforth it remained separate from the French Crown till 1480,
+when it fell to Louis XI.
+
+ANKARSTRÖM ([.a]n´k[.a]r-streum), Jan Jakob, the murderer of Gustavus III
+of Sweden, was born about 1762, and was at first a page in the Swedish
+Court, afterwards an officer in the royal bodyguard. He was a strenuous
+opponent of the sovereign's measures to restrict the privileges of the
+nobility, and joined Counts Horn and Ribbing in a plot to assassinate
+Gustavus. The assassination took place on 15th March, 1792. Ankarström was
+tried, tortured, and executed in April, dying boasting of his deed.
+
+ANKER, an obsolete measure used in Britain for spirits, beer, &c.,
+containing 8½ imperial gallons. A measure of similar capacity was used in
+Germany and elsewhere in Europe.
+
+AN´KLAM, a town in Prussia, province of Pomerania, 47 miles north-west of
+Stettin, on the River Peene, which is here navigable. Shipbuilding, woollen
+and cotton manufactures, soap-boiling, tanning, &c., are carried on. Pop.
+15,280.
+
+ANKO´BAR, or ANKO´BER, a town in Abyssinia, former capital of Shoa, on a
+steep conical hill 8200 feet high. Pop. 2000.
+
+ANKYLO´SIS, or ANCHYLO´SIS, stiffness of the joints caused by a more or
+less complete coalescence of the bones through ossification, often the
+result of inflammation or injury. False ankylosis is stiffness of a joint
+when the disease is not in the joint itself, but in the tendinous and
+muscular parts by which it is surrounded.
+
+ANKYLOSTOMI´ASIS, a 'worm disease' to which miners are subject in some
+localities, is caused by vast numbers of small parasitic worms
+(_Ankylostoma_ or _Anchylostoma duodenale_) in the duodenum or upper
+portions of the intestinal canal. Deriving their sustenance from the
+system, these worms produce anæmia or bloodlessness (that is, deficiency of
+the red corpuscles of the blood), the sufferers being pallid, feeble,
+short-breathed, liable to faint, and unequal to any laborious work, and
+death may result if a cure is not effected. Fortunately the disease is not
+difficult to cure if the remedies are applied--remedies such as will expel
+the worms from the intestine. The disease is said to be common in tropical
+and sub-tropical countries all over the world. In Europe it was perhaps
+first observed in 1879 in the case of workmen engaged in excavating the St.
+Gothard tunnel. Since 1896 it has been well known in some of the German
+mines; and in 1903 it was detected among the miners engaged in the Dolcoath
+mine in Cornwall. The eggs of the worms are carried from the body with the
+fæces; under favourable circumstances they develop into larvæ, which may
+gain entrance again into the human body by the mouth (perhaps in
+drinking-water), to attain full development in the intestine. Careful
+sanitary arrangements are a preventive of the disease, which is also known
+as 'miner's worm', 'miner's anæmia', &c.
+
+ANN, or ANNAT, in Scottish law, the half-year's stipend of a living, after
+the death of the clergyman, payable to his family or next of kin. The right
+to the ann is not vested in the clergyman himself, but in his
+representatives; and, accordingly, it can neither be disposed of by him nor
+attached for his debts.
+
+ANNA, an Anglo-Indian money of account, the sixteenth part of a rupee, and
+of the value of one penny; it is divided into four pice.
+
+AN´NABERG, a town in Saxony, 47 miles south-west of Dresden. Mining (for
+silver, cobalt, iron, &c.) is carried on, and there are manufactures of
+lace, ribbons, fringes, buttons, &c. Pop. 17,025.
+
+ANNA COMNE´NA, daughter of Alexius I, Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. She was
+born 1083, and died 1148. After her father's death she endeavoured to
+secure the succession for her husband, Nicephorus Briennius, but was
+baffled by his want of energy and ambition. She wrote (in Greek) a life of
+her father Alexius (_The Alexiad_, a work in fifteen books). She is a
+character in Sir Walter Scott's _Count Robert of Paris_.
+
+ANNA IVANOV´NA, Empress of Russia, born in 1693, the daughter of Ivan, the
+elder half-brother of Peter the Great. She was married in 1710 to the Duke
+of Courland, in the following year was left a widow, and in 1730 ascended
+the throne of the tsars on the condition proposed by the senate, that she
+would limit the absolute power of the tsars, and do nothing without the
+advice of the council composed of the leading members of the Russian
+aristocracy. But no sooner had she ascended the throne than she declared
+her promise null, and proclaimed herself autocrat of all the Russias. She
+chose as her favourite Ernest John von Biren or Biron, who was soon
+all-powerful in Russia, and ruled with great severity. Several of the
+leading nobles were executed, and many thousand men exiled to Siberia. In
+1737 Anna forced the Courlanders to choose Biren as their duke, and
+nominated him at her death regent of the empire during the minority of
+Prince Ivan (of Brunswick). Anna died in 1740. See _Biren_.
+
+AN´NALS, a history of events in chronological order, each event being
+recorded under the year in which it occurred. The name is derived from the
+first annual records of the Romans, which were called _ann[=a]les
+pontificum_ or _ann[=a]les max[)i]mi_, drawn up by the _pontifex maximus_
+(chief pontiff). The practice of keeping such annals was afterwards adopted
+also by various private individuals, as by Fabius Pictor, Calpurnius Piso,
+and others. The name hence came to be applied in later times to historical
+works in which the matter was treated with special reference to
+chronological arrangement, as to the _Annals_ of Tacitus.
+
+ANNAM´, a country of Asia occupying the east side of the South-eastern or
+Indo-Chinese Peninsula, along the China Sea. It comprises Tonquin in the
+north, Annam (in a narrower sense), and Cochin-China farther south; with
+the inland territory of the Laos tribes: together, area, 170,000 sq. miles;
+pop. 15,000,000, 9,000,000 being in Tonquin. In the narrow sense Annam now
+denotes the country between Tonquin and French Cochin-China, under the
+nominal rule of a native king (the present ruler, Khai-Dinh, succeeded to
+the throne in 1916). Annam has an area of 52,100 sq. miles. Pop. (1919),
+5,952,000, including 2117 Europeans. The coast is considerably indented,
+especially at the mouths of the rivers, where it affords many commodious
+harbours. Tonquin is mountainous on the north, but in the east is nearly
+level, terminating towards the sea in an alluvial plain yielding good crops
+of rice, cotton, fruits, ginger, and spices, and a great variety of varnish
+trees, palms, &c. The principal river is the Song-ka, which has numerous
+tributaries, many of them being joined together by canals, both for
+irrigation and commerce. Tonquin is rich in gold, silver, copper, and iron.
+Annam (in the narrow sense) is, generally speaking, unproductive, but
+contains many fertile spots, in which grain, leguminous plants, sugar-cane,
+cinnamon, &c., are produced in great abundance. Agriculture is the chief
+occupation, but many of the inhabitants are engaged in the spinning and
+weaving of cotton and silk into coarse fabrics, the preparation of varnish,
+iron-smelting, and the construction of ships or junks. The inhabitants are
+said to be the ugliest of the Mongoloid races of the peninsula, being under
+the middle size and less robust than the surrounding peoples. Their
+language is monosyllabic, and is connected with the Chinese. The religion
+of the majority is Buddhism, but the educated classes hold the doctrines of
+Confucius. The principal towns are Hanoi, the capital of Tonquin, and Huë,
+the capital of the kingdom and formerly of the whole empire. Annam was
+conquered by the Chinese in 214 B.C., but in A.D. 1428 it completely won
+its independence. The French began to interfere actively in its affairs in
+1847 on the plea of protecting the native Christians. By the treaties of
+1862 and 1867 they obtained the southern and most productive part of
+Cochin-China, subsequently known as French Cochin-China; and in 1874 they
+obtained large powers over Tonquin, notwithstanding the protests of the
+Chinese. Finally, in 1883, Tonquin was ceded to France, and next year Annam
+was declared a French protectorate. After a short period of hostilities
+with China the latter recognized the French claims, and Tonquin is now a
+French colony, while the kingdom of Annam is, since 1886, entirely under
+French direction. Cf. F. R. Eberhardt, _Guide de l' Annam_.
+
+ANNAMABOE (-b[=o]´), a seaport in Western Africa, on the Gold Coast, 10
+miles east of Cape Coast Castle, with some trade in gold-dust, ivory,
+palm-oil, &c. Pop. about 5000.
+
+AN´NAN, a royal and police burgh in Scotland, on the Annan, a little above
+its entrance into the Solway Firth, one of the Dumfries district of burghs.
+Pop. 3928.--The River _Annan_ is a stream 40 miles long running through the
+central division of Dumfriesshire, to which it gives the name of
+_Annandale_.
+
+ANNAP´OLIS, the capital of Maryland, United States, on the Severn, near its
+mouth in Chesapeake Bay. It contains a college (St. John's), a state-house,
+and the United States Naval Academy. Pop. (1920), 11,214.
+
+ANNAP´OLIS, a small town in Nova Scotia, on an inlet of the Bay of Fundy,
+with an important traffic by railway and steamboat. It is one of the oldest
+European settlements in America, dating from 1604.
+
+ANN ARBOR, a town of Michigan, United States, on the Huron River, about 40
+miles west of Detroit; the seat of the State university. It has
+flour-mills, and it manufactures woollens, iron, and agricultural
+implements. Pop. 19,516.
+
+ANNATES (an´n[=a]ts), a year's income claimed for many centuries by the
+Pope on the death of any bishop, abbot, or parish priest, to be paid by his
+successor. In England they were at first paid to the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, but were afterwards appropriated by the Popes. In 1532 the
+Parliament gave them to the Crown; but in 1703 Queen Anne restored them to
+the Church by applying them to the augmentation of poor livings. See _Queen
+Anne's Bounty_.
+
+[Illustration: Annatto (_Bixa Orell[=a]na_)]
+
+ANNAT´TO, or ANNATO, an orange-red colouring matter, obtained from the pulp
+surrounding the seeds of _Bixa Orell[=a]na_, a shrub native to tropical
+America, and cultivated in Guiana, St. Domingo, and the East Indies. It is
+sometimes used as a dye for silk and cotton goods, though it does not
+produce a very durable colour, but it is much used in medicine for tinging
+plasters and ointments, and to a considerable extent by farmers for giving
+a rich colour to milk, butter, and cheese. The colour given by annatto
+approaches very nearly the natural colouring matter of milk fat. It is
+guaranteed to preserve the same colour throughout the year, and is
+considered to be a legitimate colouring matter.
+
+ANNE, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland was born at Twickenham, near
+London, 6th Feb., 1664. She was the second daughter of James II, then Duke
+of York, and Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. With her
+father's permission she was educated according to the principles of the
+English Church. In 1683 she was married to Prince George, brother of King
+Christian V of Denmark. On the arrival of the Prince of Orange in 1688,
+Anne wished to remain with her father; but she was prevailed upon by Lord
+Churchill (afterwards Duke of Marlborough) and his wife to join the
+triumphant party. After the death of William III in 1702 she ascended the
+English throne. Her character was essentially weak, and she was governed
+first by Marlborough and his wife, and afterwards by Mrs. Masham. Most of
+the principal events of her reign are connected with the war of the Spanish
+Succession. The only important acquisition that England made by it was
+Gibraltar, which was captured in 1704. Another very important event of this
+reign was the union of England and Scotland under the name of Great
+Britain, which was accomplished in 1707. Anne seems to have long cherished
+the wish of securing the succession to her brother James, but this was
+frustrated by the internal dissensions of the cabinet. Grieved at the
+disappointment of her secret wishes, she fell into a state of weakness and
+lethargy, and died, 20th July, 1714. The reign of Anne was distinguished
+not only by the brilliant successes of the British arms, but also on
+account of the number of admirable and excellent writers who flourished at
+this time, among whom were Pope, Swift, and Addison. Anne bore her husband
+many children, all of whom died in infancy, except one son, the Duke of
+Gloucester, who died at the age of twelve.
+
+ANNE (of Austria), daughter of Philip III of Spain, was born at Madrid in
+1602, and in 1615 was married to Louis XIII of France. Richelieu, fearing
+the influence of her foreign connections, did everything he could to humble
+her. In 1643 her husband died, and she was left regent, but placed under
+the control of a council. But the Parliament overthrew this arrangement,
+and entrusted her with full sovereign rights during the minority of her son
+Louis XIV. Having brought upon herself the hatred of the nobles by her
+boundless confidence in Cardinal Mazarin, she was forced to flee from Paris
+during the wars of the Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposition, and
+was able in 1661 to transmit to her son unimpaired the royal authority. She
+spent the remainder of her life in retirement, and died 20th Jan., 1666.
+
+ANNEALING (an-[=e]l´ing), a process to which many articles of metal and
+glass are subjected after making, in order to render them more tenacious
+and which consists in heating them and allowing them to cool slowly. When
+the metals are worked by the hammer, or rolled into plates, or drawn into
+wire, they acquire a certain amount of brittleness, which destroys their
+usefulness, and has to be remedied by annealing. The tempering of steel is
+one kind of annealing. Annealing is particularly employed in glass-houses,
+and consists in putting the glass vessels, as soon as they are formed and
+while they are yet hot, into a furnace or oven, in which they are suffered
+to cool gradually. The toughness is greatly increased by cooling the
+articles in oil.
+
+ANNECY ([.a]n-s[=e]), an ancient town in France, department of
+Haute-Savoie, situated on the Lake of Annecy, 21 miles s. of Geneva;
+contains a cathedral and a ruinous old castle once the residence of the
+counts of Genevois; manufactures of cotton, leather, paper, and hardware.
+Pop. 15,622.--The lake is about 9 miles long and 2 broad.
+
+[Illustration: Lobworm (one of the Annelida)]
+
+ANNEL´IDA, or ANNULATA, an extensive division or class of Annulosa or
+articulate animals, so called because their bodies are formed of a great
+number of small rings, the outward signs of internal segmentation. The
+earth-worm, the lobworm, the nereis, and the leech belong to this division.
+They have red, rarely yellow or green, blood circulating in a double system
+of contractile vessels, a double ganglionated nervous cord, and respire by
+external branchiæ, internal vesicles, or by the skin. Their organs of
+motion consist of bristles or _setæ_, which are usually attached to the
+lateral surfaces of each segment, the bristles being borne on 'foot
+processes' or _parapodia_. The number of body segments varies. As many as
+400 may be found in some sea-worms. A complete digestive system is
+developed, consisting of a mouth--armed with horny jaws and a protrusible
+proboscis--gizzard, stomach, and intestine. See _Earth-worm_, _Leech_, &c.
+
+ANNEXATION, a term applied to the acquisition by a State of territory
+previously belonging to another Power, or independent. It is applicable not
+only to the extension of a State's sovereignty over adjoining territory,
+but also to an acquisition of a remote territory. The inhabitants of the
+annexed territory are absolved from their allegiance to their former
+sovereign. Such annexations in modern history were those of Alsace-Lorraine
+by Germany in 1871, of California by the United States, of Bosnia and
+Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, and of the Boer Republics by Great Britain.
+
+ANNFIELD PLAIN, a straggling colliery town (urban district) of England,
+Durham, about 7 miles south-west of Gateshead. Pop. (1921), 16,524.
+
+ANNOBON´, or ANNOBOM, a beautiful Spanish island of Western Africa, south
+of the Bight of Biafra, about 4 miles long by 2 miles broad, and rising
+abruptly to the height of 3000 feet, richly covered with vegetation. Pop.
+2000.
+
+ANNONAY ([.a]n-o-n[=a]), a town in southern France, department of Ardèche,
+37 miles S.S.W. of Lyons, in a picturesque situation. It is the most
+important town of Ardèche, manufacturing paper and glove leather to a large
+extent, also cloth, felt, silk stuffs, gloves, hosiery, chemical manures,
+glue, gelatine, brushes, chocolate, and candles. There is an obelisk in
+memory of Joseph Montgolfier of balloon fame. Pop. 16,660.
+
+AN´NUAL, in botany, a plant that springs from seed, grows up, produces
+seed, and then dies, all within a single year or season. Among annual
+grasses may be noted all our cereals, barley, wheat, rye, and oats.
+
+AN´NUAL, in literature, the name given to a class of publications which at
+one time enjoyed an immense yearly circulation, and were distinguished by
+great magnificence both of binding and illustration, which rendered them
+much sought after as Christmas and New Year presents. Their contents were
+chiefly prose tales and ballads, lyrics, and other poetry. The earliest was
+the _Forget-me-not_, started in 1822, and followed next year by the
+_Friendship's Offering_. The _Literary Souvenir_ was commenced in 1824, and
+the _Keepsake_ in 1827. Among the names of the editors occur those of
+Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. S. C. Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessington,
+Mary Howitt, &c. The popularity of the annuals reached its zenith about
+1829, when no less than seventeen made their appearance; in 1856 the
+_Keepsake_, the last of the series, ceased to exist.
+
+ANNUAL REGISTER, an English publication commenced in 1758 by Dodsley, the
+publisher, and since continued in yearly volumes down to the present day.
+There was also an _Edinburgh Annual Register_, the historical part of which
+was for several years contributed by Sir Walter Scott and afterwards by
+Robert Southey. It commenced in 1808 and came to a close in 1827.
+
+ANNU´ITY, a periodical payment, made annually, or at more frequent
+intervals, and continuing either a certain number of years, or for an
+uncertain period, to be determined by a particular event, as the death of
+the recipient or annuitant, or that of the party liable to pay the annuity;
+or the annuity may be perpetual. An annuity is usually raised by the
+present payment of a certain sum as a consideration whereby the party
+making the payment, or some other person named by him, becomes entitled to
+an annuity, and the rules and principles by which this present value is to
+be computed have been the subjects of careful investigation. The present
+value of a perpetual annuity is evidently a sum of money that will yield an
+interest equal to the annuity, and payable at the same periods; and an
+annuity of this description, payable quarterly, will evidently be of
+greater value than one of the same amount payable annually, since the
+annuitant has the additional advantage of the interest on three of the
+quarterly payments until the expiration of the year. In other words, it
+requires a greater present capital to be put at interest to yield a given
+sum per annum, payable quarterly, than to yield the same annual sum payable
+at the end of each year. The present value of an annuity for a limited
+period is a sum which, if put at interest, will at the end of that period
+give an amount equal to the sum of all the payments of the annuity and
+interest; and, accordingly, if it be proposed to invest a certain sum of
+money in the purchase of an annuity for a given number of years, the
+comparative value of the two may be precisely estimated, the rate of
+interest being given. But annuities for uncertain periods, and particularly
+life annuities, are more frequent, and the value of the annuity is computed
+according to the probable duration of the life by which it is limited. Such
+annuities are often created by contract, whereby the Government or a
+private annuity office agrees, for a certain sum advanced by the purchaser,
+to pay a certain sum in yearly, quarterly, or other periodical payments to
+the person advancing the money, or to some other named by him, during the
+life of the annuitant. Or the annuity may be granted to the annuitant
+during the life of some other person, or during two or more joint lives, or
+during the life of the longest liver or survivor among a number of persons
+named. If a person having a certain capital, and intending to spend this
+capital and the income of it during his own life, could know precisely how
+long he should live, he might lend his capital at a certain rate during his
+life, and by taking every year, besides the interest, a certain amount of
+the capital, he might secure the same annual amount for his support during
+his life in such manner that he should have the same sum to spend every
+year, and consume precisely his whole capital during his life. But since he
+does not know how long he is to live, he agrees with the Government or an
+annuity office to take the risk of the duration of his life, and they agree
+to pay him a certain annuity for life in exchange for the capital which he
+proposes to invest in this way. The probable duration of his life therefore
+becomes a subject of computation; and for the purpose of making this
+calculation tables of longevity are made by noting the proportion of deaths
+at certain ages in the same country or district. Founding on a comparison
+of many such tables, the British Government has empowered the
+Postmaster-General to grant annuities at the following rates, which are
+probably more closely adjusted to their actual value than those of
+insurance companies and other dealers in annuities: To secure an immediate
+annuity of £100, the cost is, for males of 20 years, £2279, 3s. 4d.; for
+females of same age, £2482, 10s.; for males of 30 years, £2045, 8s. 4d.,
+for females, £2258, _6s._ 8d.; for males of 40 years, £1789, 6s. 8d.; for
+females, £1990; for males of 60, £1148, 6s. 8d.; females, £1275, 8s. 4d.;
+and so on. _Deferred_ annuities, that is, such as have their first payments
+postponed for a greater or less number of years, are also granted. We give
+the rates for an annuity of £100 deferred 20 years: Males aged 20, £848,
+6s. 8d.; females, £1014, 13s. 4d.; males aged 35, £557, 1s. 8d.; females,
+£697, 1s. 8d.; and so on. If a person on whose life the deferred annuity is
+to depend should die before payment commences, the purchase-money may be
+returned to his or her representatives, provided that an agreement to that
+effect had been made in the first instance, but in this case the
+purchase-money is necessarily higher. See _Insurance_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Baily, _Life Annuities and Assurances_; J. Henry, _Government Life Annuity
+Commutation Tables_.
+
+ANNULOI´DA, one of Professor Huxley's eight primary groups, a division
+(sub-kingdom) of animals, including the Rotifera, Scolecida (tape-worms,
+&c.), all which are more or less ring-like in appearance, and the
+Echinodermata, whose embryos show traces of annulation.
+
+ANNULO´SA, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals regarded by some as
+synonymous with the Arthropoda or Articulata; according to other
+systematists, including both the Articulata and Annulata or worms.
+
+ANNUNCIATION, the declaration of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary
+informing her that she was to become the mother of our
+Lord.--_Annunciation_ or _Lady Day_ is a feast of the Church in honour of
+the annunciation, celebrated on the 25th of March.--The Italian order of
+_Knights of the Annunciation_ was instituted by Amadeus VI, Duke of Savoy,
+in 1360. The king is always grand-master. The knights must be of high rank,
+and must already be members of the order of St. Mauritius and St. Lazarus.
+The decoration of the order consists of a golden shield suspended from a
+chain or collar of roses and knots, the letters F. E. R. T. being inscribed
+on the roses, and standing for _Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit_ (its bravery
+held Rhodes).--There are two orders of _nuns of the Annunciation_, one
+originally French, founded in 1501 by Joanna of Valois; the other Italian,
+founded in 1604 by Maria Vittoria Fornari of Genoa.
+
+ANNUNZIO ([.a]n-n[u:]nt´sy[=o]), Gabriele d', Italian poet, novelist, and
+dramatist, born at Pescara in 1863, his patronymic being Rapagnetta. He was
+educated at Prato and in Rome, and early took to literature and journalism.
+In 1898 he was elected a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, in
+which he joined the Socialist party. He came before the public when a
+schoolboy with a volume of verse called _Primo Vere_, to which
+others--naturally much more mature--were subsequently added. Several of his
+novels have been published in English, as: _The Child of Pleasure_, _The
+Victim_, _The Triumph of Death_, _The Virgin of the Rocks_, _The Fire of
+Life_. Some of these have been very successful, though disfigured to some
+extent by coarse realism and voluptuousness. He began to write plays later
+in life. Among them _Gioconda_, _The Dead City_, and _Francesca da Rimini_
+may be read in English versions, and _Gioconda_ and _Francesca_ have been
+performed on the English stage. His more recent works include: _Le Martyr
+de Saint Sebastien_ (1911), _Le Chèvrefeuille_ (1914), _La Beffa di
+Buccari_ (1918), _Notturno_ (1918). D'Annunzio is the most prominent
+Italian writer of the present day, and in wealth of language and
+distinction of style stands far ahead of all others. He served in the
+European War from 1915-18, and was wounded. In Sept., 1919, he led a raid
+and occupied the port of Fiume. See _European War_ and _Fiume_.
+
+AN´OA, an animal (_Anoa depressicornis_) closely allied to the buffalo,
+about the size of an average sheep, very wild and fierce, inhabiting the
+rocky and mountainous localities of the Island of Celebes. The horns are
+straight, thick at the root, and set nearly in a line with the forehead.
+
+ANO´BIUM, a genus of coleopterous insects, the larvae of which often do
+much damage by their boring into old wood. By means of their heads they
+produce a loud, ticking sound in the wood, the so-called _death-watch_
+ticking. _A. stri[=a]tum_, a common species, when frightened, is much given
+to feigning death.
+
+AN´ODE, (Gr. _ana_, up, _hodos_, way), the positive pole of the voltaic
+current, being that part of the surface of a decomposing body which the
+electric current enters: opposed to _cathode_ (Gr. _kata_, down, _hodos_,
+way), the way by which it departs.
+
+AN´ODON, or ANODON´TA, a genus of lamellibranchiate bivalves, including the
+fresh-water mussels, without or with very slight hinge-teeth. See _Mussel_.
+
+AN´ODYNE, a medicine, such as an opiate or narcotic, which allays pain.
+
+ANOINTING, rubbing the body or some part of it with oil, often perfumed.
+From time immemorial the nations of the East have been in the habit of
+anointing themselves for the sake of health and beauty. The Greeks and
+Romans anointed themselves after the bath. Wrestlers anointed themselves in
+order to render it more difficult for their antagonists to get hold of
+them. In Egypt it was common to anoint the head of guests when they entered
+the house where they were to be entertained. In the Mosaic law a sacred
+character was attached to the anointing of the garments of the priests, and
+things belonging to the ceremonial of worship. The Jewish priests and kings
+were anointed when inducted into office, and were called the _anointed of
+the Lord_, to show that their persons were sacred and their office from
+God. In the Old Testament also the prophecies respecting the Redeemer style
+him _Messias_, that is, the _Anointed_, which is also the meaning of his
+Greek name Christ. The custom of anointing still exists in the Roman
+Catholic Church in the ordination of priests and the confirmation of
+believers and the sacrament of extreme unction. The ceremony is also
+frequently a part of the coronation of kings.
+
+[Illustration: Anomalure (_Anomalurus Peli_)]
+
+ANOM´ALURE (_Anomal[=u]rus_), a genus of rodent animals inhabiting the west
+coast of Africa, resembling the flying-squirrels, but having the under
+surface of the tail furnished for some distance from the root with a series
+of large horny scales, which, when pressed against the trunk of a tree, may
+subserve the same purpose as those instruments with which a man climbs up a
+telegraph pole to set the wires.
+
+ANOM´ALY, a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy, the angle which a
+line drawn from a planet to the sun has passed through since the planet was
+last at its perihelion or nearest distance to the sun. The _anomalistic
+year_ is the interval between two successive times at which the earth is in
+perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 minutes 48 seconds. In consequence of
+the advance of the earth's perihelion among the stars in the same direction
+as the earth's motion, and of the precession of the equinoxes, which
+carries the equinoxes back in the opposite direction to the earth's motion,
+the anomalistic year is about 4 minutes 40 seconds longer than the sidereal
+year, and about 25 minutes longer than the tropical or common year. The
+time of a complete revolution of the perihelion is computed at 108,000
+years.
+
+ANOMU´RA, a section of the crustaceans of the ord. Decapoda, with irregular
+tails not formed to assist in swimming, including the hermit-crabs and
+others.
+
+[Illustration: Anona or Sour-sop (_An[=o]na muric[=a]ta_)]
+
+ANO´NA, a genus of plants, the type of the nat. ord. Anonaceæ. _A.
+squam[=o]sa_ (sweet-sop) grows in the West Indian Islands, and yields an
+edible fruit having a thick, sweet, luscious pulp. _A. muric[=a]ta_
+(sour-sop) is cultivated in the West and East Indies; it produces a large
+pear-shaped fruit, of a greenish colour, containing an agreeable
+slightly-acid pulp. The genus produces other edible fruits, as the common
+custard-apple or bullock's heart, from _A. reticul[=a]ta_, and the
+cherimoyer of Peru, from _A. Cherimolia_.
+
+ANONA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of trees and shrubs, having simple, alternate
+leaves, destitute of stipules, by which character they are distinguished
+from the Magnoliaceæ, to which they are otherwise closely allied. They are
+mostly tropical plants of the Old and the New World, and are generally
+aromatic. See _Anona_.
+
+ANOPLOTHE´RIUM, an extinct genus of the Ungulata or Hoofed Quadrupeds,
+forming the type of a distinct family, which were in many respects
+intermediate between the swine and the true ruminants. These animals were
+pig-like in form, but possessed long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with two
+rudimentary toes. Some of them were as small as a guinea-pig, others as
+large as an ass. Six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars
+existed in each jaw, the series being continuous, no interval existing in
+the jaw. _A. comm[=u]ne_, from the Eocene rocks, is a familiar species.
+
+ANOPLU´RA, an order of apterous insects, of which the type is the genus
+Pedic[)u]lus or louse,
+
+ANOPSHEHR. See _Anupshahr_.
+
+ANOREXIA. See _Appetite_.
+
+ANOS´MIA, a disease consisting in a diminution or destruction of the power
+of smelling, sometimes constitutional, but most frequently caused by strong
+and repeated stimulants, as snuff, applied to the olfactory nerves.
+
+ANOURA. See _Anura_.
+
+ANQUETIL-DUPERRON ([.a]nk-t[=e]l-d[.u]-p[=a]-ro[n.]), Abraham Hyacinthe, a
+French orientalist, born 1731, died 1805. He studied theology for some
+time, but soon devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian.
+His zeal for the Oriental languages induced him to set out for India, where
+he prevailed on some of the Parsee priests to instruct him in the Zend and
+Pehlevi and to give him some of the Zoroastrian books. In 1762 he returned
+to France with a valuable collection of MSS. In 1771 he published his
+_Zend-Avesta_, a translation of the _Vendidad_, and other sacred books,
+which aroused much interest. Among his other works are _L'Inde en rapport
+avec l'Europe_ (1790), and a selection from the _Vedas_. His knowledge of
+the Oriental languages was by no means exact.
+
+ANSBACH. See _Anspach_.
+
+AN´SELM, St., a celebrated Christian philosopher and theologian, born at
+Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033, died at Canterbury 1109. At the age of
+twenty-seven (1060) he became a monk at Bec, in Normandy, whither he had
+been attracted by the celebrity of Lanfranc. Three years later he was
+elected prior, and in 1078 he was chosen abbot, which he remained for
+fifteen years. During this period of his life he wrote his first
+philosophical and religious works: the dialogues on _Truth_ and
+_Free-will_, and the treatises _Monologion_ and _Proslogion_; and at the
+same time his influence made itself so felt among the monks under his
+charge that Bec became the chief seat of learning in Europe. In 1093 Anselm
+was offered by William Rufus the archbishopric of Canterbury, and accepted
+it, though with great reluctance, and with the condition that all the lands
+belonging to the see should be restored. William II soon quarrelled with
+the archbishop, who would show no subservience to him, and would persist in
+acknowledging Pope Urban II in opposition to the antipope Clement. William
+ultimately had to give way. He acknowledged Urban as Pope, and conferred
+the pallium upon Anselm. The king became his bitter enemy, however, and so
+great were Anselm's difficulties that in 1097 he set out for Rome to
+consult with the Pope. Urban received him with great distinction, but did
+not venture really to take the side of the prelate against the king, though
+William had refused to receive Anselm again as archbishop, and had seized
+on the revenues of the see of Canterbury, which he retained till his death
+in 1100. Anselm accordingly remained abroad, where he wrote most of his
+celebrated treatise on the atonement, entitled _Cur Deus Homo_ (_Why God
+was made Man_). When William was succeeded by Henry I Anselm was recalled;
+but Henry insisted that he should submit to be reinvested in his see by
+himself, although the Popes claimed the right of investing for themselves
+alone. Much negotiation followed, and Henry did not surrender his claims
+till 1107, when Anselm's long struggle on behalf of the rights of the
+Church came to an end. Anselm was a great scholar, a deep and original
+thinker, and a man of the utmost saintliness and piety. Anselm's great
+achievement in philosophy was his ontological argument for the existence of
+God; and his importance in the ecclesiastical history of England cannot be
+exaggerated. The chief of his writings are the _Monologion_, the
+_Proslogion_, and the _Cur Deus Homo_. The first is an attempt to prove
+inductively the existence of God by pure reason without the aid of
+Scripture or authority; the second is an attempt to prove the same by the
+deductive method; the _Cur Deus Homo_ is intended to prove the necessity of
+the incarnation. Among his numerous other writings are more than 400
+letters. His life was written by his domestic chaplain and companion,
+Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, and is edited by M. Rule for the 'Rolls
+Series'. See _Scholasticism_. Cf. Père Ragey, _Histoire de Saint Anselme_;
+J. M. Rigg, _Anselm of Canterbury_.
+
+ANS´GAR, or ANSHAR, called the _Apostle of the North_, born in 801 in
+Picardy, died in 864 or 865. He took the monastic vows while still in his
+boyhood, and in the midst of many difficulties laboured as a missionary in
+Denmark and Sweden. He died with the reputation of having made, if not the
+first, the most successful attempts to propagate Christianity in the North.
+
+AN´SON, George, Lord, celebrated English navigator, born 1697, died 1762.
+He entered the navy at an early age and became a commander in 1722, and
+captain in 1724. He was for a long time on the South Carolina station. In
+1740 he was made commander of a fleet sent to the South Sea, directed
+against the trade and colonies of Spain. The expedition consisted of five
+men-of-war and three smaller vessels, which carried 1400 men. After much
+suffering and many stirring adventures he reached the coast of Peru, made
+several prizes, and captured and burned the city of Paita. His squadron was
+now reduced to one ship, the _Centurion_, but with it he took the Spanish
+treasure galleon from Acapulco, and arrived in England in 1744 with
+treasure to the amount of £500,000, having circumnavigated the globe. His
+adventures and discoveries are described in the well-known _Anson's
+Voyage_, compiled from materials furnished by Anson. A few days after his
+return he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and not long after
+rear-admiral of the white. His victory over the French admiral Jonquière,
+near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised him to the peerage, with the title of
+Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton. Four years afterwards he was made First Lord
+of the Admiralty. In 1758 he commanded the fleet before Brest, protected
+the landing of the British at St. Malo, Cherbourg, &c., and received the
+repulsed troops into his vessels. Finally, in 1761, he was appointed to
+convey the queen of George III to England.
+
+ANSO´NIA, a town of the United States, Conn., on the Nangatuck, with
+manufactures of brass and copper, and especially clocks. Pop. 17,643.
+
+ANSPACH ([.a]n´sp[.a]_h_), or ANSBACH, a town in Bavaria, at the junction
+of the Holzbach with the Lower Rezat, 24 miles south-west of Nürnberg.
+Anspach gave its name to an ancient principality or margravate, which had a
+territory of about 1300 sq. miles, with 300,000 inhabitants. in the end of
+the eighteenth century. The last margrave sold his possessions in 1791 to
+Prussia. It was occupied by the French in 1806, and transferred by Napoleon
+to Bavaria. The town has manufactures of trimmings, buttons, straw-wares,
+&c. Pop. 19,995.
+
+AN´STED, David Thomas, an English geologist, born 1814, died 1880. He was
+professor of geology at King's College, London, and assistant-secretary to
+the Geological Society, whose quarterly journal he edited for many years.
+
+AN´STER, John, LL.D., professor of civil law in the University of Dublin,
+born in County Cork, 1793, died 1867. He published a volume of poems, but
+is chiefly known by his fine translation of Goethe's _Faust_, Part I, 1835;
+Part II, 1864.
+
+AN´STEY, Christopher, an English poet, born 1724, died 1805. He was author
+of _The New Bath Guide_, a humorous and satirical production describing
+fashionable life at Bath in the form of a series of letters in different
+varieties of metre, which had a great reputation in its day, but is now
+almost forgotten.
+
+ANSTRUTHER (an´stru_th_-[.e]r; popularly an´st[.e]r), Easter and Wester,
+two small royal and police burghs of Scotland, in Fifeshire, forming, with
+the contiguous royal burgh of Cellardyke or Nether Kilrenny, one fishing
+and seaport town. Total pop. (1921), 4641.
+
+[Illustration: The Wood-ant (_Formica rufa_)
+
+1. Egg. 2. Larva. 3. Cocoon of fine white silk. 4. Young ant, taken out of
+cocoon. 5. Male ant. 6. Female ant. 7. Worker ant. (All magnified.)]
+
+ANT, the common name of hymenopterous (or membranous-winged) insects of
+various genera, of the family Formic[)i]dæ, of which there are numerous
+species, at least 2000 being known. They are found in most temperate and
+tropical regions. They are small but powerful insects, and have long been
+noted for their remarkable intelligence and interesting habits. They are
+social insects, living in communities regulated by definite laws, each
+member of the society bearing a well-defined and separate part in the work
+of the colony. Each community consists of males; of females much larger
+than the males; and of barren females, otherwise called neuters, workers,
+or nurses. The neuters are wingless, and the males and females only acquire
+wings for their 'nuptial flight', after which the males perish, and the few
+females which escape the pursuit of their numerous enemies divest
+themselves of their wings, and either return to established nests, or
+become the foundresses of new colonies. The neuters perform all the labours
+of the ant-hill or abode of the community; they excavate the galleries,
+procure food, and feed the larvæ or young ants, which have not got organs
+of motion. In fine weather they carefully convey them to the surface for
+the benefit of the sun's heat, and as attentively carry them to a place of
+safety either when bad weather is threatened or the ant-hill is disturbed.
+In like manner they watch over the safety of the nymphs or pupæ about to
+acquire their perfect growth. Some communities possess a special type of
+neuters, known as 'soldiers', from the duties that specially fall upon
+them, and from their powerful biting jaws. There is a very considerable
+variety in the materials, size, and form of ant-hills, or nests, according
+to the peculiar nature or instinct of the species. Most of the British ants
+form nests in woods, fields, or gardens, their abodes being generally in
+the form of small mounds rising above the surface of the ground and
+containing numerous galleries and apartments. Some excavate nests in old
+tree-trunks. One little yellow ant (_Myrm[=i]ca domestica_) is common in
+houses in Britain in some localities. Some ants live on animal food, very
+quickly picking quite clean the skeleton of any dead animal they may light
+on. Others live on saccharine matter, being very fond of the sweet
+substance, called honey-dew, which exudes from the bodies of aphides, or
+plant-lice. These they sometimes keep in their nests, and sometimes tend on
+the plants where they feed; sometimes they even superintend their breeding.
+By stroking the aphides with their antennæ they cause them to emit the
+sweet fluid, which the ants then greedily sip up. Various other insects are
+looked after by ants in a similar manner, or are found in their nests. It
+has been observed that some species, like the European Red Ant (_Form[=i]ca
+sanguin[)e]a_), resort to violence to obtain working ants of other species
+for their own use, plundering the nests of suitable kinds of their larvæ
+and pupæ, which they carry off to their own nests to be carefully reared
+and kept as slaves. In temperate countries male and female ants survive, at
+most, till autumn, or to the commencement of cool weather, though a very
+large proportion of them cease to exist long previous to that time. The
+neuters pass the winter in a state of torpor, and of course require no
+food. The only time when they require food is during the season of
+activity, when they have a vast number of young to feed. Some ants of
+Southern Europe feed on grain, and store it up in their nests for use when
+required. Some species have stings as weapons, others only their powerful
+mandibles, or an acrid and pungent fluid (formic acid) which they can emit.
+The name ant is also given to the neuropterous insects otherwise called
+Termites (q.v.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), _Ants,
+Bees, and Wasps_; H. W. Bates, _A Naturalist on the Amazons_; _Cambridge
+Natural History_.
+
+ANTAC´ID, an alkali, or any remedy for acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia
+and diarrhoea are the diseases in which antacids are chiefly employed. The
+principal antacids in use are magnesia, lime, and their carbonates, and the
+carbonates of potash and soda.
+
+ANTÆ´US, the giant son of Poseidon (Neptune) and G[=e] (the Earth), who was
+invincible so long as he was in contact with the earth. Heracles (Hercules)
+grasped him in his arms and stifled him suspended in the air, thus
+preventing him from touching the earth.
+
+ANTAKIEH, or ANTAKIA. See _Antioch_.
+
+ANTAL´KALI, a substance which neutralizes an alkali, and is used
+medicinally to counteract an alkaline tendency in the system. All true
+acids have this power.
+
+ANTANANARIVO (an-tan-an-a-r[=e]´v[=o]), the capital of Madagascar, situated
+in the central province of Imérina, on rocky eminences rising from a plain.
+Until 1869 all buildings within the city were of wood or rush, but since
+the introduction of brick and stone, the whole city has been rebuilt. It
+contains two former royal palaces, immense timber structures; a Protestant
+and a Roman Catholic cathedral, mission churches, schools, &c. Antananarivo
+is the residence of the French governor of Madagascar, and there is a
+strong French garrison. It has manufactures of metal work, cutlery, silk,
+&c. Pop. (exclusive of the troops) 63,115.
+
+AN´TAR, an Arabian warrior and poet of the sixth century, author of one of
+the seven Moallakas (poems) hung up in the Kaaba at Mecca; hero of a
+romance analogous in Arabic literature to the Arthurian legend of the
+English. The romance of _Antar_ is composed in rhythmic prose interspersed
+with fragments of verse, many of which are attributed to Antar himself, and
+has been generally ascribed to Asmai (born A.D. 740, died about A.D. 830),
+preceptor to Harun-al-Rashid. It has been published in 32 vols. at Cairo
+(1889).
+
+ANTARCTIC (ant-ärk´tik), a term signifying the opposite of _Arctic_, and
+therefore relating to the southern pole or to the regions near it. The
+_Antarctic Circle_, which of course corresponds to the _Arctic Circle_, is
+a circle parallel to the equator and distant from the south pole 23° 28´,
+marking the area within which the sun does not set when on the tropic of
+Capricorn. The Antarctic Circle has been arbitrarily fixed on as the limits
+of the Antarctic Ocean, it being the average limit of the pack-ice; but the
+name is often extended to embrace a much wider area. The lands within or
+near the Antarctic Circle are but imperfectly known, and a very large area
+around the south pole is altogether unknown. The work of exploration has
+been hitherto baffled at various points by what seems an unsurmountable
+ice-barrier, which in some places is connected with masses of land and may
+as a whole belong to a great Antarctic continent. Among land-masses that
+have long been known to exist in the Antarctic Ocean, though our knowledge
+of them is very imperfect, are those to which have been attached the names
+Graham Land, Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, Enderby Land, South Shetland
+Islands, &c. The Antarctic regions are even colder and more inhospitable
+than the Arctic, and partly on account of their remoteness from the
+maritime nations there have been far fewer efforts at their exploration,
+the south pole being far less a goal of discovery than the north. See
+_South Polar Expeditions_.
+
+[Illustration: Ant-eater (_Myrmecoph[)a]ga jub[=a]ta_)]
+
+ANT-EATER, a name given to mammals of various genera that prey chiefly on
+ants, but usually confined to the genus Myrmecoph[)a]ga, ord. Edentata. In
+this genus the head is remarkably elongated, the jaws destitute of teeth,
+and the mouth furnished with a long, extensile tongue covered with
+glutinous saliva, by the aid of which the animals secure their insect prey.
+The eyes are particularly small, the ears short and round, and the legs,
+especially the fore-legs, very strong, and furnished with long, compressed,
+acute nails, admirably adapted for breaking into the ant-hills. The most
+remarkable species is the _Myrmecoph[)a]ga jub[=a]ta_, or ant-bear, a
+native of the warmer parts of South America. It is from 4 to 5 feet in
+length from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the black bushy tail,
+which is about 2 feet long. The body is covered with long hair,
+particularly along the neck and back. It is a harmless and solitary animal,
+and spends most of its time in sleep. Some are adapted for climbing trees
+in quest of the insects on which they feed, having prehensile tails. All
+are natives of South America. The name ant-eater is also given to the
+pangolins and to the aardvark. The echidna of Australia is sometimes called
+_porcupine ant-eater_.
+
+ANTECE´DENT, in grammar, the noun to which a relative or other pronoun
+refers; as, Solomon was the _prince who_ built the temple, where the word
+_prince_ is the antecedent of _who_.--In logic, that member of a
+hypothetical or conditional proposition which contains the condition, and
+which is introduced by _if_ or some equivalent word or words; as, if the
+sun is fixed, the earth must move. Here the first and conditional
+proposition is the _antecedent_, the second the _consequent_.
+
+ANTEDILU´VIAN, before the flood or deluge of Noah's time; relating to what
+happened before the deluge. In geology the term has been applied to
+organisms, traces of which are found in a fossil state in formations
+preceding the Diluvial (Glacial epoch), particularly to extinct animals
+such as the palæotherium, the mastodon, &c.
+
+AN´TELOPE, the name given to the members of a large family of Ruminant
+Ungulata or Hoofed Mammalia, closely resembling the Deer in general
+appearance, but essentially different in nature from the latter animals.
+They are included with the Sheep and Oxen in the family of the Cavicornia
+or 'Hollow-horned' Ruminants. Their horns, unlike those of the Deer, are
+not deciduous, but are permanent; are never branched, but are often twisted
+spirally, and may be borne by both sexes. They are found in greatest number
+and variety in Africa. Well-known species are the chamois (European), the
+gazelle, the addax, the eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the springbok, the
+sasin or Indian antelope, and the prongbuck of America.
+
+[Illustration: Antennæ
+
+1,1. Filiform Antennæ of Cucujo Firefly of Brazil (_Pyroph[)o]rus
+lumin[=o]sus_). 2. Denticulate Antenna; 3. Bipinnate; 4. Lamellicorn; 5.
+Clavate; 6. Geniculate; 7. Antenna and Antennule of Crustacean.]
+
+ANTEN´NÆ, the name given to the movable jointed organs of touch and hearing
+attached to the heads of insects, myriapods, &c., and commonly called horns
+or feelers. They present a very great variety of forms.
+
+ANTEQUERA ([.a]n-te-k[=a]´r[.a]), a city of Andalusia, in Spain, in the
+province of Malaga, a place of some importance under the Romans, with a
+ruined Moorish castle. It manufactures woollens, leather, soap, &c. Pop.
+32,360.
+
+ANT´EROS, in Greek mythology, the god of mutual love. According to some,
+however, Anteros is the enemy of love, or the god of antipathy; he was also
+said to punish those who did not return the love of others.
+
+ANTHE´LION, pl. ANTHELIA, a luminous ring, or rings, seen by an observer,
+especially in alpine and polar regions, around the shadow of his head
+projected on a cloud or fog-bank, or on grass covered with dew, 50 or 60
+yards distant, and opposite the sun when rising or setting. It is due to
+the diffraction of light.
+
+ANTHELMIN´THICS, or ANTHELMIN´TICS, a class of remedies used to destroy
+worms when lodged in the alimentary canal; classed as vermicides or
+vermifuges, according as the object is to kill the worms, or to expel them
+by purgation.
+
+AN´THEM, originally a hymn sung in alternate parts; in modern usage, a
+sacred tune or piece of music set to words taken from the Psalms or other
+parts of the Scriptures, first introduced into church service in
+Elizabeth's reign; a developed motet. The anthem may be for one, two, or
+any number of voices, but seldom exceeds five parts, and may or may not
+have an organ accompaniment written for it.
+
+[Illustration: Anthemion]
+
+ANTHE´MION, an ornament or ornamental series used in Greek and Roman
+decoration, which is derived from floral forms, more especially the
+honeysuckle. It was much used for the ornamentation of friezes and
+interiors, for the decoration of fictile vases, the borders of dresses, &c.
+
+AN´THEMIS, a genus of composite plants, comprising the camomile or
+chamomile.
+
+ANTHE´MIUS, a Greek mathematician and architect of Lydia; designed the
+church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and is credited with the invention
+of the dome; died A.D. 534.
+
+[Illustration: The Reproductive Organs of the Lily]
+
+AN´THER, the male organ of the flower; that part of the stamen which is
+filled with pollen.
+
+ANTHESTE´RIA, an annual Greek festival held in honour of all the gods, but
+especially in honour of Dionysus. It celebrated the beginning of spring,
+and the season when the wine of the previous vintage was considered fit for
+use.
+
+ANTHOCY´ANIN, the blue colour of flowers, a pigment obtained from those
+petals of flowers which are blue, by digesting them in spirits of wine.
+
+ANTHOL´OGY (Gr. _anthos_, a flower, and _legein_, to gather), the name
+given to several collections of short poems which have come down from
+antiquity. The first to compile a Greek anthology was Meleager, a Syrian,
+about 60 B.C. He entitled his collection, which contained selections from
+forty-six poets besides many pieces of his own, the _Garland_; a
+continuation of this work by Philip of Thessalonica in the age of Tiberius
+was the first entitled _Anthology_. Later collections are that of
+Constantine Cephalas, in the tenth century, who made much use of the
+earlier ones, and that of Maximus Planudes, in the fourteenth century, a
+monk of Constantinople, whose anthology is a tasteless series of extracts
+from the _Anthology_ of Cephalas, with some additions. The treasures
+contained in both, increased with fragments of the older poets, idylls of
+the bucolic poets, the hymns of Callimachus, epigrams from monuments and
+other works, have been published in modern times as the _Greek Anthology_.
+There is no ancient Latin anthology, the oldest being that of Scaliger
+(1573).
+
+AN´THON, Charles, LL.D., an American editor of classical school-books, and
+of works intended to facilitate the study of Greek and Latin literature;
+born 1797, died 1867. He was long a professor in Columbia College, New
+York.
+
+AN´THONY, St. the founder of monastic institutions, born near Heraclea, in
+Upper Egypt, A.D. 251. Giving up all his property he retired to the desert,
+where he was followed by a number of disciples, who thus formed the first
+community of monks. He died at the age of 105.--_St. Anthony's Fire_, a
+name given to erysipelas.
+
+AN´THRACENE (C_{14}H_{10}) occurs in coal-tar in small quantity, about
+0.25-0.45 per cent. During the distillation of tar a high-boiling fraction,
+boiling above 270° C., is obtained; this is crude anthracene oil, a
+greenish oily substance which, on further distillation, yields a
+crystalline mass, 50 per cent anthracene. This is carefully purified by
+distillation and chemical treatment to separate the anthracene from the
+other substances occurring with it, and the product obtained is finally
+purified by crystallization. When pure it forms colourless crystalline
+scales melting at 216° C., and having a violet fluorescence. It forms a
+series of derivatives, the most important being anthraquinone and alizarine
+and the numerous derivatives of these. Anthracene was originally a useless
+product in coal-tar distillation, but it became valuable as soon as it was
+discovered that alizarine--from which many dyes are manufactured directly
+or indirectly--could be prepared from it.
+
+AN´THRACITE, glance or blind coal, a non-bituminous coal of a shining
+lustre, approaching to metallic, and which burns without smoke, with a weak
+or no flame, and with intense heat. It consists of, on an average, 90 per
+cent carbon, 2 oxygen, 3 hydrogen, and 5 ashes. It has some of the
+properties of coal or charcoal, and, like that substance, represents an
+extreme alteration of vegetable substances by loss of gases, either during
+conditions of decay or after entombment among stratified rocks. It is found
+in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in large quantities in the United
+States (Pennsylvania), and near Swansea (South Wales). See _Coal_.
+
+AN´THRAX, a fatal disease to which animals are subject, always associated
+with the presence of an extremely minute micro-organism (_Bacillus
+anthr[)a]cis_) in the blood. It attacks cattle more frequently than other
+animals; sheep, horses, pigs, dogs, and fowls are liable to anthrax, but
+not cats. The mode of infection in animals is chiefly by ingestion. It may
+also be contracted through a wound or scratch in the skin, but this mode of
+infection is commoner in human beings than in animals. It frequently
+assumes an epizootic form, and extends over large districts, affecting all
+classes of animals which are exposed to the exciting causes. It is also
+called splenic fever, and is communicable to man, appearing as carbuncle,
+malignant pustule, or wool-sorter's disease.
+
+ANTHROPOL´ATRY, the worship of man, a word always employed in reproach;
+applied by the Apollinarians, who denied Christ's perfect humanity, towards
+the orthodox Christians.
+
+ANTHRO´POLITE, a petrifaction of the human body or skeleton, or of parts of
+the body, by the encrusting action of calcareous waters, and hence hardly
+to be considered fossil or sub-fossil.
+
+ANTHROPOL´OGY, the science of man, including the study of man's place in
+nature, that is, of the measurement of his agreement with and divergence
+from other animals and the history of the emergence of human
+characteristics; of the distinctive features and geographical distribution
+of the races of mankind, their customs and beliefs; of the remains of
+extinct types of the human family and the evidence relating to their modes
+of life. It puts under contribution all sciences which have man for their
+object, as anatomy, palæontology, psychology, archæology, history, and
+comparative religion. All the races of mankind that are now living, much as
+they differ in external appearance, such as colour of skin, character of
+hair, form of skull, face, and body, and stature, belong to one species,
+_Homo Sapiens_; but an earlier species of more brutal type, _H.
+neanderthalensis_, now completely extinct, is known from fossil remains
+found in Germany, Belgium, France, Gibraltar, and Croatia. Three more
+ancient and primitive types, probably representing distinct genera of the
+human family, have been discovered respectively at Piltdown, in Sussex
+(Eoanthropus), at Mauer, near Heidelberg (Palæanthropus), and in Java, the
+Ape-man (Pithecanthropus). The Piltdown man may represent the very remote,
+but direct, ancestor of modern man; but the Heidelberg man and the Ape-man
+were probably divergent 'sports' whose descendants never became men of the
+modern type.
+
+In structure the gorilla reveals a close kinship with the human family, and
+was probably derived from a common ancestry which probably differentiated
+into man's forerunner and the gorilla's in Miocene times. Of existing races
+the aboriginal Australian is much the most primitive, and represents the
+survival of the earliest type of _Homo Sapiens_ soon after this species
+became differentiated from men of the Neanderthal species. The negro, whose
+home is tropical Africa, is primitive in some respects, but in others is
+highly specialized. He is distinguished by his black skin, flat nose,
+prominent jaws and thick everted lips, and so-called 'woolly' or
+'pepper-corn' hair. In stature he shows a wider range of variation than any
+other race, including, as he does, the tallest and the shortest varieties
+of mankind. The Bushman is a peculiarly distinct racial type now restricted
+to the deserts of South Africa. Though his skin is yellowish rather than
+black, he is akin to the negro. The Mongolian race probably assumed its
+distinctive features, yellowish skin, coarse black hair, and characteristic
+facial and bodily traits, in Eastern Asia; and the aboriginal population of
+America was sprung mainly from the less-specialized branch of this race.
+The so-called white races include three main stocks, a people of short
+stature, olive complexion, and long heads, the Mediterranean race; a taller
+people with fair hair and long heads, the Nordic race; and a short,
+thick-set, black-haired, broad-headed Alpine race, which made its way from
+Asia into Europe many centuries after the other two chief components of
+Europe's population. For long ages in every part of the world intermixture
+has been taking place in varying degrees between the different races of
+mankind, so that to-day probably no pure race exists. See _Ethnography_,
+_Ethnology_, _Man_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Anthropology_; D. G.
+Brinton, _Races and Peoples_; W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_; E.
+Carpenter, _Anthropology_; G. Elliott Smith, _The Migrations of Early
+Culture_; H. G. F. Spurrell, _Modern Man and his Forerunners_;
+_Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques_; _The Journal of the
+Anthropological Institute of Great Britain_.
+
+ANTHROPOM´ETRY, the systematic examination of the height, weight, and other
+physical characteristics of the human body. It was shown in the British
+Association Report of 1888 that variations in stature, weight, and
+complexion, existing in different districts of the British islands, are
+chiefly due to difference of racial origin.
+
+The Scotch male adults stand first in height (68.71 inches), the Irish
+second (67.90 inches), the English third (67.66 inches), and the Welsh last
+(66.66 inches). In weight the Scotch take the first place (165.3 lb.), the
+Welsh the second (158.3 lb.), the English the third (155.0 lb.), and the
+Irish the last (154.1 lb.). The average height of adult females is 4.71
+inches less than the male average, and their average weight 32.2 lb. under
+that of the males. The average height of the adult males of the principal
+races or nationalities of the world may be given as under; but it is
+acknowledged that more numerous measurements might alter some of the
+figures considerably: Polynesians 69.33 inches, Patagonians 69 inches,
+Negroes of the Congo 69 inches, Scotch 68.71 inches, Iroquois Indians 68.28
+inches, Irish 67.90 inches, United States (whites) 67.67 inches, English
+67.66 inches, Norwegians 67.66 inches, Zulus 67.19 inches, Welsh 66.66
+inches, Danes 66.65 inches, Dutch 66.62 inches, American Negroes 66.62
+inches, Hungarians 66.58 inches, Germans 66.54 inches, Swiss 66.43 inches,
+Belgians 66.38 inches, French 66.23 inches, Berbers 66.10 inches, Arabs
+66.08 inches, Russians 66.04 inches, Italians 66 inches, Spaniards 65.66
+inches, Esquimaux 65.10 inches, Papuans 64.78 inches, Hindus 64.76 inches,
+Chinese 64.17 inches, Poles 63.87 inches, Finns 63.60 inches, Japanese
+63.11 inches, Peruvians 63 inches, Malays 62.34 inches, Lapps 59.2 inches,
+Bosjesmans 52.78 inches. General average, 65.25 inches.
+
+ANTHROPOMOR´PHISM, the representation or conception of the Deity under a
+human form, or with human attributes and affections. _Anthropomorphism_ is
+based upon the natural inaptitude of the human mind for conceiving
+spiritual things except through sensuous images, and in its consequent
+tendency to accept such expressions as those of Scripture when it speaks of
+the eye, the ear, and the hand of God, of his seeing and hearing, of his
+remembering and forgetting, of his making man in his own image, &c., in a
+too literal sense. In a general sense anthropomorphism is the assumption of
+man that his own characteristics are present in beings or things widely
+different from himself, more particularly in forces of nature and gods. The
+term is, therefore, also applied to that doctrine which attributes to
+animals mental faculties of the same nature as those of man, though much
+lower in degree: strictly called _biological anthropomorphism_, to
+distinguish it from anthropomorphism proper, or _theological
+anthropomorphism_. Cf. E. Caird, _Evolution of Religion_; J. R.
+Illingworth, _Personality, Human and Divine_.
+
+ANTHROPOPH´AGI, man-eaters, cannibals. Cannibalism was practised in very
+ancient times; and though some peoples, as the New Zealanders and Fijians,
+have given it up in recent times, it is still practised over a wide area in
+Central Africa, where human flesh is a common article of food.
+Superstitious ideas are often associated with cannibalism among those who
+practise it. The Caribs were cannibals at the time of the Spanish conquest,
+and the word 'cannibal' is derived from their name. See _Cannibalism_.
+
+ANTHUS. See _Pipit_.
+
+ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS are guns so mounted that they may be pointed upward to
+fire directly against objects in the air. During the European War these
+guns, fitted with special appliances and ammunition, were used for defence
+against air-raids of the enemy, against Zeppelins and Gothas. The
+anti-aircraft guns are of various types, ranging from light machine-guns up
+to batteries of 3-inch and 6-inch guns. Some of them have brought down
+enemy machines flying at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet.
+
+ANTIBES ([.a][n.]-t[=e]b) (ancient ANTIPOLIS), a fortified town and seaport
+of France, department Alpes-Maritimes, on the Mediterranean, 11 miles
+S.S.W. of Nice; founded about 340 B.C. Pop. 12,198.
+
+ANTI-BURGHER SYNOD, a section of the Scottish Secession Church, which held
+its first meeting in Edinburgh in the house of Adam Gib on 10th April,
+1747. It was formed in consequence of a breach resulting from a controversy
+respecting the religious clause of the oath taken by burgesses in
+Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Perth. Those in favour of the oath were designated
+Burghers, whilst their opponents, who condemned the oath of the burgesses,
+became known as Anti-burghers. The union of the burgher and anti-burgher
+sections was brought about in 1820 through the exertions of John Jamieson,
+minister at the Anti-burgher Church in Nicholson Street, Edinburgh. See
+_United Free Church of Scotland_.
+
+AN´TICHLOR, the name given to any chemical substance, such as hyposulphite
+of sodium, employed to remove the small quantity of chlorine which
+obstinately adheres to the fibres of the cloth when goods are bleached by
+means of chlorine.
+
+AN´TICHRIST, a word occurring in the first and second _Epistles of St.
+John_, and nowhere else in Scripture, in passages having an evident
+reference to a personage real or symbolical mentioned or alluded to in
+various other passages both of the Old and New Testaments. The _idea
+itself_, however, of Antichrist can be traced back to the second century
+B.C., and appears first of all in the _Book of Daniel_. In every age the
+Church has held through all its sects some definite expectation of a
+formidable adversary of truth and righteousness prefigured under this name.
+Thus Roman Catholics have found Antichrist in heresy, and Protestants in
+Romanism. In one point the sects have generally been agreed, namely, in
+regarding the various intimations on this subject in the Old and New
+Testaments as a homogeneous declaration or warning, inspired by the spirit
+of prophecy, of danger to the true religion from some disaffection and
+revolt organized in the latter days by Satan. Most modern critics take a
+different view of the matter. They do not regard the various Scriptural
+writers who have dealt with this subject as having had any common
+inspiration or design. They believe that each writer from his own point of
+view, guided by mere human sagacity, gives expression in his predictions to
+his own individual apprehensions, or narrates as prediction what he already
+knows. Originally Antichrist is nothing else than the incarnate devil, and
+the idea of the battle of God with a human opponent, endowed with devilish
+wickedness, arose under the influence of historical conditions. It is the
+near political horizon which suggests the danger, or contemporary history
+the substance of the prophecy; thus the Antichrist of Daniel is Antiochus
+Epiphanes, that of St. John Nero, that of St. Paul some adversary of
+Christianity about to appear in the time of the Emperor
+Claudius.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Baring-Gould, _Curious Myths of the Middle
+Ages_; W. Bousset, _Antichrist_.
+
+ANTICLI´MAX, a sudden declension of a writer or speaker from lofty to mean
+thoughts or language, as in the well-known lines, quoted in Pope's
+_Martinus Scriblerus on the Art of Sinking in Poetry_ as from an anonymous
+author:
+
+  And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war,
+  Lieutenant-colonel to the Earl of Mar.
+
+Pope, Addison, and Fielding were masters in this art of sudden descent.
+
+[Illustration: _a_, _a._ Anticlinal line. _b._ Synclinal line]
+
+ANTICLI´NAL LINE OR AXIS, in geology, the ridge of a wave-like curve made
+by a series of superimposed strata, the strata dipping from it on either
+side as from the ridge of a house: a _synclinal line_ runs along the trough
+of such a wave.
+
+ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an association formed in England in 1836 to procure
+the repeal of the laws regulating or forbidding the importation of corn.
+The object of the league was attained in 1846.
+
+ANTICOS´TI, an island of Canada, in the mouth of the St. Lawrence, 125
+miles long by 30 miles broad. The interior is mountainous and wooded, but
+there is much good land, and it is well adapted for agriculture.
+
+ANTICY´CLONE, a phenomenon presenting some features opposite to those of a
+cyclone. It consists of a region of high barometric pressure, the pressure
+being greatest in the centre, with light winds flowing outwards from the
+centre, and not inwards as in the cyclone, accompanied with great cold in
+winter and with great heat in summer.
+
+ANTICYRA (an-tis'i-ra), the name of two towns of Greece, the one in
+Thessaly, the other in Phocis, famous for hellebore, which in ancient times
+was regarded as a specific against insanity and melancholy. Hence various
+jocular allusions in ancient writers (_Naviga Anticyram_, sail to
+Anticyra).
+
+AN´TIDOTE, a medicine to counteract the effects of poison.
+
+ANTIETAM (an-t[=e]'tam), a small stream in the United States which falls
+into the Potomac about 50 miles N.W. of Washington; scene of an indecisive
+battle between the Federal and Confederate armies, 17th Sept., 1862.
+
+ANTI-FEDERALISTS, the political party in the United States which after the
+formation of the Federal constitution in 1787 opposed its ratification.
+Whilst the Federalists were striving to turn the federation into a united
+nation, and stood for a strong Government and centralizing tendencies,
+their opponents, the Anti-Federalists, either more democratic, or
+pretending that a strong Government meant a 'disguised' monarchic power,
+endeavoured to preserve a loose disintegrated federation. The
+Anti-Federalist party was gradually transformed into the
+Democratic-Republican party, led by Jefferson.
+
+ANTIFRICTION METAL, a name given to various alloys of tin, zinc, copper,
+antimony, lead, &c., which oppose little resistance to motion, with great
+resistance to the effects of friction, so far as concerns the wearing away
+of the surfaces of contact. Babbitt's metal (50 parts tin, 5 antimony, 1
+copper) is one of them.
+
+ANTIGONE (an-tig´o-n[=e]), in Greek mythology, the daughter of Oedipus and
+Jocasta, celebrated for her devotion to her brother Polynices, for burying
+whom against the decree of King Creon she suffered death. She is the
+heroine of Sophocles' _Oedipus at Colonus_ and his _Antigone_; also of
+Racine's tragedy _Les Frères Ennemis_.
+
+ANTIG´ONISH, a town in the E. of Nova Scotia, in county of the same name;
+the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, with a cathedral, a college, and a
+good harbour. Pop. 1787.
+
+ANTIG´ONUS, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, born about 382 B.C.
+In the division of the empire, after the death of Alexander, Antigonus
+obtained Greater Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia as his dominion. But he soon
+managed to extend his power, being assisted by his warlike son, Demetrius
+Poliorc[=e]t[=e]s. Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus, who had also been
+generals of Alexander, alarmed by his ambition, united themselves against
+him; and a long series of contests ensued in Syria, Phoenicia, Asia Minor,
+and Greece, ending in 301 B.C. with the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in
+which Antigonus was defeated and slain, his dominions being divided among
+the conquerors.
+
+ANTIGONUS GON´ATAS, son of Demetrius Poliorc[=e]t[=e]s, and grandson of the
+above, succeeded his father in the kingdom of Macedon and all his other
+European dominions, but did not obtain actual possession of them for some
+years. He died, after a reign of forty-four years, 239 B.C.
+
+ANTIGUA (an-t[=e]´gwa), one of the British West Indies, the most important
+of the Leeward group; 28 miles long, 20 broad; area, 108 sq. miles. Its
+shores are high and rocky, and much indented by creeks and inlets
+furnishing several good harbours. The surface is diversified by hill and
+dale, but nowhere rises to a greater height than 1500 feet. A considerable
+portion of it is fertile, and the climate is healthy, but there is a
+scarcity of water, there being no streams and few springs, droughts are not
+infrequent, and hurricanes are apt to cause serious loss and damage. Chief
+products are sugar, cotton, and pineapples. The island has fairly good
+shipping connections with the United Kingdom, the United States, and
+Canada. Antigua is governed as a crown colony, the Islands of Barbuda and
+Redonda being attached to it. The capital, St. John, the residence of the
+governor of the Leeward Islands, stands on the shore of a well-sheltered
+harbour in the north-west part of the island. Falmouth (English Harbour) in
+the south has also an excellent harbour with a dockyard. The island was
+discovered by Columbus in 1493; the first settlement was made by the
+English in 1632. Since then, except for a short period of occupation by the
+French, it has been a British possession. Pop. 32,269 (1911).
+
+ANTI-JAC´OBIN, a famous magazine (1797-1818), the original object of which
+was to satirize the Jacobin principles of the Fox section of Whigs;
+principal contributors: Gifford, Canning, Frere, and Ellis.
+
+ANTI-LEBANON, the eastern of the two parallel ranges known as the Mountains
+of Lebanon in Palestine. See _Lebanon_.
+
+ANTILEGOM´ENA (things spoken against or objected to), a term applied by
+early Christian writers to the _Epistle to the Hebrews_, 2 _Peter_,
+_James_, _Jude_, 2 and 3 _John_, and the _Apocalypse_, which, though read
+in the churches, were not for some time received into the canon of
+Scripture.
+
+ANTILLES (an-til´[=e]z), another name for the West Indian Islands
+(excluding Bahamas). See _West Indies_.
+
+ANTILOCHUS (an-til´o-kus), in Greek legend, a son of Nestor, distinguished
+among the younger heroes who took part in the Trojan War by beauty,
+bravery, and swiftness of foot. He was slain by Memnon, but Achilles
+avenged his death.
+
+ANTIMACASS´AR, a covering for chairs, sofas, couches, &c., made of open
+cotton or worsted work, to preserve them from being soiled, as by the oil
+applied to the hair.
+
+ANTIMACHUS (an-tim´a-kus), a Greek poet who lived about 400 B.C., and wrote
+an epic called the _Thebais_ on the mythical history of Thebes, and a long
+elegy called _Lyd[=e]_, inspired by a mistress or wife of that name. Both
+works were full of mythological details. Only fragments of his writings
+remain, and from these it can be gathered that his style was rather
+laboured and artificial. Yet the Alexandrian grammarians ranked him next to
+Homer.
+
+AN´TIMONY (chemical symbol, Sb, from Lat. _stibium_; sp. gr. 6.7, atomic
+wt. 120.2), a brittle metal of a bluish-white or silver-white colour and a
+crystalline or laminated structure. It melts at 630.6° C., and burns with a
+bluish-white flame. The mineral called stibnite or antimony-glance, is a
+tri-sulphide (Sb_2S_3), and is the chief ore from which the metal is
+obtained. It is found in many places, including France, Spain, Hungary,
+Italy, Canada, Australia, and Borneo. The metal, or, as it was formerly
+called, the _regulus of antimony_, does not rust or tarnish when exposed to
+the air. When alloyed with other metals it hardens them, and is therefore
+used in the manufacture of alloys, such as Britannia-metal, type-metal, and
+pewter. In bells it renders the sound more clear; it renders tin more white
+and sonorous as well as harder, and gives to printing types more firmness
+and smoothness. The salts of antimony are very poisonous. The protoxide is
+the active base of tartar emetic and James's powder, and is justly regarded
+as a most valuable remedy in many diseases.--_Yellow antimony_ is a
+preparation of antimony of a deep yellow colour, used in enamel and
+porcelain painting. It is of various tints, and the brilliancy of the
+brighter hues is not affected by foul air.
+
+ANTINO´MIANISM ('opposition to the law'), the name given by Luther to the
+inference drawn by John Agricola (1492-1566), from the doctrine of
+justification by faith, that the moral law is not binding on Christians as
+a rule of life. The term antinomian has since been applied to all doctrines
+and practices which seem to contemn or discountenance strict moral
+obligations. The Lutherans and Calvinists have both been charged with
+antinomianism, the former on account of their doctrine of justification by
+faith, the latter both on this ground and that of the doctrine of
+predestination. The charge is, of course, vigorously repelled by both.
+
+ANTIN´OMY, the opposition of one law or rule to another law or rule; in the
+Kantian philosophy, that natural contradiction which results from the law
+of reason, when, passing the limits of experience, we seek to conceive the
+complex of external phenomena, or nature, as a world or cosmos.
+
+ANTINOUS (an-tin´o-us), a young Bithynian whom the extravagant love of
+Hadrian has immortalized. He drowned himself in the Nile in A.D. 122.
+Hadrian set no bounds to his grief for his loss. He gave his name to a
+newly-discovered star, erected temples in his honour, called a city after
+him, and caused him to be adored as a god throughout the empire. Statues,
+busts, &c., of him are numerous.
+
+ANTIOCH (an´ti-ok), a town in Syria, famous in ancient times as the capital
+of the Greek Kings of Syria, on the left bank of the Orontes, about 21
+miles from the sea, in a beautiful and fertile plain. It was founded by
+Seleucus Nicator in 300 B.C., and named after his father Antiochus. In
+Roman times it was the seat of the Syrian governors, and the centre of a
+widely-extended commerce. It was called the 'Queen of the East' and 'The
+Beautiful'. Antioch is frequently mentioned in the New Testament, and it
+was here that the disciples of our Saviour were first called Christians
+(_Acts_, xi, 26). In the first half of the seventh century it was taken by
+the Saracens, and in 1098 by the Crusaders. They established the
+principality of Antioch, of which the first ruler was Bohemond, and which
+lasted till 1268, when it was taken by the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. In
+1516 it passed into the hands of the Turks. The modern Antioch, or
+_Antakieh_, has recently grown from a small place to a flourishing town.
+Pop. estimated at 30,000.--There was another Antioch, in Pisidia, at which
+St. Paul preached on his first missionary journey.
+
+[Illustration: Medal of Antiochus Epiphanes]
+
+ANTIOCHUS (an-t[=i]´o-kus), a name of several Græco-Syrian kings of the
+dynasty of the Seleuc[)i]dæ.--ANTIOCHUS I, called _S[=o]t[=e]r_
+('saviour'), was the son of Seleucus, general of Alexander the Great, and
+founder of the dynasty. He was born about 324 B.C., and succeeded his
+father in 280 B.C. During the greater part of his reign he was engaged in a
+protracted struggle with the Gauls who had crossed from Europe, and by whom
+he was killed in battle, 261 B.C.--ANTIOCHUS II, surnamed _Theos_ (god),
+succeeded his father, lost several provinces by revolt, and was murdered in
+246 B.C. by Laodic[=e], his wife, whom he had put away to marry
+Beren[=i]c[=e], daughter of Ptolemy.--ANTIOCHUS III, surnamed the _Great_,
+grandson of the preceding, was born 242 B.C., succeeded in 223 B.C. The
+early part of his reign embraced a series of wars against revolted
+provinces and neighbouring kingdoms, his expeditions extending to India,
+over Asia Minor, and afterwards into Europe, where he took possession of
+the Thracian Chersonese. Here he encountered the Romans, who had conquered
+Philip V of Macedon, and were prepared to resist his further progress.
+Antiochus gained an important adviser in Hannibal, who had fled for refuge
+to his Court; but he lost the opportunity of an invasion of Italy while the
+Romans were engaged in war with the Gauls, of which the Carthaginian urged
+him to avail himself. The Romans defeated him by sea and land, and he was
+finally overthrown by Scipio at Mount Sip[)y]lus, in Asia Minor, 190 B.C.,
+and very severe terms were imposed upon him. He was killed while plundering
+a temple in Elymais to procure money to pay the Romans.--ANTIOCHUS IV,
+called _Epiph[)a]nes,_ youngest son of the above, is chiefly remarkable for
+his attempt to extirpate the Jewish religion, and to establish in its place
+the polytheism of the Greeks. This led to the insurrection of the
+Maccabees, by which the Jews ultimately recovered their independence. He
+died 164 B.C.
+
+ANTIOQUIA ([.a]n-t[=e]-[=o]-k[=e]´[.a]), a town of South America, in
+Colombia, on the River Cauca; founded in 1542. Pop. 8730. It gives name to
+a department of the republic; area, 22,752 sq. miles. Pop. 739,434.
+Capital, Medellin.
+
+ANTIP´AROS (ancient, OLI[)A]ROS), one of the Cyclades Islands in the
+Grecian Archipelago, containing a famous stalactitic grotto or cave. It
+lies south-west of Paros, from which it is separated by a narrow strait,
+and has an area of 10 sq. miles, and about 700 inhabitants.
+
+ANTIP´ATER, a general and friend of Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander
+the Great. On the death of Alexander, in 323 B.C., the regency of Macedonia
+was assigned to Antipater, who succeeded in establishing the Macedonian
+rule in Greece on a firm footing. He died 317 B.C., at an advanced age.
+
+ANTIP´ATHY, a special dislike exhibited by individuals to particular
+objects or persons, usually resulting from physical or nervous
+organization. An antipathy is often an unaccountable repugnance to what
+people in general regard with no particular dislike, as certain sounds,
+smells, articles of food, &c., and it may be manifested by fainting or
+extreme discomfort.
+
+ANTIPHLOGIS´TIC, a term applied to medicines or methods of treatment that
+are intended to counteract inflammation, such as bloodletting, purgatives,
+diaphoretics, &c.
+
+AN´TIPHON, a Greek orator, born near Athens; founder of political oratory
+in Greece. His orations are the oldest extant, and he is said to have been
+the first who wrote speeches for hire. He was put to death for taking part
+in the revolution of 411 B.C., which established the oligarchic government
+of the Four Hundred. Antiphon seems to have specialized in homicide cases;
+his most celebrated speech is _On the Murder of Herodas_. Cf. Sir R. C.
+Jebb, _Attic Orators_; J. F. Dobson, _The Greek Orators_.
+
+ANTIPHON, or ANTIPH´ONY ('alternate song'), in the Christian Church a verse
+first sung by a single voice, and then repeated by the whole choir; or any
+piece to be sung by alternate voices.
+
+ANTIPODES (an-tip´o-d[=e]z), the name given relatively to people or places
+on opposite sides of the earth, so situated that a line drawn from one to
+the other passes through the centre of the earth and forms a true diameter.
+The longitudes of two such places differ by 180°. The difference in their
+time is about twelve hours, and their seasons are reversed.
+
+ANTIPODES ISLANDS, a group of small uninhabited islands in the South
+Pacific Ocean, about 460 miles S.E. by E. of New Zealand; so called from
+being nearly antipodal to Greenwich. Antipodes Island rises to 1300 feet,
+and is largely covered with coarse grass; huts have been fitted up to
+shelter castaways.
+
+AN´TIPOPE, the name applied to those who at different periods have produced
+a schism in the Roman Catholic Church by opposing the authority of the
+Pope, under the pretence that they were themselves Popes. The Roman Church
+cannot admit that there ever existed two Popes; but the fact is, that in
+several cases the competitors for the papal chair were equally Popes; that
+is to say, the claims of all were equally good. Each was frequently
+supported by whole nations, and the schism was nothing but the struggle of
+political interests. Twenty-nine antipopes are enumerated in Church
+history; the last of them is Felix V, 1439-49.
+
+ANTIPYRET´ICS, medicines given for the purpose of reducing fever by
+lowering the patient's temperature, whether by causing perspiration or
+otherwise. Quinine, antipyrin, phenacetin, are common antipyretics. An
+aperient or purgative often serves the same purpose.
+
+ANTIPY´RIN, a drug obtained from coal-tar products, valuable in reducing
+fever and in relieving pain, being much used in nervous headache and
+neuralgia.
+
+AN´TIQUARIES, those devoted to the study of ancient times through their
+relics, as old places of burial, remains of ancient habitations, early
+monuments, implements or weapons, statues, coins, medals, paintings,
+inscriptions, books, and manuscripts, with the view of arriving at a
+knowledge of the relations, modes of living, habits, and general condition
+of the people who created or employed them. Societies or associations of
+antiquaries have been formed in all countries of European civilization. In
+Britain the Society of Antiquaries of London was founded in 1572, revived
+in 1717. and incorporated in 1751. The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
+was founded in 1780, incorporated in 1783, and has the management of a
+large national antiquarian museum in Edinburgh. One of the best-known
+antiquarian societies in Europe is the _Société Royale des Antiquaires du
+Nord_ at Copenhagen.
+
+ANTIQUES (an-t[=e]ks'), a term specifically applied to the remains of
+ancient art, as statues, paintings, vases, cameos, and the like, and more
+especially to the works of Grecian and Roman antiquity.
+
+ANTIRRHINUM (an-ti-r[=i]´num) (from _anti_, instead of, and _rhis_, snout),
+a genus of annual or perennial plants of the nat. ord. Scrophulariaceæ,
+commonly known as _snapdragon_, on account of the peculiarity of the
+blossoms, which, by pressing between the finger and thumb, may be made to
+open and shut like a mouth. They all produce showy flowers, and are much
+cultivated in gardens. Many varieties of some of them, such as the great or
+common snapdragon (_Antirrhinum majus_), have been produced by gardeners.
+The lesser snapdragon grows in sandy soil, and is found in cornfields in
+the south of England and Ireland.
+
+ANTISANA ([.a]n-t[=e]-sä´n[.a]), a volcano in the Andes of Ecuador, 35
+miles S.E. by E. of Quito. Whymper, who ascended it in 1880, makes its
+height 19,260 feet.
+
+ANTIS´CIANS (Gr. _anti_, over against, _skia_, a shadow), those who live
+under the same meridian, at the same distance N. and S. of the equator, and
+whose shadows at noon consequently are thrown in contrary directions.
+
+ANTISCORBU´TICS, remedies against scurvy. Lemon-juice, ripe fruit, milk,
+salts of potash, green vegetables, potatoes, fresh meat, and raw or
+lightly-boiled eggs, are some of the principal foodstuffs containing
+antiscorbutic vitamines.
+
+ANTI-SEM´ITISM, hostility to the Jews (Semites), actively exhibited in
+severities and attacks of various kinds. The movement assumed vast
+proportions about 1880 and manifested itself in various countries,
+especially Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Roumania, and France. It may
+be attributed to different motives in different countries, but on the whole
+owed its origin not only to the fact of the Jews being a 'peculiar people'
+by race and religion, but also to the comparatively high position won by
+them in modern times in the financial and political worlds. The religious
+element is quite prominent in the popular attacks on the Jew, although
+modern anti-Semitism is essentially social and economic. In Western Russia
+there was a great outburst against the Jews in 1881, in which men, women,
+and children were slaughtered. The Government of the Tsar, by its
+anti-Jewish policy, may be said to have sanctioned this murderous outbreak,
+which was followed by harsh laws and actual persecutions, though afterwards
+there was a mitigation of the severity shown towards the Jews. Yet in 1903
+the world was startled by a terrible massacre of Jews at Kishinev, in
+Bessarabia, connived at by the authorities on the spot; and towards the end
+of 1905, in connection with the Russian revolutionary movement, there were
+dreadful massacres of Jews in Odessa, Kishinev, and other towns, the
+authorities being similarly involved. In Roumania, until 1919, the position
+of the Jews resembled what it was elsewhere in mediæval times, and was less
+favourable than it was even under the Turks. In Germany the movement has
+been worked chiefly by politicians for their own ends, though the racial
+and religious question has also had some influence; and among the ignorant
+the belief that the Jews murder Christian children for ritual purposes has
+been revived, as also in Austria and in Hungary. In these countries the
+movement has been partly political, partly social and economic, partly
+religious. In France anti-Semitism has been employed chiefly as a weapon by
+monarchists and clericals as against republicanism, and by the Socialists
+as against capitalism, racial antipathy having also its influence on the
+movements. It reached its height in 1895 at the time of the Dreyfus affair.
+In Britain, too, anti-Semitism has of late made itself felt.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+A. Leroy-Beaulieu, _Israel among the Nations_; Bernard Lazare,
+_L'anti-sémitisme, son histoire et ses causes_.
+
+ANTISEP´TIC (Gr. _anti_, against, and _s[=e]pein_, to rot), an agent which
+destroys the germs of putrefaction or suppuration is called an antiseptic.
+Many substances act thus, e.g. chlorine, iodine, hypochlorous acid,
+sulphurous acid, camphor, creosote, iodoform, nascent oxygen ('Sanitas'),
+corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde ('Formalin'), potassium permanganate
+('Condy's Fluid'), carbolic acid (Lysol, Izal, Cyllin); lately aniline dyes
+have become prominent: of these flavine has proved the most useful addition
+to surgery of recent years. It was much used in the European War
+(1914-8).--_Antiseptics_ are also used for purifying surgical instruments,
+&c., and commercially as disinfectants. When introduced by Lister into
+surgical practice they led to revolutionary advances in surgery. The
+tendency of late years has been to abandon antiseptic for aseptic (sterile)
+mode of technique, but during the war (1914-8) there was a general return
+to antiseptic methods in surgery.
+
+ANTISPASMOD´IC, a medicine for the cure of spasms and convulsions; such
+belong largely to the class of ethers, as sulphuric ether, chloric ether,
+nitric ether, &c.
+
+ANTISTHENES (an-tis´the-n[=e]z), a Greek philosopher and the founder of the
+school of Cynics, born at Athens about 444 B.C. He was first a disciple of
+Gorgias and then of Socrates, at whose death he was present. His philosophy
+was a one-sided development of the Socratic teaching. He held virtue to
+consist in complete self-denial and in disregard of riches, honour, or
+pleasure of every kind. He himself lived as a beggar. He died in Athens at
+an advanced age.
+
+ANTIS´TROPHE. See _Strophe_.
+
+ANTI-SUBMARINE. See _Submarine_.
+
+ANTI-TAURUS, a mountain range of Anatolia, Asia Minor, extending from the
+Cicilian Taurus towards the north-east, and connecting the Taurus mountain
+system with Mount Ararat, Mount Elbruz, and the Caucasus. See _Taurus_.
+
+ANTITH´ESIS (opposition), a figure of speech consisting in a contrast or
+opposition of words or sentiments; as, 'When our vices _leave us_, we
+flatter ourselves we _leave them_'; 'The prodigal _robs his heir_, the
+miser _robs himself_'.
+
+ANTITOXIN, the name given to a class of bodies of unknown nature having the
+capacity of neutralizing the poisonous substances (toxins) by which certain
+bacteria produce disease. If such a toxin be introduced every few days in
+increasing doses, into, e.g., the horse, and if, after some months of this
+treatment, the animal be bled, its serum contains the antitoxin to the
+toxins used. The use of the antitoxin to the toxin of diphtheria is most
+efficacious in curing that disease, and the treatment has caused a great
+fall in the death-rate. It ought to be applied as soon as possible after
+signs appear in the throat. An antitoxic treatment is also applicable in
+cases of tetanus (lock-jaw), a disease liable to follow any wound
+contaminated with dirt, especially with manured soil. Less success has been
+achieved when the disease is fully established, but if the antitoxin be
+injected immediately after the wound has been incurred, then the subsequent
+development of the disease is prevented. This preventive treatment has been
+attended with marked effect in the case of wounds received in war, which it
+is almost impossible to keep free from contamination. Antitoxins were
+extensively used during the European War. (1914-8). In bacterial diseases
+other than those mentioned, sera have been produced by injecting into large
+animals dead and living bacteria, e.g. the organisms of epidemic
+cerebro-spinal meningitis (spotted fever), pneumonia, blood-poisoning, &c.,
+and these sera probably depend for their action on the presence of bodies
+similar to antitoxins. See _Bacteria_, _Diphtheria_.
+
+ANTI-TRADE WINDS, a name given to any of the upper tropical winds which
+move northward or southward in the same manner as the trade-winds which
+blow beneath them in the opposite direction. These great aerial currents
+descend to the surface after they have passed the limits of the
+trade-winds, and form the south-west or west-south-west winds of the north
+temperate, and the north-west or west-north-west winds of the south
+temperate zones.
+
+ANTITRINITA´RIANS, all who do not receive the doctrine of the divine
+Trinity, or the existence of three persons in the Godhead; especially
+applied to those who oppose such a doctrine on philosophical grounds, as
+contrasted with Unitarians, who reject the doctrine as not warranted by
+Scripture.
+
+AN´TITYPE, that which is correlative to a type; by theological writers the
+term is employed to denote the reality of which a _type_ is the prophetic
+symbol.
+
+AN´TIUM, in ancient Italy, one of the most ancient and powerful cities of
+Latium, the chief city of the Volsci, and often at war with the Romans, by
+whom it was finally taken in 338 B.C. It was 38 miles distant from Rome, a
+flourishing seaport, and became a favourite residence of the wealthy
+Romans. It was destroyed by the Saracens, but vestiges of it remain at
+Porto d'Anzo, near which many valuable works of art have been found.
+
+ANTIVARI ([.a]n-t[=e]´v[.a]-r[=e]), a seaport town on the eastern shore of
+the Adriatic, ceded to Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). Antivari
+was opened as a free port on 23rd Oct., 1909. It was occupied by the
+Austrians in 1916, and by the Italians in Nov., 1918. Pop. 2500.
+
+ANTLERS, the horns of the deer tribe, or the snags or branches of the
+horns.
+
+ANT-LION, the larva of a Neuropterous insect (_Myrmel[)e]on
+formic[=a]rius_), which in its perfect state greatly resembles a
+dragon-fly; curious on account of its ingenious method of catching the
+insects--chiefly ants--on which it feeds. It digs a funnel-shaped hole in
+the driest and finest sand it can find, and when the pit is deep enough,
+and the sides are quite smooth and sloping, it buries itself at the bottom
+with only its formidable mandibles projecting, and waits till some luckless
+insect stumbles over the edge, when it is immediately seized, its juices
+sucked, and the dead body jerked out. It inhabits Southern Europe.
+
+ANTOFAGAS´TA, a Chilian seaport on the Bay of Morena, and a territory of
+the same name taken from Bolivia in the war of 1879-82, and definitely
+ceded to Chile in 1885. The territory has an area of 46,408 sq. miles; pop.
+(1919), 235,506. The port is connected by railway with the silver and other
+mines lying inland, and exports silver, copper, cubic nitre, &c., partly
+from Bolivia. Pop. (1919), 69,175.
+
+ANTOINETTE ([.a][n.]-tw[.a]-net), Marie. See _Marie Antoinette_.
+
+ANTOKOLSKI, Mark, Russian sculptor of Jewish extraction, born at Vilna in
+1843. He studied at the Petrograd Academy of Fine Arts, and his earliest
+success was a wooden statue _The Jewish Tailor_ (1864). In 1868 he received
+a grant for travelling, and whilst in Italy he finished his famous statue,
+_Ivan the Terrible_. He was made an academician, and in 1878 was awarded
+the first prize for sculpture at the Paris International Exhibition. In
+1888 he settled permanently in Paris, where he died in 1902. His works
+include: _Peter the Great_ (1872), _Christ before the People_ (1874), _The
+Death of Socrates_ (1876), _Spinoza_ (1882), _Yermak_ and _The Sleeping
+Beauty_ (1900).
+
+ANTOMMARCHI (-mär´k[=e]), Carlo Francesco, Italian physician, born in
+Corsica in 1780, died in Cuba 1838. He was professor of anatomy at Florence
+when he offered himself as physician to Napoleon at St. Helena. Napoleon at
+first received him with reserve, but soon admitted him to his confidence,
+and testified his satisfaction with him by leaving him a legacy of 100,000
+francs. On his return to Europe he published _Les Derniers Moments de
+Napoléon_ (2 vols., 8vo, 1823).
+
+ANTONELL´I, Giacomo, cardinal, born 1806, died 1876. He was educated at the
+Grand Seminary of Rome, where he attracted the attention of Pope Gregory
+XVI, who appointed him to several important offices. On the accession of
+Pius IX in 1846 Antonelli was raised to the dignity of cardinal-deacon; two
+years later he became president and Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in
+1850 was appointed Secretary of State. During the sitting of the
+Oecumenical Council (1869-70) he was a prominent champion of the papal
+interest. He strongly opposed the assumption of the united Italian crown by
+Victor Emanuel.
+
+ANTONELL´O (of Messina), an Italian painter who died at Venice, probably in
+1493, and is said to have introduced oil-painting into Italy, having been
+instructed in it by Jan Van Eyck. Three works by him are in the National
+Gallery, London.
+
+ANTONI´NUS, ITINERARY OF. See _Itinerary_.
+
+ANTONI´NUS, Marcus Aurelius. See _Aurelius_.
+
+ANTONI´NUS, WALL OF, a barrier erected by the Romans across the isthmus
+between the Forth and the Clyde, in the reign of Antoninus Pius. Its
+western extremity was at or near Dunglass Castle, its eastern at Carriden,
+and the whole length of it exceeded 27 miles. It was constructed A.D. 140
+by Lollius Urbicus, the imperial legate, and consisted of a ditch 40 feet
+wide and 20 feet deep, and a rampart of stone and earth on the south side
+24 feet thick and 20 feet in height. It was strengthened at either end and
+along its course by a series of forts and watch-towers. It may still be
+traced at various points, and is commonly known as _Graham's Dyke_.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Antoninus Pius]
+
+ANTONI´NUS PIUS, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, Roman emperor, was born at
+Lavinium, near Rome, A.D. 86, died A.D. 161. In 120 A.D. he became consul,
+and he was one of the four persons of consular rank among whom Hadrian
+divided the supreme administration of Italy. He then went as proconsul to
+Asia, and after his return to Rome became more and more the object of
+Hadrian's confidence. In A.D. 138 he was selected by that emperor as his
+successor, and the same year he ascended the throne. He speedily put down
+the persecutions of the Christians, and carried on but a few wars. In
+Britain he extended the Roman dominion, and, by raising a new wall (see
+preceding article), put a stop to the invasions of the Picts and Scots. The
+senate gave him the surname _Pius_, that is, dutiful or showing filial
+affection, because to keep alive the memory of Hadrian he had built a
+temple in his honour. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius, his adopted son.
+
+ANTO´NIUS, Marcus (Mark Antony), Roman triumvir, born 83 B.C., was
+connected with the family of Cæsar by his mother. Debauchery and
+prodigality marked his youth. To escape his creditors he went to Greece in
+58, and from thence followed the consul Gabinius on a campaign in Syria as
+commander of the cavalry. He served in Gaul under Cæsar in 52 and 51. In 50
+he returned to Rome to support the interests of Cæsar against the
+aristocratical party headed by Pompey, and was appointed tribune. When war
+broke out between Cæsar and Pompey, Antony led reinforcements to Cæsar in
+Greece, and in the battle of Pharsalia he commanded the left wing. He
+afterwards returned to Rome with the appointment of Master of the Horse and
+Governor of Italy (47). In 44 B.C. he became Cæsar's colleague in the
+consulship. Soon after Cæsar was assassinated, Antony, by the reading of
+Cæsar's will, and by the oration which he delivered over his body, excited
+the people to anger and revenge, and the murderers were obliged to flee.
+After several quarrels and reconciliations with Octavianus, Cæsar's heir
+(see _Augustus_), Antony departed to Cisalpine Gaul, which province had
+been conferred upon him against the will of the Senate. But Cicero
+thundered against him in his famous _Philippics_; the Senate declared him a
+public enemy, and entrusted the conduct of the war against him to
+Octavianus and the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. After a campaign of varied
+fortunes Antony fled with his troops over the Alps. Here he was joined by
+Lepidus, who commanded in Gaul, and through whose mediation Antony and
+Octavianus were again reconciled. It was agreed that the Roman world should
+be divided among the three conspirators, who were called _triumviri_.
+Antony was to take Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; and Octavianus, Africa and Sicily.
+They decided upon the proscription of their mutual enemies, each giving up
+his friends to the others, the most celebrated of the victims being Cicero
+the orator. Antony and Octavianus departed in 42 for Macedonia, where the
+united forces of their enemies, Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army,
+which was, however, speedily defeated at Philippi. Antony next visited
+Athens, and thence proceeded to Asia. In Cilicia he ordered Cleopatra,
+Queen of Egypt, to apologize for her insolent behaviour to the _triumviri_.
+She appeared in person, and her charms fettered him for ever. He followed
+her to Alexandria, where he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of
+the world, till he was aroused by a report that hostilities had commenced
+in Italy between his own relatives and Octavianus. A short war, followed,
+which was decided in favour of Octavianus before the arrival of Antony in
+Italy. A reconciliation was effected, which was sealed by the marriage of
+Antony with Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. A new division of the Roman
+dominions was now made (in 40), by which Antony obtained the East,
+Octavianus the West. After his return to Asia Antony gave himself up
+entirely to Cleopatra, assuming the style of an Eastern despot, and so
+alienating many of his adherents and embittering public opinion against him
+at Rome. At length war was declared at Rome against the Queen of Egypt, and
+Antony was deprived of his consulship and government. Each party assembled
+its forces, and Antony lost, in the naval battle at Actium, 31 B.C., the
+dominion of the world. He followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, and on the
+arrival of Octavianus his fleet and cavalry deserted, and his infantry was
+defeated. Deceived by a false report of her death which Cleopatra had
+disseminated, he fell upon his own sword (30 B.C.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mommsen,
+_Roman History_; Plutarch, _Lives_ (translated by Langhorne); De Quincey,
+_Essay on the Cæsars_.
+
+ANTONOMA´SIA, in rhetoric, the use of the name of some office, dignity,
+profession, science, or trade instead of the true name of the person, as
+when _his majesty_ is used for a king, _his lordship_ for a nobleman; or
+when, instead of Aristotle, we say, _the philosopher_; or, conversely, the
+use of a proper noun instead of a common noun; as, a _Solomon_ for a wise
+man.
+
+ANTONY, Mark. See _Antonius_ (_Marcus_).
+
+ANTONY, ST. See _Anthony_.
+
+AN´TRIM, a county of Ireland, province of Ulster, in the north-east of the
+island; area, 702,654 acres, of which about a third are arable. The eastern
+and northern districts are comparatively mountainous, with tracts of heath
+and bog, but no part rises to a great height. The principal rivers are the
+Lagan and the Bann, which separate Antrim from Down and Londonderry
+respectively. The general soil of the plains and valleys is strong loam.
+Flax, oats, and potatoes are the principal agricultural produce. Cattle,
+sheep, swine, and goats are extensively reared. There are salt-mines and
+beds of iron-ore, which is worked and exported. A range of basaltic strata
+stretches along the northern coast, of which the celebrated Giant's
+Causeway is the most remarkable portion, the vast aggregates of natural
+rock pillars there being very striking. The interior also contains some
+scenes of picturesque beauty, particularly the fertile valley of the Lagan,
+between Belfast and Lisburn. Much of the scenery of the county, however, is
+dreary and monotonous. Lough Neagh, the largest lake of the United Kingdom,
+is principally in Antrim. Its waters are carried to the sea by the Bann,
+which is of no use for navigation, being obstructed by weirs and rocks. The
+spinning of linen and cotton yarn, and the weaving of linen and cotton, are
+the staple manufactures, but the cotton manufacture is small compared with
+that of linen. The principal towns are Belfast, Lisburn, Ballymena, Larne,
+and Carrickfergus. In 1898 Belfast, the former capital, was constituted
+into a county borough. About fifty per cent of the inhabitants are
+Presbyterians, being the descendants of Scottish immigrants of the
+seventeenth century. The county sends four members to Parliament; Belfast
+returns nine. Pop. (excluding Belfast) 193,864 (1911).--The town of Antrim,
+at the north end of Lough Neagh, is a small place with a pop. of 1826.
+
+ANT-THRUSH, a name given to certain passerine or perching birds having
+resemblances to the thrushes and supposed to feed largely on ants. They all
+have longish legs, short wings, and a short tail. The true ant-thrushes of
+the Old World belong to the genus Pitta. They chiefly inhabit southern and
+south-eastern Asia and the Eastern Archipelago, but are also found in
+Africa and Australia, and are birds of brilliant plumage, exhibiting black,
+white, scarlet, blue, and green in vivid contrast, there being generally no
+blending of colours by means of intermediate hues. These birds are not now
+regarded as allied to the thrushes, nor are they allied to the ant-birds,
+or ant-thrushes of the New World, which live among close foliage and
+bushes. Some of these are called ant-shrikes and ant-wrens. They belong to
+several genera.
+
+ANT´WERP (Du. and Ger. _Antwerpen_, Fr. _Anvers_), the chief port of
+Belgium, and one of the first on the Continent, the capital of a province
+of the same name, on the Scheldt, about 50 miles from the open sea. It lies
+in a fertile plain at an abrupt turn of the river, which is here from 160
+to 280 yards wide, and has a depth varying from 25 to 50 feet. It is
+strongly fortified, being completely surrounded on the land side by a
+semicircular inner line of fortifications, the defences being completed by
+an outer line of forts and outworks. Fine quays have been constructed along
+the river banks. The general appearance of the city is exceedingly
+picturesque, an effect produced by the numerous churches, convents, and
+magnificent public buildings, the stately antique houses that line its
+older thoroughfares, and the profusion of beautiful trees with which it is
+adorned. The older streets are tortuous and irregular, but those in the
+newer quarters are wide and regular. Some of the squares are very handsome.
+The cathedral, with a spire 400 feet high, one of the largest and most
+beautiful specimens of Gothic architecture in Belgium, contains Rubens'
+celebrated masterpieces, _The Descent from the Cross_, _The Elevation of
+the Cross_, and _The Assumption_. The other churches of note are St.
+James's, St. Andrew's, and St. Paul's, all enriched with paintings by
+Rubens, Vandyck, and other masters. Among the other buildings of note are
+the exchange, the town hall, the palace, the theatre, academy of the fine
+arts, picture and sculpture galleries, &c. The harbour accommodation is
+extensive and excellent, large new docks and quays having been recently
+built, and other works being under construction or contemplated. The
+shipping trade is now very large, Antwerp being a great centre of the
+world's commerce, and the goods being largely in transit. The entries of
+vessels in a year aggregate over 13,000,000 tons. Much of the trade is with
+Britain. There are numerous but not very important industries. Antwerp is
+mentioned as early as the eighth century, and in the eleventh and twelfth
+it had attained a high degree of prosperity. In the sixteenth century it is
+said to have had a pop. of 200,000, and it had then an extensive foreign
+trade. The wars between the Netherlands and Spain greatly injured its
+commerce, which was almost ruined by the closing of the navigation of the
+Scheldt in accordance with the peace of Westphalia (1648). It was only in
+the nineteenth century that its prosperity revived. In the European War
+(1914-8), the Germans, under General von Beseler, entered Antwerp on 7th
+Oct., 1914, and remained there until Nov., 1918. Pop. (1919), 322,857.--The
+province consists of a fertile plain 1093 sq. miles in area, and has a pop.
+of over 1,000,000.
+
+[Illustration: Anubis]
+
+ANU´BIS (_Anepo_ on the monuments), one of the deities of the ancient
+Egyptians, the son of Osiris by Isis. The Egyptian sculptures represent him
+with the head, or under the form, of a jackal, with long pointed ears. His
+office was to conduct the souls of the dead from this world to the next,
+and in the lower world he weighed the actions of the deceased previous to
+their admission to the presence of Osiris.
+
+ANÚPSHAHR (_a_-nöp´shär), a town of Hindustan, United Provinces, on the
+Ganges, 75 miles S.E. of Delhi, a resort of Hindu pilgrims who bathe in the
+Ganges. Pop. 15,000.
+
+ANU´RA, or ANOU´RA (Gr. _an_, negative, _oura_, a tail), an ord. of
+Batrachians which lose the tail when they reach maturity, such as the frogs
+and toads.
+
+ANURADHAPURA. See _Anarajapura_.
+
+A´NUS, the opening at the lower or posterior extremity of the alimentary
+canal through which the excrement or waste products of digestion are
+expelled.
+
+AN´VIL, an instrument on which pieces of metal are laid for the purpose of
+being hammered. The common smith's anvil is generally made of seven pieces,
+namely, the core or body; the four corners for the purpose of enlarging its
+base; the projecting end, which contains a square hole for the reception of
+a set or chisel to cut off pieces of iron; and the beak or conical end,
+used for turning pieces of iron into a circular form, &c. These pieces are
+each separately welded to the core and hammered so as to form a regular
+surface with the whole. When the anvil has received its due form, it is
+faced with steel, and is then tempered in cold water. The smith's anvil is
+generally placed loose upon a wooden block. The anvil for heavy operations,
+such as the forging of ordnance and shafting, consists of a huge iron block
+deeply embedded, and resting on piles of masonry.
+
+ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' (jä[n.] b[.a]p-t[=e]st
+b[=o]r-g[=e]-nyö[n.] dä[n.]-v[=e]l), a celebrated French geographer, born
+1697, died 1782; published a great number of maps and writings illustrative
+of ancient and modern geography.
+
+ANYNAKS, a negro tribe inhabiting the banks of the Upper Sobat (a tributary
+of the White Nile), between the Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia. They rebelled
+against British authority in 1912.
+
+ANZACS, a composite word used as the name of the British colonial troops in
+the Gallipoli undertaking. The men being from Australia and New Zealand,
+their organization was officially known as the Australian-New Zealand Army
+Corps. The full title, however, was much too cumbersome, and a clerk in one
+of the head-quarters offices at Zeitoun, where the troops were in training,
+hit upon the word _Anzacs_, formed from the initial letters of the long
+title. The Anzacs landed near Gaba Tepe, Gallipoli, on the morning of 25th
+April, 1915, and had their first encounter with the Germans on the Western
+Front on 6th May, 1916. In 1916 the word Anzac was officially adopted by
+the War Office.
+
+ANZIN ([.a][n.]-za[n.]), a town of France, department of Nord, about 1 mile
+north-west of Valenciennes, in the centre of an extensive coal-field, with
+blast-furnaces, forges, rolling-mills, foundries, &c. Pop. 14,325.
+
+AONIA, in ancient geography a name for part of Boeotia in Greece,
+containing Mount Helicon and the fountain Aganippe, both haunts of the
+muses.
+
+A´ORIST, the name given to one of the tenses of the verb in some languages
+(as the Greek), which expresses indefinite past time.
+
+AOR´TA, in anatomy, the great artery or trunk of the arterial system,
+proceeding from the left ventricle of the heart, and giving origin to all
+the arteries except the pulmonary. It first rises towards the top of the
+breast-bone, when it is called the _ascending aorta_; then makes a great
+curve, called the transverse or _great arch of the aorta_, whence it
+branches off to the head and upper extremities; thence proceeding towards
+the lower extremities, under the name of the _descending aorta_, it
+branches off to the trunk; and finally divides into the two iliacs, which
+supply the pelvis and lower extremities.
+
+AOSTA ([.a]-os´t[.a]; ancient AUGUSTA PRÆTORIA), a town of north Italy, 50
+miles N.N.W. of Turin, on the Dora-Baltea, with an ancient triumphal arch,
+remains of an amphitheatre, &c. Pop. 7000.
+
+AOUDAD (a-ö´dad), the _Ammotr[)a]gus tragel[)a]phus_, a quadruped allied to
+the sheep, most closely to the mouflon, from which, however, it may be
+easily distinguished by the heavy mane, commencing at the throat and
+falling as far as the knees. It is a native of North Africa, inhabiting the
+loftiest and most inaccessible rocks.
+
+APACHES ([.a]-pä´chez), a warlike race of North-American Indians, numbering
+between 5000 and 6000, and inhabiting Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma.
+The final surrender of the tribe took place in 1886, but a few in Mexico
+still maintain their independence and hostility to the whites. The name
+_Apache_ was assumed by Parisian hooligans, notorious for their criminal
+outrages.
+
+AP´ANAGE, an allowance which the younger princes of a reigning house in
+some European countries receive from the revenues of the country, generally
+together with a grant of public domains, that they may be enabled to live
+in a manner becoming their rank.
+
+AP´ATITE, a translucent but seldom transparent mineral, which crystallizes
+in a regular six-sided prism, usually terminated by a truncated six-sided
+pyramid. It passes through various shades of colour, from white to yellow,
+green, blue, and occasionally red, scratches fluor-spar but is scratched by
+felspar, and has a specific gravity of about 3.5. It is a compound of
+calcium phosphate with calcium fluoride or chloride. It occurs principally
+in igneous rocks, particularly diorites. The very coarse-grained granites
+of Ontario contain apatite crystals of corresponding size, which have been
+picked out as a source of artificial phosphate manures. Apatite supplies to
+soils almost all the phosphorus available for plants in a state of nature.
+
+APE, a common name of a number of quadrumanous animals inhabiting the Old
+World (Asia and the Asiatic Islands, and Africa), and including a variety
+of species. The word _ape_ was formerly applied indiscriminately to all
+quadrumanous mammals; but it is now limited to the anthropoid or man-like
+monkeys. The family includes the chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-outang, &c.,
+and has been divided into three genera, Troglod[)y]tes, Simia, and
+Hylob[)a]tes. See _Chimpanzee_, _Gibbon_, _Gorilla_, _Monkey_, _Orang_, &c.
+
+APELDOORN (ä´pel-d[=o]rn), a town of Holland, province of Guelderland, 17
+miles north of Arnhem, with manufactures of paper. The royal palace Loo is
+here. Pop. 44,474.
+
+APELLES (a-pel´[=e]z), the most famous of the painters of ancient Greece
+and of antiquity, was born in the fourth century B.C., probably at
+Colophon. Ephorus of Ephesus was his first teacher, but attracted by the
+renown of the Sicyonian school he went and studied at Sicyon. In the time
+of Philip he went to Macedonia, and there a close friendship between him
+and Alexander the Great was established. The most admired of his pictures
+was that of Venus rising from the sea and wringing the water from her
+dripping locks. His portrait of Alexander with a thunderbolt in his hand
+was no less celebrated. He died about the end of the century. Among the
+anecdotes told of Apelles is the one which gave rise to the Latin proverb,
+'Ne sutor ultra crepidam'--'Let not the shoemaker go beyond the shoe'.
+Having heard a cobbler point out an error in the drawing of a shoe in one
+of his pictures he corrected it, whereupon the cobbler took upon him to
+criticize the leg, and received from the artist the famous reply.
+
+AP´ENNINES (Lat. _Mons Apenninus_), a prolongation of the Alps, forming the
+'backbone of Italy'. Beginning at Savona, on the Gulf of Genoa, the
+Apennines traverse the whole of the peninsula and also cross over into
+Sicily, the Strait of Messina being regarded merely as a gap in the chain.
+The average height of the mountains composing the range is about 4000 feet,
+and nowhere do they reach the limits of perpetual snow, though some summits
+exceed 9000 feet in height. Monte Corno, called also Gran Sasso d'Italia
+(Great Rock of Italy), which rises among the mountains of the Abruzzi, is
+the loftiest of the chain, rising to the height of 9541 feet, Monte Majella
+(9151) being next. Monte Gargano, which juts out into the Adriatic from the
+_ankle_ of Italy, is a mountainous mass upwards of 5000 feet high,
+completely separated from the main chain. On the Adriatic side the
+mountains descend more abruptly to the sea than on the western or
+Mediterranean side, and the streams are comparatively short and rapid. On
+the western side are the valleys of the Arno, Tiber, Garigliano, and
+Volturno, the largest rivers that rise in the Apennines, and the only ones
+of importance in the peninsular portion of Italy. They consist almost
+entirely of limestone rocks, and are exceedingly rich in the finest
+marbles. On the south slopes volcanic masses are not uncommon. Mount
+Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the continent of Europe, is an
+instance. The lower slopes are well clothed with vegetation, the summits
+are sterile and bare.
+
+APENRADE (ä´pen-rä-de), a seaport in Schleswig-Holstein, on a fiord of the
+Little Belt, beautifully situated, and carrying on a considerable fishing
+industry. Pop. 7800.
+
+APE´RIENT, a medicine which, in moderate doses, gently but completely opens
+the bowels: examples, castor-oil, Epsom salts, senna, &c.
+
+APET´ALOUS, a botanical term applied to flowers or flowering-plants which
+are destitute of petals or corolla.
+
+APHANIP´TERA, an order of wingless insects, composed of the different
+species of fleas. See _Flea_.
+
+APHA´SIA (Gr. _a_, not, and _phasis_, speaking), in pathology, a symptom of
+certain morbid conditions of the nervous system, in which the patient loses
+the power of expressing ideas by means of words, or loses the appropriate
+use of words, the vocal organs the while remaining intact and the
+intelligence sound. There is sometimes an entire loss of words as connected
+with ideas, and sometimes only the loss of a few. In one form of the
+disease, called _aphemia_, the patient can think and write, but cannot
+speak; in another, called _agraphia_, he can think and speak, but cannot
+express his ideas in writing. In a great majority of cases, where
+post-mortem examinations have been made, morbid changes have been found in
+the left frontal convolution of the brain.
+
+APHE´LION (Gr. _apo_, from, and _h[=e]lios_, the sun), that point of the
+orbit of the earth or any other planet which is remotest from the sun.
+
+APHE´MIA. See _Aphasia_.
+
+APHIDES (af´i-d[=e]z). See _Aphis_.
+
+[Illustration: Aphides
+
+Cabbage-leaf Plant-louse (_Aphis brassicæ_)--1, 2. Male, natural size and
+magnified. 3, 4, Female, natural size and magnified.]
+
+APHIS, a genus of insects (called plant-lice) of the ord. Hemiptera, the
+type of the family Aph[)i]d[=e]s. The species are very numerous and
+destructive. The _A. rosæ_ lives on the rose; the _A. fabæ_ on the bean;
+the _A. hum[)u]li_ is injurious to the hop, the _A. granaria_ to cereals,
+and _A. lanig[)e]ra_ or woolly aphis equally so to apple trees. The aphides
+are furnished with an inflected beak, and feelers longer than the thorax.
+In the same species some individuals have four erect wings and others are
+entirely without wings. The feet are of the ambulatory kind, and the
+abdomen usually ends in two horn-like tubes, from which is ejected the
+substance called honey-dew, a favourite food of ants. (See _Ant_.) The
+aphides illustrate parthenogenesis; hermaphrodite forms produced from eggs
+produce viviparous wingless forms, which again produce others like
+themselves, and thus multiply during summer, one individual giving rise to
+millions. Winged sexual forms appear late in autumn, the females of which,
+being impregnated by the males, produce eggs.
+
+APHO´NIA (Gr. _a_, not, and _ph[=o]n[=e]_, voice), in pathology, the
+greater or less impairment, or the complete loss of the power of emitting
+vocal sound. The slighter and less permanent forms often arise from extreme
+nervousness, fright, and hysteria. Slight forms of structural aphonia are
+of a catarrhal nature, resulting from more or less congestion and
+tumefaction of the mucous and submucous tissues of the larynx and adjoining
+parts. Severer cases are frequently occasioned by serous infiltration into
+the submucous tissue, with or without inflammation of the mucous membrane
+of the larynx and of its vicinity. The voice may also be affected in
+different degrees by inflammatory affections of the fauces and tonsils; by
+tumours in these situations; by morbid growths pressing on or implicating
+the larynx or trachea; by aneurisms; and most frequently by chronic
+laryngitis and its consequences, especially thickening, ulceration, &c.
+
+APH´ORISM, a brief, sententious saying, in which a comprehensive meaning is
+involved, as 'Familiarity breeds contempt'; 'Necessity has no law'.
+
+APHRODITE (af-ro-di´t[=e]), the goddess of love among the Greeks;
+counterpart of the Roman Venus. A festival called Aphrodisia was celebrated
+in her honour in various parts of Greece, but especially in Cyprus. See
+_Venus_.
+
+APHTHÆ (af´th[=e]), a disease occurring especially in infants, but
+occasionally seen in old persons, and consisting of small white ulcers upon
+the tongue, gums, inside of the lips, and palate, resembling particles of
+curdled milk: commonly called _thrush_ or _milk-thrush_.
+
+A´PIA, the chief place and trading centre of the Samoa Islands, on the
+north side of the Island of Upolu. It has a wireless station.
+
+A´PIARY (Lat. _apis_, a bee), a place for keeping bees. The apiary should
+be well sheltered from strong winds, moisture, and the extremes of heat and
+cold. The hives should face the south or south-east, and should be placed
+on shelves 2 feet above the ground, and about the same distance from each
+other. There is no place for handling bees like the open air in suitable
+weather, and for this reason bee-houses, or bee-sheds, formerly in use, are
+not much in vogue now. As to the form of the hives and the materials of
+which they should be constructed there are great differences of opinion.
+The old dome-shaped straw _skep_ is still in general use among the
+cottagers of Great Britain. Its cheapness and simplicity of construction
+are in its favour, while it is excellent for warmth and ventilation; but it
+has the disadvantage that its interior is closed to inspection, and the
+honey can only be got out by stupefying the bees with the smoke of the
+common puff-ball or chloroform, or by fumigating with sulphur, which
+entails the destruction of the swarm. Wooden hives of square box-like form
+are now gaining general favour among bee-keepers. They usually consist of a
+large breeding chamber below and two sliding removable boxes called
+'supers' above for the abstraction of honey without disturbing the contents
+of the main chamber. It is of great importance that the apiary should be
+situated in the neighbourhood of good feeding grounds, such as gardens,
+clover-fields, or heath-covered hills. When their stores of honey are
+removed, the bees must be fed during the winter and part of spring with
+syrup or with a solution consisting of 2 lb. loaf-sugar to a pint of water.
+In the early spring slow and continuous feeding (a few ounces of syrup each
+day) will stimulate the queen to deposit her eggs, by which means the
+colony is rapidly strengthened and throws off early swarms. New swarms may
+make their appearance as early as May and as late as August, but swarming
+usually takes place in the intervening months. See _Bee-keeping_, _Hives_.
+
+APIC´IUS, Marcus Gabius, a Roman epicure in the time of Augustus and
+Tiberius, who, having exhausted his vast fortune on the gratification of
+his palate, and having _only_ about £80,000 left, poisoned himself that he
+might escape the misery of plain diet. The book of cookery published under
+the title of _Apicius_ was written by one Cælius, and belongs to a much
+later date.
+
+A´PION, a Greek grammarian, born in Egypt, lived in the reigns of Tiberius,
+Caligula, and Claudius, A.D. 15-54, and went to Rome to teach grammar and
+rhetoric. Among his works, one or two fragments only of which remain, was
+one directed against the Jews, which was replied to by Josephus.
+
+A´PIOS, a genus of leguminous climbing plants, producing edible tubers on
+underground shoots. An American species (_A. tuber[=o]sa_) has been used as
+a substitute for the potato, but its tubers, though numerous, are small.
+
+[Illustration: Apis]
+
+A´PIS, a bull to which divine honours were paid by the ancient Egyptians,
+who regarded him as a symbol of Osiris. At Memphis he had a splendid
+residence, containing extensive walks and courts for his entertainment, and
+he was waited upon by a large train of priests, who looked upon his every
+movement as oracular. He was not suffered to live beyond twenty-five years,
+being secretly killed by the priests and thrown into a sacred well. Another
+bull, characterized by certain marks, as a black colour, a triangle of
+white on the forehead, a white crescent-shaped spot on the right side, &c.,
+was selected in his place. His birthday was annually celebrated, and his
+death was a season of public mourning. See _Animal Worship_.
+
+A´PIS, a genus of insects. See _Bee_.
+
+A´PIUM, a genus of umbelliferous plants, including celery.
+
+APLACEN´TAL. See _Placenta_, _Marsupialia_, and _Echidna_.
+
+APLANAT´IC. See _Optics_, _Photography_.
+
+APLYSIA. See _Sea-hare_.
+
+APOC´ALYPSE (Gr. _apokalypsis_, a revelation), the name given to the last
+book of the New Testament, in the English version called _The Revelation of
+St. John the Divine_. Although a Christian work, the _Apocalypse_ belongs
+to a class of literature dealing with eschatological subjects and much in
+vogue among the Jews of the first century B.C. It is generally believed
+that the _Apocalypse_ was written by the apostle John in his old age (A.D.
+95-97) in the Isle of Patmos, whither he had been banished by the Roman
+Emperor Domitian. Anciently its genuineness was maintained by Justin
+Martyr, Irenæus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and many others; while
+it was doubted by Dionysius of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom,
+and, nearer our own times, by Luther. The _Apocalypse_ has been explained
+differently by almost every writer who has ventured to interpret it, and
+has furnished all sorts of sects and fanatics with quotations to support
+their creeds or pretensions. The modern interpreters may be divided into
+three schools--namely, the _historical school_, who hold that the prophecy
+embraces the whole history of the Church and its foes from the time of its
+writing to the end of the world; the _Præterists_, who hold that the whole
+or nearly the whole of the prophecy has been already fulfilled, and that it
+refers chiefly to the triumph of Christianity over Paganism and Judaism;
+and the _Futurists_, who throw the whole prophecy, except the first three
+chapters, forward upon a time not yet reached by the Church--a period of no
+very long duration, which is immediately to precede Christ's second coming.
+See _Bible_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. H. Charles, _Studies in the Apocalypse_;
+F. C. Burkitt, _Jewish and Christian Apocalypses_.
+
+APOCALYPTIC NUMBER, the mystic number 666 found in _Rev._ xiii, 18. As
+early as the second century ecclesiastical writers found that the name
+Antichrist was indicated by the Greek characters expressive of this number.
+By Irenæus the word _Lateinos_ was found in the letters of the number, and
+the Roman Empire was therefore considered to be Antichrist. Protestants
+generally believe it has reference to the Papacy, and, on the other hand,
+Catholics connect it with Protestantism. It is, however, almost certain
+that the number refers to Nero, for by transliterating the Greek _Kaisar
+Neron_ into Hebrew, and adding together the sums denoted by the Hebrew
+letters, we obtain the number 666.
+
+APOCAR´POUS, in botany, a term applied to such fruits as are the produce of
+a single flower, and are formed of one carpel, or a number of carpels free
+and separate from each other.
+
+APOC´RYPHA (Gr., 'things concealed or spurious'), a term applied in the
+earliest churches to various sacred or professedly inspired writings,
+sometimes given to those whose authors were unknown, sometimes to those
+with a hidden meaning, and sometimes to those considered objectionable. The
+term is specially applied to the fourteen undermentioned books, which were
+written during the two centuries preceding the birth of Christ. They were
+written, not in Hebrew, but in Greek, and the Jews never allowed them a
+place in their sacred canon. They were incorporated into the Septuagint,
+and thence passed to the Vulgate. The Greek Church excluded them from the
+canon in 360 at the Council of Laodicea. The Latin Church treated them with
+more favour, but it was not until 1546 that they were formally admitted
+into the canon of the Church of Rome by a decree of the Council of Trent.
+The Anglican Church says they may be read for example of life and
+instruction of manners, but that the Church does not apply them to
+establish any doctrine. All other Protestant churches in Britain and
+America ignore them. The following fourteen books form the Apocrypha of the
+English Bible: The first and second _Books of Esdras_, _Tobit_, _Judith_,
+the rest of the _Book of Esther_, the _Wisdom of Solomon_, the _Wisdom of
+Jesus the son of Sirach_, or _Ecclesiasticus_, _Baruch the Prophet_, the
+_Song of the Three Children_, _Susanna and the Elders_, _Bel and the
+Dragon_, the _Prayer of Manasses_, and the first and second _Books of
+Maccabees_. Besides the Apocryphal books of the Old Testament there are
+many spurious books composed in the earlier ages of Christianity, and
+published under the names of Christ and his apostles, or of such immediate
+followers as from their character or means of intimate knowledge might give
+an apparent plausibility to such forgeries. These writings comprise: 1st,
+the _Apocryphal Gospels_, which treat of the history of Joseph and the
+Virgin before the birth of Christ, of the infancy of Jesus, and of the acts
+of Pilate; 2nd, the _Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles_; and 3rd, the
+_Apocryphal Apocalypses_, none of which have obtained canonical recognition
+by any of the churches.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wace, _The Apocrypha_; Porter, in
+Hastings' _Bible Dict._, i, pp. 111-23; W. D. F. Oesterley, _Book of the
+Apocrypha_; R. H. Charles, _Religious Development between the Old and the
+New Testaments_.
+
+APOCYNA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of dicotyledonous plants, having for its type the
+genus Apoc[)y]num or dog-bane. The species have opposite or sometimes
+whorled leaves without stipules; the corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, and
+with the stamens inserted upon it; fruit two-celled. The plants yield a
+milky juice, which is generally poisonous; several yield caoutchouc, and a
+few edible fruits. The bark of several species is a powerful febrifuge. To
+the order belongs the periwinkle (Vinca). See _Cow-tree_, _Periwinkle_,
+_Oleander_, _Tanghin_.
+
+AP´ODA. See _Proteolepadidæ_.
+
+AP´ODAL FISHES, the name applied to such malacopterous fishes as want
+ventral fins. They constitute a small natural family, of which the common
+eel is an example.
+
+APO´DÖSIS, in grammar, the latter member of a conditional sentence (or one
+beginning with _if_, _though_, &c.) dependent on the condition or
+_prot[)a]sis_; as, if it rain (_protasis_) I shall not go (_apodosis_).
+
+AP´OGEE (-j[=e]; Gr. _apo_, from, and _g[=e]_, the earth), that point in
+the orbit of the moon or a planet where it is at its greatest distance from
+the earth; also the greatest distance of the sun from the earth when the
+latter is in _aphelion_.
+
+APOL´DA, a town of Germany, in Saxe-Weimar, at which woollen goods are
+extensively manufactured. Pop. 22,610.
+
+APOLLINA´RIANS, a sect of Christians who maintained the doctrine that
+Christ had a human body and a human sensitive soul, but no human rational
+mind, the Divine Logos (the Word) taking the place of the mind, and that
+God was consequently united in him with the human body and the sensitive
+soul. Apollinaris, the author of this opinion, was, from A.D. 362 till at
+least A.D. 382, Bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, and a zealous opposer of the
+Arians. As a man and a scholar he was highly esteemed, and was among the
+most popular authors of his time. He formed a congregation of his adherents
+at Antioch, and made Vitalis their bishop. The _Apollinarians_, or
+_Vitalians_, as their followers were called, soon spread their settlements
+in Syria and the neighbouring countries, established several societies,
+with their own bishops, and one even in Constantinople; but many adherents
+drifted away to Monophysitism, and the sect soon became extinct.
+
+APOLLINA´RIS WATER, a natural aerated water, belonging to the class of
+acidulated soda waters, and derived from the Apollinarisbrunnen, a spring
+in the valley of the Ahr, near the Rhine, in Rhenish Prussia, forming a
+highly-esteemed beverage.
+
+[Illustration: Apollo Belvedere (Vatican, Rome)]
+
+APOL´LO, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (Latona), who, being persecuted by
+the jealousy of Hera (Juno), after tedious wanderings and nine days'
+labour, was delivered of him and his twin sister, Art[)e]mis (Diana), on
+the Island of Delos. Skilled in the use of the bow, he slew the serpent
+Python on the fifth day after his birth; afterwards, with his sister
+Art[)e]mis, he killed the children of Niob[=e]. He aided Zeus in the war
+with the Titans and the giants. He destroyed the Cyclopes, because they
+forged the thunderbolts with which Zeus killed his son and favourite
+Asklepios (Æsculapius). According to some traditions he invented the lyre,
+though this is generally ascribed to Hermes (Mercury). The brightest
+creation of polytheism, Apollo is also the most complex, and many aspects
+of the people's life were reflected in his cult. He was originally the
+sun-god; and though in Homer he appears distinct from Helios (the sun), yet
+his real nature is hinted at even here by the epithet Phoebus, that is, the
+radiant or beaming. In later times the view was almost universal that
+Apollo and Helios were identical. From being the god of light and purity in
+a physical sense, he gradually became the god of moral and spiritual light
+and purity, the source of all intellectual, social, and political progress.
+He thus came to be regarded as the god of song and prophecy, the god that
+wards off and heals bodily suffering and disease, the institutor and
+guardian of civil and political order, and the founder of cities. His
+worship was introduced at Rome at an early period, probably in the time of
+the Tarquins. Among the ancient statues of Apollo that have come down to
+us, the most remarkable is the one called _Apollo Belvedere_, from the
+Belvedere Gallery in the Vatican at Rome. This statue was discovered at
+Frascati in 1455, and purchased by Pope Julian II, the founder of the
+Vatican museum. It is a copy of a Greek statue of the third century B.C.,
+and dates probably from the reign of Nero.
+
+APOLLODO´RUS, a Greek writer who flourished 140 B.C. Among the numerous
+works he wrote on various subjects, the only one extant is his
+_Bibliothec[=e]_, which contains a concise account of the mythology of
+Greece down to the heroic age.
+
+APOLLO´NIUS OF PERGA, Greek mathematician, called the 'great geometer',
+flourished about 240 B.C., and was the author of many works, only one of
+which, a treatise on _Conic Sections_, partly in Greek and partly in an
+Arabic translation, is now extant.
+
+APOLLO´NIUS OF RHODES, a Greek rhetorician and poet, flourished about 230
+B.C. Of his various works we have only the _Argonautica_, an epic poem of
+considerable merit, though perhaps written with too much care and labour.
+It deals with the story of the Argonautic expedition.
+
+APOLLO´NIUS OF TY´ANA, in Cappadocia, a Pythagorean philosopher who was
+born in the beginning of the Christian era, early adopted the Pythagorean
+doctrines, abstaining from animal food and maintaining a rigid silence for
+five years. He travelled extensively in Asia, professed to be endowed with
+miraculous powers, such as prophecy and the raising of the dead, and was on
+this account set up by some as a rival to Christ. His ascetic life, wise
+discourses, and wonderful deeds obtained for him almost universal
+reverence, and temples, altars, and statues were erected to him. He died at
+Ephesus about the end of the first century. A narrative of his strange
+career, containing many fables, with, perhaps, a kernel of truth, was
+written by Philostratus about a century later.
+
+APOLLO´NIUS OF TYRE, the hero of a tale which had an immense popularity in
+the Middle Ages and which indirectly furnished the plot of Shakespeare's
+_Pericles, Prince of Tyre_. The story, originally in Greek, first appeared
+in the third century after Christ.
+
+APOLL´OS, a Jew of Alexandria, who learned the doctrines of Christianity at
+Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla, became a preacher of the gospel in
+Achaia and Corinth, and an assistant of Paul in his missionary work. Some
+have regarded him as the author of the _Epistle to the Hebrews_.
+
+APOLL´YON ('the Destroyer'), a name used in _Rev._ ix, 11 for the angel of
+the bottomless pit.
+
+APOLOGETICS (-jet´iks), this term, as used in Christian theology, does not
+carry with it the idea of excuse or regretful acknowledgment, but signifies
+a defensive or vindicatory statement, which accords with its meaning in the
+original Greek. In the conventional division of systematic theology
+apologetics comes first in order, and is followed by the disciplines of
+dogmatics and ethics, which expound Christian belief and Christian duty
+respectively. There is a tendency, however, in the more recent treatment of
+systematic theology, to include the defence or vindication of the various
+Christian doctrines within the dogmatic scheme, leaving to apologetics--in
+so far as it may be regarded as a separate discipline from dogmatics--the
+discussion of such general themes as religion and revelation, authority and
+inspiration, and the essence and truth of Christianity. Such discussions
+belong essentially to what is now often called philosophy of religion. The
+preference of the term philosophy of religion to that of apologetics is
+indicative at once of the wider theological outlook of our time and of the
+conciliatory, adaptable, and more sympathetic spirit in which the Christian
+apologist approaches the new thought and culture.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. B.
+Bruce, _Apologetics_; R. Mackintosh, _First Primer of Apologetics_; J. R.
+Illingworth, _Reason and Revelation_; A. E. Garvie, _A Handbook of
+Christian Apologetics_.
+
+APOLOGUE (ap´o-log), a story or relation of fictitious events intended to
+convey some useful truths. It differs from a parable in that the latter is
+drawn from events that take place among mankind, whereas the apologue may
+be founded on supposed actions of brutes or inanimate things. Æsop's fables
+are good examples of apologues.
+
+APOL´OGY, a term at one time applied to a defence of one who is accused, or
+of certain doctrines called in question. Of this nature is the _Apology of
+Socrates_ written by Plato; also a work with the same title sometimes
+attributed to Xenophon. The name passed over to Christian authors, who gave
+the name of apologies to the writings which were designed to defend
+Christianity against the attacks and accusations of its enemies,
+particularly the pagan philosophers, and to justify its professors before
+the emperors. Of this sort were those by Justin Martyr, Athenagoras,
+Tertullian, Tatian, and others.
+
+APONEURO´SIS, in anatomy, a name of certain greyish-white shining
+membranes, composed of interlacing fibres, sometimes continuous with the
+muscular fibre, and differing from tendons merely in having a flat form.
+They serve several purposes, sometimes attaching the muscles to the bones,
+sometimes surrounding the muscle and preventing its displacement, &c. See
+_Anatomy_.
+
+APOPHTHEGM (ap´o-them), a short pithy sentence or maxim. Julius Cæsar wrote
+a collection of them, and we have a collection by Francis Bacon.
+
+APOPH´YLLITE, a species of mineral of a foliated structure and pearly
+lustre, called also fish-eye stone. It belongs to the Zeolite family, and
+is a hydrated silicate of lime and potash, containing also fluorine.
+
+AP´OPLEXY, sudden abolition of consciousness, followed after recovery of
+consciousness by persistent disturbance of sensation or voluntary motion,
+from suspension of the functions of the cerebrum, resulting from blocking
+or rupture of the blood-vessels of the brain. In a complete apoplexy the
+person falls suddenly, is unable to move his limbs or to speak, gives no
+proof of seeing, hearing, or feeling, and the breathing is stertorous or
+snoring, like that of a person in deep sleep. The premonitory symptoms of
+this dangerous disease are drowsiness, giddiness, dulness of hearing,
+frequent yawning, disordered vision, noise in the ears, vertigo, &c. It is
+most frequent between the ages of fifty and seventy. A large head, short
+neck, full chest, sanguine and plethoric constitution, and corpulency are
+generally considered signs of predisposition to it; but the state of the
+heart's action, with a plethoric condition of the vascular system, has a
+more marked influence. Out of sixty-three cases carefully investigated only
+ten were fat and plethoric, twenty-three being thin, and the rest of
+ordinary habit. The common predisposing causes are disease or senile
+changes in the blood-vessels and affections of the valves of the heart; but
+other factors may possibly play some part either as exciting or
+predisposing causes, such as long and intense thought, continued anxiety,
+habitual indulgence of the temper and passions, sedentary and luxurious
+living, sexual indulgence, intoxication, &c. More or less complete recovery
+from a first and second attack is common, but a third is almost invariably
+fatal.--Cf. Grasset, _Traité du système nerveux_.
+
+APOSIOPE´SIS, in rhetoric, a sudden break or stop in speaking or writing,
+usually for mere effect or a pretence of unwillingness to say anything on a
+subject; as, 'his character is such--but it is better I should not speak of
+_that_', or Virgil's "Quos ego--sed motos praestat componere fluctus"
+(_Aen._ I, 135).
+
+APOS´TASY (Gr. _apostasis_, a standing away from), a renunciation of
+opinions or practices and the adoption of contrary ones, usually applied to
+renunciation of religious opinions. It is always an expression of reproach.
+What one party calls _apostasy_ is termed by the other _conversion_.
+Catholics, also, call those persons _apostates_ who forsake a religious
+order or renounce their religious vows without a lawful dispensation.
+
+A POSTERIO´RI. See _A priori_.
+
+APOS´TLES (literally, persons sent out, from the Gr. _apostellein_, to send
+out), the twelve men whom Jesus selected to attend him during his ministry,
+and to promulgate his religion. Their names were as follows: Simon Peter,
+and Andrew his brother; James, and John his brother, sons of Zebedee;
+Philip; Bartholomew; Thomas; Matthew; James, the son of Alpheus; Lebbæus
+his brother, called _Judas_ or _Jude_; Simon, the Canaanite; and Judas
+Iscariot. To these were subsequently added Matthias (chosen by lot in place
+of Judas Iscariot) and Paul. The Bible gives the name of apostle to
+Barnabas also, who accompanied Paul on his missions (_Acts_, xiv, 14). In a
+wider sense those preachers who first taught Christianity in heathen
+countries are sometimes termed apostles; for example, St. Denis, the
+apostle of the Gauls; St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany; St. Augustine,
+the apostle of England; Francis Xavier, the apostle of the Indies; Adalbert
+of Prague, apostle of Prussia Proper. During the life of the Saviour the
+apostles more than once showed a misunderstanding of the object of His
+mission, and during His sufferings evinced little courage and firmness of
+friendship for their great and benevolent Teacher. After His death they
+received the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, that they might be enabled
+to fulfil the important duties for which they had been chosen. According to
+one interpretation of _Matthew_, xvi, 18, Christ seems to appoint St. Peter
+the first of the apostles; and the Pope claims supreme authority from the
+power which Christ thus gave to St. Peter, of whom all the Popes, according
+to the Catholic dogma, are successors in an uninterrupted line.
+
+APOSTLES' CREED, a well-known formula or declaration of Christian belief,
+formerly believed to be the work of the apostles themselves, but it can
+only be traced to the fourth century. See _Creed_.
+
+APOSTOL´IC, or APOSTOL´ICAL, pertaining or relating to the
+apostles.--_Apostolic Church_, the Church in the time of the apostles,
+constituted according to their design. The name is also given to the four
+churches of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, and is claimed by the
+Roman Catholic Church, and occasionally by the Episcopalians.--_Apostolic
+Constitutions_ and _Canons_, a collection of regulations attributed to the
+apostles, but generally supposed to be spurious. They appeared in the
+fourth century, are divided into eight books, and consist of rules and
+precepts relating to the duty of Christians, and particularly to the
+ceremonies and discipline of the Church.--_Apostolic fathers_, the
+Christian writers who during any part of their lives were contemporary with
+the apostles. There are five--Clement, Barnabas, Hermas, Ignatius,
+Polycarp.--_Apostolic king_, a title granted by the Pope to the kings of
+Hungary, first conferred on St. Stephen, the founder of the royal line of
+Hungary, on account of what he accomplished in the spread of
+Christianity.--_Apostolic see_, the see of the Popes or Bishops of Rome: so
+called because the Popes profess themselves the successors of St. Peter,
+its founder.--_Apostolic succession_, the uninterrupted succession of
+bishops, and, through them, of priests and deacons (these three orders of
+ministers being called the _apostolical orders_), in the Church by regular
+ordination from the first apostles down to the present day. All Episcopal
+churches hold theoretically, and the Roman Catholic Church and many members
+of the English Church strictly, that such succession is essential to the
+officiating priest, in order that grace may be communicated through his
+administrations.
+
+APOSTOL´ICS, APOSTOLICI, or APOSTOLIC BRETHREN, the name given to certain
+sects who professed to imitate the manners and practice of the apostles.
+The last and most important of these sects was founded about 1260 by
+Gerhard Segarelli of Parma. They went barefooted, begging, preaching, and
+singing throughout Italy, Switzerland, and France; announced the coming of
+the kingdom of heaven and of purer times; denounced the papacy, and its
+corrupt and worldly church; and inculcated the complete renunciation of all
+worldly ties, of property, settled abode, marriage, &c. This society was
+formally abolished, 1286, by Honorius IV. In 1300 Segarelli was burned as a
+heretic, but another chief apostle appeared--Dolcino, a learned man of
+Milan. In self-defence they stationed themselves in fortified places whence
+they might resist attacks. After having devastated a large tract of country
+belonging to Milan they were subdued, A.D. 1307, by the troops of Bishop
+Raynerius, in their fortress Zebello, in Vercelli, and almost all
+destroyed. Dolcino was burned. The survivors afterwards appeared in
+Lombardy and in the south of France as late as 1368.
+
+APO´STR[)O]PH[=E] (Gr., 'a turning away from'), a rhetorical figure by
+which the orator changes the course of his speech, and makes a short
+impassioned address to one absent as if he were present, or to things
+without life and sense as if they had life and sense. The same term is also
+applied to a comma when used to contract a word, or to mark the possessive
+case, as in 'John's book'.
+
+APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT, the weight used in dispensing drugs, in which the
+pound (lb.) is divided into 12 ounces ([ounce]), the ounce into 8 drachms
+([drachm]), the drachm into 3 scruples ([scruple]), and the scruple into 20
+grains (grs.), the grain being equivalent to that in avoirdupois weight.
+
+APOTH´ECARY, in a general sense, one who keeps a shop or laboratory for
+preparing, compounding, and vending medicines, and for the making up of
+medical prescriptions. In England the term was long applied (as to some
+little extent still) to a regularly licensed class of medical
+practitioners, being such persons as were members of, or licensed by, the
+_Apothecaries' Company_ in London. The apothecaries of London were at one
+time ranked with the grocers, with whom they were incorporated by James I
+in 1606. In 1617, however, the apothecaries received a new charter as a
+distinct company. They were not yet regarded as having the right to
+prescribe, but only to dispense, medicines; but in 1703 the House of Lords
+conferred that right on them, and they afterwards became a well-established
+branch of the medical profession. In 1815 an Act was passed providing that
+no person should practise as an apothecary in any part of England or Wales
+unless after serving an apprenticeship of five years with a member of the
+society, and receiving a certificate from the society's examiners. As in
+country places every practitioner must be to some extent an apothecary,
+this Act gave the society an undue influence over the medical profession.
+Dissatisfaction therefore long prevailed, but nothing of importance was
+done till the Medical Act of 1858, which brought the desired reform. The
+Apothecaries' Society, governed by a master, two wardens, and twenty-two
+assistants, has prescribed a course of medical instruction and practice
+which candidates for the licence of the society must pass through. Since
+1874 apprenticeship has not been necessary.
+
+APOTHE´CIUM, in botany, the receptacle of lichens, consisting of the
+spore-cases or asci, and of the paraphyses or barren threads.
+
+APOTHEO´SIS (deification), a solemnity among the ancients by which a mortal
+was raised to the rank of the gods. The custom of placing mortals, who had
+rendered their countrymen important services, among the gods was very
+ancient among the Greeks. The Romans, for several centuries, deified none
+but Romulus, and first imitated the Greeks in the fashion of frequent
+apotheosis after the time of Cæsar. From this period apotheosis was
+regulated by the decrees of the senate, and accompanied with great
+solemnities. Almost all the Roman emperors were deified.
+
+APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS (ap-pa-l[=a]´chi-an), also called ALLEGHANIES, a vast
+mountain range in N. America extending for 1300 miles from Cape Gaspé on
+the Gulf of St. Lawrence, s.w. to Alabama. The system has been divided into
+three great sections: the _northern_ (including the Adirondacks, the Green
+Mountains, the White Mountains, &c.), from Cape Gaspé to New York; the
+_central_ (including a large portion of the Blue Ridge, the Alleghanies
+proper, and numerous lesser ranges), from New York to the valley of the New
+River; and the _southern_ (including the continuation of the Blue Ridge,
+the Black Mountains, the Smoky Mountains, &c.), from the New River
+southwards. The chain consists of several ranges generally parallel to each
+other, the altitude of the individual mountains increasing on approaching
+the south. The highest peaks rise over 6600 feet (not one at all
+approaching the snow-level), but the mean height is about 2500 feet. Lake
+Champlain is the only lake of great importance in the system, but numerous
+rivers of considerable size take their rise here. Magnetite, hematite, and
+other iron ores occur in great abundance, and the coal-measures are among
+the most extensive in the world. Gold, silver, lead, and copper are also
+found in small quantities, while marble, limestone, fire-clay, gypsum, and
+salt abound. The forests covering many of the ranges yield large quantities
+of valuable timber, such as sugar-maple, white birch, beech, ash, oak,
+cherry tree, white poplar, white and yellow pine, &c., while they form the
+haunts of large numbers of bears, panthers, wild cats, and wolves.
+
+APPALACHICOLA (-chi-c[=o]´la), a river of the United States, formed by the
+Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers, which unite near the northern border of
+Florida; length, about 100 miles; it flows into the Gulf of Mexico, and is
+navigable.
+
+APPAM, the name of a British merchant ship of the Elder-Dempster line
+captured by the German raiding cruiser _Moewe_ (Sea-gull) on 16th Jan.,
+1916. A German prize crew succeeded in bringing the _Appam_ westward, and
+was able to pass the British cordon off Chesapeake Bay and to reach
+Norfolk, Virginia. The vessel was carrying, among others, an ex-governor of
+Sierra Leone and some military officers from the west coast of Africa, but
+the passengers were at once released and allowed to return to England.
+
+APPANAGE. See _Apanage_.
+
+APPA´RENT, among mathematicians and astronomers, applied to things as they
+appear to the eye, in distinction to what they really are. Thus they speak
+of apparent motion, magnitude, distance, height, &c. The _apparent
+magnitude_ of a heavenly body is the angle subtended at the spectator's eye
+by the diameter of that body, and this, of course, depends on the distance
+as well as the real magnitude of the body; _apparent motion_ is the motion
+a body seems to have in consequence of our own motion, as the motion of the
+sun from east to west, &c.
+
+APPARI´TION, according to a belief held by some, a disembodied spirit
+manifesting itself to mortal sight; according to the common theory an
+illusion involuntarily generated, by means of which figures or forms, not
+present to the actual sense, are nevertheless depicted with a vividness and
+intensity sufficient to create a temporary belief in their reality. Such
+illusions are now generally held to result from an over-excited brain, a
+strong imagination, or some bodily malady. In perfect health the mind not
+only possesses a control over its powers, but the impressions of the
+external objects alone occupy its attention, and the play of imagination is
+consequently checked, except in sleep, when its operations are relatively
+more feeble and faint. But in an unhealthy state of the mind, when its
+attention is partly withdrawn from the contemplation of external objects,
+the impressions of its own creation, or rather reproduction, will either
+overpower or combine themselves with the impressions of external objects,
+and thus generate illusions which in the one case appear alone, while in
+the other they are seen projected among those external objects to which the
+eyeball is directed. This theory explains satisfactorily a large majority
+of the stories of apparitions; still there are some which it seems
+insufficient to account for.--See _Crystal Gazing_, _Hypnotism_,
+_Spiritualism_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Podmore, _Modern Spiritualism_; F. W. H.
+Myers, _Human Personality, and its survival of bodily Death_.
+
+APPEAL´, in legal phraseology, the removal of a cause from an inferior
+tribunal to a superior, in order that the latter may revise, and if it seem
+needful reverse or amend, the decision of the former. The supreme court of
+appeal for Great Britain is the House of Lords. Certain defects in
+connection with the settlement of appeals by this body were remedied by the
+Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876, while a new court of appeal was
+established as a division of the Supreme Court of Judicature. In Ireland
+there is also a Court of Appeal similar to that in England; while in
+Scotland the highest court is the Court of Session. From the decisions of
+the Indian and all colonial courts, and the courts of the Isle of Man and
+the Channel Islands, appeal may be made to the Privy Council. Appeals from
+the decisions of justices of a borough or county may be made to the
+quarter-sessions of either respectively, in cases of summary jurisdiction,
+or upon a point of law to divisional courts of the High Court of Justice,
+which was established at the same time as the Court of Appeal; from
+quarter-sessions, county and other inferior courts, to the High Court. In
+Scotland the Court of Session reviews the decisions of the county courts,
+there being an appeal from its decisions to the House of Lords.--In France
+the court of final appeal in all cases is the _cour de cassation_.--In the
+United States the system of appeals differs in different States.
+
+APPEARANCE IN LAW is the first formal act incumbent on a defendant who
+intends to resist the claim in the writ or action served upon him. It
+consists usually in lodging in court a written notice stating simply that
+the defendant intends to dispute the claim. Failure to enter appearance
+within the prescribed time entails decree passing against the defendant in
+absence, but procedure exists in all courts for enabling such decrees to be
+recalled within a limited period. Appearance should be entered under
+protest if it is desired to dispute the jurisdiction of the court or the
+regularity of the writ.
+
+APPENDICITIS, a disease which has become well known in recent times through
+the more accurate methods of diagnosis and the increased safety of surgical
+operation. It is caused by inflammation of the vermiform appendix, a
+narrow, hollow, worm-like body from 2 to 4 inches long, opening at one end
+into the large intestine and forming a cul-de-sac at the other. In
+appendicitis the inflammation begins in the appendix and frequently spreads
+to the neighbouring parts, causing inflammation of the cæcum, a condition
+known as perityphlitis. The most frequent cause of appendicitis is a hard
+piece of insufficiently-digested food becoming lodged in the appendix.
+Occasionally orange pips, grape stones, &c., are the cause, though not so
+often as is popularly supposed.
+
+The symptoms are: abdominal pain (especially low down at the right side),
+fever, nausea, vomiting, constipation; these varying according to the
+intensity of the attack. Three types are recognized:
+
+1. A mild type, when the symptoms subside in a few days and the patient
+soon _appears_ to be in normal health.
+
+2. A severe type, in which, if left alone, the appendix bursts into the
+abdominal cavity and death from general peritonitis results.
+
+3. Another type, in which the inflammation in the appendix leads to the
+formation of a localized abscess, sometimes of great size.
+
+The treatment for the severe and for the abscess-forming types is
+essentially immediate operation; while for the mild type operation may
+either be performed at once or after the attack has passed off. Anyone who
+has had one attack of appendicitis is liable to have it repeated in a much
+severer form, hence the advisability of having the appendix removed after
+the first attack, however slight. During an attack, prior to surgical
+interference, complete rest in bed is essential. Abdominal pain should be
+treated with frequent hot fomentations, and the diet should be reduced to
+small quantities of fluid.
+
+APPENZELL ([.a]p'pen-tsel), a Swiss canton, wholly enclosed by the canton
+of St. Gall; area, 162 sq. miles. It is divided into two independent
+portions or half-cantons, Outer-Rhoden, which is Protestant, and
+Inner-Rhoden, which is Catholic. It is an elevated district, traversed by
+branches of the Alps; Mount Säntis in the centre being 8250 feet high. It
+is watered by the Sitter and by several smaller affluents of the Rhine.
+Glaciers occupy the higher valleys. Flax, hemp, grain, fruit, &c., are
+produced, but the wealth of Inner-Rhoden lies in its herds and flocks--that
+of Outer-Rhoden in its manufactures of embroidered muslins, gauzes,
+cambrics, and other cotton stuffs; also of silk goods and paper. The town
+of Appenzell (Ger. _Abtenzelle_, abbot's cell) is the capital of
+Inner-Rhoden, on the Sitter, with about 4300 inhabitants. Trogen is the
+capital of Outer-Rhoden, Herisau the largest town (pop. 11,000). Pop.
+Outer-Rhoden, 60,000; Inner-Rhoden, 15,000.
+
+APPERCEPTION. See _Metaphysics_.
+
+AP´PETITE, in its widest sense, means the natural desire for gratification,
+either of the body or the mind; but is generally applied to the recurrent
+and intermittent desire for food. A healthy appetite is favoured by work,
+exercise, plain living, and cheerfulness; absence of this feeling, or
+defective appetite (_anorexia_), indicates diseased action of the stomach,
+or of the nervous system or circulation, or it may result from vicious
+habits. Depraved appetite (_pica_), or a desire for unnatural food, as
+chalk, ashes, dirt, soap, &c., depends often in the case of children on
+vicious tastes or habits; in grown-up persons it may be symptomatic of
+dyspepsia, pregnancy or chlorosis. Insatiable or canine appetite or
+voracity (_bulimia_) when it occurs in childhood is generally symptomatic
+of worms; in adults common causes are pregnancy, vicious habits, and
+indigestion caused by stomach complaints or gluttony, when the gnawing
+pains of disease are mistaken for hunger.
+
+AP´PIAN, a Roman historian of the second century after Christ, a native of
+Alexandria, was governor and manager of the imperial revenues under
+Hadrian, Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, in Rome. He compiled in Greek a Roman
+history, from the earliest times to those of Augustus, in twenty-four
+books, of which only eleven have come down to us. Appian's style is not
+attractive, but he gives us much valuable information.
+
+APPIA´NI, Andrea, a painter, born at Milan in 1754, died in 1817. As a
+fresco-painter he excelled every contemporary painter in Italy. He
+displayed his skill particularly in the cupola of Santa Maria di S. Celso
+at Milan, and in the paintings representing the legend of Cupid and Psyche
+prepared for the walls and ceiling of the villa of the Archduke Ferdinand
+at Monza (1795). Napoleon appointed him royal court painter, and portraits
+of almost the whole of the imperial family were painted by him.
+
+APPIAN WAY, called _Regina Viarum_, the Queen of Roads: the oldest and most
+renowned Roman road, was constructed during the censorship of Appius
+Claudius Cæcus (313-310 B.C.). It was built with large square stones on a
+raised platform, and was made direct from the gates of Rome to Capua, in
+Campania. It was afterwards extended through Samnium and Apulia to
+Brundusium, the modern Brindisi. It was partially restored by Pius VI, and
+between 1850 and 1853 it was excavated by order of Pius IX as far as the
+eleventh milestone from Rome.
+
+APPIUS CLAUDIUS, surnamed _Cæcus_, or the blind, a Roman patrician, elected
+censor 312 B.C., which office he held four years. While in this position he
+made every effort to weaken the power of the Plebs, and constructed the
+road and aqueduct named after him. He was subsequently twice consul, and
+once dictator. In his old age he became blind, but in 280 B.C. he made a
+famous speech in which he induced the senate to reject the terms of peace
+fixed by Pyrrhus. He is the earliest Roman writer of prose and verse whose
+name we know.
+
+APPIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSUS, one of the Roman _decemvirs_, appointed 451 B.C.
+to draw up a new code of laws. He and his colleagues plotted to retain
+their power permanently, and at the expiry of their year of office refused
+to give up their authority. The people were incensed against them, and the
+following circumstances led to their overthrow. Appius Claudius had
+conceived an evil passion for Virginia, the daughter of Lucius Virginius,
+then absent with the army in the war with the Æqui and Sabines. At the
+instigation of Appius, Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, claimed
+Virginia as the daughter of one of his own female slaves, and the
+_decemvir_, acting as judge, decided that in the meantime she should remain
+in the custody of the claimant. Virginius, hastily summoned from the army,
+appeared with his daughter next day in the forum, and appealed to the
+people; but Appius Claudius again adjudged her to Marcus Claudius. Unable
+to rescue his daughter, the unhappy father stabbed her to the heart. The
+_decemvirs_ were deposed by the indignant people 449 B.C., and Appius
+Claudius died in prison or was strangled.
+
+APPLE (_Pyrus Malus_), the fruit of a well-known tree of the nat. ord.
+Rosaceæ, or the tree itself. The apple belongs to the temperate regions of
+the globe, over which it is almost universally spread and cultivated. The
+tree attains a moderate height, with spreading branches; the leaf is ovate;
+and the flowers are produced from the wood of the former year; but more
+generally from very short shoots or spurs from wood of two years' growth.
+The original of all the varieties of the cultivated apple is the wild crab,
+which has a small and extremely sour fruit, and is a native of most of the
+countries of Europe. Apples have been used as food and cultivated for
+upwards of 4000 years, and were probably introduced into Britain by the
+Romans. The greater number of the varieties now grown have, however, been
+cultivated only within the last century or so. To the facility of
+multiplying varieties by grafting is to be ascribed the amazing extension
+of the sorts of apples, the number of varieties known being over 2000. Many
+of the more marked varieties are known by general names, as pippins,
+codlins, rennets, &c. The oldest apple in cultivation is a variety called
+'the lady', which originated in Britain early in the seventeenth century.
+Apples for the table are characterized by a firm juicy pulp, a sweetish
+acid flavour, regular form, and beautiful colouring; those for cooking by
+the property of forming by the aid of heat into a pulpy mass of equal
+consistency, as also by their large size and keeping properties; apples for
+cider must have a considerable degree of astringency, with richness of
+juice. The propagation of apple trees is accomplished by seeds, cuttings,
+suckers, layers, budding, or grafting, the last being almost the universal
+practice. The tree thrives best in an open situation where it will receive
+the maximum amount of sunshine and protection from cold winds. The
+protection is particularly necessary in districts where cold winds and
+frosts prevail during the flowering season. The wood of the apple tree or
+the common crab is hard, close-grained, and often richly coloured, and is
+suitable for turning and cabinet work. The fermented juice (_verjuice_) of
+the crab is employed in cookery and medicine. Apples are largely imported
+into Great Britain from the Continent and the United States and Canada. The
+designation apple, with various modifying words, is applied to a number of
+fruits having nothing in common with the apple proper, as alligator-apple,
+love-apple, &c.--Cf. A. E. Wilkinson, _The Apple_.
+
+AP´PLEBY, county town of Westmorland, England, on the Eden, 28 miles S.S.E.
+of Carlisle. Disfranchised in 1832, it gave its name to a parliamentary
+division of the county until 1918. It has an old castle, the keep of which,
+called Cæsar's Tower, is still fairly well preserved. Pop. (1921), 1786.
+
+APPLE OF DISCORD, according to the story in Greek mythology, the golden
+apple thrown into an assembly of the gods by the goddess of discord (Eris)
+bearing the inscription 'for the fairest'. Aphrod[=i]t[=e] (Venus), Hera
+(Juno), and Ath[=e]n[=e] (Minerva) became competitors for it, and its
+adjudication to the first by Paris so inflamed the jealousy and hatred of
+Hera to all of the Trojan race (to which Paris belonged) that she did not
+cease her machinations till Troy was destroyed.
+
+APPLE OF SODOM, a fruit described by old writers as externally of fair
+appearance, but turning to ashes when plucked; probably the fruit of
+_Sol[=a]num sodom[=e]um_.
+
+AP´PLETON, a city of Wisconsin, United States, 100 miles N.W. of Milwaukee
+by rail. It has many flour, paper, saw, and woollen mills, and other
+manufactories, and is the seat of a collegiate institute and of the
+Lawrence University. Pop. (1920), 19,561.
+
+APPLIQUÉ, in needlework or metal-work, a design or feature having the
+appearance of being independently made and attached to the surface of the
+object it adorns. When the ornament is sunk into the body of the object it
+is called _inlay_.
+
+APPOGGIATURA ([.a]p-poj-[.a]-tö´r[.a]), in music, a small additional note
+of embellishment preceding the note to which it is attached, and taking
+away from the principal note a portion of its time.
+
+APPOINT´MENT, a term in English law signifying the exercise of some power,
+reserved in a conveyance or settlement, of burdening, selling, or otherwise
+disposing of the lands or property conveyed. Such a reserved power is
+termed a _power of appointment_.
+
+APPOMATT´OX COURT-HOUSE, a village in Virginia, United States, 20 miles E.
+of Lynchburg. Here, on 9th April, 1865, General Lee surrendered to General
+Grant, and thus virtually concluded the American Civil War.
+
+APPONYI, Albert, Count, Hungarian statesman, born in 1846. Leader of the
+Conservative National party, he joined the Liberal party in 1899, and in
+1901 was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies. He was Minister of
+Education in 1906 and 1917, and again in 1918. In 1920 he was at the head
+of the delegation which came to Paris to settle the peace-terms with
+Hungary.
+
+APPOSI´TION, in grammar, the relation in which one or more nouns or
+substantive phrases or clauses stand to a noun or pronoun, which they
+explain or characterize without being predicated of it, and with which they
+agree in case; as Cicero, the _orator_, lived in the first century before
+Christ; the opinion, _that a severe winter is generally followed by a good
+summer_, is a vulgar error.
+
+APPRAI´SER, a person employed to value property, and duly licensed to do so
+by licence taken out every year. The valuation must be duly set down in
+writing, and there is a certain fixed scale of charges for the appraiser's
+services.
+
+APPREHEN´SION, the seizing of a person as a criminal whether taken in the
+act or on suspicion, and with or without a warrant, a warrant being
+necessary when the person apprehending is not present at the commission of
+the offence. See _Arrest_.
+
+APPREN´TICE, one bound by indenture to serve some particular individual or
+company of individuals for a specified time, in order to be instructed in
+some art, science, or trade. In England a person under the age of
+twenty-one cannot bind himself apprentice, and accordingly the usual way is
+for a relation or friend to become a contracting party to the indenture,
+and engage for the faithful performance of the agreement. An infant cannot
+be bound apprentice by his friends without his own expressed consent. In
+Scotland a boy under fourteen or a girl under twelve years of age cannot
+become a party to an indenture without the concurrence of a parent or
+guardian; above that age they may enter into an indenture of themselves,
+and thereby become personally bound. An indenture is determinable by the
+consent of the parties to it, and also by the death, bankruptcy, or
+retirement from business of the master. _Parish apprentices_ are bound out
+by the guardians of the poor to suitable persons, and in this case the
+consent of the apprentice is not necessary. The system of apprenticing by
+indenture is now much less common than formerly.--Cf. R. A. Bray, _Boy
+Labour and Apprenticeship_.
+
+APPROACH´ES, in field-engineering, an old-fashioned name for what are now
+called 'communication trenches'.
+
+APPROPRIA´TION. See _Impropriation_.
+
+APPRO´VER (ap-prö´v[.e]r), in English law, any accomplice in a crime who is
+allowed by the judges of jail-delivery to become king's evidence, that is,
+to be examined in evidence against his accomplices, it being understood
+that the approver will himself be pardoned upon making a full and open
+confession.
+
+APPROXIMA´TION, a term used in mathematics to signify a continual approach
+to a quantity required, when no process is known for arriving at it
+exactly. Although, by such an approximation, the exact value of a quantity
+cannot be discovered, yet, in practice, it may be found sufficiently
+correct; thus the diagonal of a square, whose sides are represented by
+unity, is [sqrt]2, the exact value of which quantity cannot be obtained;
+but its approximate value may be substituted in the nicest calculations.
+
+APPULEIUS. See _Apuleius_.
+
+AP´RICOT (_Prunus Armeni[)a]ca_), a fruit of the plum genus which was
+introduced into Europe from Asia more than three centuries before Christ,
+and into England from Italy in 1524. It is a native of Armenia and other
+parts of Asia and also of Africa. The apricot is a low tree, of rather
+crooked growth, with somewhat heart-shaped leaves and sessile flowers. The
+fruit is sweet, more or less juicy, of a yellowish colour, about the size
+of a peach, and resembling it in delicacy of flavour. Some of the best
+varieties are 'Frogmore Early', 'Moorpark', 'Royal', &c. The wood is
+coarsely grained and soft. Apricot trees are chiefly raised against walls,
+and are propagated by budding and grafting.
+
+APRIES ([=a]´pri-[=e]z), Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, the eighth king of
+the twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He succeeded his father Psammetichus in
+590 or 589 B.C. The Jews under Zedekiah revolted against their Babylonian
+oppressors and allied themselves with Apries, who was, however, unable to
+raise the siege of Jerusalem, which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. A still
+more unfortunate expedition against Cyrene brought about revolt in his
+army, in endeavouring to suppress which Apries was defeated and slain about
+570 B.C.
+
+A´PRIL (Lat. _Apr[=i]lis_, from _aperire_, to open, because the buds open
+at this time), the fourth month of the year. The strange custom of making
+fools on 1st April by sending people upon errands which end in
+disappointment, and raise a laugh at the expense of the person sent,
+prevails throughout Europe. It has been connected with the miracle plays of
+the Middle Ages, in which the Saviour was represented as having been sent,
+at this period of the year, from Annas to Caiaphas and from Pilate to
+Herod. This explanation, however, is perhaps itself a piece of April
+fooling. In France the party fooled is called _un poisson d'avril_, 'an
+April fish'; in Scotland, a 'gowk', or cuckoo.
+
+A PRIO´RI ('from what goes before'), a phrase applied to a mode of
+reasoning by which we proceed from general principles or notions to
+particular cases, as opposed to _a posteriori_ ('from what comes after')
+reasoning, by which we proceed from knowledge previously acquired.
+Mathematical proofs are of the _a priori_ kind; the conclusions of
+experimental science are _a posteriori_. It is also a term applied to
+knowledge independent of all experience.
+
+[Illustration: Apse--Church of Sta Maria in Trastevere, Rome]
+
+APSE, a portion of any building forming a termination or projection
+semicircular or polygonal in plan, and having a roof forming externally a
+semi-dome or semi-cone, or having ridges corresponding to the angles of the
+polygon; especially such a semicircular or polygonal recess projecting from
+the east end of the choir or chancel of a church, in which the altar is
+placed. The apse was developed from the somewhat similar part of the Roman
+basilicæ, in which the magistrate (_prætor_) sat.
+
+AP´SHERON, a peninsula on the western shore of the Caspian Sea formed by
+the eastern extremity of the Caucasus Mountains. It extends for about 40
+miles, and terminates in Cape Apsheron. It yields immense quantities of
+petroleum. See _Baku_.
+
+[Illustration: _aa_, Apsides]
+
+APSIS, pl. AP´SIDES or APSI´DES, in astronomy, one of the two points of the
+orbit of a heavenly body situated at the extremities of the major axis of
+the ellipse formed by the orbit, one of the points being that at which the
+body is at its greatest and the other that at which it is at its least
+distance from its primary. In regard to the earth and the other planets,
+these two points are called the aphelion and perihelion; and in regard to
+the moon they are called the apogee and perigee. The line of the apsides
+has a slow forward angular motion in the plane of the planet's orbit, being
+retrograde only in the case of Venus. This in the earth's orbit produces
+the anomalistic year. See _Anomaly_.
+
+APT (ät; ancient APTA JULIA), a town of Southern France, department
+Vaucluse, 32 miles east by south of Avignon, with an ancient Gothic
+cathedral. Pop. 6336.
+
+AP´TERA (Gr. _apteros_, wingless), wingless insects, such as lice and
+certain others, popularly called _Spring-tails_, and composed of two
+groups, Collembola and Thysanura.
+
+[Illustration: Apteryx (_Apteryx Mantelli_)]
+
+AP´TERYX, a nearly extinct genus of cursorial birds, distinguished from the
+ostriches by having three toes with a rudimentary hallux, which forms a
+spur. They are natives of the South Island of New Zealand; are totally
+wingless and tailless, with feathers resembling hairs; about the size of a
+small goose; with long curved beak something like that of a curlew. They
+are entirely nocturnal, feeding on insects, worms, and seeds.--_A.
+austr[=a]lis_, called _Kiwi-kiwi_ from its cry, is the best-known species.
+
+APULEIUS, or APPULEIUS (ap-[=u]-l[=e]´us), author of the celebrated
+satirical romance in Latin called the _Golden Ass_, born at Madaura, in
+Numidia, about A.D. 125; the time of his death is unknown. He studied at
+Carthage, then at Athens, where he became warmly attached to the Platonic
+philosophy, and finally at Rome. Returning to Carthage he married a rich
+widow, whose relatives accused him of gaining her consent by magic, and the
+speech by which he successfully defended himself is still extant. Besides
+his _Golden Ass_ (which is also known as the _Metamorphoses_, and which was
+translated into English by W. Adlington in 1566), with its fine episode of
+Cupid and Psyche, he was also the author of many works on philosophy and
+rhetoric, some of which are still extant.
+
+APU´LIA, a department or division in the south-east of Italy, on the
+Adriatic, composed of the provinces of Foggia, Bari, and Lecce; area, 7376
+sq. miles. Pop. 2,237,791.
+
+APURE ([.a]-pö´r[=a]), a navigable river of Venezuela, formed by the
+junction of several streams which rise in the Andes of Colombia; it falls
+into the Orinoco.--_Apure_, one of the States of Venezuela, has a pop. of
+30,008.
+
+APURIMAC ([.a]-pö-r[=e]-m[.a]k´), a river of South America, which rises in
+the Andes of Peru, and, being augmented by the Vilcamayu and other streams,
+forms the Ucayale, one of the principal head-waters of the Amazon.--The
+department of Apurimac in Peru has an area of 8187 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+177,887.
+
+AQ´UA (Lat. for water), a word much used in pharmacy and old
+chemistry.--_Aqua fortis_ (= strong water), a weak and impure nitric acid.
+It has the power of eating into steel and copper, and hence is used by
+engravers, etchers, &c.--_Aqua marina_, a fine variety of beryl. See
+_Aquamarine_.--_Aqua regia_, or _aqua regalis_ (= royal water), a mixture
+of nitric and hydrochloric acids, with the power of dissolving gold and
+other precious metals.--_Aqua Tofana_, a poisonous fluid made about the
+middle of the seventeenth century by an Italian woman Tofana or Toffania,
+who is said to have procured the death of no fewer than 600 individuals by
+means of it. It consisted chiefly, it is supposed, of a solution of
+crystallized arsenic.--_Aqua vitæ_ (= water of life), or simply _aqua_, a
+name familiarly applied to the _whisky_ of Scotland, corresponding in
+meaning with the _usquebaugh_ of Ireland, the _eau de vie_ (brandy) of the
+French.
+
+AQ´UAMARINE, a name given to some of the finest varieties of beryl of a
+sea-green or blue colour. Varieties of topaz are also so called.
+
+AQUA´RIUM, a vessel or series of vessels constructed wholly or partly of
+glass and containing salt or fresh water in which are kept living specimens
+of marine or fresh-water animals along with aquatic plants. In principle
+the aquarium is based on the interdependence of animal and vegetable life;
+animals consuming oxygen and exhaling carbonic acid, plants reversing the
+process by absorbing carbonic acid and giving out oxygen. The aquarium must
+consequently be stocked both with plants and animals, and for the welfare
+of both something like a proper proportion should exist between them. The
+simplest form of aquarium is that of a glass vase; but aquaria on a larger
+scale consist of a tank or a number of tanks with plate-glass sides and
+stone floors, and contain sand and gravel, rocks, sea-weeds, &c. By
+improved arrangements light is admitted from above, passing through the
+water in the tanks and illuminating their contents, while the spectator is
+in comparative darkness. The most important aquarium is at the zoological
+station at Naples. There is also one, on a smaller scale, at Plymouth,
+maintained by the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.
+Aquaria on a large scale have been constructed in connection with public
+parks or gardens, and the name is also given to places of public
+entertainment in which large aquaria are exhibited.--Cf. G. C. Bateman,
+_Fresh-water Aquaria_; M. J. Newbigin, _The Aquarium_.
+
+AQUARIUS (Lat., the Water-bearer), a sign of the zodiac which the sun
+enters about the 21st of Jan.: it now enters the formerly coincident
+constellation Aquarius about a month later.
+
+AQUATINT, a method of etching on copper by which a beautiful effect is
+produced, resembling a fine drawing in sepia or Indian ink. The special
+character of the effect is the result of sprinkling finely-powdered resin
+or mastic over the plate, and causing this to adhere by heat, the design
+being previously etched, or being now traced out. The nitric acid (aqua
+fortis) acts only in the interstices between the particles of resin or
+mastic, thus giving a slightly granular appearance.
+
+AQUA TOFA´NA. See _Aqua_.
+
+AQUA VITÆ. See _Aqua_.
+
+AQ´UEDUCT (Lat. _aqua_, water, _duco_, to lead), an artificial channel or
+conduit for the conveyance of water from one place to another: more
+particularly applied to structures for conveying water from distant sources
+for the supply of large cities. Aqueducts were extensively used by the
+Romans, and many of them still remain in different places on the Continent
+of Europe, some being still in use. The Pont du Gard in the south of
+France, 14 miles from Nîmes, is still nearly perfect, and is a grand
+monument of the Roman occupation of this country. The ancient aqueducts
+were constructed of stone or brick, sometimes tunnelled through hills, and
+carried over valleys and rivers on arches. The Pont du Gard spans the River
+Gard, and was built to convey to Nîmes the water of springs rising in the
+neighbourhood of the modern Uzés. It is built of great blocks of stone; its
+height is 160 feet; length of the highest arcade, 882 feet. The aqueduct at
+Segovia, originally built by the Romans, has in some parts two tiers of
+arcades 100 feet high, is 2921 feet in length, and is one of the most
+admired works of antiquity. One of the most remarkable aqueducts of modern
+times is that constructed by Louis XIV for conveying the waters of the Eure
+to Versailles. The extensive application of metal pipes has rendered the
+construction of aqueducts of the old type less necessary; but what may be
+called aqueduct bridges are still frequently constructed in connection with
+canals and also with water-works for the supply of towns. Where canals
+exist canal aqueducts are common, since the water in any section of a canal
+must be kept on a perfect level.
+
+[Illustration: Aqueduct at Segovia]
+
+Many large towns now derive a supply of water from sources at a great
+distance, and in bringing the water to the place where it is required much
+tunnelling is often necessary as well as digging and excavating in the
+open. A tunnel furnishing a water channel may be driven through miles of
+rock strata of various kinds, and in many places it may have to be lined
+with concrete or cement wholly or partially, brick-work also being much
+employed. Instead of tunnelling, the channel may be formed on the plan of
+'cut and cover', being first cut in the ground and then covered over,
+leaving the surface much in the same state as before. And, of course, iron
+piping is often used in connection with such tunnels, the water being
+conveyed so far in an aqueduct of one kind, and so far in one of another
+kind, according as is deemed most suitable. In the Thirlmere aqueduct,
+which brings water to Manchester, there are 45 miles of cast-iron pipes, 37
+miles of cut-and-cover work, and 14 miles of tunnels proper. Pipes are
+naturally laid where valleys occur, and the water simply enters the pipes
+at one end and flows out at the other by the influence of gravity, there
+being a suitable chamber constructed at either end of the pipe line where
+there is a junction with a section of tunnel. Aqueduct bridges were first
+introduced into England in the eighteenth century, the first being the
+aqueduct at Barton Bridge conveying the Bridgewater Canal across the
+Irwell. In such bridges the water-channel may be made of cast iron. There
+are great aqueduct bridges on some of the Indian canals, such as the Nadrai
+bridge on the Lower Ganges Canal. In America water is often carried long
+distances in _flumes_ or open wooden channels, supported, where necessary,
+on trestles. Great wooden pipes are also common there, built of large
+staves and hooped round with iron or steel. These often rest on the surface
+of the ground without any covering.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Herschel,
+_Frontinus_; Wegmann, _Water-supply of City of New York_; J. F. Bateman,
+_The Manchester Waterworks_; J. M. Gale, _The Glasgow Waterworks_; A.
+Prescott Folwell, _Water Supply Engineering_.
+
+AQ´UEOUS HUMOUR, the limpid watery fluid which fills the space between the
+cornea and the crystalline lens in the eye.
+
+AQUEOUS ROCKS, composed of matter deposited by water from suspension or
+solution. Called also _sedimentary rocks_. See _Geology_.
+
+AQUIFOLIA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of plants; the holly tribe. The species consist
+of trees and shrubs, and the order includes the common holly (_Ilex
+Aquifolium_) and the _I. paraguayensis_, or Paraguayan tea tree.
+
+AQUILA ([.a]k´w[=e]-l[.a]), a town in Italy, capital of the province of
+Aquila, 55 miles north-east of Rome, the seat of a bishop, an attractive
+and interesting town with spacious streets and handsome palaces. In 1703
+and 1706 it suffered severely from earthquakes. Pop. 22,050.--The province
+has an area of 2493 sq. miles. Pop. 422,634.
+
+AQ´UILA, a companion of St. Paul (_Acts_, xviii, 2, 3). Expelled from Rome,
+he and his wife, Priscilla, settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed with
+them. They were converted to Christianity by the Apostle.
+
+AQ´UILA, a native of Pontus, flourished about A.D. 130. He became a Jewish
+proselyte, and made a close and accurate translation of the Hebrew
+Scriptures into Greek, extant only in fragments.
+
+AQ´UILA, name of a constellation in the northern hemisphere. See
+_Constellations_.
+
+AQUILA´RIA. See _Aloes-wood_.
+
+AQUILE´GIA. See _Columbine_.
+
+AQUILEIA (ak-wi-l[=e]´ya), an ancient city near the head of the Adriatic
+Sea, in Upper Italy, built by the Romans in 182 or 181 B.C. Commanding the
+N.E. entrance into Italy, it became important as a commercial centre and a
+military post, and was frequently the base of imperial campaigns. In 425 it
+was destroyed by Attila. The modern Aquileia or Aglar is a small place of
+some 1700 inhabitants, consisting chiefly of fishermen.
+
+AQUINAS (a-kw[=i]´nas; i.e. of Aquino), St. Thomas, a celebrated scholastic
+divine, born in 1225 or 1227, most probably at the castle of Rocco Secca,
+near Aquino. His father was Count of Aquino, in the kingdom of Naples. He
+was educated at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Casino, and at the
+University of Naples, where he studied for six years. About the age of
+seventeen he entered a convent of Dominicans, much against the wishes of
+his family. He attended the lectures of Albertus Magnus at Cologne, in
+whose company he visited Paris in 1245 or 1246. Here he became involved in
+the dispute between the university and the Begging Friars as to the liberty
+of teaching, advocating the rights claimed by the latter with great energy.
+In 1257 he received the degree of doctor from the Sorbonne, and began to
+lecture on theology, rapidly acquiring the highest reputation. In 1263 he
+is found at the Chapter of the Dominicans in London. In 1268 he was in
+Italy, lecturing in Rome, Bologna, and elsewhere. In 1271 he was again in
+Paris lecturing to the students; in 1272 he was professor at Naples. In
+1263 he had been offered the archbishopric of Naples by Clement IV, but
+refused the offer. He died, in 1274, on his way to Lyons to attend a
+general council for the purpose of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches. He
+was called, after the fashion of the times, the _angelic doctor_, and was
+canonized by John XXII. The most important of his numerous works, which are
+all written in Latin, are the _Summa Theologica_, which, although only
+professing to treat of theology, is in reality a complete and systematic
+summary of the knowledge of the time, and the _Summa Philosophica_. The
+work of St. Thomas consisted in an effort to harmonize the new scientific
+teachings of the age--derived from Arabian and Byzantine sources--with the
+doctrine of the Church, and to refute heresy. His disciples were known as
+_Thomists_. See _Thomism_.--Cf. P. Conway, _St. Thomas Aquinas_; and
+article in _Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics_.
+
+AQUITA´NIA, later AQUITAINE, a Roman province in Gaul, which comprehended
+the countries on the coast from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and from the
+sea to Toulouse. It was brought into connection with England by the
+marriage of Henry II with Eleanor, daughter of the last Duke of Aquitaine.
+The title to the province was for long disputed by England and France, but
+it was finally secured by the latter (1453).
+
+ARABAH´, a deep rocky valley or depression in north-western Arabia, between
+the Dead Sea and Gulf of Akabah, a sort of continuation of the Jordan
+valley.
+
+ARABESQUE (ar´a-besk), a species of ornamentation for enriching flat
+surfaces, often consisting of fanciful figures, human or animal, combined
+with floral forms. There may be said to be three periods and distinctive
+varieties of arabesque--(_a_) the Roman or Græco-Roman, introduced into
+Rome from the East when pure art was declining; (_b_) the Arabesque of the
+Moors as seen in the Alhambra, introduced by them into Europe in the Middle
+Ages; (_c_) Modern Arabesque, which took its rise in Italy in the
+Renaissance period of art. The arabesques of the Moors, who are prohibited
+by their religion from representing animal forms, consist essentially of
+complicated ornamental designs based on the suggestion of plant-growth,
+combined with extremely complex geometrical forms.
+
+ARABGIR ([.a]-r[.a]b-g[=e]r´), or ARABKIR´, a town in Asia, 147 miles
+W.S.W. of Erzerum, noted for its manufacture of silk and cotton goods. Pop.
+between 20,000 and 30,000.
+
+ARA´BIA, a vast peninsula in the S.W. of Asia, bounded on the N. by the
+great Syro-Babylonian plain, N.E. by the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman,
+S. or S.E. by the Indian Ocean, and S.W. by the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez.
+Its length from N.W. to S.E. is about 1800 miles, its mean breadth about
+600 miles, its area approximately 1,200,000 sq. miles, its population
+probably less than 5,000,000. Roughly described, it exhibits a central
+table-land surrounded by a series of deserts, with numerous scattered
+oases, while around this is a line of mountains parallel to and approaching
+the coasts, and with a narrow rim of low grounds (_teh[=a]ma_) between them
+and the sea. In its general features Arabia resembles the Sahara, of which
+it may be considered a continuation. Like the Sahara, it has its wastes of
+loose sand, its stretches of bare rocks and stones, its mountains devoid of
+vegetation, its oases with their wells and streams, their palm-groves and
+cultivated fields--islands of green amidst the surrounding desolation.
+Rivers proper there are none. By the ancients the whole peninsula was
+broadly divided into three great sections--Arabia Petræa (containing the
+city Petra), Deserta (desert), and Felix (happy). The first and last of
+these answer roughly to the modern divisions of the region of Sinai in the
+N.W. and Yemen in the S.W., while the name _Deserta_ was vaguely given to
+the rest of the country. (See _Explorations, Modern_.) The principal
+divisions at the present are Madian in the north-west; south of this,
+Hejaz, Assir, and Yemen, all on the Red Sea, the last named occupying the
+south-western part of the peninsula, and comprising a _teh[=a]ma_ or
+maritime lowland on the shores of the Red Sea, with an elevated inland
+district of considerable breadth; Hadramaut on the south coast; Oman
+occupying the south-east angle; El-Hasa and Koveït on the Persian Gulf;
+El-Hamad (Desert of Syria), Nefûd, and Jebel Shammar in the north; Nejd,
+the Central Highlands, which occupies a great part of the interior of the
+country, while south of it is the great unexplored Dahkna or sandy desert.
+Between 1902-5 a joint commission of British and Turkish officers laid down
+a boundary line defining the limits between Turkish territory and that of
+the independent Arab tribes in political relations with Great Britain.
+Nearly the whole of Southern Arabia came within the sphere of British
+influence. Madian belongs to Egypt; the Hejaz, Yemen, Bahr-el-Hasa, Koveït,
+&c., were more or less under the suzerainty of Turkey until 1914. The rest
+of the country is ruled by independent chiefs--sheikhs, emirs, and
+imâms--while the title of sultan has been assumed by the chief of the
+Wahabis in Nejd, the sovereign of Oman (who has a subsidy from the Indian
+Government), and some petty princes in the south of the peninsula. On 9th
+June, 1916, the Grand Shereef of Mecca declared himself independent of the
+Turkish Government, and an Arab revolt spread rapidly. The Grand Shereef
+Hussein then announced to the Moslem world that the Shereefate of Mecca was
+henceforth independent, and on 4th Nov., 1916, he had himself formally
+proclaimed King, or Sultan, of Arabia. The status of the whole of Arabia
+was determined by the Peace Conference. (See _Hejaz_, _Mesopotamia_,
+_Syria_, _Sykes-Picot Treaty_.) The chief towns are Mecca, the birthplace
+of Mahomet; Medina, the place to which he fled from Mecca (A.D. 622), and
+where he is buried; Hodeida, a seaport exporting Mocha coffee; Aden, on the
+S.W. coast, belonging to Britain; Sana, the capital of Yemen; and Muscat,
+the capital of Oman. The chief towns of the interior are Haïl, the
+residence of the Emir of Jebel Shammar; Oneizah, under the same ruler; and
+Rijadh, capital of Nejd and Hasa. The most flourishing portions of Arabia
+are in Oman, Hadramaut, and Nejd. In the two former are localities with
+numerous towns and villages and settled industrious populations like that
+of India or Europe.
+
+The climate of Arabia in general is marked by extreme heat and dryness.
+Aridity and barrenness characterize both high and low grounds, and the
+date-palm is often the only representative of vegetable existence. There
+are districts which in the course of the year are hardly refreshed by a
+single shower of rain. Forests there are few or none. Grassy pastures have
+their place supplied by steppe-like tracts, which are covered for a short
+season with aromatic herbs, serving as food for cattle. The date-palm
+furnishes the staple article of food; the cereals are wheat, barley, maize,
+and millet; various sorts of fruit flourish; coffee and many aromatic
+plants and substances, such as gum-arabic, benzoin, mastic, balsam, aloes,
+myrrh, frankincense, &c., are produced. There are also cultivated in
+different parts of the peninsula, according to the soil and climate, beans,
+rice, lentils, tobacco, melons, saffron, colocynth, poppies, olives, &c.
+Sheep, goats, oxen, the horse, the camel, ass, and mule supply man's
+domestic and personal wants. Among wild animals are gazelles, ostriches,
+the lion, panther, hyena, jackal, &c. Among mineral products are saltpetre,
+mineral pitch, petroleum, salt, sulphur, and several precious stones, as
+the carnelian, agate, and onyx. The people of Arabia, according to their
+own traditions, are derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs and the
+naturalized Arabs or Mustarab. They are leading either a settled
+agricultural life or a nomadic existence. In Southern Arabia the Jews form
+a large element in the towns' population. Commerce is largely in the hands
+of foreigners, among whom the Jews and Banians (Indian merchants) are the
+most numerous.
+
+The history of Arabia previous to Mahomet is obscure. The earliest
+inhabitants are believed to have been of the Semitic race. Jews in great
+numbers migrated into Arabia after the destruction of Jerusalem, and,
+making numerous proselytes, indirectly favoured the introduction of the
+doctrines of Mahomet. With his advent the Arabians revolted and united for
+the purpose of extending the new creed; and under the caliphs--the
+successors of Mahomet--they attained great power, and founded large and
+powerful kingdoms in three continents. (See _Caliphs_.) On the fall of the
+caliphate of Bagdad in 1258 the decline set in, and on the expulsion of the
+Moors from Spain the foreign rule of the Arabs came to an end. In the
+sixteenth century Turkey subdued Hejaz and Yemen, and received the nominal
+submission of the tribes inhabiting the rest of Arabia. The allegiance of
+Hejaz was renounced early in the European War; but Yemen achieved its
+independence in the seventeenth century, and maintained it till 1871, when
+the territory again fell into the hands of the Turks. In 1839 Aden was
+occupied by the British. Oman early became virtually independent of the
+caliphs, and grew into a well-organized kingdom. In 1507 its capital,
+Maskat or Muscat, was occupied by the Portuguese, who were not driven out
+till 1659. The Wahabis appeared towards the end of the eighteenth century,
+and took an important part in the political affairs of Arabia, but their
+progress was interrupted by Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, and they suffered
+a complete defeat by Ibrahim Pasha. He extended his power over most of the
+country, but the events of 1840 in Syria compelled him to renounce all
+claims to Arabia. The Hejaz thus again became subject to Turkish sway, and
+until 1914 Turkey continually extended its rule not only over Yemen, but
+also over the district of El-Hasa on the Persian Gulf.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir
+R. F. Burton, _Pilgrimage to Medina and Mecca_; E. Reclus, _Les Arabes_;
+C. M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_, and _Wanderings in Arabia_; G. W. Bury,
+_Arabia Infelix_; S. M. Zwemer, _Arabia, the Cradle of Islam._
+
+_Arabian Language and Literature._--The Arabic language belongs to the
+Semitic dialects, among which it is distinguished for its richness,
+softness, and high degree of development. By the spread of Islam it became
+the sole written language and the prevailing speech in all South-Western
+Asia and Eastern and Northern Africa, and for a time in Southern Spain, in
+Malta, and in Sicily; and it is still used as a learned and sacred language
+wherever Islam is spread. Almost a third part of the Persian vocabulary
+consists of Arabic words, and there is the same proportion of Arabic in
+Turkish. The Arabic language is written in an alphabet of its own, which
+has also been adopted in writing Persian, Hindustani, Turkish, &c. As in
+all Semitic languages (except the Ethiopic), it is read from right to left.
+The vowels are usually omitted in Arabic manuscripts, only the consonants
+being written.
+
+Poetry among the Arabs had a very early development, and before the time of
+Mahomet poetical contests were held and prizes awarded for the best pieces.
+The collection called the _Moallakât_ contains seven pre-Mahommedan poems
+by seven authors. Many other poems belonging to the time before Mahomet,
+some of equal age with those of the _Moallakât_, are also preserved in
+collections. Mahomet gave a new direction to Arab literature. The rules of
+faith and life which he laid down were collected by Abu-Bekr, first caliph
+after his death, and published by Othman, the third caliph, and constitute
+the _Koran_--the Mahommedan Bible. The progress of the Arabs in literature,
+the arts and sciences, may be said to have begun with the government of the
+caliphs of the family of the Abbassides, A.D. 749, at Bagdad, several of
+whom, as Harun al Rashid and Al Mamun, were munificent patrons of learning:
+and their example was followed by the Ommiades in Spain. In Spain were
+established numerous academies and schools, which were visited by students
+from other European countries; and important works were written on
+geography, history, philosophy, medicine, physics, mathematics, arithmetic,
+geometry, and astronomy. Most of the geography in the Middle Ages is the
+work of the Arabs, and their historians since the eighth century have been
+very numerous. The philosophy of the Arabs was of Greek origin, and derived
+principally from that of Aristotle. Numerous translations of the scientific
+works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers were made, principally by
+Christian scholars who resided as physicians at the Courts of the caliphs.
+These were diligently studied in Bagdad, Damascus, and Cordova, and, being
+translated into Latin, became known in the west of Europe. Of their
+philosophical authors the most celebrated are Alfarabi (tenth century), Ibn
+Sina or Avicenna (died A.D. 1037), Alghazzali (died 1111), Ibn Roshd or
+Averroes (twelfth century), called by pre-eminence The Commentator, &c. In
+medicine they excelled all other nations in the Middle Ages, and they are
+commonly regarded as the earliest experimenters in chemistry. Their
+mathematics and astronomy were based on the works of Greek writers, but the
+former they enriched, simplified, and extended. It was by them that algebra
+was introduced to the Western peoples, and the Arabic numerals were
+similarly introduced. Astronomy they especially cultivated, for which
+famous schools and observatories were erected at Bagdad and Cordova. The
+_Almagest_ of Ptolemy in an Arabic translation was early a textbook among
+them. Alongside of science poetry continued to be cultivated, but after the
+ninth or tenth centuries it grew more and more artificial. Among poets were
+Abu Nowas, Asmai, Abu Temmam, Motenabbi, Abul-Ala, Busiri, Tograi, and
+Hariri. Tales and romances in prose and verse were written. The tales of
+fairies, genii, enchanters, and sorcerers in particular passed from the
+Arabians to the Western nations, as in _The Thousand and One Nights._ Some
+of the books most widely read in the Middle Ages, such as _The Seven Wise
+Masters,_ the _Fables of Pilpay_ (or Bidpai), and the _Romance of Antar_
+found their way into Europe through the instrumentality of the Arabs. At
+the present day Arabic literature is almost confined to the production of
+commentaries and scholia, discussions on points of dogma and jurisprudence,
+and grammatical works on the classical language. There are a few newspapers
+published in Arabic.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Huart, _History of Arabic
+Literature;_ R. A. Nicholson, _Literary History of the Arabs._
+
+ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE. See _Moorish Architecture_, _Saracenic Architecture_.
+
+ARABIAN GULF. See _Red Sea_.
+
+ARABIAN NIGHTS, or THE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS, (Ar. Alf Layla wa-Layla), a
+celebrated collection of Eastern tales, based upon an old work, called
+_Hazar Afsana_, long current in the East, and supposed to have been derived
+by the Arabians from India, through the medium of Persia. They were first
+introduced into Europe in the beginning of the eighteenth century by means
+of the French translation of Antoine Galland. Of some of them no original
+MS. is known to exist; they were taken down by Galland from the oral
+communication of a Syrian friend. The story which connects the tales of
+_The Thousand and One Nights_ is as follows: The Sultan Shahriyar,
+exasperated by the faithlessness of his bride, made a law that every one of
+his future wives should be put to death the morning after marriage. At
+length one of them, Sheherazade, the generous daughter of the grand-vizier,
+succeeded in abolishing the cruel custom. By the charm of her stories the
+fair narrator induced the sultan to defer her execution every day till the
+dawn of another, by breaking off in the middle of an interesting tale which
+she had begun to relate. In the form we possess them these tales belong to
+a comparatively late period, though the exact date of their composition is
+not known. Lane, who published a translation of a number of the tales, with
+valuable notes, is of opinion that they took their present form some time
+between 1475 and 1525. Sir Richard Burton's complete English translation
+was issued in 16 vols. (1885-8).
+
+ARABIAN SEA, the part of the Indian Ocean between Arabia and India.
+
+ARABIC FIGURES, the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0; of Indian
+origin, introduced into Europe by the Moors. They did not come into general
+use till after the invention of printing.
+
+ARA´BI PASHA, Egyptian soldier and revolutionary leader, born 1839. In
+Sept., 1881, he headed a military revolt, and was for a time virtually
+dictator of Egypt. Britain interfered, and after a short campaign,
+beginning with the bombardment of Alexandria and ending with the defeat of
+Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir, he surrendered, and was banished to Ceylon, being
+pardoned in 1900. He died in obscurity in Cairo in 1911.
+
+ARABLE LAND, land which is fit for ploughing, and capable of being
+cultivated, as distinguished from grass-land, wood-land, common pasture,
+mountains, forests, morasses, and waste. In Government returns the term is
+applied to land that is actually under regular cultivation. The land
+capable of being cultivated amounts in England and Wales to about 25 per
+cent, and in Ireland to about 13 per cent. In the course of the last thirty
+or forty years there has, however, been a considerable diminution in the
+area of land actually cultivated, as a result of large foreign imports of
+grain and other agricultural products.
+
+ARABS. The Arabs, as a race, are of middle stature, of a powerful though
+slender build, and have a skin of a more or less brownish colour; in towns
+and the uplands often almost white. Their features are well cut, the nose
+straight, the forehead high. They are naturally active, intelligent, and
+courteous; and their character is marked by temperance, bravery, and
+hospitality. The first religion of the Arabs, the worship of the stars, was
+supplanted by the doctrines of Mahommedanism, which succeeded rapidly in
+establishing itself throughout Arabia. Besides the two principal sects of
+Islam, the Sunnites and the Shiites, there also exists, in considerable
+numbers, a third Mahommedan sect, the Wahabis, which arose in the latter
+half of the eighteenth century, and for a time possessed great political
+importance in the peninsula. The mode of life of the Arabs is either
+nomadic or settled. The nomadic tribes are termed Bedouins (or Bedawins),
+and among them are considered to be the Arabs of the purest blood.
+
+ARACACHA, or ARRACACHA (ar-a-kä'cha), a genus of umbelliferous plants of
+Southern and Central America. The root of _A. esculenta_ is divided into
+several lobes, each of which is about the size of a large carrot. These are
+boiled like potatoes and largely eaten in South America.
+
+ARACAN (ar-a-kan'), the most northern division of Lower Burmah, on the Bay
+of Bengal; chief town and seaport Akyab. It was ceded to the English in
+1826, as a result of the first Burmese war.
+
+ARAÇARI ([.a]-r[.a]-sä'r[=e]), native name of a genus of brilliant birds
+(Pteroglossus) closely allied to the toucans, but generally smaller;
+natives of the warm parts of South America.
+
+ARACATI ([.a]-r[.a]-k[.a]-t[=e]'), a Brazilian river-port, State of Ceará,
+on the River Jaguaribe, about 10 miles from its mouth. Exports hides and
+cotton. Pop. about 10,000.
+
+ARA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of monocotyledonous plants, mostly tropical, having
+the genus Arum as the type. Most of the species have tuberous roots
+abounding in starch, which forms a wholesome food after the acrid juice has
+been washed out. See _Arum_, _Caladium_, _Dumb-cane_.
+
+ARACHIS (ar´a-kis), a genus of leguminous plants much cultivated in warm
+climates, and esteemed a valuable article of food. The most remarkable
+feature of the genus is that when the flower falls the stalk supporting the
+small undeveloped fruit lengthens, and bending towards the ground pushes
+the fruit into the ground, when it begins to enlarge and ripen. The pod of
+_A. hypogoea_ (popularly called ground, earth, or pea nut) is of a
+pale-yellow colour, and contains two seeds the size of a hazel-nut, in
+flavour sweet as almonds, and yielding when pressed an excellent oil.
+
+ARACHNIDA (a-rak´ni-da; Gr. _arachn[=e]_, a spider), a class of Arthropoda
+or higher Annulose animals including the Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, Ticks,
+&c. They have the body divided into a number of segments or _somites_, some
+of which have always articulated appendages (limbs, &c.). There is often a
+pair of nervous ganglia in each somite, although in some forms (as spiders)
+the nervous system becomes modified and concentrated. They are oviparous
+and somewhat resemble insects, but they have a united head and thorax, and
+do not undergo a metamorphosis similar to insects. They respire by tracheæ,
+by pulmonary sacs, or by the skin.
+
+AR´ACK, or AR´RACK, a spirituous liquor manufactured in the East Indies
+from a great variety of substances. It is often distilled from fermented
+rice, or it may be distilled from the juice of the coco-nut and other
+palms. Pure arack is clear and transparent, of a yellowish or straw colour,
+and with a peculiar but agreeable taste and smell; it contains at least 52
+to 54 per cent of alcohol.
+
+ARAD (o'rod), a town of the former kingdom of Hungary, on the Maros, 30
+miles north of Temeswar, divided by the river into O (Old) Arad and Uj
+(New) Arad, connected by a bridge; it has a fortress, and is an important
+railway centre, with a large trade and manufactures. The town is now within
+the confines of Roumania, Uj Arad being called Arodul Neo. Population of
+Old and New Arad together, 63,166.
+
+AR´ADUS (now RUAD), an inlet about a mile in circumference lying 2 miles
+off the Syrian coast, 35 miles N. of Tripolis; the site of the Phoenician
+stronghold Arvad, a city second only to Tyre and Sidon; now occupied by
+about 3000 people, mainly fishermen.
+
+ARAFAT´, or JEBEL ER RAHMEH ('Mountain of Mercy'), a hill in Arabia, about
+200 feet high, with stone steps reaching to the summit, 15 miles south-east
+of Mecca; one of the principal objects of pilgrimage among Mahommedans, who
+say that it was the place where Adam first received his wife Eve after they
+had been expelled from Paradise and separated from each other 120 years. A
+sermon delivered on the mount constitutes one great ceremony of the _Hajj_;
+or pilgrimage to Mecca, and entitles the hearer to the name and privileges
+of a _Hajji_ or pilgrim.
+
+AR´AGO, Dominique François, a French physicist, born in 1786, died at Paris
+in 1853. After studying in the Polytechnic School at Paris, he was
+appointed a secretary of the Bureau des Longitudes. In 1806 he was
+associated with Biot in completing in Spain the measurements of Delambre
+and Méchain to obtain an arc of the meridian. Before he got back to France
+he had been shipwrecked and narrowly escaped being enslaved at Algiers. In
+1809 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences and appointed a professor at
+the Polytechnic School. He distinguished himself by his researches in the
+polarization of light, galvanism, magnetism, astronomy, &c. His discovery
+of the magnetic properties of substances devoid of iron, made known to the
+Academy of Sciences in 1824, procured him the Copley medal of the Royal
+Society of London in 1825. A further consideration of the same subject led
+to the equally remarkable discovery of the production of magnetism by
+electricity. He took part in the revolution of 1848, and held the office of
+Minister of War and Marine in the provisional Government. At the _coup
+d'état_ of Dec., 1852, he refused to take the oath to the Government of
+Louis Napoleon, but the oath was not pressed. His works, which were
+posthumously collected and published, consist, besides his _Astronomie
+Populaire_, chiefly of contributions to learned societies, and biographical
+notices (_éloges_) of deceased members of the Academy of Sciences.
+
+ARAGO, Emmanuel, son of Dominique François, French advocate and politician,
+was born at Paris in 1812; called to the bar 1837; took part in the
+revolution of 1848; renounced politics after the _coup d'état_ of Dec.,
+1852, but continued to practise at the bar. After the fall of the Empire he
+again took a prominent part in public affairs, and held several important
+offices. He is author of a volume of poems and many theatrical pieces. He
+died in 1896.
+
+ARAGO, Étienne, brother of Dominique Arago, born 1802, died 1892. He
+founded the journals _La Réforme_ and _Le Figaro_; was director of the
+Théâtre du Vaudeville, 1829; took part in the revolution of 1848; was
+condemned to transportation, 1849; fled from France, but returned in 1859;
+was mayor of Paris during the Franco-Prussian war, and appointed archivist
+to the École des Beaux Arts, 1878. He was author of upwards of 100 dramas,
+_La Vie de Molière,_ _Les Bleus et les Blancs_, and other works.
+
+ARAGON´, KINGDOM OF, a former province or kingdom of Spain, now divided
+into three provinces of Teruel, Huesca, and Saragossa; bounded on the N. by
+the Pyrenees, N.W. by Navarre, W. by Castile, S. by Valencia, and E. by
+Catalonia; length about 190 miles, average breadth 90 miles; area, 18,298
+sq. miles. It was governed by its own monarchs until the union with Castile
+on the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1469).
+
+ARAGO´NA, a town in Sicily, 8 miles N.N.E. of Girgenti. Pop. 16,000. In the
+neighbourhood is the mud volcano of Macculuba.
+
+ARAGONITE, a mineral formed of calcium carbonate crystallized in the
+rhombic system; specific gravity 2.94 (compare _Calcite_). Aragonite passes
+into calcite in the course of geological time, but is important as the
+mineral precipitated to form the oolitic limestones of warm seas, and from
+being the material of most molluscan shells. It was first found in Aragon.
+
+ARAGUAYA ([.a]-r[.a]-gw[=i]'[.a]), a Brazilian river, principal affluent of
+the Tocantins; rises about the 18th degree of S. lat.; in its course
+northwards forms the boundary between the two States of Matto Grosso and
+Goyaz, and falls into the Tocantins near lat. 6° S.; length, about 1300
+miles, of which over 1000 are navigable.
+
+A´RAL, a salt-water lake in Asia, in Russian territory, about 150 miles W.
+of the Caspian Sea, between 43° 42´ and 46° 44´ N. lat., and 58° 18´ and
+61° 46´ E. long.; length 270 miles, breadth 165; area, 26,650 sq. miles (or
+not much smaller than Scotland). It stands 240 feet above the level of the
+Caspian, and 160 feet above the Mediterranean. It receives the Amu Darya or
+Oxus and the Syr Darya or Jaxartes, and contains a multitude of sturgeon
+and other fish. It is encircled by desert sandy tracts, and its shores are
+without harbours. It has no outlet. The Aral contains a large number of
+small islands; steamers have been placed on it by the Russians.
+
+ARA´LIA, a genus of plants with small flowers arranged in umbels and
+succulent berries, the type of the nat. ord. Araliaceæ, which is nearly
+related to the Umbelliferæ, but the species are of a more shrubby habit.
+They are natives chiefly of tropical or sub-tropical countries, and in
+Britain are represented by the ivy; ginseng belongs to the order. From the
+pith of _A. papyrif[)e]ra_ is obtained the Chinese rice-paper.
+
+A´RAM, Eugene, a self-taught scholar whose unhappy fate has been made the
+subject of a ballad by Hood and a romance by Lord Lytton, was born in
+Yorkshire, 1704, executed for murder, 1759. In 1734 he set up a school at
+Knaresborough. About 1745 a shoemaker of that place, named Daniel Clarke,
+was suddenly missing under suspicious circumstances; and no light was
+thrown on the matter till full thirteen years afterwards, when an
+expression dropped by one Richard Houseman, respecting the discovery of a
+skeleton supposed to be Clarke's, caused him to be taken into custody. From
+his confession an order was issued for the apprehension of Aram, who had
+long quitted Yorkshire, and was at the time acting as usher at the
+grammar-school at Lynn. He was brought to trial on 3rd Aug., 1759, at York,
+where, notwithstanding an able and eloquent defence which he made before
+the court, he was convicted of the murder of Clarke, and sentenced to
+death. He was among the first to recognize the affinity of the Celtic to
+the other European languages, and under favourable circumstances might have
+done some valuable work in philological science.--Cf. W. Bristow, _The
+Genuine Account of the Life and Trial of Eugene Aram_.
+
+ARAMÆ´AN, or ARAMAIC. See _Semitic Languages_, _Syriac_.
+
+AR´AN, an island lying off the W. coast of Donegal, Ireland, has an area of
+4335 acres, a lighthouse, and a pop. of 1308, chiefly engaged in
+fishing.--Also called _North Island of Aran_, or _Arranmore_.
+
+ARANE´IDÆ, the spider family.
+
+ARAN ISLANDS, or SOUTH ISLANDS OF ARAN, three islands at the mouth of
+Galway Bay, off the W. coast of Ireland. The largest, Aranmore or
+Inishmore, comprises 7635 acres, and has a pop. of 2592; the next,
+Inishmaan, 2252 acres, pop. 473; and the least, Inishere, 1400 acres, pop.
+456. They are remarkable for a number of architectural remains of a very
+early date. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture and fishing.
+
+ARANJUEZ ([.a]-r[.a]n-_h_[u:]-eth´), a small town and palace in Spain, 30
+miles from Madrid, with splendid gardens laid out by Philip II. The Court
+used to reside here from Easter till the close of June, when the number of
+people increased from 4000 to 20,000. It has a wireless station. Pop.
+12,000.
+
+ARANY (o-ron´y), Janos, Hungarian poet, born 1817, died 1882. He was for
+some time a strolling player, but became professor of Latin at the Normal
+School of Szalonta, professor of Hungarian literature at Nagy Körös, and
+secretary of the Hungarian Academy. Author of _The Lost Constitution_,
+_Katalin_, and a series of three connected narrative poems on the fortunes
+of Toldi.
+
+ARAP´AHOES, a tribe of American Indians located near the head-waters of the
+Arkansas and Platte Rivers. They number in all about 2000.
+
+ARAPAIMA (a-ra-p[=i]´ma), a genus of South American fresh-water fishes,
+ord. Physostomi, family Osteoglossidæ, one species of which (_A. gigas_)
+grows to the length of 15 or 16 feet, and forms a valuable article of food
+in Brazil and Guiana. It is covered with large bony scales, and has a bare
+and bony head.
+
+AR´ARAT, a celebrated mountain in Armenia, an isolated volcanic mass
+showing two separate cones known as the Great and Little Ararat, resting on
+a common base and separated by a deep intervening depression. The
+elevations are: Great Ararat, 16,916 feet; Little Ararat, 12,840 feet; the
+connecting ridge, 8780 feet. Vegetation extends to 14,200 feet, which marks
+the snow-line. According to the Bible Mount Ararat was the resting-place of
+the Ark when the waters of the Flood abated.
+
+ARARO´BA, or ARRAROBA, the powdered bark of _And[=i]ra arar[=o]ba_. See
+_Andira_.
+
+A´RAS (the ancient ARAXES), a river of Asia Minor, rising S. of Erzerum at
+the foot of the Bingol-dagh; it flows for some miles through South
+Caucasia, turning eastwards to the Erivan plain N. of Ararat. It then
+sweeps in a semi-circle mostly between Caucasia and Persia round to its
+confluence with the Kur, 60 miles from its mouth in the Caspian; length,
+500 miles.
+
+ARA´TUS, a Greek poet, born at Soli in Cilicia; lived about 270 B.C.; was a
+favourite of Ptolemy Philadelphus. His poem _Phænomena_ is a version of a
+prose work on astronomy by Eudoxus; one verse of it is quoted by St. Paul
+in his address to the Athenians (_Acts_, xvii, 28).
+
+ARA´TUS OF SICYON, a statesman of ancient Greece, born 272 B.C. In 251 B.C.
+he overthrew the tyrant of Sicyon and joined that city to the Achæan
+League, which he greatly extended. He accepted the aid of Antigonus Doson,
+King of Macedon, against the Spartans, and became in time little more than
+the adviser of the Macedonian king, who had now made the League dependent
+on himself. He is said to have been poisoned by Philip V of Macedon, 213
+B.C.
+
+ARAUCA´NIANS, a South American native race in the southern part of Chile,
+occupying a territory stretching from about 37° to 40° of S. lat. They are
+warlike and more civilized than many of the native races of S. America, and
+maintained almost unceasing war with the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when
+their independence was recognized by Spain, though their territory was much
+curtailed. Their early contests with the Spaniards were celebrated in
+Ercilla's Spanish poem _Araucana_. With the Republic of Chile they were
+long at feud, and in 1861 had at their head a French adventurer named
+Antoine de Tounens, who claimed the title of king. In 1882 they submitted
+to Chile. The Chilian province of Arauco receives its name from them.
+
+[Illustration: Chile pine (_Araucaria imbric[=a]ta_)]
+
+ARAUCA´RIA, a genus of trees of the coniferous or pine order, indigenous to
+Australasia and South America. The species are large evergreen trees with
+pretty large, stiff, flattened, and generally imbricated leaves,
+verticillate spreading branches, and bearing large cones, each scale having
+a single large seed. The species _A. imbric[=a]ta_ (the Chile pine or
+monkey-puzzle), with hard, sharp, pointed leaves, was introduced into
+Britain in 1796. It is a native of the mountains of Southern Chile, where
+it forms vast forests and yields a hard durable wood. Its seeds are eaten
+when roasted. The Moreton Bay pine of New South Wales (_A. Cunninghamii_)
+supplies a valuable timber used in house and boat building, in making
+furniture, and in other carpenter work. A species, _A. excelsa_, or Norfolk
+Island pine, abounds in several of the South Sea Islands, where it attains
+a height of 220 feet with a circumference of 30 feet, and is described as
+one of the most beautiful of trees. Its foliage is light and graceful, and
+quite unlike that of _A. imbricata_, having nothing of its stiff formality.
+Its timber is of some value, being white, tough, and close-grained.
+
+ARAU´CO, a province of Chile, named from the Araucanian Indians; area, 2189
+sq. miles; pop. 73,260; capital, Lebu.
+
+ARAVAL´LI HILLS, a range of Indian mountains running N.E. and S.W. across
+the Rajputána country, which they separate into two natural
+divisions--desert plains on the N.W. and fertile lands on the S.E.; highest
+point, Mount Abu (5653 feet).
+
+ARAXES. See _Aras_.
+
+AR´B[)A]CES, one of the generals of Sardanapälus, King of Assyria. He
+revolted and defeated his master, and became the founder of the Median
+Empire in 846 B.C.
+
+AR´BALIST. See _Cross-bow_.
+
+ARBE´LA (now ERBIL), a place in the vilayet of Bagdad, giving name to the
+decisive battle fought by Alexander the Great against Darius, at Gaugamela,
+about 50 miles distant from it, 1st Oct., 331 B.C.
+
+ARBITRAGE ([.a]r´bi-tr[.a]zh), or ARBITRATION OF EXCHANGES, an operation or
+calculation by which the currency of one country is converted into that of
+another through the medium of intervening currencies, for the purpose of
+ascertaining whether direct or indirect drafts and remittances are
+preferable.--_Arbitrageur_ ([.a]r´bi-tr[.a]-zheur) is one who makes
+calculations of currency exchanges. See _Stock Exchange_.
+
+ARBITRA´TION, the hearing and determination of a cause between parties in
+controversy, by a person or persons chosen by the parties. This may be done
+by one person, but it is common to choose more than one. Frequently two are
+nominated, one by each party, with a third, the _umpire_ (or, in Scotland,
+sometimes the _oversman_), who is called on to decide in case of the
+primary arbitrators differing. In such a case the umpire may be agreed upon
+either by the parties themselves, or by the arbitrators when they have
+received authority from the parties to the dispute to settle this point.
+The determination of arbitrators is called an _award_. By the law of
+England the authority of an arbitrator cannot be revoked by any of the
+parties without the leave of the court or of a judge.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Russell, _Arbitration_; Redman, _Arbitration_; Scots Law, see Bell, _On
+Arbitration_; American Law, see Morse, _Law of Arbitration_; R. G. Morris,
+_International Arbitration_.
+
+AR´BLAST. See _Cross-bow_.
+
+ARBO´GA, an old Swedish city, province of Westmannland; once an important
+commercial town, now only of historical interest from having been at one
+time a residence of the family of Vasa, the scene of Church assemblies and
+national diets, and for the antiquities in its neighbourhood. Pop. 5050.
+
+ARBOIS ([.a]r-bwä), a town of France, department of Jura; famous for its
+wines. Pop. 5000.
+
+ARBOR DAY, a day officially set apart in the United States for the annual
+planting of trees by the people, and especially by school-children. The
+custom was instituted in 1872.
+
+ARBORE´TUM (Lat. _arbor_, a tree), a place in which a collection of
+different trees and shrubs is cultivated for scientific or educational
+purposes. The largest arboretum in Britain, perhaps the finest in the whole
+world, is that of the Royal Gardens, at Kew, inaugurated in 1762, to which
+180 acres are now devoted. Next in celebrity are the arboreta at Edinburgh
+(Inverleith) and at Dublin (Glasnevin), the Botanical Gardens at Oxford,
+and the Botanic Gardens at Glasgow. Other arboreta are that of the Jardin
+des Plantes, Paris, and the Arnold Arboretum, at Jamaica Plain, Boston. The
+term arboretum has also been applied in a restricted sense, as in the
+_Arboretum Fruticetum Britannicum_, the monumental work by J. C. Loudon.
+
+AR´BORICULTURE includes the culture of trees and shrubs, as well as all
+that pertains to the preparation of the soil, the sowing of the seeds, and
+the treatment of the plants in their young state, the preparation of the
+land previous to their final transplantation, their just adaptation to soil
+and situation, their relative growth and progress to maturity, their
+management during growth, and the proper season and period for felling
+them.
+
+ARBOR VITÆ (literally, 'tree of life'), the name of several coniferous
+trees of the genus Thuja, allied to the cypress, with flattened branchlets,
+and small imbricated or scale-like leaves. The name is derived from
+valuable medicinal properties having formerly been ascribed to the aromatic
+resin they mostly yield. Those generally cultivated in Britain are: the
+common Arbor Vitæ (_Thuja occident[=a]lis_), a native of North America,
+where it grows to a height of 40 or 50 feet, introduced into Britain about
+1566; the giant Arbor Vitæ or Red Cedar (_Thuja gigantea_), introduced in
+1854; and the Chinese Arbor Vitæ (_Thuja orient[=a]lis_).
+
+ARBROATH (ar-br[=o]th´), or ABERBROTHOCK, a royal municipal and police
+burgh and seaport in the county of Forfar, Scotland, at the mouth of the
+small River Brothock. Its ancient abbey, founded by William the Lion in
+1178, and dedicated to Saints Mary and Thomas à Becket, is now a
+picturesque ruin. There are numerous flax and hemp spinning-mills and
+factories, and much canvas and linen is made; also tanning, shoemaking, and
+fishing, and a small shipping trade, but the harbour is bad. Pop. 19,499.
+It unites with Montrose, Forfar, Brechin, and Inverbervie (the Montrose
+burghs) in sending a member to Parliament.
+
+ARBUTH´NOT, John, an eminent physician and distinguished wit, born at
+Arbuthnot, Kincardineshire, Scotland, 1667, died 1735. He received the
+degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of St. Andrews, and went to
+London, where he soon distinguished himself by his writings and by his
+skill in his profession. In 1704 he was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society,
+and soon after he was appointed physician extraordinary, and then physician
+in ordinary to Queen Anne. About this time he became intimate with Swift,
+Pope, Gay, and other wits of the day. His writings, other than professional
+or scientific, include his contributions (in conjunction with Swift and
+Pope) to the _Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus_, _History of John Bull_, _Art
+of Political Lying_, &c. He was conspicuous not only for learning and wit,
+but also for worth and humanity.
+
+AR´BUTUS, a genus of plants belonging to the Ericaceæ, or heath order, and
+comprising a number of small trees and shrubs, natives chiefly of Europe
+and N. America. _Arb[)u]tus Un[)e]do_ abounds near the lakes of Killarney,
+where its fine foliage adds charms to the scenery. The bright red or yellow
+berries, somewhat like the strawberry, have an unpleasant taste and
+narcotic properties. The Corsicans make wine from them. The trailing
+arbutus or may-flower of N. America, a plant with fragrant and beautiful
+blossoms, is _Epigæa repens_, of the same nat. ord.
+
+ARC, a portion of a curved line, especially of a circle. It is by means of
+circular arcs that all angles are measured.--_Electric_ or _Voltaic arc_,
+the luminous arc of intense brightness and excessively high temperature
+which is formed by an electric current in crossing over the interval of
+space between the carbon points of an electric lamp. See _Arc-light_.
+
+ARC, Jeanne d'. See _Joan of Arc_.
+
+AR´CA, a genus of bivalve molluscs, family Arcadæ, whose shells are known
+as _ark-shells_.
+
+ARCACHON ([.a]r-k[.a]-sh[=o][n.]), a town of S.W. France, department
+Gironde, on the almost landlocked basin of Arcachon, a much-frequented
+bathing-place, with great oyster-breeding establishments. It is connected
+by railway with Bordeaux. Pop. 10,266.
+
+ARCADE, a series of arches supported on piers or pillars, used generally as
+a screen and support of a roof, or of the wall of a building, and having
+beneath the covered part an ambulatory as round a cloister, or a footpath
+with shops or dwellings, as frequently seen in old Italian towns. Sometimes
+a porch or other prominent part of an important building is treated with
+arcades. At the present day Bologna, Padua, and Berne have fine examples of
+mediæval arcaded streets, and among more modern work various streets in
+Turin, and the Rue de Rivoli, Paris, are lined with arcades, with shops
+underneath. In mediæval architecture the term arcade is also applied to a
+series of arches supported on pillars forming an ornamental dressing or
+enrichment of a wall, a mode of treatment of very frequent occurrence in
+the towers, apses, and other parts of churches. In modern use the name
+arcade is often applied to a passage or narrow street containing shops
+arched over and covered with glass, as for example the Burlington Arcade,
+London, the Royal Arcade at Newcastle, and the Gallería Vittorio Emmanuele
+in Milan.
+
+ARCA´DIA, the central and most mountainous portion of the Peloponnesus
+(Morea), the inhabitants of which in ancient times were celebrated for
+simplicity of character and manners. Their occupation was almost entirely
+pastoral, and thus the country came to be regarded as typical of rural
+simplicity and happiness. At the present day Arcadia forms a nomarchy of
+the kingdom of Greece. Area, 2028 sq. miles. Pop. 162,324.
+
+ARCA´DIUS, born in 377, died 408; son of the Emperor Theodosius, on whose
+death in 395 the empire was divided, he obtaining the East, and his brother
+Honorius the West. He proved a feeble and pusillanimous prince.
+
+ARCANUM, THE GREAT (meaning secret), a term applied in the Middle Ages to
+the highest problems of alchemy and the discovery of the supposed great
+secrets of nature, such as the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life.
+See _Alchemy_.
+
+ARCATURE, in architecture, a small arcade built into a wall or applied
+against it, decorative rather than structural. Arcatures occur in
+Anglo-Norman churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
+
+ARCESILAUS ([.a]r-ses-i-l[=a]´us), a Greek philosopher, the founder of the
+second or middle academy, was born about 315 B.C., died 239 B.C. He left no
+writings, and of his opinions so little is known that it has been doubted
+whether he was a strict Platonist or a sceptic.
+
+[Illustration: Parts of an Arch
+
+_a._ Abutments. _i._ Impost. _p._ Piers. _v._ Voussoirs or arch-stones.
+_k._ Keystone. s. Springers. _In._ Intrados. _Ex._ Extrados. ]
+
+[Illustration: Lancet. Horse-shoe.]
+
+[Illustration: Segmental. Semicircular.]
+
+[Illustration: Ogee. Equilateral.]
+
+ARCH, a structure composed of separate pieces, such as stones or bricks,
+having the shape of truncated wedges, arranged on a curved line, so as to
+retain their position by mutual pressure. The separate stones which compose
+the arch are called _voussoirs_ or _arch-stones_; the extreme or lowest
+voussoirs are termed _springers_, and the uppermost or central one is
+called the _keystone_. The under or concave side of the voussoirs is called
+the _intrados_, and the upper or convex side the _extrados_ of the arch.
+The supports which afford resting and resisting points to the arch are
+called _piers_ and _abutments_. The upper part of the pier or abutment,
+where the arch rests--technically where it _springs from_--is the _impost_.
+The _span_ of an arch is in circular arches the length of its chord, and
+generally the width between the points of its opposite imposts whence it
+springs. The _rise_ of an arch is the height of the highest point of its
+intrados above the line of the imposts; this point is sometimes called the
+_under side of the crown_, the highest point of the extrados being the
+_crown_. Arches are designated in various ways, as from their shape
+(circular, elliptic, &c.), or from the resemblance of the whole contour of
+the curve to some familiar object (lancet arch, horse-shoe arch), or from
+the method used in describing the curve, as equilateral, three-centred,
+four-centred, ogee, and the like; or from the style of architecture to
+which they belong, as Roman, pointed, and Saracenic arches.--_Triumphal
+arch_, originally a simple decorated arch under which a victorious Roman
+general and army passed in triumph. At a later period the triumphal arch
+was a richly-sculptured, massive, and permanent structure, having an
+archway passing through it, with generally a smaller arch on either side.
+The name is sometimes given to an arch, generally of wood decorated with
+flowers or evergreens, erected on occasion of some public rejoicing, &c.
+
+ARCHÆAN (är-k[=e]´an) ROCKS (Gr. _archaios_, ancient), the oldest rocks of
+the earth's crust, mostly crystalline in character, and embracing granites,
+gneisses, mica-schists, &c., all devoid of fossil remains. These rocks
+underlie a group of stratified and igneous masses that are usually
+distinguished from them as Huronian; the first beds with a well-marked
+fauna (lowest Cambrian) lie above the Huronian, and the Huronian and the
+Archæan groups are often conveniently classed together as pre-Cambrian, and
+are separated from the stratified and fossiliferous formations, which
+indeed have chiefly taken origin from them. The core of the Malvern range,
+and the rocks of N.W. Sutherland, are examples of Archæan masses in Great
+Britain.
+
+ARCHÆOL´OGY (Gr. _archaios_, ancient, and _logos_, a discourse), the study
+of antiquity, or the science which takes cognizance of the history of
+nations and peoples as evinced by the remains, architectural, implemental,
+or otherwise, which belong to the earlier epoch of their existence. In a
+more extended sense the term embraces every branch of knowledge which bears
+on the origin, religion, laws, languages, science, arts, and literature of
+ancient peoples. It is to a great extent synonymous with _prehistoric
+annals_, as a large if not the principal part of its field of study extends
+over those periods in the history of the human race in regard to which we
+possess almost no information derivable from written records. Archæology
+divides the primeval period of the human race, more especially as exhibited
+by remains found in Europe, into the _stone_, the _bronze_, and the _iron_
+ages, these names being given in accordance with the materials employed for
+weapons, implements, &c., during the particular period. The _stone_ age has
+been subdivided into the _palæolithic_ and _neolithic_, the former being
+that older period, in which the stone implements were not polished as they
+are in the latter and more recent period. The _bronze_ age, which admits of
+a similar subdivision, is that in which implements were of copper or
+bronze. In this age the dead were burned and their ashes deposited in urns
+or stone chests, covered with conical mounds of earth or cairns of stones.
+Gold and amber ornaments appear in this age. The _iron_ age is that in
+which implements, &c., of iron begin to appear, although stone and bronze
+implements are found along with them. The word _age_ in this sense (as
+explained under _Age_) simply denotes the stage at which a people has
+arrived. The phrase stone age, therefore, merely marks the period before
+the use of bronze, the bronze age that before the employment of iron, among
+any specific people. See _Excavations_; _Crete_; _Egypt_; &c--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Sir J. Evans, _Stone Implements of Great Britain_; Boyd-Dawkins, _Early Man
+in Britain_; J. Geikie, _Prehistoric Europe_; R. Munro, _Lake Dwellings of
+Europe_; Sir W. Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_; H. R. Hall, _Ægean
+Archæology_; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Methods and Aims in Archæology_;
+A. P. F. Michaelis, _A Century of Archæological Discoveries_.
+
+[Illustration: Archæopteryx macrura, a fossil lizard-tailed bird]
+
+ARCHÆOPTERYX (är-k[=e]-op´te-riks), a fossil bird from the oolitic
+limestone of Solenhofen, of the size of a rook, and differing from all
+known birds in having two free claws representing the thumb and forefinger
+projecting from the wing, and about twenty tail vertebræ free and prolonged
+as in mammals.
+
+ARCHANGEL (ärk´[=a]n-jel; Gr. prefix, _arch-_, denoting chief), an angel of
+superior or of the highest rank. The only archangel mentioned by name in
+Scripture is Michael in the _Epistle of Jude_.
+
+ARCHANGEL (ärk-[=a]n´jel), a seaport, capital of the Russian government of
+same name, on the right bank of the Northern Dvina, about 20 miles above
+its mouth in the White Sea. Below the town the river divides into several
+branches and forms a number of islands, on one of which, called Sollenbole,
+is the harbour. The houses are mostly of wood; the place has some
+manufactures and an important trade, exporting linseed, flax, tow, tallow,
+train-oil, mats, timber, pitch and tar, &c. The port is closed for six
+months by ice. Archangel, founded in 1584, was long the only port which
+Russia possessed. Pop. 43,388.--The province, which before the Russian
+revolution extended from the Ural Mountains to Finland, had an area of
+326,063 sq. miles. Pop. 483,500.--For the Archangel Expedition of 1918, see
+_Murmansk_, _Russia_.
+
+ARCHANGEL´ICA. See _Angelica_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ARCHÆOLOGY: ANTIQUITIES OF THE STONE, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES
+
+[Illustration: OLDER STONE AGE: 1, Flint Pick. 2, Carved Mammoth Tusk. 3,
+Double Scraper. 4, Barbed Harpoon Heads. LATER STONE AGE: 5, Pick of Deer
+Antler. 6, Flint and Pyrites. 7, Stone Celt in Haft. 8, Arrowhead. 9, Bowl.
+BRONZE AGE: 10, Celt. 11, Drinking-cup. 12, Ornamental Pin. 13, Spear-head.
+14, Bronze Tweezers. 15, 16, Gold Bracelets. 17, Engraved Pin. 18, Short
+Sword. 19, Spectacle Brooch. 20, Razor. EARLY IRON AGE: 21, Bronze Brooch.
+22, Bone Hand-comb for weaving. 23, Bronze Mirror. 24, Bronze Jug. 25,
+Bronze Spoon. 26, Iron Currency Bars. 27, Bronze Brooch.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ARCHBISHOP (ärch-), a chief bishop, or bishop over other bishops; a
+metropolitan prelate. The establishment of this dignity is to be traced up
+to an early period of Christianity, when the bishops and inferior clergy
+met in the capitals to deliberate on spiritual affairs, and the bishop of
+the city where the meeting was held presided. In England there are two
+archbishops--those of Canterbury and York; the former styled _Primate of
+all England_, the latter _Primate of England_. The Archbishop of Canterbury
+is the first peer of the realm, having precedence before all great officers
+of the Crown and all dukes not of royal birth. He crowns the sovereign, and
+when he is invested with his archbishopric he is said to be enthroned. He
+can grant special licences to marry at any time or place, and can confer
+degrees otherwise to be obtained only from the universities. He is
+addressed by the titles of _your grace_ and _most reverend father in God_,
+and writes himself _by divine providence_, while the Archbishop of York and
+the bishops only write _by divine permission_. The first Archbishop of
+Canterbury was Augustine, appointed A.D. 598 by Ethelbert. Next in dignity
+is the Archbishop of York, between whom and the Archbishop of Canterbury
+the Lord High-Chancellor of England has his place in precedency. The first
+Archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed in 622. The incomes of the sees
+are £15,000 and £10,000 respectively. An Archbishop of Wales was first
+appointed in 1920. Scotland had two archbishops--St. Andrews and Glasgow.
+Ireland had four, but the Episcopal Church has but two--Armagh and Dublin,
+the former being _Primate of all Ireland_, the latter _Primate of Ireland_.
+There are four Roman Catholic archbishops in England and
+Wales--Westminster, Cardiff, Birmingham, and Liverpool; two in
+Scotland--St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and Glasgow; four in Ireland--Armagh,
+Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam.
+
+ARCHDEACON (ärch-), in England, an ecclesiastical dignitary next in rank
+below a bishop, having a certain jurisdiction over a part of the diocese.
+From two to four archdeacons are appointed by the bishops, under whom they
+perform their duties, and they hold courts which decide cases subject to an
+appeal to the bishop.
+
+ARCHDUKE, a title peculiar to the royal family of Austria--the Habsburgs,
+who ruled until 1918.
+
+ARCHELAUS ([.a]r-k[=e]-l[=a]´us), the name of several personages in ancient
+history, one of whom was the son of Herod the Great. He received from
+Augustus the sovereignty of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. The people, tired
+of his tyrannical and bloody reign, accused him before Augustus, who
+banished him to Gaul.
+
+ARCHER, William, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at Perth,
+Scotland, in 1856. Educated at Edinburgh University, he went to London
+after some experience of journalism at Edinburgh, and after a visit to
+Australia was called to the bar, and was dramatic critic for _The World_
+from 1884 to 1905. Subsequently he has been dramatic critic for _The
+Tribune_ and _The Nation_. He has done much to introduce Ibsen to the
+English public, by translating his dramas and otherwise, and has written
+_English Dramatists of To-day_; _A Life of Macready_; _About the Theatre:
+Essays and Studies_; _Masks or Faces?: a Study on the Psychology of
+Acting_; _The Theatrical World_ (a collection of his dramatic criticisms)
+(5 vols.); _Study and Stage_; _America To-Day_ (the result of a visit in
+1900); _Poets of the Younger Generation_; _Real Conversations_ (the result
+of a series of interviews with persons of note); _Through Afro-America_
+(1910); _The Life, Trial, and Death of Francisco Ferrer_ (1911);
+_Play-Making_ (1912); _The Thirteen Days_ (1915); _India and the Future_
+(1917); _War is War_.
+
+ARCHER-FISH, a name given to the _Tox[)o]tes jacul[=a]tor_, a scaly-finned,
+acanthopterygian fish, about 6 inches long, inhabiting the seas around
+Java, which has the faculty of shooting drops of water to the distance of 3
+or 4 feet at insects, thereby causing them to fall into the water, when it
+seizes and devours them. The soft, and even the spiny portions of their
+dorsal fins are so covered with scales as to be scarcely distinguishable
+from the rest of the body.
+
+[Illustration: Assyrian Archer]
+
+ARCH´ERY, the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. The use of these
+weapons in war and the chase dates from the earliest antiquity. Ishmael, we
+learn from _Gen_. xxi, "became an archer". The Egyptians, Assyrians,
+Persians, Parthians, excelled in the use of the bow; and while the Greeks
+and Romans themselves made little use of it, they employed foreign archers
+as mercenaries. Coming to much more recent times, we find the Swiss famous
+as archers, but they generally used the arbalist or cross-bow, and were no
+match for their English rivals, who preferred the long-bow. (See _Bow_.)
+The English victories of Cressy, Poietiers, and Agincourt, gained against
+apparently overwhelming odds, may be ascribed to the bowmen. Archery
+disappeared gradually as firearms came into use, and as an instrument of
+war or the chase the bow is now confined to the most savage tribes of both
+hemispheres. But though the bow has been long abandoned among civilized
+nations as a military weapon, it is still cherished as an instrument of
+healthful recreation, encouraged by archery clubs or societies, which have
+been established in many parts of Britain. The oldest, and by far the most
+historically important of these societies, is the Royal Company of Archers,
+called also the King's Body-guard for Scotland, formed originally, it is
+said, by James I, but constituted in its present form by an Act of the
+Privy Council of Scotland, in 1676, and having its head-quarters in
+Edinburgh, counting among its members many of the nobility and gentry of
+the northern kingdom, and holding annual meetings, where prizes are
+competed for. In recent years a number of clubs have been formed in the
+United States. Archery has the merit of forming a sport open to women as
+well as men.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Garrard, _The Arte of Warre_; E. S.
+Morse, _Archery, Ancient and Modern_; H. A. Ford, _The Theory and Practice
+of Archery_.
+
+[Illustration: Egyptian Archer with arrow-heads and stone-tipped reed
+arrow]
+
+ARCHES, COURT OF, the chief and most ancient consistory court, belonging to
+the archbishopric of Canterbury, for the debating of spiritual causes. It
+is named from the church in London, St. Mary le Bow, or Bow Church (so
+called from a fine _arched_ crypt), where it was formerly held. The
+jurisdiction of this court extends over the province of Canterbury. The
+office of president or dean is now merged in that of the judge appointed by
+the Public Worship Regulation Act (1874). The court now sits in the library
+of Lambeth Palace.
+
+ARCHIL, or ORCHIL ([.a]r´kil, or´kil), a red, violet, or purple colouring
+matter obtained from various kinds of lichens, the most important of which
+are the _Roccella tinctoria_ and the _R. fuciformis_, natives of the rocks
+of the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, Mozambique and Zanzibar, South
+America, &c., and popularly called dyer's-moss. The dye is used for
+improving the tints of other dyes, as from its want of permanence it cannot
+be employed alone; but the aniline colours have largely superseded it.
+Cudbear and litmus are of similar origin.
+
+ARCHILOCHUS ([.a]r-kil´o-kus) OF PAROS, one of the earliest Ionian lyric
+poets, the first Greek poet who composed iambic verses according to fixed
+rules. He flourished about 700 B.C. His iambic poems were renowned for
+force of style, liveliness of metaphor, and a powerful but bitter spirit of
+satire. In other lyric poems of a graver character he was also considered
+as a model. All his works are lost but a few fragments.
+
+ARCHIMAN´DRITE, in the Greek Church, an abbot or abbot-general, who has the
+superintendence of many abbots and convents. The title dates from the
+fourth century.
+
+ARCHIME´DEAN SCREW, a machine for raising water, said to have been invented
+by Archimedes. It is formed by winding a tube spirally round a cylinder so
+as to have the form of a screw, or by hollowing out the cylinder itself
+into a double or triple-threaded screw and enclosing it in a water-tight
+case. When the screw is placed in an inclined position and the lower end
+immersed in water, by causing the screw to revolve, the water may be raised
+to a limited extent.
+
+ARCHIMEDES ([.a]r-ki-m[=e]´d[=e]z), a celebrated ancient Greek physicist
+and geometrician, born at Syracuse, in Sicily, about 287 B.C. He devoted
+himself entirely to science, and enriched mathematics with discoveries of
+the highest importance, upon which the moderns have founded their
+admeasurements of curvilinear surfaces and solids. Archimedes is the only
+one among the ancients who has left us anything satisfactory on the theory
+of mechanics and on hydrostatics. He first taught the hydrostatic principle
+to which his name is attached, "that a body immersed in a fluid loses as
+much in weight as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid", and
+determined by means of it that an artist had fraudulently added too much
+alloy to a crown which King Hiero had ordered to be made of pure gold. He
+discovered the solution of this problem while bathing; and it is said to
+have caused him so much joy that he hastened home from the bath undressed,
+and crying out, _Eur[=e]ka! Eur[=e]ka!_ 'I have found it, I have found it!'
+Practical mechanics also received a great deal of attention from
+Archimedes, who boasted that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point he could
+move the world. He is the inventor of the compound pulley, probably of the
+endless screw, the Archimedean screw, &c. During the siege of Syracuse by
+the Romans he is said to have constructed many wonderful machines with
+which he repelled their attacks, and he is stated to have set on fire their
+fleet by burning-glasses. At the moment when the Romans gained possession
+of the city by assault (212 B.C.), tradition relates that Archimedes was
+slain while sitting in the market-place contemplating some mathematical
+figures which he had drawn in the sand.
+
+ARCHIPEL´AGO, a term originally applied to the Ægean, the sea lying between
+Greece and Asia Minor, then to the numerous islands situated therein, and
+subsequently to any cluster of islands. In the Grecian Archipelago the
+islands nearest the European coast lie together almost in a circle, and for
+this reason are called the _Cyclades_ (Gr. _kyklos_, a circle); those
+nearest the Asiatic, being farther from one another, the _Sporades_
+('scattered'). (See these articles, and _Negropont_, _Scio_, _Samos_,
+_Rhodes_, _Cyprus_, &c.) The Malay, Indian, or Eastern Archipelago, on the
+east of Asia, includes Borneo, Sumatra, and other large islands.
+
+ARCHITEC´TURE, in a general sense, is the art of designing and constructing
+houses, bridges, and other buildings for the purposes of civil life; or, in
+a more limited but very common sense, that branch of the fine arts which
+has for its object the production of edifices not only convenient for their
+special purpose, but characterized by unity, beauty, and often
+grandeur.--The first habitations of man were such as nature afforded, or
+cost little labour to the occupant--caves, huts, and tents. But as soon as
+men rose in civilization and formed settled societies they began to build
+more commodious and comfortable habitations. They bestowed more care on the
+materials, preparing bricks of clay or earth, which they at first dried in
+the air, but afterwards baked by fire; and subsequently they smoothed
+stones and joined them at first without, and at a later period with, mortar
+or cement. After they had learned to build houses, they erected temples for
+their gods on a larger and more splendid scale than their own dwellings.
+The Egyptians are the most ancient nation known to us among whom
+architecture had attained the character of a fine art. Other ancient
+peoples among whom it had made great progress were the Babylonians, whose
+most celebrated buildings were temples, palaces, and hanging gardens; the
+Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, was rich in splendid buildings; the
+Phoenicians, whose cities, Sidon, Tyre, &c., were adorned with equal
+magnificence; and the Israelites, whose temple was a wonder of
+architecture. But comparatively few architectural monuments of these
+nations have remained till our day.
+
+This is not the case with the architecture of Egypt, however, of which we
+possess ample remains in the shape of pyramids, temples, sepulchres,
+obelisks, &c. Egyptian chronology is far from certain, but the greatest of
+the architectural monuments of the country, the pyramids of Ghizeh, are at
+least as old as 2800 or 2700 B.C. The Egyptian temples had walls of great
+thickness and sloping on the outside from bottom to top; the roofs were
+flat, and composed of blocks of stone reaching from one wall or column to
+another. The columns were numerous, close, and very thick, generally
+without bases, and exhibiting great variety in the designs of their
+capitals. The principle of the arch, though known, was not employed for
+architectural purposes. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes carved in stone,
+and on the walls sculptures in outline of deities and animals, with
+innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects which belong to this
+style.
+
+[Illustration: Egyptian--Restoration of Temple of Luxor]
+
+The earliest architectural remains of Greece are of unknown antiquity, and
+consist of massive walls built of huge blocks of stone. In historic times
+the Greeks developed an architecture of noble simplicity and dignity. The
+discoveries in Crete and Argolis have shown that Greek architecture owes
+much less than was supposed to Egyptian and Chaldæan architecture. It is
+considered to have attained its greatest perfection in the age of Pericles,
+or about 460-430 B.C. The great masters of this period were Phidias,
+Ictinus, Callicrates, &c. All the extant buildings are more or less in
+ruins. The style is characterized by beauty, harmony, and simplicity in the
+highest degree. Distinctive of it are what are called the _orders_ of
+architecture, by which term are understood certain modes of proportioning
+and decorating the column and its superimposed entablature. The Greeks had
+three orders, called respectively the _Doric_, _Ionic_, and _Corinthian_.
+(See articles under these names.) Greek buildings were abundantly adorned
+with sculptures, and painting was extensively used, the details of the
+structures being enriched by different colours or tints. Lowness of roofs
+and the absence of arches were distinctive features of Greek architecture,
+in which, as in that of Egypt, horizontality of line is another
+characteristic mark. The most remarkable public edifices of the Greeks were
+temples, of which the most famous is the Parthenon at Athens. Others exist
+in various parts of Greece as well as in Sicily, Southern Italy, Asia
+Minor, &c., where important Greek communities were early settled. Their
+theatres were semicircular on one side and square on the other, the
+semicircular part being usually excavated in the side of some convenient
+hill. This part, the auditorium, was filled with concentric seats, and
+might be capable of containing 20,000 spectators. A number exist in Greece,
+Sicily, and Asia Minor, and elsewhere. By the end of the Peloponnesian War
+(_c._ 400 B.C.) the best period of Greek architecture was over; a noble
+simplicity had given place to excess of ornament. After the death of
+Alexander the Great (323 B.C.) the decline was still more marked.
+
+[Illustration: Byzantine--Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople]
+
+Among the Romans there was no original development of architecture as among
+the Greeks, though they early took the foremost place in the construction
+of such works as aqueducts and sewers, the arch being in early and
+extensive use among this people. As a fine art, however, Roman architecture
+had its origin in copies of the Greek models, all the Grecian orders being
+introduced into Rome, and variously modified. Their number, moreover, was
+augmented by the addition of two new orders--the _Tuscan_ and the
+_Composite_. The Romans became acquainted with the architecture of the
+Greeks soon after 200 B.C., but it was not till about two centuries later
+that the architecture of Rome attained (under Augustus) its greatest
+perfection. Among the great works now erected were temples, aqueducts,
+amphitheatres, magnificent villas, triumphal arches, monumental pillars,
+&c. The _amphitheatre_ differed from the theatre in being a completely
+circular or rather elliptical building, filled on all sides with ascending
+seats for spectators and leaving only the central space, called the
+_arena_, for the combatants and public shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous
+structure of this kind. The _thermæ_, or baths, were vast structures in
+which multitudes of people could bathe at once. Magnificent tombs were
+often built by the wealthy. Remains of private residences are numerous, and
+the excavations at Pompeii in particular have thrown great light on the
+internal arrangements of the Roman dwelling-house. Almost all the
+successors of Augustus embellished Rome more or less, erected splendid
+palaces and temples, and adorned, like Hadrian, even the conquered
+countries with them. But after the period of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Roman
+architecture is considered to have been on the decline. The refined and
+noble style of the Greeks was neglected, and there was an attempt to
+embellish the beautiful more and more. This decline was all the more rapid
+at a later time owing to the disturbed state of the Empire and the
+incursions of the barbarians.
+
+In Constantinople, after its virtual separation from the Western Empire,
+arose a style of art and architecture which was practised by the Greek
+Church during the whole of the Middle Ages. This is called the Byzantine
+style. The church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, built by Justinian
+(reigned 527-565), offers the most typical specimen of the style, of which
+the fundamental principle was an application of the Roman arch, the dome
+being the most striking feature of the building. In the most typical
+examples the dome or cupola rests on four pendentives.
+
+After the dismemberment of the Roman Empire the beautiful works of ancient
+architecture were almost entirely destroyed by the Goths, Vandals, and
+other barbarians in Italy, Greece, Asia, Spain, and Africa; or what was
+spared by them was ruined by the fanaticism of the Christians. A new style
+of architecture now arose, two forms of which, the Lombard and the Norman
+Romanesque, form important phases of art. The Lombard prevailed in North
+Italy and South Germany from the eighth or ninth to the thirteenth century
+(though the Lombard rule came to an end in 774); the Norman Romanesque
+flourished, especially in Normandy and England, from the eleventh to the
+middle of the thirteenth century. The semicircular arch is the most
+characteristic feature of this style. With the Lombard Romanesque were
+combined Byzantine features, and buildings in the pure Byzantine style were
+also erected in Italy, as the church of St. Mark at Venice.
+
+ARCHITECTURE
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The conquests of the Moors introduced a fresh style of architecture into
+Europe after the eighth century--the Moorish or Saracenic. This style
+accompanied the spread of Mahommedanism after its rise in Arabia in the
+seventh century. The edifices erected by the Moors and Saracens in Spain,
+Egypt, and Turkey are distinguished, among other things, by a peculiar form
+of the arch, which forms a curve constituting more than half a circle or
+ellipse. A peculiar flowery decoration, called _arabesque_, is a common
+ornament of this style, of which the building called the Alhambra (q.v.) is
+perhaps the chief glory.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Romanesque--Galilee Chapel, Durham Cathedral]
+
+The Germans were unacquainted with architecture until the time of
+Charlemagne. He introduced into Germany the Byzantine and Romanesque
+styles. Afterwards the Moorish or Arabian style had some influence upon
+that of the Western nations, and thus originated the mixed style which
+maintained itself till the middle of the thirteenth century. Then began the
+modern Gothic style, which grew up in France, England, and Germany. Its
+striking characteristics are its pointed arches, its pinnacles and spires,
+its large buttresses, clustered pillars, vaulted roofs, profusion of
+ornament, and, on the whole, its lofty, bold character. Its most
+distinctive feature, as compared with the Greek or the Egyptian style, is
+the predominance in it of perpendicular or rising lines, producing forms
+that convey the idea of soaring or mounting upwards. Its greatest
+capabilities have been best displayed in ecclesiastical edifices. The
+Gothic style is divided into four principal epochs: the Early Pointed, or
+general style of the thirteenth century; the Decorated, or style of the
+fourteenth century; the Perpendicular, practised during the fifteenth and
+early part of the sixteenth centuries; and the Tudor, or general style of
+the sixteenth century. This style lasted in England up to the seventeenth
+century, being gradually displaced by that branch of the Renaissance or
+modified revival of ancient Roman architecture which is known as the
+_Elizabethan style_, and which is perhaps more purely an English style than
+any other that can be named.
+
+The rise of the Renaissance style in Italy is the greatest event in the
+history of architecture after the introduction of the Gothic style. The
+Gothic style had been introduced into the country and extensively employed,
+but had never been thoroughly naturalized. The Renaissance is a revival of
+the classic style based on the study of the ancient models; and having
+practically commenced in Florence about the beginning of the fifteenth
+century, it soon spread with great rapidity over Italy and the greater part
+of Europe. The most illustrious architects of this early period of the
+style were Brunelleschi, who built at Florence the dome of the cathedral,
+the Pitti Palace, &c., besides many edifices at Milan, Pisa, Pesaro, and
+Mantua; Alberti, who wrote an important work on architecture, and erected
+many beautiful churches; Bramante, who began the building of St. Peter's,
+Rome, and Michael Angelo, who erected its magnificent dome. On St. Peter's
+were also employed Raphael, Peruzzi, and San Gallo. The noblest building in
+this style of architecture in Britain is St. Paul's, London, the work of
+Sir Christopher Wren.
+
+[Illustration: Italian Gothic--Doges' Palace, Venice]
+
+Since the Renaissance period there has been no architectural development
+requiring special note. In buildings erected at the present day some one of
+the various styles of architecture is employed according to taste. Modern
+dwelling-houses have necessarily a style of their own as far as stories and
+apartments and windows and chimneys can give them one. In general the
+Grecian style, as handed down by Rome and modified by the Italian
+architects of the Renaissance, from its right angles and straight
+entablatures, is more convenient, and fits better with the distribution of
+our common buildings, than the pointed and irregular Gothic. But the
+occasional introduction of the Gothic outline and the partial employment of
+its ornaments has undoubtedly an agreeable effect both in public and
+private edifices; and we are indebted to it, among other things, for the
+spire, a structure exclusively Gothic, which, though often misplaced, has
+become an object of general approbation and a pleasing landmark to cities
+and villages. The works most characteristic of the present day are the
+large bridges, viaducts, &c., in many of which iron is the sole or most
+characteristic portion of the material.
+
+[Illustration: Renaissance--St. Peter's, Rome]
+
+A few words may be added on the architecture of India and China. Although
+many widely-differing styles are to be found in India, the oldest and only
+true native style of Indian ecclesiastical architecture is the Buddhist,
+the earliest specimens dating from 250 B.C. Among the chief objects of
+Buddhist art are _stupas_ or _topes_, built in the form of large towers,
+and employed as _dágobas_ to contain relics of Buddha or of some noted
+saint. Other works of Buddhist art are temples or monasteries excavated
+from the solid rock, and supported by pillars of the natural rock left in
+their places. Buddhist architecture is found in Ceylon, Tibet, Java, &c.,
+as well as in India. The most remarkable Hindu or Brahmanical temples are
+in Southern India. They are pyramidal in form, rising in a series of
+stories. The Saracenic or Mohammedan architecture afterwards introduced
+into India is, of course, of foreign origin. The Chinese have made the
+_tent_ the elementary feature of their architecture; and of their style any
+one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are depicted upon
+common chinaware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper side, as if made
+of canvas instead of wood. (For further information see _Greek_, _Roman_,
+_Gothic_, _English_, _French_, _Russian Architecture_; and _Building_,
+_Fine Arts_, _Arch_, _Column_, _Aqueduct_, _Corinthian_, _Doric_, _Ionic_,
+_Theatre_, &c.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Ruskin, _Seven Lamps of Architecture_;
+E. A. Freeman, _History of Architecture_; Viollet-le-Duc, _How to build a
+House_; J. T. Micklethwaite, _Modern Parish Churches_; H. H. Statham,
+_Architecture for General Readers_ and _Critical History of Architecture_;
+J. Fergusson, _History of Architecture in all Countries_; F. M. Simpson, _A
+History of Architectural Development_; _Cyclopedia of Architecture_.
+
+ARCHITRAVE (är´ki-träv), in architecture, the part of an entablature which
+rests immediately on the heads of the columns, being the lowest of its
+three principal divisions, the others being the _frieze_ and the _cornice_.
+
+ARCHIVES (är´k[=i]vz). See _Records_.
+
+ARCHIVOLT (är´ki-volt), in architecture, the ornamental band of mouldings
+on the face of an arch and following its contour.
+
+ARCHONS (är´konz), the chief magistrates of ancient Athens, chosen to
+superintend civil and religious concerns. They were nine in number; the
+first was properly the _arch[=o]n_, or _arch[=o]n ep[=o]n[)y]mos_, by whose
+name the year was distinguished in the public records; the second was
+called _arch[=o]n basileus_, or king archon, who exercised the functions of
+high priest; the third, _polemarchos_, or general of the forces. The other
+six were called _thesmoth[)e]tai_, or legislators.
+
+ARCHYTAS ([.a]r-k[=i]´tas), an ancient Greek mathematician, statesman, and
+general, who flourished about 400 B.C., and belonged to Tarentum in
+Southern Italy. The invention of the analytic method in mathematics is
+ascribed to him, as well as the solution of many geometrical and mechanical
+problems. He constructed various machines and automata, among the most
+celebrated of which was his flying pigeon. He was a Pythagorean in
+philosophy, and Plato and Aristotle are said to have been both deeply
+indebted to him. Only inconsiderable fragments of his works are extant.
+
+ARCIS-SUR-AUBE ([.a]r-s[=e]-s[.u]r-[=o]b), a small town of France,
+department Aube, at which, in 1814, was fought a battle between Napoleon
+and the Allies, after which the latter marched to Paris. Pop. 3000.
+
+ARC-LIGHT, a certain kind of electric light in which the illuminating
+source is the current of electricity passing between two sticks of carbon
+kept a short distance apart, one of them being in connection with the
+positive, the other with the negative terminal of a battery or dynamo.
+
+ARCO, a town of Tyrol, near Lake Garda, a favourite winter resort of
+invalids. Pop. 3800.
+
+ARCOLE ([.a]r´ko-l[.a]), a village in North Italy, 15 miles S.E. of Verona,
+celebrated for the battles of 15th, 16th, and 17th Nov., 1796, fought
+between the French under Bonaparte and the Austrians, in which the latter
+were defeated with great slaughter.
+
+ARCOS´ DE LA FRONTE´RA, a city of Spain, 30 miles E. by N. from Cadiz, on
+the Guadalete, here crossed by a stone bridge, on a sandstone rock 570 feet
+above the level of the river. On the highest part of the rock stands the
+castle of the dukes of Arcos, partly in ruins. The principal manufactures
+are leather, hats, and cordage. Pop. 13,980.
+
+AR´COT, two districts and a town of India, within the Presidency of
+Madras.--_North Arcot_ is an inland district with an area of 7616 sq.
+miles. The country is partly flat and partly mountainous, where intersected
+by the Eastern Gháts. Pop. 2,200,000.--_South Arcot_ lies on the Bay of
+Bengal, and has two seaports, Cuddalor and Porto Novo. Area 5217 sq. miles.
+Pop. 2,170,000.--The town _Arcot_ is in North Arcot, on the Palar, about 70
+miles W. by S. of Madras. There is a military cantonment at 3 miles'
+distance. The town contains handsome mosques, a nabob's palace in ruins,
+and the remains of an extensive fort. Arcot played an important part in the
+wars which resulted in the ascendancy of the British in India. It was taken
+by Clive, 31st Aug., 1751, and heroically defended by him against an
+apparently overwhelming force under Raja Sahib. Pop. 11,475.
+
+ARCTIC ([.a]rk´tik), an epithet given to the north pole from the proximity
+of the constellation of the Bear, in Greek called _arktos_. The _Arctic
+Circle_ is an imaginary circle on the globe, parallel to the equator, and
+23° 28´ distant from the north pole. This and its opposite, the
+_Antarctic_, are called the two polar circles.
+
+ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See _North Polar Expeditions_.
+
+ARCTIC OCEAN, that part of the water surface of the earth which surrounds
+the north pole, and washes the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and
+America; its southern boundary roughly coinciding with the Arctic Circle
+(lat. 66° 30´ N.). It encloses many large islands, and contains large bays
+and gulfs which deeply indent the northern shores of the three continents.
+Its great characteristic is ice, which is perpetual nearly everywhere.
+
+ARCTIC REGIONS, the regions round the north pole, and extending from the
+pole on all sides to the Arctic Circle in lat. 66° 30´ N. The Arctic or
+North Polar Circle just touches the northern headlands of Iceland, cuts off
+the southern and narrowest portion of Greenland, crosses Fox's Strait north
+of Hudson's Bay, whence it goes over the American continent to Behring's
+Strait. Thence it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth of the Obi, then crossing
+Northern Russia, the White Sea, and the Scandinavian Peninsula, returns to
+Iceland. Though much skill and heroism have been displayed in the
+exploration of this portion of the earth, there is still an area round the
+pole estimated at 2,500,000 sq. miles, which is a blank to geographers.
+Many have adopted the belief in the existence of an open polar sea about
+the north pole. But this belief is not supported by any positive evidence.
+Valuable minerals, fossils, &c., have been discovered within the Arctic
+regions. In the archipelago north of the American continent excellent coal
+frequently occurs. The mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland. Fossil ivory
+is obtained in islands at the mouth of the Lena. In Scandinavia, parts of
+Siberia, and north-west America, the forest region extends within the
+Arctic Circle. The most characteristic of the natives of the Arctic regions
+are the Esquimaux. The most notable animals are the white-bear, the
+musk-ox, the reindeer, and the whalebone whale. Fur-bearing animals are
+numerous. The most intense cold ever registered in those regions was 74°
+below zero F. The aurora borealis is a brilliant phenomenon of Arctic
+nights. See _North Polar Expeditions_.
+
+ARC´TIUM. See _Burdock_.
+
+ARC´TOMYS. See _Marmot_.
+
+ARCTU´RUS, or ALPHA BOÖTIS, a fixed star of the first magnitude in the
+constellation of Boötes (the Ploughman), is one of the brightest stars in
+the northern heavens, yellow in colour. Its light is believed to be
+intrinsically at least 140 times as brilliant as the sun's, and to take
+over 40 years to reach us. It is notable as having a comparatively large
+proper motion.
+
+ARDAHAN´, a small fortified town about 6400 feet above the sea, between
+Kars and Batúm in Armenia. It was captured by the Russians in 1877, and
+ceded to them by the Berlin Treaty, 1878. It was handed over to Turkey by
+the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, but the Turkish troops evacuated it
+after the armistice in 1918.
+
+AR´DEA, the genus to which the heron belongs, type of the family
+Ard[=e]idæ, which includes also cranes, storks, bitterns, &c.
+
+AR´DEBIL, or ARDABIL, a Persian town, province of Azerbaijan, near the
+Karasu, a tributary of the Aras, about 40 miles from the Caspian, in an
+elevated and healthy situation; it has mineral springs and a considerable
+trade. Pop. 16,000.
+
+ARDÈCHE ([.a]r-d[=a]sh), a department in the south of France (Languedoc),
+on the west side of the Rhone, taking its name from the River Ardèche,
+which rises within it, and falls into the Rhone after a course of 46 miles;
+area, 2144 sq. miles. It is generally of a mountainous character, and
+contains the culminating point of the Cevennes. Silk and wine are produced.
+Annonay is the principal town, but Privas is the capital. Pop. (1921),
+294,308.
+
+ARDEN, FOREST OF, a wood in Warwickshire. Shakespeare is supposed to have
+used it as a setting for _As You Like It_.
+
+ARDENNES ([.a]r-den´), an extensive tract of hilly land stretching over a
+large portion of the north-east of France and south-west of Belgium.
+Anciently the whole tract formed one immense forest (_Arduenna Silva_ of
+Cæsar); but large portions are now occupied by cultivated fields and
+populous towns.
+
+ARDENNES ([.a]r-den´), a frontier department in the north-east of France;
+area, 2027 sq. miles, partly consisting of the Forest of Ardennes. There
+are extensive slate-quarries, numerous ironworks, and important
+manufactures of cloth, ironware, leather, glass, earthenware, &c. It was
+the scene of many battles during the European War (1914-8). Chief towns,
+Mézières (the capital), Rocroi, and Sedan. Pop. 277,791.
+
+ARDNAMURCHAN (-mur´_h_an) POINT, the most westerly point of the Island of
+Great Britain, in Argyllshire, having a lighthouse, 180 feet above
+sea-level, visible 18 to 20 miles off.
+
+AR´DOCH, a parish in south Perthshire, celebrated for its Roman remains,
+one, a camp, being the most perfect existing in Scotland.
+
+ARDROSS´AN, a seaport of Scotland, in Ayrshire, on the Firth of Clyde. It
+has a large harbour and shipbuilding yards, and is a centre of steamship
+services with Arran, Ireland, and Douglas, I.O.M. Pop. (1921), 7214.
+
+ARDS´LEY, East and West, an urban district or town of England, W. Riding of
+Yorkshire, several miles north-west of Wakefield, with collieries,
+iron-mines, ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921), 7058.
+
+ARE (är), the unit of the French land measure, equal to 100 sq. metres, or
+1076.44 English sq. feet. A _hectare_ is 100 ares, equal to 2.47 English
+acres. The tenth part of an are is called a _déciare_, and a hundredth part
+a _centiare_.
+
+A´REA, the superficial content of any figure or space, the quantity of
+surface it contains in terms of any unit. See _Mensuration_.
+
+ARE´CA, a genus of lofty palms with pinnated leaves, and a drupe-like fruit
+enclosed in a fibrous rind. _A. Cat[)e]chu_ of the Coromandel and Malabar
+coasts is the common areca palm which yields areca or betel-nuts, and also
+the astringent juice catechu. _A. olerac[)e]a_ is the cabbage tree or
+cabbage palm of the West Indies. With lime and the leaves of the
+betel-pepper, the areca-nuts when green form the celebrated masticatory of
+the East. They are an important article in Eastern trade.
+
+ARECIBO ([.a]-re-th[=e]´b[=o]), a seaport town on the north coast of the
+Island of Porto Rico. Pop. 9612.
+
+AREIOPAGUS. See _Areopagus_.
+
+ARE´NA, the enclosed space in the central part of the Roman amphitheatres,
+in which took place the combats of gladiators or wild beasts. It was
+usually covered with sand or saw-dust to prevent the gladiators from
+slipping, and to absorb the blood. See _Amphitheatre_.
+
+ARENACEOUS ROCKS include all sediments in which quartz sand is the most
+important constituent. Owing to its resistance to comminution and to
+chemical attack, quartz accumulates in sea-beaches while other mineral
+matter becomes removed. Hence sands gather near a shore and ultimately
+become consolidated by various natural cements into sandstones, those
+cemented by silica being styled quartzites. Sand-dunes in deserts or on
+coasts are unconsolidated arenaceous rock-masses.
+
+AR´ENDAL a seaport of Southern Norway, exporting timber, wood pulp, and
+iron, and owning numerous ships. It is a well-built place, having been
+rebuilt since the great fire of 1868. Wood pulp, paper, and cotton are
+manufactured. Pop. 11,000.
+
+ARENENBERG CASTLE (mediæval, NARRENBERG), a castle and estate in the Swiss
+Canton Thurgau, the possession of Queen Hortense, who died there in 1837.
+In 1855 it became the property of the Empress Eugénie.
+
+ARENGA, a term sometimes used as the generic name of the areng or gomuti
+palm, which is then botanically designated _Arenga saccharifera_. See
+_Gomuti_.
+
+ARENIC´OLA. See _Lobworm_.
+
+ARE´OLAR TISSUE, an assemblage of fibres in bundles, pervading almost every
+part of the animal structure, and connected with each other so as to form
+innumerable small cavities, the whole serving as a means by which the
+various organs and parts of organs are connected together. It is called
+also _Cellular Tissue_ and _Connective Tissue_. The fibres are of two
+kinds--white fibrous tissue and yellow elastic fibrous tissue, and
+interspersed among the bundles or occupying the cellular cavities are cells
+and corpuscles of several kinds. It is a tissue found in large quantities
+under the skin, covering the muscles, the blood-vessels, and nerves, and in
+various parts forming a kind of protective covering for delicate and
+important organs. It is because of its general distribution, and because of
+its binding various structures together, that it is called
+_connective_.--In botany the term is sometimes applied to the
+_non_-vascular substance, composed entirely of untransformed cells, which
+forms the soft substance of plants.
+
+AREOM´ETER (from Gr. _araios_, thin, _metron_, a measure), an instrument
+for measuring the specific gravity of liquids; a _hydrometer_ (q.v.).
+
+AREOP´AGUS, the oldest of the Athenian courts of justice, an assembly
+having a position more august than an ordinary court, and in its best days
+exercising a general supervision over public morals. It obtained its name
+from its place of meeting, on the Hill of Ares (Mars), near the Acropolis
+or citadel of Athens. Another explanation connects the word with _Aræ_
+(Curses), commonly known as _Semnæ_ (Awful Goddesses), who were the
+guardians of the hill. It existed from very remote times, and the crimes
+tried before it were wilful murder, poisoning, robbery, and arson, while it
+had under its control also dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the
+State and in religion. Its meetings were held in the open air, and its
+members were selected from those who had held the office of archon. The
+tribunal eventually lost many of its powers, but it continued to exist in
+name at least as late as the time of Cicero or later, having had an
+existence of seven or eight hundred years.
+
+AREQUIPA ([.a]-r[=a]-k[=e]´p[.a]), a city of Peru, capital of a province of
+same name, situated in a fertile valley, 7850 feet above sea-level, at a
+distance of about 55 miles from the coast and on the railway which runs
+from its port Mollendo inland to Puno on Lake Titicaca. Behind the city
+rises the volcano of Arequipa, or Peak of Misti (20,328 feet). The climate
+is healthy but the locality is liable to earthquakes, one of which almost
+completely destroyed the town in 1868, after which it was rapidly rebuilt.
+A considerable trade is carried on through Mollendo, there being a large
+transit trade with the interior, and the town carries on various
+industries, manufacturing cotton and woollen goods, &c. It was founded in
+1540. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000.--The province has an area of 21,947 sq. miles,
+and a pop. of 229,007.
+
+ARES ([=a]´r[=e]z). See _Mars_.
+
+ARETHU´SA, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Nereus and Doris, a nymph
+changed by Art[)e]mis into a fountain in order to free her from the pursuit
+of the river-god Alpheus. This fountain was said to exist in the small
+Island of Ortygia, near Syracuse, and was fabled to have a subterranean
+connection with the River Alpheus in Greece.
+
+ARETINO (ä-r[=a]-t[=e]´nö), Guido. See _Guido_.
+
+ARETINO, Pietro, Italian poet, born at Arezzo 1492, died at Venice 1556,
+the natural son of a nobleman called Luigi Bacci. He early displayed a
+talent for satirical poetry, and when still a young man was banished from
+Arezzo on account of a sonnet against indulgences. He went to Perugia, and
+thence to Rome (1517), where he secured the papal patronage, but
+subsequently lost it through writing licentious sonnets. Through the
+influence of the Medici family he found an opportunity to insinuate himself
+into the favour of Francis I. In 1527 Aretino went to Venice, where he
+acquired powerful friends, among them the Bishop of Vicenza. By his
+devotional writings he regained the favour of the Roman Court. He called
+himself 'the divine', and 'the scourge of princes', but he was also their
+abject flatterer, and that solely to obtain money. The obscenity of some of
+his writings was such that his name has become proverbial for
+licentiousness. Among them are five comedies and a tragedy.
+
+AREZZO ([.a]-ret´s[=o]; ancient ARRETIUM), a city of Central Italy, capital
+of a province of the same name in Tuscany, near the confluence of the
+Chiana with the Arno. It has a noble cathedral, containing some fine
+pictures and monuments; remains of an ancient amphitheatre, &c. It was one
+of the twelve chief Etruscan towns, and in later times fought long against
+the Florentines, to whom it had finally to succumb. It is the birthplace of
+Mæcenas, Petrarch, Pietro Aretino, Redi, and Vasari. Pop. 50,093.--The
+province of Arezzo contains 1274 sq. miles, and 292,763 inhabitants (1915).
+
+AR´GAL, ARGOL, or TARTAR, a hard crust formed on the sides of vessels in
+which wine has been kept, red or white according to the colour of the wine.
+It is an impure bitartrate of potassium.
+
+[Illustration: Argali (_Ovis ammon_)]
+
+AR´GALI, a species of wild sheep (_Capr[)o]vis Arg[)a]li_ or _Ovis ammon_)
+found on the mountains of Siberia, Central Asia, and Kamtchatka. It is 4
+feet high at the shoulders, and proportionately stout in its build, with
+horns nearly 4 feet in length measured along the curve, and at their base
+about 19 inches in circumference. It lives in small herds. This true argali
+must not be confounded with the North-African wild sheep, called the
+bearded argali and known as the arni, the Algerian moufflon, and the
+Barbary sheep.
+
+AR´GALL, Sir Samuel (1572-1639), one of the early English adventurers to
+Virginia. He planned and executed the abduction of Pocahontas, the daughter
+of the Indian chief Powhattan, in order to secure the ransom of English
+prisoners. He was deputy-governor of Virginia (1617-9), and was accused of
+many acts of rapacity and tyranny. In 1620 he served in an expedition
+against Algiers, and was knighted by James I.
+
+AR´GAND LAMP, a lamp named after its inventor, Aimé _Argand_, a Swiss
+chemist and physician (born 1755, died 1803), the distinctive feature of
+which is a burner forming a ring or hollow cylinder covered by a chimney,
+so that the flame receives a current of air both on the inside and on the
+outside.
+
+ARGAUM ([.a]r-g[.a]´[u:]m), a village of India, in Berar, celebrated for
+the victory of General Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) over the Mahrattas
+under Scindia and the Rajah of Berar, 29th Nov., 1803.
+
+AR´GELANDER, Friedrich Wilhelm August, German astronomer, born in 1799. He
+added to the knowledge of the progressive motion of the solar system in
+space, and published a catalogue of 560 stars having 'proper motion'. His
+works include: _Atlas des nördlichen gestirnten Himmels_ (1857), _Neue
+Uranometrie_ (1843), &c. He died in 1875.
+
+ARGEMONE ([.a]r-jem´o-n[=e]), a small genus of ornamental American plants
+of the poppy order. From the seeds of _A. mexic[=a]na_ is obtained an oil
+very useful to painters. The handsomest species is _A. grandifl[=o]ra_,
+which has large flowers of a pure white colour.
+
+ARGENSOLA ([.a]r-_h_en-s[=o]´l[.a]), Lupercio and Bartolomé Leonardo de,
+brothers, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, the former in 1565, died in 1613;
+the latter born in 1566, died in 1631. Lupercio produced tragedies and
+lyric poems; Bartolomé a number of poems and a historical work, _The
+Conquest of the Moluccas_. Their writings are singularly alike in
+character, and are reckoned among the Spanish classics. The tragedies are
+of the heavy Senecan type, but the satirical writings of both brothers are
+full of pungent wit of a pleasing kind.
+
+ARGENSON ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-s[=o][n.]), Marc Pierre de Voyer, Comte d',
+celebrated French statesman, born in 1696, died 1764. After holding a
+number of subordinate offices he became minister for foreign affairs, and
+succeeded in bringing about the Congress of Breda, which was the prelude to
+that of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was present at the battle of Fontenoy, and was
+exiled to his estate for some years through the machinations of Madame
+Pompadour. His _Considérations sur le Gouvernement de la France_ was a very
+advanced study on the possibility of combining with a monarchic form of
+government democratic principles and local self-government. _Les Essais, ou
+Loisirs d'un Ministre d'État_, published in 1785, is a collection of
+characters and anecdotes in the style of Montaigne.
+
+AR´GENT, in coats of arms, the heraldic term expressing silver: represented
+in engraving by a plain white surface.
+
+ARGENTAN ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-tä[n.]), a French town, department of Orne
+(Normandy), with an old castle and some manufactures. Pop. 6300.
+
+ARGENTEUIL ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-teu-y[.e]), a town in France, department
+Seine-et-Oise, 7 miles below Paris; it has an active trade in wine, fruit,
+and vegetables. Pop. 24,282.
+
+ARGENTIE´RA, or KIM[=O]LI (ancient, CIM[=O]LUS), an island in the Grecian
+Archipelago, one of the Cyclades, about 18 miles in circumference, rocky
+and sterile. It produces a detergent chalk called _Cimolian earth_ (q.v.),
+used in washing and bleaching. Pop. 1337.
+
+AR´GENTINE, a silvery-white slaty variety of calc-spar, containing a little
+silica with laminæ usually undulated. It is found in primitive rocks and
+frequently in metallic veins.--Argentine is also the name of a small
+British fish (_Scop[)e]lus bore[=a]lis_) less than 2 inches long and of a
+silvery colour.
+
+AR´GENTINE REPUBLIC, formerly called the United Provinces of LA PLATA, a
+vast country of South America, the extreme length of which is 2300 miles,
+and the average breadth a little over 500 miles, the total area 1,153,119
+sq. miles. It consists of fourteen provinces, ten territories, and one
+federal district. It is bounded on the N. by Bolivia; on the E. by
+Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; on the S. by the Antarctic
+Ocean; and on the W. by the Andes. It comprises four great natural
+divisions: (1) the Andine region, containing the provinces of Mendoza, San
+Juan, Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy; (2) the Pampas,
+containing the provinces of Santiago, Santa Fé, Cordova, San Luis, and
+Buenos Ayres, with the territories Formosa, Pampa, and Chaco; (3) the
+Argentine 'mesopotamia', between the Rivers Paraná and Uruguay, containing
+the provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and the territory Misiones; (4)
+Patagonia, including the eastern half of Tierra del Fuego. With the
+exception of the N.W., where lateral branches of the Andes run into the
+plain for 150 or 200 miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which is hilly,
+the characteristic feature of the country is the great monotonous and level
+plains called 'pampas'. In the north these plains are partly
+forest-covered, but all the central and southern parts present vast
+treeless tracts, which afford pasture to immense herds of horses, oxen, and
+sheep, and are varied in some places by brackish swamps, in others by salt
+steppes. The great water-course of the country is the Paraná, having a
+length of fully 2000 miles from its source in the mountains of Goyaz,
+Brazil, to its junction with the Uruguay, where begins the estuary of La
+Plata. The Paraná is formed by the union of the Upper Paraná and Paraguay
+Rivers, near the N.E. corner of the State. Important tributaries are the
+Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado. The Paraná, Paraguay, and Uruguay
+are valuable for internal navigation. Many of the streams which tend
+eastward terminate in marshes and salt lakes, some of which are rather
+extensive. Not connected with the La Plata system are the Colorado and the
+Rio Negro, the latter formerly the southern boundary of the State,
+separating it from Patagonia. The source of the Negro is Lake Nahuel Huapi,
+in Patagonia (area, 1200 sq. miles), in the midst of magnificent scenery.
+The level portions of the country are mostly of tertiary formation, and the
+river and coast regions consist mainly of alluvial soil of great fertility.
+In the pampas clay have been found the fossil remains of extinct mammalia,
+some of them of colossal size.
+
+European grains and fruits, including the vine, have been successfully
+introduced, and large areas are now under wheat, maize, flax, and other
+crops, another source of wealth consisting in the countless herds of cattle
+and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the pampas, and which
+multiply there very rapidly. Gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and
+iron, besides marble, jasper, precious stones, and bitumen, are found in
+the mountainous districts of the N.W., while petroleum wells have been
+discovered on the Rio Vermejo; but the development of this mineral wealth
+has hitherto been greatly retarded by the want of proper means of
+transport. As a whole there are not extensive forests in the State except
+in the region of the Gran Chaco (which extends also into Bolivia), where
+there is known to be 60,000 sq. miles of timber. Thousands of square miles
+are covered with thistles, which grow to a great height in their season.
+Cacti also forms great thickets. Peach and apple trees are abundant in some
+districts. The native fauna includes the puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the
+llama, the alpaca, the vicuña, armadillos, the rhea or nandu, a species of
+ostrich, &c. The climate is agreeable and healthy, 97° being about the
+highest temperature experienced. The rainfall is very scanty in some
+districts, and is nowhere very large.
+
+As a whole this vast country is very thinly inhabited, some parts of it as
+yet being very little known. The native Indians were never very numerous,
+and have given little trouble to the European settlers. Tribes of them yet
+in the savage state still inhabit the less-known districts, and live by
+hunting and fishing. Some of the Gran Chaco tribes are said to be very
+fierce, and European travellers have been killed by them. The European
+element is strong in the republic, more than half the population being
+Europeans or of pure European descent. Large numbers of immigrants arrive
+from Southern Europe, the Italians having the preponderance among those of
+foreign birth. The typical inhabitants of the pampas are the _Gauchos_, a
+race of half-breed cattle-rearers and horse-breakers; they are almost
+continually on horseback, galloping over the plains, collecting their herds
+and droves, taming wild horses, or catching and slaughtering cattle. In
+such occupations they require a marvellous dexterity in the use of the
+lasso and bolas.
+
+The River La Plata was discovered in 1512 by the Spanish navigator Juan
+Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata territory had been brought into the
+possession of Spain by the end of the sixteenth century. In 1810 the
+territory cast off the Spanish rule, and in 1816 the independence of the
+United States of the Rio de la Plata was formerly declared, but it was long
+before a settled government was established. The present constitution dates
+from 1853, being modified in 1866 and 1898. The executive power is vested
+in a president--elected by the representatives of the fourteen provinces
+for a term of six years. A national congress of two chambers--a Senate and
+a House of Deputies--wields the legislative authority, and the republic is
+making rapid advances in social and political life. The national revenue
+for 1918 amounted to about £32,860,306, while the expenditure amounted to
+£34,407,074; the public debt was, at the end of 1916, about £120,000,000.
+There are about 22,000 miles of railway opened. The external commerce is
+important, the chief exports being beef and mutton, wheat, maize, and
+linseed, wool, skins and hides, tallow. The imports are chiefly
+manufactured goods. The trade is largely with Britain and France, and is
+increasing rapidly, the exports having advanced from £9,000,000 in 1876 and
+£73,200,000 in 1908 to £201,360,000 in 1920. The imports in 1920 were
+£170,820,000. The chief denomination of money is the dollar or _peso_,
+value (in gold) 4s. Buenos Ayres (or Aires) is the capital. Other towns are
+Rosario, Cordova, La Plata, Tucuman, Mendoza, and Santa-Fé. The population
+of the republic, which is rapidly increasing by immigration, was, in 1905,
+5,678,197, and 8,284,266 in 1918; of the capital, 1,637,155
+(1918).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854 to
+1904_; W. H. Hudson, _The Naturalist in La Plata_; Keane and Markham,
+_Central and South America_ (in Stanford's _Compendium of Geography and
+Travel_); Martinez and Lewandowski, _Argentine in the Twentieth Century_;
+Sir John Foster Fraser, _The Amazing Argentine_; H. Stephens, _Illustrated
+Descriptive Argentina_; _The Argentine Year Book_.
+
+AR´GENTITE, sulphide of silver, a blackish or lead-grey mineral, a valuable
+ore of silver found in the crystalline rocks of many countries.
+
+ARGENTOMETER. See _Hydrometer_.
+
+ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS are rocks in which clay prevails (including shales and
+slates).
+
+ARGIVES ([.a]r´j[=i]vz), or ARGIVI, the inhabitants of Argos; used by Homer
+and other ancient authors as a generic appellation for all the Greeks.
+
+AR´GO. See _Argonauts_.
+
+ARGOL. See _Argal_.
+
+ARGOLIS. See _Argos_.
+
+ARGON, a gas which is fairly widely distributed in the free state and is a
+constant constituent of the atmosphere, of which it forms about 1 per cent
+by volume. It was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay in 1894.
+During their determinations of the density of nitrogen they noticed that
+the density of nitrogen derived from the air differed from the density of
+nitrogen derived from ammonia and other compounds of nitrogen, and after a
+series of very careful experiments they succeeded in isolating a new gas,
+which they named Argon. The gas occurs in sea and river water, in plants,
+in the blood of animals, and the gases issuing from volcanoes and mineral
+springs. It is always in the free state and never in combination, and is
+associated with nitrogen. It is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, and
+may be liquefied and solidified. It is heavier than air, and is chemically
+a very inert substance. It is usually referred to as one of the _rare_
+gases of the atmosphere. Argon is manufactured in fairly large quantity
+from air, making use of the inertness of the substance compared to oxygen
+and nitrogen, the chief constituents of the air. Several methods are in
+use, e.g. nitrogen may be removed by passing it repeatedly over red-hot
+magnesium; thus the nitrogen is absorbed and the argon left. When oxygen
+and nitrogen of air are absorbed by a mixture of 90 per cent calcium
+carbide and 10 per cent calcium chloride previously heated to redness _in
+vacuo_, a gas becoming richer and richer in argon is obtained. Another
+method of preparing argon is by fractionation of liquid air. It is used for
+filling electric bulbs.
+
+[Illustration: Argonaut--Female]
+
+AR´GONAUT, a molluscous animal of the genus Argonauta, belonging to the
+dibranchiate or two-gilled cuttle-fishes, distinguished by the females
+possessing a single-chambered external shell, not organically connected
+with the body of the animal. The males have no shell and are of much
+smaller size than the females. The shell is fragile, translucent, and
+boat-like in shape; it serves as the receptacle of the ova or eggs of the
+female, which sits in it with the respiratory tube or 'funnel' turned
+towards the carina or 'keel'. This famed mollusc swims only by ejecting
+water from its funnel, and it can crawl in a reversed position, carrying
+its shell over its back like a snail. The account of its floating on the
+surface of the sea, with its sail-shaped arms extended to catch the breeze,
+and with the six other arms as oars, is a mere fable. The argonaut, or
+_paper-nautilus_, must be carefully distinguished from the
+_pearly-nautilus_ or nautilus proper (_Nautilus Pompilius_).
+
+ARGONAUTS, in the legendary history of Greece, those heroes who performed a
+hazardous voyage to Colchis, a far-distant country at the eastern extremity
+of the Euxine (Black Sea), with Jason in the ship _Argo_, for the purpose
+of securing a golden fleece, which was preserved suspended upon a tree, and
+under the guardianship of a sleepless dragon. By the aid of Medea, daughter
+of the King of Colchis, Jason was enabled to seize the fleece, and, after
+many strange adventures, to reach his home at Iolcos in Thessaly. Among the
+Argonauts were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus and
+Theseus.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. R. Hope Moncrieff, _Classic Myth and Legend_;
+Kingsley, _The Heroes_; N. Hawthorne, _The Wonder-book_.
+
+ARGO-NAVIS, the southern constellation of the Ship, is almost entirely
+invisible in Britain. It contains Canopus, next to Sirius the brightest
+fixed star. In the great nebula in Argo is situated the remarkable star Eta
+Argûs. It is variable, generally faint, but in 1837 it became temporarily
+one of the brightest stars in the sky.
+
+ARGONNE, a district of France, between the Rivers Meuse, Marne, and Aisne,
+celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez against the Prussians in 1792, and
+for the military movements and actions which took place therein previous to
+the battle of Sedan, in 1870.
+
+ARGONNE, BATTLE OF. When, in the autumn of 1914, the Allies retreated
+towards the Marne, the German Crown Prince's army endeavoured to invest
+Verdun. His right wing advanced through the thick and extensive forest of
+Argonne, but took precipitate flight after the battle of the Marne before
+the army of General Sarrail. In the summer of 1915 the Crown Prince
+endeavoured to hack his way through the French Argonne lines, using much
+heavy artillery, poison-gas, liquid-fire, and tear-shells. A final effort
+to break through was made in September, between Le Four de Paris and
+Vienne-le-Château, but, after gaining a footing in the first line of French
+trenches, the Germans were hurled back by a dashing counter-attack. The
+great salient from the Argonne to St. Mihiel was the salvation of Verdun.
+
+AR´GOS, a town of Greece, in the north-east of the Peloponnesus, between
+the Gulfs of Ægina and Nauplia or Argos. This town and the surrounding
+territory of Argolis were famous from the legendary period of Greek history
+onwards. Here, besides Argos, was Mycenæ, where Agamemnon ruled. Modern
+Argos is a straggling place of 10,000 inhabitants, with some ancient
+remains. The territory Argolis forms a nomarchy of Greece. Pop., Argolis
+and Corinthia, 153,172. The capital is Nauplia.
+
+ARGOS´TOLI, a city of the Ionian Islands, capital of Cephalonia, and the
+residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. 14,000.
+
+AR´GOSY, a poetical name for a large merchant-vessel; derived from
+_Ragusa_, a port which was formerly more celebrated than now, and whose
+vessels did a considerable trade with England. It is popularly but
+erroneously connected with the ship _Argo_ in which Jason sailed. See
+_Argonauts_.
+
+ARGOT (Fr.; [.a]r-g[=o]), the jargon, slang, or peculiar phraseology of a
+class or profession; originally the conventional slang of thieves and
+vagabonds, invented for the purpose of disguise and concealment. Some of
+François Villon's poems are written in argot.--Cf. W. von Knoblauch,
+_Dictionary of Argot_.
+
+ARGUIM, or ARGUIN ([.a]r-gwim´, [.a]r-gwin´), a small island on the west
+coast of Africa, not far from Cape Blanco, formerly a centre of trade. Its
+possession was violently disputed between the Portuguese, Dutch, English,
+and French.
+
+AR´GUMENT, a term sometimes used as synonymous with the _subject_ of a
+discourse, but more frequently appropriated to any kind of method employed
+for the purpose of confuting or at least silencing an opponent. Logicians
+have reduced arguments to a number of distinct heads, such as the
+_argumentum ad judicium_, which founds on solid proofs and addresses to the
+judgment; the _argumentum ad verecundiam_, which appeals to the modesty or
+bashfulness of an opponent by reminding him of the great names or
+authorities by whom the view disputed by him is supported; the _argumentum
+ad ignorantiam_, the employment of some logical fallacy towards persons
+likely to be deceived by it; and the _argumentum ad hominem_, an argument
+which presses a man with consequences drawn from his own principles and
+concessions, or his own conduct. See _Fallacy_, _Logic_.
+
+ARGUMENT OF THE PEOPLE, the document set forth by the Council of the Army
+on 15th Jan., 1649, fifteen days before the execution of King Charles I.
+See _Levellers_.
+
+AR´GUS, in Greek mythology, a fabulous being, said to have had a hundred
+eyes, placed by Juno to guard Io. Hence 'argus-eyed', applied to one who is
+exceedingly watchful.
+
+[Illustration: Argus-pheasant (_Argus gigant[=e]us_)]
+
+ARGUS-PHEASANT (_Argus gigant[=e]us_), a large, beautiful, and very
+singular species of pheasant, found native in the south-east of Asia, more
+especially in Sumatra and some of the other islands. The males measure from
+5 to 6 feet from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail, which
+has two greatly-elongated central feathers. The plumage is exceedingly
+beautiful, the secondary quills of the wings, which are longer than the
+primary feathers, being each adorned with a series of ocellated or eye-like
+spots (whence the name--see _Argus_) of brilliant metallic hues. The
+general body plumage is brown.
+
+ARGYLL, or ARGYLE ([.a]r-g[=i]l´), an extensive county in the south-west of
+the Highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland and partly of
+islands belonging to the Hebrides group, the chief of which are Islay,
+Mull, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Luing, Lismore, and Colonsay, with Iona and
+Staffa. On the land side the mainland is bounded north by Inverness; east
+by Perth and Dumbarton; elsewhere surrounded by the Firth of Clyde and its
+connections and the sea; area, 3255 sq. miles (or over 2,000,000 acres), of
+which the islands comprise about 1000 sq. miles. It is greatly indented by
+arms of the sea, which penetrate far inland, the most important of these
+being Loch Sunart, Loch Linnhe (the extremities of which are Loch Eil and
+Loch Leven), Loch Etive, Loch Fyne, Loch Tarbert, Loch Riddon, Loch
+Striven, and Loch Long. The mainland is divided into six districts of
+Northern Argyle, Lorn, Argyle, Cowal, Knapdale, and Kintyre; the two first
+being subdivided into the sub-districts of Lochiel, Ardgour, Sunart,
+Ardnamurchan, Morven, and Appin. The county is exceedingly mountainous, the
+chief summits being Bidean-nam-Bian (3766 feet), Ben Laoigh (3708 feet),
+Ben Cruachan (3611 feet), Benmore, in Mull (3185 feet), the Paps of Jura
+(2565 feet), and Ben Arthur or the Cobbler (2891 feet). There are several
+lakes, the principal of which is Loch Awe. Cattle and sheep are reared in
+numbers, and fishing is largely carried on, as is also the making of
+whisky. There is but little arable land. The chief minerals are slate,
+marble, limestone, and granite. County town, Inveraray; others,
+Campbeltown, Oban, and Dunoon. Pop. (1921), 76,856.
+
+ARGYLL, CAMPBELLS OF, a historic Scottish family, raised to the peerage in
+the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more eminent
+members are: Archibald, 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of Flodden,
+1513.--Archibald, 5th Earl, attached himself to the party of Mary of Guise,
+and was the means of averting a collision between the Reformers and the
+French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency after Mary's abdication,
+but afterwards commanded her troops at the battle of Langside; died
+1575.--Archibald, 8th Earl and 1st Marquess, born 1598: a zealous partisan
+of the Covenanters; created a marquess by Charles I. It was by his
+persuasion that Charles II visited Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in
+1651. At the Restoration he was committed to the Tower, and afterwards sent
+to Scotland, where he was tried for high treason, and beheaded in
+1661.--Archibald, 9th Earl, son of the preceding, served the king with
+great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and was excluded from the general
+pardon by Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he
+refused to take the required oath except with a reservation. For this he
+was tried and sentenced to death. He managed to escape to Holland, from
+whence he returned with a view of aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan,
+however, failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was
+beheaded in 1685.--Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding,
+died 1703; took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-9, which placed
+William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important
+appointments and the title of duke.--John, 2nd Duke and Duke of Greenwich,
+son of the above, born 1678, died 1743; served under Marlborough at the
+battles of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges
+of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in his own country for
+his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had the military command in
+Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar's
+army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and forced the Pretender to quit the
+kingdom. He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his political career was
+full of intrigue. He is the Duke of Argyll in Scott's _Heart of
+Midlothian_.--George Douglas Campbell, K.G., K.T., &c., 8th Duke (of United
+Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early took a part in politics,
+especially in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In
+1852 he became Lord Privy Seal under Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord
+Palmerston in 1859; Postmaster-General in 1860; Secretary for India from
+1868 to 1874; again Lord Privy Seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to
+agree with his colleagues on their Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wrote
+_The Reign of Law_, _Scotland as it Was and as it Is_, &c.--John Douglas
+Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of, son of the 8th Duke and a daughter of the
+2nd Duke of Sutherland, was born in 1845, and succeeded his father in 1900.
+He completed his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, sat in Parliament
+as member for Argyllshire, 1868-78, was Governor-General of Canada from
+1878 to 1883, and again sat in Parliament as member for South Manchester
+from 1895 to 1900, as a Liberal-Unionist. He married the Princess Louise of
+Great Britain, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871. He died in 1914.
+His works include: _The United States after the War_, _Imperial
+Federation_, _Canadian Pictures_, _Memories of Canada and Scotland_, _Life
+of Lord Palmerston_, _Tales and Poems_, _The Psalms in English Verse_,
+_Life and Times of Queen Victoria_, _Yesterday and To-day in Canada_, &c.
+
+ARGYLL AND SUTHERLAND HIGHLANDERS (Princess Louise's), raised by the 5th
+Duke of Argyll (1794), received their present title in 1872. The regiment
+served under Sir David Baird in Cape Colony, and at Balaklava made itself
+immortal as Sir Colin Campbell's 'thin red line'. It was further
+distinguished in the European War at Gheluvelt, Le Cateau, and the second
+battle of Ypres.
+
+ARGYRO-CASTRO ([.a]r´gi-r[=o]-), a town in Albania, 40 miles north-west of
+Janina; built on three ridges intersected by deep ravines, across which are
+several bridges. It was occupied by the Greeks in 1916. Pop. about 10,000.
+
+ARGYROPU´LOS, Johannes, one of the principal revivers of Greek learning in
+the fifteenth century. Born in Constantinople 1415, died at Rome 1486.
+
+ARIA, in music. See _Air_.
+
+ARIADNE (a-ri-ad´ne), in Greek mythology, a daughter of Minos, King of
+Crete. She gave Theseus a clue of thread to conduct him out of the
+labyrinth after his defeat of the Minotaur. Theseus abandoned her on the
+Isle of Naxos, where she was found by Dionysus, who married her.
+
+ARIA´NA, the ancient name of a large district in Asia, forming a portion of
+the Persian Empire; bounded on the north by the provinces of Bactriana,
+Margiana, and Hyrcania; east by the Indus; south by the Indian Ocean and
+the Persian Gulf; west by Media.
+
+ARIANO (ä-r[=e]-ä´n[=o]), a town in South Italy, province of Avellino, 44
+miles north-east of Naples, the seat of a bishop, with a handsome
+cathedral. Pop. 17,650.
+
+AR´IANS, the adherents of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius, who, about A.D.
+318, promulgated the doctrine that Christ was a created being inferior to
+God the Father in nature and dignity, though the first and noblest of all
+created beings; and also that the Holy Spirit is not God, but created by
+the power of the Son. Arianism has been defined as an attempt to determine
+the relations of the Persons of the Trinity on a basis of distinction and
+subordination. It does not seem to have sprung from any strong ethical
+impulse; its philosophy was pagan, and the object of the leaders political
+rather than religious. The doctrines were condemned by the Council of Nicæa
+in 325. Arius died in 336, and after his death his party gained
+considerable accessions, including several emperors, and for a time held a
+strong position. Since the middle of the seventh century, however, the
+Arians have nowhere constituted a distinct sect, although similar opinions
+have been advanced by various theologians in modern times. The Arian
+controversy was revived in England during the eighteenth century by William
+Whiston and Dr. Samuel Clarke.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. M. Gwatkin, _Studies of
+Arianism_; J. H. Newman, _Arians of the Fourth Century_; J. H. Colligan,
+_Arian Movement in England_.
+
+ARICA ([.a]-r[=e]´k[.a]), a seaport of Chile, 30 miles S. of Tacna;
+previous to 1880 it belonged to Peru. It has suffered frequently from
+earthquakes, being in 1868 almost entirely destroyed, part of it being also
+submerged by an earthquake wave. Pop. about 4000. It has a wireless
+station.
+
+ARICA. See _Tacna-Arica Dispute_.
+
+ARICHAT (-shat´), a seaport town and fishing station of Nova Scotia, on a
+small bay, south coast of Madame Island. Pop. about 2500.
+
+ARIÈGE ([.a]-r[=e]-[=a]zh), a mountainous department of France, on the
+northern slopes of the Pyrenees, comprising the ancient countship of Foix
+and parts of Languedoc and Gascony. The principal rivers are the Ariège,
+Arize, and Salat, tributaries of the Garonne. Sheep and cattle are reared;
+the arable land is small in quantity. Chief town, Foix. Area, 1892 sq.
+miles. Pop. (1921), 172,851.
+
+A´RIEL, a symbolic name for Jerusalem in the Old Testament; in the
+demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's
+_Tempest_, Ariel was the "tricksy spirit" whom Prospero had in his service.
+
+ARIES ([=a]´ri-[=e]z; Lat.), the Ram, a northern constellation. It is the
+first of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which the sun enters at the vernal
+equinox, about the 21st of March. The "First Point in Aries" is where the
+equator cuts the ecliptic in the ascending node, from which point the right
+ascensions of heavenly bodies are reckoned on the equator, and their
+longitudes upon the ecliptic. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes the
+sign Aries no longer corresponds with the constellation Aries, which it did
+2000 years ago.
+
+[Illustration: Aril, Fruit of Nutmeg]
+
+AR´IL, or ARIL´LUS, in some plants, as in the nutmeg, an extra covering of
+the seed, outside of the true seed-coats, proceeding from the placenta,
+partially investing the seed, and falling off spontaneously. It is either
+succulent or cartilaginous, coloured, elastic, rough, or knotted. In the
+nutmeg it is known as _mace_.
+
+ARIMAS´PIANS, in ancient Greek traditions, a people who lived in the
+extreme north-east of the ancient world. They were said to be one-eyed and
+to carry on a perpetual war with the gold-guarding griffins, whose gold
+they endeavoured to steal. Cf. Milton, _Paradise Lost_, II, 943.
+
+ARIMATHÆ´A, a town of Palestine, identified with the modern _Ramleh_, 22
+miles W.N.W. of Jerusalem.
+
+ARI´ON, an ancient Greek poet and musician, born at Methymna, in Lesbos,
+flourished about 625 B.C. He lived at the Court of Periander of Corinth,
+and afterwards visited Sicily and Italy. Returning from Tarentum to Corinth
+with rich treasures, the avaricious sailors resolved to murder him. Apollo,
+however, having informed him in a dream of the impending danger, Arion in
+vain endeavoured to soften the hearts of the crew by the power of music. He
+then threw himself into the sea, when one of a shoal of dolphins, which had
+been attracted by his music, received him on his back and bore him to land.
+The sailors, having returned to Corinth, were confronted by Arion and
+convicted of their crime. The lyre of Arion, and the dolphin which rescued
+him, became constellations in the heavens. A fragment of a hymn to
+Poseidon, ascribed to Arion, is extant.
+
+ARIOS´TO, LUDOVI´CO, one of the most celebrated poets of Italy, was born at
+Reggio, in Lombardy, 8th Sept., 1474, of a noble family; died 6th June,
+1533. His lyric poems in the Italian and Latin languages, distinguished for
+ease and elegance of style, introduced him to the notice of the Cardinal
+Ippolito d'Este, son of Duke Ercole I of Ferrara. In 1503 Ippolito employed
+him in his service and used his counsel in the most important affairs. In
+this service he began and finished, in ten or eleven years, his immortal
+poem, the _Orlando Furioso_, which was published in 1515, and immediately
+became highly popular. He afterwards entered the service of Alfonso I, Duke
+of Ferrara, the cardinal's brother, a lover of the arts, who put much
+confidence in him. After quelling disturbances that had broken out in the
+wild and mountainous Garfagnana, he returned to Ferrara, where he employed
+himself in the composition of his comedies, and in putting the last touches
+to his _Orlando_. The _Orlando Furioso_ is a continuation of the _Orlando
+Innamorato_ of Bojardo, details the chivalrous adventures of the paladins
+of the age of Charlemagne, and extends to forty-six cantos. The best
+English translation is that of Rose (1823). Cf. E. Gardner, _Ariosto: the
+Prince of Court Poets_; J. S. Nicholson, _Life and Genius of Ariosto_.
+
+ARISH. See _El Arish_.
+
+ARISTÆUS, in Greek mythology, son of Apollo and Cyrene, the introducer of
+bee-keeping. Cf. Virgil, _Georgics_, IV, 315-558.
+
+ARISTARCHUS (a-ris-tär´kus), an ancient Greek grammarian, born at
+Samothrace 220 B.C., died at Cyprus 143 B.C. He edited Homer's poems with
+the greatest acuteness and ability, endeavouring to restore the text to its
+genuine state, and to clear it of all interpolations and corruptions; hence
+the phrase, Aristarchian criticism. His edition of Homer furnished the
+basis of all subsequent ones.
+
+ARISTARCHUS, an ancient Greek astronomer belonging to Samos, flourished
+about 155 B.C., and first asserted the revolution of the earth about the
+sun; also regarded as the inventor of the sun-dial.
+
+ARIS´TEAS, a personage of ancient Greek legend, represented to have lived
+over many centuries, disappearing and reappearing by turns.
+
+ARISTIDES (a-ris-t[=i]´d[=e]z), a statesman of ancient Greece, for his
+strict integrity surnamed the _Just_. He was one of the ten generals of the
+Athenians when they fought with the Persians at Marathon, 490 B.C. Next
+year he was eponymous archon, and in this office enjoyed such popularity
+that he excited the jealousy of Themistocles, who succeeded in procuring
+his banishment by ostracism (about 483). Three years after, when Xerxes
+invaded Greece with a large army, the Athenians hastened to recall him, and
+Themistocles now admitted him to his confidence and councils. In the battle
+of Platæa (479) he commanded the Athenians, and had a great share in
+gaining the victory. To defray the expenses of the Persian war he persuaded
+the Greeks to impose a tax, which should be paid into the hands of an
+officer appointed by the States collectively, and deposited at Delos. The
+confidence which was felt in his integrity appeared in their entrusting him
+with the office of apportioning the contribution. He died at an advanced
+age about 468 B.C., so poor that he was buried at the public expense.
+
+ARISTIP´PUS (c. 425-366 B.C.), a disciple of Socrates, and founder of a
+philosophical school among the Greeks, which was called the _Cyrenaic_,
+from his native city Cyr[=e]n[=e], in Africa; flourished 380 B.C. His moral
+philosophy differed widely from that of Socrates, and was a science of
+refined voluptuousness. His fundamental principles were--that all human
+sensations may be reduced to two, pleasure and pain. Pleasure is a gentle,
+and pain a violent emotion. All living beings seek the former and avoid the
+latter. Happiness is nothing but a continued pleasure, composed of separate
+gratifications; and as it is the object of all human exertions, we should
+abstain from no kind of pleasure. Still we should always be governed by
+taste and reason in our enjoyments. His doctrines were taught only by his
+daughter Ar[)e]t[=e], and by his grandson Aristippus the younger, by whom
+they were systematized. Other Cyrenaics compounded them into a particular
+doctrine of pleasure, and are hence called _Hedonici_. His writings are
+lost.
+
+ARISTOC´RACY (Gr. _aristos_, best, _kratos_, rule), a form of government by
+which the wealthy and noble, or any small privileged class, rules over the
+rest of the citizens. The term has now become almost entirely social in
+meaning, and is mostly applied to the nobility or chief persons in a State.
+
+ARISTOGEITON (-g[=i]´ton), a citizen of Athens, whose name is rendered
+famous by a conspiracy (514 B.C.) formed in conjunction with his friend
+Harmodius against the tyrants Hippias and Hipparchus, the sons of
+Pisistratus. Both Aristogeiton and Harmodius lost their lives through their
+attempts to free the country, and were reckoned martyrs of liberty.
+
+ARISTOLOCHIA (-l[=o]´ki-a), a genus of plants, the type of the ord.
+Aristolochiaceæ, which consists of dicotyledonous monochlamydeous plants,
+with an inferior 3-6-celled fruit, found for the most part in the hotter
+parts of the world, and in many cases used medicinally on account of their
+tonic and stimulating properties. The genus has emmenagogic qualities,
+especially the European species _A. rotunda_, _A. longa_, and _A.
+Clemat[=i]tis_. _A. bracte[=a]ta_ is used in India as an anthelminthic; _A.
+odoratissima_, a West Indian species, is a valuable bitter and
+alexipharmic. _A. serpentaria_ is the Virginian snake-root, popularly
+regarded as a remedy for snake bites.
+
+ARISTOPHANES (-tof´a-n[=e]z), the greatest comic poet of ancient Greece,
+born at Athens probably about the year 455 B.C., died 375 B.C. Little is
+known of his life. He appeared as a poet in 427 B.C., and having indulged
+in some sarcasms on the powerful demagogue Cleon, was ineffectually accused
+by the latter of having unlawfully assumed the title of an Athenian
+citizen. He afterwards revenged himself on Cleon in his comedy of the
+_Knights_, in which he himself acted the part of Cleon, because no actor
+had the courage to do it. Of fifty-four (or forty-four) comedies attributed
+to him, eleven only remain; believed to be the flower of the ancient
+comedy, and distinguished by wit, humour, and poetry, as also by grossness.
+In them there is constant reference to the manners, actions, and public
+characters of the day, the freedom of the old Greek comedy allowing an
+unbounded degree of personal and political satire. The names of his extant
+plays are _Acharnians_, _Knights_, _Clouds_, _Wasps_, _Peace_, _Birds_,
+_Lysistrata_, _Thesmophoriazusæ_, _Frogs_, _Ecclesiasuzæ_, and
+_Plutus_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. B. Rogers, _Complete Works of Aristophanes,
+with verse translation_ (by far the best translation); Hookham-Frere,
+_Translation_ (five plays only); Couat, _Aristophane et l'ancienne comédie
+attique_.
+
+AR´ISTOTLE (Gr. _Aristot´eles_), a distinguished philosopher and naturalist
+of ancient Greece, the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy, was
+born in 384 B.C. at Stagira, in Macedonia; died at Chalcis, 322 B.C. His
+father, Nicomachus, was physician to Amyntas II, King of Macedonia, and
+claimed to be descended from Æsculapius. Aristotle had lost his parents
+before he came, at about the age of seventeen, to Athens to study in the
+school of Plato. With that philosopher he remained for twenty years, became
+pre-eminent among his pupils, and was known as the 'Intellect of the
+School'. Upon the death of Plato, 348 B.C., he took up his residence at
+Atarneus, in Mysia, on the invitation of his former pupil Hermeias, the
+ruler of that city, on whose assassination by the Persians, 343 B.C., he
+fled to Mitylene with his wife Pythias, a near relative of Hermeias. During
+his residence at Mitylene he received an invitation from Philip of Macedon
+to superintend the education of his son Alexander, then in his fourteenth
+year. This relationship between the great philosopher and the future
+conqueror continued for five or six years, during which the prince was
+instructed in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, logic, ethics, and politics, and
+in those branches of physics which had even then made some considerable
+progress. On Alexander succeeding to the throne Aristotle continued to live
+with him as his friend and councillor till he set out on his Asiatic
+campaign (334 B.C.). He returned to Athens and established his school in
+the Lyceum, a gymnasium attached to the temple of Apollo Lyceius, which was
+assigned to him by the State. He delivered his lectures in the wooded walks
+of the Lyceum while walking up and down with his pupils. From the action
+itself, or more probably from the name of the walks (_peripatoi_), his
+school was called Peripatetic. Pupils gathered to him from all parts of
+Greece, and his school became by far the most popular in Athens. The
+statement that he had two circles of pupils, the _exoteric_ and the
+_esoteric_ has given rise to much controversy. By some it has been held
+that Aristotle published during his lifetime popular discourses with a view
+to make way for his doctrines in Athenian society, then impregnated with
+Platonic theories, and that these are called exoteric in contradistinction
+to those in which are embodied his matured opinions. It was during the time
+of his teaching at Athens that Aristotle is believed to have composed the
+great bulk of his works. But it is not possible to speak with any certainty
+about the chronology of his writings, as the references may be additions of
+editors. On the death of Alexander a revolution occurred in Athens hostile
+to the Macedonian interests with which Aristotle was identified. He
+therefore retired to Chalcis, where he soon after died. Sir Charles
+Walston, in 1891, opened a tomb near Eretria which he supposed to be that
+of Aristotle. According to Strabo he bequeathed all his works to
+Theophrastus, who, with other disciples of Aristotle, amended and continued
+them. They afterwards passed through various hands, till, about 50 B.C.,
+Andronicus of Rhodes put the various fragments together and classified them
+according to a systematic arrangement. Many of the books bearing his name
+are spurious, others are of doubtful genuineness. The whole are generally
+divided into logical, theoretical, and practical. The logical works are
+comprehended under the title _Organon_ (Instrument). The theoretical are
+divided into physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The physical works
+(including those on natural history) are on the _General Principles of
+Physical Science_, _The Heavens_, _Generation and Destruction_,
+_Meteorology_, _Natural History of Animals_, _On the Parts of Animals_, _On
+the Generation of Animals_, _On the Locomotion of Animals_, _On the Soul_,
+_On Memory_, _Sleep and Waking_, _Dreams_, _Divination_. In mathematics
+there are two treatises, _On Indivisible Lines_ and _Mechanical Problems_.
+_The Metaphysics_ consist of fourteen books; the title (_Ta meta ta
+Physika_, 'the things following the Physics',) is the invention of an
+editor. The practical works embrace ethics, politics, economics, and
+treatises on art, and comprise the _Nicomachæan Ethics_ (so called because
+dedicated to his son, Nicomachus), _The Politics_, _Oeconomics_, _Poetry_,
+and _Rhetoric_. Among the lost works are the dialogues and others termed
+exoteric. A treatise _On the Constitution of Athens_ was discovered in
+1891. His style is devoid of grace and elegance. His works were first
+printed in a Latin translation, with the commentaries of Averroes, at
+Venice in 1489; the first Greek edition was that of Aldus Manutius (5
+vols., 1495-8). See _Peripatetic Philosophy_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Blakesley,
+_Life of Aristotle_; S. H. Butcher, _Poetics_ (with translation and
+excursus); R. Shute, _History of the Aristotelian Writings_; J. C. Wilson,
+_Aristotelian Studies_; E. Zeller, _Aristotle and the Earlier
+Peripatetics_; E. Barker, _Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle_.
+
+ARISTOX´ENUS, an ancient Greek musician and philosopher of Tarentum, born
+about 324 B.C. He studied music under his father Mnesias, and philosophy
+under Aristotle, whose successor he aspired to be. He endeavoured to apply
+his musical knowledge to philosophy, and especially to the science of mind,
+but it only appears to have furnished him with far-fetched analogies and
+led him into a kind of materialism. We have a work on the _Elements of
+Harmony_ by him.
+
+ARITH´METIC (Gr. _arithmos_, number) is primarily the science of numbers.
+As opposed to algebra it is the practical part of the science. Although the
+processes of arithmetical operations are often highly complicated, they all
+resolve themselves into the repetition of four primary
+operations--addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Of these
+the two latter are only complex forms of the two former, and subtraction
+again is merely a reversal of the process of addition. Little or nothing is
+known as to the origin and invention of arithmetic. Some elementary
+conception of it is in all probability coeval with the first dawn of human
+intelligence. In consequence of their rude methods of numeration, the
+science made but small advance among the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and
+Romans, and it was not until the introduction of the decimal scale of
+notation and the Arabic, or rather Indian, numerals into Europe that any
+great progress can be traced. In this scale of notation every number is
+expressed by means of the ten digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, by
+giving each digit a local as well as its proper or natural value. The value
+of every digit increases in a tenfold proportion from the right towards the
+left; the distance of any figure from the right indicating the power of 10,
+and the digit itself the number of those powers intended to be expressed:
+thus 3464 = 3000 + 400 + 60 + 4 = 3 × 10^3 + 4 × 10^2 + 6 × 10 + 4. The
+earliest arithmetical signs appear to have been hieroglyphical, but the
+Egyptian hieroglyphics were too diffuse to be of any arithmetical value.
+The units were successive strokes to the number required, the ten an open
+circle, the hundred a curled palm-leaf, the thousand a lotus flower, ten
+thousand a bent finger. The letters of the alphabet afforded a convenient
+mode of representing figures, and were used accordingly by the Chaldeans,
+Hebrews, and Greeks. The first nine letters of the Hebrew alphabet
+represented the units, the second nine tens, the remaining four together
+with five repeated with additional marks, hundreds; the same succession of
+letters with added points was repeated for thousands, tens of thousands,
+and hundreds of thousands. The Greeks followed the same system up to tens
+of thousands. They wrote the different classes of numbers in succession as
+we do, and they transferred operations performed on units to numbers in
+higher places; but the use of different signs for the different ranks
+clearly shows a want of full perception of the value of place as such. They
+adopted the letter M as a sign for 10,000 and by combining this mark with
+their other numerals they could note numbers as high as 100,000,000. The
+Roman numerals, which are still used in marking dates or numbering
+chapters, were almost useless for purposes of computation. From one to four
+were represented by vertical strokes [I], [II], [III], [IIII], five by [V],
+ten by [X], fifty by [L], one hundred by [square C], afterwards [C], five
+hundred by [D], a thousand by [M]. These signs were derived from each other
+according to particular rules, thus [V] was the half of [X], [inverted V]
+being also used; [L] was likewise the half of [C]. [M] was artistically
+written [M] and [cIc*] and [Ic*], afterwards [D], became five hundred.
+[ccI] represented 5000, [ccIc*c*] 10,000, [Ic*c*c*] 50,000, [cccIc*c*c*]
+100,000. They were also compounded by addition and subtraction, thus [IV]
+stood for four, [VI] for six, [XXX] for thirty, [XL] for forty, [LX] for
+sixty. Arithmetic is divided into _abstract_ and _practical_: the former
+comprehends notation, numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication,
+division, measures and multiples, fractions, powers and roots; the latter
+treats of the combinations and practical applications of these and the
+so-called rules, such as reduction, compound addition, subtraction,
+multiplication, and division, proportion, interest, profit and loss, &c.
+Another division is _integral_ and _fractional_ arithmetic, the former
+treating of integers, or whole numbers, and the latter of fractions.
+Decimal fractions were invented in the sixteenth century, and logarithms,
+embodying the last great advance in the science, in the seventeenth
+century.
+
+ARITHMET´ICAL, pertaining to arithmetic or its operations.--_Arithmetical
+mean_, the middle term of three quantities in arithmetical progression, or
+half the sum of any two proposed numbers; thus 11 is the arithmetical mean
+to 8 and 14.--_Arithmetical progression_, a series of numbers increasing or
+decreasing by a common difference, as 1, 3, 5, 7, &c.--_Arithmetical
+signs_, certain symbols used in arithmetic, and indicating processes or
+facts. The common signs used in arithmetic are the following: [plus sign]
+signifying that the numbers between which it is placed are to be added;
+[minus sign] - that the second is to be subtracted from the first; [times
+sign] that the one is to be multiplied by the other; [divide sign] that the
+former is to be divided by the latter; [equals sign] signifies that the one
+number is equal to the other; [proportional signs - colons] are the signs
+placed between the members of a proportional series, as 4 : 6 :: 8 : 12. A
+small figure placed on the right hand of another at the top signifies the
+corresponding power of the number beside which it is placed, as 5^2, 4^3,
+meaning the square of 5 and the cube of 4. [cube root] placed before or
+over a number signifies the square root of that number; with a figure it
+signifies the root of a higher power, as [cube root], which means cube
+root. A period placed to the left of a series of figures indicates that
+they are decimal fractions.
+
+A´RIUS, the originator of the Arian heresy. See _Arians_.
+
+ARIZO´NA, a former territory of the United States, admitted into the union
+as a sovereign State on 14th Feb., 1912, is bounded south by Mexico, west
+by California and Nevada (the River Colorado forming the greater part of
+the boundary), north by Utah, and east by New Mexico; area, 113,956 sq.
+miles. The surface is generally mountainous, but many fertile and
+well-watered valleys lie between the ridges. Part of the surface consists
+of deserts often entirely destitute of vegetation. The territory belongs to
+the basin of the Colorado, which passes through a portion of it, besides
+forming the boundary; while the Gila and Little Colorado, tributaries of
+the Colorado, traverse it from east to west. The canyons of the Colorado
+form a wonderful feature, the river flowing for hundreds of miles in a deep
+rocky channel with walls rising perpendicularly to the height of 1500 to
+6000 feet. In some parts timber is plentiful. The rainfall is small, and
+irrigation has been employed for agricultural purposes. Large tracts of
+elevated land have been found excellently adapted as pastures for sheep and
+cattle. The territory is rich in copper, gold, silver, lead, and other
+minerals, and mining is largely carried on, with much copper smelting and
+refining. The capital is Phoenix. Pop. 29,053. The Southern and the Santa
+Fé Pacific Railways traverse it. Pop. (1920), 333,903 (of which 171,468 are
+white), exclusive of Apaches and other Indians on reservations (area,
+29,017 sq. miles; pop. (1920), 42,400).
+
+ARJISH DAGH, the loftiest peak of the peninsula of Asia Minor, at the
+western extremity of the Anti-Taurus Range, 13,150 feet; an extinct
+volcano; on the N. and N.E. slopes are extensive glaciers.
+
+ARK, the name applied in our translation of the Bible to the boat or
+floating house in which Noah resided during the flood or deluge; to the
+floating vessel of bulrushes in which the infant Moses was laid; and to the
+chest in which the tables of the law were preserved--the _ark of the
+covenant_. This last was made of shittim-wood, overlaid within and without
+with gold, about 3¾ feet long by 2¼ feet high and broad, and over it were
+placed the golden covering or mercy-seat and the two cherubim. It was
+placed in the sanctuary of the temple of Solomon; before his time it was
+kept in the tabernacle, and was moved about as circumstances dictated. At
+the captivity it appears to have been either lost or destroyed.
+
+ARKANSAS (ar´kan-s[a:] or ar-kan´sas), one of the United States of America,
+bounded north by Missouri; east by the Mississippi, which separates it from
+the States of Mississippi and Tennessee; south by Louisiana and Texas; and
+west by the Indian Territory and Texas; area, 53,335 sq. miles. The surface
+in the east is low, flat, and swampy, densely wooded, and subject to
+frequent inundations from the numerous streams which water it. Towards the
+centre it becomes more diversified, presenting many undulating slopes and
+hills of moderate elevation. In the west it rises still higher, being
+traversed by a range of hills called the Ozark, which attains a height of
+2000 feet, some peaks rising to 3000. In various parts the prairies are of
+great extent; the forests also are extensive, principally of oak, hickory,
+ash, cotton, linden, maple, locust, and pine. Coal and other minerals are
+worked. The principal rivers, all tributaries of the Mississippi, are the
+Arkansas, the Red River, the St. Francis, and the Washita. Near the centre
+of the State are warm springs, much resorted to for chronic rheumatic and
+paralytic affections. The climate is subject to great extremes of heat and
+cold, and in the lower districts is unhealthy to new settlers. The staple
+products are cotton and maize; fruit is tolerably abundant. Many districts
+are admirably adapted for grazing, and great numbers of excellent cattle
+are reared. Arkansas was colonized as early as 1685 by the French. As part
+of Louisiana it was purchased by the United States in 1803. It was made
+into a separate territory in 1819, and admitted into the Union in 1836. It
+was one of the seceding States. The capital is Little Rock. The enumerated
+population in 1920 was 1,750,995.
+
+ARKANSAS, a river of the United States, which gives its name to the above
+State, the largest affluent of the Mississippi after the Missouri. It rises
+in the Rocky Mountains, about lat. 39° N., long. 107° W., flows in a
+general south-easterly direction through Colorado, Kansas, the Indian
+Territory, and lastly through the State of Arkansas, and after a course of
+2170 miles enters the Mississippi. During greater part of the year it is
+navigable for steamboats for 800 miles.
+
+ARKITE. See _Explosives_.
+
+ARK´LOW, a town in Ireland, County Wicklow, on the right bank of the Avoca,
+which falls into the sea about 500 yards below the town; the scene of a
+severe fight during the rebellion of 1798. Fishing is the chief industry.
+Pop. 5042.
+
+[Illustration: Arkwright's Water Frame]
+
+ARK´WRIGHT, Sir Richard, famous for his inventions in cotton-spinning, was
+born at Preston, in Lancashire, in 1732, died 1792. The youngest of
+thirteen children, he was bred to the trade of a barber. When about
+thirty-five years of age he gave himself up exclusively to the subject of
+inventions for spinning cotton. The thread spun by Hargreaves' jenny could
+not be used except as weft, being destitute of the firmness or hardness
+required in the longitudinal threads or warp. But Arkwright supplied this
+deficiency by the invention of the _spinning-frame_, which spins a vast
+number of threads of any degree of fineness and hardness, leaving the
+operator merely to feed the machine with cotton and to join the threads
+when they happen to break. His invention introduced the system of spinning
+by rollers, the carding, or _roving_ as it is technically termed (that is,
+the soft, loose strip of cotton), passing through one pair of rollers, and
+being received by a second pair, which is made to revolve with (as the case
+may be) three, four, or five times the velocity of the first pair. By this
+contrivance the roving is drawn out into a thread of the desired degree of
+tenuity and hardness. His inventions being brought into a pretty advanced
+state, Arkwright removed to Nottingham in 1768 in order to avoid the
+attacks of the same lawless rabble that had driven Hargreaves out of
+Lancashire. Here his operations were at first greatly fettered by a want of
+capital; but two gentlemen of means having entered into partnership with
+him, the necessary funds were obtained, and Arkwright erected his first
+mill, which was driven by horses, at Nottingham, and took out a patent for
+spinning by rollers in 1769. As the mode of working the machinery by
+horse-power was found too expensive, he built a second factory on a much
+larger scale at Cromford, in Derbyshire, in 1771, the machinery of which
+was turned by a water-wheel. Having made several additional discoveries and
+improvements in the processes of carding, roving, and spinning, he took out
+a fresh patent for the whole in 1775, and thus completed a series of the
+most ingenious and complicated machinery. Notwithstanding a series of
+law-suits in defence of his patent rights, and the destruction of his
+property by mobs, he amassed a large fortune. He was knighted by George III
+in 1786.
+
+ARLBERG ([.a]rl´ber_h_), a branch of the Rhætian Alps, in the west of
+Tyrol, between it and Vorarlberg, pierced by the fourth longest railway
+tunnel in the world. It is 6½ miles long, and was finished in Nov., 1883,
+and connects the valley of the Inn with that of the Rhine, and the Austrian
+railway system with the Swiss railways.
+
+AR´LECDON, an urban district of England, in Cumberland, 4 miles east of
+Whitehaven, with coal and iron mines. Pop. (1921), 5152.
+
+ARLES ([.a]rl; ancient, AREL[=A]TE), a town of Southern France, department
+Bouches du Rhône, 17 miles south-east of Nismes. It was an important town
+at the time of Cæsar's invasion, and under the later emperors it became one
+of the most flourishing towns on the farther side of the Alps. It still
+possesses numerous ancient remains, of which the most conspicuous are those
+of a Roman amphitheatre, which accommodated 24,000 spectators. It has a
+considerable trade, manufactures of silk, &c., and furnishes a market for
+the surrounding country. Pop. 16,746.
+
+AR´LINGTON, Henry Bennet, Earl of, member of the Cabal ministry, and one of
+the scheming creatures of Charles II, born 1618, died 1685. He is supposed
+to have lived and died a Roman Catholic.
+
+AR´LON, a Belgian town, capital province of Luxemburg, a thriving town,
+with manufactures of ironware, leather, tobacco, &c. Pop. 12,012.
+
+ARM, the upper limb in man, connected with the thorax or chest by means of
+the scapula or shoulder-blade, and the clavicle or collar-bone. It consists
+of three bones, the arm-bone (_hum[)e]rus_), and the two bones of the
+fore-arm (_radius_ and _ulna_), and it is connected with the bones of the
+hand by the _carpus_ or wrist. The head or upper end of the arm-bone fits
+into the hollow called the _glenoid cavity_ of the scapula, so as to form a
+joint of the ball-and-socket kind, allowing great freedom of movement to
+the limb. The lower end of the humerus is broadened out by a projection on
+both the outer and inner sides (the outer and inner _condyles_), and has a
+pulley-like surface for articulating with the fore-arm to form the
+elbow-joint. This joint somewhat resembles a hinge, allowing of movement
+only in one direction. The ulna is the inner of the two bones of the
+fore-arm. It is largest at the upper end, where it has two processes, the
+_coronoid_ and the _olecranon_, with a deep groove between to receive the
+humerus. The radius--the outer of the two bones--is small at the upper and
+expanded at the lower end, where it forms part of the wrist-joint. The
+muscles of the upper arm are either _flexors_ or _extensors_, the former
+serving to bend the arm, the latter to straighten it by means of the
+elbow-joint. The main flexor is the _biceps_, the large muscle which may be
+seen standing out in front of the arm when a weight is raised. The chief
+opposing muscle of the biceps is the _triceps_. The muscles of the fore-arm
+are, besides flexors and extensors, _pronators_ and _supinators_, the
+former turning the hand palm downwards, the latter turning it upwards. The
+same fundamental plan of structure exists in the limbs of all vertebrate
+animals.
+
+ARMA´DA, the Spanish name for any large naval force; usually applied to the
+Spanish fleet vaingloriously designated the _Invincible Armada_, intended
+to act against England A.D. 1588. It was under the command of the Duke of
+Medina-Sidonia, and consisted of 130 great war vessels, larger and stronger
+than any belonging to the English fleet, with 30 smaller ships of war, and
+carried 19,295 marines, 8460 sailors, 2088 slaves, and 2630 cannon. It had
+scarcely quitted Lisbon on 29th May, 1588, when it was scattered by a
+storm, and had to be refitted in Corunna. It was to co-operate with a land
+force collected in Flanders under the Prince of Parma, and to unite with
+this it proceeded through the English Channel towards Calais. In its
+progress it was attacked by the English fleet under Lord Howard, who, with
+his lieutenants, Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, endeavoured by dexterous
+seamanship and the discharge of well-directed volleys of shot to destroy or
+capture the vessels of the enemy. The great lumbering Spanish vessels
+suffered severely from their smaller opponents, which most of their shot
+missed. Arrived at length off Dunkirk, the armada was becalmed, thrown into
+confusion by fire-ships, and many of the Spanish vessels destroyed or
+taken. The Duke of Medina-Sidonia, owing to the severe losses, at last
+resolved to abandon the enterprise, and conceived the idea of reconveying
+his fleet to Spain by a voyage round the north of Great Britain; but storm
+after storm assailed his ships, scattering them in all directions, and
+sinking many. Some went down on the cliffs of Norway, others in the open
+sea, others on the Scottish coast, others on the coast of Ireland. In all,
+seventy-two large vessels and over 10,000 men were lost.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+J. A. Froude, _Spanish Story of the Armada_; Sir J. K. Laughton, _State
+Papers relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada_; J. R. Hale, _Story of
+the Great Armada_.
+
+ARMADALE, a town of Scotland, Linlithgowshire, in coal and iron district.
+Pop. 4739.
+
+[Illustration: Armadillos--Left, Hairy Armadillo. Right, Kappler's
+Armadillo]
+
+ARMADI´LLO (genus Das[)y]pus), an edentate mammal peculiar to South
+America, consisting of various species, belonging to a family intermediate
+between the sloths and ant-eaters. They are covered with a hard bony shell,
+divided into belts, composed of small separate plates like a coat of mail,
+flexible everywhere except on the forehead, shoulders, and haunches, where
+it is not movable. The belts are connected by a membrane which enables the
+animal to roll itself up like a hedgehog. These animals burrow in the
+earth, where they lie during the daytime, seldom going abroad except at
+night. They are of different sizes: the largest, _Dasypus gigas_, being 3
+feet in length without the tail, and the smallest only 10 inches. They
+subsist chiefly on fruits and roots, sometimes on insects and flesh. They
+are inoffensive, and their flesh is esteemed good food.--There is a genus
+of isopodous Crustacea called Armadillo, consisting of animals allied to
+the wood-lice, capable of rolling themselves into a ball.
+
+ARMAGEDDON (-ged´don), the great battlefield of the Old Testament, where
+the chief conflicts took place between the Israelites and their
+enemies--the table-land of Esdraelon in Galilee and Samaria, in the centre
+of which stood the town of Megiddo, on the site of the modern Lejjun: used
+figuratively in the _Apocalypse_ to signify the place of 'the battle of the
+great day of God'. It may, however, be _har migdo_, his fruitful mountain,
+'the mountain land of Israel'. The phrase 'an Armageddon' expresses any
+great slaughter or final conflict, and has been frequently applied to the
+Great War of 1914-8. During this war severe fighting took place in Sept.,
+1918, on the field of Armageddon, the entrance to the passes of Megiddo.
+The battle ended in an overwhelming victory for General Allenby's armies.
+See _Megiddo_.
+
+ARMAGH ([.a]r-mä´), a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster;
+surrounded by Monaghan, Tyrone, Lough Neagh, Down, and Louth; area, 328,086
+acres, of which about a half is under tillage. The north-west of the county
+is undulating and fertile. The northern part, bordering on Lough Neagh,
+consists principally of extensive bogs. On the southern border is a range
+of barren hills. The chief rivers are the Blackwater, which separates it
+from Tyrone; the Upper Bann, which discharges itself into Lough Neagh; and
+the Callan, which falls into the Blackwater. There are several small lakes.
+The manufacture of linen is carried on very extensively. Armagh, Lurgan,
+and Portadown are the chief towns. The county sends three members to
+Parliament. Pop. 120,291.--The county town, _Armagh_, is situated partly on
+a hill, about half a mile from the Callan. It has a Protestant cathedral
+crowning the hill, a Gothic building dating from the eighth century,
+repaired and beautified recently; a new Roman Catholic cathedral in the
+pointed Gothic style, and various public buildings. It is the see of an
+archbishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, who is primate of all
+Ireland, and is a place of great antiquity. Pop. 7356.
+
+ARMAGNAC ([.a]r-m[.a]-ny[.a]k), an ancient territory of France, in the
+province of Gascony, some of the counts of which hold prominent places in
+the history of France. Bernard VII, son of John II, surnamed the Hunchback,
+succeeded his brother, John III, in 1391, and was called to Court by
+Isabella of Bavaria, with the view of heading the Orleans in opposition to
+the Burgundian faction, where he no sooner gained the ascendancy than he
+compelled the queen to appoint him Constable of France. He showed himself a
+merciless tyrant, and became so generally execrated that the Duke of
+Burgundy, to whom Isabella had turned for help, found little difficulty in
+gaining admission into Paris, and even seizing the person of Armagnac, who
+was cast into prison in 1418, when the exasperated populace burst in and
+killed him and his followers. John V, grandson of the above, who succeeded
+in 1450, made himself notorious for his crimes. He was assassinated in his
+castle of Lectoure in 1473 by an agent of Louis XI, against whom he was
+holding out.
+
+AR´MATURE, a term applied to the piece of soft iron which is placed across
+the poles of permanent or electro-magnets for the purpose of receiving and
+concentrating the attractive force. In the case of permanent magnets it is
+also important for preserving their magnetism when not in use, and hence it
+is sometimes termed the _keeper_. It produces this effect in virtue of the
+well-known law of induction, by which the armature, when placed near or
+across the poles of the magnet, is itself converted into a temporary magnet
+with reversed poles, and these, reacting upon the permanent magnet, keep
+its particles in a state of constant magnetic tension, or, in other words,
+in that constrained position which is supposed to constitute magnetism. A
+horse-shoe magnet should therefore never be laid aside without its
+armature; and in the case of straight bar-magnets two should be placed
+parallel to each other, with their poles reversed, and a keeper or armature
+across them at both ends. The term is also applied to the core and coil of
+the electro-magnet, which revolves before the poles of the permanent magnet
+in the magneto-electric machine.
+
+ARME BLANCHE, a term applied to the rapier and duelling-foil, and
+frequently also to all weapons other than fire-arms. The phrase is
+particularly applied to the sabres and lances carried by cavalry, but also
+to the bayonet.
+
+ARME´NIA, a mountainous country of Western Asia, of great historical
+interest as the original seat of one of the oldest civilized peoples in the
+world. The name Armenia occurs in the _Vulgate_, but the Hebrew name is
+Ararat. It has an area of about 120,000 sq. miles, and is intersected by
+the Euphrates, which divides it into the ancient divisions, Armenia Major
+and Armenia Minor. The country is an elevated plateau, enclosed on several
+sides by the ranges of Taurus and Anti-Taurus, and partly occupied by other
+mountains, the loftiest of which is Ararat. Several important rivers take
+their rise in Armenia, namely, the Kur or Cyrus, and its tributary the Aras
+or Araxes, flowing east to the Caspian Sea; the Halys or Kizil-Irmak,
+flowing north to the Black Sea; and the Tigris and Euphrates, which flow
+into the Persian Gulf. The chief lakes are Van and Urumiyah. The climate is
+rather severe. The soil is on the whole productive, though in many places
+it would be quite barren were it not for the great care taken to irrigate
+it. Wheat, barley, tobacco, hemp, grapes, and cotton are raised; and in
+some of the valleys apricots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts are grown.
+The inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine Armenian stock, a branch of the
+Aryan or Indo-European race; but besides them, in consequence of the
+repeated subjugation of the country, various other races have obtained a
+footing. The total number of Armenians is estimated at 2,900,000, of whom
+one-half are in Armenia. The remainder, like the Jews, are scattered over
+various countries, and are generally engaged in commercial pursuits. They
+everywhere retain, however, their distinct nationality.
+
+Little is known of the early history of Armenia, but it was a separate
+State as early as the eighth century B.C., when it became subject to
+Assyria, as it also did subsequently to the Medes and the Persians. It was
+conquered by Alexander the Great in 325 B.C., but regained its independence
+about 190 B.C. Its king, Tigranes, son-in-law of the celebrated
+Mithrid[=a]tes, was defeated by the Romans under Lucullus and Pompey
+between 69-66 B.C., but was left on the throne. Since then its fortunes
+have been various under the Romans, Parthians, Byzantine emperors,
+Persians, Saracens, and Turks. Until quite recently Armenia had no
+political existence, having been partitioned between Turkey, Persia, and
+Russia, the last acquiring considerable portions in 1829 and 1878. The hope
+of the Armenians to see their country formed into an autonomous province
+administered by Christians was frustrated by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.
+The advanced party amongst the Armenians, therefore, determined to obtain
+their object by the production of disturbances and the spread of a
+revolutionary movement. The Porte retaliated by wholesale massacres of the
+Armenians in 1896, 1904, and 1908. The Armenian revolutionary and national
+parties in the meantime continued their activity and propaganda. Armenia
+proclaimed its independence in Aug., 1918. In Jan., 1920, the Supreme
+Council of the Allied Governments recognized the Armenian Republic of
+Erivan. A mandate for Armenia was also offered to the United States of
+America, but it was refused by the American Senate in May, 1920. On 18th
+March, 1922, Soviet Russia concluded a treaty with Turkey, giving to the
+latter most of Armenia. Batum was attached to Georgia. See _Erivan_,
+_Russia_, _Turkey_.
+
+The Armenians received Christianity at an early date, most probably at the
+beginning of the third century, although native historians maintain that
+several of the apostles preached in Armenia. The real apostle of Armenia
+was Gregory the Illuminator, in the third century. During the Monophysitic
+disputes they held with those who rejected the twofold nature of Christ,
+and being dissatisfied with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451)
+they separated from the Greek Church in 536. The Popes had at different
+times attempted to gain them over to the Roman Catholic faith, but have not
+been able to unite them permanently and generally with the Roman Church.
+There are, however, small numbers here and there of United Armenians, who
+acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, agree in their doctrines
+with the Catholics, but retain their peculiar ceremonies and discipline.
+But the far greater part are yet Monophysites, and have remained faithful
+to their old religion and worship. Their doctrine differs from the orthodox
+chiefly in their admitting only one nature in Christ, and believing the
+Holy Spirit to proceed from the Father alone. Their sacraments are seven in
+number. They adore saints and their images, but do not believe in
+purgatory. Their hierarchy differs little from that of the Greeks. The
+_Catholicus_, or head of the Church, has his seat at Etchmiadzin, a
+monastery near Erivan, the capital of former Russian Armenia, on Mount
+Ararat.
+
+The Armenian language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, and
+is most closely connected with the Iranic group. The Old Armenian or Haikan
+language, which is still the literary and ecclesiastical language, is
+distinguished from the New Armenian, the ordinary spoken language, which
+contains a large intermixture of Persian and Turkish elements. The most
+flourishing period of Armenian literature extended from the fourth to the
+fourteenth century. It then declined, but a revival began in the
+seventeenth century, and at the present day wherever any extensive
+community of Armenians has settled they have set up a printing-press. The
+Armenian Bible, translated from a Syriac version, and revised by means of
+the Septuagint, by Isaac the Great and St. Mesrop, early in the fifth
+century, is a model of the classic style.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. N. and H.
+Buxton, _Travel and Politics in Armenia_; N. T. Gregor, _History of
+Armenia_; W. L. Williams, _Armenia, Past and Present_.
+
+ARMENTIÈRES ([.a]r-m[.a][n.]-ty[=a]r), a town in France, department Nord,
+10 miles W.N.W. of Lille, on the Lys. The town had extensive manufactures
+of linen and cotton goods and an extensive trade. The Germans captured
+Armentières by massed assault early in April, 1918, after methodically
+shelling the town for about two years and destroying almost every building
+in it. The enemy's offensive was intended to achieve greater results.
+Indeed, its object was to break through to the Channel ports. It began on
+9th April, after artillery preparation, from La Bassée to Armentières.
+When, however, the battle of Armentières died down, the enemy plan to break
+through to the coast had been definitely and finally frustrated. German
+losses were extremely heavy, their attacks having been made with massed
+troops. (See _Ypres_.) Pop. 28,086.
+
+ARM´FELT, Gustav Moritz, Count of, Swedish soldier, born 1757, died 1814.
+Though he had been highly favoured and loaded with honours by Gustavus III,
+he incurred the enmity of the Duke of Sudermania, guardian of the young
+king, Gustavus IV, and was deprived of all his titles and possessions. He
+was restored to his fortune and honours in 1799, when Gustavus IV attained
+his majority, and held several high military posts. Ultimately, however, he
+entered the Russian service, was made count, chancellor of the University
+of Abo, president of the department for the affairs of Finland, member of
+the Russian Senate, and served in the campaign against Napoleon in 1812.
+
+ARMIDA ([.a]r-m[=e]´d[.a]), a beautiful enchantress in Tasso's _Jerusalem
+Delivered_, who succeeds in bringing the hero Rinaldo, with whom she had
+fallen violently in love, to her enchanted gardens. Here he completely
+forgets the high task to which he had devoted himself, until messengers
+from the Christian host having arrived at the island, Rinaldo escapes with
+them by means of a powerful talisman. In the sequel Armida becomes a
+Christian.
+
+AR´MILLARY SPHERE (Lat. _armilla_, a hoop), an astronomical instrument
+consisting of an arrangement of rings, all circles of one sphere, intended
+to represent the principal circles of the celestial globe, the rings
+standing for the meridian of the station, the ecliptic, the tropics, the
+arctic and antarctic circles, &c., in their relative positions. Its main
+use is to give a representation of the apparent motions of the celestial
+bodies.
+
+ARMIN´IANS, a sect or party of Christians, so called from Jacobus
+_Arminius_ or Harmensen. (See _Arminius_.) They were called also
+_Remonstrants_, from their having presented a _remonstrance_ to the
+States-general in 1610. The Arminian doctrines are: (1) Conditional
+election and reprobation, in opposition to absolute predestination. (2)
+Universal redemption, or that the atonement was made by Christ for all
+mankind, though none but believers can be partakers of the benefit. (3)
+That man, in order to exercise true faith, must be regenerated and renewed
+by the operation of the Holy Spirit, which is the gift of God; but that
+this grace is not irresistible and may be lost, so that men may relapse
+from a state of grace and die in their sins. Arminianism being a revolt
+against certain aspects of Calvinism, especially the absolutism of the
+eternal decrees, its doctrines were vehemently attacked by the Calvinists
+of Holland, and were condemned by the Synod of Dort in 1619. The Arminians,
+in consequence, were treated with great severity; many of them fled to, and
+spread in, other countries, and though there is no longer any particular
+sect to which the name is exclusively applied, many bodies are classed as
+Arminians, as being opposed to the Calvinists on the question of
+predestination.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Regenboog, _Historie der Remonstranten_;
+Caspar Brandt, _Life of Arminius_ (English translation by J. Guthrie);
+W. B. Pope, _Compendium of Christian Theology_ (3 vols.).
+
+ARMIN´IUS, an ancient German hero celebrated by his fellow-countrymen as
+their deliverer from the Roman yoke, born about 18-16 B.C., assassinated
+A.D. 19. Having been sent as a hostage to Rome, he served in the Roman
+army, and was raised to the rank of _eques_. Returning home, he found the
+Roman governor, Quintilius Varus, making efforts to Romanize the German
+tribes near the Rhine. Placing himself at the head of the discontented
+tribes he completely annihilated the army of Varus, consisting of three
+legions, in a three days' battle fought in the Teutoburg Forest. For some
+time he baffled the Roman general Germanicus, and after many years'
+resistance to the vast power of the Empire he drew upon himself the hatred
+of his countrymen by aiming at the regal authority, and was assassinated. A
+national monument to his memory was inaugurated on the Grotenburg, near
+Detmold, in 1875.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: see Tacitus, _Annals_ (translated by
+Murphy); O. Kemmer, _Arminius_; F. W. Fischer, _Armin und die Römer_.
+
+ARMINIUS, Jacobus (properly Jakob Harmensen), founder of the sect of
+Arminians or Remonstrants, born in South Holland in 1560, died 1609. He
+studied at Utrecht, in the University of Leyden, and at Geneva, where his
+chief preceptor in theology was Theodore Beza (1582). On his return to
+Holland he was appointed minister of one of the churches in Amsterdam, and
+chosen to undertake the refutation of a work which strongly controverted
+Beza's doctrine of predestination; but he happened to be convinced by the
+work which he had undertaken to refute. Elected in 1603 professor of
+divinity at Leyden, he openly declared his opinions, and was involved in
+harassing controversies, especially with his fellow professor Gomarus.
+These contests, with the continual attacks on his reputation, at length
+impaired his health and brought on a complicated disease, of which he died.
+See _Arminians_.
+
+AR´MITAGE, Edward, English historical painter, born 1817, died 1896. He
+studied under Delaroche at the École des Beaux Arts, Paris, was one of the
+ablest pupils of that painter, and in 1842 exhibited at the Salon (in the
+Louvre) a picture of _Prometheus Bound_. At the exhibition of cartoons for
+historical pictures in Westminster Hall (1843) he obtained a premium of
+£300 for his design of _Cæsar's First Invasion of Britain_. Other similar
+premiums were gained by his _Spirit of Religion_ (1845), and _Battle of
+Meeanee_ (1847--£500). He now went to study at Rome, and exhibited at the
+Academy in 1848 his _Henry VIII and Katherine Parr_, and his _Trafalgar_
+(_Death of Nelson_). He had pictures in most of the subsequent Academy
+exhibitions up nearly to the time of his death. In 1867 he was elected an
+associate, and in 1872 a full academician. He did much for the restoration
+of fresco painting in England. A large number of his pictures were biblical
+in subject, such as _Ahab and Jezebel_, _Esther's Banquet_, _The Remorse of
+Judas_, _Joseph and Mary_, _Herod's Birthday Feast_, &c. As professor of
+painting to the Royal Academy he delivered lectures on painting, which were
+published in 1883. In 1898 appeared a volume of his _Pictures and
+Drawings_.
+
+ARMOR´ICA (from two Celtic words signifying 'upon the sea'), a name
+anciently applied to all north-western Gaul, afterwards limited to what is
+now Brittany. Hence _Armoric_ is one name for Breton or the language of the
+inhabitants of Brittany, a Celtic dialect closely allied to Welsh.
+
+ARMOUR. See _Arms_.
+
+ARMOURED CAR, a self-propelled car completely protected by bullet-proof
+armour-plating. Such a car is a stage in the development of mechanical
+warfare, i.e. warfare by means of a self-propelled, armed, and manned
+machine. The idea is a very ancient one, some form of protected vehicle
+having been in use among the Chinese in almost prehistoric times. The
+modern armoured car is constructed on a strongly-engined chassis, and is
+provided with a bullet-proof armour-plating both for engine and crew. This
+armour is continued low down over the wheels. The armament of such a car
+consists of two heavy machine-guns, firing through slits in the
+armour-plating of the body of the car.
+
+ARMOUR-PLATES, iron or steel plates with which the sides of vessels of war
+are covered with the view of rendering them shot-proof. See _Iron-clad
+Vessels_.
+
+ARMS, COAT OF, or ARMORIAL BEARINGS, a collective name for the devices
+borne on shields, on banners, &c., as marks of dignity and distinction,
+and, in the case of family and feudal arms, descending from father to son.
+They were first employed by the Crusaders, and became hereditary in
+families at the close of the twelfth century. They took their rise from the
+knights painting their banners or shields each with a figure or figures
+proper to himself, to enable him to be distinguished in battle when clad in
+armour. See _Heraldry_.
+
+ARMS, COLLEGE OF. See _Herald_.
+
+[Illustration: Armour, from the effigy of Sir Richard Peyton, in Tong
+Church, Shropshire]
+
+ARMS and ARMOUR. The former term is applied to weapons of offence, the
+latter to the various articles of defensive covering used in war and
+military exercises, especially before the introduction of gunpowder.
+Weapons of offence are divisible into two distinct sections--firearms, and
+arms used without gunpowder or other explosive substance. The first arms of
+offence would probably be wooden clubs, then would follow wooden weapons
+made more deadly by means of stone or bone, stone axes, slings, bows and
+arrows with heads of flint or bone, and afterwards various weapons of
+bronze. Subsequently a variety of arms of iron and steel was introduced,
+which comprised the sword, javelin, pike, spear or lance, dagger, axe,
+mace, chariot scythe, &c.; with a rude artillery consisting of catapults,
+ballistæ, and battering-rams. From the descriptions of Homer we know that
+almost all the Grecian armour, defensive and offensive, in his time was of
+bronze; though iron was sometimes used. The lance, spear, and javelin were
+the principal weapons of this age among the Greeks. The bow is not often
+mentioned. Among ancient nations the Egyptians seem to have been most
+accustomed to the use of the bow, which was the principal weapon of the
+Egyptian infantry. Peculiar to the Egyptians was a defensive weapon
+intended to catch and break the sword of the enemy. With the Assyrians the
+bow was a favourite weapon; but with them lances, spears, and javelins were
+in more common use than with the Egyptians. Most of the large engines of
+war--chariots with scythes projecting at each side from the axle,
+catapults, and ballistæ--seem to have been of Assyrian origin. During the
+historical age of Greece the characteristic weapon was a heavy spear from
+21 to 24 feet in length. The sword used by the Greeks was short, and was
+worn on the right side. The Roman sword was from 22 to 24 inches in length,
+straight, two-edged, and obtusely pointed, and as by the Greeks was worn on
+the right side. It was used principally as a stabbing weapon. It was
+originally of bronze. The most characteristic weapon of the Roman legionary
+soldier, however, was the _pilum_, which was a kind of pike or javelin,
+some 6 feet or more in length. The pilum was sometimes used at close
+quarters, but more commonly it was thrown. The favourite weapons of the
+ancient Germanic races were the battle-axe, the lance or dart, and the
+sword. The weapons of the Anglo-Saxons were spears, axes, swords, knives,
+and maces or clubs. The Normans had similar weapons, and were well
+furnished with archers and cavalry. The cross-bow was a comparatively late
+invention introduced by the Normans. Gunpowder was not used in Europe to
+discharge projectiles till the beginning of the fourteenth century. Cannon
+are first mentioned in England in 1338, and there seems to be no doubt that
+they were used by the English at the siege of Cambrai in 1339. The
+projectiles first used for cannon were of stone. Hand fire-arms date from
+the fifteenth century. At first they required two men to serve them, and it
+was necessary to rest the muzzle on a stand in aiming and firing. The first
+improvement was the invention of the match-lock, about 1476; this was
+followed by the wheel-lock, and about the middle of the seventeenth century
+by the flint-lock, which was in universal use until it was superseded by
+the percussion-lock, the invention of a Scottish clergyman early in the
+nineteenth century. The needle-gun dates from 1838. The only important
+weapon not a fire-arm that has been invented since the introduction of
+gunpowder is the bayonet, which is believed to have been invented about
+1650. See _Cannon_, _Musket_, _Rifle_, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Greek Armour]
+
+[Illustration: Roman Armour--Soldiers wearing Cuirass]
+
+[Illustration: Chain Armour]
+
+[Illustration: Horse-armour of Maximilian I of Germany _a_, Chamfron. _b_,
+Manefaire. _c_, Poitrinal, poitrel, or breastplate. _d_, Croupiere or
+buttock-piece.]
+
+[Illustration: Allecret (Light Plate) Armour, A.D. 1540]
+
+Some kind of defensive covering was probably of almost as early invention
+as weapons of offence. The principal pieces of defensive armour used by the
+ancients were shields, helmets, cuirasses, and greaves. In the earliest
+ages of Greece the shield is described as of immense size, but in the time
+of the Peloponnesian War (about 420 B.C.) it was much smaller. The Romans
+had two sorts of shields: the _scutum_, a large oblong rectangular
+highly-convex shield, carried by the legionaries; and the _parma_, a small
+round or oval flat shield, carried by the light-armed troops and the
+cavalry. In the declining days of Rome the shields became larger and more
+varied in form. The helmet was a characteristic piece of armour among the
+Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. Like all other body armour it was
+usually made of bronze. The helmet of the historical age of Greece was
+distinguished by its lofty crest. The Roman helmet in the time of the early
+emperors fitted close to the head, and had a neck-guard and hinged
+cheek-pieces fastened under the chin, and a small bar across the face for a
+visor. Both Greeks and Romans wore cuirasses, at one time of bronze, but
+afterwards of flexible materials. Greaves for the legs were worn by both,
+but among the Romans usually on one leg. The ancient Germans had large
+shields of plaited osier covered with leather; afterwards their shields
+were small, bound with iron, and studded with bosses. The Anglo-Saxons had
+round or oval shields of wood, covered with leather, and having a boss in
+the centre; and they had also corselets, or coats of mail, strengthened
+with iron rings. The Normans were well protected by mail; their shields
+were somewhat triangular in shape, their helmets conical. In Europe
+generally metal armour was used from the tenth to the eighteenth century,
+and at first consisted of a tunic made of iron rings firmly sewn flat upon
+strong cloth or leather. The rings were afterwards interlinked one with
+another so as to form a garment of themselves, called _chain-mail_. Another
+variety of this flexible armour was known as _banded-mail_. This consisted
+of rings sewn upon a fabric foundation, the whole being covered with
+leather. In addition to this, 'scale armour', which had been in use from
+the very earliest periods of history, was still in common fashion in the
+thirteenth century. By degrees the suit of mail was reinforced by the
+addition of pieces of plate on the breast, knees, elbows, and arms, and by
+the end of the fourteenth century the full suit of plate had been evolved,
+the mail being only worn as a skirt round the waist or as a coif attached
+to the helmet. The golden age of plate armour is the middle of the
+fifteenth century, when the design was light and graceful, and at the same
+time fully protective. In the sixteenth century, when 'shock tactics' of
+cavalry were the order of the day, the 'war harness' became heavier. This
+was particularly noticeable in the armour for the joust or tournament, in
+which sport the aim of the contestants was to score points and not to
+inflict injury. Many of these jousting armours weigh over 80 lb. The
+weapons in use through the whole of the plate-armour period were the lance,
+the sword, the axe or war-hammer, the long-bow, and the cross-bow. The
+introduction of fire-arms in the fourteenth century was one of the causes
+which led to the increase of weight in armour, for the armourer was
+continually improving and strengthening his products to make them proof
+against musket and pistol, and he generally succeeded, but by doing so
+increased the weight till it became insupportable. In the seventeenth
+century leg armour was abandoned, and by the end of the civil war the
+popular defence was the steel cap and breastplate. In the eighteenth
+century armour entirely disappeared, except for ceremonial, and was thought
+to be entirely obsolete till it was revived in the recent war in the form
+of the steel shrapnel-helmet, which was favoured by all the Allies and also
+by the enemy. The German troops occasionally used heavy body armour.
+Daggers and clubs, weapons likewise thought to be obsolete, were frequently
+used by all combatants, especially on raids.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Hutton, _The
+Sword of the Centuries_; H. S. Cowper, _The Art of Attack_; C. ffoulkes,
+_Armour and Weapons_; C. H. Ashdown, _British and Foreign Arms and Armour_;
+C. Hall, _Modern Weapons of War by Land_.
+
+ARMSTRONG, John, Scottish poet and physician, born about 1709, died 1779.
+After studying medicine in Edinburgh he settled in London. In 1744 he
+published his chief work, the _Art of Preserving Health_, a didactic poem.
+This work raised his reputation to a height which his subsequent efforts
+scarcely sustained. In 1746 he became physician to a hospital for soldiers,
+and in 1760 he was appointed physician to the forces which went to Germany.
+After his return to London he published a collection of his _Miscellanies_,
+which contained, however, nothing valuable. He afterwards visited France
+and Italy, and published an account of his tour under the name of Lancelot
+Temple. His last production was a volume of _Medical Essays_.
+
+ARMSTRONG, William George, Lord, engineer and mechanical inventor, born at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, 10th Nov., 1810. He was trained as a solicitor, and
+practised as such for some time. Among his early inventions were the
+hydro-electric machine, a powerful apparatus for producing frictional
+electricity, and the hydraulic crane. In 1847 the Elswick works, near
+Newcastle, were established for the manufacture of his cranes and other
+heavy iron machinery, and these works are now among the most extensive of
+their kind. Here the first rifled ordnance gun which bears his name was
+made in 1854. His improvements in the manufacture of guns and shells led to
+his being appointed engineer of rifled ordnance under Government, and he
+was knighted in 1858. This appointment came to an end in 1863, since which
+time his ordnance has taken a prominent place in the armaments of different
+countries. He was made a peer, as Baron Armstrong, in 1887. He died 27th
+Dec., 1900.
+
+ARMSTRONG GUN, a kind of cannon, so called from its inventor. It has an
+inner tube or core of steel, rifled with numerous shallow grooves, the tube
+being surrounded by a jacket of spirally-coiled bars of wrought iron, so
+disposed as to bring the metal into the most favourable position for the
+strain to which it is to be exposed. His first guns were small, but larger
+ones were soon made, and afterwards those of the very highest calibre. The
+breech-loading principle was also adopted in them, and special provision to
+effect this satisfactorily was invented by him. The improved shells
+introduced by him were of the elongated and pointed type now so well known,
+the charge being inserted in a special chamber behind the bore.
+
+ARMY, a collection of bodies of men armed, disciplined, and organized for
+war. The essence of a modern army is that it shall be composed of organized
+units each under its own commander, grouped in formations of
+ever-increasing size, and owing allegiance through these commanders to one
+supreme head. Discipline and organization are essential, or such a force
+becomes merely a collection of armed men.
+
+In the early days of our history every able-bodied man was, to a greater or
+lesser extent, a possible fighting man, and all had arms of one kind or
+another. Consequently, when an army was required, landowners and county
+authorities were ordered to provide the troops necessary. Every free
+landowner between the ages of sixteen and sixty was liable to service,
+which was limited to two months in a year. This was the Saxon 'fyrd'
+system. Later it was improved on by the institution of 'Thane's Service',
+which made it incumbent on the more considerable landowners to appear fully
+armed and mounted, and to serve for the whole campaign. The horse, however,
+was only used as a means of locomotion: for fighting purposes their riders
+dismounted, as did the dragoons of the seventeenth century and the mounted
+infantry of still more modern times. The fyrd was an unorganized and
+undisciplined force and entirely ephemeral in its nature, so that we find
+the Danish kings of England casting about for some more permanent force,
+which came into existence under the title of the 'House Carles', or Royal
+Guard. With the Norman Conquest the fyrd was largely supplanted by the
+feudal system of knight's service, according to which the country was
+divided into knight's fees, each of which had to provide its quotum of men.
+The gradual appearance of the custom of avoiding service by payments of
+money--in time regulated under the name of scutage--led to the employment
+of paid mercenaries, who for some two centuries were almost invariably
+foreigners. In the twelfth century it was found that sufficient troops
+could not be provided under these two systems, so the fyrd was
+re-established as a National Militia by the Assize of Arms, and in the next
+century further steps were taken to protect it under the Statute of
+Winchester. In the fourteenth century the archer, with his longbow, became
+a very important part of the fighting forces of England, and an army of
+those days consisted of the heavily-armed and armoured knights and
+men-at-arms for shock action, and the unarmoured archers for 'volley
+action', to use a later term. With the gradual disappearance of the foreign
+mercenaries, it became the custom for the king to issue indents to certain
+influential subjects for the raising of paid troops. From this custom arose
+the free companies, which, in time, became nothing more or less than
+commercial undertakings. The indents were accepted, and the men enlisted
+primarily for what could be got out of the business of fighting, either in
+the shape of ransom or the sack of towns. Some attempt was also made at
+tactical organization, and an army of the period was divided into vanguard,
+battle, and rearguard. Artillery also was beginning to be developed in
+Germany for siege purposes. The sixteenth century saw the first formation
+of companies into regiments, though as yet of no fixed strength. Arms were
+also modernized, and by the end of the century muskets, 18-feet pikes, and
+swords, were the arms of infantry instead of the varied assortment of
+halberds, pikes, muskets, harquebuses, and longbows common at the
+beginning. Elizabeth introduced the press-gang as an aid to recruiting, and
+abolished the white coat of the soldier in favour of a long red or blue
+cassock. In the next century Cromwell's new model army became the first
+standing army of England, and, though it was disbanded by Act of Parliament
+at the Restoration, one of its regiments--Monk's--remained, and is now the
+Coldstream Guards. After this regiments were raised from time to time on
+one pretext or another, and the nucleus of a standing army became a _fait
+accompli_, though it was for a long time considered more as an appanage of
+the king than as a national institution. With the standing army came the
+first beginnings of civilian control, a Secretary-at-War being appointed in
+1660. He had, however, no responsibility, and was subordinate to the
+commander-in-chief, and it was not till 1710 that he assumed his present
+responsibility to Parliament. During the eighteenth century the strength of
+the army rose or fell according to the state of the military barometer and
+the success or otherwise of the various recruiting expedients, among which
+was the first attempt at a short-service system in 1703. In 1871-2 the old
+numbering in regiments was abolished and a territorial designation
+substituted. According to this scheme, the first twenty-five regiments, all
+of which had already two battalions, were grouped together, the rest being
+joined arbitrarily to form new regiments under county designations. With
+these regiments were affiliated the militia and volunteer battalions, which
+have now been amalgamated into the Special Reserve and the Territorial
+Force.
+
+For the requirements of the war of 1914-8 the Empire, as a whole, including
+India, raised and maintained a total of 8,654,467 men, of which the
+contribution of the United Kingdom was over 6,000,000. Casualties for the
+whole Empire were 3,060,616, of which the United Kingdom has for her share
+nearly 2,500,000, including 666,083 killed, 1,644,786 wounded, and 140,312
+missing.
+
+During 1918 the combatant strength of all arms of the British army in
+France fluctuated between 1,293,000 in March and 1,164,790 in November,
+while the rifle or infantry strength was from 616,000 to 416,748 during the
+same periods. From the date of the armistice to 31st Dec., 1919, the
+following number of demobilizations and discharges were effected:--
+
+Demobilized.--Officers, 144,144; other ranks, 3,332,882.
+
+Discharged as medically unfit.--Officers, 23,476; other ranks, 207,500.
+
+Discharged from reserves.--Other ranks, 143,603.
+
+The modern British army is governed by the Army Council (instituted 1904),
+presided over by the Secretary of State for War. This Council, which
+consists of five military and five civilian members, including the
+president, works through the War Office, of which the principal departments
+are in charge of one or other of the members of the Council. On the
+military side these departments are those of the Chief of the Imperial
+General Staff, the Adjutant-General to the Forces, the
+Quartermaster-General to the Forces, and the Master-General of the
+Ordnance. For administrative and training purposes the United Kingdom is
+divided into seven Commands and the London District. When necessary,
+Commands are further subdivided into Districts. The army, generally
+speaking, consists of (1) the Regular Army, (2) the Territorial Force, and
+(3) the Reserves. The service battalions, which formed such a large and
+important part of the army in the war, do not, properly speaking, form part
+of the permanent military forces, though the organization of the army as a
+whole is such that it is capable of expansion to any extent by the process
+of raising new battalions and affiliating them to existing regular or
+territorial units. The regular army comprises the Household Cavalry,
+Cavalry of the Line, the Royal Regiment of Artillery, the Corps of Royal
+Engineers, the Brigade of Guards, and Infantry of the Line. In addition
+there are administrative troops and services such as the Royal Army Service
+Corps, the Royal Army Medical Corps, with its allied service Queen
+Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service, the Royal Army Ordnance
+Corps, and others. Other corps brought into existence during the war, such
+as the Tank and Machine-gun Corps, have at present no permanent status. In
+the future, however, machine-gun companies will form an integral portion of
+each battalion of the regular army.
+
+Under the conditions of the war the old national method of voluntary
+recruitment was found to be insufficient, and recourse was had to the
+principle of universal military service. Under the Military Service Acts
+the age limit was gradually raised till it finally included all men up to
+the age of fifty. Exceptions were made in the case of munition-workers, or
+those employed on work of national importance. Since the signature of the
+Treaty of Peace the army so raised was gradually demobilized till, by 31st
+March, 1920, it had decreased to 400,000, including 100,000 Indians paid by
+the Imperial Government. Concurrently with demobilization, voluntary
+enlistment was reintroduced, and the post-war army is once more a voluntary
+one, in which men serve under very much improved conditions as to pay and
+prospects. The period of service under this system is twelve years, of
+which seven normally are with the colours and five in the reserve: in
+certain cases modifications of these periods are allowed, and, in addition,
+a soldier may be allowed to extend his colour service to the full twelve
+years, or, in exceptional cases, to complete twenty-one years for pension.
+Discharge or transfer to the reserve is ordinarily granted on completion of
+the agreed period of service. Pay of all ranks was very materially improved
+in 1919. Whereas formerly a private soldier on enlistment received 1s. a
+day, he now receives 2s. 9d., and after two years' service 3s. 6d. To this
+last amount is added, under very reasonable conditions, a further daily sum
+of 6d. proficiency pay. A sergeant now gets 7s. a day instead of from 2s.
+4d. to 3s. 4d., and a regimental sergeant-major 14s. instead of 5s. or 6s.
+Add to these rates of pay free rations, free housing, free medical
+attendance, and, in the future, doubtless free education, and it must be
+admitted that the present-day soldier is not badly paid. The rate of pay is
+a flat rate for all arms, special allowances being given where necessary.
+
+The Household Cavalry comprises the 1st and 2nd Life Guards and the Horse
+Guards (Blues). In peace-time they serve only in London and Windsor. They
+alone retain the old cavalry rank of corporal of horse instead of sergeant.
+Cavalry of the line consists of dragoon guards, dragoons, hussars, and
+lancers. The dragoon guards are numbered separately from 1 to 7, while
+dragoons, hussars, and lancers run consecutively from 1 to 21. A regiment
+of cavalry is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of 25 officers
+and 497 other ranks. Each regiment is organized in three squadrons
+commanded by majors, while a squadron is divided into four troops, each
+under a subaltern officer, troops being further subdivided into sections
+under non-commissioned officers. Cavalry regiments, except hussars, carry
+guidons or standards for ceremonial purposes. These differ from the colours
+of infantry in that they are not consecrated and are carried by
+non-commissioned officers instead of by officers. Hussars carry no
+standards. There are six cavalry depots for recruiting and
+preliminary-training purposes, i.e. for lancers at Woolwich, hussars at
+Scarborough, Bristol, and Dublin, and dragoons at Newport (Mon.) and
+Dunbar. The Cavalry Special Reserve consists of the Irish Horse and King
+Edward's Horse, and during the war reserve cavalry regiments were
+maintained.
+
+The Royal Regiment of Artillery comprises batteries of horse artillery
+designated by letters of the alphabet, and batteries of field, siege,
+heavy, and mountain by numbers. A battery, with some exceptions in the case
+of the heaviest type, consists of six guns or howitzers, horse artillery
+having 13-pounder guns, and field artillery 18-pounder guns or 4.5-inch
+howitzers. Horse artillery is intended to act with cavalry, and is
+therefore provided with a rather lighter gun. It can go anywhere that
+cavalry can go, and all the gun detachments are mounted. Field artillery
+works with infantry, and the gun detachments either walk or are carried on
+the limbers, only the officers, certain non-commissioned officers, and
+specialists such as scouts, range-finders, and trumpeters being mounted.
+
+A battery is commanded by a major, with a captain as second-in-command, and
+is organized in three sections of two guns each under a subaltern. These
+sections are again subdivided into subsections of one gun each under a
+sergeant. Each gun is drawn by six horses, the driver of the leading pair
+being responsible for direction and pace. A corporal in the Royal Artillery
+is known as a bombardier, and the rank and file as gunners or drivers,
+according to their special duties, though drivers are also trained to some
+extent as gunners.
+
+Heavy and siege artillery have come into their own in the late war, and
+consist roughly of all armament heavier than that of field artillery.
+Sixty-pounders and 4.7-inch howitzers form heavy batteries, while guns of 6
+inch and upwards drawn by mechanical transport or mounted on railway trucks
+are known as siege batteries. Mountain artillery, of which most of the
+batteries are in India, is armed with 2.95-inch screw guns capable of being
+dismantled and carried piecemeal on mules. Another form is found on the
+west coast of Africa, where carriers take the place of mules. These guns
+are brought into action very quickly, but their shell-power is small.
+
+The corps of Royal Engineers is responsible for the construction and
+maintenance of barracks, fortifications, and other military works, and for
+the personnel required for search-lights and electrical communications of
+the coast and anti-aircraft defences. With few exceptions the personnel of
+the corps is recruited entirely from skilled tradesmen and artisans. For
+service in the field, Royal Engineer units known as field squadrons and
+field companies accompany the fighting troops, and carry a certain amount
+of bridging material and tools. More highly specialized units carry out
+such services as mining, heavy bridging, railway, survey, and sound-ranging
+work. An important feature of Royal Engineer work in war is the supply of
+materials and stores, for which purpose an elaborate organization is
+provided in addition to the units already noted.
+
+The Brigade of Guards--the infantry of the household troops--comprises the
+five regiments of foot-guards. These are the Grenadier, the Coldstream, the
+Scots, the Irish, and the Welsh Guards of from one to three battalions
+each. Being household troops these regiments are subject to certain special
+regulations and have certain privileges. As a general rule they serve only
+in London, Windsor, or Aldershot, and only leave England for active
+service, though individual battalions have served in the past both in Cairo
+and Gibraltar.
+
+The infantry, of which there are sixty-eight regiments of from two to four
+battalions each, provides the bulk of the army. Infantry is formed into
+regiments for recruiting and territorial distribution purposes, but the
+battalion is the actual unit both for fighting and administration. In many
+cases the Army List gives the name of an officer holding the appointment of
+colonel of the regiment: this is in all cases a purely honorary appointment
+and entails no duties or responsibilities. An infantry battalion is
+commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of 32 officers and 1000
+other ranks. Both in peace and war a battalion is divided into
+head-quarters and four companies, each of the latter having six officers,
+including the company commander, who is a major or senior captain.
+Subalterns command platoons. For recruiting purposes for infantry of the
+line the country is divided into Regimental Districts, in which are located
+the depots of the regiment concerned: these depots are commanded by a
+senior officer of one of the battalions of the regiment with the necessary
+staff for training purposes. Recruits are usually first trained at the
+depot and later transferred to the battalion requiring them. The Regimental
+Districts are again combined into larger districts in which are situated
+the Record Offices dealing with the regiments of the district. The
+denomination of the district dealing with any particular regiment is shown
+in the Army List in brackets. The principles of interior organization are
+the same throughout the army, and as they can be best illustrated with the
+example of an infantry battalion a short description of this organization
+follows. Owing to the continual growth of military science, the improvement
+in arms and means of destruction generally, and the confusion and noise
+inseparable from a modern battle, the size of the personally-controlled
+unit has gradually decreased till, in the present day, in the British army,
+it is accepted as an axiom that no larger number of men than six can be
+conveniently controlled in battle by one man. In former days companies,
+battalions, and even larger formations were both controlled and received
+their executive orders direct from their commanders--and to such an extent
+was this carried that Fortescue, in his _History of the British Army_,
+notes that Marlborough was in the habit of putting his whole army through
+the platoon exercise by means of flags and bugle-calls. This, of course,
+was not actually in face of the enemy, but the principle is the same. The
+stress of modern war now makes individual control of large bodies
+impossible, and the British army is therefore organized both for peace and
+war in a series of units of ever-increasing size, each under its own
+commander, who is responsible to his immediate superior for the well-being,
+training, and leading of his command. Taking the infantry organization as
+an example, we find that in the lowest stage, that of the 'section', the
+command is both personal and direct, in that the corporal controls and
+commands the six men composing his fighting unit personally and directly by
+word of mouth. In peace-time, and for administrative and training purposes,
+the section may reach to ten men, who live, work, and play together. In the
+next stage--that of the 'platoon', consisting of four sections--we find the
+control is rather less personal and direct, in that the platoon commander,
+a subaltern, controls his command largely through his subordinates, the
+section commanders. A further stage is that of the 'company', which
+consists of four platoons and company head-quarters. A company is commanded
+by a major or senior captain, has a captain as second-in-command, and a
+company sergeant-major and quartermaster-sergeant to assist in running it.
+Here again the control is less direct though still personal. The next stage
+is the amalgamation of companies into a battalion, consisting of a
+head-quarters and four companies. Battalion head-quarters consist of a
+lieutenant-colonel commanding, a major second-in-command, an adjutant, and
+a quartermaster. Certain other officers, when required, and the regimental
+sergeant-major and quartermaster-sergeant, and various other ranks make up
+the total of some 130. The commanding officer of a battalion is directly
+responsible for the well-being of his command, for its training,
+discipline, equipment, and general efficiency. In carrying on his duties he
+works through his company commanders, and with the assistance of the
+regimental staff mentioned above, so that we have a direct chain of command
+and responsibility from the corporal commanding a section of six to ten men
+through platoons and companies to the lieutenant-colonel commanding a
+battalion of some thousand men. A detail of armament made possible by the
+enormous increase of machine-guns necessitated during the war is
+interesting. Thirty-two Lewis-guns are now provided for each infantry
+battalion, and are distributed to alternate sections in a platoon. Thus in
+each platoon two sections are known as rifle sections and two as Lewis-gun
+sections, and these arms are normally used by the respective sections; but
+men of all sections are trained in the use of both rifle and Lewis-gun.
+
+When we come to formations larger than a battalion, we find the system of
+control and command becoming less and less personal and direct, as in all
+such formations the commander works to a less or greater extent through his
+staff. Roughly speaking, the staff is of two divisions, the one consisting
+of the general staff branch and the other of the branch of the adjutant and
+quartermaster-general. Again speaking very generally, the general staff is
+charged with duties bearing directly on military operations, while officers
+of the adjutant and quartermaster-general's branch deal more with
+administrative questions. Officers of the general staff are known as
+general staff officers, while those of the other branch are called, for
+example, assistant or deputy-assistant adjutant or quartermaster-general,
+according to their several duties.
+
+The formation in which distinct and separate units are first collected
+under one superior commander is known as a brigade. This, according to
+present establishment, consists of three battalions and a trench-mortar
+battery, the whole under a general officer called a brigadier-general,
+assisted by a staff of two officers--a brigade-major and a staff-captain.
+Since March, 1920, however, the title of brigadier-general has been altered
+to 'colonel-commandant'. The strength of a brigade is something over 3000
+of all ranks. In a division, which is the next highest formation, and which
+is commanded by a major-general with a staff of three general staff
+officers and three officers belonging to the A.G. and Q.M.G. branch, we
+find the first appearance of a mixed force. It is not a force of 'all
+arms', as cavalry is not included, but, in addition to infantry (three
+brigades), it has a considerable strength in artillery, besides engineers
+and the necessary administrative troops. Two or more divisions, together
+with a cavalry regiment and certain other troops, form an 'army corps', and
+two or more corps go to make up an 'army'. These are not at present
+peace-time formations of the British army.
+
+Of the administrative troops and services already mentioned, the Royal Army
+Service Corps provides for the material wants of the army both in the way
+of food and transport. It is organized in companies designated by numerals.
+
+The Royal Army Medical Corps provides the personnel and organization for
+the medical and sanitary services of the army. In peace-time this service
+is organized on a garrison basis, hospitals being established where
+required for the use of all troops in that particular garrison. For war
+purposes medical officers are still attached to regiments, and in addition
+the corps provides the personnel and organization necessary for field
+ambulances, casualty clearing-stations, hospital trains and ships, and
+various classes of fixed hospitals. The corps is organized in numbered
+companies, and the rank and file are trained in first aid and ambulance
+duties generally. It is administered by a director-general of Army Medical
+Services with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is an officer of the
+adjutant-general's department.
+
+The other departments and administrative services of the army consist of
+the Royal Army Ordnance Corps, dealing generally with munitions of war; the
+Army Pay Department; the Royal Army Chaplains' Department; and the Royal
+Army Veterinary Corps, of which the functions are sufficiently designated
+by their title. In addition, there are manufacturing establishments at
+Woolwich Arsenal and elsewhere.
+
+The Army Reserve consists of men who have completed their term of colour
+service, or service with a unit, and have thus passed into civil life,
+though still remaining liable for a period of years to be recalled to the
+colours if mobilization is ordered.
+
+The Special Reserve was formed under the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act
+of 1907 out of the old militia. It consists generally of one battalion to
+each regiment of infantry, and is numbered consecutively with regular
+battalions of the regiment. It will, in the future, probably be again known
+as the Militia.
+
+The Royal Marines--artillery and infantry, or the 'blue' and the 'red'
+marines, Kipling's "soldier and sailor too"--are not part of the army
+proper, as they are administered entirely by the Admiralty. They are,
+however, amenable to the Army Act when serving ashore. The term of service
+is for twelve years, which may be extended to make up twenty-one. Men may
+be transferred to or from the army at their own request.
+
+The Territorial Force, or, as it is to be called in future, the Territorial
+Army, is raised entirely on a county or territorial basis. It was
+originally created by the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act of 1907 out of
+a nucleus of the old yeomanry and volunteers. It is raised and administered
+by County Associations in each county and principal city. These
+associations consist of a president, chairman, military representative, and
+co-opted members. The administration of the Territorial Army is carried out
+by the County Associations in accordance with schemes provided by the Army
+Council, while all questions of training are reserved to the War Office.
+The Territorial Army consists of all arms, including machine-gun corps and
+the necessary administrative services: its full war establishment is fixed
+at approximately 345,000 of all ranks, though, for the present, only some
+60 per cent of them are to be enlisted. The rejuvenated Territorial Army is
+to be in all respects a true second line of imperial defence,
+self-contained and self-supporting, while the regular army and its special
+reserve of militia battalions form the first line. Defence entails a
+certain amount of offence to bring it to a successful issue: it has
+therefore been decided that the new Territorial Army will not be relegated
+merely to the duty of guarding the country from invasion, but will, in a
+national emergency, be entitled to take its place under its own
+organization in the fighting line in any part of the world where its
+services may be required. This will entail enlistment for general service,
+but the interest of the force and of individuals composing it are
+safeguarded by the proviso that before the Territorial Army can be ordered
+out of the country an Act authorizing the movement be passed by Parliament.
+It is further provided that the Territorial Army will on no account be
+called on to supply drafts for regular regiments, and that in case fresh
+regiments have to be raised on the lines of the New Army, the machinery of
+the Territorial Army will be used to organize them. Enlistment will be for
+three or four years, according to whether a man has served during the
+European War (1914-8) or not; age limits are normally between 18 and 38.
+The army is to be organized in one cavalry (yeomanry) division of 12
+regiments, and 14 infantry divisions each under a selected general officer,
+either regular or territorial. Pay and allowances during training periods
+will be as in the regular army, and in addition certain bounties will be
+obtainable. Training periods will be fifteen days in camp annually, besides
+a minimum number of drills and a musketry course. On completion of colour
+service a man will pass to the Territorial Reserve.
+
+The New Army, consisting of the 'service battalions' of existing regiments,
+is a product of the war. When, on the outbreak of war, many new regiments
+were rapidly raised, they were affiliated to regular regiments with
+consecutive numbers after the territorial battalions, and this organization
+was continued and extended to cope with the personnel obtained under the
+Military Service Acts.
+
+Educational establishments connected with the army include the Staff
+College, the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, and the Royal Military
+Academy at Woolwich. At the Staff College officers obtain a course of
+instruction and study to fit them for service on the staff of the army. At
+Sandhurst, where the course of instruction is two years, some 700 gentlemen
+cadets are trained for commissions in the guards, cavalry, and infantry of
+the line, and the Indian army. At Woolwich gentlemen cadets desirous of
+entering the Royal Artillery or the Royal Engineers receive their training.
+In addition to these there are schools of gunnery and engineering, the
+Small Arms School at Hythe, the School of Physical Training at Aldershot,
+and many others: while, for sons and orphans of soldiers, there are the
+Duke of York's Royal Military School and the Royal Hibernian School. The
+Royal Hospital, Chelsea, and the Royal Hospital, Kilmainham, Dublin, are
+institutions for the care of old and distressed soldiers. In every garrison
+there are garrison schools for soldiers under fully qualified army
+schoolmasters, while in the future there is likely to be a very great
+increase in educational facilities of all kinds for the rank and file of
+the army. The training of the British army for war now embraces a variety
+of subjects, and at the Royal Military College and Academy the gentlemen
+cadets are not only taught the principles and practice of their future
+profession, but are also instructed in the methods of imparting their
+knowledge to others. For example, the course of training at the Royal
+Military College embraces drill and weapon training--under which head is
+included musketry (both theory and practice) and bayonet work--physical
+training, and riding. As part of the physical-training course they receive
+instruction as to the best methods of organizing regimental
+assaults-at-arms and sports. Among the more academic subjects are military
+history and tactics, field sketching and topography, field engineering,
+military law and administration, and elementary hygiene. A great deal of
+practical work is done, and the course of two years is designed to fit a
+young officer, on joining his regiment, to undertake the entire charge and
+training of his troop or platoon. At the Royal Military Academy extra
+subjects, such as artillery work and more advanced engineering, are also
+taught.
+
+As to the soldier's training generally, drill is insisted on as an aid to
+discipline, which it undoubtedly is, and exact performance of the various
+movements ordered is expected. In other branches of training more
+individuality is allowed, and the days when the bayonet-exercise was
+performed by a battalion to the music of the regimental band having passed,
+considerable latitude as to positions and execution is permitted in this
+particular branch, attention being principally concentrated on inculcating
+the 'offensive spirit'. The modern soldier also learns how to use a
+Lewis-gun, to throw or fire a grenade, what to do in case of a gas attack,
+the rudiments of field engineering, and how to keep himself healthy.
+
+In addition to the more generally-known units of the army there are certain
+corps which, though raised in the colonies, still form part of the army,
+and which are administered by the imperial authorities. Under this head are
+the Royal Malta Artillery (local service); the West India Regiment (two
+battalions) and the West African Regiment, both for general service and
+both administered by the War Office. Among other colonial corps maintained
+by the imperial Government, though not forming part of the regular army,
+are the West African Frontier Force (Nigeria) and the King's African Rifles
+(East Africa). Both these are administered by the Colonial Office.
+
+_Dominions._--The military forces of the self-governing dominions are
+raised and organized under the laws of such dominions.
+
+Those of the Commonwealth of Australia are organized on a system of
+compulsory military training for all males between the ages of twelve and
+twenty-six. In the earlier stages boys are trained in cadet corps, from
+which they pass to the Citizen Army, and from there, having attained the
+age of twenty-six, to recognized rifle clubs. The annual period of training
+in the Citizen Army is sixteen days. When the scheme is in full working
+order this force will consist of twenty-three 4-battalion brigades of
+infantry, twenty-three regiments of light horse, fifty-six 4-gun batteries,
+and the necessary complement of engineers and administrative troops. During
+the war this organization was in abeyance, and regiments were raised as
+required for overseas service, and, though proposals for conscription were
+negatived, the commonwealth still managed to send some 330,000 men to the
+various theatres of war out of 417,000 raised. The casualties, killed,
+wounded, and missing, were 210,724.
+
+The Commonwealth also maintains a small permanent force of trained
+professional soldiers.
+
+The New Zealand forces are also organized on the principle of universal
+training for all males. The details differ somewhat from those in favour in
+Australia, but the principle is the same, i.e. that every male should be
+trained for home defence. Boys of from twelve to eighteen years of age are
+trained in cadet corps, from which they pass to regiments of the
+Territorial Force, and from twenty-five to thirty belong to the reserve.
+Cadets do annually a specified number of drills, while the territorial
+training extends to seven clear days, a musketry course, and certain drills
+every year. For the purposes of the war, conscription was introduced in
+1916, and 220,000 men were raised between 1914 and 1918, out of which the
+casualties were nearly 57,000.
+
+Canada, unlike Australia and New Zealand, has no system of graduated
+military training. The military forces of the dominion are organized as a
+militia under a Minister of Militia and Defence working with a Council.
+This militia is recruited by voluntary enlistment, and, on the outbreak of
+war, consisted of a permanent force of 3000 and some 60,000 men who had
+received militia training. This made possible the rapid dispatch to France
+of a division which, by 1916, had increased to a corps of four divisions
+and a cavalry brigade. Like the Mother Country and New Zealand, Canada
+introduced conscription in 1917, and during the war raised nearly 641,000
+men and suffered 206,149 casualties, of which 56,110 were killed, 149,733
+wounded, and 306 missing.
+
+The Union of South Africa divides its military forces into the permanent
+force and the citizen force. There is also a coast-defence force. The
+permanent force consists of the five regiments of the South African Mounted
+Rifles. South Africa's greatest military effort during the war was directed
+towards German South-West and East Africa, but some 27,000 men were
+enlisted for and sent to Europe out of a total number of 136,000 raised.
+This total does not include coloured troops. The casualties were 18,000.
+
+In other self-governing portions of the Empire troops were raised as
+required, and in the West and East African colonies the existing formations
+of native troops were considerably increased for service in suitable
+portions of the various theatres of war. The official statement of troops
+raised shows under the heading of 'other colonies' 134,837, including
+coloured troops from South Africa and the West Indies. The casualties among
+them amounted to 7519.
+
+_The Army in India._--The military forces in India consist of those units
+of British cavalry, artillery, and infantry temporarily serving in the
+country, and the Indian army proper, consisting of regiments recruited from
+among the native inhabitants and normally serving there. Enlistment is
+voluntary and for general service, one of the promises made by a man on
+enrolment being "to go wherever ordered by land and sea and not to allow
+caste usages to interfere with his duties as a soldier". The Indian army,
+as a disciplined and organized force, dates from the years between 1748 and
+1758. In 1748 Major Stringer Lawrence arrived in Madras with a commission
+from the Company as commander-in-chief. His first act was to form the
+existing European independent companies into regiments; his second to raise
+certain native independent companies. In 1758 he formed these companies in
+their turn into battalions, which he designated 'coast sepoys', and which
+still exist under their present names of the 61st Pioneers and following
+numbers. His system was extended to the other presidencies, and at the
+period of the mutiny, in 1857, the native army in India consisted of some
+230,000 regular troops, besides irregulars. When the post-mutiny
+reconstruction took place, the army was reorganized on an irregular basis
+instead of as regular regiments on the British model. According to this new
+system, the number of British officers in a regiment was considerably
+reduced; native officers were given command of troops and companies, while
+the British officer's command became the squadron, or wing. Native
+artillery, with the exception of certain mountain batteries, was abolished,
+and cavalry was reconstituted on the Silladar system, whereby, in
+consideration of a larger monthly pay than was given to the infantry sepoy,
+the trooper, or sowar, provided his own horse and sword. The system thus
+introduced virtually remains to the present day, though it has been
+modified and improved to suit later conditions. The infantry officer's
+command has decreased from the wing of four companies to the double company
+of two, and it is now known as a company and is organized in four platoons
+on the British service model, platoons being commanded by Indian officers.
+Of late years the number of British officers with an Indian regiment has
+been increased to twelve, and at the present time a committee is sitting in
+India to deliberate on the future construction of the army. It is therefore
+impossible to give details of its future strength. This, just before the
+war, was some 160,000, organized in 38 regiments of cavalry, the corps of
+guides, 3 regiments of sappers and miners, 118 regiments of infantry of 1
+battalion each, and 10 regiments of Gurkhas of 2 battalions each. There
+were also 13 mountain batteries. The 'Imperial Service Troops', of which
+many contingents took part in the war, are raised, paid, and maintained by
+princes and chiefs as a contribution to the defence of the country, while
+their training is supervised by British inspecting officers. The 'Indian
+Defence Force', which has lately replaced the volunteers, and in which
+service is compulsory for Europeans, is available for home defence only.
+During the war India, by voluntary enlistment, provided 1,401,350 men. Of
+these many new regiments were formed, and second, third, and fourth
+battalions added to existing regiments. Casualties were very nearly
+114,000, including some 48,000 killed. Native Indian officers of cavalry
+are known as ressaldars, ressaiders, and jemadars, while those of the
+infantry are called subadars and jemadars. In each regiment the senior
+Indian officer is called ressaldar or subadar-major.
+
+The army in India, by which is meant all military forces in India, is
+administered by a commander-in-chief, who is a member of council. The
+head-quarter staff includes a military secretary, the chief of the general
+staff, an adjutant and a quartermaster-general, director-general of
+ordnance and military works, and a director of medical
+services.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hon. J. W. Fortescue, _History of the British
+Army_; C. W. C. Oman, _A History of the Art of War: Middle Ages_; C. H.
+Firth, _Cromwell's Army_; C. Walton, _History of the British Standing Army,
+1660-1700_; War Office, _Army Book for the British Empire_; F. N. Maude,
+_Evolution of Modern Strategy_; G. F. R. Henderson, _The Science of War_;
+C. Romagny, _Histoire générale de l'armée nationale_; Heimann, _L'Armée
+allemande_.
+
+ARMY ACT. See _Military Law_.
+
+[Illustration: Army Worm]
+
+ARMY WORM, the very destructive larva of the moth _Helioph[)i]la_ or
+_Leucania unipuncta_, so called from its habit of marching in compact
+bodies of enormous number, devouring almost every green thing it meets. It
+is about 1½ inches long, greenish in colour, with black stripes, and is
+found in various parts of the world, but is particularly destructive in
+North America. The larva of _Sci[)a]ra militaris_, a European two-winged
+fly, is also called army worm.
+
+ARNAT´TO, or ANNOTTA. See _Annatto_.
+
+ARNAULD ([.a]r-n[=o]), the name of a French family, several members of
+which greatly distinguished themselves.--Antoine, an eminent French
+advocate, was born 1560, died 1619. Distinguished as a zealous defender of
+the cause of Henry IV, and for his powerful and successful defence of the
+University of Paris against the Jesuits in 1594. His family formed the
+nucleus of the sect of the Jansenists (see _Jansenius_) in France.--His son
+Antoine, called the _Great Arnauld_, was born 6th Feb., 1612, at Paris,
+died 9th Aug., 1694, at Brussels. He devoted himself to theology, and was
+received in 1641 among the doctors of the Sorbonne. He engaged in all the
+quarrels of the French Jansenists with the Jesuits, the clergy, and the
+Government, was the chief Jansenist writer, and was considered their head.
+Excluded from the Sorbonne, he retired to Port Royal, where he wrote, in
+conjunction with his friend Nicole, a celebrated system of logic (hence
+called the _Port Royal Logic_). On account of persecution he fled, in 1679,
+to the Netherlands. His works, which are mainly controversies with the
+Jesuits or the Calvinists, are very voluminous.--His brother Robert, born
+1588, died 1674, retired to Port Royal, where he wrote a translation of
+Josephus, and other works.--Robert's daughter Angélique, born 1624, died
+1684, was eminent in the religious world, and was subjected to persecution
+on account of her unflinching adherence to Jansenism.
+
+AR´NAUTS. See _Albania_.
+
+ARNDT ([.a]rnt), Ernst Moritz, German patriot and poet, was born 1769, died
+1860. He was appointed professor of history at Greifswald in 1806, and
+stirred up the national feeling against Napoleon in his work _Geist der
+Zeit_ (_Spirit of the Time)_. In 1812-3 he zealously promoted the war of
+independence by a number of pamphlets, poems, and spirited songs, among
+which it is sufficient to refer to his _Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland?_,
+_Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess_, and _Was blasen die Trompeten?
+Husaren, heraus!_, which were caught up and sung from one end of Germany to
+the other. In 1817 he married a sister of the theologian Schleiermacher,
+and settled at Bonn in order to undertake the duties of professor of
+history. He was, however, suspended till 1840 on account of his liberal
+opinions, when he was restored to his chair on the accession of Frederick
+William IV.
+
+ARNDT, Johann, celebrated German mystic theologian, born 1555, died 1621.
+His principal work, _Wahres Christenthum_ (True Christianity), is still
+popular in Germany, and has been translated into almost all European
+languages. Another of his publications is _Paradiesgaertlein_, translated
+into English (The Garden of Paradise).
+
+ARNE ([.a]rn), Thomas Augustine, English composer, born at London 1710,
+died 1778. His first opera, _Fair Rosamond_, was performed in 1733 at
+Lincoln's-Inn Fields, and was received with great applause. Then followed a
+version of Fielding's _Tom Thumb_, altered into _The Opera of Operas_, a
+musical burlesque. His style in the _Comus_ (1738) is still more original
+and cultivated. To him we owe the national air _Rule, Britannia_,
+originally given in a popular piece called the _Masque of Alfred_. After
+having composed two oratorios and several operas he received the degree of
+Doctor of Music at Oxford. He composed, also, music for several of the
+songs in Shakespeare's dramas, and various pieces of instrumental music.
+
+ARNEE´, one of the numerous Indian varieties of the buffalo _(Bub[)a]lus
+arni)_, remarkable as being the largest animal of the ox kind known. It
+measures about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and from 9 to 10½ feet long
+from the muzzle to the root of the tail. It is found chiefly in the forests
+at the base of the Himalayas.
+
+ARN´HEM, or ARNHEIM, a town in Holland, province of Gelderland, 18 miles
+south-west of Zutphen, on the right bank of the Rhine. Pleasantly situated,
+it is a favourite residential resort, and it contains many interesting
+public buildings; manufactures cabinet wares, mirrors, carriages,
+mathematical instruments, &c.; has paper-mills, and its trade is important.
+In 1795 it was stormed by the French, who were driven from it by the
+Prussians in 1813. Pop. 70,664 (1917).
+
+ARNHEM LAND, a portion of the northern territory of S. Australia, lying
+west of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and forming a sort of peninsula.
+
+AR´NI, a town of Madras, on the Cheyair River, 16 miles south of Arcot;
+formerly a large military station; stormed by Clive in 1751, and scene of
+defeat of Hyder Ali by Sir Eyre Coote in 1782. Pop. 5050.
+
+AR´NICA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositæ, containing eighteen
+species, one of which is found in Central Europe, _A. mont[=a]na_
+(leopard's bane or mountain tobacco), but is not a native of Britain. It
+has a perennial root, a stem about 2 feet high, bearing on the summit
+flowers of a dark golden yellow. In every part of the plant there is an
+acrid resin and a volatile oil, and in the flowers an acrid bitter
+principle called _arnicin_. The root contains also a considerable quantity
+of tannin. A tincture of it is employed as an external application to
+wounds and bruises. It was introduced into English gardens about the middle
+of the eighteenth century.
+
+AR´NIM, Elisabeth von, a German writer, also known as Bettina, wife of
+Louis Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet Clemens Brentano; born at
+Frankfort in 1785, died at Berlin 1859. Even in her childhood she
+manifested an inclination towards eccentricities and poetical peculiarities
+of many kinds. She entered into correspondence with Goethe, for whom she
+entertained a violent passion, although he was then in his sixtieth year.
+In 1835 she published Goethe's _Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde_ (Goethe's
+Correspondence with a Child), containing, among others, the letters that
+she alleged to have passed between her and Goethe. Her later writings dealt
+with subjects like the emancipation of the Jews, and the abolition of
+capital punishment. Her husband, Ludwig Achim von Arnim, born at Berlin in
+1781, died 1831, distinguished himself as a writer of novels. In concert
+with her brother, Clemens Brentano, he published a collection of popular
+German songs and ballads entitled _Des Knaben Wunderhorn_.--Her daughter,
+Gisela von Arnim, is known in literature by her _Dramatische Werke_ (3
+vols., 1857-63).
+
+AR´NO (ancient ARNUS), a river of Italy which rises in the Etruscan
+Apennines, makes a sweep to the south and then flows westwards, divides
+Florence into two parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4 miles below it, into the
+Tuscan Sea, after a course of 130 miles.
+
+ARNO´BIUS, an early Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca
+Veneria, in Numidia, and in 303 became a Christian; he died about 326. He
+wrote seven books of _Disputationes adversus Gentes_ (or _Adversus
+Nationes_), in which he refuted the objections of the heathens against
+Christianity. This work betrays a defective knowledge of Christianity, but
+is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology.
+
+ARNOLD, an urban district or town of England, Nottinghamshire, 3 miles
+north-east of Nottingham, with lace and hosiery manufactures, &c. It has a
+church built in the twelfth century, and a tower dating from the fifteenth
+century and restored in 1868 and 1877. Pop. 11,800.
+
+AR´NOLD, Benedict, a general in the American army during the War of
+Independence, born in 1741. He rendered his name infamous by his attempt to
+betray the strong fortress of West Point, with all the arms and immense
+stores which were there deposited, into the hands of the British. The
+project failed through the capture of Major André, when Arnold made his
+escape to the British lines. He received a commission as brigadier-general
+in the British army, and took part in several marauding expeditions. He
+subsequently settled in the West Indies, and ultimately came to London,
+where he died in 1801.
+
+AR´NOLD, Sir Edwin, K.C.I.E., poet, Sanskrit scholar, and journalist, born
+1832. Educated at Oxford, where he took the Newdigate prize for a poem
+entitled the _Feast of Belshazzar_ in 1852, he was successively second
+master in King Edward VI's College at Birmingham, and principal of the
+Sanskrit College at Poonah in Bombay. In 1861 he joined the editorial staff
+of the _Daily Telegraph_, with which he was henceforth connected. He died
+in 1904. He was author of _Poems, Narrative and Lyrical_; translations from
+the Greek and Sanskrit; _The Light of Asia_, a poem on the life and
+teaching of Buddha; _The Light of the World_; _Pearls of the Faith_; _Lotus
+and Jewel_, &c.
+
+AR´NOLD, Matthew, English critic, essayist, and poet, was born at Laleham,
+near Staines, 1822, being a son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He was educated at
+Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford, and became a Fellow of Oriel College. He was
+private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, 1847-51; appointed inspector of
+schools, 1851; professor of poetry at Oxford, 1858; published _A Strayed
+Reveller and other poems_, 1848; _Empedocles on Etna_, 1853; _Merope_,
+1858; _Essays in Criticism_, 1865; _On the Study of Celtic Literature_,
+1867; _Schools and Universities on the Continent_, 1868; _St. Paul and
+Protestantism_, 1870; _Literature and Dogma_, 1873; _Last Essays on Church
+and Religion_, 1877; _God and the Bible_, 1878; _Discourses on America_,
+1885, &c. He received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh, and that of
+D.C.L. from Oxford, and lectured in Britain and in America. He died in
+1888. A complete edition of his works in 15 vols. appeared in
+1905.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. W. Paul, _Matthew Arnold_ (English Men of Letters
+Series); G. Saintsbury, _Matthew Arnold_ (Modern English Writers Series);
+G. W. E. Russell, _Matthew Arnold_ (Literary Lives Series); F. Bickley,
+_Matthew Arnold and his Poetry_.
+
+AR´NOLD, Thomas, headmaster of Rugby School, and professor of modern
+history in the University of Oxford, born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight,
+in 1795, died 1842. He entered Oxford in his sixteenth year, and in 1815 he
+was elected Fellow of Oriel College, and both in that year and 1817 he
+obtained the chancellor's prize for Latin and English essays. After taking
+deacon's orders he settled at Laleham, near Staines, where he employed
+himself in preparing young men for the universities. In 1828 he was
+appointed headmaster of Rugby School, and devoted himself to his new duties
+with the greatest ardour. While giving due prominence to the classics, he
+deprived them of their exclusiveness by introducing various other branches
+into his course, and he was particularly careful that the education which
+he furnished should be in the highest sense moral and Christian. His
+success was remarkable. Not only did Rugby School become crowded beyond any
+former precedent, but the superiority of Dr. Arnold's system became so
+generally recognized that it may be justly said to have done much for the
+general improvement of the public schools of England. In 1841 he was
+appointed professor of modern history at Oxford, and delivered his
+introductory course of lectures with great success. His chief works are his
+edition of Thucydides, his _History of Rome_ (unhappily left unfinished),
+and his _Sermons_. There is an admirable memoir of him by A. P. Stanley,
+Dean of Westminster (London, 2 vols., 1845).--Cf Lytton Strachey, _Eminent
+Victorians_.
+
+AR´NOLD OF BRESCIA, an Italian religious and political reformer and martyr
+of the twelfth century. He was one of the disciples of Abélard, and
+attracted a considerable following by preaching against the corruption of
+the clergy. Excommunicated by Innocent II, he withdrew to Zürich, but soon
+reappeared in Rome, where he was taken and burned (1155).
+
+ARNOLD-FORSTER, Hugh Oakeley, grandson of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, and adopted
+son of the late W. E. Forster, M.P., whose wife was his aunt, was born in
+1855, died in 1909. He was educated at Rugby and University College,
+Oxford. He sat as member of Parliament for West Belfast from 1892, for
+Croydon from 1906, as a Liberal Unionist, was Parliamentary Secretary to
+the Admiralty from 1900 to 1903, then Secretary of State for War, a
+position which he held till Dec., 1905, having put forward sweeping
+proposals for the improvement of our army. He wrote on various subjects,
+especially books for popular instruction, including _How to Solve the Irish
+Land Question_, _The Citizen Reader_, _This World of Ours_, _Things New and
+Old_, _In a Conning Tower_, _A History of England_, _English Socialism of
+To-day_, _Military Needs and Military Policy_, &c.
+
+AR´NON, a river in Palestine, the boundary between the country of the
+Moabites and that of the Amorites, afterwards of the Israelites, a
+tributary of the Dead Sea. It is now called Wady-el-Mojib.
+
+AR´NOT, or AR´NUT, a name of the agreeably flavoured farinaceous tubers of
+the earth-nut or pig-nut (_Bunium flexu[=o]sum_ and _B. Bulbocast[)a]num_).
+See _Earth-nut_.
+
+AR´NOTT, Dr. Neil, an eminent physician and physicist, was born at
+Arbroath, 1788, died 1874. Having graduated as M.A. at Aberdeen, he then
+studied medicine, and was appointed a surgeon in the East India Company's
+naval service. In 1811 he commenced practice in London. In 1837 he was
+appointed extraordinary physician to the queen. In 1827 he published
+_Elements of Physics_, and in 1838 a treatise on _Warming and Ventilation_,
+&c. He is widely known as the inventor of a stove which is regarded as one
+of the most economical arrangements for burning fuel, a ventilating
+chimney-valve, and his water-bed for the protection of the sick against
+bed-sores. In 1869 he gave £1000 to each of the four Scottish universities
+and £2000 to London University for the promotion of the study of physics.
+He was a strong advocate of a scientific as opposed to a purely classical
+education.
+
+ARNPRIOR, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 35 miles west of Ottawa, on
+the right bank of the River Ottawa, where it is joined by the Madawaska,
+and with important railway connections. Pop. 4405.
+
+ARNSBERG ([.a]rnz´ber_h_), a town in Prussia, province Westphalia, capital
+of the district of same name, on the Ruhr. Pop. 10,256.--The district of
+Arnsberg has an area of 2972 sq. miles, and a population of 2,400,000.
+
+ARNSTADT ([.a]rn´st[.a]t), a town of Germany, in Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,
+11 miles south by west of Erfurt, upon the Gera, which divides it into two
+parts. It has manufactures in leather, &c., and a good trade in grain and
+timber. Pop. 17,907.
+
+ARNSWALDE ([.a]rnz´v[.a]l-de), a town of Prussia, province Brandenburg, 39
+miles south-east of Stettin. Pop. 8730.
+
+AR´NULF, great-grandson of Charlemagne, elected King of Germany in A.D.
+887; invaded Italy, captured Rome, and was crowned emperor by the Pope
+(896); died A.D. 898.
+
+AROI´DEÆ. See _Araceæ_.
+
+AR´OLSEN, a German town, capital of Waldeck. Pop. 2793.
+
+AROMAT´ICS, drugs, or other substances which yield a fragrant smell, and
+often a warm pungent taste, as calamus (_Ac[=o]rus Cal[)a]mus_), ginger,
+cinnamon, cassia, lavender, rosemary, laurel, nutmegs, cardamoms, pepper,
+pimento, cloves, vanilla, saffron. Some of them are used medicinally as
+tonics, stimulants, &c.
+
+AROMATIC VINEGAR, a very volatile and powerful perfume made by adding the
+essential oils of lavender, cloves, &c., and often camphor, to
+crystallizable acetic acid. It is a powerful excitant in fainting, languor,
+and headache.
+
+ARO´NA, an ancient Italian town near the south extremity of Lago Maggiore.
+Pop. 4474. In the vicinity is the colossal statue of San Carlo Borromeo, 70
+feet in height, exclusive of pedestal 42 feet high.
+
+AROOS´TOOK, a river of the north-eastern United States and New Brunswick, a
+tributary of the St. John, length 120 miles.
+
+AROU´RA, or ARU´RA, an ancient Egyptian measure of surface, according to
+Herodotus the square of 100 cubits, containing, 21,904 sq. feet.
+
+ARPAD, founder of the Magyar monarchy, born about 870, died 907. See
+_Hungary_.
+
+ARPEGGIO ([.a]r-pej´[=o]), the distinct sound of the notes of an
+instrumental chord; the striking the notes of a chord in rapid succession,
+as in the manner of touching the harp instead of playing them
+simultaneously.
+
+ARPENT ([.a]r-pä[n.]), formerly a French measure of land, equal to
+five-sixths of an English acre; but it varied in different parts of France;
+the Parisian arpent contained 32,400 sq. feet, the common arpent 40,000 sq.
+feet.
+
+ARPINO ([.a]r-p[=e]´n[=o]; ancient ARPINUM), a town of Southern Italy,
+province of Caserta, celebrated as the birthplace of Gaius Marius and
+Cicero. It manufactures woollens, linen, paper, &c. Pop. 10,309.
+
+ARQUA ([.a]r´kw[.a]), a village of Northern Italy, about 13 miles
+south-west of Padua, where the poet Petrarch died, 18th July, 1374. A
+monument has been erected over his grave. Pop. 1700.
+
+AR´QUEBUS, a hand-gun; a species of fire-arm of the sixteenth century,
+resembling a musket. It was fired from a forked rest, and sometimes cocked
+by a wheel, and carried a ball that weighed nearly 2 ounces. A larger kind
+used in fortresses carried a heavier shot.
+
+ARRACA´CHA. See _Aracacha_.
+
+ARRACAN´. See _Aracan_.
+
+AR´RACK. See _Arack_.
+
+AR´RAGON. See _Aragon_.
+
+AR´RAH, a town of British India, in Shahabad district, Bengal, rendered
+famous during the mutiny of 1857 by the heroic resistance of a body of
+twenty civilians and fifty Sikhs, cooped up within a detached house, to a
+force of 3000 sepoys, who were ultimately routed and overthrown by the
+arrival of a small European reinforcement. Pop. 46,170.
+
+ARRAIGNMENT (ar-r[=a]n´-), the act of calling or setting a prisoner at the
+bar of a court to plead guilty or not guilty to the matter charged in an
+indictment or information. In Scots law the term is _calling the
+diet_.--The _Clerk of Arraigns_ is an officer attached to assize courts and
+to the Old Bailey, who assists in the arraignment of prisoners, and puts
+formal questions to the jury.
+
+AR´RAN, an island of Scotland, in the Firth of Clyde, part of Bute county;
+length, north to south, 20 miles; breadth, about 10 miles; area, 165 sq.
+miles, or 105,814 acres, of which about 15,000 are under cultivation. It is
+of a wild and romantic appearance, particularly the northern half, where
+the island attains its loftiest summit in Goatfell, 2866 feet high. The
+coast presents several indentations, of which that of Lamlash, forming a
+capacious bay, completely sheltered by Holy Island, is one of the best
+natural harbours in the west of Scotland. On the small island of Pladda,
+about a mile from the south shore, a lighthouse has been erected. The
+geology of Arran has attracted much attention, as furnishing within a
+comparatively narrow space distinct sections of the great geological
+formations; while the botany possesses almost equal interest, both in the
+variety and the rarity of many of its plants. Among objects of interest are
+relics of Danish forts, standing stones, cairns, &c. Lamlash and Brodick
+are villages. The island is a favourite resort of summer visitors, and is
+reached by steamer from Ardrossan. Pop. 8294.
+
+ARRAN, EARLS OF. See _Hamilton, Family of_.
+
+ARRANGEMENT, in music, the adaptation of a composition to voices or
+instruments for which it was not originally written; also, a piece so
+adapted.
+
+AR´RAN ISLANDS. See _Aran_.
+
+ARRARO´BA. See _Araroba_.
+
+ARRAS ([.a]-rä), a town of France, capital of the department Pas-de-Calais,
+well built, with several handsome squares and a citadel, cathedral, public
+library, botanic garden, museum, and numerous flourishing industries. In
+the Middle Ages it was famous for the manufacture of tapestry, to which the
+English applied the name of the town itself (arrazo). The battle of Arras
+was fought and Vimy Ridge taken by the Allies on 9th April, 1917. Pop.
+24,200.
+
+ARREST´ is the apprehending or restraining of one's person, which, in civil
+cases, can take place legally only by process in execution of the command
+of some court or officers of justice; but in criminal cases any man may
+arrest without warrant or precept, and every person is liable to arrest
+without distinction, but no man is to be arrested unless charged with such
+a crime as will at least justify holding him to bail when taken. _Magna
+Charta_ and the _Habeas Corpus Act_ are the two great statutes for securing
+the liberty of the subject against unlawful arrests and suits.
+
+ARREST´MENT, in Scots law, a process by which a creditor may attach money
+or movable property which a third party holds for behoof of his debtor. In
+1870 an Act was passed for Scotland which provides that only that part of
+the weekly wages of labourers, and of workpeople generally, which is in
+excess of 20_s_. is liable to arrestment for debt.
+
+ARREST OF JUDGMENT, in law, the staying or stopping of a judgment after
+verdict, for causes assigned. Courts have power to arrest judgment for
+intrinsic causes appearing upon the face of the record; as when the
+declaration varies from the original writ; when the verdict differs
+materially from the pleadings; or when the case laid in the declaration is
+not sufficient in point of law to found an action upon.
+
+ARRE´TIUM. See _Arezzo_.
+
+ARRHENATH´ERUM, a genus of oat-like grasses, of which _A. elatius_,
+sometimes called French rye-grass, is a valuable fodder plant.
+
+ARRHENIUS, Svante August, famous Swedish physicist and chemist, born 19th
+Feb., 1859, at Wyk, near Upsala. He was educated at the Universities of
+Upsala (1876-81) and Stockholm (1881-4), spent two years in travelling, and
+after doing much original research was appointed professor of physics at
+the University of Stockholm. To him is due the establishment of the theory
+of electrolytic dissociation, supplying a reasonable explanation of many
+chemical phenomena otherwise insoluble. He subsequently extended the
+application of the electrolytic theory to the phenomena of atmospheric
+electricity. His dissertation _Sur la conductibilité galvanique des
+électrolytes_ appeared in 1884. Among his other works is _Worlds in the
+Making_ (English translation, 1908).
+
+AR´RIA, the heroic wife of a Roman named Cæc[=i]na Pætus. Pætus was
+condemned to death in A.D. 42 for his share in a conspiracy against the
+emperor Claudius, and was encouraged to suicide by his wife, who stabbed
+herself and then handed the dagger to her husband with the words, 'It does
+not hurt, Pætus!'
+
+AR´RIAN, or FLAVIUS ARRIANUS, a Greek historian, native of Nicomedia,
+flourished in the second century, under the emperor Hadrian and the
+Antonines. He was first a priest of Ceres; but at Rome he became a disciple
+of Epictetus, was honoured with the citizenship of Rome, and was advanced
+to the senatorial and even consular dignities. His extant works are: _The
+Expedition of Alexander_, in seven books; a book _On the Affairs of India_;
+an _Epistle to Hadrian_; a _Treatise on Tactics_; a _Periplus of the Euxine
+Sea_; a _Periplus of the Red Sea_; and his _Enchiridion_, a moral treatise,
+containing the discourses of Epictetus.
+
+AR´RIS, in architecture, the line in which the two straight or curved
+surfaces of a body, forming an exterior angle, meet each other.
+
+ARRO´BA (Spanish), a weight formerly used in Spain, and still used in the
+greater part of Central and South America. In the States of Spanish origin
+its weight is generally equal to 25.35 lb. avoirdupois; in Brazil it equals
+32.38 lb.--Also a measure for wine, spirits, and oil, ranging from 2¾
+gallons to about 10 gallons.
+
+ARRÖE, Danish island. See _Aeröe_.
+
+ARRONDISSEMENT. See _France_.
+
+ARROW. See _Archery, Bow_.
+
+ARROWHEAD (Sagittaria), a genus of aquatic plants found in all parts of the
+world within the torrid and temperate zones, nat. ord. Alismaceæ,
+distinguished by possessing barren and fertile flowers, with a three-leaved
+calyx and three coloured petals. The common arrowhead (_S. sagittifolia_),
+the only native species in Britain, is known by its arrow-shaped leaves
+with lanceolate straight lobes.
+
+ARROWHEADED CHARACTERS. See _Cuneiform Writing_.
+
+ARROW LAKE, an expansion of the Columbia River, in British Columbia,
+Canada; about 95 miles long from N. to S.; often regarded as forming two
+lakes--Upper and Lower Arrow Lake.
+
+ARROWROCK DAM. See _Dams_ and _Reservoirs_.
+
+[Illustration: Arrow-root (_Maranta arundin[=a]c[)e]a_)]
+
+ARROW-ROOT, a starch largely used for food and for other purposes.
+Arrow-root proper is obtained from the rhizomes or rootstocks of several
+species of plants of the genus Maranta (nat. ord. Marantaceæ), and perhaps
+owes its name to the scales which cover the rhizome, which have some
+resemblance to the point of an arrow. Some, however, suppose that the name
+is due to the fact of the fresh roots being used as an application against
+wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows, and others say that _arrow_ is a
+corruption of _ara_, the Indian name of the plant. The species from which
+arrow-root is most commonly obtained is _M. arundin[=a]c[)e]a_, hence
+called the _arrow-root plant_. Brazilian arrow-root, or tapioca meal, is
+got from the large fleshy root of _Manihot utilissima_, after the poisonous
+juice has been got rid of; East Indian arrow-root, from the large
+rootstocks of _Curc[)u]ma angustifolia_; Chinese arrow-root, from the
+creeping rhizomes of _Nelumbium speci[=o]sum_; English arrow-root, from the
+potato; Portland arrow-root, from the corms of _Arum macul[=a]tum_; and
+Oswego arrow-root, from Indian corn. Analyses made in 1902 and 1906 show
+that the idea generally held of the nourishing qualities of arrow-root is a
+delusion, and that the proteids, which are true muscle-builders, are
+present in an extremely small extent. Arrow-root, however, mixed with eggs,
+milk, and flavourings, is largely used in the dietary of invalids.
+
+ARROWSMITH, Aaron, a distinguished English chartographer, born 1750, died
+1823; he raised the execution of maps to a perfection it had never before
+attained.--His nephew, John, born 1790, died 1873, was no less
+distinguished in the same field; his _London Atlas of Universal Geography_
+may be specially mentioned.
+
+ARROYO ([.a]r-r[=o]´yo), the name of two towns of Spain, in Estremadura,
+the one, called Arroyo del Puerco (pop. 5727), about 10 miles west of
+Caceres; the other, called Arroyo Molinos de Montanches, about 27 miles
+south-east of Caceres, memorable from the victory gained by Lord Hill over
+a French force under General Gerard, 28th Oct., 1811.
+
+AR´RU (or AROO) ISLANDS, a group belonging to the Dutch, south of western
+New Guinea, and extending from north to south about 127 miles. They are
+composed of coralline limestone, nowhere exceeding 200 feet above the sea,
+and are well wooded and tolerably fertile. The natives belong to the Papuan
+race, and some of them are Christians. The chief exports are trepang,
+tortoise-shell, pearls, mother-of-pearl, and edible birds'-nests. Pop. of
+group about 20,000.
+
+ARSA´CES, the founder of a dynasty of Parthian kings (256 B.C.), who,
+taking their name from him, are called Arsacidæ. There were thirty-one in
+all. See _Parthia_.
+
+AR´SAMAS, a manufacturing town in the Russian government of Nijni-Novgorod,
+on the Tesha, 250 miles east of Moscow, with a cathedral and large convent.
+Pop. 12,000.
+
+AR´SENAL, a royal or public magazine or place appointed for the making,
+repairing, keeping, and issuing of military stores. An arsenal of the first
+class should include factories for guns and gun-carriages, small-arms,
+small-arms ammunition, harness, saddlery, tents, and powder; a laboratory
+and large store-houses. In arsenals of the second class workshops take the
+place of the factories. The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, which manufactures
+warlike implements and stores for the army and navy, was formed about 1720,
+and comprises factories, laboratories, &c., for the manufacture and final
+fitting up of almost every kind of arms and ammunition. Great quantities of
+military and naval stores are kept at the dockyards of Chatham, Portsmouth,
+Plymouth, and Pembroke. In France there are various arsenals or depots of
+war-material, which is manufactured at Mézières, Toulouse, Besançon, &c.;
+the great naval arsenals are Brest and Toulon. Until 1919 the chief German
+arsenals were at Spandau, Strassburg, and Dantzig. The chief Austrian
+arsenal was the immense establishment at Vienna, which included
+gun-factory, laboratory, small-arms and carriage factories, &c. Russia had
+her principal arsenal at Petrograd, with supplementary factories of arms
+and ammunition at Briansk, Kiev, and elsewhere. In Italy Turin is the
+centre of the military factories. There are a number of arsenals in the
+United States, but individually they are of little importance.
+
+AR´SENIC (symbol AS, atomic weight 75), a common element usually found
+combined with metals as arsenides, the commonest of which is arsenical
+pyrites, FeAsS. It has a steel colour and high metallic lustre, and
+tarnishes on exposure to the air, first changing to yellow, and finally to
+black. In hardness it equals copper; it is extremely brittle, and very
+volatile, beginning to sublime before it melts. It burns with a blue flame,
+and emits a smell of garlic. Its specific gravity is 5.76. It forms
+compounds with most of the metals. Combined with sulphur it forms orpiment
+and realgar, which are the yellow and red sulphides of arsenic. Orpiment is
+the true _arsenicum_ of the ancients. With oxygen arsenic forms two
+compounds, the more important of which is arsenious oxides or arsenic
+trioxide (As_4O_6), which is the _white arsenic_, or simply _arsenic_ of
+the shops. It is usually seen in white, glassy, translucent masses, and is
+obtained by sublimation from several ores containing arsenic in combination
+with metals, particularly from arsenical pyrites. Of all substances arsenic
+is that which has most frequently occasioned death by poisoning, both by
+accident and design. The best remedies against the effects of arsenic on
+the stomach are ferric hydroxide or magnesic hydroxide, or a mixture of
+both, with copious draughts of bland liquids of a mucilaginous consistence,
+which serve to procure its complete ejection from the stomach. Oils and
+fats generally, milk, albumen, wheat-flour, oatmeal, sugar or syrup, have
+all proved useful in counteracting its effect. Like many other virulent
+poisons it is a safe and useful medicine, especially in skin diseases, when
+judiciously employed. It is used as a flux for glass, and also for forming
+pigments. The arsenite of copper (Scheele's green) and a double arsenite
+and acetate of copper (emerald green) were formerly largely used to colour
+paper-hangings for rooms; but as poisonous gases are liable to be given
+off, the practice has been to a great extent abandoned. Arsenic compounds
+have been used for colouring confectionery, and other articles, bright
+green, but their chief industrial use is in the preparation of
+insecticides. Arsenic is found in crude oil of vitriol, and occasionally in
+products such as grape-sugar, beer, &c., in the manufacture of which oil of
+vitriol is employed. Plants die when placed in a solution of arsenic, but
+corn is often steeped in such a solution, previous to planting, for
+preventing smut, and the growth of the future plant is not injured thereby.
+
+ARSHIN ([.a]r-sh[=e]n´), a Russian measure of length equal to 28 inches.
+
+ARSIN´OË, a city of ancient Egypt on Lake Moeris, said to have been founded
+about 2300 B. C., but renamed after Arsinoë, wife and sister of Ptolemy II
+of Egypt, and called also _Crocodilopolis_, from the sacred crocodiles kept
+at it.
+
+AR´SIS, a term applied in prosody to that syllable in a measure where the
+emphasis is put; in elocution, the elevation of the voice, in distinction
+from _thesis_, or its depression. _Arsis_ and _thesis_, in music, are the
+strong position and weak position of the bar, indicated by the down-beat
+and up-beat in marking time.
+
+AR´SON, in English law, the malicious burning of a dwelling-house or
+outhouse of another man, which by the common law is felony, and which, if
+any person is therein, is capital. Also, the wilful setting fire to any
+church, chapel, warehouse, mill, barn, agricultural produce, ship,
+coal-mine, and the like. In Scotland it is called _wilful fire-raising_,
+and in both England and Scotland it is a considerable aggravation of the
+crime if the burning is to defraud insurers.
+
+ART, in its most extended sense, as distinguished from nature on the one
+hand and from science on the other, has been defined as every regulated
+operation or dexterity by which organized beings pursue ends which they
+know beforehand, together with the rules and the result of every such
+operation or dexterity. Science consists in _knowing_, art in _doing_. In
+this wide sense it embraces what are usually called the useful arts. In a
+narrower and purely æsthetic sense it designates what are more specifically
+termed the fine arts, as architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and
+poetry. The useful arts have their origin in positive practical needs, and
+restrict themselves to satisfying them. The fine arts minister to the
+sentiment of taste through the medium of the beautiful in form, colour,
+rhythm, or harmony. See _Fine Arts_, _Painting_, _Sculpture_, &c.--In the
+Middle Ages it was common to give certain branches of study the name of
+arts.--Cf. A. C. R. Carter, _History of Art_, _The Year's Art_.
+
+ART COLLECTIONS. See _Collections, Artistic_.
+
+ART, Teaching of. With the advent of the present industrial age the
+teaching of art has undergone a profound change. The fine and the
+industrial arts have been equally affected. In mediæval times, and in the
+earlier classic ages, the system of apprenticeship prevailed, and all
+teaching of the arts and of the artistic crafts was given by masters of the
+various arts or trades to the apprentices who worked under their guidance
+as assistants. Standards of excellence were maintained by trade guilds, who
+enforced rules as to workmanship as well as rules for the economic
+conditions of each trade or craft. The painter of pictures, or of mural
+decorations, was trained in the same way as any other craftsman, working as
+an apprentice under a master.
+
+When, in the last century, machinery driven by steam-power took the place
+of hand labour in industry, the small independent workshops gradually
+disappeared, as the industrial centres increased in those localities where
+coal or raw material was most easily obtained; and, as the processes of
+each trade or craft became more and more subdivided and specialized, the
+old system of apprenticeship, which had become unnecessary, broke down. The
+teaching and tradition of the small independent craft workshops had no
+counterpart in the new centralized industrial systems. Even the painters of
+pictures needed no longer to prepare their own materials, for special
+industries arose, and mechanical processes were developed, for the work
+which formerly had been done in the artists' workshops by apprentices. The
+fine arts in this way suffered the loss of their old systems of teaching
+and instruction.
+
+To meet the need for a revival of art teaching in the crafts and other
+industries, there arose a movement towards the centralization of teaching
+in schools of art during the latter half of the nineteenth century.
+Following the impulse given to that movement by the great exhibition in
+1850, the British Government founded the schools of science and art in
+London and in most of the important provincial towns. Earlier in the
+century bodies of artists had founded national academies for the teaching
+of art; and the teaching of drawing was gradually adopted as a part of
+ordinary school education. Step by step training in schools of art or
+technical schools took the place of the teaching formerly given during
+apprenticeship in every craft workshop. The ancient guilds were replaced by
+the new trades unions, but these took no part in the maintenance of
+artistic standards nor of quality in workmanship.
+
+At the present time the teaching of art begins with the early school
+lessons in drawing, and is carried on in special technical classes or
+schools of art, where teachers of the 'fine arts' and of the artistic
+crafts give instruction to students preparing for professional work. In a
+few of the artistic trades the system of apprenticeship still survives, but
+the teaching given by that means is usually supplemented by attendance at a
+school of art or technical school. Under the Education Act of 1918
+attendance at technical classes in the daytime became compulsory for
+apprentices in all industrial trades.
+
+The subject of art teaching was formerly disregarded by the universities,
+but has become definitely within their province since the founding of the
+Slade professorships at Oxford, Cambridge, and London Universities, and of
+the professorship of fine art at the University of Edinburgh.
+
+The chief schools of art in Great Britain are the schools of the Royal
+Academy in London, the Slade School at University College, London, and the
+Royal College of Art at South Kensington, also the Central School of Arts
+and Crafts, and the other large metropolitan schools of the London County
+Council.
+
+In most of the English provincial towns are municipal or other schools of
+art under the control of the Board of Education.
+
+In Scotland the chief schools are the four central institutions--the
+Edinburgh College of Art, and the schools of art of Glasgow, Aberdeen, and
+Dundee. In each of these a diploma is given on the satisfactory completion
+of a prescribed course of study.
+
+In Ireland the chief schools are those of the Royal Hibernian Academy in
+Dublin, and the provincial schools of art under the Department of
+Agriculture and Technology.
+
+On the Continent the chief centre of artistic training has for many years
+been in Paris. Advanced students from most European and American art
+schools spend some of the later period of their study in the schools of
+Paris, in painting, in sculpture, or in architecture. There is, naturally,
+a valuable incentive and stimulation due to this gathering together of
+advanced students from all countries, as well as to the high academic
+tradition and sense of style of the French.
+
+The 'atelier' system, which is followed in the French schools, is simple
+and personal. The expenses of an 'atelier', or studio, are borne by a group
+of students by the consent and under the guidance of an artist of
+reputation, who visits the 'atelier' at stated intervals, but is not
+concerned in its administration. In this way the relations between the
+professor and his pupils are extremely direct and personal. Most of the
+distinguished artists of Paris are attached to some 'atelier' to which
+chosen pupils are admitted.
+
+There are also in Paris excellent schools for training in the applied arts,
+schools for furniture-making, printing, jewellery, and other artistic
+trades. These are on private foundations, but also receive State aid.
+
+The teaching of art that is given at the present day as a part of ordinary
+general education attempts little more than a training in the elements of
+drawing, with some practice in the use of colour. The purpose of the
+drawing lesson is the attainment of skill in the representation of objects
+rather than the training of the æsthetic sense, or of artistic judgment or
+taste.
+
+In the schools of art opportunities are provided for training in drawing
+and painting, sculpture, and architecture, and in the general principles of
+design in these arts, and in many of the artistic crafts and industrial
+processes. In some localities, where particular industries or artistic
+trades are concentrated, special schools for artistic and technical
+training are provided. The present tendency is towards the development of
+special schools for particular artistic trades or professions.
+
+A complete system of training in any art must of necessity include: (1)
+actual technical practice; (2) teaching of the canons of workmanship of the
+art; (3) acquaintance with its historical development, especially with the
+notable examples and the highest achievements of past masters in the art.
+
+ARTA (ancient AMBRACIA), a gulf, town, and river of north-western Greece.
+The town was transferred by Turkey to Greece in 1881 (pop. 8000). It stands
+on the River Arta, which for a considerable distance above its mouth formed
+a part of the boundary between Greece and Turkey.--The province of Arta has
+an area of 395 sq. miles, and a pop. of 52,400.
+
+ARTAXERX´ES (Old Pers. _Artakhsathra_, 'the mighty'), the name of several
+Persian kings:--1. ARTAXERXES, surnamed Longim[)a]nus, succeeded his father
+Xerxes I, 465 B.C. He subdued the rebellious Egyptians, terminated the war
+with Athens, governed his subjects in peace, and died 425 B.C.--2.
+ARTAXERXES, surnamed Mnemon, succeeded his father Darius II in the year 405
+B.C. After having vanquished his brother Cyrus he made war on the Spartans,
+who had assisted his enemy, and forced them to abandon the Greek cities and
+islands of Asia to the Persians. On his death, 359 B.C., his son Ochus
+ascended the throne under the name of--3. ARTAXERXES OCHUS (359 to 339
+B.C.). After having overcome the Phoenicians and Egyptians, and displayed
+great cruelty in both countries, he was poisoned by his general Bagoas.
+
+ARTE´DI, Peter, a Swedish naturalist, born 1705, drowned at Amsterdam 1735.
+He studied at Upsala, turned his attention to medicine and natural history,
+and was a friend of Linnæus. His _Bibliotheca Ichthyologica_ and
+_Philosophia Ichthyologica_, together with a life of the author, were
+published at Leyden in 1738.
+
+ARTEL, a name for co-operative associations in Russia. These associations
+were known in ancient Russia as _drushina_ or _wataga_. The artels
+originally consisted of bodies of men associating for the purpose of
+jointly undertaking a piece of work and dividing the profits. Artels were
+formed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries for the co-operation of
+their members in hunting and fishing. Inspired and stimulated by the
+Schulze-Delitzsch associations established in Germany, the Russian artels
+have extended their activity to various branches of industrial life. There
+are now consum artels, credit artels, and insurance artels, but the most
+important are the artisan and industrial artels. Some of the artels,
+however, are little more than trade guilds with mutual responsibility.
+
+AR´T[)E]MIS, an ancient Greek divinity, identified with the Roman Diana.
+She was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto or Latona, and was the twin
+sister of Apollo, born in the Island of Delos. She is variously represented
+as a huntress, with bow and arrows; as a goddess of the nymphs, in a
+chariot drawn by four stags; and as the moon-goddess, with the crescent of
+the moon above her forehead. She was a maiden divinity, never conquered by
+love, except when Endymion made her feel its power. She demanded the
+strictest chastity from her worshippers, and she is represented as having
+changed Actæon into a stag, and caused him to be torn in pieces by his own
+dogs, because he had secretly watched her as she was bathing. The Artemisia
+was a festival celebrated in her honour at Delphi. The famous temple of
+Artemis at Ephesus was considered one of the wonders of the world, but the
+goddess worshipped there was very different from the huntress goddess of
+Greece, being of Eastern origin, and regarded as the symbol of fruitful
+nature.
+
+ARTEMI´SIA, Queen of Caria, in Asia Minor, about 352-350 B.C., sister and
+wife of Maus[=o]lus, to whom she erected in her capital, Halicarnassus, a
+monument, called the Mausol[=e]um, which was reckoned among the seven
+wonders of the world.
+
+ARTEMI´SIA, a genus of plants of numerous species, nat. ord. Compositæ,
+comprising mugwort, southernwood, and wormwood. Certain alpine species are
+the flavouring ingredient in absinthe. See _Wormwood_.
+
+ARTEMI´SIUM, a promontory in Euboea, an island of the Ægean, near which
+several naval battles between the Greeks and Persians were fought, 480 B.C.
+
+AR´TEMUS WARD. See _Browne, Charles Farrar_.
+
+AR´TERIES, the system of cylindrical vessels or tubes, membranous, elastic,
+and pulsatile, which convey the blood from the heart to all parts of the
+body, by ramifications which, as they proceed, diminish in size and
+increase in number, and terminate in minute capillaries uniting the ends of
+the arteries with the beginnings of the veins. There are two principal
+arteries or arterial trunks: the _aorta_, which rises from the left
+ventricle of the heart and ramifies through the whole body, sending off
+great branches to the head, neck, and upper limbs, and downwards to the
+lower limbs, &c.; and the _pulmonary artery_, which conveys venous blood
+from the right ventricle to the lungs, to be purified in the process of
+respiration.
+
+ARTERIOT´OMY, the opening or cutting of an artery for the purpose of
+blood-letting, as, for instance, to relieve pressure of the brain in
+apoplexy.
+
+[Illustration: Artesian Well. A. A. Outcrops of pervious stratum (C) acting
+as collecting areas. B and D. Impervious stratum.]
+
+ARTE´SIAN WELLS, so called from the French province of Artois, where they
+appear to have been first used on an extensive scale, are perpendicular
+borings into the ground through which water rises to the surface of the
+soil, producing a constant flow or stream, the ultimate sources of supply
+being higher than the mouth of the boring, and the water thus rising by the
+well-known law. They are generally sunk in valley plains and districts
+where the lower pervious strata are bent into basin-shaped curves. The rain
+falling on the outcrops of these saturates the whole porous bed, so that
+when the bore reaches it the water by hydraulic pressure rushes up towards
+the level of the highest portion of the strata. The supply is sometimes so
+abundant as to be used extensively as a moving power, and in arid regions
+for fertilizing the ground, to which purpose artesian springs have been
+applied from a very remote period. Thus many artesian wells have been sunk
+in the Algerian Sahara, which have proved an immense boon to the district.
+The water of most of these is potable, but a few are a little saline,
+though not to such an extent as to influence vegetation. The hollows in
+which London and Paris lie are both perforated in many places by borings of
+this nature. At London they were first sunk only to the sand, but
+afterwards into the chalk. One of the most celebrated artesian wells is
+that of Grenelle, near Paris, 1798 feet deep, completed in 1841, after
+eight years' work. Artesian wells are now common in many countries, and
+have been sunk to the depth of a mile or more. As the temperature of water
+from great depths is invariably higher than that at the surface, artesian
+wells have been made to supply warm water for heating manufactories,
+greenhouses, hospitals, fish-ponds, &c. They have also been made in the
+United States and Australia for the purpose of irrigation. Petroleum wells
+are generally of the same technical description. Artesian wells are now
+made with larger diameters than formerly, and altogether their construction
+has been rendered much more easy in modern times. See _Boring_.
+
+ARTEVELD, or ARTEVELDE ([.a]r´te-velt, [.a]r´te-vel-de), the name of two
+men distinguished in the history of the Low Countries.--1. Jacob van, a
+brewer of Ghent, born about 1300, was selected by his fellow-townsmen to
+lead them in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. In 1338 he
+was appointed captain of the forces of Ghent, and for several years
+exercised a sort of sovereign power. A proposal to make the Black Prince,
+son of Edward III of England, Governor of Flanders led to an insurrection
+in which Arteveld lost his life (1345).--2. Philip, son of the former, at
+the head of the forces of Ghent gained a great victory over the Count of
+Flanders, Louis II, and for a time assumed the state of a sovereign prince.
+His reign proved short-lived. The Count of Flanders returned with a large
+French force, fully disciplined and skilfully commanded. Arteveld was rash
+enough to meet them in the open field at Roosebeke, between Courtrai and
+Ghent, in 1382, and fell with 25,000 Flemings.
+
+ARTHRI´TIS (Gr. _arthron_, a joint), any inflammatory distemper that
+affects the joints, particularly chronic rheumatism or gout.
+
+ARTHRO´DIA, a species of articulation, in which the head of one bone is
+received into a shallow socket in another; a ball-and-socket joint.
+
+ARTHROP´ODA, one of the two primary divisions (Anarthropoda being the
+other) into which modern naturalists have divided the sub-kingdom Annulosa,
+having the body composed of a series of segments, some always being
+provided with articulated appendages. The division comprises Crustaceans,
+Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Insects.
+
+ARTHROZO´A, a name sometimes given to all articulated animals, including
+the arthropoda and worms.
+
+ARTHUR, Chester Alan, twenty-first President of the United States, born
+1830, died 1886, was the son of Scottish parents, his father being pastor
+of Baptist churches in Vermont and New York. He chose law as a profession,
+and practised in New York. As a politician he became a leader in the
+Republican party. During the civil war he was energetic as
+quarter-master-general of New York in getting troops raised and equipped.
+He was afterwards collector of customs for the port of New York. In 1880 he
+was elected Vice-President, succeeding as President on the death of
+Garfield in 1881.
+
+AR´THUR, KING, an ancient British hero of the sixth century, son of Uther
+Pendragon and the Princess Igerna, wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall. He
+married Guinevere, or Ginevra; established the famous order of the Round
+Table; and reigned, surrounded by a splendid Court, twelve years in peace.
+After this, as the poets relate, he conquered Denmark, Norway, and France,
+slew the giants of Spain, and went to Rome. From thence he is said to have
+hastened home on account of the faithlessness of his wife, and Modred, his
+nephew, who had stirred up his subjects to rebellion. He subdued the
+rebels, but died in consequence of his wounds, on the Island of Avalon. The
+story of Arthur is supposed to have some foundation in fact, and has ever
+been a favourite subject with our romanticists and our poets. It is
+generally believed that Arthur was one of the last great Celtic chiefs who
+led his countrymen from the west of England to resist the settlement of the
+Saxons in the country. But many authorities regard him as a leader of the
+Cymry of Cumbria and Strath-Clyde against the Saxon invaders of the east
+coast and the Picts and Scots north of the Forth and the Clyde. See
+_Grail_, _Merlin_, _Round Table_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Rhys, _Studies in the
+Arthurian Legend_; W. Lewis Jones, _King Arthur in History and Legend_.
+
+ARTHUR'S SEAT, a picturesque hill within the King's Park in the immediate
+vicinity of Edinburgh; has an altitude of 822 feet; descends rollingly to
+the N. and E. over a base each way of about five furlongs; presents an
+abrupt shoulder to the S., and breaks down precipitously to the W. It is
+composed of a diversity of eruptive rocks, with some interposed and
+up-tilted sedimentary ones; and derives its name somehow from the legendary
+King Arthur.
+
+AR´TIAD (Gr. _artios_, even-numbered), in chemistry, a name given to an
+element of even equivalency, as a dyad, tetrad, &c.: opposed to a perissad,
+an element of uneven equivalency, such as a monad, triad, &c.
+
+ARTICHOKE (_Cyn[)a]ra Scol[)y]mus_), sometimes called 'the Globe
+Artichoke', a well-known plant of the nat. ord. Compositæ, somewhat
+resembling a thistle, with large divided prickly leaves. The erect
+flower-stem terminates in a large round head of numerous imbricated oval
+spiny scales which surround the flowers. The fleshy bases of the scales
+with the large receptacle are the parts that are eaten. Artichokes were
+introduced into England early in the sixteenth century. The Jerusalem
+artichoke (a corruption of the It. _girasole_, a sunflower), or _Helianthus
+tuber[=o]sus_, is a species of sunflower, whose roots are used like
+potatoes; it was introduced into England in the early part of the
+seventeenth century.
+
+ARTICLE, in grammar, a part of speech used before nouns to limit or define
+their application. In English _a_ or _an_ is usually called the indefinite
+article (the latter form being used before a vowel sound), and _the_, the
+definite article, but they are also described as adjectives. _An_ was
+originally the same as _one_, and _the_ as _that_. In Latin there were no
+articles, and Greek has only the definite article.
+
+ARTICLES, LORDS OF THE, in Scottish history, a committee chosen equally
+from each estate or division of Parliament to prepare the various measures,
+which, when completed, were laid before the Parliament for adoption or
+rejection. They were first appointed in 1369, and gradually became a
+recognized part of the Scottish legislative machinery. Abolished 1690.
+
+ARTICLES, THE SIX, in English ecclesiastical history, articles imposed by a
+statute (often called the Bloody Statute) passed in 1541, the thirty-third
+year of the reign of Henry VIII. They decreed the acknowledgment of
+transubstantiation, the sufficiency of communion in one kind, the
+obligation of vows of chastity, the propriety of private masses, celibacy
+of the clergy, and auricular confession. Acceptance of these doctrines was
+made obligatory on all persons under the severest penalties; the Act,
+however, was relaxed in 1544, and repealed in 1549.
+
+ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, of the Church of England, a statement of the
+particular points of doctrine, thirty-nine in number, maintained by the
+English Church; first promulgated by a convocation held in London in
+1562-3, and confirmed by royal authority; founded on and superseding an
+older code issued in the reign of Edward VI. The first five articles
+contain a profession of faith in the Trinity; the incarnation of Jesus
+Christ, His descent to hell, and His resurrection; the divinity of the Holy
+Ghost. The three following relate to the canon of the Scripture. The eighth
+article declares a belief in the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds.
+The ninth and following articles contain the doctrine of original sin, of
+justification by faith alone, of predestination, &c. The nineteenth,
+twentieth, and twenty-first declare the Church to be the assembly of the
+faithful; that it can decide nothing except by the Scriptures. The
+twenty-second rejects the doctrine of purgatory, indulgences, the adoration
+of images, and the invocation of saints. The twenty-third decides that only
+those lawfully called shall preach or administer the sacraments. The
+twenty-fourth requires the liturgy to be in English. The twenty-fifth and
+twenty-sixth declare the sacraments effectual signs of grace (though
+administered by evil men), by which God excites and confirms our faith.
+They are two: baptism and the Lord's supper. Baptism, according to the
+twenty-seventh article, is a sign of regeneration, the seal of our
+adoption, by which faith is confirmed and grace increased. In the Lord's
+supper, according to article twenty-eight, the bread is the communion of
+the body of Christ, the wine the communion of his blood, but only through
+faith (article twenty-ninth); and the communion must be administered in
+both kinds (article thirty). The twenty-eighth article condemns the
+doctrine of transubstantiation, and the elevation and adoration of the
+host; the thirty-first rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous;
+the thirty-second permits the marriage of the clergy; the thirty-third
+maintains the efficacy of excommunication. The remaining articles relate to
+the supremacy of the king, the condemnation of Anabaptists, &c. They were
+ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. All candidates for ordination must
+subscribe these articles, but they are not binding upon laymen, except
+judges and certain university officials. This formulary is now accepted by
+the Episcopalian Churches of Scotland, Ireland, and America.
+
+ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION are the rules framed by a company for the
+administration of its affairs. Public companies usually have separate
+articles of their own, but this is not essential. When a registered company
+has no articles, its business procedure is regulated by the statutory form,
+found in Schedule 1 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act, 1908, and known
+as Table A. When separate articles are used they must be printed, signed,
+stamped, and filed along with the memorandum of association. Unlike the
+memorandum, the articles may be altered at any time, by special resolution,
+provided the alteration is within the powers given by the memorandum. Thus,
+where preferred shares are created by the memorandum, their privileges are
+more secure than if merely issued under the articles. The articles are
+intended merely for internal administration, and, while binding in
+questions between the company and its members as such, they do not affect
+third parties, unless the company has acted _ultra vires_ and this was
+discoverable from the articles, which the public can inspect at a nominal
+fee.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir F. B. Palmer, _Company Law_; A. Coles, _Guide for
+the Company Secretary_; A. F. Topham, _Principles of Company Law_.
+
+ARTICLES OF WAR. See _Military Law_.
+
+ARTICULA´TA, the third great section of the animal kingdom according to the
+arrangement of Cuvier, applied to invertebrates such as insects and worms,
+in which the body displays a jointed structure. The name is now obsolete.
+See _Arthropoda_.
+
+ARTICULA´TION, in anatomy a joint; the joining or juncture of the bones.
+This is of three kinds: (1) _Diarthr[=o]sis_, or a movable connection, such
+as the ball-and-socket joint; (2) _Synarthr[=o]sis_, immovable connection,
+as by suture, or junction by serrated margins; (3) _Symphysis_, or union by
+means of another substance, by a cartilage, tendon, or ligament.
+
+ARTIFICIAL LIMBS. Artificial limbs of a primitive kind have been in use
+from very early times; but, as the material of which they were made was
+perishable, few specimens have been preserved. In the museum of the Royal
+College of Surgeons in London there is a good specimen of a Roman
+artificial leg which is believed to date back to the third century B.C.
+This leg is made of wood, covered with thin bronze; it has an iron
+sole-plate, and was fastened on by means of a waist-belt.
+
+In Irish legend we are told of Nuada, who led the tribe of the Dananns back
+to Ireland, having an artificial hand made of silver; from this he received
+the name of Argetlam or Silver-handed. In mediæval times Goetz von
+Berlichingen, who lost his right hand at the siege of Landshut (1505), had
+a hand made of iron to supply its place.
+
+Great improvements have been made in the manufacture of artificial limbs
+during the last fifty years. After the Franco-Prussian war the French
+Government adopted an artificial arm and hand known as the 'Beaufort' and
+issued it to the soldiers who required it. This hand had a movable thumb
+controlled by a cord passing up the arm and fastened to a loop band over
+the opposite shoulder. An Englishman named Heather Bigg invented a hand
+with a movable thumb which was worked by a piston and controlled by a
+rubber ball fastened under the arm-pit. These designs have been improved
+upon from time to time, and an artificial hand can now be made which is
+capable of opening and closing at will, and of lifting and holding light
+articles.
+
+Artificial legs vary in design, from the simple pin leg to ingenious
+contrivances such as the 'Anglesey' leg, which is made of seasoned willow
+wood with steel ankles and knee-joints. This 'Anglesey' leg is the standard
+best-quality limb in Great Britain. The German artificial-limb makers use
+leather instead of wood. These leather legs fit comfortably, but are too
+heavy, as they have to be supported by steel bands.
+
+ARTILLERY, all ordnance such as guns and howitzers as opposed to small arms
+and machine-guns. The term is also used for the troops who serve these
+arms.
+
+Generally speaking, artillery is divided into field, heavy, and siege
+artillery. For details of organization see _Army_. The earliest form of
+artillery was a metal tube which was placed in a convenient position on the
+ground. The charge of gunpowder was ignited by placing a match to a hole
+bored at the closed end, and the resulting explosion forced the
+projectile--a stone--more or less in the required direction. Later on this
+primitive weapon was provided with wheels. In another form one man fired it
+while a second man supported it on his shoulder. In the later Middle Ages
+guns of various calibres were known by the names of birds of prey or
+reptiles; among such were falcons and falconets, culverins and
+demi-culverins. The fourteenth century saw the development of artillery for
+siege purposes--chiefly by the Germans--and in the next century it began to
+be employed in open warfare; while in 1537 the present Honourable Artillery
+Company was formed in London to encourage the use of all 'weapons of
+volley'. These weapons of volley were not even confined to fire-arms, but
+included bows and cross-bows. The earliest English troops raised as
+artillery personel were called the Regiment of Firelocks. Of late years
+artillery science has made almost inconceivable progress, thanks to which,
+_inter alia_, it is no longer necessary for the target to be visible from
+the gun-position. This fact, combined with the use of smokeless powder,
+makes the locating of hostile batteries exceedingly difficult. All field
+artillery, by which is meant guns and howitzers, which accompany mobile
+troops are designed on the quick-firing principle, by which the inevitable
+recoil at the moment of firing is absorbed by an arrangement known as the
+recoil-carriage, thus preventing any movement of the gun-carriage proper,
+and avoiding unnecessary labour for the gun-detachments, while at the same
+time allowing the men composing it to remain under cover of the shield with
+which the guns are provided. With the quick-firing gun, propellent and
+projectile are combined in one cartridge similar to that in use with small
+arms; with the howitzer they are separated. This difference is due to the
+fact that whereas guns are designed for a flat trajectory with a deep zone
+of fire-effect, howitzers are intended for high-angle fire with an almost
+vertical fall of shrapnel-bullets. This effect is produced by varying the
+charge for different ranges. A field battery consists of 6 guns or
+howitzers and 12 ammunition-wagons. Both guns and wagons are of the
+limbered type, i.e. in two detachable parts, and the weight behind the team
+of an English gun is approximately 2 tons.
+
+As to tactical principles, it is recognized that the function of artillery
+is to assist the other arms, that it cannot by itself win a battle, and
+that its true _métier_ is to prepare the way for and assist the infantry.
+During 1914-18 some 700,000 officers and men served with the Royal
+Regiment.
+
+ARTILLERY COMPANY, THE HONOURABLE, the oldest existing body of volunteers
+in Great Britain, instituted in 1537, revived in 1610. It comprises six
+companies of infantry, besides artillery, and furnishes a guard of honour
+to the sovereign when visiting the city of London. Previous to 1842 the
+Company elected their own officers, but since that date they have been
+appointed by the Crown.
+
+ARTILLERY SCHOOLS, institutions established for the purpose of giving a
+special training to the officers, and in some cases the men, belonging to
+the artillery service. In Great Britain the artillery schools are at
+Woolwich and Shoeburyness. The Department of Artillery studies at Woolwich
+give artillery officers the means of continuing their studies after they
+have completed the usual course at the Royal Military College, and of
+qualifying for appointments requiring exceptional scientific attainments.
+The School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness gives instruction in gunnery to
+officers and men, and conducts all experiments connected with artillery and
+stores. The sands at the mouth of the Thames afford ample opportunity for
+artillery practice and firing at long ranges. The Royal Artillery
+Institution at Woolwich contains a museum, lecture-room, and
+printing-press, from which professional and scientific papers are
+periodically issued.
+
+ARTIODAC´TYLA (Gr. _artios_, even numbered, _dakt[)y]los_, a finger or
+toe), a section of the Ungulata or hoofed mammals, comprising all those in
+which the number of the toes is even (two or four), including the
+ruminants, such as the ox, sheep, deer, &c., and also a number of
+non-ruminating animals, as the hippopotamus and the pig.
+
+ARTISANS' AND LABOURERS' DWELLINGS ACT, an English Act of Parliament passed
+in 1868 to empower town councils and other local authorities to demolish or
+improve dwellings unfit for human habitation, and to build and maintain
+better dwellings in lieu thereof. Other Acts for the same object were
+passed in 1875, 1879, and 1882. See _Housing_.
+
+ARTOCARPA´CEÆ, a nat. ord. of plants, the bread-fruit order, by some
+botanists ranked as a sub-order of the Urticaceæ or nettles. They are trees
+or shrubs, with a milky juice, which in some species hardens into
+caoutchouc, and in the cow-tree (_Bros[)i]mum Galactodendron_) is a milk as
+good as that obtained from the cow. Many of the plants produce an edible
+fruit, of which the best known is the bread-fruit (Artocarpus).
+
+ARTOIS ([.a]r-twä), a former province of France, anciently one of the
+seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, now almost completely included in
+the department of Pas-de-Calais.
+
+ARTOIS, THE BATTLE OF. See _European War_.
+
+ARTS, the name given to certain branches of study in the Middle Ages,
+originally called the 'liberal arts' to distinguish them from the 'servile
+arts' or mechanical occupations. These arts were usually given as grammar,
+dialectics, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Hence
+originated the terms 'art classes', 'degrees in arts', 'Master of Arts',
+&c., still in common use in universities, the faculty of arts being
+distinguished from those of divinity, law, medicine, or science. See
+_University_.
+
+ARTSYBASHEV, Mikhail, Russian author, born in 1878. After a number of short
+stories he wrote, at the age of twenty-five, a novel entitled _Sanin_,
+published in 1907, which placed him at once among the most famous
+contemporary Russian authors. Whatever opinion literary critics may hold of
+this novel, his wonderful realism, simplicity of style, and psychological
+analysis cannot be disputed.
+
+ART UNIONS, associations for encouraging art, an object which they mainly
+pursue by disposing of pictures, sculptures, &c., by lottery among
+subscribers. They seem to have originated in France during the time of
+Napoleon I. They soon afterwards took root in Germany, where they have been
+very successful. The first art union established in Britain was that at
+Edinburgh in 1834. Art unions were legalized by the Art Unions Act, 1846
+See _Lottery_.
+
+ARTVIN, a town in the Republic of Georgia, in the Caucasus, about 35 miles
+inland from Batum. Pop. 6720.
+
+ARUBA ([.a]-rö´b[.a]), an island off the north coast of Venezuela,
+belonging to Holland (a dependency of Curaçoa), about 30 miles long and 7
+broad; surface generally rock, quartz being abundant, and containing
+considerable quantities of gold; a phosphate which is exported for manure
+is also abundant. The climate is healthy. Pop. 9481 (1916).
+
+ARU ISLANDS. See _Arru Islands_.
+
+[Illustration: Cuckoo Pint or Wake Robin (_Arum macul[=a]tum_).
+
+1, Spadix. 2, Stamen. 3, Female flower. 4, Fruit.]
+
+A´RUM, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Araceæ. _A. macul[=a]tum_ (the common
+wake-robin, lords-and-ladies, or cuckoo pint) is abundant in woods and
+hedges in England and Ireland, but is rare in Scotland. It has acrid
+properties, but its corm yields a starch which is known by the name of
+Portland sago or arrowroot. At one time this was prepared to a considerable
+extent in Portland Island. All the species of this genus develop much heat
+during flowering.
+
+AR´UNDEL, a town in Sussex, England, on the River Arun, 4 miles from its
+mouth, the river being navigable to the town for vessels of 250 tons. The
+castle of Arundel, the chief residence of the dukes of Norfolk, stands on a
+knoll on the north-east side of the town. Pop. (1921), 2741.
+
+AR´UNDEL, Thomas, third son of Richard FitzAlan, Earl of Arundel, born
+1352, died 1413. He was Chancellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury.
+He concerted with Bolingbroke to deliver the nation from the oppression of
+Richard II, and was a bitter persecutor of the Lollards and followers of
+Wycliffe.
+
+ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, a series of ancient sculptured marbles discovered by
+William Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece at the expense of and for
+Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who lived in the time of James I and
+Charles I, and was a liberal patron of scholarship and art. After the
+Restoration they were presented by the grandson of the collector to the
+University of Oxford. Among them is the _Parian Chronicle_, a chronological
+account of the principal events in Grecian, and particularly in Athenian,
+history, during a period of 1186 years, from the reign of Cecrops (1450
+B.C.) to the archonship of Diognetus (264 B.C.).
+
+ARUN´DO. See _Phragmites_.
+
+ARUSPICES (a-rus´pi-s[=e]z), or HARUSPICES, a class of priests in ancient
+Rome, of Etrurian origin, whose business was to inspect the entrails of
+victims killed in sacrifice, and by them to foretell future events.
+
+ARUWIMI, a large river of equatorial Africa, a tributary of the Congo, on
+the north bank.
+
+ARVAL BROTHERS (_Fratres Arv[=a]les_), a college or company of twelve
+members elected for life from the highest ranks in ancient Rome, so called
+from offering annually public sacrifices for the fertility of the fields
+(Lat. _arvum_, a field).
+
+ARVE ([.a]rv), a river rising in the Savoyan Alps, passes through the
+valley of Chamonix, and falls into the Rhone near Geneva, after a course of
+about 50 miles.
+
+ARVIC´OLA, a genus of rodent animals, sub-ord. Muridæ or Mice. There are
+three British species. _A. amphibia_ is the water-vole (or water-rat), and
+_A. agrestis_ is the field-vole or short-tailed field-mouse. They are
+prolific animals, having three or four litters in the year, each consisting
+of from four to ten young.
+
+A´RYAN, or INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. See _Indo-European Family_.
+
+AS, a Roman weight of 12 ounces, answering to the libra or pound, and equal
+to 237.5 grains avoirdupois, or 327.1873 grammes French measure. In the
+most ancient times of Rome the copper or bronze coin which was called _as_
+actually weighed an _as_, or a pound, but in 264 B.C. it was reduced to 2
+ounces, in 217 to 1 ounce, and in 191 to ½ ounce.
+
+[Illustration: As (half real size)--Specimen in British Museum]
+
+A´SA, great grandson of Solomon and third King of Judah; he ascended the
+throne at an early age, and distinguished himself by his zeal in rooting
+out idolatry with its attendant immoralities. He died after a prosperous
+reign of forty-one years.
+
+ASAFE´TIDA, or ASAFOETIDA, a fetid inspissated sap from Central Asia, the
+solidified juice of the _Narthex Asafetida_, a large umbelliferous plant.
+It is used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic, and in cases of flatulency, in
+hysteric paroxysms, and other nervous affections. Notwithstanding its very
+disagreeable odour it is used as a seasoning in the East, and sometimes in
+Europe. An inferior sort is the product of certain species of Ferula.
+
+ASAGRÆ´A. See _Sabadilla_.
+
+ASA´MA, an active volcano of Japan, about 50 miles north-west of Tokio,
+8260 feet high.
+
+A´SAPH, a Levite and psalmist appointed by David as leading chorister in
+the divine services. His office became hereditary in his family, or he
+founded a school of poets and musicians, which were called, after him, "the
+sons of Asaph". See _Psalms_.
+
+ASAPH, ST., a small cathedral city and bishop's see in Wales, 15 miles
+north-west of Flint; founded about 550 by St. Kentigern or St. Mungo,
+bishop of Glasgow, and named after his disciple St. Asaph, from whom both
+the diocese and town took their name. The cathedral was built about the
+close of the fifteenth century; it consists of a choir, a nave, two aisles,
+and a transept. Pop. 1833.
+
+ASARABAC´CA, a small hardy European plant, nat. ord. Aristolochiaceæ
+(_As[)a]rum europoeum_). Its leaves are acrid, bitter, and nauseous, and
+its root is extremely acrid. Both the leaves and root were formerly used as
+an emetic. It entered into the composition of medicated snuffs recommended
+in cases of headache.
+
+AS´ARUM. See _Asarabacca_.
+
+ASBEN, AIR, or AHIR, a kingdom of Africa, in the Sahara. It consists of a
+succession of mountain groups and valleys, with a generally western slope,
+and attains in its highest summits a height of over 5000 feet. The valleys
+are very fertile, and often of picturesque appearance. The inhabitants are
+Tuaregs or Berbers, with an admixture of negro blood. They live partly in
+villages, partly as nomads. The country is nominally ruled over by a
+sultan, who resides in the capital, Agades. Pop. about 60,000.
+
+ASBES´TOS, or ASBESTUS, a remarkable and highly-useful mineral, a fibrous
+variety of several members of the hornblende family, composed of separable
+filaments, with a silky lustre. The fibres are sometimes delicate,
+flexible, and elastic; at other times stiff and brittle. It is
+incombustible, and anciently was wrought into a soft, flexible cloth, which
+was used as a shroud for dead bodies. In modern times it has been
+manufactured into incombustible cloth, gloves, felt, paper, &c.; is
+employed in gas-stoves; is much used as a covering to steam boilers and
+pipes; is mixed with metallic pigments, and used as a paint on wooden
+structures, roofs, partitions, &c., to render them fire-proof, and is
+employed in various other ways, the manufacture having recently greatly
+developed. Some varieties are compact, and take a fine polish, others are
+loose, like flax or silky wool. _Ligniform asbestos_, or _mountain-wood_,
+is a variety presenting an irregular filamentous structure, like wood.
+_Rock-cork_, _mountain-leather_, _fossil-paper_, and _fossil-flax_ are
+varieties. Asbestos is found in many parts of the world, but is chiefly
+supplied by Italy, Canada, and Australia. Mineralogically it is distinct
+from chrysotile, which is used for similar purposes.
+
+ASBJÖRNSEN ([.a]s´byeurn-sen), Peter Kristen, born 1812, died 1885, a
+distinguished Norwegian naturalist and collector of the popular tales and
+legends, fairy stories, &c., of his native country.
+
+ASBURY PARK, a small town on the coast of New Jersey, United States, a
+great summer resort. Its population increases during the summer months from
+10,000 to 100,000.
+
+AS´CALON, or ASH´KELON, a ruined town of Palestine, on the sea-coast, 40
+miles W.S.W. of Jerusalem. It was occupied by the Crusaders under Richard I
+after a great battle with Saladin (1192) and by General Allenby's troops in
+Nov., 1917.
+
+ASCA´NIUS, the son of Æneas and Creusa, and the companion of his father's
+wanderings from Troy to Italy.
+
+AS´CARIS. See _Nematoda_.
+
+ASCEN´SION (discovered on Ascension Day), an island of volcanic origin
+belonging to Britain, near the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean, about
+lat. 7° 55' S.; long. 14° 25' W.; 700 miles north-west of St. Helena; area,
+about 34 sq. miles. Pop. 196 (1914). It is retained by Britain as a naval
+sanatorium, coaling and victualling station, and store depot. It has a
+steam factory, naval and victualling yards, hospitals, and a coal depot. It
+is celebrated for its turtle, which are the finest in the world. Wild goats
+are plentiful, and oxen, sheep, pheasants, guinea-fowl, and rabbits have
+been introduced, and thrive well. The village of Georgetown, the seat of
+government, stands on the west side of the island, which is governed under
+the admiralty by a naval officer.
+
+ASCENSION, RIGHT, of a star or other heavenly body, in astronomy, the arc
+of the equator intercepted between the first point of Aries and that point
+of the equator which comes to the meridian at the same instant with the
+star.
+
+ASCENSION DAY, the day on which the ascension of the Saviour is
+commemorated, often called _Holy Thursday_: a movable feast, always falling
+on the Thursday but one before Whitsuntide.
+
+ASCET´ICISM and ASCET´ICS (from the Gr. _ask[=e]sis_, meaning practice,
+bodily exercise, or athletic training). The early Christians, who devoted
+themselves to severe exercises of piety and strove to distinguish
+themselves from the world by abstinence from sensual enjoyments and by
+voluntary penances, adopted the name to signify the practice of spiritual
+things. Ascetics and asceticism have played an important part in the
+Christian Church, but the principle of striving after a higher and more
+spiritual life by subduing the animal appetites and passions has no
+necessary connection with Christianity. Thus there were ascetics among the
+Jews previous to Christ, and asceticism was inculcated by the Stoics, while
+in its most extreme form it may still be seen among the Brahmans and
+Buddhists. Monasticism was but one phase of asceticism. It must also be
+borne in mind that in the history of asceticism, pagan, Christian, Jewish,
+and Mohammedan, we are often dealing not only with religious but distinctly
+abnormal temperaments. See _Monasticism_.
+
+ASCH ([.a]sh), a town of Czecho-Slovakia, in the extreme north-western
+corner of former Bohemia, with manufactures of cotton, woollen, and silk
+goods, bleachfields, dyeworks, &c. Pop. 21,583.
+
+ASCHAFFENBURG ([.a]-sh[.a]f´en-bör_h_), a town of Bavaria, on the Main and
+Aschaff, 26 miles E.S.E. of Frankfort. The chief edifice is the castle of
+Johannisberg, built between 1605 and 1614, and for centuries the summer
+residence of the Elector. There are manufactures of coloured paper,
+tobacco, liqueurs, &c. Pop. 29,891.
+
+ASCHAM (as´kam), Roger, a learned Englishman, born in 1515 of a respectable
+family in Yorkshire, died 1568. He was entered at St. John's College,
+Cambridge, 1530, and was elected fellow in 1534 and tutor in 1537. He was
+Latin secretary to Edward VI and also to Mary. He was tutor to Princess
+Elizabeth during her girlhood, and he became her secretary after she
+ascended the throne. In 1544 he wrote his _Toxophilus, or Schole of
+Shooting_, in praise of his favourite amusement and exercise--archery.
+Between 1563 and 1568 he wrote his _Scholemaster_, a treatise on the best
+method of teaching children Latin. Some of his writings, including many
+letters, were in Latin. He wrote the best English style of his time. His
+life was written by Dr. Johnson to accompany an edition of his works
+published in 1769.
+
+ASCHERSLEBEN ([.a]sh´[.e]rz-l[=a]-ben), a town of Prussian Saxony, in the
+district of Magdeburg, near the junction of the Eine with the Wipper.
+Industries: woollens, machinery and metal goods, sugar, paper, &c. Pop.
+28,968.
+
+ASCID´IA (Gr. _askos_, a wine-skin), the name given to the 'Sea-squirts' or
+main section of the Tunicata, a class of animals of low grade, resembling a
+double-necked bottle, of a leathery or gristly nature, found at low-water
+mark on the sea-beach, and dredged from deep water attached to stones,
+shells, and fixed objects. One of the prominent openings admits the food
+and the water required in respiration, the other is the excretory aperture.
+A single _ganglion_ represents the nervous system, placed between the two
+apertures. Male and female reproductive organs exist in each ascidian. They
+pass through peculiar phases of development, the young ascidian appearing
+like a tadpole-body. They may be _single_ or _simple_, _social_ or
+_compound_. In _social ascidians_ the peduncles of a number of individuals
+are united into a common tubular stem, with a partial common circulation of
+blood. In these animals evolutionists see a link between the Mollusca and
+the Vertebrata.
+
+[Illustration: Ascidians
+
+1, Perophora: _a_, mouth; _b_, vent; _c_, intestinal canal; _d_, stomach;
+_e_, common tubular stem. 2, Ascidia echinata. 3, Ascidia virginea. 4,
+Cynthia quadrangularis. 5, Botryllus violaceus.]
+
+ASCLEPLIADA´CEÆ, an order of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, the distinguishing
+characteristic of which is that the anthers adhere to the five stigmatic
+processes, the whole sexual apparatus forming a single mass. The
+pollination arrangements are peculiar, recalling those of orchids. The
+members of this order are shrubs, or sometimes herbaceous plants,
+occasionally climbing, almost always with a milky juice. Many of them are
+employed as purgatives, diaphoretics, tonics, and febrifuges, and others as
+articles of food. Asclepias is the typical genus. See _Asclepias_,
+_Calotropis_, _Stapelia_, _Stephanotis_.
+
+ASCLE´PIADES (-d[=e]z), the name of a number of ancient Greek
+writers--poets, grammarians, &c--of whom little is known, and also of
+several ancient physicians, the most celebrated of whom was _Asclepiades_,
+of Bithynia, who acquired considerable repute at Rome about the beginning
+of the first century B.C.
+
+ASCLE´PIAS, or SWALLOW-WORT, a genus of plants, the type and the largest
+genus of the nat. ord. Asclepiadaceæ. Most of the species are North
+American herbs, having opposite, alternate, or verticillate leaves. Many of
+them possess powerful medicinal qualities. _A. decumbens_ is diaphoretic
+and sudorific, and has the singular property of exciting general
+perspiration without increasing in any sensible degree the heat of the
+body; _A. curassavica_ is emetic, and its roots are frequently sent to
+England as ipecacuanha; the roots of _A. tuber[=o]sa_ are famed for
+diaphoretic properties. Many other species are also used as medicines, and
+several are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.
+
+ASCLEPIOS. See _Æsculapius_.
+
+AS´COLI, or ASCOLI PICENO (ancient, ASC[)U]LUM), a province in Central
+Italy.--The capital of the province, also called _Ascoli Piceno_, episcopal
+see of the Marches (the ancient Asc[)u]lum), is situated 90 miles
+north-east of Rome and contains, among several handsome new buildings, the
+remains of temples, an ancient theatre, &c. It has also many fine
+pre-Renaissance buildings, such as the Gothic Church S. Francesco and the
+Palazzo del Commune. At Castel Trosino, near Ascoli, a necropolis of the
+seventh century was discovered in 1895. Population of the town, 28,882; of
+the province, 261,835 (1915).
+
+AS´COLI SATRIANO (ancient, ASC[)U]LUM AP[)U]LUM), a town of S. Italy,
+province Foggia. Pop. 9700.
+
+ASCOMYCE´TES (-t[=e]z), one of the main subdivisions of the Eumycetes or
+Higher Fungi, distinguished by their principal spores being produced in
+organs called _asci_. Typically, an _ascus_ is a cylindrical or club-shaped
+structure containing at maturity eight _ascospores_, which are usually
+liberated explosively and thereafter dispersed by the wind. As a rule
+numerous asci are massed together in a layer or _ascus-hymenium_, which is
+variously disposed on a more or less massive fruit-body, according to the
+form and structure of which the group is further subdivided into a number
+of sections and families, the chief being Erysiphales, Plectascineæ,
+Pyrenomycetes, Discomycetes (q.v.).
+
+ASCO´NIUS (Quintus A. Pedianus), a Roman writer of the first century A.D.,
+who wrote a life of Sallust, a reply to the detractors of Virgil, and
+commentaries on Cicero's orations, some of which are extant.
+
+AS´COT, an English race-course adjacent to the S.W. extremity of the great
+park of Windsor. The races, which take place in the second week in June,
+constitute, for value of stakes and quality of horses, the best meeting of
+the year, as it is the most fashionable.
+
+AS´GARD (literally, gods' yard, or the abode of the gods), in Scandinavian
+mythology the home of the gods or _Æsir_, rising, like the Greek Olympus,
+from _midgard_, or the middle world, that is, the earth. It was here that
+Odin and the rest of the gods, the twelve Æsir, dwelt--the gods in the
+mansion called Gladsheim, the goddesses dwelling in Vingulf. Walhalla, in
+which heroes slain in battle dwelt, was also here. Below the boughs of the
+ash tree Yggdrasill the gods assembled every day in council.
+
+ASGILL (as´gil), John, an eccentric English writer, a lawyer by profession,
+born 1659, died 1738. In 1699 he published a pamphlet to prove that
+Christians were not necessarily liable to death, death being the penalty
+imposed for Adam's sin and Christ having satisfied the law. Having crossed
+over to Ireland, he was beginning to get into a good practice, and was
+elected to the Irish House of Commons, when his pamphlet was ordered to be
+burned by the public hangman, and he himself was expelled the House. His
+whole subsequent life was passed in pecuniary and other troubles, mostly in
+the Fleet or within the rules of the King's Bench.
+
+ASH (_Frax[)i]nus_), a genus of deciduous trees belonging to the nat. ord.
+Oleaceæ, having imperfect flowers and a seed-vessel prolonged into a thin
+wing at the apex (called a _samara_). There are a good many species,
+chiefly indigenous to North America. The common ash (_F. excelsior_), the
+only species indigenous to Central and Northern Europe, has a smooth bark,
+and grows tall and rather slender. The branches are flattened; the leaves
+have five pairs of pinnæ, terminated by an odd one, dark-green in colour;
+lanceolate, with serrated edges. The flowers are produced in loose spikes
+from the sides of the branches, and are succeeded by flat seeds which ripen
+in autumn. It is one of the most useful of British trees on account of the
+excellence of its hard tough wood and the rapidity of its growth, but often
+suffers greatly from a canker caused by the fungus _Nectria ditissima_.
+There are many varieties of it, as the weeping-ash, the curled-leaved ash,
+the entire-leaved ash, &c. The flowering or manna ash (_F. Ornus_), by some
+placed in a distinct genus (Ornus), is a native of the south of Europe and
+Palestine. It yields the substance called manna, which is obtained by
+making incisions in the bark, when the juice exudes and hardens. Among
+American species are the white ash (_F. americana_), with lighter bark and
+leaves; the red or black ash (_F. pubescens_), with a brown bark; the black
+ash (_F. sambucifolia_), the blue ash, the green ash, &c. They are all
+valuable trees. The mountain-ash or rowan belongs to a different order.
+
+[Illustration: Common Ash (_Frax[)i]nus excelsior_)
+
+1, Hermaphrodite flower. 2, Anthers of male flower.]
+
+ASH, or ASHES, the incombustible residue of organic bodies (animal or
+vegetable) remaining after combustion; in common usage, any incombustible
+residue of bodies used as fuel; as a commercial term, the word generally
+means the ashes of vegetable substances, from which are extracted the
+alkaline matters called potash, pearl-ash, kelp, barilla, &c.
+
+ASHAN´GO, a region in the interior of Southern Africa between lat. 1° and
+2° S., and between the Ogowe and the Lower Congo, a mountainous country in
+the French territory. The inhabitants belong to the Bantu stock, and among
+them are a dwarfish people, the Obongo, said to be about 4½ feet high at
+most.
+
+ASHANTI´, a British territory in West Africa belonging to the Gold Coast
+Colony, of which it forms a large inland portion, under a chief
+commissioner; area about 20,000 sq. miles. It is in great part hilly,
+well-watered, and covered with dense tropical vegetation, and rich forests
+with excellent timber trees. The country round the towns, however, is
+carefully cultivated. The crops are chiefly rice, maize, millet,
+sugar-cane, cocoa, and yams, the last forming the staple vegetable food of
+the natives. Rubber is also a product. The domestic animals are cows,
+horses of small size, goats, and a species of hairy sheep. The wild animals
+include the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, lion, hippopotamus, &c. Birds
+are numerous, and crocodiles and other reptiles abound. Gold is abundant,
+and mining concessions are now successfully worked. The Ashantis make
+excellent cotton and silk cloths, articles in gold and other metals,
+earthenware, leather, &c. Ashanti used to form a kingdom ruled
+despotically, human sacrifices being very common. It is now under British
+administration, and attention is given to education, sanitation,
+agriculture, means of communication, &c. There are Government schools at
+Coomassie and Sunyani and a number of missionary schools. The chief town is
+Coomassie (or Kumassi), now reached by a railway from the coast (length 168
+miles); its population is 24,000. The British first came in contact with
+the Ashantis in 1807, and hostilities continued off and on till 1826, when
+they were driven from the sea-coast. Immediately after the transfer of the
+Dutch settlements on the Gold Coast to Britain in 1872--when the entire
+coast remained in British hands--the Ashantis reclaimed the sovereignty of
+the tribes round the settlement of Elmina. This brought on a war, leading
+to a British expedition in 1874, in which Coomassie was captured. In 1896
+the country became a British protectorate. In 1901 a rebellion had to be
+put down, and next year Ashanti was fully annexed. Pop. 287,814
+(1911).--Cf. R. A. Freeman, _Travels and Life in Ashantee and Jaman_.
+
+ASH´BOURNE, a town of England, in Derbyshire, 12 miles N.W. of Derby, with
+manufactures of cottons and lace. Pop. 4039.
+
+ASH´BURTON, a town in Devonshire, England, 16 miles S.W. of Exeter, a
+parliamentary borough till 1868, and till 1918 giving name to a
+parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), 2362.
+
+ASH´BURTON, Alexander Baring, Lord, a British statesman and financier, born
+1774, died 1848. A younger son of Sir Francis Baring, he was bred to
+commercial pursuits, which for some years kept him in the United States and
+Canada, and in 1810 he became head of the great firm of Baring Brothers &
+Co. He sat in Parliament from 1806 to 1835, when he was raised to the
+peerage, after being a member of Peel's Government (1834-5).
+
+ASH´BURTON TREATY, a treaty concluded at Washington, 1842, by Alexander
+Baring, Lord Ashburton, and the President of the United States; it defined
+the boundaries between the States and Canada, &c.
+
+ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH (ash´bi-del-a-zöch´), a town in Leicestershire, England,
+on the borders of Derbyshire, with manufactures of hosiery, leather, &c.
+Pop. (1921), 4983.
+
+ASH´DOD, a place on the coast of Palestine, formerly one of the chief
+cities of the Philistines, now an insignificant village.
+
+A´SHER, one of Jacob's sons, and founder of the tribe called after him, who
+occupied a fertile territory in Palestine along the coast between Carmel
+and Lebanon.
+
+ASHE´RA, an ancient Semitic goddess whose symbol was the phallus. In the
+Revised Version of the Old Testament this word is used to translate what in
+the Authorized Version is translated "grove", as connected with the
+idolatrous practices into which the Jews were prone to fall.
+
+ASH´FORD, a thriving town of England, in Kent, situated near the confluence
+of the upper branches of the River Stour, with large locomotive and
+railway-carriage works. It gives name to a parliamentary division of the
+county. Pop. (1921), 14,355.
+
+ASHINGTON, an urban district or town of England, Northumberland, north-east
+of Morpeth, and about 2 miles from the sea, in a district of collieries.
+Pop. (1921), 29,406.
+
+ASHI´RA, a native race or people of Western Equatorial Africa, to the south
+of the Ogowe River, in the French Congo Territory.
+
+ASH´LAND, a city of the United States, in Wisconsin. Pop. (1920),
+11,334.--Also a city of Kentucky. Pop. (1920), 14,729.
+
+ASH´LAR, masonry consisting of stones squared and smoothed in front and
+built in regular courses.
+
+ASHLEY, LORD. See _Shaftesbury, First Earl of_.
+
+ASHMEAD-BARTLETT, Sir Ellis, English politician, born in 1849. He entered
+Parliament in 1880, and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from 1885 to 1892.
+He served in the Græco-Turkish and South African wars, and was knighted in
+1892. He died in 1902.
+
+ASH´MOLE, Elias, English antiquary, born 1617, died 1692. He became a
+chancery solicitor in London, but afterwards studied at Oxford, taking up
+mathematics, physics, chemistry, and particularly astrology. He published
+_Theatrum Chymicum_ in 1652. On the Restoration he received the post of
+Windsor Herald, and other appointments both honourable and lucrative. In
+1672 appeared his _History of the Order of the Garter_. He presented to the
+University of Oxford his collection of rarities, to which he afterwards
+added his books and MSS., thereby commencing the Ashmolean Museum.
+
+ASH´TAROTH. See _Astarte_.
+
+ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD, a town of Lancashire, England, 4 miles from Wigan,
+with collieries, cotton-mills, &c. Pop. (1921), 22,489.
+
+ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Lancashire,
+England, 6 miles east of Manchester, on the north bank of the River Tame, a
+well-built place, with handsome streets and public buildings. The chief
+employment is the cotton manufacture, but there are also collieries and
+ironworks, which employ a great many persons. Pop. 51,080; (municipal
+borough) (1921), 43,333.
+
+ASHTON-UPON-MERSEY, a town or urban district of England, Cheshire, on the
+south side of the Mersey, several miles south-west of Manchester. Pop.
+(1921), 7780.
+
+ASHURA´DA, a small island in the S.E. corner of the Caspian, formed by
+Russia into a trading station.
+
+ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, so called from a custom in the
+Western Church of sprinkling ashes that day on the heads of penitents, then
+admitted to penance. The period at which the fast of Ash-Wednesday was
+instituted is uncertain; but it probably dates from the eighth century at
+least. In the Roman Catholic Church the ashes are now strewn on the heads
+of all the clergy and people present. In the Anglican Church Ash-Wednesday
+is regarded as an important fast day.
+
+ASIA, the largest of the great divisions of the earth; length, from the
+extreme south-western point of Arabia, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, to
+the extreme north-eastern point of Siberia--East Cape, or Cape Vostochni,
+in Behring's Strait--6900 miles; breadth, from Cape Chelyuskin, in Northern
+Siberia, to Cape Romania, the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula,
+5300 miles; area estimated at 17,250,000 sq. miles, about a third of all
+the land of the earth's surface. On three sides, N., E., and S., the ocean
+forms its natural boundary, while in the W. the frontier is marked mainly
+by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, the Black
+Sea, the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal, and the Red Sea. There is no proper
+separation between Asia and Europe, the latter being really a great
+peninsula of the former. Asia, though not so irregular in shape as Europe,
+is broken in the S. by three great peninsulas, Arabia, Hindustan, and
+Farther India, while the east coast presents peninsular projections and
+islands, forming a series of sheltered seas and bays, the principal
+peninsulas being Kamtshatka and Corea. The principal islands are those
+forming the Malay or Asiatic Archipelago, which stretch round in a wide
+curve on the S.E. of the continent. Besides the larger islands--Sumatra,
+Java, Borneo, Celebes, Mindanao, and Luzon (in the Philippine group)--there
+are countless smaller islands grouped round these. Other islands are
+Ceylon, in the S. of India; the Japanese Islands and Sakhalin on the E. of
+the continent; Formosa, S.E. of China; Cyprus, S. of Asia Minor; and New
+Siberia and Wrangell, in the Arctic Ocean.
+
+The mountain systems of Asia are of great extent, and their culminating
+points are the highest in the world. The greatest of all is the Himálaya
+system, which lies mainly between long. 70° and 100° E. and lat. 28° and
+37° N. It extends, roughly speaking, from north-west to south-east, its
+total length being about 1500 miles, forming the northern barrier of
+Hindustan. The loftiest summits are Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high,
+Godwin-Austen, 28,265, and Kanchinjinga, 28,156. The principal passes,
+which rise to the height of 18,000 to 20,000 feet, are the highest in the
+world. A second great mountain system of Central Asia, connected with the
+north-western extremity of the Himálaya system by the elevated region of
+Pamir (about long. 70°-75° E., lat. 37°-40° N.), is the Thian-Shan system,
+which runs north-eastward for a distance of 1200 miles. In this direction
+the Altai, Sayan, and other ranges continue the line of elevations to the
+north-eastern coast. A north-western continuation of the Himálaya is the
+Hindu Kush, and farther westward a connection may be traced between the
+Himálaya mass and the Elburz range (18,460) feet, south of the Caspian, and
+thence to the mountains of Kurdistan, Armenia, and Asia Minor.
+
+There are vast plateaux and elevated valley regions connected with the
+great central mountain systems, but large portions of the continent are low
+and flat. Tibet forms the most elevated table-land in Asia, its mean height
+being estimated at 15,000 feet. On its south is the Himálayan range, while
+the Kuen-Lun range forms its northern barrier. Another great but much lower
+plateau is that which comprises Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Persia, and
+which to the north-west joins into the plateau of Asia Minor. The principal
+plain of Asia is that of Siberia, which extends along the north of the
+continent and forms an immense alluvial tract sloping to the Arctic Ocean.
+Vast swamps or peat-mosses called _tundras_ cover large portions of this
+region. South-west of Siberia, and stretching eastward from the Caspian, is
+a low-lying tract consisting to a great extent of steppes and deserts, and
+including in its area the Sea of Aral. In the east of China there is an
+alluvial plain of some 200,000 sq. miles in extent; in Hindustan are plains
+extending for 2000 miles along the south slope of the Himálaya; and between
+Arabia and Persia, watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, is the plain of
+Mesopotamia or Assyria, one of the richest in the world. Of the deserts of
+Asia the largest is that of Gobi (long. 90°-120° E., lat. 40°-48° N.),
+large portions of which are covered with nothing but sand or display a
+surface of bare rock. An almost continuous desert region may also be traced
+from the desert of North Africa through Arabia (which is largely occupied
+by bare deserts), Persia, and Baluchistan to the Indus.
+
+POLITICAL MAP OF ASIA
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Some of the largest rivers of Asia flow northward to the Arctic Ocean--the
+Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena. The Hoang-Ho and Yang-tse, and the Amoor,
+are the chief of those which flow into the Pacific. The Ganges,
+Brahmaputra, Irawadi, and Indus flow into the Indian Ocean. The Persian
+Gulf receives the united waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris. There are
+several systems of inland drainage, large rivers falling into lakes which
+have no outlet.
+
+The largest lake of Asia (partly also European) is the Caspian Sea, which
+receives the Kur from the Caucasus (with its tributary the Aras from
+Armenia), and the Sefid Rud and other streams from Persia (besides the
+Volga from European Russia, and the Ural, which is partly European, partly
+Asiatic). The Caspian lies in the centre of a great depression, being 83
+feet below the level of the Sea of Azov. East from the Caspian is the Sea
+of Aral, which, like the Caspian, has no outlet, and is fed by the Rivers
+Amu-Darya (Oxus) and Syr-Darya. Still farther east, to the north of the
+Thian-Shan Mountains, and fed by the Ili and other streams, is Lake
+Balkhash, also without an outlet and very salt. Other lakes having no
+communication with the ocean are Lob Nor, in the desert of Gobi, receiving
+the River Tarim, and the Dead Sea, far below the level of the
+Mediterranean, and fed by the Jordan. The chief fresh-water lake is Lake
+Baikal, in the south of Siberia, between long. 104° and 110° E., a mountain
+lake from which the Yenisei draws a portion of its waters.
+
+Geologically speaking, large areas of Asia are of comparatively recent
+date, the lowlands of Siberia, for instance, being submerged during the
+tertiary period, if not more recently. Many geologists believe that
+subsequently to the glacial period there was a great sea in Western Asia,
+of which the Caspian and Aral Seas are the remains. The desiccation of
+Central Asia is still going on, as is also probably the upheaval of a great
+part of the continent. The great mountain chains and elevated plateaux are
+of ancient origin, however, and in them granite and other crystalline rocks
+are largely represented. Active volcanoes are only met with in the extreme
+east (Kamtchatka) and in the Eastern Archipelago. From the remotest times
+Asia has been celebrated for its mineral wealth. In the Altai and Ural
+Mountains gold, iron, lead, and platinum are found; in India and other
+parts rubies, diamonds, and other gems are, or have been, procured; salt in
+Central Asia; coal in China, India, Central Asia, &c.; petroleum in the
+districts about the Caspian and in Burmah; bitumen in Syria; while silver,
+copper, sulphur, &c., are found in various parts.
+
+Every variety of climate may be experienced in Asia, but as a whole it is
+marked by extremes of heat and cold and by great dryness, this in
+particular being the case with vast regions in the centre of the continent
+and distant from the sea. The great lowland region of Siberia has a short
+but very hot summer, and a long but intensely cold winter, the rivers and
+their estuaries being fast bound with ice, and at a certain depth the soil
+is hard frozen all the year round. The northern part of China to the east
+of Central Asia has a temperate climate with a warm summer, and in the
+extreme north a severe winter. The districts lying to the south of the
+central region, comprising the Indian and Indo-Chinese Peninsulas, Southern
+China, and the adjacent islands, present the characteristic climate and
+vegetation of the southern temperate and tropical regions modified by the
+effects of altitude. Some localities in Southern Asia have the heaviest
+rainfall anywhere known. As the equator is approached the extremes of
+temperature diminish till at the southern extremity of the continent they
+are such as may be experienced in any tropical country. Among climatic
+features are the monsoons of the Indian Ocean and the eastern seas, and the
+cyclones or typhoons, which are often very destructive.
+
+The plants and animals of Northern and Western Asia generally resemble
+those of similar latitudes in Europe (which is really a prolongation of the
+Asiatic continent), differing more in species than in genera. The principal
+mountain trees are the pine, larch, and birch; the willow, alder, and
+poplar are found in lower grounds. In the central region European species
+reach as far as the Western and Central Himálaya, but are rare in the
+Eastern. They are here met by Chinese and Japanese forms. The lower slopes
+of the Himálaya are clothed almost exclusively with tropical forms. Higher
+up, between 4000 and 10,000 feet, are found all the types of trees and
+plants that belong to the temperate zone, there being extensive forests of
+conifers. Here is the native home of the deodar cedar. The south-eastern
+region, including India, the Eastern Peninsula, and China, with the
+islands, contains a vast variety of plants useful to man and having here
+their original habitat, such as the sugar-cane, rice, cotton, and indigo,
+pepper, cinnamon, cassia, clove, nutmeg, and cardamoms, banana, coco-nut,
+areca, and sago palms; the mango and many other fruits, with plants
+producing a vast number of drugs, caoutchouc, and gutta-percha. The forests
+of India and the Malay Peninsula contain oak, teak, sâl, and other timber
+woods, besides bamboos, palms, sandal-wood, &c. The palmyra palm is
+characteristic of Southern India; while the talipot palm flourishes on the
+western coast of Hindustan, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula. The cultivated
+plants of India and China include wheat, barley, rice, maize, millet,
+sugar-cane, tea, coffee, indigo, cotton, jute, opium, tobacco, &c. In North
+China and the Japanese Islands large numbers of deciduous trees occur, such
+as oaks, maples, limes, walnuts, poplars, and willows, the genera being
+European but the individual species Asiatic. Among cultivated plants are
+wheat, and in favourable situations rice, cotton, the vine, &c. Coffee,
+rice, sugar, &c., are extensively grown in some of the islands of the
+Asiatic Archipelago. In Arabia and the warmer valleys of Persia,
+Afghanistan, and Baluchistan aromatic shrubs are abundant. Over large parts
+of these regions the date palm flourishes and affords a valuable article of
+food. Gum-producing acacias are, with the date palm, the commonest trees in
+Arabia. African forms are found extending from the Sahara along the desert
+region of Asia.
+
+Nearly all the mammals of Europe are found in Northern Asia, with numerous
+additions to the species. Central Asia is the native land of the horse, the
+ass, the ox, the sheep, and the goat. Both varieties of the camel, the
+single and the double humped, are Asiatic. To the inhabitants of Tibet and
+the higher plateaux of the Himálaya the yak is what the reindeer is to the
+tribes of the Siberian plain, almost their sole wealth and support. The
+elephant, of a different species from that of Africa, is a native of
+tropical Asia. The Asiatic lion, which inhabits Arabia and Persia, and
+still exists in the north-west of India, is smaller than the African
+species. Bears are found in all parts, the white bear in the far north, and
+other species in the more temperate and tropical parts. The tiger is the
+most characteristic of the larger Asiatic Carnivora. It is found in Armenia
+and throughout the entire continent, being absent, however, from the
+greater portion of Siberia and from the high table-land of Tibet; it is
+found also in Sumatra, Java, and Bali. In South-Eastern Asia and the
+islands we find the rhinoceros, buffalo, ox, deer, squirrels, porcupines,
+&c. In birds nearly every order is represented. Among the most interesting
+forms are the hornbills, the peacock, the Impey pheasant, the tragopan or
+horned pheasant, and other gallinaceous birds, the pheasant family being
+very characteristic of South-Eastern Asia. It was from Asia that the common
+domestic fowl was introduced into Europe. The tropical parts of Asia abound
+in monkeys, of which the species are numerous. Some are tailed, others,
+such as the orang, are tailless, but none have prehensile tails like the
+American monkeys. In the Malay Archipelago marsupial animals, so
+characteristic of Australia, first occur in the Moluccas and Celebes, while
+various mammals common in the western part of the Archipelago are absent. A
+similar transition towards the Australian type takes place in the species
+of birds. (See _Wallace's Line_.) Of marine mammals the dugong is peculiar
+to the Indian Ocean; in the Ganges is found a peculiar species of dolphin.
+At the head of the reptiles stands the Gangetic crocodile, frequenting the
+Ganges and other large rivers. Among the serpents are the cobra de capello,
+one of the most deadly snakes in existence; there are also large boas and
+pythons, besides sea and fresh-water snakes. The seas and rivers produce a
+great variety of fish. The Salmonidæ are found in the rivers flowing into
+the Arctic Ocean. Two rather remarkable fishes are the climbing perch and
+the archer-fish. The well-known goldfish is a native of China.
+
+Asia is mainly peopled by races belonging to two great ethnographic types,
+the Caucasic or fair type, and the Mongolic or yellow. To the former belong
+the Aryan, or Indo-European, and the Semitic races, both of which mainly
+inhabit the south-west of the continent; to the latter belong the Malays
+and Indo-Chinese in the S.E., as well as the Mongolians proper (Chinese,
+&c.), occupying nearly all the rest of the continent. To these may be added
+certain races of doubtful affinities, as the Dravidians of Southern India,
+the Cingalese of Ceylon, the Ainos of Yesso, and some negro-like tribes
+called Negritos, which inhabit Malacca and the interior of several of the
+islands of the Eastern Archipelago. The total population is estimated at
+823,000,000, or more than half that of the whole world, of which
+330,000,000 inhabit Chinese territory, 302,000,000 British, and 25,000,000
+Russian. Portions of Asia are under the control of European Powers (Russia,
+Great Britain, Holland, France), of the United States of America, China,
+and Japan. The chief States are China, Japan, Corea, Siam, Afghanistan,
+Persia, and Arabia. The chief religions are the Brahmanism of India, the
+Buddhism of Burmah, China, &c., the creeds of Confucius and Lao-tse in
+China, and the various forms of Mahommedanism in Arabia, Persia, India, &c.
+More than a half of the whole population profess some form of Buddhism.
+Several native Christian sects are found in India, Armenia, Kurdistan, and
+Syria.
+
+Asia is generally regarded as the cradle of the human race. It possesses
+the oldest historical documents, and, next to the immediately contiguous
+kingdom of Egypt, the oldest historical monuments in the world. The Old
+Testament contains the oldest historical records which we have of any
+nation in the form of distinct narrative. The period at which Moses wrote
+was probably 1500 or 1600 years before the Christian era. His and the later
+Jewish writings confine themselves almost exclusively to the history of the
+Hebrews; but in Babylonia, as in Egypt, civilization had made great
+advances long before this time. The earliest seat of the Aryan race some
+assign to the banks of the Oxus. Hence, perhaps from the pressure of the
+Mongolian tribes to the north, they spread themselves to the south-east and
+south-west, finally occupying Northern India, Persia, and other parts of
+Western Asia, and spreading into Europe, perhaps about 2000-1500 B.C. In
+China authentic history extends back probably to about 1000 B.C., with a
+long preceding period of which the names of dynasties are preserved without
+chronological arrangement. The kingdoms of Assyria, Babylonia, Media, and
+Persia predominated by turns in South-Western Asia. In regard to the
+history of these monarchies, much light has been obtained from the
+decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions. The arms of the Pharaohs
+extended into Asia, but their conquests there were short-lived. From Cyrus
+(559 B.C.), who extended the empire of Persia from the Indus to the
+Mediterranean, while his son, Cambyses, added Egypt and Libya to it, to the
+conquest of Alexander (330 B.C.) Persia was the dominant Power in Western
+Asia. Alexander's great empire became broken up into separate kingdoms,
+which were finally absorbed in the Roman Empire, and this ultimately
+extended to the Tigris. Soon after the most civilized portions of the three
+continents had been reduced under one empire, the great event took place
+which forms the dividing-line of history, the birth of Christ and the
+spread of Christianity. In A.D. 226 a protracted struggle began between the
+newer Persian Empire and the Romans, which lasted till the advent of
+Mahomet, and the conquests of the Arabians. Persia was the first great
+conquest of Mahomet's followers. Syria and Egypt soon fell before their
+arms, and within forty years of the celebrated flight of Mahomet from Mecca
+(the _Hejra_), the sixth of the caliphs, or successors of the Prophet, was
+the most powerful sovereign of Asia. The Mongols next became the dominant
+race. In 999 Mahmud, whose father, born a Turkish slave, became Governor of
+Ghazni, conquered India, and established his rule. The dynasty of the
+Seljuk Tartars was established in Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium, and Kharism,
+and was distinguished for its struggles with the Crusaders. Othman, an emir
+of the Seljuk sultan of Iconium, established the Ottoman Empire in 1300.
+About 1220 Genghis Khan, an independent Mongol chief, made himself master
+of Central Asia, conquered Northern China, overran Turkestan, Afghanistan,
+and Persia; his successors took Bagdad and abolished the caliphate. In Asia
+Minor they overthrew the Seljuk dynasty. One of them, Timur or Tamerlane,
+carried fire and sword over Northern India and Western Asia, defeated and
+took prisoner Bajazet, the descendant of Othman (1402), and received
+tribute from the Greek emperor. The Ottoman Empire soon recovered from the
+blow inflicted by Timur, and Constantinople was taken and the Eastern
+Empire finally overthrown by the Sultan Mohammed II in 1453. China
+recovered its independence about 1368 and was again subjected by the Manchu
+Tartars (1618-45), soon after which it began to extend its empire over
+Central Asia. Siberia was conquered by the Cossacks on behalf of Russia
+(1580-4). The same country effected a settlement in the Caucasus about
+1786, and has since continued to make steady advances into Central Asia.
+The discovery by the Portuguese of the passage to India by the Cape of Good
+Hope led to their establishment on the coast of the peninsula (1498). They
+were speedily followed by the Spanish, Dutch, French, and British. The
+struggle between the two last Powers for the supremacy of India was
+completed by the destruction of the French settlements (1760-5). At present
+the forms of government in Asia range from the primitive rule of the nomad
+sheik to the constitutional monarchy of Japan.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sven Hedin,
+_Through Asia_; H. F. Blanford, _Elementary Geography of India, Burma, and
+Ceylon_; Max. Müller, _The Sacred Books of the East_; A. Little, _The Far
+East_; R. Cobbold, _Innermost Asia_; Colonel A. Durand, _The Making of a
+Frontier_; J. G. C. Chamberlain, _Continents and their Peoples_; E.
+Huntington, _The Pulse of Asia_; E. C. Hannah, _Eastern Asia_.
+
+ASIA, CENTRAL, a designation loosely given to the regions in the centre of
+Asia east of the Caspian, also called Turkestan, and formerly Tartary. The
+eastern portion belongs to China, the western to Russia. Russian Central
+Asia comprises the Kirghiz Steppe (Uralsk, Turgai, Akmolinsk,
+Semipalatinsk, &c.), and what was the government-general of Turkestan till
+1918, besides the territory of the Turkomans, or Transcaspia and Merv. See
+_Turkestan, Republic of_.
+
+ASIA MINOR, the most westerly portion of Asia, being the peninsula lying
+west of the Upper Euphrates, and forming part of Asiatic Turkey. It forms
+an extensive plateau, with lofty mountains rising above it, the most
+extensive ranges being the Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which border it on the
+south and south-east, and rise to over 10,000 feet. There are numerous
+salt- and freshwater lakes. The chief rivers are the Kizil-Irmak (Halys),
+Sakaria (Sangarius), entering the Black Sea; and the Sarabat (Hermus) and
+Menderes (Mæander), entering the Ægean. The coast regions are generally
+fertile, and have a genial climate; the interior is largely arid and
+dreary. Valuable forests and fruit-trees abound. Smyrna is the chief town.
+_Anatolia_ is an equivalent name. See _European War_; _Turkey_.
+
+ASIAGO, a town in Italy in the province of Vicenza, capital of the Seven
+Communes (Sette Communi). In the great European War several battles were
+fought on the Asiago Plateau. The town was evacuated by the Italians on
+28th May, 1916, but retaken on 25th June, 1916. See _European War_.
+
+ASIATIC SOCIETIES, learned bodies instituted for the purpose of collecting
+information respecting the different countries of Asia, such as the Asiatic
+Society of Bengal, founded in 1784 by Sir William Jones; and the Royal
+Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, established by Colebrooke,
+and opened in 1823. There are similar societies on the European Continent
+and in America, such as the Société Asiatique at Paris, founded in 1822;
+the Oriental Society of Germany (Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft),
+founded in 1845; and the Oriental Society at Boston, founded in 1842.
+
+ASIPHONA´TA, or ASIPHON´IDA, an order of lamellibranchiate, bivalve
+molluscs, destitute of the siphon or tube through which, in the Siphonata,
+the water that enters the gills is passed outwards. It includes the
+oysters, the scallop-shells, the pearl-oyster, the mussels, and in general
+the most useful and valuable molluscs.
+
+ASIR. See _Hejaz_.
+
+ASKABAD´, the administrative centre of the Russian province of Transcaspia,
+situated in the Akhal Tekke oasis, and occupied by Skobelev in Jan., 1881,
+after the sack of Geok Tepé. Its distance from Merv is 232 miles, from
+Herat 388 miles. Pop. 54,000.
+
+AS´KEW, Anne, a victim of religious persecution, born 1521, martyred 1546.
+She was a daughter of Sir William Askew of Lincolnshire, and was married to
+a wealthy neighbour named Kyme, who, irritated by her Protestantism, drove
+her from his house. In London, whither she went probably to procure a
+divorce, she spoke against the dogmas of the old faith, and, being tried,
+was condemned to death as a heretic. Being put to the rack to extort a
+confession concerning those with whom she corresponded, she continued firm,
+and was then taken to Smithfield, chained to a stake, and burned.
+
+ASKJA ([.a]sk´y[.a]), a volcano near the centre of Iceland, first brought
+into notice by an eruption in 1875. Its crater is 17 miles in
+circumference, surrounded by a mountain-ring from 500 to 1000 feet high,
+the height of the mountain itself being between 4000 and 5000 feet.
+
+AS´MANNSHAUSEN (-hou-zn), a Prussian village on the Rhine, in the district
+of Wiesbaden, celebrated for its wine. Many judges prefer the red wine of
+Asmannshausen to the best Burgundy, but it retains its merits for three or
+four years only.
+
+ASMO´DAI, or ASMO´DEUS, an evil spirit, who, as related in the book of
+Tobit, slew seven husbands of Sara, daughter of Raguel, but was driven away
+into the uttermost parts of Egypt by the young Tobias under the direction
+of the angel Raphael. Asmodai signifies a desolater, a destroying angel,
+identical with the demon A[=e]shma of the Zend-Avesta. He is represented in
+the Talmud as the prince of demons who drove King Solomon from his kingdom.
+
+ASMONÆ´ANS, a family of high priests and princes who ruled over the Jews
+for about 130 years, from 153 B.C., when Jonathan, son of Mattathias, the
+great-grandson of Chasmon or Asmonæus, was nominated to the
+high-priesthood.
+
+ASNIÈRES (än-y[=a]r), a town on the Seine, a N.W. suburb of Paris, a
+favourite boating resort of the Parisians. Pop. 42,583.
+
+ASO´KA, an Indian sovereign who reigned from 264 to 228 B.C. over the whole
+of Northern India, grandson of Chandragupta or Sandracottus. He embraced
+Buddhism, and forced his subjects also to become converts. Many temples and
+_stupas_, or brick cupolas, still remaining are attributed to him.
+
+ASO´KA (_Jonesia as[=o]ca_), an Indian tree, nat. ord. Leguminosæ, having a
+lovely flower, showing orange, scarlet, and bright-yellow tints; sacred to
+the god Siva, and often mentioned in Indian literature.
+
+ASO´PUS, the name of several rivers in Greece, of which the most celebrated
+is in Boeotia.
+
+[Illustration: Asp (_Naja haje_)]
+
+ASP, or ASPIC (_Naja_, or _Vip[)e]ra haje_), a species of viper found in
+Egypt, resembling the cobra de capello or spectacle-serpent of the East
+Indies, and having a very venomous bite. When approached or disturbed it
+elevates its head and body, swells out its neck, and appears to stand erect
+to attack the aggressor. Hence the ancient Egyptians believed that the asps
+were guardians of the spots they inhabited, and the figure of this reptile
+was adopted as an emblem of the protecting genius of the world. The
+balancing motions made by it in the endeavour to maintain the erect
+attitude have led to the employment of the asp as a dancing serpent by the
+African jugglers. The "deaf adder that stoppeth her ear" of _Psalm_ lviii,
+4, 5 is translated asp in the margin, and seems to have been this species.
+Cleopatra is said to have committed suicide by means of an asp's bite, but
+the incident is generally associated with the Cerastes or horned viper, not
+with the haje. The name asp is also given to a viper (_Vipera aspis_)
+common on the continent of Europe.
+
+ASPARAGINE, or AMINOSUCCINAMIC ACID, CH_2CONH_2, CH(NH_2)COOH, is a white
+crystalline substance of unpleasant acid taste found in the shoots of
+asparagus, in potato and dahlia tribes, and in many other plants, from
+which it may be extracted by means of water.
+
+ASPAR´AGUS (_Aspar[)a]gus officin[=a]lis_), a plant of the order Liliaceæ,
+the young shoots of which, cut as they are emerging from the ground, are a
+favourite culinary vegetable. In Greece, and especially in the southern
+steppes of Russia and Poland, it is found in profusion; and its edible
+qualities were esteemed by the ancients. Pliny states that asparagus was in
+his time cultivated in gardens, particularly at Ravenna. The best asparagus
+is grown in gardens near the sea, and hundreds of acres are devoted to its
+cultivation in Holland and Belgium. It grows wild in Essex and
+Lincolnshire, but does not attain nearly to the size of the cultivated
+plant. It is usually raised from seed; and the plants should remain three
+years in the ground before they are cut; after which, for several years,
+they will continue to afford a regular annual supply. The beds are
+protected by straw or litter in winter. Its diuretic properties are
+ascribed to the presence of a crystalline substance found also in the
+potato, lettuce, &c.
+
+ASPA´SIA, a celebrated woman of ancient Greece, was born at Miletus, in
+Ionia, but passed a great part of her life at Athens, where her house was
+the general resort of the most distinguished men in Greece. She won the
+affection of Pericles, who united himself to Aspasia as closely as was
+permitted by the Athenian law, which declared marriage with a foreign woman
+illegal. Her power in the State has often been exaggerated, but it is
+beyond question that her genius left its mark upon the administration of
+Pericles. In 432-431 B.C. she was accused of impiety, and was only saved
+from condemnation by the eloquence and tears of Pericles. After his death
+(429 B.C.) Aspasia is said to have attached herself to a wealthy but
+obscure cattle-dealer of the name of Lysicles, whom she raised to a
+position of influence in Athens. Nothing more is known of her life. She had
+a son by Pericles, who was legitimated (430 B.C.) by a special decree of
+the people. There is a bust bearing her name in the Pio Clementino Museum
+in the Vatican.
+
+ASPATRIA, a town (urban district) of England, Cumberland, 8 miles
+north-east of Maryport, with an agricultural college. Pop. 3340.
+
+AS´PE, a town of Southern Spain, province of Alicante. Pop. (1921), 3525.
+
+AS´PECT, in astrology, denotes the situation of the planets with respect to
+each other. There are five different major aspects: the sextile, when the
+planets are 60° distant; quartile, when they are 90° distant; trine, when
+120° distant; opposition, when 180° distant; and conjunction, when both are
+in the same longitude. The aspects were classed by astrologers as _benign_,
+_malignant_, or _indifferent_, according to their fancied influences upon
+human affairs.
+
+ASPECT OF LAND. See _Exposure_.
+
+AS´PEN, or trembling poplar (_P[=o]p[)u]lus trem[)u]la_), a species of
+poplar indigenous to Britain and to most mountainous regions throughout
+Europe and Asia. It is a beautiful tree of rapid growth and extremely
+hardy, with nearly circular toothed leaves, smooth on both sides, and
+attached to footstalks so long and slender as to be shaken by the slightest
+wind; wood light, porous, soft, and of a white colour, useful for various
+purposes.
+
+ASPER, or ASPRE, a small Turkish coin, of which there are 120 in the
+piastre, value 1/54d.
+
+ASPERGILL´US, the brush used in Roman Catholic churches for sprinkling holy
+water on the people. It is said to have been originally made of hyssop.
+
+AS´PERN and ESSLINGEN (or ESSLING) (es´ling-en), two villages east of
+Vienna, and on the opposite bank of the Danube; celebrated as the chief
+contested positions in the bloody but indecisive battle fought between the
+Archduke Charles and Napoleon I, 21st and 22nd May, 1809, when it was
+estimated that the Austrians lost a third of their army, and the French no
+less than half.
+
+ASPER´ULA, the woodruff genus of plants.
+
+ASPHALT, or ASPHAL´TUM, the most common variety of bitumen; also called
+mineral pitch. Asphalt is a compact, glossy, brittle, black or brown
+mineral, which breaks with a polished fracture, melts easily with a strong
+pitchy odour when heated, and when pure burns without leaving any ashes. It
+is found in the earth in many parts of Asia, Europe, and America, and in a
+soft or liquid state on the surface of the Dead Sea, which, from this
+circumstance, was called _Asphalt[=i]tes_. It is of organic origin, the
+asphalt of the great Pitch Lake of Trinidad being derived from bituminous
+shales, containing vegetable remains in the process of transformation.
+Asphalt is produced artificially in making coal-gas. During the process
+much tarry matter is evolved and collected in retorts. If this be
+distilled, naphtha and other volatile matters escape, and asphalt is left
+behind. It is sometimes called _Jew's Pitch_.
+
+ASPHALTE (or ASPHALT) ROCK, a limestone impregnated with bitumen, found in
+large quantities in various localities in Europe, as in the Val de Travers,
+Neufchâtel, Switzerland; in the department of Ain in France; in Alsace,
+Hanover, Holstein, Sicily, &c. These rocks contain a variable quantity of
+bitumen (from 7 or 8 to 20 or 30 per cent) naturally diffused through them.
+The Val de Travers asphalt was discovered in 1710. In 1837 an English
+patent was taken out for its application to roads, pavements, terraces,
+areas, roofs, &c. Since then other asphalte-rocks, as well as artificial
+preparations made by mixing bitumen, gas-tar, pitch, or other materials
+with sand, chalk, &c., have been brought into competition with it.
+
+AS´PHODEL (_Asphod[)e]lus_), a genus of plants, ord. Liliaceæ, consisting
+of perennials, with fasciculated fleshy roots, flowers arranged in racemes,
+six stamens inserted at the base of the perianth, a sessile almost
+spherical ovary with two cells, each containing two ovules; fruit a capsule
+with three cells, in each of which there are, as a rule, two seeds. Two
+species are cultivated in Britain as garden flowers, the yellow asphodel
+(_Asphodelus lut[)e]us_) and the white asphodel (_Asphodelus albus_). The
+English word 'daffodil' is a perversion of asphodel. The _Asphodelus
+ram[=o]sus_, which attains a height of 5 feet, is cultivated in Algeria and
+elsewhere, its tubercles yielding a very pure alcohol, and the residue,
+together with the stalks and leaves, being used in making pasteboard and
+paper. The asphodel was a favourite plant among the ancients, who were in
+the habit of planting it round their tombs. In Greek religion it is
+associated with Persephone, the dead, and the underworld.
+
+ASPHYX´IA, literally, the state of a living animal in which no pulsation
+can be perceived, but the term is more particularly applied to a suspension
+of the vital functions from causes hindering respiration. The normal
+accompaniments of death from asphyxia are dark fluid blood, a congested
+brain and exceedingly congested lungs, the general engorgement of the
+viscera, and an absence of blood from the left cavities of the heart while
+the right cavities and pulmonary artery are gorged. The restoration of
+asphyxiated persons has been successfully accomplished at long periods
+after apparent death. The attempt should be made to maintain the heat of
+the body and to secure the inflation of the lungs as in the case of the
+apparently drowned. See _Respiratory System_.
+
+ASPHYXIATING GAS. See _Poison Gas_.
+
+ASPIC, a dish consisting of a clear savoury meat jelly, containing fowl,
+game, fish, &c.
+
+ASPIDISTRA, a genus of plants of the lily family, comprising three or four
+species, natives of China and Japan, being plants with large smooth oblong
+lanceolate leaves, rising from an underground rhizome, and with campanulate
+flowers of a dull purplish or brownish colour. They are now very common in
+Britain, being especially cultivated as indoor plants.
+
+ASPID´IUM, a genus of ferns, nat. ord. Polypodiaceæ, comprising the
+shield-fern and male-fern.
+
+AS´PINWALL. See _Colon_.
+
+AS´PIRATE, a name given to any sound like our _h_, to the letter _h_
+itself, or to any mark of aspiration, as the Greek rough breathing ([Greek:
+h]). Such characters or sounds as the Sanskrit _kh_, _gh_, _bh_, and the
+Greek _ch_, _th_, _ph_, are called _aspirates_.
+
+AS´PIRATOR, an instrument used to promote the flow of a gas from one vessel
+into another by means of a liquid. The simplest form of aspirator is a
+cylindrical vessel containing water, with a pipe at the upper end which
+communicates with the vessel containing the gas, and a pipe at the lower
+end also, with a stopcock and with its extremity bent up. By allowing a
+portion of the water to run off by the pipe at the lower part of the
+aspirator a measured quantity of air or other gas is sucked into the upper
+part.
+
+ASPLE´NIUM, a genus of ferns, of the nat. ord. Polypodiaceæ. Nine species
+are found in Britain, among them the well-known Wall-rue.
+
+ASPROMON´TE, a mountain of Italy in the south-west of Calabria, where
+Garibaldi was wounded and taken prisoner with the greater part of his army,
+in Aug., 1862.
+
+ASPROPOT´AMO. See _Achelous_.
+
+ASPULL, a town (urban district) of England, Lancashire, 2 or 3 miles
+north-east of Wigan, with large collieries and other works. Pop. 7851.
+
+ASQUITH, Herbert Henry, prominent politician of the Liberal party, born in
+1852, educated at City of London School and Balliol College, Oxford, where
+he graduated with high distinction. Called to the Bar in 1876, he became
+Q.C. in 1890; in 1886 was elected member of Parliament for East Fife, and
+held his seat for this constituency uninterruptedly until Dec., 1918, when
+he was defeated. From 1892 to 1895 he was Home Secretary, being also made a
+Privy Councillor in the former year. Both in regard to the South African
+War and various other questions, when out of office, he spoke more in
+harmony with the views of Lord Rosebery than with those of Sir H.
+Campbell-Bannerman, but under the latter he accepted the post of Chancellor
+of the Exchequer in the ministry formed in Dec., 1905. On the retirement of
+Sir Henry in 1908 he succeeded him as Prime Minister. He at once hastened
+to draw up the Liberal reform programme, the list of measures including the
+Lloyd George Budget (1909), the Parliament Act (1911), the Insurance Act,
+and the Irish Home Rule Bill. In May, 1915, a cabinet crisis having
+resulted from disagreements, Asquith formed a Coalition Government, eight
+Unionists being admitted. Towards the end of 1916 there was a feeling in
+the country not only that the Coalition cabinet of twenty-three ministers
+was unwieldy, but that Mr. Asquith's Government was not sufficiently
+energetic and showed too much hesitation in dealing with the vital problems
+of the war. Mr. Asquith therefore resigned on 5th Dec., 1916, and Mr. Lloyd
+George formed a new ministry. Unseated in the General Election of 1918, Mr.
+Asquith accepted the invitation to stand for Paisley in 1920. He was
+returned by a majority of 2834.
+
+AS´RAEL, the Mahommedan angel of death, who takes the soul from the body.
+
+ASS (_Equus as[)i]nus_), a species of the horse genus, supposed by Darwin
+to have sprung from the wild variety (_Asinus toeni[)o]pus_) found in
+Abyssinia; by some writers to be a descendant of the _on[)a]ger_ or wild
+ass, inhabiting the mountainous deserts of Tartary, &c.; and by others to
+have descended from the kiang or djiggetai (_A. hemi[)o]nus_) of
+South-Western Asia. The ass was used in Egypt long before the horse, and it
+played an important part in Homeric Greece. According to Aristotle,
+however, it was unknown in his time in Pontus, Scythia, and in the land of
+the Celts. The ass seems to have been introduced into England in the days
+of Ethelred, but did not become common before the end of the seventeenth
+century. Both in colour and size the ass is exceedingly variable, ranging
+from dark grey and reddish brown to white, and from the size of a
+Newfoundland dog in North India to that of a good-sized horse. In the
+south-western countries of Asia and in Egypt, in some districts of Southern
+Europe, as in Spain, and in Kentucky and Peru, great attention has been
+paid to selection and interbreeding, with a result no less remarkable than
+in the case of the horse. Thus in Syria there appear to be four distinct
+breeds: a light and graceful animal used by ladies, an Arab breed reserved
+for the saddle, an ass of heavier build in use for ploughing and draft
+purposes, and the large Damascus breed. The efforts made to raise the
+deteriorated British breed have only been partially successful. The male
+ass is mature at two years of age, the female still earlier. The she-ass
+carries her young eleven months. The teeth of the young ass follow the same
+order of appearance and renewal as those of the horse. The life of the ass
+does not usually exceed thirty years. It is in general much healthier than
+the horse, and is maintained in this condition by a smaller quantity and
+coarser quality of food; it is superior to the horse in its ability to
+carry heavy burdens over the most precipitous roads, and is in no respect
+its inferior in intelligence, despite the reputation for stupidity which it
+has borne from very ancient times. The skin is used as parchment to cover
+drums, &c., and in the East is made into shagreen. The hybrid offspring of
+the horse and the female ass is the hinny, that of the ass and the mare is
+the mule; but the latter is by far the larger and more useful animal.
+Asses' milk, long celebrated for its sanative qualities, more closely
+resembles that of a woman than any other. It is very similar in taste, and
+throws up an equally fluid cream, which is not convertible into butter.
+
+ASSA. See _Piave, Battles of the_; _European War_.
+
+ASSAB´, a bay of Africa on the south-west coast of the Red Sea, belonging
+to the Italian territory of Eritrea, which has been acquired since Italy
+established here a colony and free port in 1881.
+
+ASSAFOETIDA. See _Asafetida_.
+
+ASSAI-PALM (as-[=i]; _Euterpe olerac[)e]a_), a native of tropical S.
+America, only about 4 inches in diameter and 60 or 80 feet high, with a
+crown of leaves, beneath which a small fruit grows on branched horizontal
+spadices. The pulp of the fruit mixed with water is used as a beverage.
+
+ASSAL´, a salt lake in North-Eastern Africa, in Adal.
+
+ASSAM´, one of the fifteen provinces of British India, separated from
+Eastern Bengal and reconstituted in 1912; area, 53,015 sq. miles. It forms
+a series of fertile valleys watered by the Brahmaputra and its tributaries,
+the valley of the Brahmaputra, which is the main one, consisting of rich
+alluvial plains, either but little elevated above the river, or so low that
+large extents of them are flooded for three or four days once or twice in
+the year, while the course of the river often changes. The climate is
+marked by great humidity, and malarious diseases are common in the low
+grounds; otherwise it is not unhealthy. The whole province, except the
+cultivated area, may be designated as forest, the trees including teak,
+sâl, sissoo, the date and sago palm, the areca palm (the betel-nut tree),
+the Indian fig tree, &c. The article of most commercial importance is tea,
+which was first exported in 1838, and the yield of which is now over
+100,000,000 pounds annually. Other crops raised are rice, Indian corn,
+pulse, oil-seeds, sugar-cane, hemp, jute, potatoes, &c. In the jungles and
+forests roam herds of elephants, the rhinoceros, tiger, buffalo, leopard,
+bear, wild hog, jackal, fox, goat, and various kinds of deer. Among
+serpents are the python and the cobra. Pheasants, partridges, snipe, wild
+peacock, and many kinds of water-fowl abound. Coal, petroleum, and
+limestone are found in abundance; iron is smelted to a small extent;
+gold-dust is met with; lime is exported to Bengal. There is no single
+Assamese nationality, and the Assamese language is merely a modern dialect
+of Bengali. Pop. 6,713,635, 3,637,828 of whom are Hindus, 1,886,528
+Mahommedans, 66,430 Christians, 10,506 Buddhists, the rest being chiefly
+hill tribes of aboriginal faiths. The labourers in the tea-gardens are
+mostly drawn from Bengal. In 1826 Assam became a possession of Britain,
+being taken from the Burmese, who had made themselves masters of it about
+the end of the eighteenth century. The largest town is Sylhet (pop.
+14,000).--Cf. E. A. Gait, _History of Assam_.
+
+AS´SAPAN (_Sciuropt[)e]rus volucella_), the flying-squirrel of N. America,
+a little animal with folds of skin along its sides which enable it to take
+leaps of 40 or 50 yards.
+
+ASSASS´INS (from _hashsh[=a]sh[=i]n_, drinkers of _hashish_), an Asiatic
+order or society having the practice of assassination as its most
+distinctive feature, founded by Hassan Ben Sabbah, the Himyarite, a _dai_
+or missionary of the heterodox Mahommedan sect the Ismailites. The society
+grew rapidly in numbers, and in 1090 the Persian fortress of Alamut fell
+into their hands. Other territories were added, and the order became a
+recognized military power. Its organization comprised seven ranks, at its
+head being the Sheikh-al-Jebala or 'Old man of the mountains'. Upon a
+select band fell the work of assassination, to which they were stimulated
+by the intoxicating influence of _hashish_. For nearly two centuries they
+maintained their power under nine sheikhs. Hassan, after a long and
+prosperous reign, died in 1124. Most of his successors died violent deaths
+at the hands of relatives or dependents. After proving themselves strong
+enough to withstand the powerful sultans Noureddin and Saladin, and making
+themselves feared by the Crusaders, the _Assassins_ were overcome by the
+Tartar leader Hulaku. The last chief, Rokneddin, was killed for an act of
+treachery subsequent to his capture, and his death was followed by a
+general massacre of the assassins, in which 12,000 perished. Dispersed
+bands led a roving life in the Syrian mountains, and it is alleged that in
+the Druses and other small existing tribes their descendants are still to
+be found. See _Crusades_; _Khoja_.
+
+ASSAULT´, in law, an attempt or offer, with force and violence, to do a
+corporal hurt to another, as by striking at him with or without a weapon.
+If a person lift up or stretch forth his arm and offer to strike another,
+or menace anyone with any staff or weapon, it is an assault in law.
+Assault, therefore, does not necessarily imply a hitting or blow, because
+in trespass for assault and battery a man may be found guilty of the
+assault and acquitted of the battery. But every battery includes an
+assault.
+
+ASSAYE, or ASSYE (as-s[=i]´), a village in Southern India, in Hyderabad,
+where Wellington (then Major-General Wellesley) gained a famous victory in
+1803. With only 4500 troops at his disposal he completely routed the
+Mahratta force of 50,000 men and 100 guns. The victory, however, cost him
+more than a third of his men.
+
+ASSAYING, the estimation of the amount of pure metal present in an ore or
+an alloy. The term was originally applied to testing of gold and silver
+only. It is now usually applied to the determination of the quantity of
+valuable metal in an ore or alloy, and is also sometimes applied to the
+estimation of any element which may affect the value of the ore.
+
+Assaying, therefore, means the estimation of one or more metals in an ore
+or alloy. Before an assay can be made, an average sample of the material
+must be obtained. If an ore, pieces of material are taken from different
+parts of the vein or, if already mined, from different parts of the dump.
+The pieces are crushed up finely and divided into four equal parts. Two of
+these parts are then mixed and divided into four again, and so on until an
+average sample has been obtained. In the case of metals in ingots or bars,
+samples are obtained by drilling and chipping corners or edges. Coins,
+which are never homogeneous, may be rolled out into a thin sheet and cut
+into small pieces. A preliminary examination is made to determine the
+constituents. Finally an assay of the substance is made. The methods used
+are determined by the metals and the proportions of these present in the
+ore or alloy. Originally the term assaying was applied to dry methods, i.e.
+the substance was heated in a special crucible with a suitable flux, and a
+bead of metal was obtained which was weighed. An assay now may be carried
+out in various ways, for example, by fusing with a reducing agent and
+obtaining a bead of metal, or by dissolving the substance to be assayed in
+suitable solvent and precipitating the metal as an insoluble salt, or
+volumetric methods may be used. Dry assaying is still used for gold. The
+assay depends on first heating the gold ore or alloy with lead in a porous
+crucible, that is, _cupelling_ it. Lead oxidizes on heating in a furnace;
+part volatilizes, and part of the oxide is absorbed by the cupel and
+carries with it oxides of other metals with the exception of gold and
+silver. The proportion of lead must be regulated, depending on the metals
+alloyed with gold. A bead is obtained containing gold and silver. This is
+beaten out into a thin plate, and then rolled out until it is thin enough
+to be rolled up by hand. The gold alloy is rolled up in the fingers into a
+cornette and treated with nitric acid. This dissolves silver, leaving a
+brittle cornette of gold, which is thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed.
+All gold alloys and silver alloys must be assayed, and their fineness
+stamped on them. The Goldsmith's Company of London is the statutory
+assay-master of England.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. and J. J. Beringer, _A Text-book
+of Assaying_; E. A. Wraight, _Assaying in Theory and Practice_; J. Park, _A
+Text-book of Practical Assaying_.
+
+AS´SEGAI (from Ar. _as-zahayah_), a spear used as a weapon among the
+Kaffirs of S. Africa, made of hard wood tipped with iron, and used for
+throwing or thrusting.
+
+ASSEMBLY, GENERAL, the supreme ecclesiastical court of the Established
+Church of Scotland, consisting of delegates from every presbytery,
+university, and royal burgh in Scotland. It has the countenance of a
+representative of the king, styled the Lord High Commissioner, who is
+always a nobleman. It holds its meetings annually and (according to the
+present practice) in the month of May, usually sitting for ten or twelve
+days. In its judicial capacity as a court of review, and as the court of
+last resort, the General Assembly has a right to determine finally every
+question brought from the inferior courts, by reference, complaint, or
+appeal. It possesses, besides, a general superintendence of the discipline
+of the Church, of the management of the inferior courts, of the conduct of
+the clergy, and of the morals of the people. In its legislative capacity it
+has the power of enacting statutes with regard to every subject of
+ecclesiastical cognizance, which are binding on the Assembly itself, on the
+inferior courts, and on the individual members of the Church. But by an Act
+of Assembly in 1697, from its substance and design named the Barrier Act,
+every proposition for a new law must first be considered in the form of an
+overture; and though it should be approved of by the Assembly it cannot be
+enacted as a statute till it has been first transmitted to the several
+presbyteries of the Church for their consideration, and has received the
+sanction of at least a majority of the presbyteries. The United Free Church
+of Scotland has also a General Assembly similar in its constitution and
+functions to that of the Established Church, and the same is the case with
+the Presbyterian Churches of Ireland and America.
+
+ASSEMBLY, NATIONAL (France), a body set up in France on the eve of the
+Revolution. Upon the convocation of the States-General by Louis XVI the
+privileged nobles and clergy refused to deliberate in the same chamber with
+the commons or _tiers-état_ (third estate). The latter, therefore, on the
+proposition of the Abbé Siéyès, constituted themselves an _assemblée
+nationale_, with legislative powers (17th June, 1789). They bound
+themselves by oath not to separate until they had furnished France with a
+constitution, and the Court was compelled to give its assent. In the 3250
+decrees passed by the Assembly were laid the foundations of a new epoch,
+and, having accomplished this task, it dissolved itself, 30th Sept., 1791.
+
+ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES. See _Westminster Assembly_.
+
+ASSEMBLY, THE RIGHT OF, is an essential principle of popular government, as
+understood by the British and American constitutions. The right of British
+citizens to assemble peaceably for any purpose which is not strictly
+prohibited by law is implied in the right of petition, as affirmed in the
+Bill of Rights (q.v.). Unlawful assembly, which is a criminal offence, is
+distinguished from the offence of riot. Whilst the latter is an actual
+attempt to carry an unlawful purpose into effect, the former is defined as
+"an assembly with intent to carry out a common purpose which may lead to a
+breach of the peace".
+
+AS´SEN, chief town of the province of Drenthe, Holland. Pop. 13,000.
+
+ASSENT´, THE ROYAL, is the approbation given by the sovereign in Parliament
+to a Bill which has passed both Houses, after which it becomes a law. It
+may either be done in person, when the sovereign comes to the House of
+Peers and the assent (in Norman French) is declared by the Clerk of
+Parliament; or it may be done by letters-patent under the great seal,
+signed by the sovereign.
+
+AS´SER, JOHN, a learned British ecclesiastic, originally a monk of St.
+David's, distinguished as the instructor, companion, and biographer of
+Alfred the Great, who appointed him abbot of two or three different
+monasteries, and finally Bishop of Sherborne, where he died in 908 or 910.
+His life of Alfred, written in Latin in 893 (_Annales Rerum Gestarum
+Ælfredi Magni_), is of very great value, though its authenticity has been
+questioned. There are several English translations of it.
+
+ASSESSED TAXES, taxes charged upon persons by means of a schedule or paper
+sent to each, and strictly including such taxes as the income-tax, the
+house-tax, local rates, &c. In Britain the so-called assessed taxes include
+those upon servants, carriages, dogs, armorial bearings, &c., though these
+are really excise licence duties.
+
+ASSES´SOR, a person appointed to ascertain and fix the amount of taxes,
+rates, &c.; or a person who sits along with the judges in certain courts,
+and assists them with his professional knowledge.
+
+AS´SETS (Fr. _assez_, enough), property or goods available for the payment
+of a bankrupt or deceased person's obligations. Assets are personal or
+real, the former comprising all goods, chattels, &c., devolving upon the
+executor as saleable to discharge debts and legacies. In commerce and
+bankruptcy the term is often used as the antithesis of 'liabilities', to
+designate the stock in trade and entire property of an individual or an
+association.--_Intangible_ (or fictitious) assets are those not represented
+by any existing value, e.g. goodwill; _liquid_ assets are cash,
+investments, or other immediately available funds.
+
+ASSIDE´ANS, HASIDE´ANS, or HASIDIM ('the pious'), one of the two great
+sects into which, after the Babylonish captivity, the Jews were divided
+with regard to the observance of the law--the Hasidim accepting it in its
+later developments, the Zadikim professing adherence only to the law as
+given by Moses. See _Pharisees_, _Talmudists_, _Rabbinists_.
+
+ASSIEN´TO, the permission of the Spanish Government to a foreign nation to
+import negro slaves from Africa into the Spanish colonies in America, for a
+limited time, on payment of certain duties. It was accorded to the
+Netherlands about 1552, to the Genoese in 1580, and to the French Guinea
+Company (afterwards the Assiento Company) in 1702. In 1713 the celebrated
+_Assiento Treaty_ with Britain for thirty years was concluded at Utrecht.
+By this contract the British obtained the right to send yearly a ship of
+500 tons, with all sorts of merchandise, to the Spanish colonies. This led
+to frequent abuses and contraband trade; acts of violence followed, and in
+1739 a war broke out between the two Powers. At the peace of
+Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, four years more were granted to the British; but
+by the Treaty of Madrid, two years later, £100,000 sterling were promised
+for the relinquishment of the two remaining years, and the contract was
+annulled.
+
+ASSIGNATS ([.a]s-[=e]-ny[.a]), the name of the national paper currency in
+the time of the French Revolution. Assignats to the value of 400,000,000
+francs were first struck off by the Constituent Assembly, with the
+approbation of the king, 19th April, 1790, to be redeemed with the proceeds
+of the sale of the confiscated goods of the Church. On the 27th Aug. of the
+same year Mirabeau urged the issuing of 2,000,000,000 francs of new
+assignats, which caused a dispute in the Assembly. Vergasse and Dupont, who
+saw that the plan was an invention of Clavière for his own enrichment,
+particularly distinguished themselves as the opponents of the scheme.
+Mirabeau's exertions, however, were seconded by Péthion, and 800,000,000
+francs more were issued. They were increased by degrees to 45,578,000,000,
+and their value rapidly declined. In the winter of 1792-3 they lost 30 per
+cent, and, in spite of the law to compel their acceptance at their nominal
+value, they continued to fall, till in the spring of 1796 they had sunk to
+one three hundred and forty-fourth their nominal value. This depreciation
+was due partly to the want of confidence in the stability of the
+Government, partly to the fact that the coarsely-executed and
+easily-counterfeited assignats were forged in great numbers. They were
+withdrawn by the Directory from the currency, and at length redeemed by
+mandats at one-thirtieth of their nominal value.
+
+ASSIGNEE´, a person appointed by another to transact some business, or
+exercise some particular privilege or power. Formerly the persons appointed
+under a commission of bankruptcy, to manage the estate of the bankrupt on
+behalf of the creditors, were so called, but now they are called
+_trustees_.
+
+ASSIGN´MENT is a transfer by deed of any property, or right, title, or
+interest in property, real or personal. Assignments are usually given for
+leases, mortgages, and funded property.
+
+ASSINIBOI´A, the smallest of the four districts into which that portion of
+the north-western territories of Canada now forming the provinces of
+Saskatchewan and Alberta was divided in 1882. It lay on the west of
+Manitoba, with Saskatchewan on the north and Alberta on the west, the
+United States on the south. The name is now given to an electoral district
+of the province of Saskatchewan. The region contains much good wheat land.
+Regina was the capital, as it now is of the new province.
+
+ASSINIBOINE, a river of Canada, which flows through Manitoba and joins the
+Red River at Winnipeg, about 40 miles above the entrance of the latter into
+Lake Winnipeg, after a somewhat circuitous course of about 500 miles from
+the west and north-west. Steamers ply on it for over 300 miles.
+
+ASSIOUT. See _Siout_.
+
+ASSISI ([.a]s-s[=e]'s[=e]), a small town in Italy, in the province of
+Umbria, 20 miles north of Spoleto, the see of a bishop, and famous as the
+birthplace of St. Francis d'Assisi. The splendid church built over the
+chapel where the saint received his first impulse to devotion is one of the
+finest remains of mediæval Gothic architecture.
+
+ASSI´ZES, a term chiefly used in England to signify the sessions of the
+courts held at Westminster prior to Magna Charta, but thereafter appointed
+by successive enactments to be held annually in every county. Twelve
+judges, who are members of the highest courts in England, twice in every
+year perform a _circuit_ into all the counties into which the kingdom is
+divided (the counties being grouped into seven circuits), to hold these
+assizes, at which both civil and criminal cases are decided. Occasionally
+this circuit is performed a third time for the purpose of jail-delivery. In
+London and Middlesex, instead of circuits, courts of _nisi prius_ are held.
+At the assizes all the justices of the peace of the county are bound to
+attend. Special commissions of assize are granted for inquest into certain
+causes. In Scotland the term _assize_ is still applicable to the jury in
+criminal cases.
+
+Among the more important historic uses of the term _assize_ are its
+application to any sitting or deliberative council, and its transference
+thence to their ordinances, decrees, or assessments. In the latter sense we
+have the Assizes of Jerusalem, a code of feudal laws formulated in 1099
+under Godfrey of Bouillon; the Assizes of Clarendon (1166), of Northampton
+(1176), and of Woodstock (1184); also the _assisæ venalium_ (1203), for
+regulating the prices of articles of common consumption; the Assize of Arms
+(1181), an ordinance for organizing the national militia, &c.
+
+ASSMANSHAUSEN. See _Asmannshausen_.
+
+ASSOCIATED COUNTIES, a term applied to Essex, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk,
+and Hertford, with, subsequently, Huntingdon and Lincoln. The association
+was formed in 1642 to raise an army for the Parliament and keep the war out
+of their own districts. The successive leaders were Lord Grey of Wark, the
+Earl of Manchester, and Cromwell.
+
+ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, a doctrine of both psychological and philosophical
+import. In psychology the term is used to comprise the conditions under
+which one idea is able to recall another to consciousness. It is,
+therefore, the doctrine which deals with the reproduction of past
+experience by a present object of consciousness. The phrase 'association of
+ideas' was first introduced by Locke, and dealt with by Berkeley and
+Hartley, who became the founder of the so-called _Associationist School_.
+
+ASS´ONANCE, in poetry, a term used when the terminating words of lines have
+the same vowel sound but make no proper rhyme. Such verses, having what we
+should consider false rhymes, are regularly employed in Spanish poetry; but
+cases are not wanting in leading British poets. Mrs. Browning not only used
+them frequently, but justified the use of them.
+
+ASSOUAN ([.a]s-s[=o]-[.a]n´), or ASWAN (_Sy[=e]n[=e]_), a town of Upper
+Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile, below the first cataract, opposite the
+Island of Elephantine. The granite quarries of the Pharaohs are here. Pop.
+15,000.
+
+ASSOUAN DAM, a great dam constructed across the Nile in Upper Egypt, near
+Assouan, at the foot of the first cataract. It is about a mile and a
+quarter long, and is provided with a large number of sluices in two tiers.
+It was originally built to a height of about 96 feet between 1898 and 1902,
+and raised to a height of 112 feet above bed-rock between 1907 and 1911. It
+is intended to regulate the supply of water for irrigation purposes to the
+country lower down, the water being stored up at the time when the river is
+high, and allowed to escape when it is required for the crops. When the
+reservoir is full it forms a lake about 130 miles long. The dam was planned
+by Sir William Willcocks, and the work carried out under Sir William
+Garstin and Sir Benjamin Baker, at a cost of £5,000,000 (Egyptian).
+
+ASSUMP´SIT, in English law, an action to recover compensation for the
+non-performance of a _parole_ promise; that is, a promise not contained in
+a deed under seal. Assumpsits are of two kinds, _express_ and _implied_.
+The former are where the contracts are actually made in word or writing;
+the latter are such as the law implies from the justice of the case; e.g.
+employment to do work implies a promise to pay.
+
+ASSUMPTION. See _Asuncion_.
+
+ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF, the ecclesiastical festival celebrating the
+miraculous ascent into Heaven of the Virgin Mary's body as well as her
+soul, kept on the 15th of August. The legend first appeared in the third or
+fourth century, and the festival was instituted some three centuries later.
+
+ASSURANCE. See _Insurance_.
+
+[Illustration: Assyrian bas-relief from the Palace of Nimrûd showing
+Lion-hunting about 884 B.C.]
+
+ASSYR´IA (the ASSHUR of the Hebrews, ATHURÂ of the ancient Persians), an
+ancient monarchy in Asia, intersected by the upper course of the Tigris,
+and having the Armenian Mountains on the north and Babylonia on the south;
+area, about 50,000 sq. miles; surface partly mountainous, hilly, or
+undulating, partly a portion of the fertile Mesopotamian plain. The
+numerous remains of ancient habitations show how thickly this vast flat
+must have once been peopled; now, for the most part, it is a mere
+wilderness. Geographically and historically, however, Assyria and Babylonia
+are interdependent, and the Assyrians and Babylonians are ethnographically
+and linguistically the same race. Whereas, however, the classical authors
+speak of Assyria to the exclusion of Babylonia, the decipherment of the
+inscriptions has proved that Babylonia was the mother-country, and that
+Assyria, except during a period of eight centuries, was a dependency of the
+former. This discovery coincides with the contents of the tenth chapter of
+_Genesis_. See _Babylonia_.
+
+AST, Georg Anton Friedrich, German philosopher, 1776-1841. He wrote on
+æsthetics and the history of philosophy, but is best known as an editor of
+Plato, whose works he published with a Latin translation and commentary.
+
+AS´TACUS. See _Crayfish_.
+
+ASTAR´TE, a Syrian goddess, probably corresponding to the _Ashtaroth_ of
+the Hebrews, and representing the productive power of nature. She was a
+moon-goddess. Some regard her as corresponding to _Hera_ (_Juno_), and
+others identify her with _Aphrodit[=e]_.
+
+ASTATIC NEEDLE, a magnetic needle having another needle of the same
+intensity fixed parallel to it, the poles being reversed, so that the
+needles neutralize one another, and are unaffected by the earth's
+magnetism; used in the _astatic galvanometer_.
+
+AS´TER, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositæ, comprehending several
+hundred species, scattered over Europe and Asia, but mostly natives of
+North America. Many are cultivated as ornamental plants. One, _A.
+Tripolium_, is native in Britain, and is found in salt marshes, having a
+pretty purple flower. Asters generally flower late in the season, and some
+are hence called Michaelmas or Christmas Daisies. The China Aster, not an
+aster proper (_Aster_ or _Callist[)e]phus chinensis_), is a very showy
+annual, of which there are many varieties.
+
+ASTERABAD´. See _Astrabad_.
+
+ASTE´RIA, a name applied to a variety of corundum, which displays an
+opalescent star of six rays of light when cut with certain precautions; and
+also to the _cat's-eye_, which consists of quartz, and is found especially
+in Ceylon.
+
+ASTER´IDÆ. See _Asteroidea_.
+
+AS´TERISK, the figure of a star, thus *, used in printing and writing, as a
+reference to a passage or note in the margin, or to fill the space when a
+name, or the like, is omitted.
+
+ASTEROI´DEA, the ord. of the Echinodermata to which the star-fishes belong.
+See _Star-fishes_.
+
+AS´TEROIDS, PLANETOIDS, or MINOR PLANETS, a numerous group of very small
+planets revolving round the sun, in the great majority of cases at mean
+distances, intermediate between those of Mars and Jupiter, in orbits of
+large eccentricity at considerable inclination to the ecliptic. The
+diameter of the largest is not supposed to exceed 450 miles, while most of
+the others are very much smaller. Over one thousand are known, and new
+members are being constantly discovered. The first to be discovered was
+Ceres, on 1st Jan., 1801, and within seven years more Pallas, Juno, and
+Vesta were seen. The diminutive size of these four bodies, and resemblances
+in their orbits, gave rise to the opinion that they were but the fragments
+of a planet that had formerly existed and had been brought to an end by
+some catastrophe. For nearly forty years investigations were carried on,
+but no more planets were discovered till 8th Dec., 1845, when a fifth
+planet in the same region of the solar system was discovered. The rapid
+succession of discoveries that followed was for a time taken as a
+corroboration of the disruption theory, but the breadth of the zone
+occupied makes the hypothesis of a shattered planet more than doubtful. In
+recent years a few have been discovered which are at times considerably
+within the orbit of Mars, the nearest perihelia being less than 15 million
+miles beyond the earth's orbit. Another group, known as the 'Trojan
+Planets', has been found, whose mean distances are practically identical
+with that of Jupiter. The total mass of the asteroids cannot exceed
+one-fourth that of the earth, and is probably much less. See _Planets_.
+
+ASTEROL´EPIS, a genus of primitive ganoid fishes, found only in a fossil
+state in the Old Red Sandstone. They were about 1 foot long, and the head
+and body were enclosed in armour of strong bony plates.
+
+ASTHMA (ast´ma), difficulty of respiration, returning at intervals, with a
+sense of stricture across the chest and in the lungs, a wheezing, hard
+cough at first, but more free towards the close of each paroxysm, with a
+discharge of mucus, followed by a remission. Asthma is essentially a spasm
+of the muscular tissue which is contained in the smaller bronchial tubes.
+It generally attacks persons advanced in years, and seems, in some
+instances, to be hereditary. The exciting causes are various--accumulation
+of blood or viscid mucus in the lungs, noxious vapours, a cold and foggy
+atmosphere, or a close, hot air, flatulence, accumulated fæces, violent
+passions, organic diseases in the thoracic viscera, &c. In recent years a
+treatment first used by Dr. Alexander Francis has come into prominence. By
+far the most important part of the treatment consists in obviating or
+removing the several exciting causes. It seldom proves fatal except as
+inducing dropsy, consumption, &c.
+
+ASTI ([.a]s´t[=e]), a town of Northern Italy, province of Alessandria, 28
+miles E.S.E. of Turin, the see of a bishop, with an old cathedral. In the
+Middle Ages it was one of the most powerful republics of Northern Italy. It
+was the birthplace of Alfieri, the poet, whose statue adorns the principal
+square. There is also an equestrian statue of King Humbert. The industries
+comprise silk, matches, gold, mosaic wares, &c. A favourite wine is
+produced in the neighbourhood. Asti, anciently _Asta_, was a place of some
+importance under the Roman emperors, and in the Middle Ages was an
+independent republic. Pop. 41,252.
+
+ASTIG´MATISM (Gr. _a_, not, _stigma_, spot, mark), a malformation or
+imperfection, congenital or accidental, of the globe of the eye, in
+consequence of which the individual does not see objects clear and
+distinct, but with a blurred outline. It is due to the cornea or
+transparent outer coat of the eye not being regularly spherical, but having
+different degrees of curvature in different directions. Usually the degree
+of convexity is not the same horizontally as it is vertically, so that the
+rays from an object, instead of converging into one focus, meet in more
+than one. If a person with this defect is looking at vertical lines crossed
+by horizontal ones he will see the one set more distinctly than the other,
+though a slight movement will enable him to see the other distinctly also,
+but not at the same time. Almost all eyes are more or less astigmatic, but
+persons only become aware of it when it is excessive. Special lenses are
+required to correct it--usually lenses plane in one direction and concave
+or convex in the other. Short sight or long sight is often associated with
+astigmatism, so that suitable spectacles cannot be very easily provided.
+
+ASTLE, Thomas, English antiquary, born 1735, died 1803. He was a trustee of
+the British Museum and keeper of the public records in the Tower. His chief
+work, _The Origin and Progress of Writing_, appeared in 1784, and the
+portion dealing with mediæval handwriting is still of value. He formed a
+famous collection of MSS., the most valuable portion of which is now in the
+British Museum.
+
+ASTOM´ATA, one of the two groups into which the Protozoa are divided with
+regard to the presence or absence of a mouth, of which organ the Astomata
+are destitute. The group comprises two classes, Gregarinida and Rhizopoda.
+See _Stomatoda_.
+
+ASTON MANOR, formerly a municipal and parliamentary borough of
+Warwickshire, England, situated about 1½ miles E.N.E. of Birmingham, and
+engaged in similar branches of industry. It was incorporated with
+Birmingham in 1911 and gives its name to one of its parliamentary
+divisions. Pop. 75,029.
+
+ASTOR, John Jacob, born near Heidelberg, Germany, 1703, died at New York,
+1848. In 1783 he emigrated to the United States, settled at New York, and
+became extensively engaged in the fur trade. In 1811 the settlement of
+Astoria, founded by him, near the mouth of the Columbia River, was formed
+to serve as a central depot for the fur trade between the lakes and the
+Pacific. He subsequently engaged in various speculations, and died worth
+£4,000,000, leaving £80,000 to found the Astor Library in New York. This
+institution is contained in a splendid building, enlarged in 1859 at the
+cost of his son, and comprises about 260,000 volumes. Since 1895 it has
+formed part of the New York public library.--His great-grandson, William
+Waldorf Astor, born in 1848, died in 1919, naturalized in England in 1899,
+was made a baron in 1916 and a viscount in 1917.
+
+ASTOR, LADY. Nancy Witcher, Viscountess Astor, married the second Viscount
+Astor in 1906. She is a daughter of the late Colonel Chiswell Dabney
+Langhorne, of Virginia, United States. In Nov., 1919, she was elected
+member of Parliament for the Sutton division of Plymouth, and was the first
+woman to take a seat in the House of Commons.
+
+ASTOR´GA, a city of Spain, province of Leon; the _Asturica Augusta_ of the
+Romans. It figured prominently during the Peninsular War; it was taken by
+the French after an obstinate defence, 1810, and retaken by the Spaniards,
+1812. Pop. 5682.
+
+ASTO´RIA, a town of Oregon, United States, on the Columbia River, with
+numerous salmon-canning establishments. Pop. 10,595. See _Astor_.
+
+ASTRABAD´, a town of Persia, province of same name, about 24 miles E. of
+the Caspian. It was formerly the residence of the Kajar princes, the
+ancestors of the present Persian dynasty. It is very unhealthy, but is
+still the centre of a considerable trade. Pop. estimated at from 10,000 to
+30,000. The province of Astrabad has an area of 5800 sq. miles, and a pop.
+of 150,000.
+
+ASTRÆ´A, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Zeus and Themis, the goddess
+of justice. During the golden age she dwelt on earth, but on that age
+passing away she withdrew from the society of men and was placed among the
+stars, where she forms the constellation Virgo. The name was given to one
+of the asteroids, discovered in 1845. It revolves round the sun in 1511.10
+solar days, and is about 2½ times the distance of the earth from the sun.
+
+AS´TRAGAL, in architecture, a small semicircular moulding, with a fillet
+beneath it, which surrounds a column in the form of a ring, separating the
+shaft from the capital.
+
+ASTRAG´ALUS, a genus of papilionaceous plants, herbaceous or shrubby, and
+often spiny. _A. gummifer_ yields gum tragacanth.
+
+ASTRAG´ALUS, the upper bone of the foot supporting the tibia; the buckle,
+ankle, or sling bone. It is a strong irregularly-shaped bone, and is
+connected with the others by powerful ligaments.
+
+ASTRAKHAN ([.a]s-tr[.a]-_h_[.a]n'), a Russian city, capital of government
+of same name, on an elevated island in the Volga, about 30 miles above its
+mouth in the Caspian, communicating with the opposite banks of the river by
+numerous bridges. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop and has a large
+cathedral, as well as places of worship for Mahommedans, Armenians, &c. The
+manufactures are large and increasing, and the fisheries (sturgeon, &c.)
+very important. It is the chief port of the Caspian, and has regular steam
+communication with the principal towns on its shores. In 1919 the town was
+made a naval base by the Bolshevist Government of Moscow. Pop. 163,800,
+composed of various races.--The government (or province) has an area of
+91,042 sq. miles. It consists almost entirely of two vast steppes,
+separated from each other by the Volga, and forming for the most part arid
+sterile deserts. In 1918 the district of Astrakhan proclaimed its autonomy
+and independence of Moscow. Pop. 1,427,500.
+
+ASTRAKHAN, a name given to sheepskins with a curled woolly surface obtained
+from a variety of sheep found in Búkhara, Persia, and Syria; also a rough
+fabric with a pile in imitation of this.
+
+ASTRALITE. See _Explosives_.
+
+ASTRAL SPIRITS, spirits formerly believed to people the heavenly bodies or
+the aerial regions. In the Middle Ages they were variously conceived as
+fallen angels, souls of departed men, or spirits originating in fire, and
+belonging neither to heaven, earth, nor hell. Paracelsus regarded them as
+demoniacal in character.
+
+ASTRIN´GENT, a medicine which contracts the organic textures and canals of
+the body, thereby checking or diminishing excessive discharges. The chief
+astringents are the mineral acids, alum, lime-water, chalk, salts of
+copper, zinc, iron, lead, silver; and among vegetables catechu, kino,
+oak-bark, and galls.
+
+ASTROCA´RYUM, a genus of tropical American palms, species of which yield
+oil and valuable fibre. Tucum oil and tucum thread are obtained from _A.
+vulg[=a]re_.
+
+AS´TROLABE, an instrument formerly used for taking the altitude of the sun
+or stars, now superseded by the quadrant and sextant. The name was also
+formerly given to an armillary sphere.--Cf. Chaucer, _Treatise on the
+Astrolabe_.
+
+ASTROLABE BAY, an inlet on the N.E. coast of Australian New Guinea.
+
+ASTROL´OGY, literally, the science or doctrine of the stars. The name was
+formerly used as equivalent to astronomy, but is now restricted in meaning
+to the pseudo-science which pretends to enable men to judge of the effects
+and influences of the heavenly bodies on human and other mundane affairs,
+and to foretell future events by their situations and conjunctions. As
+usually practised, the whole heavens, visible and invisible, were divided
+by great circles into twelve equal parts, called _houses_. As the circles
+were supposed to remain immovable, every heavenly body passed through each
+of the twelve houses every twenty-four hours. The portion of the zodiac
+contained in each house was the part to which chief attention was paid, and
+the position of any planet was settled by its distance from the boundary
+circle of the house, measured on the ecliptic. The houses had different
+names and different powers, the first being called the house of life, the
+second the house of riches, the third of brethren, the sixth of marriage,
+the eighth of death, and so on. The part of the heavens about to rise was
+called the _ascendant_, the planet within the house of the ascendant being
+_lord of the ascendant_. The different _aspects_ of the planets were of
+great importance. To _cast a person's nativity_ (or _draw his horoscope_)
+was to find the position of the heavens at the instant of his birth, which
+being done, the astrologer, who knew the various powers and influences
+possessed by the sun, the moon, and the planets, could predict what the
+course and termination of that person's life would be. The temperament of
+the individual was ascribed to the planet under which he was born, as
+_saturnine_ from _Saturn_, _jovial_ from _Jupiter_, _mercurial_ from
+_Mercury_, _&c._, words which are now used with little thought of their
+original meaning. The virtues of herbs, gems, and medicines were supposed
+to be due to their ruling planets. The history of astrology, which was the
+foster-sister of astronomy, goes back to the early days of the human race.
+Egyptians and Hindus, as well as the nations on the Euphrates and Tigris,
+were zealous astrologers. The Christian Church strongly opposed the
+teachings of astrology, but its study spread among Jews and Arabs during
+the Middle Ages. Francis Bacon abused the astrologers of his day, and Swift
+wrote against them his famous _Prediction for the Year 1708, by Isaac
+Bickerstaff, Esq._--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. H. Bennet, _Astrology_; G. Wilde,
+_Chaldean Astrology Up-to-date_; A. Maury, _La Magie et l'astrologie à
+l'antiquité et au moyen âge_; A. J. Pearce, _Textbook of Astrology_.
+
+ASTRON´OMY (from Gr. _astron_, a heavenly body, and _nemein_, to classify
+or arrange) is that science which investigates the motions, distances,
+magnitudes, and various phenomena of the heavenly bodies. The science may
+be divided into several branches. _Descriptive astronomy_ denotes merely a
+presentation of astronomical facts in a systematic but popular form;
+_practical astronomy_ treats of the instruments used in observing the
+celestial bodies, the methods of their employment, and the manner of
+deducing results from the observations; investigation of the causes of the
+motions of these bodies was formerly termed _physical astronomy_, but now
+generally _dynamical_ or _gravitational astronomy_; _physical astronomy_ or
+_astro-physics_ is the comparatively modern branch which deals with their
+physical conditions, radiation, temperature, and chemical constitution.
+Recent years have added two new fields of investigation which are full of
+promise for the advancement of astronomical science. The first of
+these--_celestial photography_--has furnished us with invaluable
+light-pictures of the sun, moon, and other bodies, and has recorded the
+existence of myriads of stars invisible even to the best telescopes; while
+the second, _spectrum analysis_, now employed by many scientists, reveals
+to us a knowledge of the physical constituents of the universe, telling us
+for instance that in the sun (or his atmosphere) there exist many of the
+elements familiar to us on the earth. It is also applied to the
+determination of the velocities with which stars are approaching, or
+receding from, our system; and to the measurement of movements taking place
+within the solar atmospheric envelopes. From analysis of some of the
+unresolved nebulæ the inference is drawn that they are not star-swarms but
+simply incandescent gas; whence a second inference results favourable to
+the hypothesis of the gradual condensation of nebulæ, and the successive
+evolutions of suns and systems.
+
+The most remote period to which we can go back in tracing the history of
+astronomy refers us to a time about 2500 B.C., when the Chinese are said to
+have recorded the simultaneous conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars,
+Mercury, and the moon. This remarkable phenomenon is found, by calculating
+backward, to have taken place 2460 B.C. Astronomy has also an undoubtedly
+high antiquity in India. The mean annual motion of Jupiter and Saturn was
+observed as early as 3062 years B.C.; tables of the sun, moon, and planets
+were formed, and eclipses calculated. In the time of Alexander the Great,
+the Chaldeans or Babylonians had carried on astronomical observations for
+1900 years. They regarded comets as bodies travelling in extended orbits,
+and predicted their return; and there is reason to believe that they had
+correct ideas regarding the solar system. The priests of Egypt gave
+astronomy a religious character; but their knowledge of the science is
+testified to only by their ancient zodiacs and the position of their
+pyramids with relation to the cardinal points. It was among the Greeks that
+astronomy took a more scientific form. Thales of Miletus (born 639 B.C.)
+predicted a solar eclipse, and his successors held opinions which are in
+many respects wonderfully in accordance with modern ideas. Pythagoras (500
+B.C.) and his followers formed theories of the planetary system. They
+taught the sphericity and revolution of the earth, but placed an imaginary
+'Central Fire', not the sun itself, at the centre of the system. Great
+progress was made in astronomy under the Ptolemies, and we find Timochares
+and Aristyllus employed about 300 B.C. in making useful planetary
+observations. But Aristarchus of Samos (born 267 B.C.) is said, on the
+authority of Archimedes, to have far surpassed them, by teaching the double
+motion of the earth around its axis and around the sun. A hundred years
+later Hipparchus determined more exactly the length of the solar year, and
+the eccentricity of the ecliptic, discovered the precession of the
+equinoxes, and even undertook a catalogue of the stars. It was in the
+second century after Christ that Claudius Ptolemy, a famous mathematician
+of Pelusium in Egypt, propounded the system that bears his name, viz., that
+the earth was the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and
+planets revolved around it in the following order: nearest to the earth was
+the sphere of the moon; then followed the spheres of Mercury, Venus, the
+Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; then came the sphere of the fixed stars;
+these were succeeded by two _crystalline_ spheres and an outer sphere named
+the _primum mobile_ or first movable, which last was again circumscribed by
+the _coelum empyreum_, of a cubic shape, wherein happy souls found their
+abode. The Arabs began to make scientific astronomical observations about
+the middle of the eighth century, and for 400 years they prosecuted the
+science with assiduity. Ibn-Yunis (A.D. 1000) made important observations
+of the perturbations and eccentricities of Jupiter and Saturn. In the
+sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus, born in 1473, introduced the system
+that bears his name, and which recognized the sun's central place in the
+solar system, and that all the other bodies, the earth included, revolve
+around it. This arrangement of the universe (see _Copernicus_) came at
+length to be generally received on account of the simplicity it substituted
+for the complexities and difficulties of the theory of Ptolemy. The
+observations and calculations of Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer, born in
+1546, continued over many years, were of the highest value, and secured for
+him the title of regenerator of practical astronomy. His assistant and
+pupil, Kepler, born in 1571, was enabled, principally from the data
+provided by his master's labours, to arrive at those laws which have made
+his name famous: 1. That the planets move, not in circular, but in
+elliptical orbits, of which the sun occupies a focus. 2. That the radius
+vector, or imaginary straight line joining the sun and any planet, moves
+over equal spaces in equal times. 3. That the squares of the times of the
+revolutions of the planets are as the cubes of their mean distances from
+the sun. Galileo, who died in 1642, advanced the science by his
+observations and by the new revelations he made through his telescopes,
+which established the truth of the Copernican theory. Newton, born in 1642,
+carried physical astronomy suddenly to comparative perfection. Accepting
+Kepler's laws as a statement of the facts of planetary motion, he deduced
+from them his theory of gravitation. The science was enriched towards the
+close of the eighteenth century by the discovery by Herschel of the planet
+Uranus and its satellites, the resolution of the Milky Way into myriads of
+stars, and the investigation of nebulæ and of double and triple stars. The
+splendid analytical researches of Lalande, Lagrange, Delambre, and Laplace
+mark the same period. The nineteenth century opened with the discovery of
+the first four minor planets; and the existence of another planet
+(Neptune), more distant from the sun than Uranus, was, in 1845,
+independently predicted by Leverrier and Adams. Of late years the sun has
+attracted a number of observers, the spectroscope and photography having
+been especially fruitful in this field of investigation. By various methods
+the sun's mean distance has been ascertained within very small limits of
+error, and found to be nearly 93,000,000 miles. Many additions have been
+made to the known secondary planets or satellites, including some with
+retrograde motions. A vast number of asteroids has been discovered, and the
+width of the zone occupied by them found to be much more extensive. Much
+success has been achieved in ascertaining the parallax of fixed stars.
+
+The objects with which astronomy has chiefly to deal are the earth, the
+sun, the moon, the planets, the fixed stars, comets, nebulæ, and meteors.
+The stellar universe is composed of an unknown host of stars, many millions
+in number. Those visible to the naked eye were in ancient times grouped
+into the constellations still recognized. The nebulæ are cloud-like patches
+of light scattered all over the heavens. Some of them have been resolved
+into star-clusters, but many of them are masses of incandescent gas. Of the
+so-called fixed stars, many form binary or multiple systems, the members
+revolving in orbits under each other's attractions, while other more
+scattered groups are moving clusters, travelling in parallel paths through
+space like flocks of birds. Variable stars and extinct or dark stars are
+also known. The fixed stars preserve, at least to unaided vision, an
+unalterable relation to each other, because of their vast distance from the
+earth. Their apparent movement from east to west is the result of the
+earth's revolution on its axis in twenty-four hours from west to east. The
+planets have not only an apparent, but also a real and proper motion,
+since, like our earth, they revolve around the sun in their several orbits
+and periods. The nearest of these bodies to the sun is _Mercury_. _Venus_,
+the second planet from the sun, is to us the brightest and most beautiful
+of all the planets. The _Earth_ is the first planet accompanied by a
+satellite or moon. _Mars_, the next planet, has two satellites, discovered
+in 1877. Its surface has a variegated character, and the existence of land,
+water, snow, and ice has been inferred. The _Asteroids_, of which over 1000
+are known, form a broad zone of small bodies, at distances from a little
+beyond the earth's to that of Jupiter. _Jupiter_, the largest planet, has
+at least nine satellites, of which the two outermost have retrograde
+motion. Its surface is diversified by spots, markings, and bands parallel
+to its equator. _Saturn_, with its nine or more satellites and broad thin
+rings in its equatorial plane, is, perhaps, the most striking telescopic
+object in the heavens. _Ur[)a]nus_--discovered by Herschel in 1781--is
+accompanied by four satellites. _Neptune_, the farthest removed from the
+sun, has one satellite, the motion of which is retrograde. Besides the
+planets, quite a number of comets are known to be members of the solar
+system. The physical constitution of these bodies is still one of the
+enigmas of astronomy. The observation of meteors has recently attracted
+much attention. They are seen in largest numbers in the autumn months.
+Meteor streams are supposed to represent the results of the disintegration
+of comets. Among the more modern astronomers we may mention: Gustav
+Kirchhoff, G. B. Donati, Christian Doppler, H. C. Vogel, Sir William
+Huggins, Simon Newcomb, and Sir David Gill. See _Earth_, _Sun_, _Moon_,
+_Planet_, _Comet_, _Stars_, _Asteroids_, _Celestial Photography_,
+_Spectrography_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. N. Lockyer, _Dawn of Astronomy_;
+Sir G. C. Lewis, _Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients_; Sir.
+F. W. Dyson, _Astronomy_; Sir R. Ball, _Atlas, and Popular Guide to the
+Heavens_; G. P. Serviss, _Astronomy with an Opera-glass_; _The Pleasures of
+the Telescope_; A. M. Clerke, _History of Astronomy during the 19th
+Century_, H. Macpherson, _Romance of Modern Astronomy_; C. A. Young,
+_General Astronomy_; G. F. Chambers, _Handbook of Astronomy_ (3 vols.);
+E. W. Maunder, _Astronomy of the Bible_; A. C. D. Crommelin, _The Star
+World_; Agnes Giberne, _Sun, Moon, and Stars_ (popular).
+
+ASTROPALIA, an island in the Ægean Sea. It was occupied during the Balkan
+war of 1912 by the Italians under Admiral Presbitero and General d'Ameglio.
+
+ASTROPHYSICS. See _Spectroscopy_.
+
+ASTUR. See _Goshawk_.
+
+ASTU´RIA, or THE ASTURIAS, a Spanish principality, now forming the province
+of Oviedo, on the north coast of Spain; an alpine region, with steep and
+jagged mountain ridges, valuable minerals, luxuriant grazing lands, and
+fertile well-watered valleys. The heir apparent of Spain has borne since
+1388 the title of Prince of the Asturias. See _Spain_.
+
+ASTY´AGES (-j[=e]z), last king of the Medes, 593-558 B.C., deposed by
+Cyrus, an event which transferred the supremacy from the Medes to the
+Persians.
+
+ASUNCION ([.a]-s[u:]n-th[=e]-on´), or NUESTRA SEÑORA DE LA ASUNCION (Eng.
+_Assumption_), the chief city of Paraguay, on the River Paraguay,
+picturesquely situated and with good public buildings. It was founded in
+1537 on the feast of the Assumption. Its trade is mostly in the yerba tea,
+hides, tobacco, oranges, &c. It was taken and plundered by the Brazilians
+in 1869. A railway runs for a short distance into the interior. Pop.
+(1920), 99,836.
+
+[Illustration: Aswail (_Ursus labi[=a]tus_)]
+
+AS´WAIL, the native name for the sloth-bear (_Ursus labi[=a]tus_) of the
+mountains of India, an uncouth, unwieldy animal, with very long black hair,
+inoffensive when not attacked. Its usual diet consists of roots,
+bees'-nests, grubs, snails, ants, &c. Its flesh is in much favour as an
+article of food. When captured young it is easily tamed.
+
+ASY´LUM, a sanctuary or place of refuge, where criminals and debtors
+sheltered themselves from justice, and from which they could not be taken
+without sacrilege. Temples were anciently asylums, as were Christian
+churches in later times. (See _Sanctuary_.) The term is now usually applied
+to an institution for receiving, maintaining, and, so far as possible,
+ameliorating the condition of persons labouring under certain bodily
+defects or mental maladies; sometimes also a refuge for the unfortunate.
+
+ASYLUM, RIGHT OF. See _Extradition_.
+
+ASYMPTOTE (as'im-t[=o]t), in geometry, a line which is continually
+approaching a curve, but never meets it, however far either of them may be
+prolonged. This may be conceived as a tangent to a curve at an infinite
+distance. See _Conic Sections_.
+
+ASYN´DETON, a figure of speech by which connecting words are omitted; as 'I
+came, I saw, I conquered', or Cicero's 'Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit'.
+
+ATACAMA ([.a]-t[.a]-kä'm[.a]), a desert region on the west coast of S.
+America belonging to Chile, partly in the province of Atacama, partly in
+the territory of Antofagasta. It mainly consists of a plateau extending
+from Copiapó northward to the River Loa, and lies between the Andes and the
+sea. It forms the chief nitrate district of Chile, there being also rich
+silver-mines, while gold is also found, as well as argentiferous lead,
+copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron; with guano on the coast. The northern
+portion belonged to Bolivia until 1904. The Chilian province of Atacama has
+an area of 30,711 sq. miles, and a pop. of 63,893.
+
+ATACA´MITE, a combination of the hydroxide and chloride of copper,
+occurring abundantly in some parts of South America, as at Atacama, whence
+it has its name. It is worked as an ore in South America, and is exported
+to England.
+
+ATAHUAL´PA, the last of the Incas, succeeded his father in 1529 on the
+throne of Quito, whilst his brother Huascar obtained the kingdom of Peru.
+They soon made war against each other, when the latter was defeated, and
+his kingdom fell into the hands of Atahualpa. The Spaniards, taking
+advantage of these internal disturbances, with Pizarro at their head
+invaded Peru, and advanced to Atahualpa's camp. Here, while Pizarro's
+priest was telling the Inca how the Pope had given Peru to the Spaniards,
+fire was opened on the unsuspecting Peruvians, Atahualpa was captured, and,
+despite the payment of a vast ransom in gold, was executed (1533).
+
+ATALAN´TA, in Greek mythology, a famous huntress of Arcadia. She was to be
+obtained in marriage only by him who could outstrip her in a race, the
+consequence of failure being death. One of her suitors obtained from
+Aphrod[=i]t[=e] (Venus) three golden apples, which he threw behind him, one
+after another, as he ran. Atalanta stopped to pick them up, and was not
+unwillingly defeated. There was another Atalanta belonging to Boeotia, who
+cannot very well be distinguished, the same stories being told about both.
+
+ATAMAN. See _Hetman_.
+
+AT´AVISM (Lat. _at[)a]vus_, an ancestor), in biology, the tendency to
+reproduce the ancestral type in animals or plants which have become
+considerably modified by breeding or cultivation; the reversion of a
+descendant to some peculiarity of a more or less remote ancestor. See
+_Mendelism_, _Natural Selection_, _Evolution_, _Heredity_. The term
+_atavism_ is also frequently used in sociological literature, in the sense
+of reversion to more primitive types, as explanation of criminal instincts
+and pathological phenomena.
+
+ATAXY, or ATAXIA, in medicine, irregularity in the animal functions, or in
+the symptoms of a disease. See _Locomotor Ataxy_.
+
+ATBA´RA, the most northerly tributary of the Nile. It rises in the
+Abyssinian highlands, receives several large tributaries, and enters the
+Nile about 18° N. The town of Atbara is situated about 380 miles S.E. of
+Wadi Halfa. The battle of Atbara, between the British under Earl Kitchener
+(then Sir Herbert), and the followers of the Mahdi, was fought on 8th
+April, 1898.
+
+ATCHAFALAY´A ('Lost Water'), a river of the United States, an outlet of the
+Red River which strikes off before the junction of that river with the
+Mississippi, flows southward, and enters the Gulf of Mexico by Atchafalaya
+Bay. Its length is about 225 miles.
+
+ATCHEEN´. See _Acheen_.
+
+ATCH´ISON, a city of Kansas, United States, on the Missouri, about 30 miles
+from Leavenworth, an important railway centre with an increasing trade.
+Pop. (1920), 12,630.
+
+A´T[=E], among the Greeks, the goddess of hate, injustice, crime, and
+retribution, daughter of Zeus according to Homer, but of [)E]ris (Strife)
+according to Hesiod.
+
+AT´ELES, a genus of American monkeys. See _Spider-monkey_.
+
+ATELIERS NATIONAUX ([.a]-tl-y[=a] n[.a]-syo-n[=o]), or national workshops,
+were established by the French Provisional Government in 1848. They
+interfered much with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw
+themselves on the Government for work. The breaking up of the system led to
+disorders, but it was abolished in July, 1848.
+
+ATELLA´NÆ FAB´ULÆ (called also OSCAN PLAYS), a kind of light interlude, in
+ancient Rome, performed not by the regular actors, but by freeborn young
+Romans; it originated from the ancient _Atella_, a city of the Oscans. They
+were the origin of the Italian _commedie dell'arte_. Cf. Munk, _De Fabulis
+Atellanis_.
+
+ATESH´GA (the place of fire), a sacred place of the Guebres or Persian
+fire-worshippers, on the Peninsula of Apsheron, on the W. coast of the
+Caspian, visited by large numbers of pilgrims, who bow before the sacred
+flames which issue from the bituminous soil.
+
+ATH (ät), a fortified town of Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, on the
+Dender; it carries on weaving, dyeing, and printing cottons. It was the
+scene of fighting in Nov., 1918. Pop. 11,108.
+
+ATHABAS´CA, a river and lake of Canada. The river rises on the eastern
+slopes of the Rocky Mountains not far from Mount Hooker, in the province of
+Alberta, flows N.E. and N., and falls into Lake Athabasca after a course of
+about 600 miles.--_Lake Athabasca_, or Lake of the Hills, is about 190
+miles S.S.E. of the Great Slave Lake, to which its waters are carried by
+means of the Slave River. It is about 200 miles in length from east to
+west, and 35 miles wide where widest, but narrows to a point at either
+extremity.--The former district of _Athabasca_, in 1905 divided between the
+two new provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, had British Columbia on the
+west, Keewatin on the east, Alberta and Saskatchewan districts on the
+south, the parallel of 60° on the north, being crossed by the Athabasca and
+the Peace Rivers. Lake Athabasca is partly in Alberta, partly in
+Saskatchewan.
+
+ATHALI´AH, daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, and wife of Joram, King of
+Judah. After the death of her son Ahaziah, she opened her way to the throne
+by the murder of forty-two princes of the royal blood. She reigned six
+years; in the seventh the high-priest Jehoiada placed Joash, the young son
+of Ahaziah, who had been secretly preserved, on the throne of his father,
+and Athaliah was slain. Cf. 2 _Kings_, xi. The story of Athaliah supplied
+Racine with the plot of one of his most famous tragedies.
+
+ATHANA´SIAN CREED, a creed or exposition of Christian faith, supposed
+formerly to have been drawn up by St. Athanasius, though this opinion is
+now generally rejected, and the composition often ascribed to Hilary,
+Bishop of Arles (about 430). It is an explicit avowal of the doctrines of
+the Trinity (as opposed to Arianism, of which Athanasius was a great
+opponent) and of the incarnation, and contains what are known as the
+'damnatory clauses', in which it declares that damnation must be the lot of
+those who do not believe the true and catholic faith. It is contained in
+the _Book of Common Prayer_, to be read on certain
+occasions.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. J. A. Hort, _Two Dissertations_; G. D. W.
+Ommanney, _Critical Dissertation on the Athanasian Creed_; J. A. Robinson,
+_The Athanasian Creed_; E. C. S. Gibson, _The Three Creeds_; R. O. P.
+Taylor, _Athanasian Creed in the Twentieth Century_.
+
+ATHANA´SIUS, ST., Archbishop of Alexandria, a renowned father of the
+Church, born in that city about A.D. 296, died 373. While yet a young man
+he attended the Council at Nice (325), where he gained the highest esteem
+of the fathers by the talents which he displayed in the Arian controversy.
+He had a great share in the decrees passed here, and thereby drew on
+himself the hatred of the Arians. Shortly afterwards he was appointed
+Archbishop of Alexandria. The complaints and accusations of his enemies at
+length induced the Emperor Constantine to summon him in 334 before the
+Councils of Tyre and Jerusalem, when he was suspended, and afterwards
+banished to Trèves. The death of Constantine put an end to this banishment,
+and Constantius recalled the holy patriarch. His return to Alexandria
+resembled a triumph. Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 342. Again
+in 355 he was sentenced to be banished, when he retired into those parts of
+the desert which were entirely uninhabited. He was followed by a faithful
+servant, who, at the risk of his life, supplied him with the means of
+subsistence. Here Athanasius composed many writings, full of eloquence, to
+strengthen the faith of the believers, or expose the falsehood of his
+enemies. When Julian the Apostate ascended the throne, toleration was
+proclaimed to all religions, and Athanasius returned to his former position
+at Alexandria. His next controversy was with the heathen subjects of
+Julian, who excited the emperor against him, and he was obliged to flee in
+order to save his life. The death of the emperor and the accession of
+Jovian (363) again brought him back; but Valens becoming emperor, and the
+Arians recovering the superiority, he was once more compelled to flee. He
+concealed himself in the tomb of his father, where he remained four months,
+until Valens allowed him to return. From this period he remained
+undisturbed in his office till he died. Of the forty-six years of his
+official life he spent twenty in banishment, and the greater part of the
+remainder in defending the Nicene Creed. Athanasius was not so much a
+speculative theologian as a great Christian pastor (cf. L. Duchesne,
+_Histoire ancienne. de l'Église_, 1907). His writings, which are in Greek,
+are on polemical, historical, and moral subjects. The polemical treat
+chiefly of the doctrines of the Trinity, the incarnation of Christ, and the
+divinity of the Holy Spirit. The historical ones are of the greatest
+importance for the history of the Church. See _Athanasian Creed_.
+
+A´THEISM (Gr. _a_, priv., and _Theos_, God), the disbelief of the existence
+of a God or supreme intelligent being; the doctrine opposed to _theism_ or
+_deism_. The term has been often loosely used as equivalent with
+_infidelity_ generally, with deism, with pantheism, and with the denial of
+immortality. The most famous exponents of atheism were La Mettrie, Holbach,
+Feuerbach, and Carl Vogt; whilst Comte and Haeckel have put forward systems
+of thought essentially atheistic.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Flint, _Anti-theistic
+Theories_; J. S. Blackie, _Natural History of Atheism_; F. A. Lange,
+_History of Materialism_.
+
+ATH´ELING, a title of honour among the Anglo-Saxons, meaning one who is of
+noble blood. The title was gradually confined to the princes of the blood
+royal, and in the ninth and tenth centuries was used exclusively for the
+sons or brothers of the reigning king.
+
+ATHELING, Edgar. See _Edgar Atheling_.
+
+ATH´ELNEY, formerly an island in the midst of fens and marshes, now drained
+and cultivated in Somersetshire, England, about 7 miles southeast of
+Bridgwater. Alfred the Great took refuge in it during a Danish invasion,
+and afterwards founded an abbey there.
+
+ATH´ELSTAN, King of England, born 895, died 941, succeeded his father,
+Edward the Elder, in 925. He was victorious in his wars with the Danes of
+Northumberland, and the Scots, by whom they were assisted. After a signal
+overthrow of his enemies at Brunanburgh he governed in peace and with great
+ability.
+
+ATH[=E]´NA, or ATH[=E]N[=E], a Greek goddess, identified by the Romans with
+Minerva, the representative of the intellectual powers; the daughter of
+Zeus (Jupiter) and M[=e]tis (that is, wisdom or cleverness). According to
+the legend, before her birth Zeus swallowed her mother, and Athena
+afterwards sprang from the head of Zeus with a mighty war shout and in
+complete armour. In her character of a wise and prudent warrior she was
+contrasted with the fierce Ares (Mars). In the wars of the giants she slew
+Pallas and Enceladus. In the wars of the mortals she aided and protected
+heroes. She is also represented as the patroness of the arts of peace. The
+sculptor, the architect, and the painter, as well as the philosopher, the
+orator, and the poet, considered her their tutelar deity. She is also
+represented among the healing gods. In all these representations she is the
+symbol of the thinking faculty, the goddess of wisdom, science, and art;
+the latter, however, only in so far as invention and thought are
+comprehended. In the images of the goddess a manly gravity and an air of
+reflection are united with female beauty in her features. As a warrior she
+is represented completely armed, her head covered with a gold helmet. As
+the goddess of peaceful art she appears in the dress of a Grecian matron.
+To her insignia belong the Ægis, the Gorgon's head, the round Argive
+buckler; and the owl, the cock, the serpent, an olive branch, and a lance
+were sacred to her. All Attica, but particularly Athens, was sacred to her,
+and she had numerous temples there. Her most brilliant festival at Athens
+was the Panathenæa.
+
+ATHENÆ´UM, the temple of Athena or Minerva, at Athens, frequented by poets,
+learned men, and orators. The same name was given at Rome to the school
+which Hadrian established on the Capitoline Mount for the promotion of
+literary and scientific studies. In modern times the same name is given to
+literary clubs and establishments connected with the sciences. It is also
+the title of several literary periodicals.
+
+ATHENÆ´US, a Greek rhetorician and grammarian, who lived at the end of the
+second and beginning of the third century after Christ, author of an
+encyclopædic work, in the form of conversation, called _The Professors at
+the Dinner-table_ (_Deipnosophistæ_), which is a rich but ill-arranged
+treasure of historical, antiquarian, philosophical, grammatical, &c.,
+knowledge.
+
+ATHENAG´ORAS, a Platonic philosopher of Athens, a convert to Christianity,
+who wrote a Greek _Apology for the Christians_, addressed to the Emperor
+Marcus Aurelius, in 177, one of the earliest that appeared.
+
+ATH´ENS (Gr. _Ath[=e]nai_, Lat. _Ath[=e]næ_), anciently the capital of
+Attica and centre of Greek culture, now the capital of the kingdom of
+Greece. It is situated in the central plain of Attica, about 4 miles from
+the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Ægina, an arm of the Ægean Sea running in
+between the mainland and the Peloponnesus. It is said to have been founded
+about 1550 B.C. by Cecrops, the mythical Pelasgian hero, and to have borne
+the name Cecropia until under Erechtheus it received the name of Athens in
+honour of Ath[=e]n[=e]. The Acropolis, an irregular oval crag 150 feet
+high, with a level summit 1000 feet long by 500 in breadth, was the
+original nucleus of the city, which, according to tradition, was extended
+by Theseus when Athens became the head of the confederate Attic States. The
+three chief eminences near the Acropolis--the Areopagus to the north-west,
+the Pnyx to the south-west, and the Museum to the south of the Pnyx--were
+thus included within the city boundary as the sites of its chief public
+buildings, the city itself, however, afterwards taking a northerly
+direction. On the east ran the Ilissus and on the west the Cephissus, while
+to the south-west lay three harbours--Phalerum, the oldest and nearest; the
+Piræus, the most important; and Munychia, the Piræan Acropolis. At the
+height of its prosperity the city was connected with its harbours by three
+massive walls (the 'long walls'). The architectural development of Athens
+may be dated from the rule of the Pisistratids (560-510 B.C.), who are
+credited with the foundation of the huge temple of the Olympian Zeus,
+completed by Hadrian seven centuries later, the erection of the Pythium or
+temple of the Pythian Apollo, and of the Lyceum or temple of Apollo
+Lyceus--all near the Ilissus; and to whom were due the enclosure of the
+Academy, a gymnasium and gardens to the north of the city, and the building
+of the Agora with its Portico or Stoa, Bouleuterium or Senate-house,
+Tholus, and Prytaneum. With the foundation of Athenian democracy under
+Clisthenes, the Pnyx or place of public assembly, with its semicircular
+area and cyclopean wall, first became of importance, and a commencement was
+made of the Dionysiac theatre (theatre of Dionysus or Bacchus) on the south
+side of the Acropolis. After the destruction wrought by the Persians in 480
+B.C., Themistocles reconstructed the city upon practical lines and with a
+larger area, enclosing the city in new walls 7½ miles in circumference,
+erecting the north wall of the Acropolis, and developing the maritime
+resources of the Piræus; while Cimon added to the southern fortifications
+of the Acropolis, placed on it the temple of Wingless Victory, planted the
+Agora with trees, laid out the Academy, and built the Theseum on an
+eminence north of the Areopagus; his brother-in-law, Peisianax, erected the
+famous Stoa Poecil[=e], a hall with walls covered with paintings (whence
+the _Stoics_ got their name). Under Pericles the highest point of artistic
+development was reached. An Odeum was erected on the east of the Dionysiac
+theatre for the recitations of rhapsodists and musicians; and with the aid
+of the architects Ict[=i]nus, Callicrates, and Mnesicles, and of the
+sculptor Phidias, the Acropolis was perfected. Covering the whole of the
+western end rose the Propylæa, the splendid structure through which the
+Acropolis was entered, constructed of Pentelic marble and consisting of a
+central gateway portico with two wings in the form of Doric temples. Just
+outside the Propylæa was the small temple of Wingless Victory. A short
+distance within the entrance stood the bronze statue of Athena Promachus, a
+colossal work of Phidias, 66 feet high, showing the goddess in complete
+armour and leaning on a lance. Beyond it to the left was the Erechtheum,
+the shrine of Athena Polias, guardian of the city, containing a very
+ancient and sacred statue of Athena in olive-wood; while to the right, on
+the highest part of the Acropolis, was the marble Parthenon or temple of
+Athena, the crowning glory of the whole. This renowned structure, still
+glorious in its ruins, was built under the auspices of Pericles, Phidias
+being the sculptor and artistic adviser, and Ict[=i]nus and Callicrates the
+architects. It is in the Doric style, and among its numerous sculptures
+were fifty life-size statues, while in the interior was a chryselephantine
+(gold and ivory) figure of the goddess, 39 feet high. (See _Parthenon_.)
+Minor statues and shrines occupied the rest of the area of the Acropolis,
+which was for the time wholly appropriated to the worship of the guardian
+deities of the city. The Acropolis museum, a building of recent date,
+contains an interesting and valuable collection of works of art found here.
+In the interval between the close of the Peloponnesian War and the battle
+of Chæronea few additions were made to the city. But the long walls and
+Piræus, destroyed by Lysander, were restored by Conon, and under the orator
+Lycurgus the Dionysiac temple was completed, the Panathenaic stadium
+commenced, and the choragic monuments of Lysicrates and Thrasyllus erected.
+Later on Ptolemy Philadelphus gave Athens the Ptolemæum near the Theseum,
+Attalus I the stoa north-east of the Agora, Eumenes II that near the great
+theatre, and Antiochus Epiphanes carried on the Olympieum. Under the Romans
+it continued a flourishing city, Hadrian in the second century adorning it
+with many new buildings, and constructing an aqueduct, finished by his son
+Antoninus Pius. At this time also a wealthy citizen, Herodes Atticus, did
+much to beautify the city, and in particular constructed an Odeum, the
+ruins of which are still conspicuous. Indeed Athens was at no time more
+splendid than under the Antonines, when Pausanias visited and described it.
+But after a time Christian zeal, the attacks of barbarians, and robberies
+of collectors made sad inroads among the monuments. About A.D. 420 paganism
+was totally annihilated at Athens, and when Justinian closed even the
+schools of the philosophers, the reverence for buildings associated with
+the names of the ancient deities and heroes was lost. The Parthenon was
+turned into a church of the Virgin Mary, and St. George stepped into the
+place of Theseus. Finally, in 1456, the place fell into the hands of the
+Turks. The Parthenon became a mosque, and in 1687 was greatly damaged by an
+explosion at the siege of Athens by the Venetians. Enough, however, remains
+of it and of the neighbouring structures to attest the splendour of the
+Acropolis; while of the other buildings of the city, the Theseum, or temple
+of Theseus, and the Horologium, or temple of the Winds, are admirably
+preserved, as are also structures belonging to the Pnyx, Panathenaic
+stadium (restored and again used for games), &c. The Theseum, indeed, is
+said to be the best preserved building of all ancient Greece, and is hardly
+less imposing than the Parthenon. Of more than a hundred columns that
+belonged to the Olympieum or temple of the Olympian Zeus, completed by
+Hadrian, only fifteen are still standing. Soon after the commencement of
+the war of liberation in 1821 the Turks surrendered Athens, but captured it
+again in 1826-7. The Great Powers now intervened to bring about the
+independence of Greece. The Turks evacuated Athens in 1833, and the troops
+of King Otho then entered the city. In 1835 it became the royal residence,
+and it soon began to make rapid progress, though its natural position is by
+no means advantageous. The modern city mostly lies north, north-east, and
+north-west of the Acropolis, and consists mainly of straight and well-built
+streets. Among the principal buildings are the royal palace, a stately
+building with a façade of Pentelic marble (completed 1843), the university,
+the academy of science, national museum of archaeology, public library,
+exhibition building, polytechnic institute, theatre, and observatory. There
+are two universities, the National University, opened in 1836, and the
+Capodistrian University with 3250 students. There are valuable museums, in
+particular the National Museum and that in the Polytechnic School, which
+contains the Schliemann collection, &c. These are constantly being added to
+by excavations. There are four foreign archæological schools or institutes,
+the French, German, American, and British. The Zappeion or exhibition
+building is a handsome structure, erected at the expense of the brothers
+Zappas to exhibit Greek industries. Tramways have been made in the
+principal streets, and the city is connected by tramway and railway (6
+miles) with its port, the Piræus. Athens has also railway connection with
+the north and west of the kingdom as well as with the Peloponnesus. The
+Piræus is the chief Greek centre of trade and industry. Water is brought
+from Mount Pentelicus on the north-east, the aqueduct begun by Hadrian
+being utilized in supplying the city. Pop. 167,479, and including the
+Piræus 241,058.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. A. Gardner, _Ancient Athens_; J. E.
+Harrison, _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_; W. Warde Fowler,
+_The City-State_, chapter vi; W. M. Leake, _Topography of Athens and the
+Demi_; C. H. Weller, _Athens and its Monuments_.
+
+ATHENS, the name of many places in the United States, the chief being in
+Georgia, and containing the Georgia University and the State college of
+agriculture. It carries on the cotton manufacture, has manufactures of
+agricultural implements, &c., and is a centre of trade. It was founded in
+1801. Pop. 14,913.
+
+ATH´ERINE (_Ather[=i]na_), the name of a genus of small fishes abundant in
+the Mediterranean and caught in British waters, especially on the coasts of
+the south of England, some of them being highly esteemed as food. They are
+also known as _Sand-smelts_. There are two British species.
+
+ATHERO´MA, in pathology, a term applied to a change that may take place in
+the inner coat of an artery, consisting in a kind of fatty degeneration,
+leading to an aneurism or bursting. Also an encysted tumour containing
+matter of a curdy appearance.
+
+ATH´ERSTONE, a town in Warwickshire, England, 8 miles S.E. of Tamworth, and
+equidistant (100 miles) from London, Liverpool, and Lincoln. It has
+manufactures of hats, and is the reputed birthplace of the poet Drayton.
+Pop. (1921), 20,849 (rural district).
+
+ATH´ERTON, town of England, Lancashire, 13 miles north-west of Manchester;
+cotton-factories, collieries, and ironworks give chief employment to the
+inhabitants. Pop. (1921), 19,863.
+
+ATHLETES (ath´l[=e]ts; Gr. _athl[=e]tai_, from _athlos_, a contest,
+_athlon_, a prize), originally, in ancient Greece, combatants who took part
+and contended for a prize (_athlon_) in the public games. The profession
+was an honourable one; tests of birth, position, and character were
+imposed, and crowns, statues, special privileges, and pensions were among
+the rewards of success. (See _Games_.) The word is used in a similar sense
+at the present day, but is more especially applied to persons who can
+exhibit feats of strength. Games and athletic competitions, if they do not
+hold such an honourable position to-day as they did in antiquity, are still
+practised with great enthusiasm and excite the keenest interest in their
+patrons.
+
+ATHLETIC SPORTS, a general name for certain physical exercises demanding a
+special natural ability, and embodying a variety of events which
+conventionally include not only running and jumping but such feats of
+strength as putting the weight and throwing the hammer. The selection of
+these events at any athletic meeting is a somewhat arbitrary one, and the
+inclusion of those which require strength and skill rather than speed and
+agility rests more on a traditional than a logical basis. A particular
+feature which distinguishes these exercises as athletic sports is the
+presence of the idea of competition; thus running and walking, as isolated
+exercises, can be called 'sports' only when men compete against one
+another, although the factor of competition may be only indirectly present,
+as when an athlete endeavours to beat a record.
+
+In this country athletic sports have long been a national characteristic,
+and records, more or less authentic, have been handed down for the last
+hundred years or more. Until comparatively recently, such sports have been
+the prerogative of the British Isles; but during the last thirty years the
+United States have adopted them with enormous enthusiasm and success, and
+more recently still the vogue has extended throughout the Continent, and
+good results have been obtained by representatives from France, Germany,
+Italy, Austria, Sweden, and Finland, as well as from all the Colonies. In
+this country no school, no matter how small or how humble its pretensions,
+fails to hold its athletic meeting annually. The same applies to all
+colleges of the leading universities, Oxford and Cambridge, the best
+representatives of which compete against one another, whilst the smaller
+universities hold similar competitions. In addition, a large number of
+clubs are in existence throughout the country for the promotion and
+encouragement of sports, the whole system of athletics being under the
+Amateur Athletic Association (founded in 1880), whose rules and regulations
+for the correct maintenance of athletics in the best interests of
+amateurism are regarded as a standard throughout the world. Under its
+auspices an annual meeting--the Amateur Championships--is held. This
+meeting is open to the whole world, and many of the championships have been
+held at one time or another by distinguished visitors from America, the
+Colonies, and the Continent. At the time of writing, the association is
+considering the project of holding two distinct annual meetings, one of
+which shall, as hitherto, be unrestricted, the other confined to residents
+in the British Isles. This, which is the most important meeting of the
+year, has taken place uninterruptedly since its origin in 1866 with the
+exception of the military interval, 1915-8, and has been successfully
+resumed in 1919. For the past fourteen or fifteen years the meeting has
+been held in London on the first Saturday in July, and this practice will
+probably be a permanent one, although hitherto the venue was, in rotation,
+London, the Midlands, and the North. The university and inter-university
+meetings are held before Easter, the former at the respective university
+towns, the latter at Queen's Club, London. Among other important
+representative contests may be mentioned the Public Schools' Championships
+(usually in April), the United Hospitals' Championships, the Irish, the
+Scottish, the Welsh, the Midland and the Northern Counties' Championships.
+During the war, athletics were practically restricted to the services, and
+the Army Athletic Championships, held in Aug., 1919, was a successful
+reunion of soldier athletes from the various theatres of war, and included,
+for the first time in history, coloured troops.
+
+The standard inter-university meeting comprises ten events, namely, flat
+races--100 yards, ¼ mile, ½ mile, 1 mile, and 3 miles; 120-yards hurdle
+race; the high jump and long jump; putting the weight and throwing the
+hammer. These events appear in the programme of the Amateur Championship
+meeting, with the substitution of a 4-miles race for the 3 miles, and the
+addition of a 220-yards race, a 2-miles walking race, a 2-miles
+steeplechase (representing a miniature cross-country event), and the pole
+jump. A relay race, in which four representatives from each club run half a
+mile, a quarter of a mile, 220 yards, and 220 yards respectively, is also
+included as a standard event; whilst at the 1919 meeting a race of 440
+yards over hurdles appeared for the first time, and will probably occupy a
+permanent place in the programme. Two additional Amateur Championship
+events, 7-miles walk and 10-miles flat race, are usually held at a separate
+meeting in the spring.
+
+In addition to the preceding British meetings, a great International
+contest, the Olympic Games, is held every four years in a country selected
+by the Olympic committee. This meeting is truly international, the last
+before 1914 having taken place at Stockholm in 1912, when representatives
+from the most distant parts of the world competed with representatives from
+every country in Europe in a remarkably elaborate programme, which
+included, in addition to the preceding, such feats as throwing the javelin
+and the discus, and the classic 'Marathon race' over the traditional
+distance of 26¼ miles. The 1920 Olympic meeting was arranged to take place
+at Antwerp.
+
+Although many excellently arranged athletic sports are held successfully
+upon a grass course, at any important meeting the races are contested upon
+a properly-constructed cinder-path, a quarter or a third of a mile in
+length, and in shape an oval flattened on two sides so as to include as
+much straight as possible. The width of the running path is variable, but
+18 to 24 feet may be regarded as an average. The centre is of grass, and
+spaces are prepared for the hurdle race, for the jumps, and the other
+events which are described as the _field_, as opposed to _track_, events.
+
+Flat races are classified as 'sprint races', 'middle distance' and 'long
+distance' races, although the distinction between these is somewhat
+arbitrary. Whether or no a man is actually capable of running the whole
+distance in question at full speed, the term 'sprint' is applied to those
+distances in which an attempt is made to put forth a continuous maximum
+effort. The limit is, by general consent, fixed at 300 yards. At any good
+meeting the 100-yards race will be run in 10 seconds; at the very best
+meeting this time will be beaten; and many runners have been credited with
+9-4/5 seconds, a few, under exceptional conditions, with 9-3/5 seconds. The
+record for 220 yards is 21-1/5 seconds. Middle-distance running includes
+races from a quarter mile to a mile, and races are held at 440 yards, 600
+yards, 880 yards, 1000 yards, 1 mile, and very occasionally at ¾ mile. With
+modern specialization, however, it is rare to find any one runner capable
+of supremacy at more than one of these distances. The ¼ mile is the common
+ground for the sprinter and the middle-distance runner, and 48 seconds has
+been beaten on several occasions, although it may be said that anything
+inside 50 seconds is a first-class performance. The record for 600 yards is
+1 minute 11 seconds. The ½-mile race has demonstrated latterly, perhaps,
+the greatest advance of all; and whilst anything under 2 minutes may still
+be regarded as a good performance, a championship event will most always be
+won in 3 or 4 seconds faster time; whilst at an Olympic meeting the
+wonderful record of 1 minute 52½ seconds has been made. The mile, which was
+originally regarded as a long-distance event, is now legitimately
+considered as within the capacity of a middle-distance runner. At any
+first-class meeting 4 minutes 20 seconds will be accomplished, and any
+diminution of this time may be regarded as of superlative merit. The
+record, which has stood since 1886, is 4 minutes 12¾ seconds, although a
+recent performance in America, which is a tiny fraction of a second faster,
+has yet to be passed. Over 1 mile, long-distance running begins, and, as
+considerable staying-power is required, it is not unusual to find one man
+prove champion at 4 miles and 10 miles, and even the 1-mile race in the
+same year. No runner has yet achieved the capacity of running 12 miles
+within the hour, although two or three have been within a few hundred yards
+of this distance. About ten years ago the fashion became a craze of
+contesting 'Marathon races' in which all sorts of distances, quite
+independent of the classic 26¼ miles, were employed. At rare intervals very
+long-distance running, such as 50 miles, is indulged in. For any distance
+over 20 miles a special form of endurance is called for, rather than
+orthodox running in good style. As a competition 'walking' is an
+unsatisfactory exercise, because of the extreme difficulty in deciding when
+the athlete is still fulfilling the orthodox regulation as to what
+constitutes fair 'heel and toe', inasmuch as the style of a man who is
+ostensibly walking, yet actually progressing at a rate faster than 9 miles
+an hour (faster than the average untrained person can run), is exceedingly
+difficult to analyse. About fifteen years ago long-distance walking became
+exceedingly popular, and hundreds of competitors attempted the classic walk
+to Brighton and back.
+
+The usual hurdle race is over 120 yards, with ten flights of hurdles 10
+yards apart, so that a distance of 15 yards separates the start from the
+first flight, and the same distance the last flight from the finish. The
+hurdles are 3½ feet high, with perfectly-level top rails. In correct
+'hurdling' the 'three-stride method' is essential, that is to say, three
+strides are taken on the flat between the hurdles, and the athlete rises 6
+feet from the obstacle, taking it in his stride, so that retardation of
+speed is reduced to a minimum. The skill and accuracy of an accomplished
+hurdler is remarkable, and the race is frequently run inside 16 seconds; a
+record of 15 seconds, and even a trifle less, has been accomplished.
+
+In this country, running long jump and high jump (and to a less extent the
+pole jump) alone are practised to any extent, although as occasional events
+the standing high and long jumps are contested, and, still less frequently,
+the old-fashioned hop, step, and jump. In the long jump the athlete employs
+all the impetus he can acquire by a sprint of about 30 yards. The ideal
+aimed at is to run at the fastest speed which is consistent with reaching
+the taking-off board with accuracy, and then to leap as high as possible. A
+fraction of an inch under 25 feet has been cleared on two occasions,
+although it may be said that anything over 24 feet is exceptional, and that
+any jumper capable of 23 feet consistently has a good chance to win an
+Amateur Championship. The high jump requires skill of a very peculiar
+character. Whilst the novice regards this feat as dependent on momentum,
+and takes a correspondingly long run to acquire speed, the crack performer
+employs his capacity of manipulating his body and limbs so as to cross the
+bar in a horizontal position. In this way the prodigious height of 6 feet 7
+inches has been cleared. In general it may be said that first-class jumping
+begins at 6 feet.
+
+Pole jumping, a particularly pretty event to watch, has never been
+practised to any great extent in this country, and, in fact, does not even
+appear to be so popular here as twenty years ago. The pole employed is of
+light but strong bamboo about 14 feet long, with a sharp ferrule at one
+end, which is stuck firmly into the ground. By the help of the pole, which
+is firmly grasped near the other end, the jumper elevates himself to the
+bar, over which he throws his legs and his body, finally relinquishing his
+hold of the pole, to fall on the opposite side. Recent years have witnessed
+the development of great skill in this event, particularly by the
+Americans, Canadians, and Swedes, and 13 feet has been cleared.
+
+The weight or shot is an iron ball weighing 16 lb., which must be put with
+one hand only from the shoulder within a circle of 7 feet diameter.
+Although great strength is essential, skill in utilizing the whole of the
+body plays a very important part. Over 50 feet has been put on several
+occasions.
+
+The 'hammer' is a ball of lead or iron attached by a wire to a handle. The
+total length must not exceed four feet; the weight of the whole must be at
+least 16 lb. The performer grasps the handle with one or both hands, and,
+standing within a 7-foot circle, swings the ball round and round to acquire
+impetus, which is then increased by rapid rotatory movements of his body.
+Once again skill and co-ordination must be wedded to strength. A crack
+performer has thrown over 175 feet.
+
+Throwing the javelin and discus are classical rather than popular events,
+and their cultivation is fashionable only when an Olympic contest is
+imminent. Among other 'strong-men' contests, which have long been favourite
+sports in Scotland, are tossing the _caber_ and putting the stone. The
+latter is usually a very heavy implement weighing about 56 lb.; the 'caber'
+is the trunk of a fir or other tree, freed from branches, which is held
+upright close to the chest by the smaller end, and thrown so as to alight
+on the heavier end.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Encyclopædia of Sports and Games_;
+_Annual Sporting and Athletic Register_; F. A. M. Webster, _The Evolution
+of the Olympic Games, 1829_ B.C.-A.D. _1914_; G. Le Roy, _Athlétisme_;
+E. W. Hjertberg, _Athletics in Theory and Practice_; P. Withington, _The
+Book of Athletics_.
+
+ATHLONE´, a town of Ireland, divided by the Shannon into two parts, one in
+Westmeath, the other in Roscommon; about 76 miles west of Dublin. Its
+position has made it one of the chief military depots, and a centre of
+trade by river, canal, and railway. It manufactures woollen goods, linens,
+&c. Up to 1885 it sent one member to Parliament. Pop. 7500.
+
+ATH´OLL, or ATHOLE, a mountainous and romantic district in the north of
+Perthshire, Scotland, giving the title to a duke of the Murray family who
+owns a large area there.
+
+ATHOR, HATHOR, or HET-HER, an Egyptian goddess, identified with
+Aphrod[=i]t[=e] or Venus. Her symbol was the cow bearing on its head the
+solar disc and hawk-feather plumes. Her chief temple was at Denderah. From
+her the third month of the Egyptian year derived its name.
+
+A´THOS (now HAGION OROS or MONTE SANTO, that is, Holy Mountain), a mountain
+6700 feet high, terminating the most eastern of the three peninsulas of
+Macedonia that jut in parallel directions into the Archipelago. The name,
+however, is frequently applied to the whole peninsula, which is about 30
+miles long by 5 broad. It is covered with forests, and plantations of
+olive, vine, and other fruit-trees. Both the surface and coast-line are
+irregular. The Persian fleet under Mardonius was wrecked here in 493 B.C.,
+and to avoid a similar calamity Xerxes caused a canal, of which traces may
+yet be seen, to be cut through the isthmus that joins the peninsula to the
+mainland. On the peninsula there are situated about twenty monasteries and
+a multitude of hermitages, which contain from 6000 to 8000 monks and
+hermits of the order of St. Basil. The libraries of the monasteries are
+rich in literary treasures and manuscripts. Every nation belonging to the
+Greek Church has here one or more monasteries of its own, which are
+annually visited by pilgrims. After having passed in the fifteenth century
+from the sovereignty of the Greek Emperors of Byzantium to that of the
+Sultans, it fell again into the hands of the Greeks, who occupied it in
+Nov., 1912. Each of the twenty monasteries is a little republic in itself,
+and until 1912 they used to pay an annual tribute of nearly £4000 to the
+Turks, and were governed by a synod of twenty monastic deputies and four
+presidents meeting weekly. They are now ruled either by abbots chosen for
+life, or by a board of overseers elected for a certain number of years. The
+revenue of the community is derived from pilgrims, and from a considerable
+trade in amulets, rosaries, crucifixes, images, and wooden furniture.
+
+ATHY´, a town in Ireland, county of Kildare, 37 miles south-west of Dublin,
+on the Barrow, which is here joined by the Grand Canal. Its chief trade is
+in corn. Pop. 3535.
+
+ATIT´LAN, a lake and mountain of Central America in Guatemala. The lake is
+about 24 miles long and 10 broad; the mountain is an active volcano 12,160
+feet high.
+
+ATLAN´TA, a city in the United States, capital of Georgia, on an elevated
+ridge, 7 miles south-east of the Chattahoochee River. It is an important
+railway centre; carries on a large trade in grain, paper, cotton, flour,
+and especially tobacco, and possesses flour-mills, paper-mills, ironworks,
+&c. Here are Atlanta University for negro men and women, a theological
+college, a medical college, &c. Atlanta suffered severely during the Civil
+War, and a battle was fought there on 22nd July, 1864. A fire which broke
+out on 21st May, 1917, caused damage estimated at more than £1,000,000.
+Pop. (1920), 200,600.
+
+ATLAN´TES, or TELAM[=O]NES, in architecture, male figures used in place of
+columns or pilasters for the support of an entablature or cornice. Female
+figures so employed are termed _caryatides_.
+
+ATLANTIC CITY, a fashionable watering-place of the United States, on the
+coast of New Jersey. It is an important air port, and has an aerodrome
+covering about 160 acres. Pop. 50,682.
+
+ATLANTIC OCEAN, the vast expanse of sea lying between the west coasts of
+Europe and Africa and the east coasts of North and South America, and
+extending from the Arctic to the Antarctic Ocean; greatest breadth, between
+the west coast of Northern Africa and the east coast of Florida, 4150
+miles; least breadth, between Norway and Greenland, 930 miles. The total
+area of the North Atlantic (including the inland seas) is 13,262,000 sq.
+miles; the area of the South Atlantic is 12,627,000 sq. miles. The
+principal inlets and bays are Baffin's and Hudson's Bays, the Gulf of
+Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, the North Sea, the Bay of Biscay, and the Gulf
+of Guinea. The principal islands north of the equator are Iceland, the
+Faroe and British Islands, the Azores, Canaries, and Cape Verde Islands,
+Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the West India Islands; and south of the
+equator, Ascension, St. Helena, and Tristan da Cunha.
+
+The great currents of the Atlantic are the Equatorial Current (divisible
+into the Main, Northern, and Southern Equatorial Currents), the Gulf
+Stream, the North African and Guinea Current, the Southern Connecting
+Current, the Southern Atlantic Current, the Cape Horn Current, Rennel's
+Current, and the Arctic Current. The current system is primarily set in
+motion by the trade-winds which drive the water of the intertropical region
+from Africa towards the American coasts. The Main Equatorial Current,
+passing across the Atlantic, is turned by the S. American coast, along
+which it runs at a rate of 30 to 50 miles a day, till, having received part
+of the North Equatorial Current, it enters the Gulf of Mexico. Issuing
+thence between Florida and Cuba under the name of the Gulf Stream, it flows
+with a gradually-expanding channel nearly parallel to the coast of the
+United States. It then turns north-eastward into the mid-Atlantic, the
+larger proportion of it passing southward to the east of the Azores to
+swell the North African and Guinea Current created by the northerly winds
+off the Portuguese coast. The Guinea Current, which takes a southerly
+course, is divided into two on arriving at the region of the north-east
+trades, part of it flowing east to the Bight of Biafra and joining the
+South African feeder of the Main Equatorial, but the larger portion being
+carried westward into the North Equatorial drift. Rennel's Current, which
+is possibly a continuation of the Gulf Stream, enters the Bay of Biscay
+from the west, curves round its coast, and then turns north-west towards
+Cape Clear. The Arctic Current runs along the east coast of Greenland
+(being here called the Greenland Current), doubles Cape Farewell, and flows
+up towards Davis' Strait; it then turns to the south along the coasts of
+Labrador and the United States, from which it separates the Gulf Stream by
+a cold band of water. Immense masses of ice are borne south by this current
+from the Polar seas. In the interior of the North Atlantic there is a large
+area comparatively free from currents, called the Sargasso Sea, from the
+large quantity of sea-weed (of the genus Sargassum) which drifts into it. A
+similar area exists in the South Atlantic. In the South Atlantic the
+portion of the Equatorial Current which strikes the American coast below
+Cape St. Roque flows southward at the rate of from 12 to 20 miles a day
+along the Brazil coast under the name of the Brazil Current. It then turns
+eastward and forms the South Connecting Current, which, on reaching the
+South African coast, turns northward into the Main and Southern Equatorial
+Currents. Besides the surface currents, an under current of cold water
+flows from the poles to the equator, and an upper current of warm water
+from the equator towards the poles.
+
+The greatest depth as yet discovered is north of Porto Rico, in the West
+Indies, namely 27,360 feet. Cross-sections of the North Atlantic between
+Europe and America show that its bed consists of two great valleys lying in
+a north-and-south direction, and separated by a ridge, on which there is an
+average depth of 1800 fathoms. The mean depth of the North Atlantic is 2047
+fathoms, that of the South Atlantic 2067 fathoms. A ridge, called the
+_Wyville-Thomson Ridge_, with a depth of little more than 200 fathoms above
+it, runs from near the Butt of Lewis to Iceland, cutting off the colder
+water of the Arctic Ocean from the warmer water of the Atlantic. The South
+Atlantic, of which the greatest depth yet found is over 3000 fathoms,
+resembles the North Atlantic in having an elevated plateau or ridge in the
+centre with a deep trough on either side. The saltness and specific gravity
+of the Atlantic gradually diminish from the tropics to the poles, and also
+from within a short distance of the tropics to the equator. In the
+neighbourhood of the British Isles the salt has been stated at one
+thirty-eighth of the weight of the water. The North Atlantic is the
+greatest highway of ocean traffic in the world. It is also a great area of
+submarine communication, by means of the telegraphic cables that are laid
+across its bed. See _Oceanography_.
+
+ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See _Telegraph_.
+
+ATLAN´TIDES (-d[=e]z), a name given to the Pleiades, which were fabled to
+be the seven daughters of Atlas or of his brother Hesperus.
+
+ATLAN´TIS, an island which, according to Plato, existed in the Atlantic
+over against the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), was the home
+of a great nation, and was finally swallowed up by the sea. The legend has
+been accepted by some as fundamentally true; but others have regarded it as
+the outgrowth of some early discovery of the New World.
+
+ATLAN´TOSAURUS, a gigantic fossil reptile, ord. Dinosauria, obtained in the
+upper Jurassic strata of the Rocky Mountains, attaining a length of 110
+feet or more.
+
+ATLAS, an extensive mountain system in North Africa, starting near Cape Nun
+on the Atlantic Ocean, traversing Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis, and
+terminating on the coast of the Mediterranean; divided generally into two
+parallel ranges, running W. to E., the Greater Atlas lying towards the
+Sahara and the Lesser Atlas towards the Mediterranean. The principal chain
+is about 1500 miles long, and the principal peaks rise above or approach
+the line of perpetual congelation, Miltsin in Morocco being 11,400 feet
+high, and Tizi Likumpt being 13,150. The highest elevation is perhaps Tizi
+Tamyurt, estimated at fully 15,000 feet. Silver, antimony, lead, copper,
+iron, &c., are among the minerals. The vegetation is chiefly European in
+character, except on the low grounds and next the desert.
+
+ATLAS, in Greek mythology, the name of a Titan whom Zeus condemned to bear
+the vault of heaven.--The same name is given to a collection of maps and
+charts, and was first used by Gerard Mercator in the sixteenth century, the
+figure of Atlas bearing the globe being given on the title-pages of such
+works.
+
+ATLAS, in anatomy, is the name of the first vertebra of the neck, which
+supports the head. It is connected with the occipital bone in such a way as
+to permit of the nodding movement of the head, and rests on the second
+vertebra or _axis_, their union allowing the head to turn from side to
+side.
+
+AT´LAS, a kind of silk or silk-satin fabric of Eastern manufacture.
+
+ATMIDOM´ETER, an instrument for measuring the evaporation from water, ice,
+or snow. It somewhat resembles Nicholson's hydrometer, being constructed so
+as to float in water and having an upright graduated stem, on the top of
+which is a metal pan. Water, ice, or snow is put into the pan, so as to
+sink the zero of the stem to a level with the cover of the vessel, and as
+evaporation goes on the stem rises, showing the amount of evaporation in
+grains.
+
+ATMOM´ETER, an instrument for measuring the amount of evaporation from a
+moist surface in a given time. It is often a thin hollow ball of porous
+earthenware in which is inserted a graduated glass tube. The cavity of the
+ball and tube being filled with water and the top of the tube closed, the
+instrument is exposed to the free action of the air; the relative rapidity
+with which the water transuding through the porous substance is evaporated
+is marked by the scale on the tube as the water sinks.
+
+AT´MOSPHERE, primarily the gaseous envelope which surrounds the earth; but
+the term is applied to that of any orb. Twilight effects show that the
+atmosphere is sufficiently dense up to a height of 40 miles to scatter or
+reflect to an appreciable degree the sun's rays, while the phenomena of
+meteors, which are rendered luminous through friction, show that it
+extends, though in extremely attenuated form, to 100 or even 200 or more
+miles. It exerts on every part of the earth's surface a pressure of about
+15 (14.73) lb. per sq. inch. The existence of this atmospheric pressure was
+first proved by Torricelli, who thus accounted for the rush of a liquid to
+fill a vacuum, and who, working out the idea, produced the first barometer.
+The average height of the mercurial column counterbalancing the atmospheric
+weight at the sea-level is a little less than 30 inches; but the pressure
+varies from hour to hour, and, roughly speaking, diminishes in geometrical
+progression with arithmetical increase in altitude. Of periodic variations
+there are two maxima of daily pressure, occurring when the temperature is
+about the mean of the day, and two minima, when it is at its highest and
+lowest respectively; but the problems of diurnal and seasonal oscillations
+have yet to be fully solved. The pressure upon the human body of average
+size is no less than 14 tons, but as it is exerted equally in all
+directions no inconvenience is caused by it. It is sometimes convenient to
+take the atmospheric pressure as a standard for measuring other fluid
+pressures; thus the steam pressure of 30 lb. per sq. inch on a boiler is
+spoken of as a pressure of two atmospheres.
+
+The atmosphere, first subjected to analysis by Priestley and Scheele in the
+latter part of the eighteenth century, consists practically of oxygen and
+nitrogen in the almost constant proportion of 20.81 volumes of oxygen to
+79.19 volumes of nitrogen, or, by weight, 23.01 parts of oxygen to 76.99 of
+nitrogen. The gases are associated together, not as a chemical compound,
+but as a mechanical mixture. Upon the oxygen present depends the power of
+the atmosphere to support combustion and respiration, the nitrogen acting
+as a diluent to prevent its too energetic action. It had long been known
+that atmospheric nitrogen appeared to have a very slightly greater density
+than nitrogen obtained from other sources. Lord Rayleigh and Sir William
+Ramsay found that the fact was due to a still more inert gas which forms
+nearly 1 per cent of the air, and which had not previously been separated
+from nitrogen. This has been named _argon_. Besides these gases, the
+atmosphere also contains aqueous vapour in variable quantity, ozone,
+carbonic acid gas, traces of ammonia, nitric acid, and, in towns,
+sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid gas. In addition to its gaseous
+constituents the atmosphere is charged with dust, bacteria, &c. For other
+gases which are present in traces, see _Neon_. See _Climate_;
+_Meteorology_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Flammarion, _L'Atmosphère_; Sir Napier
+Shaw, _The Weather Map_.
+
+ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE, name given by early inventors to engines in which the
+piston is restored to the bottom of its stroke by atmospheric pressure.
+
+ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY, so called in consequence of the motive power being
+derived from the pressure of the atmosphere, or from compressed air. The
+idea of thus obtaining motion was first suggested by the French engineer
+Papin, about 200 years ago. In 1810, and again in 1827, Medhurst published
+a scheme for 'propelling carriages through a close-fitting air-tight tunnel
+by forcing in air behind them'; and in 1825 a similar project was patented
+by Vallance of Brighton. About 1835 H. Pinkus, an American residing in
+England, patented a pneumatic railway. The carriages were to travel on an
+open line of rails, along which a cast-iron tube of between 3 and 4 feet
+diameter was to be laid, having a longitudinal slit from 1 to 2 inches wide
+and closed by a flexible valve along its upper side, through which a
+connection could be formed between the leading carriage and a piston
+working within the tube. This method was improved by Messrs. Clegg &
+Samuda, who in 1840 tried some experiments on a portion of the West London
+Railway with sufficient success to induce the Government to advance a loan
+to the Dublin and Kingstown Railway Company, for the construction of a
+pneumatic line from Kingstown to Dalkey. It was opened for passenger
+traffic at the end of 1843, and was worked for many months. The London and
+Croydon Company subsequently obtained powers for laying down an atmospheric
+railway by the side of their other line from London to Croydon, and in
+experimental trips in 1845 a speed of 30 miles an hour was obtained with
+sixteen carriages, and of 70 miles with six carriages. But during the
+intense heat of the summer of 1846 the iron tube frequently became so hot
+as to melt the composition which sealed the valve, and the line had to be
+worked by locomotives. The mechanical difficulty of commanding a sufficient
+amount of rarefaction led to the abandonment of the system for railway
+purposes. It has been revived, however, for the conveyance of letters and
+parcels in towns by means of tubes of moderate diameter laid beneath the
+streets. See _Pneumatic Dispatch_.
+
+[Illustration: Atoll]
+
+ATOLL´, the Polynesian name for coral islands of the ringed type enclosing
+a lagoon in the centre. They are found chiefly in the Pacific in
+archipelagos, and occasionally are of large size. Suadiva Atoll is 44 miles
+by 34; Rimsky 54 by 20. See _Coral_.
+
+ATOMIC THEORY, a theory as to the existence and properties of atoms (see
+_Atoms_); especially, in chemistry, the theory accounting for the fact that
+in compound bodies the elements combine in certain constant proportions, by
+assuming that all bodies are composed of ultimate atoms, the weight of
+which is different in different kinds of matter. It is associated with the
+name of Dalton, who systematized and extended the imperfect results of his
+predecessors. On its practical side the atomic theory asserts three _Laws
+of Combining Proportions_: (1) The Law of Constant or Definite Proportions,
+teaching that in every chemical compound the nature and relative weights of
+the constituent elements are definite and invariable; thus water invariably
+consists of 8 parts by weight of oxygen to 1 part by weight of hydrogen;
+(2) The Law of Multiple Proportions, according to which the several
+proportions in which one element unites with a given weight of another
+invariably bear towards each other a simple relation; thus 1 part by weight
+of hydrogen unites with 8 parts by weight of oxygen to form water, and with
+16 (i.e. 8×2) parts of oxygen to form peroxide of hydrogen; (3) The Law of
+Combination in Reciprocal Proportions, that the proportions in which two
+elements combine with a third also represent the proportions in which, or
+in some simple multiple of which, they will themselves combine; thus in
+olefiant gas hydrogen is present with carbon in the proportion of 1 to 6,
+and in carbonic oxide, oxygen is present with carbon in the proportion of 8
+to 6, 1 to 8 being also the proportions in which hydrogen and oxygen
+combine with each other. The theory that these _proportional numbers_ are,
+in fact, nothing else but the relative weights of atoms so far accounts for
+the phenomena that the existence of these laws might have been predicted by
+the aid of the atomic hypothesis long before they were actually discovered
+by analysis. In themselves, however, the laws do not prove the theory of
+the existence of ultimate particles of matter of a certain relative weight;
+and although many chemists, even without expressly adopting the atomic
+theory itself, have followed Dalton in the use of the terms _atom_ and
+_atomic weight_, in preference to _proportion_, _combining weight_,
+_equivalent_, and the like, yet in using the word _atom_ it should be held
+in mind that it merely denotes the combining weights of the elements. These
+will remain the same whether the atomic hypothesis which suggested the
+employment of the term be true or false. Dalton supposed that the atoms are
+spherical, and invented certain symbols to represent the mode in which he
+conceived they might combine. The latest atomic hypothesis is one which
+assigns an electrical structure to the atom. See _Chemistry_;
+_Electricity_; _Matter_. Cf. H. E. Roscoe and A. Harden, _New View of
+Dalton's Atomic Theory_; Sir J. J. Thomson, _Atomic Theory_.
+
+ATOMIC WEIGHTS. See _Chemistry_; _Molecular Weights_.
+
+ATOMISTS. See _Atoms_.
+
+ATOMS, for many years regarded as the ultimate indivisible particles of the
+chemical elements. The idea originated with some of the ancient
+philosophers (the atomists), more especially Democritus (450 B.C.),
+Epicurus, and Lucretius (99-55 B.C.), and was developed into a definite
+theory by Dalton (1804). According to Dalton the atoms of any one element
+are alike in all their properties, but differ from the atoms of other
+elements, and when chemical combination occurs it takes place between the
+atoms of the combining elements (see _Chemistry_). Various views have been
+held with regard to the nature of atoms. Newton regarded them as hard,
+ponderable particles, perfectly unalterable, and concluded that the
+difference between substances was due to different kinds of atoms. Lord
+Kelvin propounded the view that the properties of atoms might be explained
+by those of vortices or vortex rings in a homogeneous frictionless fluid.
+As a result of the researches of British and French physicists on radium,
+the latest view is that matter and electricity are closely connected, that
+atoms are not indivisible, but complex aggregates containing positive and
+negative electrons, the differences between the atoms depending mainly on
+the numbers of these electrons and their velocity. See _Radium_.
+
+ATONEMENT, in Christian theology, the special work of Christ effected by
+His life, sufferings, and death. The first explicit exposition of the
+evangelical doctrine of the atonement is ascribed to Anselm, Archbishop of
+Canterbury, in 1093.
+
+ATRATO ([.a]-trä´t[=o]), a river of S. America, in the north-west of
+Colombia, emptying itself by nine mouths into the Gulf of Darien; it is
+navigable by steamers of some size for 250 miles, and has long been the
+subject of schemes for establishing water-communication between the
+Atlantic and Pacific.
+
+ATRAULI, a town of India, United Provinces, Aligarh district, clean, well
+built, and with a good trade. Pop. 16,560.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Corrections made to printed original.
+
+Article Animalcule. "but most of them are strictly microscopic.":
+'miscroscopic' in original.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1
+Part 2, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 2 ***
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+    .figure p, .figcenter p, .figright p, .figleft p, .figdrop p
+              {margin: 0; text-indent: 1em;}
+    .figure p.in, .figcenter p.in, .figright p.in, .figleft p.in , .figdrop p.in {margin: 0; text-indent: 8em;}
+    .figcenter p.poem {margin-left: 1em; text-align: left; text-indent: 0;}
+    .figcenter {margin: auto;}
+    .figright {float: right;}
+    .figleft, .figdrop  {float: left;}
+    img.middle { border: none; vertical-align: middle }
+    /*img        { border: 1px solid black;}*/
+
+    </style>
+   </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 2
+       Amiel to Atrauli
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34074]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ccccff;">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td>
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage.<br /><br />
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h2>THE</h2>
+
+<h1>NEW . GRESHAM</h1>
+
+<h1>ENCYCLOPEDIA</h1>
+
+<h2>VOLUME . I . PART . 2</h2>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/image000.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image000.png"
+      alt="Publishers Mark" title="Publishers Mark" /></a>
+  </div>
+<h2><i>The</i> GRESHAM . PUBLISHING<br />
+COMPANY . <i>Limited</i></h2>
+
+<h3>66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND<br />
+LONDON W.C.2.<br />
+1922</h3>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS</h3>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<h3>VOLUME I PART 2</h3>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p class="cenhead">PLATES</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width:60%" summary="List of Plates." title="List of Plates.">
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> Page</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Anatomy</span> (Human Skeleton and Muscles) </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Archæology</span> (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages) </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Architecture</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="cenhead">MAPS IN COLOUR</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width:60%" summary="List of Maps in Colour." title="List of Maps in Colour.">
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Asia</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page274">274</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>KEY TO PRONUNCIATION</h3>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p>The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by
+  marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system
+  of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:&mdash;</p>
+
+<h3>VOWELS</h3>
+
+  <p>&#x101;, as in f<i>a</i>te, or in b<i>a</i>re.</p>
+
+  <p>ä, as in <i>a</i>lms, Fr. <i>â</i>me, Ger. B<i>a</i>hn = á of Indian
+  names.</p>
+
+  <p>a<span class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>, the same
+  sound short or medium, as in Fr. b<i>a</i>l, Ger. M<i>a</i>nn.</p>
+
+  <p>a, as in f<i>a</i>t.</p>
+
+  <p>a<span class="x1"><span class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>, as in
+  f<i>a</i>ll.</p>
+
+  <p><i>a</i>, obscure, as in rur<i>a</i>l, similar to <i>u</i> in
+  b<i>u</i>t, &#x117; in h<i>e</i>r: common in Indian names.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x113;, as in m<i>e</i> = <i>i</i> in mach<i>i</i>ne.</p>
+
+  <p>e, as in m<i>e</i>t.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x117;, as in h<i>e</i>r.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x12B;, as in p<i>i</i>ne, or as <i>ei</i> in Ger. m<i>ei</i>n.</p>
+
+  <p>i, as in p<i>i</i>n, also used for the short sound corresponding to
+  &#x113;, as in French and Italian words.</p>
+
+  <p><i>eu</i>, a long sound as in Fr. j<i>eû</i>ne = Ger. long <i>ö</i>,
+  as in S<i>ö</i>hne, G<i>ö</i>the (Goethe).</p>
+
+  <p>eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p<i>eu</i> = Ger.
+  <i>ö</i> short.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x14D;, as in n<i>o</i>te, m<i>oa</i>n.</p>
+
+  <p>o, as in n<i>o</i>t, s<i>o</i>ft&mdash;that is, short or medium.</p>
+
+  <p>ö, as in m<i>o</i>ve, tw<i>o</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x16B; as in t<i>u</i>be.</p>
+
+  <p>u, as in t<i>u</i>b: similar to &#x117; and also to <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>u<span class="x1"><span class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>, as in
+  b<i>u</i>ll.</p>
+
+  <p>ü, as in Sc. ab<i>u</i>ne = Fr. <i>û</i> as in d<i>û</i>, Ger.
+  <i>ü</i> long as in gr<i>ü</i>n, B<i>ü</i>hne.</p>
+
+  <p>u<span class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>, the
+  corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b<i>u</i>t, Ger.
+  M<i>ü</i>ller.</p>
+
+  <p>oi, as in <i>oi</i>l.</p>
+
+  <p>ou, as in p<i>ou</i>nd; or as <i>au</i> in Ger. H<i>au</i>s.</p>
+
+<h3>CONSONANTS</h3>
+
+  <p>Of the <i>consonants</i>, <b>b,</b> <b>d,</b> <b>f,</b> <b>h,</b>
+  <b>j,</b> <b>k,</b> <b>l,</b> <b>m,</b> <b>n,</b> <b>ng,</b> <b>p,</b>
+  <b>sh,</b> <b>t,</b> <b>v,</b> <b>z,</b> always have their common English
+  sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter <b>c</b> is
+  not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, <b>s</b> or <b>k</b>
+  being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
+  explanation are the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>ch is always as in ri<i>ch</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><i>d</i>, nearly as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>is = Sp. <i>d</i> in
+  Ma<i>d</i>ri<i>d</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p>g is always hard, as in <i>g</i>o.</p>
+
+  <p><i>h</i> represents the guttural in Scotch lo<i>ch</i>, Ger.
+  na<i>ch</i>, also other similar gutturals.</p>
+
+  <p>n<span class="x1"><span class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>, Fr. nasal
+  <i>n</i> as in bo<i>n</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>r represents both English <i>r</i>, and <i>r</i> in foreign words,
+  which is generally much more strongly trilled.</p>
+
+  <p>s, always as in <i>s</i>o.</p>
+
+  <p>th, as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>in.</p>
+
+  <p><i>th</i>, as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>is.</p>
+
+  <p>w always consonantal, as in <i>w</i>e.</p>
+
+  <p>x = ks, which are used instead.</p>
+
+  <p>y always consonantal, as in <i>y</i>ea (Fr. <i>ligne</i> would be
+  re-written l&#x113;ny).</p>
+
+  <p>zh, as <i>s</i> in plea<i>s</i>ure = Fr. <i>j</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page143"></a>[143]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Amiel´</b>, Henri Frédéric, French-Swiss philosophical writer and
+  poet, born at Geneva, 1821, died there 1881. Educated at Geneva, he
+  resided a considerable time abroad, especially in Germany, and was much
+  influenced by German thought and science. On his return he first held the
+  chair of æsthetics, and then that of philosophy. He published several
+  volumes of poetry as well as other works, but he is best known by his
+  <i>Journal Intime</i>, published after his death, and translated into
+  English (1885), with a critical study by Mrs. Humphry Ward. It shows
+  great critical and philosophical power, but is pessimistic.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amiens</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-m&#x113;-an<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town of France, capital of the
+  department of Somme, on the railway from Boulogne to Paris. It has a
+  citadel, wide and regular streets, and several large open areas; a
+  cathedral, one of the largest and finest Gothic buildings in Europe,
+  founded in 1220 by Bishop Evrard, after designs made by the architect
+  Robert de Luzarches. Having water communication with the sea by the
+  Somme, which is navigable for small vessels, it has a large trade and
+  numerous important manufactures, especially cotton and woollen goods. It
+  was taken by the Germans in 1870, and again in 1914, by General von
+  Kluck. Pop. (1911) 93,207.&mdash;The <i>Peace of Amiens</i>, concluded
+  between Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Batavian Republic, 27th
+  March, 1802, put an end for a time to the great war which had lasted
+  since 1793.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amir.</b> See <i>Emir</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amirante Islands</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-m&#x113;-ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n´t&#x101;), a group of eleven small
+  islands in the Indian Ocean, lying south-west of the Seychelles, and
+  forming a dependency of Mauritius.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amlwch</b> (am´lö<i>h</i>), a seaport in North Wales, Island of
+  Anglesey. Pop. (1921), 2694 (urb. dist.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ammana´ti</b>, Bartolomeo, a sculptor and architect, born at
+  Florence in 1511, died 1592; executed the <i>Leda</i> at Florence, a
+  gigantic <i>Neptune</i> for St. Mark's Place at Venice, a colossal
+  <i>Hercules</i> at Padua, and after the inundation in 1557, which
+  destroyed all the bridges of the Arno, built the celebrated Trinity
+  Bridge at Florence, finished in 1570. He was an imitator of Michael
+  Angelo without his inspiration and genius.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ammergau</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>m´er-gou), a district in Upper Bavaria,
+  having its centre in the villages of Ober and Unter Ammergau. The former
+  village is famous on account of the Passion Play which is performed
+  there, at intervals usually of ten years.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/image045.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image045.jpg"
+      alt="Ammeter" title="Ammeter" /></a>
+    Ammeter.&mdash;Front removed to show details.
+
+    <p class="poem">A. Large magnet. B. Soft-iron keeper magnetized by
+    magnet and acting as resistance. D. Cylinder turning within B, and
+    actuated by current entering at C1, and flowing through spiral wire
+    (not shown) at base of D, and through coil on cylinder to terminal C2.
+    E. Hair-spring regulating pointer. F. Pointer stops.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Am´meter</b> (short for ampere-meter), an instrument used for the
+  measurement of electric currents. For commercial use the scale is marked
+  so as to read amperes directly, but for experimental purposes it is usual
+  to have a scale with divisions numbered in tens, in which case the
+  reading multiplied by a suitable constant gives the value of the current
+  in amperes. By employing suitable shunts this admits of the one
+  instrument being used for a number of ranges.</p>
+
+  <p>The types of ammeter and the principles upon which they work are as
+  follows: (<i>a</i>) <i>Soft-iron type</i>, the action of a magnetic field
+  on a piece of soft iron; (<i>b</i>) <i>moving-coil type</i> and
+  <i>dynamometer type</i>, the action of a magnetic field on a
+  current-carrying coil; (<i>c</i>) <i>hot-wire type</i>, the expansion of
+  a conductor due to the heating produced by the current; (<i>d</i>)
+  <i>induction type</i>, the action of a magnetic field on the eddy
+  currents produced in a metal disc.</p>
+
+  <p>The "soft-iron" ammeter can be used for both direct and alternating
+  currents, is inexpensive, and is sufficiently accurate for commercial
+  use.</p>
+
+  <p>For direct-current measurements where a high degree of accuracy is of
+  first importance, a "moving-coil" ammeter is invariably used.</p>
+
+  <p>In alternating-current circuits its place is taken by the dynamometer
+  type, which reads both direct and alternating currents.</p>
+
+  <p>In cases where absence of inductance in the instrument is important,
+  e.g. in the measurements in wireless-telegraph and telephone circuits,
+  the "hot-wire" ammeter is used. It measures both direct and alternating
+  currents, and, when properly used, has a high degree of accuracy.</p>
+
+  <p>The "induction" type cannot be used for direct currents, and has the
+  limitation that with alternating currents it will read correctly only at
+  the frequency for which it is calibrated.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost invariably an ammeter gives its full-scale reading when a small
+  current, say of the order of one-tenth of an ampere, is passing through
+  the instrument itself. In order to read larger currents a device is
+  employed whereby a definite fraction of the current to be measured <!--
+  Page 144 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page144"></a>[144]</span>passes through the instrument.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J.&nbsp;A. Fleming, <i>A Handbook for the
+  Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room</i> (2 vols.); G.&nbsp;D. Aspinall
+  Parr, <i>Electrical Measuring Instruments</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ammia´nus Marcelli´nus</b>, a Roman historian, born at Antioch in
+  Syria about 320, died about 390. He wrote in 31 books (of which the first
+  13 are lost) a history of the Cæsars, from Nerva to Valens, which was
+  highly thought of by Gibbon for its fidelity. His MS. was printed for the
+  first time at Rome in 1474.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:14%;">
+      <a href="images/image046.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image046.jpg"
+      alt="Ammon" title="Ammon" /></a>
+    Ammon.
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Am´mon</b> (often called <b>Ammon-Ra</b>, i.e. Ammon-Sun), an
+  ancient Egyptian deity, one of the chief gods of the country, identified
+  by the Greeks with their supreme god Zeus, while the Romans regarded him
+  as the representative of Jupiter; represented as a ram, as a human being
+  with a ram's head, ornamented with the solar disc, or simply with the
+  horns of a ram. There was a celebrated temple of Ammon in the Oasis of
+  Siwah in the Libyan desert.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ammon</b>, Oasis of. See <i>Siwah</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ammo´nia</b>, an alkaline substance, which differs from the other
+  alkalies by being gaseous, and is hence sometimes called the <i>volatile
+  alkali</i>. It is a colourless pungent gas, composed of nitrogen and
+  hydrogen; formula, NH<sub>3</sub>. It was first prepared by Priestley,
+  who termed it <i>alkaline air</i>. He obtained it from sal-ammoniac by
+  the action of lime, by which method it is yet generally prepared. It is
+  used for many purposes, both in medicine and scientific chemistry; not,
+  however, in the gaseous state, but frequently in solution in water, under
+  the names of <i>liquid ammonia</i>, <i>aqueous ammonia</i>, or <i>spirits
+  of hartshorn</i>. It is generally prepared from the ammoniacal liquor
+  obtained as a by-product on distilling coal. Combined with acids, ammonia
+  forms salts which are of immense value to agriculture. The well-known
+  odour of farmyard manure is very largely due to the formation of ammonia
+  during the rotting of the dung. Many animal substances, such as bones,
+  clippings and shavings of horn, hoof, &amp;c., and certain vegetable
+  matters yield ammonia when heated. Sal-ammoniac is ammonium chloride.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ammoni´&#x103;cum</b>, a gum-resinous exudation from an
+  umbelliferous plant, the <i>Dor&#x113;ma ammoni&#x103;cum</i>. It has a
+  fetid smell, is inflammable, soluble in water and spirit of wine; used as
+  an antispasmodic, stimulant, and expectorant in chronic catarrh,
+  bronchitic affections, and asthma; also used for plasters.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ammo´niaphone</b>, an instrument, consisting of a metallic tube
+  containing some substance saturated with ammonia, peroxide of hydrogen,
+  and a few flavouring compounds, fitted with a mouthpiece to breathe
+  through, which is said to render the voice strong, clear, rich, and
+  ringing by the inhalation of the ammoniacal vapour. It was invented by
+  Dr. Carter Moffat, and was suggested by the presence of ammonia in some
+  quantity in the atmosphere of Italy&mdash;the country of fine
+  singers.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/image047.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image047.jpg"
+      alt="Ammonites" title="Ammonites" /></a>
+    Ammonites obtusus. Ammonites varians
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Am´monites</b>, a group of fossil cephalopods, now divided into a
+  large number of genera, ranging from the Coal Measures (Texas) to the
+  uppermost cretaceous strata. The ammonites differ from the nautili in
+  having the tube connecting the chambers placed on the outer margin of the
+  coiled shell, while the calcareous neck where it passes through the
+  partitions is directed forwards. The partitions are much folded,
+  producing markings like the fronds of ferns where they meet the inner
+  wall of the shell. The name arises from confusion with a coiled
+  gastropod, which was held to resemble the horns of the Egyptian deity
+  Jupiter Ammon.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am´monites</b>, a Semitic race frequently mentioned in Scripture,
+  descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (<i>Gen.</i> xix, 38), often
+  spoken of in conjunction with the Moabites. A predatory and Bedouin race,
+  they inhabited the desert country east of Gad, their chief city being
+  Rabbath-Ammon (Philadelphia). Wars between the Israelites and the
+  Ammonites were frequent; they were overcome by Jephthah, Saul, David,
+  Uzziah, Jotham, &amp;c. They appear to have existed as a distinct people
+  in the time of Justin Martyr, but have subsequently become merged in the
+  aggregate of nameless Arab tribes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ammo´nium</b>, the name given to the hypothetical radicle (formula,
+  NH<sub>4</sub>) of ammonium salts. It functionates as a metal, has not
+  been isolated, but it is believed to exist in an amalgam with
+  mercury.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ammo´nius Sac´cas</b>, a Greek philosopher who lived about <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 175-240. Originally a porter in Alexandria, he
+  derived his epithet from the carrying of <i>sacks</i> of corn. The son of
+  Christian parents, he abandoned their faith for the polytheistic
+  philosophy of Greece. His teaching was historically a transition stage
+  between Platonism and Neo-Platonism. Among his disciples were Plotinus,
+  Longinus, Origen, &amp;c. The books often attributed to him are by a
+  Christian philosopher of the same name. <!-- Page 145 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page145"></a>[145]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Ammuni´tion</b>, another form of the word munition, with a more
+  restricted meaning. It is now taken to include cartridges of all sorts
+  for guns, howitzers, rifles, and all fire-arms. Ammunition comprises both
+  cartridges in which explosive and missiles are combined to form one
+  compact article, and also other forms of projectiles of which the
+  explosive agent forms one portion and the actual missile the other.
+  Bombs, grenades, shells, powder, and bullets are all included in the
+  generic term ammunition. As a qualifying word used adjectivally it is
+  found in ammunition-wagon, ammunition-carrier, ammunition-mules,
+  ammunition-column, &amp;c. In the British service the Royal Army Ordnance
+  Corps is entrusted with the provision of supplies of ammunition
+  generally, while the actual distribution in the field is the duty of the
+  ammunition-column, a Royal Artillery organization.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am´nesty</b> (Gr. <i>amnestia</i>, forgetfulness), the releasing of
+  a number of persons who have been guilty of political offences from the
+  consequence of these offences. The earliest recorded amnesty in history
+  is that of Thrasybulus at Athens, and the last act of amnesty passed in
+  Britain was that of 1747, after the second Jacobite rebellion.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am´nion</b>, the innermost membrane surrounding the fetus of
+  mammals, birds, and reptiles.&mdash;In botany, a gelatinous fluid in
+  which the embryo of a seed is suspended, and by which it is supposed to
+  be nourished.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amo´aful</b>, village near Kumassi, West Africa, at which the
+  Ashanti were defeated by British troops under Wolseley, 31st Jan.,
+  1874.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:12%;">
+      <a href="images/image048.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image048.jpg"
+      alt="Amoeba" title="Amoeba" /></a>
+    Am&oelig;ba proteus.
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Am&oelig;´ba</b>, a microscopic genus of rhizopodous Protozoa, of
+  which <i>A. diffl&#x16D;ens</i>, common in freshwater ponds and ditches,
+  is the type. It exists as a mass of protoplasm, and pushes its body out
+  into finger-like processes or pseudopodia, and by means of these moves
+  about or grasps particles of food. There is no distinct mouth, and food
+  is engulfed within any portion of the soft sarcode body. Reproduction
+  takes place by fission, or by a single pseudopodium detaching itself from
+  the parent body and developing into a separate am&oelig;ba.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am&oelig;be´an Poetry</b>, poetry in which persons are represented
+  as speaking alternately, as in some of Virgil's <i>Eclogues</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amol´</b>, a town of Northern Persia, 76 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.E.</span> of Teheran. Extensive ruins tell of former
+  greatness, the most prominent being the mausoleum of Seyed Quam-u-deen,
+  who died in 1378. Pop. in winter estimated at about 40,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amo´mum</b>, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Zinziberaceæ
+  (ginger, &amp;c.), natives of warm climates, and remarkable for the
+  pungency and aromatic properties of their seeds. Some of the species
+  yield Cardamoms, others Grains of Paradise.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amontilla´do</b>, a dry kind of sherry wine of a light colour,
+  highly esteemed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amoor.</b> See <i>Amur</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´mor</b>, the god of love among the Romans, equivalent to the Gr.
+  <i>Er&#x14D;s</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amor´go</b> (ancient <b>Amorgos</b>), an island in the Grecian
+  Archipelago, one of the Eastern Cyclades, 22 miles long, 5 miles broad;
+  area, 106 sq. miles; it has a town of the same name, with a castle and a
+  large harbour. Pop. 3561.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am´orites</b>, a powerful Canaanitish tribe at the time of the
+  occupation of the country by the Israelites; occupied the whole of Gilead
+  and Bashan, and formed two powerful kingdoms&mdash;a northern, under Og,
+  who is called King of Bashan; and a southern, under Sihon, called King of
+  the Amorites; first attacked and overthrown by Joshua; subsequently
+  subdued, and made tributary or driven to mingle with the Philistines and
+  other remnants of the Canaanitish nations.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amorphous Rocks</b> or <b>Minerals</b>, those having no regular
+  structure, or without crystallization, even in the minutest
+  particles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amorphozo´a</b>, a term applied to some of the lower groups of
+  animals, as the sponges and their allies, which have no regular
+  symmetrical structure.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amortiza´tion</b>, in law, the alienation of real property to
+  corporations (that is, in <i>mortmain</i>), prohibited by several English
+  statutes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´mos</b>, one of the minor prophets; flourished under the Kings
+  Uzziah of Judah and Jeroboam II of Israel (810 to 784 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> by the common chronology). Though engaged in the
+  occupations of a peasant he must have had a considerable amount of
+  culture, and his book of prophecies has high literary merits. It contains
+  denunciations of Israel and the surrounding nations, with promises of the
+  Messiah.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amoy´</b>, an important Chinese trading port, on a small island off
+  the south-east coast opposite Formosa; has a safe and commodious harbour,
+  and its merchants are among the wealthiest and most enterprising in
+  China; one of the five ports opened to foreign commerce by the treaty of
+  Nanking in 1842. The privilege was confirmed and extended by the treaty
+  of Tien-tsin in 1858, and the port is now open to all countries. Pop.
+  114,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ampel´idæ</b>. See <i>Chatterers</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ampère</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-p&#x101;r), André-Marie, a celebrated
+  French mathematician and philosopher, founder of the science of
+  electro-dynamics, born at Lyons in 1775, died at Marseilles in 1836;
+  professor of <!-- Page 146 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page146"></a>[146]</span>mathematical analysis at the Polytechnic
+  School, Paris, and of physics at the College of France. What is known as
+  <i>Ampère's Theory</i> is that magnetism consists in the existence of
+  electric currents circulating round the particles of magnetic bodies,
+  being in different directions round different particles when the bodies
+  are unmagnetized, but all in the same direction when they are
+  magnetized.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ampère</b>, Jean-Jacques-Joseph-Antoine, historian and professor of
+  French literature in the College of France; the only son of André-Marie
+  Ampère; born at Lyons 1800, died 1864; chief works: <i>Histoire
+  Littéraire de la France avant le 12<sup><i>e</i></sup> siècle</i> (1839);
+  <i>Introduction à l'Histoire de la Littérature française au moyen âge</i>
+  (1841); <i>Littérature, Voyages et Poésies</i> (1833); <i>La Grèce, Rome
+  et Dante, Études Littéraires d'après Nature; l'Histoire romaine à
+  Rome</i> (4 vols. 8vo, 1856-64); <i>Promenades en Amérique</i> (1855);
+  <i>César, Scènes historiques</i> (1859), full of hostile allusions to the
+  French Empire.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ampere</b> (am´p&#x101;r), in electricity, the unit employed in
+  measuring the strength or intensity of an electric current, being
+  equivalent to the current produced by the electro-motive force of one
+  volt in a wire having the resistance of one ohm. The name (cf.
+  <i>Farad</i>, <i>Coulomb</i>, <i>Watt</i>, &amp;c.) is derived from that
+  of the well-known physicist, Ampère. An <i>ampere-meter</i> or
+  <i>ammeter</i> is an instrument by which the strength of an electric
+  current is given in amperes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amphib´ia</b>, a class of vertebrate animals, which in their early
+  life breathe by gills or branchiæ, and afterwards partly or entirely by
+  lungs. The Frog, breathing in its tadpole state by gills and afterwards
+  throwing off these organs and breathing entirely by lungs in its adult
+  state, is an example of the latter phase of amphibian existence. The
+  Proteus of the underground caves of Central Europe exemplifies forms in
+  which the gills of early life are retained throughout life, and in which
+  lungs are developed in addition to the gills. A second character of this
+  group consists in the presence of two occipital 'condyles', or processes
+  by means of which the skull articulates with the spine or vertebral
+  column; Reptiles possessing one condyle only. The class is divided into
+  four orders: the Ophiomorpha (or serpentiform), represented by the
+  Blindworms, in which limbs are wanting and the body is snake-like; the
+  Urodela or 'Tailed' Amphibians, including the Newts, Proteus, Siren,
+  &amp;c.; the Anoura, or Tailless Amphibia, represented by the Frogs and
+  Toads; and the Labyrinthodontia, which includes the extinct forms known
+  as Labyrinthodons. The term Amphibia was originally employed by Linnæus
+  in his <i>Systema Naturæ</i>, and adopted by Cuvier in his <i>Tableau
+  Elémentaire</i>. See <i>Batrachia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amphibol´ogy</b>, in logic, an equivocal phrase or sentence, not
+  from the double sense of any of the words, but from its admitting a
+  double construction, as 'The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amphic´tyonic League</b> (or <b>Council</b>), in ancient Greece, a
+  confederation of tribes for the protection of religious worship, but
+  which also discussed questions of international law, and matters
+  affecting their political union. The most important was that of the
+  twelve northern tribes which met alternately at Delphi and Thermopylæ.
+  The tribes sent two deputies each, who assembled with great solemnity;
+  composed the public dissensions, and the quarrels of individual cities,
+  by force or persuasion; punished civil and criminal offences, and
+  particularly transgressions of the law of nations, and violations of the
+  temple of Delphi. Its calling on the States to punish the Phocians for
+  plundering Delphi caused the Sacred Wars, 595-586, 448-447, 357-346 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Amphi´on</b>, in Greek mythology, son of Zeus and
+  Anti&#x14F;p&#x113;, and husband of Ni&#x14F;b&#x113;. He had miraculous
+  skill in music, being taught by Mercury, or, according to others, by
+  Apollo. In poetic legend he is said to have availed himself of his skill
+  when building the walls of Thebes&mdash;the stones moving and arranging
+  themselves in proper position at the sound of his lyre. See
+  <i>Zethus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amphioxus.</b> See <i>Lancelet</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/image049.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image049.jpg"
+      alt="Amphipoda" title="Amphipoda" /></a>
+    Amphipoda
+
+    <p class="poem">1. Shore-jumper (<i>Orchestia littoralis</i>), 2.
+    Portion showing the respiratory organs <i>a a a</i>.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Amphip´oda</b>, an order of sessile-eyed malacostracan crustaceans,
+  with feet directed partly forward and partly backward. Many species are
+  found in springs and rivulets, others in salt water. The sand-hopper and
+  shore-jumper are examples.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amphip´rostyle</b>, in architecture, said of a structure having the
+  form of an ancient Greek or Roman oblong rectangular temple, with a
+  prostyle or portico on each of its ends or fronts, but with no columns on
+  its sides or flanks.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amphisbæ´na</b> (Gr., from <i>amphis</i>, both ways, and
+  <i>bainein</i>, to go), a genus of serpentiform, limbless, lacertilian
+  reptiles; body cylindrical, destitute of scales, and divided into
+  numerous annular segments; the tail obtuse, and scarcely to be
+  distinguished from the head, whence the belief that it moved equally well
+  with either end foremost. There are several species, found in tropical
+  America. They feed on ants and earthworms, and were formerly, but
+  erroneously, deemed poisonous. In Greek mythology the <!-- Page 147
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page147"></a>[147]</span>amphisbæna was
+  a serpent believed to possess two heads.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amphis´cii</b> (Gr. <i>amphi</i>, on both sides, and <i>skia</i>,
+  shadow), a term sometimes applied to the inhabitants of the intertropical
+  regions, whose shadows at noon in one part of the year are cast to the
+  north and in the other to the south, according as the sun is in the
+  southern or northern signs.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:51%;">
+      <a href="images/image050.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image050.jpg"
+      alt="Amphitheatre at Pompeii" title="Amphitheatre at Pompeii" /></a>
+    Amphitheatre at Pompeii
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Amphithe´atre,</b> an ancient Roman building of an oval form
+  without a roof, having a central area (the <i>arena</i>) encompassed with
+  rows of seats, rising higher as they receded from the centre, on which
+  people used to sit to view the combats of gladiators and of wild beasts,
+  and other sports. The first amphitheatre at Rome was that constructed by
+  C. Scribonius Curio, 59 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> The Colosseum at
+  Rome is the largest of all the ancient amphitheatres, being capable of
+  containing 100,000 persons, 87,000 of whom occupied numbered and reserved
+  seats. That at Verona is one of the best examples remaining. Its
+  dimensions are 502 feet by 401, and it is 98 feet high. The name means
+  'both-ways theatre', or 'theatre all round', the theatre forming only a
+  semicircular building.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amphitri´t&#x113;</b>, in Greek mythology, daughter of
+  Oce&#x103;nus and Tethys, or of Nereus and Doris, and wife of Poseidon
+  (or Neptune), represented as drawn in a chariot of shells by Tritons,
+  with a trident in her hand. In the Homeric poems she is the
+  personification of the Sea, and her marriage to Poseidon is alluded to in
+  a number of scenes depicted on ancient monuments. Such are a bas-relief
+  in the glyptothek at Munich and a mosaic in the museum at Naples.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amphit´ryon,</b> in Greek legend, King of Thebes, son of Alcæus,
+  and husband of Alcmena. Plautus, and after him Molière, have made an
+  amour of Jupiter with Alcmena the subject of amusing comedies.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amphiu´ma,</b> a genus of amphibians which frequent the lakes and
+  stagnant waters of North America. The adults retain the clefts at which
+  the gills of the tadpole projected.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:15%;">
+      <a href="images/image051.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image051.jpg"
+      alt="Amphora" title="Amphora" /></a>
+    Amphora<br />
+    From a Roman specimen in the British Museum
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Am´ph&#x14F;ra,</b> a vessel used by the Greeks and Romans for
+  holding liquids; commonly tall and narrow, with two handles and a pointed
+  end which fitted into a stand or was stuck in the ground to enable it to
+  stand upright; used also as a cinerary urn, and as a liquid
+  measure&mdash;Greek = 9 gallons; Roman = 6 gallons.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amplex´icaul,</b> in botany, said of a leaf that embraces and
+  nearly surrounds the stem.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am´plitude,</b> in astronomy, the distance of any celestial body
+  (when referred by a secondary circle to the horizon) from the east or
+  west points.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ampthill,</b> a market-town of England, Bedfordshire, about 7 miles
+  south-west of Bedford. Pop. (1921), 2269.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ampul´la,</b> the Latin name for a vessel bellying out like a jug,
+  which contained unguents for the bath; also a vessel for drinking at
+  table. The ampulla has also been employed for ceremonial purposes, such
+  as holding the oil or chrism used in various Church rites and for
+  anointing monarchs at their coronation. The ampulla of the English
+  sovereigns now in use is an eagle, weighing about 10 oz., of the purest
+  chased gold, which passed through various hands to the Black Prince. The
+  ampulla of the French kings, kept at Rheims in the tomb of St. Remy, was
+  destroyed in 1793.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amputa´tion,</b> in surgery, that operation by which a member is
+  separated from the body. <!-- Page 148 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page148"></a>[148]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Amra´oti</b>, a town of British India in Berár; it is celebrated
+  for its cotton, and is a place of good trade. Pop. 35,000. The district
+  has an area of 4733 sq. miles. Pop. 876,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am´ritsir</b>, or <b>Amritsar</b> ('the pool of immortality'), a
+  flourishing commercial town of India, capital of a district of the same
+  name, in the Punjab, the centre of the Sikh religion since the end of the
+  sixteenth century. It has considerable manufactures of shawls and silks;
+  and receives its name from the sacred pond constructed by Ram Das, the
+  apostle of the Sikhs, in which the Sikhs and other Hindus immerse
+  themselves that they may be purified from all sin. Pop.
+  152,756.&mdash;The district of Amritsir has an area of 1601 sq. miles.
+  Pop. 900,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am´ru</b>, originally an opponent, and subsequently a zealous
+  supporter of Mahomet, and one of the ablest of the Mahommedan warriors.
+  He brought Egypt under the power of the Caliph Omar in 638, and governed
+  it wisely till his death in 663. The burning of the famous Alexandrian
+  Library has been generally attributed to him, though only on the
+  authority of a writer who lived six centuries later.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am´sterdam</b> (that is, 'the dam of the Amstel'), one of the chief
+  commercial cities of Europe, capital of Holland (but not the residence of
+  the sovereign), situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Y or
+  Ij, an arm of the Zuider-Zee. On account of the lowness of the site of
+  the city the greater part of it is built on piles. It is divided by
+  numerous canals into about 90 islands, which are connected by nearly 300
+  bridges. Many of the streets have a canal in the middle with broad
+  brick-paved quays on either side, planted with rows of trees; the houses
+  are generally of brick, many of them six or seven stories high, with
+  pointed gables turned to the streets. Among the public buildings are the
+  old stadthouse, the work of Jacob van Kempen, commenced in 1648 and
+  finished in 1655, which is now a royal palace, the interior being
+  decorated by the Dutch painters and sculptors of the seventeenth century
+  with their masterpieces; the justiciary hall, an imitation of a Greek
+  temple; the town hall (fourteenth century); the exchange, a handsome
+  building, constructed in 1836 on the site of the old bourse built in
+  1608; the Palace of National Industry; the national museum; and the
+  central railway station. The old church is a structure of the fourteenth
+  century with stained-glass windows painted by Digman in the fifteenth
+  century. The chief educational institutions of the kingdom are here,
+  including the city university, a free university, gymnasiums and other
+  secondary schools, the national picture gallery or museum, containing
+  many masterpieces of Dutch artists, &amp;c. Among its numerous industries
+  may be mentioned as a speciality the cutting and polishing of diamonds.
+  It has also factories and workshops dealing with wool, cotton, silk,
+  tobacco, leather, machinery, and metal goods, glass, liqueurs, cocoa,
+  &amp;c. The harbour, formed by the Y, lies along the whole of the north
+  side of the city, and is surrounded by various docks and basins. The
+  trade is very great, being much facilitated by the great ship-canal (15
+  miles long, opened 1876, admitting the largest vessels) connecting the Y
+  directly with the North Sea at Y-Muiden, where the entrance is between
+  two long piers projecting into the sea. Another canal of much less
+  importance, the North Holland Canal (46 miles long, 20 feet deep),
+  connects Amsterdam with the Helder. Between the harbour and the Zuider
+  Zee the Y is now crossed by a great dam in which are locks to admit
+  vessels and regulate the amount of water in the North Sea Canal. The
+  oversea trade of Amsterdam has immensely increased since the opening of
+  the great canal, and the foreign trade of the kingdom practically centres
+  in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. There is also a large trade with the interior
+  by railway, river, and canal. In the beginning of the thirteenth century
+  Amsterdam was but a fishing village. In the fourteenth and fifteenth
+  centuries it had attained some importance, especially through the Baltic
+  trade. The ruin of Antwerp through the troubles with Spain was greatly to
+  its advantage, and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
+  Amsterdam was one of the wealthiest and most flourishing cities in the
+  world. Its forced alliance with France ruined its trade, but since 1813
+  its commerce has revived. Amsterdam is the birthplace of Spinoza and of
+  the painters van de Velde and van der Neer. Pop. (1919), 647,120.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amsterdam</b>, a town of New York State, United States, on the
+  Mohawk River and the Erie Canal, 33 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span>
+  of Albany; a busy manufacturing town. Pop. (1920), 33,524.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amsterdam</b>, New, a town in British Guiana, on the east side of
+  the River Berbice, near the sea, with some trade as a seaport. Pop.
+  8903.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amsterdam Island</b>, a small and almost inaccessible island in the
+  Indian Ocean, about halfway in a direct line between the Cape of Good
+  Hope and Tasmania. It is sparsely provided with vegetation, and inhabited
+  only by sea-birds, but it was taken possession of by France in 1893,
+  along with the neighbouring St. Paul. It was discovered by the Dutch in
+  1633.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amstetten</b>, a town in Lower Austria, on the Ybbs, and on the
+  railway from Vienna to Linz. In 1805 a victory was gained here by the
+  French under Murat over the Russians under Bagration. Pop. 3760.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amuck´</b>, or <b>Amuk</b>, to run, a phrase applied to natives of
+  the Eastern Archipelago, who are <!-- Page 149 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page149"></a>[149]</span>occasionally seen to
+  rush out in a frantic state of temporary mental derangement, making
+  indiscriminate and murderous assaults on all that come in their way.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amu-Darya.</b> See <i>Oxus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amu-Darya,</b> district. See <i>Turkestan</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am´ulet,</b> a piece of stone, metal, &amp;c., marked with certain
+  figures or characters, which people in some countries wear about them,
+  superstitiously deeming them a protection against diseases, enchantments,
+  witchcraft, &amp;c. According to Pliny the elder, the <i>bulla</i>, or
+  amulet, was first hung by Tarquinius Priscus on the neck of his son.
+  Articles that archæologists have decided to be amulets have been found
+  dating from prehistoric times, and they were commonly worn in ancient
+  times by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, as they still are by Persians,
+  Arabs, and many other peoples. See <i>Charms</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amundsen</b>, Captain Roald, Norwegian polar explorer, born at
+  Borge, Norway, 16th July, 1872. He was first-lieutenant on the
+  <i>Belgica</i> during the Belgian south polar expedition, 1897-9. He then
+  planned an expedition to the area of the north magnetic pole and a
+  north-west passage by water. On 17th June, 1903, he embarked from
+  Christiania on the small sailing vessel the <i>Gjöa</i>, with a company
+  of six men, and reached King William Land, where the vessel remained for
+  two years. Here he made his headquarters, and by numerous excursions was
+  able to prove that the north magnetic pole has no stationary position,
+  but is in continual movement. On 11th July, 1906, his vessel reached the
+  Behring Strait, and on 30th August entered the Pacific. After his return
+  Amundsen began his preparations for an Antarctic expedition, and on 9th
+  August, 1910, he sailed from Norway on Nansen's ship, the <i>Fram</i>,
+  and reached the South Pole on 7th March, 1912. He published an account of
+  his North-West Passage expedition, entitled <i>Sydpolen. Den norske
+  Sydpolsfaerd med</i> Fram <i>1910-12</i>. An English translation was
+  published in 1913. Amundsen started on a North Polar Expedition in
+  1918.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amur´</b>, or <b>Amoor´</b>, one of the largest rivers of Eastern
+  Asia, formed by the junction of the Rivers Shilka and Argun; flows first
+  in a south-eastern and then in a north-eastern direction till it falls
+  into an arm of the Sea of Okhotsk, opposite the Island of Sakhalin, after
+  a course of 1500 miles. It forms, for a large portion of its course, part
+  of the boundary-line between the Russian and the Chinese dominions, and
+  is navigable throughout for four months in the year.&mdash;<i>Amoor
+  Territory.</i> In 1858 Russia acquired from China the territory on the
+  left bank of the Upper and Middle Amoor, together with that on both banks
+  of the Lower Amoor. The western portion of the territory was organized as
+  a separate province, with the name of the Amoor (area, 154,795 sq. miles.
+  Pop. 261,500). The eastern portion was joined to the Maritime Province of
+  Eastern Siberia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am´urath</b>, or <b>Murad</b>, the name of several Ottoman sultans.
+  See <i>Ottoman Empire</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amyclæ</b> (a-m&#x12B;´kl&#x113;), a town of ancient Greece, the
+  chief seat of the Achæans in Laconia, a short distance from Sparta, by
+  which it was conquered about 800 <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Amyg´daloid</b> (Gr. <i>amygdal&#x113;</i>, an almond), meaning
+  'almond-shaped', a term used in anatomy and geology.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amyg´dalus</b>, the genus to which the almond belongs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am´yl</b>, in chemistry, a hypothetic radicle believed to exist in
+  many compounds, especially the fusel-oil series, and having the formula
+  C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>.&mdash;<i>Amyl Nitrite</i>, or <i>Nitrite of
+  Amyl</i>, an amber-coloured fluid, smelling and tasting like essence of
+  pears, which has been employed as an anæsthetic and also in relieving
+  cardiac distress, as in angina pectoris.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Am´ylene</b> (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>10</sub>), an ethereal liquid with
+  an aromatic odour, prepared from fusel-oil. It possesses anæsthetic
+  properties, and has been tried as a substitute for chloroform, but is
+  very dangerous.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amyl´ic Alcohol</b>, one of the products of the fermentation of
+  grain, &amp;c., commonly known by the name of fusel-oil (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amyot</b> (ä-mi-&#x14D;), Jacques, French writer and scholar, whose
+  translations from the Greek have themselves become classics, was born in
+  1513, and died Bishop of Auxerre in 1593, having been for twelve years a
+  professor of classics at Bourges, and having enjoyed the patronage of
+  Margaret of Navarre and Henry II. His chief translations are those of
+  Plutarch's <i>Lives</i> and his <i>Morals</i>, the <i>Aethiopica</i> of
+  Heliodorus, and the <i>Daphnis and Chloe</i> of Longus. Sir Thomas
+  North's English translation of Plutarch (1575), of which Shakespeare made
+  much use, was derived from that of Amyot.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Amyrida´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical
+  trees or shrubs, the leaves, bark, and fruit of which abound in fragrant
+  resinous and balsamic juices. Myrrh, frankincense, and the gum-elemi of
+  commerce are among their products. Among the chief genera of the order
+  are <i>Amyris</i>, <i>Balsamodendron</i>, <i>Boswellia</i>, and
+  <i>Canarium</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´na</b>, the neuter plural termination of Latin adjectives in
+  <i>-&#x101;nus</i>, often forming an affix with the names of eminent men
+  to denote a collection of their memorable sayings&mdash;thus
+  <i>Scaligeriana</i>, <i>Johnsoniana</i>, the sayings of Scaliger, of
+  Johnson; or to denote a collection of anecdotes, or gossipy matter, as in
+  <i>boxiana</i>. Hence, as an independent noun, books recording such
+  sayings; the sayings themselves. <!-- Page 150 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page150"></a>[150]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Anabap´tists</b> (from the Gr. <i>anabaptizein</i>, to rebaptize),
+  a name given to a Christian sect by their adversaries, because, as they
+  objected to infant baptism, they rebaptized those who joined their body.
+  Their doctrine is based upon the words of Christ in <i>St. Mark</i>, xvi,
+  16. The founder of the sect appears to have been Nicolas Storch, a
+  disciple of Luther's, who seems to have aimed also at the reorganization
+  of society based on civil and political equality. Gathering round him a
+  number of fiery spirits, among whom was Thomas Münzer, he incited the
+  peasantry of Suabia and Franconia to insurrection&mdash;the doctrine of a
+  community of goods being now added to their creed. This insurrection was
+  quelled in 1525, when Münzer was put to the torture and beheaded. After
+  the death of Münzer the sectaries dispersed in all directions, spreading
+  their doctrines wherever they went. In 1534 the town of Münster in
+  Westphalia became their centre of action. Under the leadership of
+  Bockhold and Matthias their numbers increased daily, and being joined by
+  the restless spirits of the adjoining towns, they soon made themselves
+  masters of the town and expelled their adversaries. Matthias became their
+  prophet, but he fell in a sally against the Bishop of Münster, Count
+  Waldeck, who had laid siege to the city. Bockhold then became leader,
+  assuming the name of John of Leyden, King of the New Jerusalem, and
+  Münster became a theatre of all the excesses of fanaticism, lust, and
+  cruelty. The town was eventually taken (June, 1535), and Bockhold and a
+  great many of his partisans suffered death. This was the last time that
+  the movement assumed anything like political importance. In the meantime
+  some of the apostles, who were sent out by Bockhold to extend the limits
+  of his kingdom, had been successful in various places, and many
+  independent teachers, who preached the same doctrines, continued active
+  in the work of founding a new empire of pure Christians. It is true that
+  they rejected the practice of polygamy, community of goods, and
+  intolerance towards those of different opinions which had prevailed in
+  Münster; but they enjoined upon their adherents the other doctrines of
+  the early Anabaptists, and certain heretical opinions in regard to the
+  humanity of Christ, occasioned by the controversies of that day about the
+  sacrament. The most celebrated of those Anabaptist prophets were Melchior
+  Hoffmann, the founder of the Hoffmannists or Millenarians; Galenus
+  Abrahamssohn, from whom the sect of the Galenists were called; and Simon
+  Menno, founder of various sects known as Mennonites. Menno's principles
+  are contained in his <i>Principles of the True Christian Faith</i>
+  (1556), a work which is held as authoritative on points of doctrine and
+  worship among the Baptist communities at the present day. The application
+  of the term Anabaptist to the general body of Baptists throughout the
+  world is unwarranted, because these sects have nothing in common with the
+  bodies which sprung up in various countries of Europe during the
+  Reformation, except the practice of adult baptism. The Baptists
+  themselves repudiate the name Anabaptist, as they claim to baptize
+  according to the original institution of the rite, and never repeat
+  baptism in the case of those who in their opinion have been so baptized.
+  It is under the designation of Mennonites that they exist to-day,
+  principally in Holland, Germany, and the United States.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´abas.</b> See <i>Climbing-perch</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anab´asis</b> (Gr. <i>anabasis</i>, a march up country), the title
+  of Xenophon's celebrated account of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger
+  against his brother Artaxerxes, King of Persia. The title is also given
+  to Arrian's work which records the campaigns of Alexander the Great.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´ableps</b>, a genus of fishes of the perch family, found in the
+  rivers of Guiana, consisting of but one species, remarkable for a
+  peculiar structure of the eyes, in which there is a division of the iris
+  and cornea, by transverse ligaments forming two pupils, and making the
+  whole eye appear double. The young are brought forth alive.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anabolism</b> (Gr. <i>ana</i>, up, and <i>bolé</i>, a throw), a
+  biological term suggested by Michael Foster, and used by Gaskell in 1886,
+  and meaning the building-up of organic life, or the process by which a
+  substance is transformed into another which is more complex. Anabolism is
+  the constructive phase of metabolism (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anacanthi´ni</b> (Gr. neg. prefix <i>an</i>, and <i>akantha</i>, a
+  spine), an order of osseous fishes, including the cod, plaice, &amp;c.,
+  with spineless fins, cycloid or ctenoid scales, the ventral fins either
+  absent or below the pectorals, and ductless swim-bladder.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anacardia´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical
+  trees and shrubs which secrete an acrid resinous juice, which is often
+  used as a varnish. Mastic, Japan lacquer, and Martaban varnish are some
+  of their products. The cashoo or cashew (genus Anacardium), the pistacia,
+  sumach, mango, &amp;c., are members of the order.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anach´aris</b>, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Hydrocharidaceæ, the
+  species of which grow in ponds and streams of fresh water; water-thyme or
+  water-weed. It appeared in Britain in the nineteenth century. <i>A.
+  Alsinastrum</i> has been introduced from North America into European
+  rivers, canals, and ponds, and by its rapid growth in dense tangled
+  masses tends to choke them so as materially to impede navigation. The
+  plants in our canals perfect no seed, their spread being due to
+  vegetative vigour only.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anach´ronism</b>, an error of chronology by <!-- Page 151 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page151"></a>[151]</span>which things are
+  represented as coexisting which did not coexist; applied also to anything
+  foreign to or out of keeping with a specified time. Thus it is an
+  anachronism when Shakespeare, in <i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, makes
+  Hector quote Aristotle. There are anachronisms in the <i>Cid</i> and the
+  <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, and also in Dante's <i>Inferno</i>, when the poet
+  introduces pagan mythology into the Christian hell.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anacolu´thon</b>, a want of grammatical and logical sequence in the
+  structure of a sentence.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:29%;">
+      <a href="images/image052.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image052.jpg"
+      alt="Anaconda" title="Anaconda" /></a>
+    Anaconda (<i>Python tigris</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Anacon´da</b>, the popular name of two of the largest species of
+  the serpent tribe, viz. a Ceylonese species of the genus Python (<i>P.
+  tigris</i>), said to have been met with 33 feet long; and <i>Eunectes
+  mur&#x12B;nus</i>, a native of tropical America, allied to the
+  boa-constrictor, and the largest of the serpent tribe, attaining the
+  length of 40 feet. They frequent swamps and rivers, are without poison
+  fangs, and kill their victims by constriction.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anaconda</b>, a town of the United States, Montana, with the
+  largest copper-smelting works in the world. Pop. (1920), 11,668.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anac´reon</b>, an amatory lyric Greek poet of the sixth century
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, native of Teos, in Ionia. Only a few
+  fragments of his works have come down to us; the collection of odes that
+  usually passes under the name of Anacreon is mostly the production of a
+  later time, the poetry of the real Anacreon being much less
+  frivolous.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anadyom´&#x115;n&#x113;</b> (Gr., 'she who comes forth'), a name
+  given to Aphrodit&#x113; (Venus) when she was represented as rising from
+  the sea, as in the celebrated painting by Apelles, painted for the temple
+  of Æsculapius at Cos, and afterwards in the temple of Julius Caesar at
+  Rome.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anadyr</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-nä´d&#x113;r), the most easterly of the
+  larger rivers of Siberia and of all Asia; rises in the Stanovoi
+  Mountains, and falls into the Gulf of Anadyr; length, 600 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anæ´mia</b> (Gr., 'want of blood'), a medical term applied to an
+  unhealthy condition of the body, in which there is a diminution of the
+  red corpuscles which the blood should contain. The principal symptoms are
+  paleness and general want of colour in the skin, languor, emaciation,
+  want of appetite, fainting, palpitation, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anæsthe´sia</b>, or <b>Anæsthe´sis</b>, a state of insensibility to
+  pain, produced by inhaling chloroform, or by the application of other
+  anæsthetic agents.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anæsthet´ics</b> are medical agents chiefly used in surgical
+  operations for the abolition of pain. They are divided into (1)
+  <i>general anæsthetics</i>, those in which complete unconsciousness is
+  produced; (2) <i>local anæsthetics</i>, those which act upon the nerves
+  of a limited area alone.</p>
+
+  <p>The earliest record of attempts to produce anæsthesia is to be found
+  in the thirteenth century. Since then many agents have been tried. The
+  first scientific effort was in 1800, when Sir Humphry Davy experimented
+  with nitrous oxide, but without practical result. In 1844 Wells, an
+  American dentist, used nitrous oxide, also without result. In 1846
+  Morton, another American dentist, used ether, and from that time it was
+  increasingly used in America. In the same year the first operation under
+  ether was performed in University College Hospital, London. In 1847 Sir
+  James Simpson (Edinburgh) introduced chloroform. Through his influence it
+  was soon largely used throughout England and Scotland, and continued to
+  be the chief anæsthetic till about the end of the nineteenth century,
+  when ether again became popular in England. To-day, in England, as always
+  in the United States, ether is the most widely-used anæsthetic. Much
+  controversy exists regarding the respective merits of ether and
+  chloroform. The general opinion is, that ether is on the whole safer, but
+  more liable, in the British climate, to be followed by bronchitis; while
+  there are various conditions when chloroform is still preferable. They
+  are frequently combined in use. <i>Nitrous-oxide gas</i> (laughing gas)
+  is much used in dentistry. Lately, nitrous oxide has been used with
+  ether; while ether and oxygen together were <!-- Page 152 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page152"></a>[152]</span>much used with the
+  British Expeditionary Force in France during the European War (1914-8).
+  The administration of all anæsthetics is helped when the patient is given
+  a hypodermic injection of morphia shortly before. <i>Twilight sleep</i>,
+  increasingly used in childbirth, is the production of a partial
+  anæsthesia by the administration of scopolamin morphine. <i>Local
+  anæsthetics</i> are much used in minor surgery, and with proper technique
+  act effectively. Cocaine was the first of these, and is still widely
+  used. Of later developments, eucaine and novocaine are best known. Spinal
+  anæsthesia is the injection of stovaine or similar substance into the
+  spinal cord, producing anæsthesia of a large part of the body, varying
+  according to the site of the injection.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anagal´lis</b>, a genus of the nat. ord. Primulaceæ, to which
+  belongs the Pimpernel, the 'poor man's weather-glass'. See
+  <i>Pimpernel</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anagni</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-nän´y&#x113;), a town of Italy, province
+  of Rome; the seat of a bishopric erected in 487. Pop. 10,400.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´agram</b>, the transposition of the letters of a word or words
+  so as to form a new word or phrase, a connection in meaning being
+  frequently preserved; thus, <i>evil</i>, <i>vile</i>; <i>Horatio
+  Nelson</i>, <i>Honor est a Nilo</i> (honour is from the Nile). The
+  seventeenth century was the golden age of the anagram, but it was
+  employed by the Hebrews and the Greeks.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anahuac</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-na<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-wa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k´; Mex., 'near the water'), an old
+  Mexican name applied to the plateau of the city of Mexico, from the lakes
+  situated there, generally elevated from 6000 to 9000 feet above the
+  sea.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´akim</b>, the posterity of Anak, the son of Arba, noted in
+  sacred history for their fierceness and loftiness of stature. Their
+  stronghold was Kirjath-arba or Hebron, which was taken and destroyed by
+  Caleb and the tribe of Judah.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anakolu´thon.</b> See <i>Anacoluthon</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Analep´tic</b>, a restorative or invigorating medicine or diet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´alogue</b>, in comparative anatomy an organ in one species or
+  group having the same function as an organ of different structure in
+  another species or group, as the wing of a bird and that of an insect,
+  both serving for flight. Organs in different animals having a similar
+  anatomical structure, development, and relative position, independent of
+  function or form, such as the arm of a man and the wing of a bird, are
+  termed <i>homologues</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anal´ogy</b> is the mode of reasoning from resemblance to
+  resemblance. When we find on attentive examination resemblances in
+  objects apparently diverse, and in which at first no such resemblances
+  were discovered, a presumption arises that other resemblances may be
+  found by further examination in these or other objects likewise
+  apparently diverse. It is on the belief in a unity in nature that all
+  inferences from analogy rest. The general inference from analogy is
+  always perfectly valid. Wherever there is resemblance, similarity or
+  identity of cause somewhere may be justly inferred; but to infer the
+  particular cause without particular proof is always to reason falsely.
+  Analogy is of great use and constant application in science, in
+  philosophy, and in the common business of life.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anal´ysis</b>, the resolution of an object, whether of the senses
+  or the intellect, into its component elements. The word was introduced by
+  Boyle in the seventeenth century. In philosophy it is the mode of
+  resolving a compound idea into its simple parts, in order to consider
+  them more distinctly, and arrive at a more precise knowledge of the
+  whole. It is opposed to <i>synthesis</i>, by which we combine and class
+  our perceptions, and contrive expressions for our thoughts, so as to
+  represent their several divisions, classes, and relations.</p>
+
+  <p>Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the widest sense, the expression and
+  development of the functions of quantities by calculation; in a narrower
+  sense the resolving of problems by algebraic equations. The analysis of
+  the ancients was exhibited only in geometry, and made use only of
+  geometrical assistance, whereby it is distinguished from the analysis of
+  the moderns, which extends to all measurable objects, and expresses in
+  equations the mutual dependence of magnitudes. Analysis is divided into
+  lower and higher, the lower comprising, besides arithmetic and algebra,
+  the doctrines of functions, of series, combinations, logarithms, and
+  curves, the higher comprising the differential and integral calculus, and
+  the calculus of variations.</p>
+
+  <p>In chemistry, analysis is the process of decomposing a compound
+  substance with a view to determine either (<i>a</i>) what elements it
+  contains (<i>qualitative analysis</i>), or (<i>b</i>) how much of each
+  element is present (<i>quantitative analysis</i>). Thus by the first
+  process we learn that water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and by
+  the second that it consists of one part of hydrogen by weight to eight
+  parts of oxygen. As a means of testing soils and feeding-stuffs, analysis
+  has given important results; it has enabled Liebig to solve the problem
+  of plant-nutrition.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anam.</b> See <i>Annam</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anamor´phosis</b>, a term denoting a drawing executed in such a
+  manner as to present a distorted image of the object represented, but
+  which, when viewed from a certain point, or reflected by a curved mirror
+  or through a polyhedron, shows the object in its true proportions.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´&#x103;nas.</b> See <i>Pine-apple</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anapa´</b>, a seaport of Russia in province Kuban, on the Black
+  Sea, 50 miles south-east of Kertsh, constructed by the Turks in 1781, and
+  formerly fortified. Pop. about 7000.</p>
+
+<p><!-- Page 153 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page153"></a>[153]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>An´apæst</b>, in prosody, a foot consisting of two short and one
+  long syllable, or two unaccented and one accented syllable, e.g.</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead"><a href="images/assyrian.png"><img src="images/assyrian.png" class="middle" style="height:6ex" alt="The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold" /></a></p>
+
+  <p><b>An´aplasty</b>, a surgical operation to repair superficial lesions,
+  or make up for lost parts, by the employment of adjacent healthy
+  structure or tissue. Artificial noses, &amp;c., are thus made.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anarajapoo´ra</b>, or <b>Anuradhapura</b>, a ruined city, the
+  ancient capital of Ceylon, built about 540 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, and said to have covered an area of 300 sq.
+  miles, doubtless a great exaggeration. There are still several dagobas in
+  tolerable preservation, but the great object of interest is the sacred
+  Bo-tree planted over 2000 years, and probably the oldest historical tree
+  in the world, but shattered by a storm in 1887.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´archists</b>, a revolutionary sect or body setting forth as the
+  social ideal the extreme form of individual freedom, holding that all
+  government is injurious and immoral, and that the destruction of every
+  social form now existing must be the first step to the creation of a new
+  social system. According to Herbert Spencer, anarchism is the doctrine of
+  <i>laisser faire</i>. Anarchists usually look upon Diderot as one of
+  their pioneers, and quote his lines: "La nature n'a fait ni serviteurs ni
+  maîtres. Je ne veux ni donner ni reçevoir de lois." Historically,
+  however, it is Proudhon who may be considered as the father of anarchism.
+  The recognition of the anarchists as an independent sect may be dated
+  from the secession of Bakunin and his followers from the Social Democrats
+  at the congress of the Hague in 1872, since which they have maintained an
+  active propaganda. Their principal journals have been <i>La Révolte</i>
+  (Paris), the <i>Freiheit</i> (New York), <i>Liberty</i> (Boston), and the
+  <i>Anarchist</i> (London). Among modern philosophers of anarchism are
+  Elisée Reclus and Prince Kropotkin.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anarthrop´oda</b>, one of the two great divisions (the Arthropoda
+  being the other) of the Annulosa, or ringed animals, in which there are
+  no articulated appendages. It includes the leeches, earth-worms,
+  tube-worms, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´nas</b>, a genus of web-footed birds, containing the true
+  ducks.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anasarca.</b> See <i>Dropsy</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anasta´sius I</b>, Emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 491, at the age of sixty. He was a member of the
+  imperial life-guard, and owed his elevation to Ariadne, widow of Zeno,
+  whom he married forty days after the death of her husband. He
+  distinguished himself by suppressing the combats between men and wild
+  beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale of offices, building the
+  fortifications  of Constantinople, &amp;c. His support of the heretical
+  Eutychians led to a dangerous rebellion. He died <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 518.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anastat´ica</b>, a genus of cruciferous plants, including the Rose
+  of Jericho (<i>A. hierochuntica</i>). See <i>Rose of Jericho</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anastatic Printing</b>, a process by which the perfect facsimile of
+  a page of type or an engraving, old or new, can be reproduced and printed
+  in the manner of a lithograph. The print or page to be transferred is
+  dipped in diluted nitric acid, and, while moist with dilute acid, it is
+  laid face downwards on a polished zinc plate and passed through a
+  roller-press. The zinc is immediately corroded by the acid contained in
+  the paper, excepting on those parts occupied by the ink of the type or
+  engraving. The ink, while rejecting the acid, is loosened by it, and
+  deposits a thin film on the zinc, thus protecting it from the action of
+  the acid. The result is that those parts are left slightly raised in
+  relief and greasy. The plate is then treated as in ordinary lithographic
+  printing (q.v.).&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: F.&nbsp;H.
+  Collins, <i>Authors' and Printers' Dictionary</i>; C.&nbsp;T. Jacobi,
+  <i>Printing</i>; J. Southward, <i>Modern Printing</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anastomo´sis</b>, in animals and plants, the inosculation of
+  vessels, or the opening of one vessel into another, as an artery into
+  another artery, or a vein into a vein. By means of anastomosis, if the
+  course of a fluid is arrested in one vessel it can proceed along others.
+  It is by anastomosis that circulation is re-established in amputated
+  limbs, and in aneurism when the vessel is tied.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anath´ema</b>, originally a gift hung up in a temple (Gr.,
+  <i>anatith&#x113;mi</i>, to lay up), and dedicated to some god, a votive
+  offering; but it gradually came to be used for <i>expulsion</i>,
+  <i>curse</i>. The Roman Catholic Church pronounces the sentence of
+  anathema against heretics, schismatics, and all who wilfully pursue a
+  course of conduct condemned by the Church. The subject of the anathema is
+  declared an outcast from the Church, all the faithful are forbidden to
+  associate with him, and the utter destruction of his body and soul is
+  foretold.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anat´idæ</b>, a family of swimming birds, including the Ducks,
+  Swans, Geese, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anato´lia</b> (from Gr. <i>anatol&#x113;</i>, the sunrise, the
+  Orient), the modern name of Asia Minor (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anatolian Railway.</b> See <i>Bagdad Railway, Turkey</i>.</p>
+
+<h3>ANATOMY</h3>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:80%;">
+      <a href="images/image053.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image053.jpg"
+      alt="Anatomy" title="Anatomy" /></a>
+  </div>
+  <p><b>Anat´omy</b>, in the literal sense, means simply a cutting up, but
+  is now generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially
+  separating the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal)
+  with a view to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to
+  the science which treats of the internal structure of <!-- Page 154
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page154"></a>[154]</span>organized
+  bodies. By means of the dissection of the human body the surgeon and
+  physician acquire the knowledge of the geography of the territory in
+  which all their professional operations are carried on. <i>Comparative
+  anatomy</i> is the science which compares the anatomy of different
+  classes or species of animals, as that of man with quadrupeds, or that of
+  quadrupeds with fishes. The anatomy of an animal may be studied from
+  various standpoints: with relation to the succession of forms which it
+  exhibits from its first stage to its adult form (<i>developmental</i> or
+  <i>embryotical anatomy</i>); with reference to the general properties and
+  structure of the tissues or textures (<i>general anatomy</i>,
+  <i>histology</i>); with reference to the changes in structure of organs
+  or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (<i>morbid</i>
+  or <i>pathological anatomy</i>); or with reference to the function, use,
+  or purpose performed by the organs or parts (<i>teleological</i> or
+  <i>physiological anatomy</i>). According to the parts of the body
+  described, the different divisions of human anatomy receive different
+  names; as, <i>osteology</i>, the description of the bones;
+  <i>myology</i>, of the muscles; <i>arthrology</i>, of the ligaments and
+  sinews; <i>splanchnology</i>, of the viscera or internal organs, in which
+  are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver, spleen,
+  kidneys, bladder, pancreas, &amp;c. <i>Angiology</i> describes the
+  vessels through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including
+  the blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the
+  lymphatic vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while
+  others are distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the
+  tissues and carrying them back into the blood. <i>Neurology</i> describes
+  the system of the nerves and of the brain; <i>dermatology</i> treats of
+  the skin.&mdash;Among anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned
+  the making and preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of
+  this sort can be preserved (1) by macerating the body so as to obtain the
+  bones of the skeleton; or (2) by treating the body or some part of it
+  with alcohol, formalin, or other preservative, which renders its tissues
+  imperishable.</p>
+
+  <p>Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be
+  mentioned Hippocrates the younger (460-377 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>), Aristotle (384-322 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>), Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria
+  (about 300 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), Celsus (53 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>-<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 37), and Galen of
+  Pergamus (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 130-200), the most celebrated of
+  all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time till the
+  revival of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was
+  checked in its progress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first
+  publicly performed dissection, and published a <i>System of Anatomy</i>
+  which was a textbook in the schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the
+  sixteenth century Fallopio of Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius of
+  Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and many others, enriched anatomy with new
+  discoveries. In the seventeenth century Harvey discovered the circulation
+  of the blood, Asellius discovered the manner in which the nutritious part
+  of the food is conveyed into the circulation, while the lymphatic system
+  was detected and described by the Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned
+  anatomists of later times we can only mention Malpighi, Boerhaave,
+  William and John Hunter, the younger Meckel, Bichat, Rosenmüller, Quain,
+  Sir A. Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Joh. Müller, Gegenbaur, Owen, and
+  Huxley.</p>
+
+  <p>Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision
+  for enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for
+  dissection. An Act of some years previously had, it is true, empowered a
+  criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly-qualified persons
+  the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was
+  far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high
+  prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious
+  practice of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the
+  case of the notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy
+  these evils a statute was passed in 1832, which was intended to make
+  provision for the wants of surgeons, students, or other duly-qualified
+  persons, by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the
+  bodies of persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, &amp;c.
+  The Act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical
+  schools, and required persons practising the operations to obtain a
+  licence. Relatives may effectually object to the anatomical examination
+  of a body even though the deceased had expressed a desire for
+  it.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: D.&nbsp;J. Cunningham,
+  <i>Textbook of Anatomy</i>; J. Quain, <i>Elements of Anatomy</i>; A.&nbsp;M.
+  Buchanan, <i>Manual of Anatomy</i>; A. Thomson, <i>Anatomy for Art
+  Students</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anaxag´oras</b>, an ancient Greek philosopher of the Ionic school,
+  born at Clazomenæ, in Ionia, probably about 500 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> When only about twenty years of age he settled
+  at Athens, and soon gained a high reputation, and gathered round him a
+  circle of renowned pupils, including Pericles, Euripides, Socrates,
+  &amp;c. At the age of fifty he was publicly charged with impiety and
+  condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual
+  banishment. He thereupon went to Lampsacus, where he died about 428.
+  Anaxagoras belonged to the atomic school of Ionic philosophers. He held
+  that there was an infinite number of different kinds of elementary atoms,
+  and that these, in themselves motionless and originally existing in a
+  state of <!-- Page 155 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page155"></a>[155]</span>chaos, were put in motion by an eternal,
+  immaterial, spiritual, elementary being, <i>Nous</i> (Intelligence), from
+  which motion the world was produced. His conception of <i>Nous</i> as the
+  first cause of movement marks a great advance in the history of
+  philosophical thought, for he thus placed spirit above matter. The stars
+  were, according to him, of earthy materials; the sun a glowing mass,
+  about as large as the Peloponnesus; the earth was flat; the moon a dark,
+  inhabitable body, receiving its light from the sun; the comets wandering
+  stars.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anaximan´der,</b> an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, was born at
+  Miletus in 611 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and died 547. The
+  fundamental principle of his philosophy is that the source of all things
+  is an undefined substance infinite in quantity. The firmament is composed
+  of heat and cold, the stars of air and fire. The sun occupies the highest
+  place in the heavens, has a circumference twenty-eight times larger than
+  the earth, and resembles a cylinder, from which streams of fire issue.
+  The moon is likewise a cylinder, nineteen times larger than the earth.
+  The earth has the shape of a cylinder, and is placed in the midst of the
+  universe, where it remains suspended. His philosophy is thus a step in
+  advance of the theories of Thales, the conception of the Infinite,
+  however vague, being superior to the idea of water constituting the first
+  principle of all things. Anaximander occupied himself a great deal with
+  mathematics and geography. To him is credited the invention of
+  geographical maps and the first application of the <i>gnomon</i> or style
+  fixed on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices and equinoxes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anaximenes</b> (an-aks-im´e-n&#x113;z) <b>of Miletus</b>, an
+  ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, according to whom air was the first
+  principle of all things. Finite things were formed from the infinite air
+  by compression and rarefaction produced by eternally existent motion; and
+  heat and cold resulted from varying degrees of density of the primal
+  element. He flourished about 550 B.C.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anbury</b> (an´be-ri) (called also <b>Club-root</b> and <b>Fingers
+  and Toes</b>), a disease in turnips, in which knobs or excrescences are
+  formed on the root, which is then useless for feeding purposes. Some
+  authorities distinguish anbury proper from 'fingers and toes' in turnips,
+  setting it down as a distinct disease due to a fungus, while in the other
+  case the roots simply assume a bad habit of growth through some unknown
+  influence.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ancachs</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-ka<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>ch´), a department of Peru, between the
+  Andes and the Pacific; area, 16,562 sq. miles. Capital Hararaz. Pop.
+  500,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ancestor-worship,</b> an ancient and widespread practice, displayed
+  in its most characteristic form in modern China and ancient Rome, which
+  apparently was based upon the belief that dead parents or ancestors,
+  represented by images or 'ancestral tablets', could be revived by
+  appropriate ceremonies, such as burning incense or offering libations,
+  and give the benefit of their wisdom to their descendants who performed
+  the vitalizing ritual and asked for their advice upon, or their sanction
+  for, actions affecting the welfare of the family. The earliest deity was
+  a dead king (Osiris), whose advice was sought by his son and successor.
+  Hence in primitive religions, in which an endless variety of
+  modifications of these more ancient beliefs has arisen, ancestor-worship
+  may take the form of pious devotion to an actual ancestor or to a
+  supernatural deity. As many of the most ancient gods were identified with
+  animals, the dead ancestor, or his soul, is believed by many peoples to
+  become incarnate in the appropriate animal, which is accorded the special
+  veneration of a god or supernatural adviser, and set apart as sacred.
+  Ancestor-worship still survives in a great variety of forms among various
+  peoples.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E.&nbsp;B. Tylor,
+  <i>Primitive Culture</i>; F.&nbsp;B. Jevons, <i>Introduction to the History of
+  Religion</i>; D.&nbsp;G. Brinton, <i>Religions of Primitive Peoples</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anchises</b> (an-k&#x12B;´s&#x113;z), the father of the Trojan hero
+  Æneas, who carried him off on his shoulders at the burning of Troy and
+  made him the companion of his voyage to Italy. This voyage, which is not
+  mentioned in the Homeric legend, is described by Virgil in his
+  <i>Æneid</i>. He died at Drepanum, in Sicily.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:40%;">
+      <a href="images/image054.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image054.jpg"
+      alt="Stockless Anchor" title="Stockless Anchor" /></a>
+    Modern Stockless Anchor (Hall's Patent)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>An´chor,</b> an implement for holding a ship or other vessel at
+  rest in the water. In ancient times large stones or crooked pieces of
+  wood heavily weighted with metal were used for this purpose. The anchor
+  now used is of iron, formed with a strong <i>shank</i>, at one extremity
+  of which is the <i>crown</i>, from which branch out two <i>arms</i>,
+  terminating in broad <i>palms</i> or <i>flukes</i>, the sharp extremity
+  of which is the <i>peak</i> or <i>bill</i>; at the other end of the shank
+  is the <i>stock</i> (fixed at right angles to the plane of the arms),
+  behind which is the <i>ring</i>, to which a cable can be attached. The
+  principal use of the stock is to <!-- Page 156 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page156"></a>[156]</span>cause the arms to fall
+  so as one of the flukes shall enter the ground. Many anchors are made
+  nowadays without a stock. The anchors of the largest size carried by
+  men-of-war are the <i>best</i> and <i>small bowers</i>, the <i>sheet</i>,
+  and the <i>spare</i>, to which are added the <i>stream</i> and the
+  <i>kedge</i>, which are used for anchoring in a stream or other sheltered
+  place and for warping the vessel from one place to another. Many
+  improvements and novelties in the shape and construction of anchors have
+  been introduced within recent times. The principal names connected with
+  those alterations are those of Lieutenant Rodgers, who introduced the
+  <i>hollow-shanked anchor</i> with the view of increasing the strength
+  without adding to the weight; Porter, who made the arms and flukes
+  movable by pivoting them to the stock instead of fixing them immovably,
+  causing the anchor to take a readier and firmer hold, and avoiding the
+  chance of the cable becoming foul; Trotman, who further improved on
+  Porter's invention; and M. Martin, whose anchor is of very peculiar form,
+  and is constructed so as to be self-canting, the arms revolving through
+  an angle of 30° either way, and the sharp points of the flukes being
+  always ready to enter the ground.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:47%;">
+      <a href="images/image055.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image055.jpg"
+      alt="Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, etc" title="Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, etc" /></a>
+    Type of Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, &amp;c.
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>An´chorites</b>, or <b>An´chorets</b> (Gr.
+  <i>anachor&#x113;tai</i>, persons who have withdrawn themselves from the
+  world), in the early Church a class of religious persons who generally
+  passed their lives in cells, from which they never removed. Their
+  habitations were, in many instances, entirely separated from the abodes
+  of other men, sometimes in the depth of wildernesses, in pits or caverns;
+  at other times several of these individuals fixed their habitations in
+  the vicinity of each other, but they always lived personally separate.
+  The continual prevalence of fierce wars, civil commotions, and
+  persecutions at the beginning of the Christian era must have made
+  retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of quiet and
+  contemplative minds. This spirit, however, soon led to fanatical
+  excesses; many anchorites went without proper clothing, wore heavy
+  chains, and we find at the close of the fourth century Simeon Stylites
+  passing thirty years on the top of a column without ever descending from
+  it, and finally dying there. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity
+  became blended with the Grecian philosophy and strongly tinged with the
+  peculiar notions of the East, the anchorites were most numerous; in
+  Europe there were comparatively few, and on the development and
+  establishment of the monastic system they completely disappeared. See
+  <i>Asceticism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anchovy</b> (an-ch&#x14D;´vi), a small fish of the Herring family,
+  all the species, with exception of the common anchovy (<i>Engraulis
+  encrasich&#x14F;lus</i>) and <i>E. meletta</i> (both Mediterranean
+  species), inhabitants of the tropical seas of India and America. The
+  common anchovy, so esteemed for its rich and peculiar flavour, is not
+  much larger than the middle finger. It is caught in vast numbers in the
+  Mediterranean, and frequently on the coasts of France, Holland, and the
+  south of England, and pickled for exportation. A favourite sauce is made
+  by pounding the pickled fish in water, simmering for a short time, adding
+  a little cayenne pepper, and straining the whole through a
+  hair-sieve.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ancho´vy-pear</b> (<i>Grias caulifl&#x14D;ra</i>), a tree of the
+  nat. ord. Myrtaceæ, a native of Jamaica, growing to the height of 50
+  feet, with large leaves and large white flowers, and bearing a fruit
+  somewhat bigger than a hen's egg, which is pickled and eaten like the
+  mango, and strongly resembles it in taste.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anchu´sa.</b> See <i>Alkanet</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anchylo´sis.</b> See <i>Ankylosis</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ancient Lights</b>, in English law, windows or other openings which
+  have been in existence for at least twenty years, and during that time
+  have <!-- Page 157 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page157"></a>[157]</span>enjoyed the access of light without
+  interruption, go that a right is established against the obstruction of
+  the light by a neighbouring proprietor.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ancillon</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-s&#x113;-y&#x14D;n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Jean Pierre Frédéric, an author and
+  statesman of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1767 (where his father
+  was pastor of the French reformed church); died there in 1837. He became
+  professor of history in the military academy at Berlin, and in 1806 he
+  was charged with the education of the crown-prince. He successively
+  occupied several important offices of state, being at last appointed
+  Minister of Foreign Affairs. He wrote on philosophy, history, and
+  politics, partly in French, partly in German.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anckarström.</b> See <i>Ankarström</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anco´na</b>, a seaport of Italy, capital of the province of the
+  same name, on the Adriatic, 130 miles <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of
+  Rome, with harbour works begun by Trajan, who built the ancient mole or
+  quay. A triumphal arch of white marble, erected in honour of Trajan,
+  stands on the mole. Ancona is a station of the Italian fleet, and the
+  commerce is increasing. The town is indifferently built, but has some
+  remarkable edifices, among others, the cathedral. There is a colossal
+  statue of Count Cavour. Ancona is said to have been founded about four
+  centuries <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, by Syracusan refugees. It fell
+  into the hands of the Romans in the first half of the third century <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, and became a Roman colony. Pop. 68,430. The
+  province has an area of 748 sq. miles. Pop. 333,381.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ancona Fowl.</b> See <i>Poultry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ancre</b> (än<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-kr), Concino Concini, Marshal and
+  Marquis d', was a native of Florence, and on the marriage of Marie de'
+  Médici to Henri IV, in 1600, came in her suite to France, where he
+  obtained rapid promotion, more especially after the assassination of the
+  king (1610). He became successively Governor of Normandy, Marshal of
+  France, and last of all, Prime Minister. Being thoroughly detested by all
+  classes, at last a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was shot
+  dead on the bridge of the Louvre in 1617.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ancre, Battle of.</b> This battle was the final one in the British
+  offensive in France in 1916. It began on 13th Nov. after a two day's
+  preliminary bombardment of the German salient, on both sides of the River
+  Ancre, from Beaumont-Hamel to St. Pierre Divion. One area of
+  extraordinary strength was the Y ravine which stretches from
+  Beaumont-Hamel plateau towards the river. The assaults on both banks of
+  the river were vigorous and determined. A fierce struggle was waged in
+  the Y ravine, which Scottish troops ultimately cleared with the bayonet.
+  Beaumont-Hamel having fallen, the British line was extended well beyond
+  it. Further gains were made on the following day. The prisoners captured
+  numbered 7200. This brilliant action paved the way for further successes
+  in the spring.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´cus Mar´cius</b>, according to the traditionary history of Rome
+  the fourth king of that city, who succeeded Tullus Hostilius, 638, and
+  died 614 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He was the son of Numa's
+  daughter, and sought to imitate his grandfather by reviving the neglected
+  observances of religion. He is said to have built the wooden bridge
+  across the Tiber known as the Sublician, constructed the harbour of
+  Ostia, and built the first Roman prison.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ancy´ra.</b> See <i>Angora</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andalu´sia</b> (Sp. <i>Andalucia</i>), a large and fertile district
+  in the south of Spain, bounded <span class="scac">N.</span> by
+  Estremadura and New Castile, <span class="scac">E.</span> by Murcia,
+  <span class="scac">S.</span> by the Mediterranean Sea, and <span
+  class="scac">W.</span> by Portugal and the Atlantic; area, about 33,777
+  sq. miles, comprising the modern provinces of Seville, Huelva, Cadiz,
+  Jaen, Cordova, Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. It is traversed throughout
+  its whole extent by ranges of mountains, the loftiest being the Sierra
+  Nevada, many summits of which are covered with perpetual snow (Mulahacen
+  is 11,678 feet). Minerals abound, and several mines have been opened by
+  English companies, especially in the province of Huelva, where the
+  Tharsis and Rio Tinto copper-mines are situated. The principal river is
+  the Guadalquivir. The vine, myrtle, olive, palm, banana, carob, &amp;c.,
+  grow abundantly in the valley of the Guadalquivir. Wheat, maize, barley,
+  and many varieties of fruit grow almost spontaneously; besides which,
+  honey, silk, and cochineal form important articles of culture. The horses
+  and mules are the best in the Peninsula; the bulls are sought for
+  bull-fighting over all Spain; sheep are reared in vast numbers.
+  Agriculture is in a backward state, and the manufactures are by no means
+  extensive. The Andalusians are descended in part from the Moors, of whom
+  they still preserve decided characteristics. Andalusia is still famous
+  for its bull-fighters. Pop. 3,828,916.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andalusian Fowl.</b> See <i>Poultry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´damans</b>, a chain of islands on the east side of the Bay of
+  Bengal, the principal being the North, Middle, South, and Little
+  Andamans. Middle Andaman is about 60 miles long, and 15 or 16 miles
+  broad; North and South Andaman are each about 50 miles long. The
+  Andamanese, about 1315 in number (1911), are mostly in a state of nature,
+  living almost naked in the rudest habitations. They are small (generally
+  much less than 5 feet), well-formed, and active, skilful archers and
+  canoeists, and excellent swimmers and divers. These islands have been
+  used since 1858 as a penal settlement by the Indian Government, the
+  settlement being at <!-- Page 158 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page158"></a>[158]</span>Port Blair, on South Andaman. Here rice,
+  coffee, pineapples, nutmegs, &amp;c., are grown, while the jungle has
+  been cleared off the neighbouring hills. The natives in the vicinity of
+  the settlement have become to some extent civilized. The climate is
+  humid, but the settlement is healthy. Pop. 18,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andante</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-da<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n´t&#x101;; It., 'at a walking pace'), in
+  music, denotes a movement somewhat slow, graceful, distinct, and
+  soothing. The word is also applied substantively to that part of a sonata
+  or symphony having a movement of this character. In Handel's music one
+  often meets the expression <i>andante allegro</i>, which is equivalent to
+  <i>andante con moto</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andelys, Les</b> (l&#x101;z än<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>d-l&#x113;z), two towns in France called
+  respectively Grand and Petit Andely, distant half a mile from each other,
+  in the department of Eure, on the right bank of the Seine, 19 miles <span
+  class="scac">S.E.</span> of Rouen. Grand Andely dates from the sixth
+  century, its church, built in the thirteenth century, is one of the
+  finest in the department. Petit Andely owes its origin to Richard
+  C&oelig;ur de Lion, who, in 1195, built here the Château Gaillard, in its
+  time one of the strongest fortresses in France, but now wholly a ruin.
+  Pop. 5530.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andenne´</b>, a town of Belgium, province of Namur, on the right
+  bank of the Meuse and 10 miles east of Namur; manufactures delftware,
+  porcelain, tobacco-pipes, paper, &amp;c. Pop. 7803.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andernach</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n´der-na<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span><i>ch</i>), a town of Rhenish Prussia, on
+  the left bank of the Rhine, 10 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> of
+  Coblentz, partly surrounded with walls. Pop. 9800.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´dersen</b>, Hans Christian, a Danish novelist, poet, and writer
+  of fairy tales, was born of poor parents at Odense, 2nd April, 1805. He
+  learned to read and write in a charity school, from which he was taken
+  when only nine years old, and was put to work in a manufactory in order
+  that his earnings might assist his widowed mother. In his leisure time he
+  eagerly read national ballads, poetry, and plays, and wrote several
+  tragedies full of sound and fury. In 1819 he went to Copenhagen, but
+  failed in getting any of his plays accepted, and in securing an
+  appointment at the theatre, having to content himself for some time with
+  unsteady employment as a joiner. His abilities at last brought him under
+  the notice of Councillor Collin, a man of considerable influence, who
+  procured for him free entrance into a Government school at Slagelse. From
+  this school he was transferred to the university, and soon became
+  favourably known by his poetic works. Through the influence of
+  Oehlenschläger and Ingermann he received a royal grant to enable him to
+  travel, and in 1833 he visited Italy, his impressions of which he
+  published in <i>The Improvvisatore</i> (1835)&mdash;a work which rendered
+  his fame European. The scene of his following novel, <i>O.&nbsp;T.</i>, was
+  laid in Denmark, and in <i>Only a Fiddler</i> he described his own early
+  struggles. In 1835 appeared the first volume of his <i>Fairy Tales</i>,
+  of which successive volumes continued to be published year by year at
+  Christmas, and which have been the most popular and widespread of his
+  works. Among his other works are <i>Picture-books without
+  Pictures</i>&mdash;conversations of the author with the moon, who came to
+  visit the poet in his garret; <i>A Poet's Bazaar</i>&mdash;the result of
+  a voyage in 1840 to the East; and a number of dramas. In 1845 he received
+  an annuity from the Government. He visited England in 1848, and acquired
+  such a command of the language that his next work, <i>The Two
+  Baronesses</i>, was written in English. In 1855 he published an
+  autobiography, under the title <i>My Life's Romance</i>, an English
+  translation of which, published in 1871, contained additional chapters by
+  the author, bringing the narrative to 1867. Among his later works we may
+  mention, <i>To Be or Not To Be</i> (1857); <i>Tales from Jutland</i>
+  (1859); <i>The Ice Maiden</i> (1863). He died 4th Aug, 1875, having had
+  the pleasure of seeing many of his works translated into most of the
+  European languages.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anderson</b>, a town of the United States, Indiana, on the west
+  branch of White River, 32 miles north-east of Indianapolis, with various
+  manufacturing works. Pop. 23,856.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anderson</b>, Elizabeth Garrett, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>,
+  born in 1836, maiden name Garrett, married Mr. J.&nbsp;S. Anderson of the
+  Orient Line of steamers. She studied medicine, but met with many
+  obstacles, the study of medicine by women being then discouraged on all
+  hands; at last she was licensed to practise by the Apothecaries' Society
+  in 1865, and afterwards passed examinations at the University of Paris
+  and obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine. From 1866 to 1890 she was
+  senior physician to the New Hospital for Women; from 1876 to 1898
+  lecturer on medicine in the London School of Medicine for Women. She did
+  much to aid in opening the medical profession to women. In 1908 she was
+  elected Mayor of Aldeburgh, being the first woman to hold the position of
+  mayor in England. She died on 17th Dec., 1917. Her daughter Louisa
+  Garrett Anderson, born in 1873, went to France in 1914 as Joint Organiser
+  of and Chief Surgeon to the Women's Hospital Corps, Voluntary Unit.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anderson</b>, James, a Scottish writer on political and rural
+  economy, born at Hermiston in 1739, died in 1808. In 1790 he started the
+  <i>Bee</i>, which ran to eighteen volumes, and contains many useful
+  papers on agricultural, economical, and other topics. Some of his other
+  publications, <!-- Page 159 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page159"></a>[159]</span><i>Recreations in Agriculture</i>,
+  <i>Natural History</i>, &amp;c., contain anticipations of theories
+  afterwards propounded by Malthus and Ricardo.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anderson</b>, John, <span class="scac">F.R.S.</span>, professor of
+  natural philosophy in the University of Glasgow, born 1726, died 1796. By
+  his will he directed that the whole of his effects should be devoted to
+  the establishment of an educational institution in Glasgow, to be
+  denominated <i>Anderson's University</i>, for the use of the unacademical
+  classes. According to the design of the founder, there were to be four
+  colleges&mdash;for arts, medicine, law, and theology&mdash;besides an
+  initiatory school. As the funds, however, were totally inadequate to the
+  plan, it was at first commenced with only a single course of lectures on
+  natural philosophy and chemistry. The institution gradually enlarged its
+  sphere of instruction, coming nearer and nearer to the original design of
+  its founder, the medical school in particular possessing a high
+  reputation. In 1886 it was incorporated with other institutions to form
+  the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College (now Glasgow Royal
+  Technical College), Anderson's College medical school, however, retaining
+  a distinct position.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anderson</b>, Joseph, Scottish antiquary, born in 1832, became a
+  school teacher, was for some years newspaper editor, and in 1870 was
+  appointed keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. His
+  chief works embody the lectures delivered by him as Rhind lecturer in
+  archæology to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland: <i>Scotland in
+  Early Christian Times</i>, <i>Scotland in Pagan Times</i>, and the
+  <i>Early Christian Monuments of Scotland</i>. He also edited <i>The
+  Orkneyinga Saga</i>, <i>The Oliphants in Scotland</i>, and Drummond's
+  <i>Ancient Scottish Weapons</i>. He died in 1916.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anderson</b>, Robert, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, Scottish
+  biographical writer, born 1750, died 1830. He furnished biographical and
+  critical notices for <i>A Complete Edition of the Poets of Great
+  Britain</i> (1792-5), and was for a time editor of the <i>Edinburgh
+  Magazine</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andersson</b>, Carl Jan, an African traveller, born in Sweden in
+  1827, died in the land of the Ovampos, in Western Africa, in July, 1867.
+  He published <i>Lake Ngami, or Discoveries in South Africa</i> (London, 2
+  vols., 1856), and <i>The Okavango River</i> (London, 1861). The
+  observations of his last voyage were published in 1875 in <i>Notes of
+  Travel in South Africa</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andes</b> (an´d&#x113;z), or, as they are called in Spanish South
+  America, <b>Cordilleras</b> (ridges) <b>de los Andes</b>, or simply
+  <b>Cordilleras</b>, a range of mountains stretching along the whole of
+  the west coast of South America, from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama
+  and the Caribbean Sea. In absolute length (4500 miles) no single chain of
+  mountains approaches the Andes, and only a certain number of the higher
+  peaks of the Himalayan chain rise higher above the sea-level; which peak
+  is the highest of all is not yet settled. Several main sections of this
+  huge chain are distinguishable. The Southern Andes present a lofty main
+  chain, with a minor chain running parallel to it on the east, reaching
+  from Tierra del Fuego and the Straits of Magellan, northward to about
+  lat. 28° <span class="scac">S.</span>, and rising in Aconcagua to a
+  height of 23,080 feet. North of this is the double chain of the Central
+  Andes, enclosing the wide and lofty plateaus of Bolivia and Peru, which
+  lie at an elevation of more than 12,000 feet above the sea. The mountain
+  system is here at its broadest, being about 500 miles across. Here are
+  also several very lofty peaks, as Illampu or Sorata (21,484 feet), Sahama
+  (21,054 feet), Illimani (21,024 feet). Farther north the outer and inner
+  ranges draw closer together, and in Ecuador there is but a single system
+  of elevated masses, generally described as forming two parallel chains.
+  In this section are crowded together a number of lofty peaks, most of
+  them volcanoes, either extinct or active. Of the latter class are
+  Pichincha (15,918 feet), with a crater 2500 feet deep; Tunguragua (16,685
+  feet); Sangay (17,460 feet); and Cotopaxi (19,550 feet). The loftiest
+  summit here appears to be Chimborazo (20,581 feet); others are Antisana
+  (19,260 feet) and Cayambe (19,200 feet). Northward of this section the
+  Andes break into three distinct ranges, the east-most running
+  north-eastward into Venezuela, the westmost running north-westward to the
+  Isthmus of Panama. In the central range is the volcano of Tolima (17,660
+  feet). The western slope of the Andes is generally exceedingly steep, the
+  eastern much less so, the mountains sinking gradually to the plains. The
+  whole range gives evidence of volcanic action, but it consists almost
+  entirely of sedimentary rocks. Thus mountains may be found rising to the
+  height of over 20,000 feet, and fossiliferous to their summits (as
+  Illimani and Sorata or Illampu). There are about thirty volcanoes in a
+  state of activity. The loftiest of these burning mountains seems to be
+  Gualateïri, in Peru (21,960 feet). The heights of the others vary from
+  13,000 to 20,000 feet. All the districts of the Andes system have
+  suffered severely from earthquakes, towns having been either destroyed or
+  greatly injured by these visitations. Peaks crowned with perpetual snow
+  are seen all along the range, and glaciers are also met with, more
+  especially from Aconcagua southwards. The passes are generally at a great
+  height, the most important being from 10,000 to 15,000 feet. Railways
+  have been constructed to cross the chain at a similar elevation. The
+  Andes are extremely rich in the precious metals, gold, silver, copper,
+  platinum, mercury, and tin all being wrought; lead and iron are also
+  found. The llama and kindred species&mdash;the guanaco, vicuña, <!-- Page
+  160 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page160"></a>[160]</span>and
+  alpaca&mdash;are characteristic of the Andes. Among birds, the condor is
+  the most remarkable. The vegetation necessarily varies much according to
+  elevation, latitude, rainfall, &amp;c., but generally is rich and varied.
+  Except in the south and north little rain falls on the western side of
+  the range, and in the centre there is a considerable desert area. On the
+  east side the rainfall is heavy in the equatorial regions, but in the
+  south is very scanty or altogether deficient. From the Andes rise two of
+  the largest water systems of the world&mdash;the Amazon and its
+  affluents, and the La Plata and its affluents. Besides which, in the
+  north, from its slopes flow the Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some
+  tributaries to the Orinoco. The mountain chain pressing so close upon the
+  Pacific Ocean, no streams of importance flow from its western slopes. The
+  number of lakes is not great; the largest and most important is that of
+  Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau. In the Andes are towns at a greater
+  elevation than anywhere else in the world, the highest being the
+  silver-mining town of Cerro de Pasco (14,270 feet), the next being
+  Potosi.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´desin</b>, a kind of felspar containing both soda and lime, and
+  named from being first obtained in the Andes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´desite</b>, a name given to a crystalline volcanic rock or group
+  of rocks of very wide occurrence, consisting mostly of felspar mixed with
+  other ingredients, especially hornblende and augite, often also
+  hypersthene and mica, the four chief varieties being named accordingly.
+  Andesite is often porphyritic in character, with large crystals of
+  felspar scattered through it. These rocks are commonly eruptive products
+  of volcanoes of the tertiary or more recent periods, and the name was
+  given by C.&nbsp;L. von Buch on account of their prevalence in the lavas of
+  volcanoes of the Andes. The Ochils and other hills of middle Scotland
+  largely consist of andesite.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andijan´</b>, a town of Russian Turkestan, Ferghana, south of the
+  Syr-Darya, a terminus of the Transcaspian Railway, 73 miles north-east of
+  Khokand. Pop. 82,235.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andi´ra</b>, a genus of leguminous American trees, with fleshy
+  plum-like fruits. The wood is suitable for building purposes. The bark of
+  <i>A. inermis</i>, or cabbage tree, is narcotic, and is used as an
+  anthelminthic under the name of <i>worm-bark</i> or <i>cabbage bark</i>.
+  The powdered bark of <i>A. arar&#x14D;ba</i> is used as a remedy in
+  certain skin diseases, as herpes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andiron</b> (and´&#x12B;-&#x117;rn), a horizontal iron bar raised
+  on short legs, with an upright standard at one end, used to support
+  pieces of wood when burning in an open hearth, one andiron being placed
+  on either side of the hearth.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andkhoo</b>, or <b>Andkhoui</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>nd-<i>h</i>ö´, a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>nd-<i>h</i>ö´i), a town of Afghanistan,
+  about 200 miles south of Bokhara, on the commercial route to Herat. Pop.
+  estimated at 15,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andocides</b> (an-dos´i-d&#x113;z), an Athenian orator, born about
+  440 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, died about 393 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> He took an active part in public affairs, and
+  was four times exiled; the first time along with Alcibiades, for
+  profaning the Eleusinian mysteries. Several of his orations are extant,
+  one called <i>On the Mysteries</i> being the best.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andor´ra</b>, or <b>Andorre´</b>, a small nominally independent
+  State in the Pyrenees, south of the French department of Ariége, with an
+  area of about 191 sq. miles. It has been a separate State for six hundred
+  years, is governed by its own civil and criminal codes, and has its own
+  courts of justice, the laws being administered by two judges, one of whom
+  is chosen by France, the other by the Bishop of Urgel, in Spain. The
+  little State pays an annual due of 960 francs to France, and 460 pesetas
+  to the Bishop of Urgel. The chief industry is the rearing of sheep and
+  cattle. The commerce is largely in importing contraband goods into Spain.
+  The inhabitants, who speak the Catalan dialect of Spanish, are simple in
+  their manners, their wealth consisting mainly of cattle and sheep. The
+  village of Old Andorra is the capital. Pop. 5231.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´dover</b>, a town in England, in Hants, 12 miles north by west
+  of Winchester, with a fine church, and a trade in corn, malt, &amp;c.
+  Interesting Roman remains have been found in the vicinity. Pop. (1921),
+  8569.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´dover</b>, a town in Massachusetts, 25 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Boston, chiefly remarkable for its literary
+  institutions&mdash;Phillip's Academy, founded in 1778; the Andover
+  Theological Seminary, founded in 1807; and Abbot Academy, a girls'
+  school, founded in 1829. Pop. 7300.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andrassy</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-drä´sh&#x113;), Count Julius, Hungarian
+  statesman, born 1823, died in 1890. He took part in the revolution of
+  1848, was condemned to death, but escaped and went into exile. He was
+  appointed Premier when self-government was restored to Hungary in 1867;
+  became imperial Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1871, but retired from
+  public life in 1879.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andrassy</b>, Julius, Hungarian statesman, son of the preceding. He
+  was born in 1860, and entered the Reichstag in 1884. He became Minister
+  of the Interior in 1906, and retained that office until 1909. In 1912 he
+  represented Austria at the conference on the Balkan question. In 1918 he
+  was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs, but soon resigned.</p>
+
+  <p><b>André</b> (an´dr&#x101;), Major John, adjutant-general in the
+  British army during the American revolutionary war. Employed to negotiate
+  the defection of the American general Arnold, and the delivery of the
+  works at West Point, he was apprehended in disguise, 23rd Sept., 1780,
+  within <!-- Page 161 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page161"></a>[161]</span>the American lines; declared a spy from
+  the enemy, and hanged 2nd Oct., 1780. His remains were brought to England
+  in 1821 and interred in Westminster Abbey, where a monument has been
+  erected to his memory.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andrea del Sarto.</b> See <i>Sarto</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andreæ</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n´dre-&#x101;), Johann Valentin, German
+  author, born 1586, died 1654. He was the author of numerous tracts,
+  several of them of an amusing and satirical character. He was long
+  believed to be the founder of the celebrated Rosicrucian order, an
+  opinion that received a certain support from some of his works, but in
+  all probability the real intention of the writer was to ridicule the
+  folly of contemporary alchemists.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´dreasberg, St.</b>, a mining town of the Harz Mountains, in
+  Prussia, 57 miles <span class="scac">S.S.E.</span> of Hanover. Pop. about
+  4000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andreev</b>, Leonid Nicolaievitsh, Russian author, born in 1871,
+  died in 1919. He studied law at the Universities of Moscow and Petrograd,
+  but finding his practice unremunerative he became a police-court reporter
+  for a daily paper. At the age of twenty-three he attempted suicide,
+  driven to it by his miserable circumstances and struggle for existence.
+  His first story, <i>About a Poor Student</i>, based upon his own
+  experiences, attracted but little attention, and his literary career
+  really began when Gorky discovered his talent. He was one of the most
+  prolific Russian writers, the short story being his speciality. He was a
+  mystic and a fatalist, like so many of his compatriots. His works
+  include: <i>The Red Laugh</i> (1905); <i>The Seven who were Hanged</i>
+  (1909); <i>Judas Iscariot and the Others</i> (1910); <i>A Dilemma</i>
+  (1910); <i>Silence and Other Stories</i>, &amp;c. His works have been
+  translated into many European languages.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andrew, St.</b>, brother of St. Peter, and the first disciple whom
+  Christ chose. He is said to have preached in Scythia, in Thrace and Asia
+  Minor, and in Achaia (Greece), and according to tradition he was
+  crucified by order of the Roman governor Ægeas at Patræ, now Patras, in
+  Achaia, on a cross of the form <a href="images/cross.png"><img
+  src="images/cross.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="X" /></a>
+  (decussate cross), now known as a St. Andrew's cross. The Russians revere
+  him as the apostle who brought the gospel to them; the Scots, as the
+  patron saint of their country. The day dedicated to him is 30th Nov. The
+  Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted by Peter the Great in 1698.
+  For the Scottish Knights of St. Andrew or the Thistle, see
+  <i>Thistle</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´drewes</b>, Lancelot, an eminent and learned bishop of the
+  English Church, born in London in 1555, died at Winchester 1626; was high
+  in favour both with Queen Elizabeth and James I. In 1605 he became Bishop
+  of Chichester; in 1609 was translated to Ely, and appointed one of the
+  king's privy-councillors; and in 1618 he was translated to Winchester. He
+  was one of those engaged in preparing the authorized version of the
+  Scriptures. He left sermons, lectures, and other writings.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´drews, St.</b>, an ancient city and parliamentary burgh in
+  Fifeshire, Scotland, 31 miles north-east from Edinburgh; was erected into
+  a royal burgh by David I in 1140, and after having been an episcopal,
+  became an archiepiscopal see in 1472, and was for long the ecclesiastical
+  capital of Scotland. The cathedral, now in ruins, was begun about 1160,
+  and took 157 years to finish. The old castle, founded about 1200, and
+  rebuilt in the fourteenth century, is also an almost shapeless ruin. In
+  it James III was born and Cardinal Beaton assassinated, and in front of
+  it George Wishart was burned. There are several other interesting ruins.
+  The trade and manufactures are of no importance, but the town is in
+  favour as a watering-place. Golf is much played here. Pop.
+  7597.&mdash;The <i>University of St. Andrews</i>, the oldest of the
+  Scottish universities, founded in 1411, consists of the united colleges
+  of St. Salvator and St. Leonard and the college of St. Mary, both at St.
+  Andrews, and embraces also University College, Dundee. In 1579 the
+  colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard were restricted to the teaching
+  of arts and medicine, and that of St. Mary to theology. In 1747 the two
+  former colleges were united by Act of Parliament. University College,
+  Dundee, was founded in 1880. The united college of St. Salvator and St.
+  Leonard has a principal (who is also principal of the university) and
+  twelve professors, and the college of St. Mary has a principal and four
+  professors. Degrees, open to women as well as men, are conferred in arts,
+  divinity, science, medicine, and law; and the university also confers the
+  diploma and title of <span class="scac">L.L.A.</span> (Lady Literate in
+  Arts). The number of students is 420. In connection with the university
+  is a library, founded in 1612 and containing about 150,000 printed
+  volumes and 150 MSS. The university unites with the other three Scottish
+  universities in returning three members to Parliament. Madras College or
+  Academy, founded by Dr. Bell of Madras, the principal secondary school of
+  the place, provides accommodation for upwards of 1500 scholars.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´drews</b>, Thomas, chemist, was born at Belfast in 1813; studied
+  chemistry at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson, and for a short time in Paris;
+  then medicine at Belfast, Dublin, and Edinburgh, taking the degree of
+  <span class="scac">M.D.</span> at the last place. After practising and
+  teaching chemistry for ten years in Belfast, he became vice-president of
+  the Northern College there, which in 1849 was converted into Queen's
+  College, and Andrews now became professor of chemistry in the college, a
+  post which he held till 1879. He died in 1885, having received various
+  academic distinctions in <!-- Page 162 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page162"></a>[162]</span>the course of his life. His name is
+  associated with valuable researches on the heat of chemical combustion,
+  and on the nature of ozone, but especially with the discovery of the
+  existence of a critical temperature for every gas, above which it cannot
+  be liquefied by any pressure, however great. He wrote many scientific
+  papers, which have been published in a collective form by P.&nbsp;G. Tait and
+  A. Crum Brown.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´dria</b>, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, with a fine
+  cathedral, founded in 1046; the Church of Sant' Agostino, with a
+  beautiful Pointed Gothic portal; a college; manufactures of majolica, and
+  a good trade. Pop. 53,274.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Androclus</b>, or <b>Androcles</b>, a Roman slave who once pulled a
+  thorn out of a lion's paw and dressed the wound. Androclus was afterwards
+  condemned to be thrown to the lions in the Circus Maximus, and
+  encountered the same lion that he had helped; the beast, instead of
+  attacking him, fawned on him and caressed him. The story is told by Aulus
+  Gellius, <i>Noctes Atticæ</i>, v, 14.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andr&oelig;´cium</b>, in botany, the male system of a flower; the
+  aggregate of the stamens.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andromache</b> (an-drom´a-k&#x113;), in Greek legend, wife of
+  Hector, and one of the most attractive women of Homer's <i>Iliad</i>. The
+  passage describing her parting with Hector, when he was setting out to
+  battle, is well known and much admired (<i>Iliad</i>, vi, 369-502).
+  Euripides and Racine have made her the chief character of tragedies.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Androm´&#x115;da</b>, in Greek mythology, daughter of the Ethiopian
+  king Cepheus and of Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia having boasted that her
+  daughter surpassed the Nereids, if not H&#x113;ra (Juno) herself, in
+  beauty, the offended goddesses prevailed on their father, Poseid&#x14D;n
+  (Neptune), to afflict the country with a horrid sea-monster, which
+  threatened universal destruction. To appease the offended god, Andromeda
+  was chained to a rock, but was rescued by Perseus; and after death was
+  changed into a constellation. The legend forms the subject of tragedies
+  by Euripides and Sophocles, and Ovid introduced it into his
+  <i>Metamorphoses</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Androm´eda.</b> See <i>Ericaceæ</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Androni´cus</b>, the name of four emperors of
+  Constantinople.&mdash;<b>Andronicus I</b>, Comnenus, born 1110, murdered
+  1185.&mdash;<b>Andronicus II</b>, Palæologus, born 1258, died 1332. His
+  reign is celebrated for the invasion of the Turks.&mdash;<b>Andronicus
+  III</b>, Palæologus the Younger, born 1296, died
+  1341.&mdash;<b>Andronicus IV</b>, Palæologus, reigned in the absence of
+  John IV. In 1373 he gave way to his brother Manuel, and died a monk.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Androni´cus</b>, Livius, the most ancient of the Latin dramatic
+  poets; flourished about 240 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>; by origin a
+  Greek, and long a slave. A few fragments of his works have come down to
+  us.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Androni´cus</b> of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher who lived at
+  Rome in the time of Cicero. He arranged Aristotle's works in much the
+  same form as they retain in present editions.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Androni´cus Cyrrhestes</b> (sir-es´t&#x113;z), a Greek architect
+  about 100 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, who constructed at Athens the
+  Tower of the Winds, an octagonal building, still standing. On the top was
+  a Triton, which indicated the direction of the wind. Each of the sides
+  had a sort of dial, and the building formerly contained a clepsydra or
+  water-clock.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andropo´gon</b>, a large genus of grasses, mostly natives of warm
+  countries. <i>A. Sch&oelig;nanthus</i> is the sweet-scented lemon-grass
+  of conservatories. Others also are fragrant.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´dros</b> (now <b>Andro</b>), one of the islands of the Grecian
+  Archipelago, the most northerly of the Cyclades; about 25 miles long and
+  6 or 7 broad; area, 100 sq. miles. A considerable trade is done in silk,
+  wine, olives, figs, oranges, and lemons. Andro or Castro, the capital,
+  has a good port. Pop. 18,809.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andros Islands</b>, a group of isles belonging to the Bahamas,
+  lying south-west of New Providence, not far from the east entrance to the
+  Gulf of Florida. The passages through them are dangerous. Pop. 7545.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andrussovo</b>, a Russian village in the government of Smolensk. A
+  treaty was signed here between Poland and Russia (1667).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Andujar</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-<i>d</i>ö-<i>h</i>är´), a town in
+  Spain, in Andalusia, 50 miles <span class="scac">E.N.E.</span> of
+  Cordova, on the Guadalquivir, which is here crossed by a fine bridge;
+  manufactures a peculiar kind of porous earthen water-bottles and jugs
+  (<i>alcarazas</i>). Pop. 16,500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´ecdote</b>, originally some particular about a subject not
+  noticed in previous works on that subject; now any particular or detached
+  incident or fact of an interesting nature; a single passage of private
+  life.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anega´da</b>, a British West Indian island, the most northern of
+  the Virgin group, 10 miles long by 4½ broad; contains numerous salt
+  ponds, from which quantities of salt are obtained. Pop. 200.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anelectric</b>, a body not easily electrified.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anelectrode</b>, the positive pole of a galvanic battery.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:27%;">
+      <a href="images/image056.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image056.jpg"
+      alt="Anemometer" title="Anemometer" /></a>
+    Beckley's Improved Robinson Cup Anemometer
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Anemom´eter</b> (Gr. <i>an&#x115;mos</i>, wind, <i>metron</i>,
+  measure), an instrument for measuring the force and velocity of the wind.
+  This force is usually measured by the pressure of the wind upon a square
+  plate attached to one end of a spiral spring (with its axis horizontal),
+  which yields more or less according to the force of the wind, and
+  transmits its motion to a pencil which leaves a trace upon paper moved by
+  clockwork. Various instruments have been devised for this purpose, but
+  the one most commonly adopted by <!-- Page 163 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page163"></a>[163]</span>meteorological stations
+  is after the type invented by Dr. Robinson of Armagh. It consists of four
+  hemispherical cups <span class="scac">A</span> attached to the ends of
+  equal horizontal arms, forming a horizontal cross which turns freely
+  about a vertical axis <span class="scac">B</span>. By means of an endless
+  screw carried by the axis a train of wheelwork is set in motion; and the
+  indication is given by a hand which moves round a dial; or in some
+  instruments by several hands moving round different dials like those of a
+  gas-meter. It is found that the centre of each cup moves with a velocity
+  which is almost exactly one-third of that of the wind. There are various
+  other forms of the instrument, one of which is portable, and is
+  especially intended for measuring the velocity of currents of air passing
+  through mines, and the ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public
+  buildings. The direction of the wind as indicated by a vane can also be
+  made to leave a continuous record by various contrivances; one of the
+  most common being a pinion carried by the shaft of a vane, and driving a
+  rack which carries a pencil.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anem´&#x14F;n&#x113;</b> (Gr. <i>an&#x115;mos</i>, wind),
+  wind-flower, a genus of plants belonging to the Buttercup family
+  (Ranunculaceæ), containing about ninety species, found in temperate
+  regions, three of them occurring in Britain: the white-flowered (<i>A.
+  nemor&#x14D;sa</i>), the only one truly native; the blue-flowered (<i>A.
+  apenn&#x12B;na</i>); and the yellow-flowered (<i>A. ranunculoides</i>), a
+  common European species naturalized in some parts of Britain. Several
+  species are cultivated as florists' flowers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anemoph´ilous</b>, said of flowers that are fertilized by the wind
+  conveying the pollen.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anem´oscope</b>, any contrivance indicating the direction of the
+  wind; generally applied to a vane which turns a spindle descending
+  through the roof to a chamber where, by means of a compass-card and
+  index, the direction of the wind is shown.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aneroid Barometer.</b> See <i>Barometer</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ane´thum</b>, a genus of plants; dill.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aneu´rin</b>, a poet and prince of the Cambrian Britons who
+  flourished in the seventh century, author of an epic poem, the
+  <i>Gododin</i>, relating the defeat of the Britons of Strathclyde by the
+  Saxons at the battle of Cattraeth. See <i>Celtic Literature</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´eurism</b>, or <b>Aneurysm</b> (Gr. <i>aneurysma</i>, a
+  widening), the dilatation or expansion of some part of an artery.
+  Aneurisms arise partly from the too violent motion of the blood, and
+  partly from degenerative changes occurring in the coats of the artery,
+  diminishing their elasticity. They are therefore more frequent in the
+  great branches; in particular, in the vicinity of the heart, in the arch
+  of the aorta, and in the extremities, where the arteries are exposed to
+  frequent injuries by stretching, violent bodily exertions, thrusts,
+  falls, and contusions. An internal aneurism may burst and cause
+  death.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angara´</b>, a Siberian river which flows into Lake Baikal at its
+  <span class="scac">N.</span> extremity, and leaves it near the <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> end, joining the Yenisei as the Lower Angara or
+  Upper Tunguska.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angel</b> (Gr. <i>angelos</i>, a messenger), one of those spiritual
+  intelligences who are regarded as dwelling in Heaven and employed as the
+  ministers or agents of God. To these the name of good angels is sometimes
+  given, to distinguish them from bad angels, who were originally created
+  to occupy the same blissful abode, but lost it by rebellion. The Old
+  Testament represents them as messengers of the Divine will, and Christ
+  spoke of them more than once (<i>St. Matt.</i> xviii, 10; <i>St.
+  Luke</i>, xv, 10). Generally, however, Scripture speaks of angels with
+  great reserve, Michael and Gabriel alone being mentioned by name in the
+  canonical books, while Raphael is mentioned in the Apocrypha. The angels
+  are represented in Scripture as in the most elevated state of
+  intelligence, purity, and bliss, ever doing the will of God so perfectly
+  that we can seek for nothing higher or better than to aim at being like
+  them. There are indications of a diversity of rank and power among them,
+  and something like angelic orders&mdash;Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel,
+  &amp;c., seraphim and cherubim. They are represented as frequently taking
+  part in communications made from heaven to earth, as directly and
+  actively ministering to the good of believers, and shielding or
+  delivering them from evils incident to their earthly lot. That every
+  person has a <!-- Page 164 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page164"></a>[164]</span>good and a bad angel attendant on him was
+  an early belief, and is held to some extent yet. Roman Catholics, since
+  St. Ambrosius, who died in 397, show a certain veneration or worship to
+  angels, and beg their prayers and their kind offices. The New Testament,
+  however, formally forbidding such veneration (<i>Col.</i> ii, 18,
+  &amp;c.), Protestants consider this unlawful.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:18%;">
+      <a href="images/image057.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image057.jpg"
+      alt="Angel of Queen Elizabeth" title="Angel of Queen Elizabeth" /></a>
+    Angel of Queen Elizabeth
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Angel</b>, a gold coin introduced into England in the reign of
+  Edward IV, and coined down to the Commonwealth, so named from having the
+  representation of the archangel Michael piercing a dragon upon it. It had
+  different values in different reigns, varying from 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>
+  to 10<i>s.</i></p>
+
+  <p><b>Angel-fish</b>, a fish, <i>Squat&#x12B;na ang&#x115;lus</i>, nearly
+  allied to the sharks, very ugly and voracious, preying on other fish. It
+  is from 6 to 8 feet long, and takes its name from its pectoral fins,
+  which are very large, extending horizontally like wings when spread. This
+  fish connects the rays with the sharks, but it differs from both in
+  having its mouth placed at the extremity of the head. It is common on the
+  south coasts of Britain, and is also called <i>Monk-fish</i> and
+  <i>Fiddle-fish</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angel´ica</b>, a genus of umbelliferous plants, one of which, <i>A.
+  sylvestris</i>, a tall plant bearing large umbels of white flowers tinged
+  with pink, is common in wet places in Britain, and was formerly believed
+  to possess <i>angelic</i> properties as an antidote to poison, a specific
+  against witchcraft, &amp;c. The name is also given to an allied plant,
+  the <i>Archangelica officin&#x101;lis</i>, found on the banks of rivers
+  and ditches in the north of Europe, once generally cultivated as an
+  esculent, and still valued for its medicinal properties. It has a large
+  fleshy aromatic root, and a strong-furrowed branched stem as high as a
+  man. It is cultivated for its agreeable aromatic odour and carminative
+  properties. Its blanched stems, candied with sugar, form a very agreeable
+  sweetmeat, possessing tonic and stomachic qualities.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angelico</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-jel´i-k&#x14D;), <b>Fra</b>, the common
+  appellation of <i>Fra Giovanni da Fiesole</i>, one of the most celebrated
+  of the early Italian painters. Born 1387, he entered the Dominican order
+  in 1407, and was employed by Cosmo de' Medici in painting the monastery
+  of St. Mark and the church of St. Annunziata with frescoes. These
+  pictures gained him so much celebrity that Pope Nicholas V invited him to
+  Rome to ornament his private chapel in the Vatican, and offered him the
+  archbishopric of Florence, which Angelico declined. He died at, Rome
+  1455. He has been called the 'painter of seraphic dreams'. His works were
+  considered unrivalled in finish and in sweetness and harmony of colour,
+  and were made the models for religious painters of his own and succeeding
+  generations.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angeln</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>ng´eln), a district in Schleswig of about
+  300 sq. miles, bounded <span class="scac">N.</span> by the Bay of
+  Flensburg, <span class="scac">S.</span> by the Schlei, <span
+  class="scac">E.</span> by the Baltic, the only continental territory
+  which has retained the name of the Angles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angelo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n´je-l&#x14D;), Michael. See
+  <i>Buonarotti</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´gelus</b>, in the Roman Catholic Church, a short form of prayer
+  in honour of the incarnation, consisting mainly of versicles and
+  responses, the angelic salutation three times repeated, and a collect, so
+  named from the word with which it commences, '<i>Angelus</i> Domini'
+  (Angel of the Lord). Hence, also, the bell tolled in the morning, at
+  noon, and in the evening to indicate the time when the angelus is to be
+  recited. The prayer is attributed to St. Bonaventura, and in Germany and
+  Italy it is called 'Ave Maria'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ångermann</b> (ong´er-ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n), a Swedish river which falls into the
+  Gulf of Bothnia, noted for its fine scenery. It is navigable for nearly
+  70 miles for vessels of 600 tons.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angermünde</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>ng´er-mün-de), a town in Prussia, on Lake
+  Münde, 42 miles north-east of Berlin. Pop. 8200.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angers</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-zh&#x101;), a town and river-port of
+  France, capital of the department of Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of the
+  province of Anjou, on the banks of the Maine, 5½ miles from the Loire,
+  150 miles south-west of Paris. It has an old castle, built by Louis IX,
+  once a place of great strength, now used as a prison, barrack, and
+  powder-magazine; a fine cathedral of the twelfth and thirteenth
+  centuries, with very fine old painted windows; is the seat of a bishop,
+  and has a school of arts and manufactures; a public library, an
+  art-gallery, a large modern hospital, the remains of a hospital founded
+  by Henry II of England in 1155; courts of law, theatre, &amp;c. It
+  manufactures sail-cloth, hosiery, leather, and chemicals; foundries,
+  &amp;c. In the neighbourhood are immense slate-quarries. Pop. 83,786.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angevins</b> (an´je-vins), natives of Anjou, often applied to the
+  race of English sovereigns called Plantagenets (q.v.). Anjou became
+  connected with England by the marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I,
+  with Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou. The Angevin kings of England were Henry
+  II, Richard I, John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and
+  Richard II.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angilbert, St.</b>, the most celebrated poet of his age, secretary
+  and friend of Charlemagne, whose daughter, Bertha, he married. In the
+  latter part of his life he retired to a monastery, of which he became
+  abbot. Died 814. <!-- Page 165 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page165"></a>[165]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Angina Pectoris</b> (an´ji-na pek´to-ris), or <b>Heart-spasm</b>, a
+  disease characterized by an extremely acute constriction, felt generally
+  in the lower part of the sternum, and extending along the whole side of
+  the chest and into the corresponding arm, a sense of suffocation,
+  faintness, and apprehension of approaching death: seldom experienced by
+  any but those with organic heart-disease. The disease rarely occurs
+  before middle age, and is more frequent in men than in women. Those
+  liable to attack must lead a quiet, temperate life, avoiding all scenes
+  which would unduly rouse their emotions. The first attack is occasionally
+  fatal, but usually death occurs as the result of repeated seizures. The
+  paroxysm may be relieved by opiates, or the inhalation, under due
+  precaution, of anæsthetic vapours.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angiosperm</b> (an´ji-o-sp&#x117;rm), a term for any plant which
+  has its seeds enclosed in a seed-vessel. Exogens are divided into those
+  whose seeds are enclosed in a seed-vessel, and those with seeds produced
+  and ripened without the production of a seed-vessel. The former are
+  <i>angiosperms</i>, and constitute the principal part of the species; the
+  latter are <i>gymnosperms</i>, and chiefly consist of the Coniferæ and
+  Cycadaceæ.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:22%;">
+      <a href="images/image058.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image058.jpg"
+      alt="Angles" title="Angles" /></a>
+  </div>
+  <p><b>Angle</b>, the point where two lines meet, or the meeting of two
+  lines in a point. A <i>plane rectilineal angle</i> is formed by two
+  straight lines which meet one another, but are not in the same straight
+  line; it may be considered the degree of opening or divergence of the two
+  straight lines which thus meet one another. A <i>right angle</i> is an
+  angle formed by a straight line falling on another perpendicularly, or an
+  angle which is measured by an arc of 90 degrees. When a straight line, as
+  <span class="scac">A B</span> (fig. 1), standing on another straight line
+  <span class="scac">C D</span>, makes the two angles <span class="scac">A
+  B C</span> and <span class="scac">A B D</span> equal to one another, each
+  of these angles is called a <i>right angle</i>. An <i>acute angle</i> is
+  that which is less than a right angle, as <span class="scac">E B
+  C</span>. An <i>obtuse angle</i> is that which is greater than a right
+  angle, as <span class="scac">E B D</span>. Acute and obtuse angles are
+  both called <i>oblique</i>, in opposition to right angles.
+  <i>Exterior</i> or <i>external angles</i>, the angles of any rectilineal
+  figure without it, made by producing the sides; thus, if the sides <span
+  class="scac">A B</span>, <span class="scac">B C</span>, <span
+  class="scac">C A</span> of the triangle <span class="scac">A B C</span>
+  (fig. 2) be produced to the points <span class="scac">F D E</span>, the
+  angles <span class="scac">C B F</span>, <span class="scac">A C D</span>,
+  <span class="scac">B A E</span> are called <i>exterior</i> or <i>external
+  angles</i>. A <i>solid angle</i> is that which is made by more than two
+  plane angles meeting in one point and not lying in the same plane, as the
+  angle of a cube. A <i>spherical angle</i> is an angle on the surface of a
+  sphere, contained between the arcs of two great circles which intersect
+  each other.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angler</b> (<i>Lophius piscatorius</i>), also from its habits and
+  appearance called <b>Fishing-frog</b> and <b>Sea-devil</b>, a remarkable
+  fish often found on the British coasts. It is from 3 to 5 feet long; the
+  head is very wide, depressed, with protuberances, and bearing long
+  separate movable tendrils; the mouth is capacious, and armed with
+  formidable teeth. Its voracity is extreme, and it is said to lie
+  concealed in the mud, and attract the smaller fishes within its reach by
+  gently waving the filamentous appendages on its head.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angles</b>, a Low German tribe who in the earliest historical
+  period had their seats in the district about Angeln, in the duchy of
+  Schleswig, and who in the fifth century and subsequently crossed over to
+  Britain along with bands of Saxons and Jutes (and probably Frisians
+  also), and colonized a great part of what from them has received the name
+  of England, as well as a portion of the Lowlands of Scotland. The Angles
+  formed the largest body among the Germanic settlers in Britain, and
+  founded the three kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anglesey</b> (ang´gl-s&#x113;), or <b>Anglesea</b> ('the Angles'
+  Island'), an island and county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea,
+  separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait; 20 miles long and 17
+  miles broad; area, 176,630 acres. The surface is comparatively flat, and
+  the climate is milder than that of the adjoining coast. The chief
+  agricultural products are oats and barley, wheat, rye, potatoes, and
+  turnips. Numbers of cattle and sheep are raised. Anglesey yields a little
+  copper, lead, silver, ochre, &amp;c. The Menai Strait is crossed by a
+  magnificent suspension-bridge, 580 feet between the piers and 100 feet
+  above high-water mark, and also by the great Britannia Tubular Railway
+  Bridge. The chief market-towns are Beaumaris, Holyhead, Llangefni, and
+  Amlweh. The county returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921),
+  51,695.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anglesey</b>, Henry William Paget, Marquess of, English soldier and
+  statesman, was the eldest son of Henry, first Earl of Uxbridge, and was
+  born in 1768. He was educated at Oxford, and in 1790 entered Parliament
+  as member for the Carnarvon boroughs. In 1793 he entered the army, and in
+  1794 he took part in the campaign in Flanders under the Duke of York. In
+  1808 he was sent into Spain with two brigades of cavalry to join Sir John
+  Moore, and in the retreat to Coruña commanded the rear-guard. In 1812 he
+  became, by his father's death, Earl of Uxbridge. On Napoleon's escape
+  from Elba he was appointed commander of the British cavalry, and at the
+  <!-- Page 166 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page166"></a>[166]</span>battle of Waterloo, by the charge of the
+  heavy brigade, overthrew the Imperial Guard. For his services he was
+  created Marquess of Anglesey. In 1828 he became Lord-Lieutenant of
+  Ireland and made himself extremely popular, but was recalled in
+  consequence of favouring Catholic Emancipation. He was again
+  Lord-Lieutenant in 1830, but lost his popularity by his opposition to
+  O'Connell and his instrumentality in the passing of the Irish Coercion
+  Acts; and he quitted office in 1833. From 1846-52 he was Master-General
+  of the Ordnance. He died in 1854.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anglicanism</b>, the term is capable of a wider use, but is usually
+  employed as descriptive of the type of doctrine formulated by the Church
+  of England in the period of the Protestant Reformation. The two most
+  notable formularies of that period are the Confession of Faith, known as
+  the Thirty-nine Articles, which assumed its present shape in 1571, and
+  the Liturgy, known as the Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1559 in what
+  was substantially its present shape. By the Clerical Subscription Act of
+  1865 assent is required to both Prayer Book and Articles. The Articles
+  are not and never were binding upon laymen.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Mgr. Moyes, <i>Aspects of
+  Anglicanism</i>; F.&nbsp;Y. Kinsman, <i>Principles of Anglicanism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angling</b>, the art of catching fish with a hook or <i>angle</i>
+  (A. Sax. <i>angel</i>) baited with worms, small fish, flies, &amp;c. We
+  find occasional allusions to this pursuit among the Greek and Latin
+  classical writers; it is mentioned several times in the Old Testament,
+  and it was practised by the ancient Egyptians. The first reference to
+  angling in England is a passage in a tract, entitled <i>Piers Fulham</i>,
+  supposed to have been written about the year 1420. The oldest work on the
+  subject in English is the <i>Treatyse of Fysshinge with an Angle</i>,
+  printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with a treatise on hunting and
+  hawking, the whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana Berners or Barnes,
+  prioress of a nunnery near St. Albans. Walton's inimitable discourse on
+  angling was first printed in 1653. The chief appliances required by an
+  angler are a rod, line, hooks, and baits. Rods are made of various
+  materials, and of various sizes. The cane rods are lightest, and where
+  fishing-tackle is sold they most commonly have the preference; but in
+  country places the rod is often of the angler's own manufacture. Rods are
+  commonly made in separate joints, so as to be easily taken to pieces and
+  put up again. They are made to taper from the butt end to the top, and
+  are usually possessed of a considerable amount of elasticity. In length
+  they may vary from 10 feet to more than double that length, with a
+  corresponding difference in strength&mdash;a rod for salmon being
+  necessarily much stronger than one suited for ordinary burn trout. The
+  <i>reel</i>, an apparatus for winding up the line, is attached to the rod
+  near the lower end, where the hand grasps it while fishing. The best are
+  usually made of brass, are of simple construction, and so made as to wind
+  or unwind freely and rapidly. That part of the line which passes along
+  the rod and is wound on the reel is called the <i>reel line</i>, and may
+  vary from 20 to 100 yards in length, according to the size of the water
+  and the habits of the fish angled for; it is usually made of twisted
+  horse-hair and silk, or of oiled silk alone. The casting line, which is
+  attached to this, is made of the same materials, but lighter and finer.
+  To the end of this is tied a piece of fine gut, on which the hook, or
+  hooks, are fixed. The casting or gut lines should decrease in thickness
+  from the reel line to the hooks. The hook, of finely-tempered steel,
+  should readily bend without breaking, and yet retain a sharp point. It
+  should be long in the shank and deep in the bend; the point straight and
+  true to the level of the shank; and the barb long. Their sizes and sorts
+  must of course entirely depend on the kind of fish that is angled for.
+  Floats formed of cork, goose and swan quills, &amp;c., are often used to
+  buoy up the hook so that it may float clear of the bottom. For heavy fish
+  or strong streams a cork float is used; in slow water and for lighter
+  fish quill floats. <i>Baits</i> may consist of a great variety of
+  materials, natural or artificial. The principal natural baits are worms:
+  common garden worms, brandlings, and red worms, maggots, or gentles (the
+  larvæ of blow-flies such as are found on putrid meat), insects, small
+  fish (as minnows), salmon roe, &amp;c. The artificial flies so much used
+  in angling for trout and salmon are composed of hairs, furs, and wools of
+  every variety, mingled with pieces of feathers, and secured together by
+  plaited wire, or gold and silver thread, marking-silk, wax, &amp;c. The
+  wings may be made of the feathers of domestic fowls, or any others of a
+  showy colour. Some angling authorities recommend that the artificial
+  flies should be made to resemble as closely as possible the insects on
+  which the fish is wont to feed, but experience has shown that the most
+  capricious and unnatural combinations of feather, fur, &amp;c., have been
+  often successful where the most realistic imitations have failed.
+  Artificial minnows, or other small fish, are also used by way of bait,
+  and are so contrived as to spin rapidly when drawn through the water in
+  order to attract the notice of the fish angled for. Angling, especially
+  with the fly, demands a great deal of skill and practice, the casting of
+  the line properly being the initial difficulty. Nowhere is the art
+  pursued with greater success and enthusiasm than in Britain and the
+  United States.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: <i>Fishing</i>
+  (vol. i), <i>Salmon and Trout</i> (vol. ii), <i>Pike and Coarse Fish</i>
+  <!-- Page 167 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page167"></a>[167]</span>(Badminton Library); H.&nbsp;G. Hutchinson,
+  <i>Fishing</i> (2 vols., Country Life series); Viscount Grey, <i>Fly
+  Fishing</i>; Gathorne-Hardy, <i>The Salmon</i>; Marquess of Granby,
+  <i>The Trout</i>; H.&nbsp;T. Sheringham, <i>Elements of Angling</i>; W.&nbsp;M.
+  Gallichan, <i>The Complete Fisherman</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anglo-Catholic</b>, a term sometimes used to designate those
+  churches which hold the principles of the English Reformation, the
+  Anglican or Established Church of England and the allied churches. The
+  term is also applied to that party in the English Church which favours
+  doctrines and religious forms closely approaching those of the Roman
+  Catholic Church, objects to be called Protestant, and corresponds closely
+  with the <i>Ritualistic</i> section of the Church.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.</b> See <i>Sudan</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:26%;">
+      <a href="images/image059.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image059.jpg"
+      alt="Saxon Architecture" title="Saxon Architecture" /></a>
+    Saxon Architecture. Doorway, Earl's Barton, Northampton
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Anglo-Saxons</b>, the name commonly given to the nation or people
+  formed by the amalgamation of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who settled
+  in Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries after Christ, the
+  Anglo-Saxons being simply the English people of the earlier period of
+  English history. The tribes who were thus the ancestors of the bulk of
+  the English-speaking nationalities came from North Germany, where they
+  inhabited the parts about the mouths of the Elbe and Weser, and the first
+  body of them who gained a footing in Britain are said to have landed in
+  449, and to have been led by Hengist and Horsa. From the preponderance of
+  the Angles the whole country came to be called <i>Engla-land</i>, that
+  is, the land of the Angles or English.</p>
+
+  <p>Many scholars object to the term 'Anglo-Saxon' as being inaccurate and
+  open to misinterpretation. Correctly used, Anglo-Saxon means
+  <i>English-Saxon</i>, as distinguished from the Old-Saxon of the
+  Continent; incorrectly used, as it has been too frequently, it is taken
+  as = Angle + Saxon, a union of Angle and Saxon. Camden (1551-1623) is
+  responsible for the widespread use of the term; ignorance is responsible
+  for the misuse. Many scholars prefer to apply the term 'Old English' to
+  the language and people of England before <span class="scac">A.D.</span>
+  1100, partly because this term is more accurate and partly because its
+  use helps to emphasize the essential continuity of the language.</p>
+
+  <p>The whole Anglo-Saxon community was frequently spoken of as consisting
+  of the <i>eorls</i> and the <i>ceorls</i>, or the nobles and common
+  freemen. The former were the men of property and position, the latter
+  were the small landholders, handicraftsmen, &amp;c., who generally placed
+  themselves under the protection of some nobleman, who was hence termed
+  their <i>hláford</i> or lord. Besides these there was the class of the
+  serfs or slaves (<i>theówas</i>), who might be either born slaves or
+  freemen who had forfeited their liberty by their crimes, or whom poverty
+  or the fortune of war had brought into this position. They served as
+  agricultural labourers on their masters' estates, and were mere chattels,
+  as absolutely the property of their master as his cattle.</p>
+
+  <p>The king (<i>cyning</i>, <i>cyng</i>) was at the head of the State; he
+  was the highest of the nobles and the chief magistrate. He was not looked
+  upon as ruling by any Divine Right, but by the will of the people, as
+  represented by the <i>witan</i> (wise men) or great council of the
+  nation. The new king was not always the direct and nearest heir of the
+  late king, but one of the royal family whose abilities and character
+  recommended him for the office. He had the right of maintaining a
+  standing army of household troops, the duty of calling together the
+  <i>witan</i>, and of laying before them public measures, with certain
+  distinctions of dress, dwelling, &amp;c., all his privileges being
+  possessed and exercised by the advice and consent of the
+  <i>witena-gemót</i> or parliament (literally, 'meeting of the wise').
+  Next in rank and dignity to the king were the <i>ealdormen</i>, who were
+  the chief witan or counsellors, and without whose assent laws could not
+  be made, altered, or abrogated. They were at the head of the
+  administration of justice in the shires, possessing both judicial and
+  executive authority, and had as their officers the <i>scír-geréfan</i> or
+  sheriffs. The ealdormen led the <i>fyrd</i> or armed force of the county,
+  and the ealdorman, as such, held possession of certain lands attached to
+  the office, and was entitled to a share of fines and other moneys levied
+  for the king's use and passing through his hands. The whole executive
+  government may be considered as a great aristocratical association, of
+  which the ealdormen were the <!-- Page 168 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page168"></a>[168]</span>members, and the king little more than the
+  president. The ealdorman and the king were both surrounded by a number of
+  followers called <i>thegnas</i> or thanes, who were bound by close ties
+  to their superior. The king's thanes were the higher in rank; they
+  possessed a certain quantity of land, smaller in amount than that of an
+  ealdorman, and they filled offices connected with the personal service of
+  the king or with the administration of justice. The <i>scir-geréfa</i>
+  (shire-reeve or sheriff) was also an important functionary. He presided
+  at the county court along with the ealdorman and bishop, or alone in
+  their absence; and he had to carry out the decisions of the court, levy
+  fines, collect taxes, &amp;c. The shires were divided into hundreds and
+  tithings, the latter consisting of ten heads of families, who were
+  jointly responsible to the State for the good conduct of any member of
+  their body. For the trial and settlement of minor causes there was a
+  hundred court held once a month. The place of the modern Parliament was
+  held by the <i>witena-gemót</i>. Its members, who were not elected,
+  comprised the æthelings or princes of the blood royal, the bishops and
+  abbots, the ealdormen, the thanes, the sheriffs, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the peculiar features of Anglo-Saxon society was the
+  <i>wergyld</i>, which was established for the settling of feuds. A sum,
+  paid either in kind or in money, was placed upon the life of every
+  freeman, according to his rank in the State, his birth, or his office. A
+  corresponding sum was settled for every wound that could be inflicted
+  upon his person; for nearly every injury that could be done to his civil
+  rights, his honour, or his domestic peace, &amp;c. From the operation of
+  this principle no one from king to peasant was exempt.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image060.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image060.jpg"
+      alt="Anglo-Saxon Ploughing" title="Anglo-Saxon Ploughing" /></a>
+    Ploughing<br />
+    From an Anglo-Saxon Calendar in the British Museum.
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Agriculture, including especially the raising of cattle, sheep, and
+  swine, was the chief occupation of the Anglo-Saxons. Gardens and orchards
+  are frequently mentioned, and vineyards were common in the southern
+  counties. The forests were extensive, and valuable both from the mast
+  they produced for the swine, and from the beasts of the chase which they
+  harboured. Hunting was a favourite recreation among the higher ranks,
+  both lay and clerical. Fishing was largely carried on, herrings and
+  salmon being the principal fish caught; and the Anglo-Saxon whaling
+  vessels used to go as far as Iceland. The manufactures were naturally of
+  small moment. Iron was made to some extent, and some cloth, and saltworks
+  were numerous. In embroidery and working of gold the English were famous
+  over Europe. There was a considerable trade at London, which was
+  frequented by Normans, French, Flemings, and the merchants of the Hanse
+  towns. Our Anglo-Saxon forefathers were notorious for their excess in
+  eating and drinking, and in this respect formed a strong contrast to
+  their Norman conquerors. Ale, mead, and cider were the common beverages,
+  wine being limited to the higher classes. Pork and eels were favourite
+  articles of food. The houses were rude structures, but were often richly
+  furnished and hung with fine tapestry. The dress of the people was loose
+  and flowing, composed chiefly of linen, and often adorned with
+  embroidery. The men wore their hair long and flowing over their
+  shoulders. Christianity was introduced among the Anglo-Saxons in the end
+  of the sixth century by St. Augustine, who was sent by Pope Gregory the
+  Great, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Kent, then under
+  King Ethelred, was the first place where it took root, and thence it soon
+  spread over the rest of the country. The Anglo-Saxon Church long remained
+  independent of Rome, notwithstanding the continual efforts of the Popes
+  to bring it under their power. It was not till the tenth century that
+  this result was brought about by Dunstan. Many Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastics
+  were distinguished for learning and ability, but the Venerable Bede holds
+  the first place.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Anglo-Saxon Language.</i>&mdash;The Anglo-Saxon language, which is
+  simply the earliest form of English, claims kinship with Dutch,
+  Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and German, especially with the Low German
+  dialects (spoken in North Germany). It was called by those who spoke it
+  <i>Englisc</i> (English). The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature
+  show different dialects, of which the northern and the southern were the
+  principal. The former was the first to be cultivated as a literary
+  language, but afterwards it was supplanted in this respect by the
+  southern or that of Wessex. It is in the latter that the principal
+  Anglo-Saxon works are written. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet was substantially
+  the same as that which we still use, except that some of the letters were
+  different in form, while it had two characters either of which
+  represented the sounds of <i>th</i> in <i>thy</i> and in <i>thing</i>.
+  Nouns and adjectives are declined much as in German or in Latin. The
+  pronouns of the first and second person had a dual number, 'we two' or
+  'us two' and 'you two', besides the plural for more than two. The <!--
+  Page 169 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page169"></a>[169]</span>infinitive of the verb is in <i>-an</i>,
+  the participle in <i>-ende</i>, and there is a gerund somewhat similar in
+  its usage to the Latin gerund. The verb had four moods&mdash;indicative,
+  subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, but only two tenses, the present
+  (often used as a future) and the past. Other tenses and the passive voice
+  were formed by auxiliary verbs. Anglo-Saxon words terminated in a vowel
+  much more frequently than the modern English, and altogether the language
+  is so different that it has to be learned quite like a foreign tongue.
+  Yet, notwithstanding the large number of words of Latin or French origin
+  that our language now contains, and the changes it has undergone, its
+  framework, so to speak, is still Anglo-Saxon. Many chapters of the New
+  Testament do not contain more than 4 per cent of non-Teutonic words, and
+  as a whole it averages perhaps 6 or 7.</p>
+
+  <p>The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in
+  prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period,
+  one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to
+  England. The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is the ancient epic of
+  <i>Beowulf</i>, extending to more than 6000 lines. Beowulf is a
+  Scandinavian prince, who slays a monster named Grendel, after
+  encountering supernatural perils, and is at last slain in a contest with
+  a frightful dragon. Its scene appears to be laid entirely in Scandinavia.
+  Its date is uncertain; parts of it may have been brought over at the
+  emigration from Germany, though in its present form it is much later than
+  this. The poetical remains include a number of religious poems, or poems
+  on sacred themes; ecclesiastical narratives, as lives of saints and
+  versified chronicles; psalms and hymns; secular lyrics; allegories,
+  gnomic poems, riddles, &amp;c. The religious class of poems was the
+  largest, and of these Cædmon's (flourished about 660) are the most
+  remarkable. His poems consist of paraphrases of considerable portions of
+  the Bible history, and treat of the creation, the temptation, the fall,
+  the exodus of the Israelites, the story of Daniel, the incarnation, and
+  the harrowing of hell, or release of the ransomed souls by Christ. Other
+  most interesting poems are those ascribed to Cynewulf, the <i>Christ</i>,
+  <i>Elene</i>, and <i>Juliana</i>, the subjects respectively being Christ,
+  the finding of the cross by the Empress Helena, and the life of Juliana.
+  Rhyme was not used in Anglo-Saxon poetry, alliteration being employed
+  instead, as in the older northern poetry generally. The style of the
+  poetry is highly elliptical, and it is full of harsh inversions and
+  obscure metaphors.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image061.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image061.jpg"
+      alt="Anglo-Saxon Brooch" title="Anglo-Saxon Brooch" /></a>
+    Anglo-Saxon Brooch
+
+    <p class="poem">Ornament on front (left) is formed by means of plates
+    of thin gold and wire, with bosses of ivory and red glass.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The Anglo-Saxon prose remains consist of translations of portions of
+  the Bible, homilies, philosophical writings, history, biography, laws,
+  leases, charters, popular treatises on science and medicine, grammars,
+  &amp;c. Many of these were translations from the Latin. The Anglo-Saxon
+  versions of the Gospels, next to the Moeso-Gothic, are the earliest
+  scriptural translations in any modern language. The Psalms are said to
+  have been translated by Bishop Aldhelm (died 709), and also under
+  Alfred's direction; and the <i>Gospel of St. John</i> by Bede; but it is
+  not known who were the authors of the extant versions. A translation of
+  the first seven books of the Bible is believed to have been the work of
+  Ælfric, who was Abbot of Ensham and lived about the beginning of the
+  eleventh century. We have also eighty homilies from his pen, several
+  theological treatises, a Latin grammar, &amp;c. King Alfred was a
+  diligent author, besides being a translator of Latin works. We have under
+  his name translations of Boethius' <i>De Consolatione Philosophiæ</i>,
+  the <i>Universal History</i> of Orosius, Bede's <i>Ecclesiastical
+  History</i>, the <i>Pastoral Care</i> of Gregory the Great, &amp;c. The
+  most valuable to us of the Anglo-Saxon prose writings is the <i>Saxon
+  Chronicle</i>, as it is called, a collection of annals recording
+  important events in the history of the country, and compiled in different
+  religious houses. Of this <i>Chronicle</i> there are seven MSS. in
+  existence, and the latest text comes down to 1154. A considerable body of
+  laws remains, as well as a large number of charters. The whole of the
+  literature has never yet been printed. For Anglo-Saxon history, see
+  <i>England</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: (History)
+  H.&nbsp;M. Chadwick, <i>The Origin of the English Nation</i> (Cambridge);
+  (Language) Sweet, <i>Anglo-Saxon Primer</i> and <i>Reader</i>;
+  (Literature) B. ten Brink, <i>Geschichte der Englischen Litteratur</i>;
+  Stopford A. Brooke, <i>English Literature, from the beginning to the
+  Norman Conquest</i>; Henry Morley, <i>English Writers</i> (vols. i and
+  ii).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anglo-Saxon Law.</b> Series of laws written in the vernacular, and
+  unique among Teutonic peoples, were issued from the seventh century
+  onwards by Æthelberht, Hlothhere, Eadric, and Withraed, Kings of Kent, by
+  Ine, King of Wessex, by Alfred, Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmund,
+  Edgar, Æthelred, and Canute, in <!-- Page 170 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page170"></a>[170]</span>addition to a number of important by-laws
+  and regulations of various kinds, which bear no king's name. We hear,
+  also, of laws issued by other kings which have been lost, and there must
+  have been a considerable body of traditional law which was never
+  committed to writing. What laws are extant, show us a society mainly
+  agricultural, divided by birth into a noble, a free peasant, and a
+  servile class. There was also a dependent class in Kent, intermediate
+  between the freeman and the slave. The strongest social ties were those
+  of the kindred, and the relationship between lord and man.</p>
+
+  <p>The laws were issued by the king and his councillors. Cases were
+  decided by the production of oaths which varied in value according to the
+  rank of the swearer, or by the several forms of the ordeal. No
+  distinction was made between civil and criminal law, and even homicide
+  could be atoned for by payment of a sum varying according to the social
+  status of the dead man. The object of the laws was to restrict private
+  vengeance, to prevent and punish theft (primarily of cattle), to stop
+  dishonest trading, to secure the persons and residences of the people, to
+  enforce the mutual obligations of relatives, and masters and men, to
+  provide adequate defence for the kingdom by means of garrisoned boroughs
+  and a well-armed mounted infantry, to protect the helpless, and to
+  safeguard the rights of the Church and its servants.</p>
+
+  <p>The early laws present considerable difficulty owing to their
+  antiquity. The laws of Æthelberht are the earliest records in the English
+  language, though, like many of the other laws, they are only preserved in
+  a MS. of the twelfth century. The standard edition is Liebermann's
+  <i>Gesetze der Angelsachsen</i> (Halle, A.&nbsp;S. Max Niemeyer).&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of
+  English Law</i>; H.&nbsp;M. Chadwick, <i>Studies in Anglo-Saxon
+  Institutions</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ango´la</b>, a Portuguese territory in Western Africa, south of the
+  Congo, extending from the sea to Rhodesia, and from about lat. 6° <span
+  class="scac">S.</span> to lat. 17° <span class="scac">S.</span> (area,
+  484,800 sq. miles; pop. 4,119,000). It is a country of varied features,
+  and its resources, as yet hardly known, are probably very great. The
+  province is rich in malachite, copper, iron, petroleum, and salt; rubber
+  supplies are becoming exhausted. The Coanza (Kwanza) is the largest
+  river. The capital is the seaport of Loanda; other ports are Benguella
+  (or Benguela) and Mossamedes. Three railways now run inland from these
+  places. It exports coffee, hides, gum, rubber, wax, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angola Pea</b> (<i>Caj&#x101;nus indicus</i>). See <i>Pigeon
+  Pea</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ango´niland</b>, a district of South Africa, lying to the west of
+  the southern half of Lake Nyassa, and partly in British Central Africa,
+  partly in Rhodesia. It is a plateau with an average height of 4000 feet,
+  the name being derived from the Angoni, a race of mixed Zulu blood, who
+  used to make murderous raids on their neighbours, and have given much
+  trouble to the missionaries and others.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ango´ra</b> (ancient, <b>Ancy´ra</b>), a town in Asia Minor, 215
+  miles <span class="scac">E.S.E.</span> of Constantinople, with
+  considerable remains of Byzantine architecture, and relics of earlier
+  times, both Greek and Roman, such as the remnants of the Monumentum
+  Ancyranum, raised in honour of the Emperor Augustus, and giving us much
+  valuable information about his public life and work. All the animals of
+  this region are long haired, especially the goats (see <i>Goat</i>),
+  sheep, and cats. This hair forms an important export as well as the
+  fabric called camlet here manufactured from it; other exports being
+  goats' skins, dye-stuffs, gums, honey and wax, &amp;c. A railway connects
+  it with Skutari. Pop. 32,000. In 1920 Kemal Pasha set up a National
+  Government at Angora, and refused to recognize the Treaty of Sèvres. A
+  treaty concluded with France was ratified by the Angora Government on
+  23rd Oct., 1921.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angostu´ra</b>, or <b>Ciudad Bolivar</b>, a city of Venezuela,
+  capital of the province of Bolivar, on the Orinoco, about 240 miles from
+  the sea, with governor's residence, a college, a handsome cathedral, and
+  a considerable trade, steamers and sailing-vessels ascending to the town.
+  Exports: gold, cotton, indigo, tobacco, coffee, cattle, &amp;c.; imports:
+  manufactured goods, wines, flour, &amp;c. Pop. 17,535.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angostura Bark</b>, the aromatic bitter medicinal bark obtained
+  chiefly from <i>Galip&#x113;a officin&#x101;lis</i>, a tree of 10 to 20
+  feet high, growing in the northern regions of South America; nat. ord.
+  Rutaceæ. The bark is valuable as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also used
+  for a kind of bitters. From this bark being adulterated, indeed sometimes
+  entirely replaced, by the poisonous bark of <i>Strychnos Nux-Vomica</i>,
+  its use as a medicine has been almost given up.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angoulême</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-gö-l&#x101;m), an ancient town of
+  Western France, capital of department Charente, on the Charente, 60 miles
+  <span class="scac">N.N.E.</span> of Bordeaux, on the summit of a rocky
+  hill. It has a fine old cathedral, built in the twelfth century and
+  restored in 1875, a beautiful modern town hall, built in 1858, a lyceum,
+  public library, natural history museum, &amp;c. There are manufactures of
+  paper, woollens, and linens; distilleries, sugar-works, tanneries,
+  &amp;c. Calvin lived here for three years (1527-30). Pop. 38,211.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angra do Heroismo</b>, the chief seaport of Terceira, one of the
+  Azores, with the only convenient harbour in the whole group. It has a
+  cathedral, a military college and arsenal, &amp;c., and is the residence
+  of the Governor-General of <!-- Page 171 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page171"></a>[171]</span>the Azores, and of the foreign consuls.
+  Pop. 10,057.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angra Pequena</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n´gra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span> pe-k&#x101;´na<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>; Port. 'little bay'), a bay on the coast
+  of former German S.W. Africa, where the Bremen commercial firm Lüderitz
+  in 1883 acquired a strip of territory and established a trading station.
+  In 1884, notwithstanding some weak protests of the British, Germany took
+  under her protection the whole coast territory from the Orange River to
+  26° <span class="scac">S.</span> lat., and soon after extended the
+  protectorate to the Portuguese frontier, but not including the British
+  settlement of Walvis Bay. Angra Pequena, called by the Germans
+  Lüderitzbucht, was captured by the South African forces in Sept., 1915.
+  See <i>South-West Africa</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angri</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n´gr&#x113;), a town of Southern Italy,
+  12 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> of Salerno, in the centre of a
+  region which produces grapes, cotton, and tobacco in great quantities. In
+  the vicinity of Angri, Teias, King of the Ostrogoths, was defeated by
+  Narses. Pop. 11,574.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anguilla</b> (an-gwil´la). See <i>Eel</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anguilla</b> (ang-gil´a), or <b>Snake Island</b>, one of the
+  British West India Islands, 60 miles <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of
+  St. Kitts; about 20 miles long, with a breadth varying from 3 to 1¼
+  miles; area, 35 sq. miles. A little sugar, cotton, tobacco, and maize is
+  grown. There is a saline lake in the centre, which yields salt. Pop.
+  4075, of whom 100 are white.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anguis</b> (ang´gwis). See <i>Blind-worm</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Angus</b> (ang´gus), a name of Forfarshire.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´halt</b>, formerly a duchy of North Germany, lying partly in the
+  plains of the Middle Elbe, and partly in the valleys and uplands of the
+  Lower Harz, and almost entirely surrounded by Prussia; area, 888 sq.
+  miles. All sorts of grain, wheat especially, are grown in abundance; also
+  flax, rape, potatoes, tobacco, hops, and fruit. Excellent cattle are
+  bred. The inhabitants are principally occupied in agriculture, though
+  there are some iron-works and manufactures of woollens, linens,
+  beet-sugar, tobacco, &amp;c. The dukes of Anhalt traced their origin to
+  Bernard (1170-1212), son of Albert the Bear. In time the family split up
+  into numerous branches, and the territory was afterwards held by three
+  dukes (Anhalt-Köthen, Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau). In 1863 the
+  Duke of Anhalt-Dessau became sole heir to the three duchies. The united
+  principality, incorporated in the German Empire, had one vote in the
+  Bundesrath and two in the Reichstag. The executive power, previous to the
+  changes resulting from the European War, was vested in the duke, and the
+  legislative in a Diet of thirty-six members. The reigning duke in 1918
+  was Eduard, who succeeded his brother on 21st April, 1918. With the
+  outbreak of the revolution in Germany in 1918 Anhalt became a republic,
+  but its status in the German Republic still remains to be determined.
+  Pop. (1919), 331,258, almost all Protestants. The chief towns are Dessau,
+  Bernburg, Köthen, and Zerbst.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´holt</b>, an island belonging to Denmark, in the Cattegat,
+  midway between Jutland and Sweden, 7 miles long, 4½ broad, largely
+  covered with drift-sand, and surrounded by dangerous banks and reefs.
+  Pop. 300.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anhy´dride</b>, a chemical term synonymous with acidic oxide (see
+  <i>Chemistry</i>) and applied to those oxides which unite with water to
+  form acids. They were formerly called <i>anhydrous acids</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anhy´drite</b>, anhydrous sulphate of calcium, a mineral presenting
+  several varieties of structure and colour. The <i>vulpinite</i> of Italy
+  possesses a granular structure, resembling a coarse-grained marble, and
+  is used in sculpture. Its colour is greyish-white, intermingled with
+  blue.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ani</b> (ä´n&#x113;), a ruined city in Armenia, formerly the
+  residence of the Armenian dynasty of the Bagratidæ, having in the
+  eleventh century a population of 100,000 and 1000 churches. In the
+  thirteenth century it was taken by the Tartars, and was destroyed by an
+  earthquake in 1319.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aniche</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-n&#x113;sh), a town or village in the
+  French department Nord, arrondissement Douai, with coal-mines,
+  glass-works, chemical-works, &amp;c. Pop. 6927.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aniene</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-n&#x113;-&#x101;´n&#x101;). See
+  <i>Anio</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´iline</b>, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>, is an
+  extremely important substance as it forms the starting-point in the
+  preparation of a large number of substances. It was first prepared by
+  Unverdorben, in 1826, by distillation of indigo. Aniline is present in
+  small quantity in coal-tar, and is prepared commercially from benzene by
+  transforming it by means of nitric acid into nitro-benzene and reducing
+  this with scrap-iron and hydrochloric acid. The substance can also be
+  prepared by reducing nitro-benzene electrolytically. It is a liquid of
+  peculiar odour, boiling at 182° C., colourless when quite pure, but
+  rapidly darkening in colour on standing, so that commercial aniline is
+  usually dark-brown. It is a basic substance, and forms crystalline salts
+  with acids. The salts, like aniline itself, become coloured on exposure
+  to air. Aniline contains the characteristic chemical group
+  NH<sub>2</sub>, the amino group, and substances containing this group
+  react with nitrous acid at 0° C., forming diazonium compounds; these
+  combine readily with phenols, naphthols, and other amino compounds to
+  form azo compounds, highly-coloured compounds many of which are dyes.
+  Many dyes are prepared from aniline, e.g. rosaniline, magenta, methylene
+  blue, aniline blue, &amp;c., also some explosives, e.g. tetranitraniline,
+  which is a powerful explosive prepared by nitrating aniline and the
+  substance tetranitromethylaniline, <!-- Page 172 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page172"></a>[172]</span>"tetryl", used in
+  detonators. Several medicinal substances are also prepared from aniline,
+  for instance, antifebrin and atoxyl.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´ilism</b>, aniline poisoning, a name given to the aggregate of
+  symptoms which often show themselves in those employed in aniline works,
+  resulting from the inhalation of aniline vapours. It may be either acute
+  or chronic. In a slight attack of the former kind, the lips, cheeks, and
+  ears become of a bluish colour, and the person's walk may be unsteady; in
+  severe cases there is loss of consciousness. Chronic anilism is
+  accompanied by derangement of the digestive organs and of the nervous
+  system, headaches, eruptions on the skin, muscular weakness, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Animal</b>, an organized and sentient living being. Life in the
+  earlier periods of natural history was attributed almost exclusively to
+  animals. With the progress of science, however, it was extended to
+  plants. In the case of the higher animals and plants there is no
+  difficulty in assigning the individual to one of the two great kingdoms
+  of organic nature, but in their lowest manifestations the vegetable and
+  animal kingdoms are brought into such immediate contact that it becomes
+  almost impossible to assign them precise limits, and to say with
+  certainty where the one begins and the other ends. From <i>form</i> no
+  absolute distinction can be fixed between animals and plants. Many
+  animals, such as the sea-shrubs, sea-mats, &amp;c., so resemble plants in
+  external appearance that they were, and even yet popularly are, looked
+  upon as such. With regard to <i>internal structure</i> no line of
+  demarcation can be laid down, all plants and animals being, in this
+  respect, fundamentally similar; that is, alike composed of molecular,
+  cellular, and fibrous tissues. Neither are the chemical characters of
+  animal and vegetable substances more distinct. Animals contain in their
+  tissues and fluids a larger proportion of nitrogen than plants, whilst
+  plants are richer in carbonaceous compounds than the former. In some
+  animals, moreover, substances almost exclusively confined to plants are
+  found. Thus the outer wall of the Sea-squirts contains <i>cellulose</i>,
+  a substance largely found in plant-tissues; whilst <i>chlorophyll</i>,
+  the colouring-matter of plants, occurs in Hydra and many other lower
+  animals. <i>Power of motion</i>, again, though broadly distinctive of
+  animals, cannot be said to be absolutely characteristic of them. Thus
+  many animals, as oysters, sponges, corals, &amp;c., in their mature
+  condition are rooted or fixed, while the embryos of many plants, together
+  with numerous fully-developed forms, are endowed with locomotive power by
+  means of vibratile, hair-like processes called cilia. The distinctive
+  points between animals and plants which are most to be relied on are
+  those derived from the <i>nature and mode of assimilation of the
+  food</i>. Plants feed on <i>inorganic matters</i>, consisting of water,
+  ammonia, carbonic acid, and mineral matters. They can only take in food
+  which is presented to them in a <i>liquid</i> or <i>gaseous</i> state.
+  The exceptions to these rules are found chiefly in the case of plants
+  which live <i>parasitically</i> on other plants or animals, in which
+  cases the plant may be said to feed on organic matters, represented by
+  the juices of their hosts. Animals, on the contrary, require
+  <i>organized</i> matters for food. They feed either upon plants or upon
+  other animals. But even carnivorous animals can be shown to be dependent
+  upon plants for subsistence; since the animals upon which Carnivora prey
+  are in their turn supported by plants. Animals, further, can subsist on
+  <i>solid</i> food in addition to liquids and gases; but many animals
+  (such as the Tapeworms) live by the mere imbibition of fluids which are
+  absorbed by their tissues, such forms possessing no distinct digestive
+  system. Animals require a due supply of <i>oxygen gas</i> for their
+  sustenance, this gas being used in respiration. Plants, on the contrary,
+  require <i>carbonic acid</i>. The animal exhales or gives out carbonic
+  acid as the part result of its tissue-waste, whilst the plant, taking in
+  this gas, is enabled to decompose it into its constituent carbon and
+  oxygen. The plant retains the former for the uses of its economy, and
+  liberates the oxygen, which is thus restored to the atmosphere for the
+  use of the animal. Animals receive their food into the interior of their
+  bodies, and assimilation takes place in their internal surfaces. Plants,
+  on the other hand, receive their food into their external surfaces, and
+  assimilation is effected in the external parts, as is exemplified in the
+  leaf-surfaces under the influence of sunlight. Cf. T.&nbsp;J. Parker and W.&nbsp;A.
+  Haswell, <i>Text-Book of Zoology</i>; <i>Cambridge Natural
+  History</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Animal Chemistry.</b> See <i>Chemistry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Animalcule</b> (an-i-mal´k&#x16B;l), a general name given to many
+  forms of animal life from their minute size. The larger examples are just
+  visible to the naked eye, but most of them are strictly <span
+  class="correction" title="Original reads `miscroscopic'."
+  >microscopic</span>. Some are pigmented, but the majority are colourless.
+  The term is not applicable to a particular zoological type, but it is
+  customary to confine it to the 'Protozoa', 'Rotifera', or 'Wheel
+  Animalcules'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Animal Heat.</b> All animals possess a certain amount of heat or
+  temperature which is necessary for the performance of vital action. The
+  only classes of animals in which a constantly-elevated temperature is
+  kept up are birds and mammals. The bodily heat of the former varies from
+  39.4° to 43.9° C., and of the latter from 35.5° to 40.5° C. The mean or
+  average heat of the human body is about 99° F., and it never falls much
+  below this in health. Below birds, animals are named 'cold-blooded', this
+  term meaning in its <!-- Page 173 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page173"></a>[173]</span>strictly-physiological sense that their
+  temperature is usually that of the medium in which they live, and that it
+  varies with that of the surrounding medium. The temperature of
+  'warm-blooded' animals is remarkably constant, although there are
+  individual variations. In man this variation is slight, amounting only to
+  fractions of a degree. The cause of the evolution of heat in the animal
+  body is referred to the union (by a process resembling ordinary
+  combustion) of the carbon and hydrogen of the system with the oxygen
+  taken in from the air in the process of respiration.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Animal Magnetism.</b> See <i>Hypnotism</i>, <i>Mesmer</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Animals, Cruelty to</b>, an offence against which societies have
+  been formed and laws passed in England and other countries. According to
+  English law, if any person shall cruelly beat, ill-treat, overdrive,
+  abuse, or torture any domestic animal, he shall forfeit a sum not
+  exceeding £5 for every such offence. Bull-baiting, cock-fighting, and the
+  like are also prohibited. Provision is also made for the punishment of
+  persons unlawfully and maliciously killing, maiming, or wounding cattle,
+  dogs, birds, beasts, and other animals.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Animal Worship</b>, a practice found to prevail, or to have
+  prevailed, in the most widely-distant parts of the world, both the Old
+  and the New, but nowhere to such an amazing extent as in ancient Egypt,
+  notwithstanding its high civilization. Nearly all the more important
+  animals found in the country were regarded as sacred in some part of
+  Egypt, and the degree of reverence paid to them was such that throughout
+  Egypt the killing of a hawk or an ibis, whether voluntary or not, was
+  punished with death. The worship, however, was not, except in a few
+  instances, paid to them as actual deities. The animals were merely
+  regarded as sacred to the deities, and the worship paid to them was
+  symbolical.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´ima Mun´di.</b> See <i>Pantheism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Animé</b> (an´i-me), a resin obtained from the trunk of an American
+  tree (<i>Hymenæa Courbaril</i>). It is of a transparent amber colour, has
+  a light, agreeable smell, and is soluble in alcohol. It strongly
+  resembles copal, and, like it, is used in making varnishes. See
+  <i>Copal</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´imism</b>, the system of medicine propounded by Stahl, and based
+  on the idea that the soul (<i>anima</i>) is the seat of life. In modern
+  usage the term is applied to express the general doctrine of souls and
+  other spiritual beings, and especially to the tendency, common among
+  savage races, to attribute souls or spirits to inanimate things, and to
+  explain phenomena not due to obvious natural causes by attributing them
+  to spiritual agency. Amongst the beliefs of animism is that of a human
+  apparitional soul, bearing the form and appearance of the body, and
+  living after death a sort of semi-human life.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir J.&nbsp;G. Frazer, <i>The Golden
+  Bough</i>; Andrew Lang, <i>Myth, Ritual, and Religion</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anio</b> (now <b>Ani&#x113;ne</b> or <b>Tever&#x14D;ne</b>), a
+  river in Italy, a tributary of the Tiber, which it enters from the east a
+  short distance above Rome, renowned for the natural beauties of the
+  valley through which it flows, and for the remains of ancient buildings
+  there situated, as the villas of Mæcenas and the Emperor Hadrian.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anise</b> (an´is; <i>Pimpinella An&#x12B;sum</i>), an annual plant
+  of the nat. ord. Umbelliferæ, a native of Eastern Asia, Egypt, and the
+  Mediterranean coasts, and cultivated in Spain, France, Italy, Malta,
+  &amp;c., whence the fruit, popularly called <i>aniseed</i>, is imported.
+  This fruit is ovate, with ten narrow ribs, between which are oil-vessels.
+  It has an aromatic smell, and is largely employed to flavour liqueurs
+  (aniseed or anisette), sweetmeats, &amp;c. <i>Star-anise</i> is the fruit
+  of an evergreen Asiatic tree (<i>Illicium anis&#x101;tum</i>), nat. ord.
+  Magnoliaceæ, and is brought chiefly from China. Its flavour is similar to
+  that of anise, and it is used for the same purposes. An essential oil is
+  obtained from both kinds of anise, and is used for scenting soaps and in
+  the preparation of cordials.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anjou</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-zhö), an ancient province of France, now
+  forming the department of Maine-et-Loire, and parts of the departments of
+  Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, and Sarthe; area, about 3000 sq. miles. In 1060
+  the province passed into the hands of the House of Gatinais, of which
+  sprang Count Godfrey V, who, in 1127, married Matilda, daughter of Henry
+  I of England, and so became the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings. Anjou
+  remained in the possession of the English kings up to 1204, when John
+  lost it to the French king Philip Augustus. In 1226 Louis VIII bestowed
+  this province on his brother Charles; but in 1328 it was reunited to the
+  French Crown. John I raised it to the rank of a duchy, and gave it to his
+  son Louis. Henceforth it remained separate from the French Crown till
+  1480, when it fell to Louis XI.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ankarström</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n´ka<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-streum), Jan Jakob, the murderer of
+  Gustavus III of Sweden, was born about 1762, and was at first a page in
+  the Swedish Court, afterwards an officer in the royal bodyguard. He was a
+  strenuous opponent of the sovereign's measures to restrict the privileges
+  of the nobility, and joined Counts Horn and Ribbing in a plot to
+  assassinate Gustavus. The assassination took place on 15th March, 1792.
+  Ankarström was tried, tortured, and executed in April, dying boasting of
+  his deed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anker</b>, an obsolete measure used in Britain for spirits, beer,
+  &amp;c., containing 8½ imperial gallons. A measure of similar capacity
+  was used in Germany and elsewhere in Europe. <!-- Page 174 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page174"></a>[174]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>An´klam</b>, a town in Prussia, province of Pomerania, 47 miles
+  north-west of Stettin, on the River Peene, which is here navigable.
+  Shipbuilding, woollen and cotton manufactures, soap-boiling, tanning,
+  &amp;c., are carried on. Pop. 15,280.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anko´bar</b>, or <b>Anko´ber</b>, a town in Abyssinia, former
+  capital of Shoa, on a steep conical hill 8200 feet high. Pop. 2000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ankylo´sis</b>, or <b>Anchylo´sis</b>, stiffness of the joints
+  caused by a more or less complete coalescence of the bones through
+  ossification, often the result of inflammation or injury. False ankylosis
+  is stiffness of a joint when the disease is not in the joint itself, but
+  in the tendinous and muscular parts by which it is surrounded.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ankylostomi´asis</b>, a 'worm disease' to which miners are subject
+  in some localities, is caused by vast numbers of small parasitic worms
+  (<i>Ankylostoma</i> or <i>Anchylostoma duodenale</i>) in the duodenum or
+  upper portions of the intestinal canal. Deriving their sustenance from
+  the system, these worms produce anæmia or bloodlessness (that is,
+  deficiency of the red corpuscles of the blood), the sufferers being
+  pallid, feeble, short-breathed, liable to faint, and unequal to any
+  laborious work, and death may result if a cure is not effected.
+  Fortunately the disease is not difficult to cure if the remedies are
+  applied&mdash;remedies such as will expel the worms from the intestine.
+  The disease is said to be common in tropical and sub-tropical countries
+  all over the world. In Europe it was perhaps first observed in 1879 in
+  the case of workmen engaged in excavating the St. Gothard tunnel. Since
+  1896 it has been well known in some of the German mines; and in 1903 it
+  was detected among the miners engaged in the Dolcoath mine in Cornwall.
+  The eggs of the worms are carried from the body with the fæces; under
+  favourable circumstances they develop into larvæ, which may gain entrance
+  again into the human body by the mouth (perhaps in drinking-water), to
+  attain full development in the intestine. Careful sanitary arrangements
+  are a preventive of the disease, which is also known as 'miner's worm',
+  'miner's anæmia', &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ann</b>, or <b>Annat</b>, in Scottish law, the half-year's stipend
+  of a living, after the death of the clergyman, payable to his family or
+  next of kin. The right to the ann is not vested in the clergyman himself,
+  but in his representatives; and, accordingly, it can neither be disposed
+  of by him nor attached for his debts.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anna</b>, an Anglo-Indian money of account, the sixteenth part of a
+  rupee, and of the value of one penny; it is divided into four pice.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´naberg</b>, a town in Saxony, 47 miles south-west of Dresden.
+  Mining (for silver, cobalt, iron, &amp;c.) is carried on, and there are
+  manufactures of lace, ribbons, fringes, buttons, &amp;c. Pop. 17,025.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anna Comne´na</b>, daughter of Alexius I, Comnenus, Byzantine
+  emperor. She was born 1083, and died 1148. After her father's death she
+  endeavoured to secure the succession for her husband, Nicephorus
+  Briennius, but was baffled by his want of energy and ambition. She wrote
+  (in Greek) a life of her father Alexius (<i>The Alexiad</i>, a work in
+  fifteen books). She is a character in Sir Walter Scott's <i>Count Robert
+  of Paris</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anna Ivanov´na</b>, Empress of Russia, born in 1693, the daughter
+  of Ivan, the elder half-brother of Peter the Great. She was married in
+  1710 to the Duke of Courland, in the following year was left a widow, and
+  in 1730 ascended the throne of the tsars on the condition proposed by the
+  senate, that she would limit the absolute power of the tsars, and do
+  nothing without the advice of the council composed of the leading members
+  of the Russian aristocracy. But no sooner had she ascended the throne
+  than she declared her promise null, and proclaimed herself autocrat of
+  all the Russias. She chose as her favourite Ernest John von Biren or
+  Biron, who was soon all-powerful in Russia, and ruled with great
+  severity. Several of the leading nobles were executed, and many thousand
+  men exiled to Siberia. In 1737 Anna forced the Courlanders to choose
+  Biren as their duke, and nominated him at her death regent of the empire
+  during the minority of Prince Ivan (of Brunswick). Anna died in 1740. See
+  <i>Biren</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´nals</b>, a history of events in chronological order, each event
+  being recorded under the year in which it occurred. The name is derived
+  from the first annual records of the Romans, which were called
+  <i>ann&#x101;les pontificum</i> or <i>ann&#x101;les max&#x12D;mi</i>,
+  drawn up by the <i>pontifex maximus</i> (chief pontiff). The practice of
+  keeping such annals was afterwards adopted also by various private
+  individuals, as by Fabius Pictor, Calpurnius Piso, and others. The name
+  hence came to be applied in later times to historical works in which the
+  matter was treated with special reference to chronological arrangement,
+  as to the <i>Annals</i> of Tacitus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annam´</b>, a country of Asia occupying the east side of the
+  South-eastern or Indo-Chinese Peninsula, along the China Sea. It
+  comprises Tonquin in the north, Annam (in a narrower sense), and
+  Cochin-China farther south; with the inland territory of the Laos tribes:
+  together, area, 170,000 sq. miles; pop. 15,000,000, 9,000,000 being in
+  Tonquin. In the narrow sense Annam now denotes the country between
+  Tonquin and French Cochin-China, under the nominal rule of a native king
+  (the present ruler, Khai-Dinh, succeeded to the throne in 1916). Annam
+  has an <!-- Page 175 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page175"></a>[175]</span>area of 52,100 sq. miles. Pop. (1919),
+  5,952,000, including 2117 Europeans. The coast is considerably indented,
+  especially at the mouths of the rivers, where it affords many commodious
+  harbours. Tonquin is mountainous on the north, but in the east is nearly
+  level, terminating towards the sea in an alluvial plain yielding good
+  crops of rice, cotton, fruits, ginger, and spices, and a great variety of
+  varnish trees, palms, &amp;c. The principal river is the Song-ka, which
+  has numerous tributaries, many of them being joined together by canals,
+  both for irrigation and commerce. Tonquin is rich in gold, silver,
+  copper, and iron. Annam (in the narrow sense) is, generally speaking,
+  unproductive, but contains many fertile spots, in which grain, leguminous
+  plants, sugar-cane, cinnamon, &amp;c., are produced in great abundance.
+  Agriculture is the chief occupation, but many of the inhabitants are
+  engaged in the spinning and weaving of cotton and silk into coarse
+  fabrics, the preparation of varnish, iron-smelting, and the construction
+  of ships or junks. The inhabitants are said to be the ugliest of the
+  Mongoloid races of the peninsula, being under the middle size and less
+  robust than the surrounding peoples. Their language is monosyllabic, and
+  is connected with the Chinese. The religion of the majority is Buddhism,
+  but the educated classes hold the doctrines of Confucius. The principal
+  towns are Hanoi, the capital of Tonquin, and Huë, the capital of the
+  kingdom and formerly of the whole empire. Annam was conquered by the
+  Chinese in 214 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, but in <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 1428 it completely won its independence. The
+  French began to interfere actively in its affairs in 1847 on the plea of
+  protecting the native Christians. By the treaties of 1862 and 1867 they
+  obtained the southern and most productive part of Cochin-China,
+  subsequently known as French Cochin-China; and in 1874 they obtained
+  large powers over Tonquin, notwithstanding the protests of the Chinese.
+  Finally, in 1883, Tonquin was ceded to France, and next year Annam was
+  declared a French protectorate. After a short period of hostilities with
+  China the latter recognized the French claims, and Tonquin is now a
+  French colony, while the kingdom of Annam is, since 1886, entirely under
+  French direction. Cf. F.&nbsp;R. Eberhardt, <i>Guide de l' Annam</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annamaboe</b> (-b&#x14D;´), a seaport in Western Africa, on the
+  Gold Coast, 10 miles east of Cape Coast Castle, with some trade in
+  gold-dust, ivory, palm-oil, &amp;c. Pop. about 5000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´nan</b>, a royal and police burgh in Scotland, on the Annan, a
+  little above its entrance into the Solway Firth, one of the Dumfries
+  district of burghs. Pop. 3928.&mdash;The River <i>Annan</i> is a stream
+  40 miles long running through the central division of Dumfriesshire, to
+  which it gives the name of <i>Annandale</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annap´olis</b>, the capital of Maryland, United States, on the
+  Severn, near its mouth in Chesapeake Bay. It contains a college (St.
+  John's), a state-house, and the United States Naval Academy. Pop. (1920),
+  11,214.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annap´olis</b>, a small town in Nova Scotia, on an inlet of the Bay
+  of Fundy, with an important traffic by railway and steamboat. It is one
+  of the oldest European settlements in America, dating from 1604.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ann Arbor</b>, a town of Michigan, United States, on the Huron
+  River, about 40 miles west of Detroit; the seat of the State university.
+  It has flour-mills, and it manufactures woollens, iron, and agricultural
+  implements. Pop. 19,516.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annates</b> (an´n&#x101;ts), a year's income claimed for many
+  centuries by the Pope on the death of any bishop, abbot, or parish
+  priest, to be paid by his successor. In England they were at first paid
+  to the Archbishop of Canterbury, but were afterwards appropriated by the
+  Popes. In 1532 the Parliament gave them to the Crown; but in 1703 Queen
+  Anne restored them to the Church by applying them to the augmentation of
+  poor livings. See <i>Queen Anne's Bounty</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image062.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image062.jpg"
+      alt="Annatto" title="Annatto" /></a>
+    Annatto (<i>Bixa Orell&#x101;na</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Annat´to</b>, or <b>Annato</b>, an orange-red colouring matter,
+  obtained from the pulp surrounding the seeds of <i>Bixa
+  Orell&#x101;na</i>, a shrub native to tropical America, and cultivated in
+  Guiana, St. Domingo, and the East Indies. It is sometimes used as a dye
+  for silk and cotton goods, though it does not produce a very durable
+  colour, but it is much used in medicine for tinging plasters and
+  ointments, and to a considerable extent by farmers for giving a rich
+  colour to milk, butter, and cheese. The colour given by annatto
+  approaches very <!-- Page 176 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page176"></a>[176]</span>nearly the natural colouring matter of
+  milk fat. It is guaranteed to preserve the same colour throughout the
+  year, and is considered to be a legitimate colouring matter.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anne</b>, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland was born at
+  Twickenham, near London, 6th Feb., 1664. She was the second daughter of
+  James II, then Duke of York, and Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of
+  Clarendon. With her father's permission she was educated according to the
+  principles of the English Church. In 1683 she was married to Prince
+  George, brother of King Christian V of Denmark. On the arrival of the
+  Prince of Orange in 1688, Anne wished to remain with her father; but she
+  was prevailed upon by Lord Churchill (afterwards Duke of Marlborough) and
+  his wife to join the triumphant party. After the death of William III in
+  1702 she ascended the English throne. Her character was essentially weak,
+  and she was governed first by Marlborough and his wife, and afterwards by
+  Mrs. Masham. Most of the principal events of her reign are connected with
+  the war of the Spanish Succession. The only important acquisition that
+  England made by it was Gibraltar, which was captured in 1704. Another
+  very important event of this reign was the union of England and Scotland
+  under the name of Great Britain, which was accomplished in 1707. Anne
+  seems to have long cherished the wish of securing the succession to her
+  brother James, but this was frustrated by the internal dissensions of the
+  cabinet. Grieved at the disappointment of her secret wishes, she fell
+  into a state of weakness and lethargy, and died, 20th July, 1714. The
+  reign of Anne was distinguished not only by the brilliant successes of
+  the British arms, but also on account of the number of admirable and
+  excellent writers who flourished at this time, among whom were Pope,
+  Swift, and Addison. Anne bore her husband many children, all of whom died
+  in infancy, except one son, the Duke of Gloucester, who died at the age
+  of twelve.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anne</b> (of Austria), daughter of Philip III of Spain, was born at
+  Madrid in 1602, and in 1615 was married to Louis XIII of France.
+  Richelieu, fearing the influence of her foreign connections, did
+  everything he could to humble her. In 1643 her husband died, and she was
+  left regent, but placed under the control of a council. But the
+  Parliament overthrew this arrangement, and entrusted her with full
+  sovereign rights during the minority of her son Louis XIV. Having brought
+  upon herself the hatred of the nobles by her boundless confidence in
+  Cardinal Mazarin, she was forced to flee from Paris during the wars of
+  the Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposition, and was able in 1661
+  to transmit to her son unimpaired the royal authority. She spent the
+  remainder of her life in retirement, and died 20th Jan., 1666.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annealing</b> (an-&#x113;l´ing), a process to which many articles
+  of metal and glass are subjected after making, in order to render them
+  more tenacious and which consists in heating them and allowing them to
+  cool slowly. When the metals are worked by the hammer, or rolled into
+  plates, or drawn into wire, they acquire a certain amount of brittleness,
+  which destroys their usefulness, and has to be remedied by annealing. The
+  tempering of steel is one kind of annealing. Annealing is particularly
+  employed in glass-houses, and consists in putting the glass vessels, as
+  soon as they are formed and while they are yet hot, into a furnace or
+  oven, in which they are suffered to cool gradually. The toughness is
+  greatly increased by cooling the articles in oil.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annecy</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-s&#x113;), an ancient town in France,
+  department of Haute-Savoie, situated on the Lake of Annecy, 21 miles s.
+  of Geneva; contains a cathedral and a ruinous old castle once the
+  residence of the counts of Genevois; manufactures of cotton, leather,
+  paper, and hardware. Pop. 15,622.&mdash;The lake is about 9 miles long
+  and 2 broad.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image063.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image063.jpg"
+      alt="Lobworm" title="Lobworm" /></a>
+    Lobworm (one of the Annelida)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Annel´ida</b>, or <b>Annulata</b>, an extensive division or class
+  of Annulosa or articulate animals, so called because their bodies are
+  formed of a great number of small rings, the outward signs of internal
+  segmentation. The earth-worm, the lobworm, the nereis, and the leech
+  belong to this division. They have red, rarely yellow or green, blood
+  circulating in a double system of contractile vessels, a double
+  ganglionated nervous cord, and respire by external branchiæ, internal
+  vesicles, or by the skin. Their organs of motion consist of bristles or
+  <i>setæ</i>, which are usually attached to the lateral surfaces of each
+  segment, the bristles being borne on 'foot processes' or
+  <i>parapodia</i>. The number of body segments varies. As many as 400 may
+  be found in some sea-worms. A complete digestive system is developed,
+  consisting of a mouth&mdash;armed with horny jaws and a protrusible
+  proboscis&mdash;gizzard, stomach, and intestine. See <i>Earth-worm</i>,
+  <i>Leech</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annexation</b>, a term applied to the acquisition by a State of
+  territory previously belonging to another Power, or independent. It is
+  applicable not only to the extension of a State's sovereignty <!-- Page
+  177 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page177"></a>[177]</span>over
+  adjoining territory, but also to an acquisition of a remote territory.
+  The inhabitants of the annexed territory are absolved from their
+  allegiance to their former sovereign. Such annexations in modern history
+  were those of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany in 1871, of California by the
+  United States, of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, and of the
+  Boer Republics by Great Britain.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annfield Plain</b>, a straggling colliery town (urban district) of
+  England, Durham, about 7 miles south-west of Gateshead. Pop. (1921),
+  16,524.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annobon´</b>, or <b>Annobom</b>, a beautiful Spanish island of
+  Western Africa, south of the Bight of Biafra, about 4 miles long by 2
+  miles broad, and rising abruptly to the height of 3000 feet, richly
+  covered with vegetation. Pop. 2000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annonay</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-o-n&#x101;), a town in southern France,
+  department of Ardèche, 37 miles <span class="scac">S.S.W.</span> of
+  Lyons, in a picturesque situation. It is the most important town of
+  Ardèche, manufacturing paper and glove leather to a large extent, also
+  cloth, felt, silk stuffs, gloves, hosiery, chemical manures, glue,
+  gelatine, brushes, chocolate, and candles. There is an obelisk in memory
+  of Joseph Montgolfier of balloon fame. Pop. 16,660.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´nual</b>, in botany, a plant that springs from seed, grows up,
+  produces seed, and then dies, all within a single year or season. Among
+  annual grasses may be noted all our cereals, barley, wheat, rye, and
+  oats.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´nual</b>, in literature, the name given to a class of
+  publications which at one time enjoyed an immense yearly circulation, and
+  were distinguished by great magnificence both of binding and
+  illustration, which rendered them much sought after as Christmas and New
+  Year presents. Their contents were chiefly prose tales and ballads,
+  lyrics, and other poetry. The earliest was the <i>Forget-me-not</i>,
+  started in 1822, and followed next year by the <i>Friendship's
+  Offering</i>. The <i>Literary Souvenir</i> was commenced in 1824, and the
+  <i>Keepsake</i> in 1827. Among the names of the editors occur those of
+  Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. S.&nbsp;C. Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessington,
+  Mary Howitt, &amp;c. The popularity of the annuals reached its zenith
+  about 1829, when no less than seventeen made their appearance; in 1856
+  the <i>Keepsake</i>, the last of the series, ceased to exist.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annual Register</b>, an English publication commenced in 1758 by
+  Dodsley, the publisher, and since continued in yearly volumes down to the
+  present day. There was also an <i>Edinburgh Annual Register</i>, the
+  historical part of which was for several years contributed by Sir Walter
+  Scott and afterwards by Robert Southey. It commenced in 1808 and came to
+  a close in 1827.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annu´ity</b>, a periodical payment, made annually, or at more
+  frequent intervals, and continuing either a certain number of years, or
+  for an uncertain period, to be determined by a particular event, as the
+  death of the recipient or annuitant, or that of the party liable to pay
+  the annuity; or the annuity may be perpetual. An annuity is usually
+  raised by the present payment of a certain sum as a consideration whereby
+  the party making the payment, or some other person named by him, becomes
+  entitled to an annuity, and the rules and principles by which this
+  present value is to be computed have been the subjects of careful
+  investigation. The present value of a perpetual annuity is evidently a
+  sum of money that will yield an interest equal to the annuity, and
+  payable at the same periods; and an annuity of this description, payable
+  quarterly, will evidently be of greater value than one of the same amount
+  payable annually, since the annuitant has the additional advantage of the
+  interest on three of the quarterly payments until the expiration of the
+  year. In other words, it requires a greater present capital to be put at
+  interest to yield a given sum per annum, payable quarterly, than to yield
+  the same annual sum payable at the end of each year. The present value of
+  an annuity for a limited period is a sum which, if put at interest, will
+  at the end of that period give an amount equal to the sum of all the
+  payments of the annuity and interest; and, accordingly, if it be proposed
+  to invest a certain sum of money in the purchase of an annuity for a
+  given number of years, the comparative value of the two may be precisely
+  estimated, the rate of interest being given. But annuities for uncertain
+  periods, and particularly life annuities, are more frequent, and the
+  value of the annuity is computed according to the probable duration of
+  the life by which it is limited. Such annuities are often created by
+  contract, whereby the Government or a private annuity office agrees, for
+  a certain sum advanced by the purchaser, to pay a certain sum in yearly,
+  quarterly, or other periodical payments to the person advancing the
+  money, or to some other named by him, during the life of the annuitant.
+  Or the annuity may be granted to the annuitant during the life of some
+  other person, or during two or more joint lives, or during the life of
+  the longest liver or survivor among a number of persons named. If a
+  person having a certain capital, and intending to spend this capital and
+  the income of it during his own life, could know precisely how long he
+  should live, he might lend his capital at a certain rate during his life,
+  and by taking every year, besides the interest, a certain amount of the
+  capital, he might secure the same annual amount for his support during
+  his life in such manner that he should have the same sum to spend every
+  year, and consume precisely his whole capital during his life. But since
+  he does not know how long <!-- Page 178 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page178"></a>[178]</span>he is to live, he agrees with the
+  Government or an annuity office to take the risk of the duration of his
+  life, and they agree to pay him a certain annuity for life in exchange
+  for the capital which he proposes to invest in this way. The probable
+  duration of his life therefore becomes a subject of computation; and for
+  the purpose of making this calculation tables of longevity are made by
+  noting the proportion of deaths at certain ages in the same country or
+  district. Founding on a comparison of many such tables, the British
+  Government has empowered the Postmaster-General to grant annuities at the
+  following rates, which are probably more closely adjusted to their actual
+  value than those of insurance companies and other dealers in annuities:
+  To secure an immediate annuity of £100, the cost is, for males of 20
+  years, £2279, 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>; for females of same age, £2482,
+  10<i>s.</i>; for males of 30 years, £2045, 8<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>, for
+  females, £2258, <i>6s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; for males of 40 years, £1789,
+  6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; for females, £1990; for males of 60, £1148,
+  6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; females, £1275, 8<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>; and so on.
+  <i>Deferred</i> annuities, that is, such as have their first payments
+  postponed for a greater or less number of years, are also granted. We
+  give the rates for an annuity of £100 deferred 20 years: Males aged 20,
+  £848, 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; females, £1014, 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>;
+  males aged 35, £557, 1<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; females, £697, 1<i>s.</i>
+  8<i>d.</i>; and so on. If a person on whose life the deferred annuity is
+  to depend should die before payment commences, the purchase-money may be
+  returned to his or her representatives, provided that an agreement to
+  that effect had been made in the first instance, but in this case the
+  purchase-money is necessarily higher. See <i>Insurance</i>.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Baily, <i>Life Annuities and
+  Assurances</i>; J. Henry, <i>Government Life Annuity Commutation
+  Tables</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annuloi´da</b>, one of Professor Huxley's eight primary groups, a
+  division (sub-kingdom) of animals, including the Rotifera, Scolecida
+  (tape-worms, &amp;c.), all which are more or less ring-like in
+  appearance, and the Echinodermata, whose embryos show traces of
+  annulation.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annulo´sa</b>, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals regarded by some
+  as synonymous with the Arthropoda or Articulata; according to other
+  systematists, including both the Articulata and Annulata or worms.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annunciation</b>, the declaration of the angel Gabriel to the
+  Virgin Mary informing her that she was to become the mother of our
+  Lord.&mdash;<i>Annunciation</i> or <i>Lady Day</i> is a feast of the
+  Church in honour of the annunciation, celebrated on the 25th of
+  March.&mdash;The Italian order of <i>Knights of the Annunciation</i> was
+  instituted by Amadeus VI, Duke of Savoy, in 1360. The king is always
+  grand-master. The knights must be of high rank, and must already be
+  members of the order of St. Mauritius and St. Lazarus. The decoration of
+  the order consists of a golden shield suspended from a chain or collar of
+  roses and knots, the letters F.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;T. being inscribed on the roses,
+  and standing for <i>Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit</i> (its bravery held
+  Rhodes).&mdash;There are two orders of <i>nuns of the Annunciation</i>,
+  one originally French, founded in 1501 by Joanna of Valois; the other
+  Italian, founded in 1604 by Maria Vittoria Fornari of Genoa.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Annunzio</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-nu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>nt´sy&#x14D;), Gabriele d', Italian poet,
+  novelist, and dramatist, born at Pescara in 1863, his patronymic being
+  Rapagnetta. He was educated at Prato and in Rome, and early took to
+  literature and journalism. In 1898 he was elected a member of the Italian
+  Chamber of Deputies, in which he joined the Socialist party. He came
+  before the public when a schoolboy with a volume of verse called <i>Primo
+  Vere</i>, to which others&mdash;naturally much more mature&mdash;were
+  subsequently added. Several of his novels have been published in English,
+  as: <i>The Child of Pleasure</i>, <i>The Victim</i>, <i>The Triumph of
+  Death</i>, <i>The Virgin of the Rocks</i>, <i>The Fire of Life</i>. Some
+  of these have been very successful, though disfigured to some extent by
+  coarse realism and voluptuousness. He began to write plays later in life.
+  Among them <i>Gioconda</i>, <i>The Dead City</i>, and <i>Francesca da
+  Rimini</i> may be read in English versions, and <i>Gioconda</i> and
+  <i>Francesca</i> have been performed on the English stage. His more
+  recent works include: <i>Le Martyr de Saint Sebastien</i> (1911), <i>Le
+  Chèvrefeuille</i> (1914), <i>La Beffa di Buccari</i> (1918),
+  <i>Notturno</i> (1918). D'Annunzio is the most prominent Italian writer
+  of the present day, and in wealth of language and distinction of style
+  stands far ahead of all others. He served in the European War from
+  1915-18, and was wounded. In Sept., 1919, he led a raid and occupied the
+  port of Fiume. See <i>European War</i> and <i>Fiume</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´oa</b>, an animal (<i>Anoa depressicornis</i>) closely allied to
+  the buffalo, about the size of an average sheep, very wild and fierce,
+  inhabiting the rocky and mountainous localities of the Island of Celebes.
+  The horns are straight, thick at the root, and set nearly in a line with
+  the forehead.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ano´bium</b>, a genus of coleopterous insects, the larvae of which
+  often do much damage by their boring into old wood. By means of their
+  heads they produce a loud, ticking sound in the wood, the so-called
+  <i>death-watch</i> ticking. <i>A. stri&#x101;tum</i>, a common species,
+  when frightened, is much given to feigning death.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´ode</b>, (Gr. <i>ana</i>, up, <i>hodos</i>, way), the positive
+  pole of the voltaic current, being that part of the surface of a
+  decomposing body which the electric current enters: opposed to
+  <i>cathode</i> (Gr. <i>kata</i>, down, <i>hodos</i>, way), the way by
+  which it departs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´odon</b>, or <b>Anodon´ta</b>, a genus of <!-- Page 179 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page179"></a>[179]</span>lamellibranchiate
+  bivalves, including the fresh-water mussels, without or with very slight
+  hinge-teeth. See <i>Mussel</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´odyne</b>, a medicine, such as an opiate or narcotic, which
+  allays pain.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anointing</b>, rubbing the body or some part of it with oil, often
+  perfumed. From time immemorial the nations of the East have been in the
+  habit of anointing themselves for the sake of health and beauty. The
+  Greeks and Romans anointed themselves after the bath. Wrestlers anointed
+  themselves in order to render it more difficult for their antagonists to
+  get hold of them. In Egypt it was common to anoint the head of guests
+  when they entered the house where they were to be entertained. In the
+  Mosaic law a sacred character was attached to the anointing of the
+  garments of the priests, and things belonging to the ceremonial of
+  worship. The Jewish priests and kings were anointed when inducted into
+  office, and were called the <i>anointed of the Lord</i>, to show that
+  their persons were sacred and their office from God. In the Old Testament
+  also the prophecies respecting the Redeemer style him <i>Messias</i>,
+  that is, the <i>Anointed</i>, which is also the meaning of his Greek name
+  Christ. The custom of anointing still exists in the Roman Catholic Church
+  in the ordination of priests and the confirmation of believers and the
+  sacrament of extreme unction. The ceremony is also frequently a part of
+  the coronation of kings.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:29%;">
+      <a href="images/image064.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image064.jpg"
+      alt="Anomalure" title="Anomalure" /></a>
+    Anomalure (<i>Anomalurus Peli</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Anom´alure</b> (<i>Anomal&#x16B;rus</i>), a genus of rodent animals
+  inhabiting the west coast of Africa, resembling the flying-squirrels, but
+  having the under surface of the tail furnished for some distance from the
+  root with a series of large horny scales, which, when pressed against the
+  trunk of a tree, may subserve the same purpose as those instruments with
+  which a man climbs up a telegraph pole to set the wires.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anom´aly</b>, a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy, the
+  angle which a line drawn from a planet to the sun has passed through
+  since the planet was last at its perihelion or nearest distance to the
+  sun. The <i>anomalistic year</i> is the interval between two successive
+  times at which the earth is in perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 minutes
+  48 seconds. In consequence of the advance of the earth's perihelion among
+  the stars in the same direction as the earth's motion, and of the
+  precession of the equinoxes, which carries the equinoxes back in the
+  opposite direction to the earth's motion, the anomalistic year is about 4
+  minutes 40 seconds longer than the sidereal year, and about 25 minutes
+  longer than the tropical or common year. The time of a complete
+  revolution of the perihelion is computed at 108,000 years.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anomu´ra</b>, a section of the crustaceans of the ord. Decapoda,
+  with irregular tails not formed to assist in swimming, including the
+  hermit-crabs and others.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/image065.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image065.jpg"
+      alt="Anona" title="Anona" /></a>
+    Anona or Sour-sop (<i>An&#x14D;na muric&#x101;ta</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ano´na</b>, a genus of plants, the type of the nat. ord. Anonaceæ.
+  <i>A. squam&#x14D;sa</i> (sweet-sop) grows in the West Indian Islands,
+  and yields an edible fruit having a thick, sweet, luscious pulp. <i>A.
+  muric&#x101;ta</i> (sour-sop) is cultivated in the West and East Indies;
+  it produces a large pear-shaped fruit, of a greenish colour, containing
+  an agreeable slightly-acid pulp. The genus produces other edible fruits,
+  as the common custard-apple or bullock's heart, from <i>A.
+  reticul&#x101;ta</i>, and the cherimoyer of Peru, from <i>A.
+  Cherimolia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anona´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of trees and shrubs, having simple,
+  alternate leaves, destitute of stipules, by which character they are
+  distinguished from the Magnoliaceæ, to which they are otherwise closely
+  allied. They are mostly tropical plants of the Old and the New World, and
+  are generally aromatic. See <i>Anona</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anoplothe´rium</b>, an extinct genus of the Ungulata or Hoofed
+  Quadrupeds, forming the type of a distinct family, which were in many
+  respects intermediate between the swine and the true ruminants. These
+  animals were pig-like in form, but possessed long tails, and had a cleft
+  hoof, with two rudimentary toes. Some of them were as small as a
+  guinea-pig, others as large as an ass. Six incisors, two canines, eight
+  premolars, and six molars existed in each jaw, the series being
+  continuous, no interval existing in the jaw. <i>A. comm&#x16B;ne</i>,
+  from the Eocene rocks, is a familiar species.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anoplu´ra</b>, an order of apterous insects, of which the type is
+  the genus Pedic&#x16D;lus or louse, <!-- Page 180 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page180"></a>[180]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Anopshehr.</b> See <i>Anupshahr</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anorexia.</b> See <i>Appetite</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anos´mia</b>, a disease consisting in a diminution or destruction
+  of the power of smelling, sometimes constitutional, but most frequently
+  caused by strong and repeated stimulants, as snuff, applied to the
+  olfactory nerves.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anoura.</b> See <i>Anura</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anquetil-Duperron</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>nk-t&#x113;l-du<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-p&#x101;-ron<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Abraham Hyacinthe, a French
+  orientalist, born 1731, died 1805. He studied theology for some time, but
+  soon devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian. His
+  zeal for the Oriental languages induced him to set out for India, where
+  he prevailed on some of the Parsee priests to instruct him in the Zend
+  and Pehlevi and to give him some of the Zoroastrian books. In 1762 he
+  returned to France with a valuable collection of MSS. In 1771 he
+  published his <i>Zend-Avesta</i>, a translation of the <i>Vendidad</i>,
+  and other sacred books, which aroused much interest. Among his other
+  works are <i>L'Inde en rapport avec l'Europe</i> (1790), and a selection
+  from the <i>Vedas</i>. His knowledge of the Oriental languages was by no
+  means exact.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ansbach.</b> See <i>Anspach</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´selm</b>, St., a celebrated Christian philosopher and
+  theologian, born at Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033, died at Canterbury 1109.
+  At the age of twenty-seven (1060) he became a monk at Bec, in Normandy,
+  whither he had been attracted by the celebrity of Lanfranc. Three years
+  later he was elected prior, and in 1078 he was chosen abbot, which he
+  remained for fifteen years. During this period of his life he wrote his
+  first philosophical and religious works: the dialogues on <i>Truth</i>
+  and <i>Free-will</i>, and the treatises <i>Monologion</i> and
+  <i>Proslogion</i>; and at the same time his influence made itself so felt
+  among the monks under his charge that Bec became the chief seat of
+  learning in Europe. In 1093 Anselm was offered by William Rufus the
+  archbishopric of Canterbury, and accepted it, though with great
+  reluctance, and with the condition that all the lands belonging to the
+  see should be restored. William II soon quarrelled with the archbishop,
+  who would show no subservience to him, and would persist in acknowledging
+  Pope Urban II in opposition to the antipope Clement. William ultimately
+  had to give way. He acknowledged Urban as Pope, and conferred the pallium
+  upon Anselm. The king became his bitter enemy, however, and so great were
+  Anselm's difficulties that in 1097 he set out for Rome to consult with
+  the Pope. Urban received him with great distinction, but did not venture
+  really to take the side of the prelate against the king, though William
+  had refused to receive Anselm again as archbishop, and had seized on the
+  revenues of the see of Canterbury, which he retained till his death in
+  1100. Anselm accordingly remained abroad, where he wrote most of his
+  celebrated treatise on the atonement, entitled <i>Cur Deus Homo</i>
+  (<i>Why God was made Man</i>). When William was succeeded by Henry I
+  Anselm was recalled; but Henry insisted that he should submit to be
+  reinvested in his see by himself, although the Popes claimed the right of
+  investing for themselves alone. Much negotiation followed, and Henry did
+  not surrender his claims till 1107, when Anselm's long struggle on behalf
+  of the rights of the Church came to an end. Anselm was a great scholar, a
+  deep and original thinker, and a man of the utmost saintliness and piety.
+  Anselm's great achievement in philosophy was his ontological argument for
+  the existence of God; and his importance in the ecclesiastical history of
+  England cannot be exaggerated. The chief of his writings are the
+  <i>Monologion</i>, the <i>Proslogion</i>, and the <i>Cur Deus Homo</i>.
+  The first is an attempt to prove inductively the existence of God by pure
+  reason without the aid of Scripture or authority; the second is an
+  attempt to prove the same by the deductive method; the <i>Cur Deus
+  Homo</i> is intended to prove the necessity of the incarnation. Among his
+  numerous other writings are more than 400 letters. His life was written
+  by his domestic chaplain and companion, Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, and
+  is edited by M. Rule for the 'Rolls Series'. See <i>Scholasticism</i>.
+  Cf. Père Ragey, <i>Histoire de Saint Anselme</i>; J.&nbsp;M. Rigg, <i>Anselm
+  of Canterbury</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ans´gar</b>, or <b>Anshar</b>, called the <i>Apostle of the
+  North</i>, born in 801 in Picardy, died in 864 or 865. He took the
+  monastic vows while still in his boyhood, and in the midst of many
+  difficulties laboured as a missionary in Denmark and Sweden. He died with
+  the reputation of having made, if not the first, the most successful
+  attempts to propagate Christianity in the North.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´son</b>, George, Lord, celebrated English navigator, born 1697,
+  died 1762. He entered the navy at an early age and became a commander in
+  1722, and captain in 1724. He was for a long time on the South Carolina
+  station. In 1740 he was made commander of a fleet sent to the South Sea,
+  directed against the trade and colonies of Spain. The expedition
+  consisted of five men-of-war and three smaller vessels, which carried
+  1400 men. After much suffering and many stirring adventures he reached
+  the coast of Peru, made several prizes, and captured and burned the city
+  of Paita. His squadron was now reduced to one ship, the <i>Centurion</i>,
+  but with it he took the Spanish treasure galleon from Acapulco, and
+  arrived in England in 1744 with treasure to the amount of £500,000,
+  having circumnavigated the globe. His adventures and discoveries are
+  described in the well-known <i>Anson's Voyage</i>, <!-- Page 181 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page181"></a>[181]</span>compiled from materials
+  furnished by Anson. A few days after his return he was made rear-admiral
+  of the blue, and not long after rear-admiral of the white. His victory
+  over the French admiral Jonquière, near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised
+  him to the peerage, with the title of Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton. Four
+  years afterwards he was made First Lord of the Admiralty. In 1758 he
+  commanded the fleet before Brest, protected the landing of the British at
+  St. Malo, Cherbourg, &amp;c., and received the repulsed troops into his
+  vessels. Finally, in 1761, he was appointed to convey the queen of George
+  III to England.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anso´nia</b>, a town of the United States, Conn., on the Nangatuck,
+  with manufactures of brass and copper, and especially clocks. Pop.
+  17,643.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anspach</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n´spa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span><i>h</i>), or <b>Ansbach</b>, a town in
+  Bavaria, at the junction of the Holzbach with the Lower Rezat, 24 miles
+  south-west of Nürnberg. Anspach gave its name to an ancient principality
+  or margravate, which had a territory of about 1300 sq. miles, with
+  300,000 inhabitants. in the end of the eighteenth century. The last
+  margrave sold his possessions in 1791 to Prussia. It was occupied by the
+  French in 1806, and transferred by Napoleon to Bavaria. The town has
+  manufactures of trimmings, buttons, straw-wares, &amp;c. Pop. 19,995.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´sted</b>, David Thomas, an English geologist, born 1814, died
+  1880. He was professor of geology at King's College, London, and
+  assistant-secretary to the Geological Society, whose quarterly journal he
+  edited for many years.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´ster</b>, John, <span class="scac">LL.D.</span>, professor of
+  civil law in the University of Dublin, born in County Cork, 1793, died
+  1867. He published a volume of poems, but is chiefly known by his fine
+  translation of Goethe's <i>Faust</i>, Part I, 1835; Part II, 1864.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´stey</b>, Christopher, an English poet, born 1724, died 1805. He
+  was author of <i>The New Bath Guide</i>, a humorous and satirical
+  production describing fashionable life at Bath in the form of a series of
+  letters in different varieties of metre, which had a great reputation in
+  its day, but is now almost forgotten.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anstruther</b> (an´stru<i>th</i>-&#x117;r; popularly
+  an´st&#x117;r), Easter and Wester, two small royal and police burghs of
+  Scotland, in Fifeshire, forming, with the contiguous royal burgh of
+  Cellardyke or Nether Kilrenny, one fishing and seaport town. Total pop.
+  (1921), 4641.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:33%;">
+      <a href="images/image066.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image066.jpg"
+      alt="Wood-ant" title="Wood-ant" /></a>
+    The Wood-ant (<i>Formica rufa</i>)
+
+    <p class="poem">1. Egg. 2. Larva. 3. Cocoon of fine white silk. 4.
+    Young ant, taken out of cocoon. 5. Male ant. 6. Female ant. 7. Worker
+    ant. (All magnified.)</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ant</b>, the common name of hymenopterous (or membranous-winged)
+  insects of various genera, of the family Formic&#x12D;dæ, of which there
+  are numerous species, at least 2000 being known. They are found in most
+  temperate and tropical regions. They are small but powerful insects, and
+  have long been noted for their remarkable intelligence and interesting
+  habits. They are social insects, living in communities regulated by
+  definite laws, each member of the society bearing a well-defined and
+  separate part in the work of the colony. Each community consists of
+  males; of females much larger than the males; and of barren females,
+  otherwise called neuters, workers, or nurses. The neuters are wingless,
+  and the males and females only acquire wings for their 'nuptial flight',
+  after which the males perish, and the few females which escape the
+  pursuit of their numerous enemies divest themselves of their wings, and
+  either return to established nests, or become the foundresses of new
+  colonies. The neuters perform all the labours of the ant-hill or abode of
+  the community; they excavate the galleries, procure food, and feed the
+  larvæ or young ants, which have not got organs of motion. In fine weather
+  they carefully convey them to the surface for the benefit of the sun's
+  heat, and as attentively carry them to a place of safety either when bad
+  weather is threatened or the ant-hill is disturbed. In like manner they
+  watch over the safety of the nymphs or pupæ about to acquire their
+  perfect growth. Some communities possess a special type of neuters, known
+  as 'soldiers', from the duties that specially fall upon them, and from
+  their powerful biting jaws. There is a very considerable variety in the
+  materials, size, and form of ant-hills, or nests, according to the
+  peculiar nature or instinct of the species. Most of the British ants form
+  nests in woods, fields, or gardens, their abodes being generally in the
+  form of small mounds rising above the surface of the ground and
+  containing numerous galleries and apartments. Some excavate nests in old
+  tree-trunks. One little yellow ant (<i>Myrm&#x12B;ca domestica</i>) is
+  common in houses in Britain in some localities. Some <!-- Page 182
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page182"></a>[182]</span>ants live on
+  animal food, very quickly picking quite clean the skeleton of any dead
+  animal they may light on. Others live on saccharine matter, being very
+  fond of the sweet substance, called honey-dew, which exudes from the
+  bodies of aphides, or plant-lice. These they sometimes keep in their
+  nests, and sometimes tend on the plants where they feed; sometimes they
+  even superintend their breeding. By stroking the aphides with their
+  antennæ they cause them to emit the sweet fluid, which the ants then
+  greedily sip up. Various other insects are looked after by ants in a
+  similar manner, or are found in their nests. It has been observed that
+  some species, like the European Red Ant (<i>Form&#x12B;ca
+  sanguin&#x115;a</i>), resort to violence to obtain working ants of other
+  species for their own use, plundering the nests of suitable kinds of
+  their larvæ and pupæ, which they carry off to their own nests to be
+  carefully reared and kept as slaves. In temperate countries male and
+  female ants survive, at most, till autumn, or to the commencement of cool
+  weather, though a very large proportion of them cease to exist long
+  previous to that time. The neuters pass the winter in a state of torpor,
+  and of course require no food. The only time when they require food is
+  during the season of activity, when they have a vast number of young to
+  feed. Some ants of Southern Europe feed on grain, and store it up in
+  their nests for use when required. Some species have stings as weapons,
+  others only their powerful mandibles, or an acrid and pungent fluid
+  (formic acid) which they can emit. The name ant is also given to the
+  neuropterous insects otherwise called Termites (q.v.). <span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), <i>Ants,
+  Bees, and Wasps</i>; H.&nbsp;W. Bates, <i>A Naturalist on the Amazons</i>;
+  <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antac´id</b>, an alkali, or any remedy for acidity in the stomach.
+  Dyspepsia and diarrh&oelig;a are the diseases in which antacids are
+  chiefly employed. The principal antacids in use are magnesia, lime, and
+  their carbonates, and the carbonates of potash and soda.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antæ´us</b>, the giant son of Poseidon (Neptune) and G&#x113; (the
+  Earth), who was invincible so long as he was in contact with the earth.
+  Heracles (Hercules) grasped him in his arms and stifled him suspended in
+  the air, thus preventing him from touching the earth.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antakieh</b>, or <b>Antakia</b>. See <i>Antioch</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antal´kali</b>, a substance which neutralizes an alkali, and is
+  used medicinally to counteract an alkaline tendency in the system. All
+  true acids have this power.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antananarivo</b> (an-tan-an-a-r&#x113;´v&#x14D;), the capital of
+  Madagascar, situated in the central province of Imérina, on rocky
+  eminences rising from a plain. Until 1869 all buildings within the city
+  were of wood or rush, but since the introduction of brick and stone, the
+  whole city has been rebuilt. It contains two former royal palaces,
+  immense timber structures; a Protestant and a Roman Catholic cathedral,
+  mission churches, schools, &amp;c. Antananarivo is the residence of the
+  French governor of Madagascar, and there is a strong French garrison. It
+  has manufactures of metal work, cutlery, silk, &amp;c. Pop. (exclusive of
+  the troops) 63,115.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´tar</b>, an Arabian warrior and poet of the sixth century,
+  author of one of the seven Moallakas (poems) hung up in the Kaaba at
+  Mecca; hero of a romance analogous in Arabic literature to the Arthurian
+  legend of the English. The romance of <i>Antar</i> is composed in
+  rhythmic prose interspersed with fragments of verse, many of which are
+  attributed to Antar himself, and has been generally ascribed to Asmai
+  (born <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 740, died about <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 830), preceptor to Harun-al-Rashid. It has been
+  published in 32 vols. at Cairo (1889).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antarctic</b> (ant-ärk´tik), a term signifying the opposite of
+  <i>Arctic</i>, and therefore relating to the southern pole or to the
+  regions near it. The <i>Antarctic Circle</i>, which of course corresponds
+  to the <i>Arctic Circle</i>, is a circle parallel to the equator and
+  distant from the south pole 23° 28´, marking the area within which the
+  sun does not set when on the tropic of Capricorn. The Antarctic Circle
+  has been arbitrarily fixed on as the limits of the Antarctic Ocean, it
+  being the average limit of the pack-ice; but the name is often extended
+  to embrace a much wider area. The lands within or near the Antarctic
+  Circle are but imperfectly known, and a very large area around the south
+  pole is altogether unknown. The work of exploration has been hitherto
+  baffled at various points by what seems an unsurmountable ice-barrier,
+  which in some places is connected with masses of land and may as a whole
+  belong to a great Antarctic continent. Among land-masses that have long
+  been known to exist in the Antarctic Ocean, though our knowledge of them
+  is very imperfect, are those to which have been attached the names Graham
+  Land, Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, Enderby Land, South Shetland Islands,
+  &amp;c. The Antarctic regions are even colder and more inhospitable than
+  the Arctic, and partly on account of their remoteness from the maritime
+  nations there have been far fewer efforts at their exploration, the south
+  pole being far less a goal of discovery than the north. See <i>South
+  Polar Expeditions</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image067.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image067.jpg"
+      alt="Ant-eater" title="Ant-eater" /></a>
+    Ant-eater (<i>Myrmecoph&#x103;ga jub&#x101;ta</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ant-eater</b>, a name given to mammals of various genera that prey
+  chiefly on ants, but usually confined to the genus Myrmecoph&#x103;ga,
+  ord. Edentata. In this genus the head is remarkably elongated, the jaws
+  destitute of teeth, and the mouth furnished with a long, extensile <!--
+  Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page183"></a>[183]</span>tongue covered with glutinous saliva, by
+  the aid of which the animals secure their insect prey. The eyes are
+  particularly small, the ears short and round, and the legs, especially
+  the fore-legs, very strong, and furnished with long, compressed, acute
+  nails, admirably adapted for breaking into the ant-hills. The most
+  remarkable species is the <i>Myrmecoph&#x103;ga jub&#x101;ta</i>, or
+  ant-bear, a native of the warmer parts of South America. It is from 4 to
+  5 feet in length from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the black
+  bushy tail, which is about 2 feet long. The body is covered with long
+  hair, particularly along the neck and back. It is a harmless and solitary
+  animal, and spends most of its time in sleep. Some are adapted for
+  climbing trees in quest of the insects on which they feed, having
+  prehensile tails. All are natives of South America. The name ant-eater is
+  also given to the pangolins and to the aardvark. The echidna of Australia
+  is sometimes called <i>porcupine ant-eater</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antece´dent</b>, in grammar, the noun to which a relative or other
+  pronoun refers; as, Solomon was the <i>prince who</i> built the temple,
+  where the word <i>prince</i> is the antecedent of <i>who</i>.&mdash;In
+  logic, that member of a hypothetical or conditional proposition which
+  contains the condition, and which is introduced by <i>if</i> or some
+  equivalent word or words; as, if the sun is fixed, the earth must move.
+  Here the first and conditional proposition is the <i>antecedent</i>, the
+  second the <i>consequent</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antedilu´vian</b>, before the flood or deluge of Noah's time;
+  relating to what happened before the deluge. In geology the term has been
+  applied to organisms, traces of which are found in a fossil state in
+  formations preceding the Diluvial (Glacial epoch), particularly to
+  extinct animals such as the palæotherium, the mastodon, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´telope</b>, the name given to the members of a large family of
+  Ruminant Ungulata or Hoofed Mammalia, closely resembling the Deer in
+  general appearance, but essentially different in nature from the latter
+  animals. They are included with the Sheep and Oxen in the family of the
+  Cavicornia or 'Hollow-horned' Ruminants. Their horns, unlike those of the
+  Deer, are not deciduous, but are permanent; are never branched, but are
+  often twisted spirally, and may be borne by both sexes. They are found in
+  greatest number and variety in Africa. Well-known species are the chamois
+  (European), the gazelle, the addax, the eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the
+  springbok, the sasin or Indian antelope, and the prongbuck of
+  America.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/image068.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image068.jpg"
+      alt="Antennae" title="Antennae" /></a>
+    Antennæ
+
+    <p class="poem">1,1. Filiform Antennæ of Cucujo Firefly of Brazil
+    (<i>Pyroph&#x14F;rus lumin&#x14D;sus</i>). 2. Denticulate Antenna; 3.
+    Bipinnate; 4. Lamellicorn; 5. Clavate; 6. Geniculate; 7. Antenna and
+    Antennule of Crustacean.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Anten´næ</b>, the name given to the movable jointed organs of touch
+  and hearing attached to the heads of insects, myriapods, &amp;c., and
+  commonly called horns or feelers. They present a very great variety of
+  forms.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antequera</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-te-k&#x101;´ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a city of Andalusia, in Spain, in the
+  province of Malaga, a place of some importance under the Romans, with a
+  ruined Moorish castle. It manufactures woollens, leather, soap, &amp;c.
+  Pop. 32,360.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ant´eros</b>, in Greek mythology, the god of mutual love. According
+  to some, however, Anteros is the enemy of love, or the god of antipathy;
+  he was also said to punish those who did not return the love of
+  others.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anthe´lion</b>, pl. <b>Anthelia</b>, a luminous ring, or rings,
+  seen by an observer, especially in alpine and polar regions, around the
+  shadow of his head projected on a cloud or fog-bank, or on grass covered
+  with dew, 50 or 60 yards distant, and opposite the sun when rising or
+  setting. It is due to the diffraction of light.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anthelmin´thics</b>, or <b>Anthelmin´tics</b>, a class of remedies
+  used to destroy worms when lodged in the alimentary canal; classed as
+  vermicides or vermifuges, according as the object is to kill the worms,
+  or to expel them by purgation.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´them</b>, originally a hymn sung in alternate <!-- Page 184
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page184"></a>[184]</span>parts; in
+  modern usage, a sacred tune or piece of music set to words taken from the
+  Psalms or other parts of the Scriptures, first introduced into church
+  service in Elizabeth's reign; a developed motet. The anthem may be for
+  one, two, or any number of voices, but seldom exceeds five parts, and may
+  or may not have an organ accompaniment written for it.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:23%;">
+      <a href="images/image069.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image069.jpg"
+      alt="Anthemion" title="Anthemion" /></a>
+    Anthemion
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Anthe´mion</b>, an ornament or ornamental series used in Greek and
+  Roman decoration, which is derived from floral forms, more especially the
+  honeysuckle. It was much used for the ornamentation of friezes and
+  interiors, for the decoration of fictile vases, the borders of dresses,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´themis</b>, a genus of composite plants, comprising the camomile
+  or chamomile.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anthe´mius</b>, a Greek mathematician and architect of Lydia;
+  designed the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and is credited with
+  the invention of the dome; died <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 534.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:18%;">
+      <a href="images/image070.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image070.jpg"
+      alt="Anther in Lily" title="Anther in Lily" /></a>
+    The Reproductive Organs of the Lily
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>An´ther</b>, the male organ of the flower; that part of the stamen
+  which is filled with pollen.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antheste´ria</b>, an annual Greek festival held in honour of all
+  the gods, but especially in honour of Dionysus. It celebrated the
+  beginning of spring, and the season when the wine of the previous vintage
+  was considered fit for use.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anthocy´anin</b>, the blue colour of flowers, a pigment obtained
+  from those petals of flowers which are blue, by digesting them in spirits
+  of wine.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anthol´ogy</b> (Gr. <i>anthos</i>, a flower, and <i>legein</i>, to
+  gather), the name given to several collections of short poems which have
+  come down from antiquity. The first to compile a Greek anthology was
+  Meleager, a Syrian, about 60 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He entitled
+  his collection, which contained selections from forty-six poets besides
+  many pieces of his own, the <i>Garland</i>; a continuation of this work
+  by Philip of Thessalonica in the age of Tiberius was the first entitled
+  <i>Anthology</i>. Later collections are that of Constantine Cephalas, in
+  the tenth century, who made much use of the earlier ones, and that of
+  Maximus Planudes, in the fourteenth century, a monk of Constantinople,
+  whose anthology is a tasteless series of extracts from the
+  <i>Anthology</i> of Cephalas, with some additions. The treasures
+  contained in both, increased with fragments of the older poets, idylls of
+  the bucolic poets, the hymns of Callimachus, epigrams from monuments and
+  other works, have been published in modern times as the <i>Greek
+  Anthology</i>. There is no ancient Latin anthology, the oldest being that
+  of Scaliger (1573).</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´thon</b>, Charles, <span class="scac">LL.D.</span>, an American
+  editor of classical school-books, and of works intended to facilitate the
+  study of Greek and Latin literature; born 1797, died 1867. He was long a
+  professor in Columbia College, New York.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´thony</b>, St. the founder of monastic institutions, born near
+  Heraclea, in Upper Egypt, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 251. Giving up
+  all his property he retired to the desert, where he was followed by a
+  number of disciples, who thus formed the first community of monks. He
+  died at the age of 105.&mdash;<i>St. Anthony's Fire</i>, a name given to
+  erysipelas.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´thracene</b> (C<sub>14</sub>H<sub>10</sub>) occurs in coal-tar
+  in small quantity, about 0.25-0.45 per cent. During the distillation of
+  tar a high-boiling fraction, boiling above 270° C., is obtained; this is
+  crude anthracene oil, a greenish oily substance which, on further
+  distillation, yields a crystalline mass, 50 per cent anthracene. This is
+  carefully purified by distillation and chemical treatment to separate the
+  anthracene from the other substances occurring with it, and the product
+  obtained is finally purified by crystallization. When pure it forms
+  colourless crystalline scales melting at 216° C., and having a violet
+  fluorescence. It forms a series of derivatives, the most important being
+  anthraquinone and alizarine and the numerous derivatives of these.
+  Anthracene was originally a useless product in coal-tar distillation, but
+  it became valuable as soon as it was discovered that alizarine&mdash;from
+  which many dyes are manufactured directly or indirectly&mdash;could be
+  prepared from it.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´thracite</b>, glance or blind coal, a non-bituminous coal of a
+  shining lustre, approaching to metallic, and which burns without smoke,
+  with a weak or no flame, and with intense heat. It consists of, on an
+  average, 90 per cent carbon, 2 oxygen, 3 hydrogen, and 5 ashes. It has
+  some of the properties of coal or charcoal, and, like that substance,
+  represents an extreme alteration of vegetable substances by loss of
+  gases, either during conditions of decay or after entombment among
+  stratified rocks. It is found in England, <!-- Page 185 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page185"></a>[185]</span>Scotland, and Ireland,
+  and in large quantities in the United States (Pennsylvania), and near
+  Swansea (South Wales). See <i>Coal</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´thrax</b>, a fatal disease to which animals are subject, always
+  associated with the presence of an extremely minute micro-organism
+  (<i>Bacillus anthr&#x103;cis</i>) in the blood. It attacks cattle more
+  frequently than other animals; sheep, horses, pigs, dogs, and fowls are
+  liable to anthrax, but not cats. The mode of infection in animals is
+  chiefly by ingestion. It may also be contracted through a wound or
+  scratch in the skin, but this mode of infection is commoner in human
+  beings than in animals. It frequently assumes an epizootic form, and
+  extends over large districts, affecting all classes of animals which are
+  exposed to the exciting causes. It is also called splenic fever, and is
+  communicable to man, appearing as carbuncle, malignant pustule, or
+  wool-sorter's disease.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anthropol´atry</b>, the worship of man, a word always employed in
+  reproach; applied by the Apollinarians, who denied Christ's perfect
+  humanity, towards the orthodox Christians.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anthro´polite</b>, a petrifaction of the human body or skeleton, or
+  of parts of the body, by the encrusting action of calcareous waters, and
+  hence hardly to be considered fossil or sub-fossil.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anthropol´ogy</b>, the science of man, including the study of man's
+  place in nature, that is, of the measurement of his agreement with and
+  divergence from other animals and the history of the emergence of human
+  characteristics; of the distinctive features and geographical
+  distribution of the races of mankind, their customs and beliefs; of the
+  remains of extinct types of the human family and the evidence relating to
+  their modes of life. It puts under contribution all sciences which have
+  man for their object, as anatomy, palæontology, psychology, archæology,
+  history, and comparative religion. All the races of mankind that are now
+  living, much as they differ in external appearance, such as colour of
+  skin, character of hair, form of skull, face, and body, and stature,
+  belong to one species, <i>Homo Sapiens</i>; but an earlier species of
+  more brutal type, <i>H. neanderthalensis</i>, now completely extinct, is
+  known from fossil remains found in Germany, Belgium, France, Gibraltar,
+  and Croatia. Three more ancient and primitive types, probably
+  representing distinct genera of the human family, have been discovered
+  respectively at Piltdown, in Sussex (Eoanthropus), at Mauer, near
+  Heidelberg (Palæanthropus), and in Java, the Ape-man (Pithecanthropus).
+  The Piltdown man may represent the very remote, but direct, ancestor of
+  modern man; but the Heidelberg man and the Ape-man were probably
+  divergent 'sports' whose descendants never became men of the modern
+  type.</p>
+
+  <p>In structure the gorilla reveals a close kinship with the human
+  family, and was probably derived from a common ancestry which probably
+  differentiated into man's forerunner and the gorilla's in Miocene times.
+  Of existing races the aboriginal Australian is much the most primitive,
+  and represents the survival of the earliest type of <i>Homo Sapiens</i>
+  soon after this species became differentiated from men of the Neanderthal
+  species. The negro, whose home is tropical Africa, is primitive in some
+  respects, but in others is highly specialized. He is distinguished by his
+  black skin, flat nose, prominent jaws and thick everted lips, and
+  so-called 'woolly' or 'pepper-corn' hair. In stature he shows a wider
+  range of variation than any other race, including, as he does, the
+  tallest and the shortest varieties of mankind. The Bushman is a
+  peculiarly distinct racial type now restricted to the deserts of South
+  Africa. Though his skin is yellowish rather than black, he is akin to the
+  negro. The Mongolian race probably assumed its distinctive features,
+  yellowish skin, coarse black hair, and characteristic facial and bodily
+  traits, in Eastern Asia; and the aboriginal population of America was
+  sprung mainly from the less-specialized branch of this race. The
+  so-called white races include three main stocks, a people of short
+  stature, olive complexion, and long heads, the Mediterranean race; a
+  taller people with fair hair and long heads, the Nordic race; and a
+  short, thick-set, black-haired, broad-headed Alpine race, which made its
+  way from Asia into Europe many centuries after the other two chief
+  components of Europe's population. For long ages in every part of the
+  world intermixture has been taking place in varying degrees between the
+  different races of mankind, so that to-day probably no pure race exists.
+  See <i>Ethnography</i>, <i>Ethnology</i>, <i>Man</i>, &amp;c.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E.&nbsp;B. Tylor, <i>Anthropology</i>; D.&nbsp;G.
+  Brinton, <i>Races and Peoples</i>; W.&nbsp;Z. Ripley, <i>The Races of
+  Europe</i>; E. Carpenter, <i>Anthropology</i>; G. Elliott Smith, <i>The
+  Migrations of Early Culture</i>; H.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;F. Spurrell, <i>Modern Man and his
+  Forerunners</i>; <i>Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques</i>;
+  <i>The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anthropom´etry</b>, the systematic examination of the height,
+  weight, and other physical characteristics of the human body. It was
+  shown in the British Association Report of 1888 that variations in
+  stature, weight, and complexion, existing in different districts of the
+  British islands, are chiefly due to difference of racial origin.</p>
+
+  <p>The Scotch male adults stand first in height (68.71 inches), the Irish
+  second (67.90 inches), the English third (67.66 inches), and the Welsh
+  last (66.66 inches). In weight the Scotch take the first place (165.3
+  lb.), the Welsh the second <!-- Page 186 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page186"></a>[186]</span>(158.3 lb.), the English the third (155.0
+  lb.), and the Irish the last (154.1 lb.). The average height of adult
+  females is 4.71 inches less than the male average, and their average
+  weight 32.2 lb. under that of the males. The average height of the adult
+  males of the principal races or nationalities of the world may be given
+  as under; but it is acknowledged that more numerous measurements might
+  alter some of the figures considerably: Polynesians 69.33 inches,
+  Patagonians 69 inches, Negroes of the Congo 69 inches, Scotch 68.71
+  inches, Iroquois Indians 68.28 inches, Irish 67.90 inches, United States
+  (whites) 67.67 inches, English 67.66 inches, Norwegians 67.66 inches,
+  Zulus 67.19 inches, Welsh 66.66 inches, Danes 66.65 inches, Dutch 66.62
+  inches, American Negroes 66.62 inches, Hungarians 66.58 inches, Germans
+  66.54 inches, Swiss 66.43 inches, Belgians 66.38 inches, French 66.23
+  inches, Berbers 66.10 inches, Arabs 66.08 inches, Russians 66.04 inches,
+  Italians 66 inches, Spaniards 65.66 inches, Esquimaux 65.10 inches,
+  Papuans 64.78 inches, Hindus 64.76 inches, Chinese 64.17 inches, Poles
+  63.87 inches, Finns 63.60 inches, Japanese 63.11 inches, Peruvians 63
+  inches, Malays 62.34 inches, Lapps 59.2 inches, Bosjesmans 52.78 inches.
+  General average, 65.25 inches.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anthropomor´phism</b>, the representation or conception of the
+  Deity under a human form, or with human attributes and affections.
+  <i>Anthropomorphism</i> is based upon the natural inaptitude of the human
+  mind for conceiving spiritual things except through sensuous images, and
+  in its consequent tendency to accept such expressions as those of
+  Scripture when it speaks of the eye, the ear, and the hand of God, of his
+  seeing and hearing, of his remembering and forgetting, of his making man
+  in his own image, &amp;c., in a too literal sense. In a general sense
+  anthropomorphism is the assumption of man that his own characteristics
+  are present in beings or things widely different from himself, more
+  particularly in forces of nature and gods. The term is, therefore, also
+  applied to that doctrine which attributes to animals mental faculties of
+  the same nature as those of man, though much lower in degree: strictly
+  called <i>biological anthropomorphism</i>, to distinguish it from
+  anthropomorphism proper, or <i>theological anthropomorphism</i>. Cf. E.
+  Caird, <i>Evolution of Religion</i>; J.&nbsp;R. Illingworth, <i>Personality,
+  Human and Divine</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anthropoph´agi</b>, man-eaters, cannibals. Cannibalism was
+  practised in very ancient times; and though some peoples, as the New
+  Zealanders and Fijians, have given it up in recent times, it is still
+  practised over a wide area in Central Africa, where human flesh is a
+  common article of food. Superstitious ideas are often associated with
+  cannibalism among those who practise it. The Caribs were cannibals at the
+  time of the Spanish conquest, and the word 'cannibal' is derived from
+  their name. See <i>Cannibalism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anthus.</b> See <i>Pipit</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anti-aircraft guns</b> are guns so mounted that they may be pointed
+  upward to fire directly against objects in the air. During the European
+  War these guns, fitted with special appliances and ammunition, were used
+  for defence against air-raids of the enemy, against Zeppelins and Gothas.
+  The anti-aircraft guns are of various types, ranging from light
+  machine-guns up to batteries of 3-inch and 6-inch guns. Some of them have
+  brought down enemy machines flying at a height of 10,000 or 12,000
+  feet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antibes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-t&#x113;b) (ancient <b>Antipolis</b>), a
+  fortified town and seaport of France, department Alpes-Maritimes, on the
+  Mediterranean, 11 miles <span class="scac">S.S.W.</span> of Nice; founded
+  about 340 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Pop. 12,198.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anti-burgher Synod</b>, a section of the Scottish Secession Church,
+  which held its first meeting in Edinburgh in the house of Adam Gib on
+  10th April, 1747. It was formed in consequence of a breach resulting from
+  a controversy respecting the religious clause of the oath taken by
+  burgesses in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Perth. Those in favour of the oath
+  were designated Burghers, whilst their opponents, who condemned the oath
+  of the burgesses, became known as Anti-burghers. The union of the burgher
+  and anti-burgher sections was brought about in 1820 through the exertions
+  of John Jamieson, minister at the Anti-burgher Church in Nicholson
+  Street, Edinburgh. See <i>United Free Church of Scotland</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´tichlor</b>, the name given to any chemical substance, such as
+  hyposulphite of sodium, employed to remove the small quantity of chlorine
+  which obstinately adheres to the fibres of the cloth when goods are
+  bleached by means of chlorine.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´tichrist</b>, a word occurring in the first and second
+  <i>Epistles of St. John</i>, and nowhere else in Scripture, in passages
+  having an evident reference to a personage real or symbolical mentioned
+  or alluded to in various other passages both of the Old and New
+  Testaments. The <i>idea itself</i>, however, of Antichrist can be traced
+  back to the second century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and appears
+  first of all in the <i>Book of Daniel</i>. In every age the Church has
+  held through all its sects some definite expectation of a formidable
+  adversary of truth and righteousness prefigured under this name. Thus
+  Roman Catholics have found Antichrist in heresy, and Protestants in
+  Romanism. In one point the sects have generally been agreed, namely, in
+  regarding the various intimations on this subject in the Old and New
+  Testaments as a homogeneous declaration or warning, inspired by the
+  spirit of prophecy, of danger to the true <!-- Page 187 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page187"></a>[187]</span>religion from some
+  disaffection and revolt organized in the latter days by Satan. Most
+  modern critics take a different view of the matter. They do not regard
+  the various Scriptural writers who have dealt with this subject as having
+  had any common inspiration or design. They believe that each writer from
+  his own point of view, guided by mere human sagacity, gives expression in
+  his predictions to his own individual apprehensions, or narrates as
+  prediction what he already knows. Originally Antichrist is nothing else
+  than the incarnate devil, and the idea of the battle of God with a human
+  opponent, endowed with devilish wickedness, arose under the influence of
+  historical conditions. It is the near political horizon which suggests
+  the danger, or contemporary history the substance of the prophecy; thus
+  the Antichrist of Daniel is Antiochus Epiphanes, that of St. John Nero,
+  that of St. Paul some adversary of Christianity about to appear in the
+  time of the Emperor Claudius.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>:
+  S. Baring-Gould, <i>Curious Myths of the Middle Ages</i>; W. Bousset,
+  <i>Antichrist</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anticli´max</b>, a sudden declension of a writer or speaker from
+  lofty to mean thoughts or language, as in the well-known lines, quoted in
+  Pope's <i>Martinus Scriblerus on the Art of Sinking in Poetry</i> as from
+  an anonymous author:</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war,</p>
+      <p>Lieutenant-colonel to the Earl of Mar.</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Pope, Addison, and Fielding were masters in this art of sudden
+  descent.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image071.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image071.jpg"
+      alt="Anticlinal line" title="Anticlinal line" /></a>
+    <i>a</i>, <i>a.</i> Anticlinal line. <i>b.</i> Synclinal line
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Anticli´nal line or axis</b>, in geology, the ridge of a wave-like
+  curve made by a series of superimposed strata, the strata dipping from it
+  on either side as from the ridge of a house: a <i>synclinal line</i> runs
+  along the trough of such a wave.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anti-Corn-Law League</b>, an association formed in England in 1836
+  to procure the repeal of the laws regulating or forbidding the
+  importation of corn. The object of the league was attained in 1846.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anticos´ti</b>, an island of Canada, in the mouth of the St.
+  Lawrence, 125 miles long by 30 miles broad. The interior is mountainous
+  and wooded, but there is much good land, and it is well adapted for
+  agriculture.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anticy´clone</b>, a phenomenon presenting some features opposite to
+  those of a cyclone. It consists of a region of high barometric pressure,
+  the pressure being greatest in the centre, with light winds flowing
+  outwards from the centre, and not inwards as in the cyclone, accompanied
+  with great cold in winter and with great heat in summer.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anticyra</b> (an-tis'i-ra), the name of two towns of Greece, the
+  one in Thessaly, the other in Phocis, famous for hellebore, which in
+  ancient times was regarded as a specific against insanity and melancholy.
+  Hence various jocular allusions in ancient writers (<i>Naviga
+  Anticyram</i>, sail to Anticyra).</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´tidote</b>, a medicine to counteract the effects of poison.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antietam</b> (an-t&#x113;'tam), a small stream in the United States
+  which falls into the Potomac about 50 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> of Washington; scene of an indecisive battle
+  between the Federal and Confederate armies, 17th Sept., 1862.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anti-Federalists</b>, the political party in the United States
+  which after the formation of the Federal constitution in 1787 opposed its
+  ratification. Whilst the Federalists were striving to turn the federation
+  into a united nation, and stood for a strong Government and centralizing
+  tendencies, their opponents, the Anti-Federalists, either more
+  democratic, or pretending that a strong Government meant a 'disguised'
+  monarchic power, endeavoured to preserve a loose disintegrated
+  federation. The Anti-Federalist party was gradually transformed into the
+  Democratic-Republican party, led by Jefferson.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antifriction Metal</b>, a name given to various alloys of tin,
+  zinc, copper, antimony, lead, &amp;c., which oppose little resistance to
+  motion, with great resistance to the effects of friction, so far as
+  concerns the wearing away of the surfaces of contact. Babbitt's metal (50
+  parts tin, 5 antimony, 1 copper) is one of them.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antigone</b> (an-tig´o-n&#x113;), in Greek mythology, the daughter
+  of &OElig;dipus and Jocasta, celebrated for her devotion to her brother
+  Polynices, for burying whom against the decree of King Creon she suffered
+  death. She is the heroine of Sophocles' <i>&OElig;dipus at Colonus</i>
+  and his <i>Antigone</i>; also of Racine's tragedy <i>Les Frères
+  Ennemis</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antig´onish</b>, a town in the <span class="scac">E.</span> of Nova
+  Scotia, in county of the same name; the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop,
+  with a cathedral, a college, and a good harbour. Pop. 1787.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antig´onus</b>, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, born
+  about 382 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> In the division of the empire,
+  after the death of Alexander, Antigonus obtained Greater Phrygia, Lycia,
+  and Pamphylia as his dominion. But he soon managed to extend his power,
+  being assisted by his warlike son, Demetrius Poliorc&#x113;t&#x113;s.
+  Ptolemy, <!-- Page 188 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page188"></a>[188]</span>Seleucus, and Lysimachus, who had also
+  been generals of Alexander, alarmed by his ambition, united themselves
+  against him; and a long series of contests ensued in Syria,
+  Ph&oelig;nicia, Asia Minor, and Greece, ending in 301 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> with the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in which
+  Antigonus was defeated and slain, his dominions being divided among the
+  conquerors.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antigonus Gon´atas</b>, son of Demetrius Poliorc&#x113;t&#x113;s,
+  and grandson of the above, succeeded his father in the kingdom of Macedon
+  and all his other European dominions, but did not obtain actual
+  possession of them for some years. He died, after a reign of forty-four
+  years, 239 <span class="scac">B.C</span>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antigua</b> (an-t&#x113;´gwa), one of the British West Indies, the
+  most important of the Leeward group; 28 miles long, 20 broad; area, 108
+  sq. miles. Its shores are high and rocky, and much indented by creeks and
+  inlets furnishing several good harbours. The surface is diversified by
+  hill and dale, but nowhere rises to a greater height than 1500 feet. A
+  considerable portion of it is fertile, and the climate is healthy, but
+  there is a scarcity of water, there being no streams and few springs,
+  droughts are not infrequent, and hurricanes are apt to cause serious loss
+  and damage. Chief products are sugar, cotton, and pineapples. The island
+  has fairly good shipping connections with the United Kingdom, the United
+  States, and Canada. Antigua is governed as a crown colony, the Islands of
+  Barbuda and Redonda being attached to it. The capital, St. John, the
+  residence of the governor of the Leeward Islands, stands on the shore of
+  a well-sheltered harbour in the north-west part of the island. Falmouth
+  (English Harbour) in the south has also an excellent harbour with a
+  dockyard. The island was discovered by Columbus in 1493; the first
+  settlement was made by the English in 1632. Since then, except for a
+  short period of occupation by the French, it has been a British
+  possession. Pop. 32,269 (1911).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anti-Jac´obin</b>, a famous magazine (1797-1818), the original
+  object of which was to satirize the Jacobin principles of the Fox section
+  of Whigs; principal contributors: Gifford, Canning, Frere, and Ellis.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anti-Lebanon</b>, the eastern of the two parallel ranges known as
+  the Mountains of Lebanon in Palestine. See <i>Lebanon</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antilegom´ena</b> (things spoken against or objected to), a term
+  applied by early Christian writers to the <i>Epistle to the Hebrews</i>,
+  2 <i>Peter</i>, <i>James</i>, <i>Jude</i>, 2 and 3 <i>John</i>, and the
+  <i>Apocalypse</i>, which, though read in the churches, were not for some
+  time received into the canon of Scripture.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antilles</b> (an-til´&#x113;z), another name for the West Indian
+  Islands (excluding Bahamas). See <i>West Indies</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antilochus</b> (an-til´o-kus), in Greek legend, a son of Nestor,
+  distinguished among the younger heroes who took part in the Trojan War by
+  beauty, bravery, and swiftness of foot. He was slain by Memnon, but
+  Achilles avenged his death.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antimacass´ar</b>, a covering for chairs, sofas, couches, &amp;c.,
+  made of open cotton or worsted work, to preserve them from being soiled,
+  as by the oil applied to the hair.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antimachus</b> (an-tim´a-kus), a Greek poet who lived about 400
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and wrote an epic called the
+  <i>Thebais</i> on the mythical history of Thebes, and a long elegy called
+  <i>Lyd&#x113;</i>, inspired by a mistress or wife of that name. Both
+  works were full of mythological details. Only fragments of his writings
+  remain, and from these it can be gathered that his style was rather
+  laboured and artificial. Yet the Alexandrian grammarians ranked him next
+  to Homer.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´timony</b> (chemical symbol, Sb, from Lat. <i>stibium</i>; sp.
+  gr. 6.7, atomic wt. 120.2), a brittle metal of a bluish-white or
+  silver-white colour and a crystalline or laminated structure. It melts at
+  630.6° C., and burns with a bluish-white flame. The mineral called
+  stibnite or antimony-glance, is a tri-sulphide
+  (Sb<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>), and is the chief ore from which the metal
+  is obtained. It is found in many places, including France, Spain,
+  Hungary, Italy, Canada, Australia, and Borneo. The metal, or, as it was
+  formerly called, the <i>regulus of antimony</i>, does not rust or tarnish
+  when exposed to the air. When alloyed with other metals it hardens them,
+  and is therefore used in the manufacture of alloys, such as
+  Britannia-metal, type-metal, and pewter. In bells it renders the sound
+  more clear; it renders tin more white and sonorous as well as harder, and
+  gives to printing types more firmness and smoothness. The salts of
+  antimony are very poisonous. The protoxide is the active base of tartar
+  emetic and James's powder, and is justly regarded as a most valuable
+  remedy in many diseases.&mdash;<i>Yellow antimony</i> is a preparation of
+  antimony of a deep yellow colour, used in enamel and porcelain painting.
+  It is of various tints, and the brilliancy of the brighter hues is not
+  affected by foul air.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antino´mianism</b> ('opposition to the law'), the name given by
+  Luther to the inference drawn by John Agricola (1492-1566), from the
+  doctrine of justification by faith, that the moral law is not binding on
+  Christians as a rule of life. The term antinomian has since been applied
+  to all doctrines and practices which seem to contemn or discountenance
+  strict moral obligations. The Lutherans and Calvinists have both been
+  charged with antinomianism, the former on account of their doctrine of
+  justification by faith, the latter both on this ground and that of the
+  doctrine of predestination. The charge is, of course, vigorously repelled
+  by both.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antin´omy</b>, the opposition of one law or rule <!-- Page 189
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page189"></a>[189]</span>to another law
+  or rule; in the Kantian philosophy, that natural contradiction which
+  results from the law of reason, when, passing the limits of experience,
+  we seek to conceive the complex of external phenomena, or nature, as a
+  world or cosmos.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antinous</b> (an-tin´o-us), a young Bithynian whom the extravagant
+  love of Hadrian has immortalized. He drowned himself in the Nile in <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 122. Hadrian set no bounds to his grief for his
+  loss. He gave his name to a newly-discovered star, erected temples in his
+  honour, called a city after him, and caused him to be adored as a god
+  throughout the empire. Statues, busts, &amp;c., of him are numerous.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antioch</b> (an´ti-ok), a town in Syria, famous in ancient times as
+  the capital of the Greek Kings of Syria, on the left bank of the Orontes,
+  about 21 miles from the sea, in a beautiful and fertile plain. It was
+  founded by Seleucus Nicator in 300 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and
+  named after his father Antiochus. In Roman times it was the seat of the
+  Syrian governors, and the centre of a widely-extended commerce. It was
+  called the 'Queen of the East' and 'The Beautiful'. Antioch is frequently
+  mentioned in the New Testament, and it was here that the disciples of our
+  Saviour were first called Christians (<i>Acts</i>, xi, 26). In the first
+  half of the seventh century it was taken by the Saracens, and in 1098 by
+  the Crusaders. They established the principality of Antioch, of which the
+  first ruler was Bohemond, and which lasted till 1268, when it was taken
+  by the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. In 1516 it passed into the hands of the
+  Turks. The modern Antioch, or <i>Antakieh</i>, has recently grown from a
+  small place to a flourishing town. Pop. estimated at 30,000.&mdash;There
+  was another Antioch, in Pisidia, at which St. Paul preached on his first
+  missionary journey.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:18%;">
+      <a href="images/image072.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image072.jpg"
+      alt="Antiochus Epiphanes" title="Antiochus Epiphanes" /></a>
+    Medal of Antiochus Epiphanes
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Antiochus</b> (an-t&#x12B;´o-kus), a name of several Græco-Syrian
+  kings of the dynasty of the Seleuc&#x12D;dæ.&mdash;<b>Antiochus I,</b>
+  called <i>S&#x14D;t&#x113;r</i> ('saviour'), was the son of Seleucus,
+  general of Alexander the Great, and founder of the dynasty. He was born
+  about 324 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and succeeded his father in 280
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span> During the greater part of his reign he
+  was engaged in a protracted struggle with the Gauls who had crossed from
+  Europe, and by whom he was killed in battle, 261 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>&mdash;<b>Antiochus II</b>, surnamed <i>Theos</i>
+  (god), succeeded his father, lost several provinces by revolt, and was
+  murdered in 246 B.C. by Laodic&#x113;, his wife, whom he had put away to
+  marry Beren&#x12B;c&#x113;, daughter of Ptolemy.&mdash;<b>Antiochus
+  III</b>, surnamed the <i>Great</i>, grandson of the preceding, was born
+  242 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, succeeded in 223 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> The early part of his reign embraced a series of
+  wars against revolted provinces and neighbouring kingdoms, his
+  expeditions extending to India, over Asia Minor, and afterwards into
+  Europe, where he took possession of the Thracian Chersonese. Here he
+  encountered the Romans, who had conquered Philip V of Macedon, and were
+  prepared to resist his further progress. Antiochus gained an important
+  adviser in Hannibal, who had fled for refuge to his Court; but he lost
+  the opportunity of an invasion of Italy while the Romans were engaged in
+  war with the Gauls, of which the Carthaginian urged him to avail himself.
+  The Romans defeated him by sea and land, and he was finally overthrown by
+  Scipio at Mount Sip&#x45E;lus, in Asia Minor, 190 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, and very severe terms were imposed upon him. He
+  was killed while plundering a temple in Elymais to procure money to pay
+  the Romans.&mdash;<b>Antiochus IV</b>, called <i>Epiph&#x103;nes,</i>
+  youngest son of the above, is chiefly remarkable for his attempt to
+  extirpate the Jewish religion, and to establish in its place the
+  polytheism of the Greeks. This led to the insurrection of the Maccabees,
+  by which the Jews ultimately recovered their independence. He died 164
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Antioquia</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-t&#x113;-&#x14D;-k&#x113;´a<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town of South
+  America, in Colombia, on the River Cauca; founded in 1542. Pop. 8730. It
+  gives name to a department of the republic; area, 22,752 sq. miles. Pop.
+  739,434. Capital, Medellin.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antip´aros</b> (ancient, <b>Oli&#x103;ros</b>), one of the Cyclades
+  Islands in the Grecian Archipelago, containing a famous stalactitic
+  grotto or cave. It lies south-west of Paros, from which it is separated
+  by a narrow strait, and has an area of 10 sq. miles, and about 700
+  inhabitants.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antip´ater</b>, a general and friend of Philip of Macedon, father
+  of Alexander the Great. On the death of Alexander, in 323 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, the regency of Macedonia was assigned to
+  Antipater, who succeeded in establishing the Macedonian rule in Greece on
+  a firm footing. He died 317 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, at an
+  advanced age.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antip´athy</b>, a special dislike exhibited by individuals to
+  particular objects or persons, usually resulting from physical or nervous
+  organization. An antipathy is often an unaccountable repugnance to what
+  people in general regard with no particular dislike, as certain sounds,
+  smells, articles of food, &amp;c., and it may be manifested by fainting
+  or extreme discomfort.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antiphlogis´tic</b>, a term applied to medicines or methods of
+  treatment that are intended to counteract inflammation, such as
+  bloodletting, purgatives, diaphoretics, &amp;c. <!-- Page 190 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page190"></a>[190]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>An´tiphon</b>, a Greek orator, born near Athens; founder of
+  political oratory in Greece. His orations are the oldest extant, and he
+  is said to have been the first who wrote speeches for hire. He was put to
+  death for taking part in the revolution of 411 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, which established the oligarchic government of
+  the Four Hundred. Antiphon seems to have specialized in homicide cases;
+  his most celebrated speech is <i>On the Murder of Herodas</i>. Cf. Sir
+  R.&nbsp;C. Jebb, <i>Attic Orators</i>; J.&nbsp;F. Dobson, <i>The Greek
+  Orators</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antiphon</b>, or <b>Antiph´ony</b> ('alternate song'), in the
+  Christian Church a verse first sung by a single voice, and then repeated
+  by the whole choir; or any piece to be sung by alternate voices.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antipodes</b> (an-tip´o-d&#x113;z), the name given relatively to
+  people or places on opposite sides of the earth, so situated that a line
+  drawn from one to the other passes through the centre of the earth and
+  forms a true diameter. The longitudes of two such places differ by 180°.
+  The difference in their time is about twelve hours, and their seasons are
+  reversed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antipodes Islands</b>, a group of small uninhabited islands in the
+  South Pacific Ocean, about 460 miles <span class="scac">S.E.</span> by
+  <span class="scac">E</span>. of New Zealand; so called from being nearly
+  antipodal to Greenwich. Antipodes Island rises to 1300 feet, and is
+  largely covered with coarse grass; huts have been fitted up to shelter
+  castaways.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´tipope</b>, the name applied to those who at different periods
+  have produced a schism in the Roman Catholic Church by opposing the
+  authority of the Pope, under the pretence that they were themselves
+  Popes. The Roman Church cannot admit that there ever existed two Popes;
+  but the fact is, that in several cases the competitors for the papal
+  chair were equally Popes; that is to say, the claims of all were equally
+  good. Each was frequently supported by whole nations, and the schism was
+  nothing but the struggle of political interests. Twenty-nine antipopes
+  are enumerated in Church history; the last of them is Felix V,
+  1439-49.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antipyret´ics</b>, medicines given for the purpose of reducing
+  fever by lowering the patient's temperature, whether by causing
+  perspiration or otherwise. Quinine, antipyrin, phenacetin, are common
+  antipyretics. An aperient or purgative often serves the same purpose.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antipy´rin</b>, a drug obtained from coal-tar products, valuable in
+  reducing fever and in relieving pain, being much used in nervous headache
+  and neuralgia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´tiquaries</b>, those devoted to the study of ancient times
+  through their relics, as old places of burial, remains of ancient
+  habitations, early monuments, implements or weapons, statues, coins,
+  medals, paintings, inscriptions, books, and manuscripts, with the view of
+  arriving at a knowledge of the relations, modes of living, habits, and
+  general condition of the people who created or employed them. Societies
+  or associations of antiquaries have been formed in all countries of
+  European civilization. In Britain the Society of Antiquaries of London
+  was founded in 1572, revived in 1717. and incorporated in 1751. The
+  Society of Antiquaries of Scotland was founded in 1780, incorporated in
+  1783, and has the management of a large national antiquarian museum in
+  Edinburgh. One of the best-known antiquarian societies in Europe is the
+  <i>Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord</i> at Copenhagen.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antiques</b> (an-t&#x113;ks'), a term specifically applied to the
+  remains of ancient art, as statues, paintings, vases, cameos, and the
+  like, and more especially to the works of Grecian and Roman
+  antiquity.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antirrhinum</b> (an-ti-r&#x12B;´num) (from <i>anti</i>, instead of,
+  and <i>rhis</i>, snout), a genus of annual or perennial plants of the
+  nat. ord. Scrophulariaceæ, commonly known as <i>snapdragon</i>, on
+  account of the peculiarity of the blossoms, which, by pressing between
+  the finger and thumb, may be made to open and shut like a mouth. They all
+  produce showy flowers, and are much cultivated in gardens. Many varieties
+  of some of them, such as the great or common snapdragon (<i>Antirrhinum
+  majus</i>), have been produced by gardeners. The lesser snapdragon grows
+  in sandy soil, and is found in cornfields in the south of England and
+  Ireland.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antisana</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-t&#x113;-sä´na<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a volcano in the Andes of Ecuador, 35
+  miles <span class="scac">S.E.</span> by <span class="scac">E.</span> of
+  Quito. Whymper, who ascended it in 1880, makes its height 19,260
+  feet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antis´cians</b> (Gr. <i>anti</i>, over against, <i>skia</i>, a
+  shadow), those who live under the same meridian, at the same distance
+  <span class="scac">N.</span> and <span class="scac">S.</span> of the
+  equator, and whose shadows at noon consequently are thrown in contrary
+  directions.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antiscorbu´tics</b>, remedies against scurvy. Lemon-juice, ripe
+  fruit, milk, salts of potash, green vegetables, potatoes, fresh meat, and
+  raw or lightly-boiled eggs, are some of the principal foodstuffs
+  containing antiscorbutic vitamines.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anti-Sem´itism</b>, hostility to the Jews (Semites), actively
+  exhibited in severities and attacks of various kinds. The movement
+  assumed vast proportions about 1880 and manifested itself in various
+  countries, especially Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Roumania, and
+  France. It may be attributed to different motives in different countries,
+  but on the whole owed its origin not only to the fact of the Jews being a
+  'peculiar people' by race and religion, but also to the comparatively
+  high position won by them in modern times in the financial and political
+  worlds. The religious element is quite <!-- Page 191 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page191"></a>[191]</span>prominent in the
+  popular attacks on the Jew, although modern anti-Semitism is essentially
+  social and economic. In Western Russia there was a great outburst against
+  the Jews in 1881, in which men, women, and children were slaughtered. The
+  Government of the Tsar, by its anti-Jewish policy, may be said to have
+  sanctioned this murderous outbreak, which was followed by harsh laws and
+  actual persecutions, though afterwards there was a mitigation of the
+  severity shown towards the Jews. Yet in 1903 the world was startled by a
+  terrible massacre of Jews at Kishinev, in Bessarabia, connived at by the
+  authorities on the spot; and towards the end of 1905, in connection with
+  the Russian revolutionary movement, there were dreadful massacres of Jews
+  in Odessa, Kishinev, and other towns, the authorities being similarly
+  involved. In Roumania, until 1919, the position of the Jews resembled
+  what it was elsewhere in mediæval times, and was less favourable than it
+  was even under the Turks. In Germany the movement has been worked chiefly
+  by politicians for their own ends, though the racial and religious
+  question has also had some influence; and among the ignorant the belief
+  that the Jews murder Christian children for ritual purposes has been
+  revived, as also in Austria and in Hungary. In these countries the
+  movement has been partly political, partly social and economic, partly
+  religious. In France anti-Semitism has been employed chiefly as a weapon
+  by monarchists and clericals as against republicanism, and by the
+  Socialists as against capitalism, racial antipathy having also its
+  influence on the movements. It reached its height in 1895 at the time of
+  the Dreyfus affair. In Britain, too, anti-Semitism has of late made
+  itself felt.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: A.
+  Leroy-Beaulieu, <i>Israel among the Nations</i>; Bernard Lazare,
+  <i>L'anti-sémitisme, son histoire et ses causes</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antisep´tic</b> (Gr. <i>anti</i>, against, and <i>s&#x113;pein</i>,
+  to rot), an agent which destroys the germs of putrefaction or suppuration
+  is called an antiseptic. Many substances act thus, e.g. chlorine, iodine,
+  hypochlorous acid, sulphurous acid, camphor, creosote, iodoform, nascent
+  oxygen ('Sanitas'), corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde ('Formalin'),
+  potassium permanganate ('Condy's Fluid'), carbolic acid (Lysol, Izal,
+  Cyllin); lately aniline dyes have become prominent: of these flavine has
+  proved the most useful addition to surgery of recent years. It was much
+  used in the European War (1914-8).&mdash;<i>Antiseptics</i> are also used
+  for purifying surgical instruments, &amp;c., and commercially as
+  disinfectants. When introduced by Lister into surgical practice they led
+  to revolutionary advances in surgery. The tendency of late years has been
+  to abandon antiseptic for aseptic (sterile) mode of technique, but during
+  the war (1914-8) there was a general return to antiseptic methods in
+  surgery.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antispasmod´ic</b>, a medicine for the cure of spasms and
+  convulsions; such belong largely to the class of ethers, as sulphuric
+  ether, chloric ether, nitric ether, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antisthenes</b> (an-tis´the-n&#x113;z), a Greek philosopher and the
+  founder of the school of Cynics, born at Athens about 444 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> He was first a disciple of Gorgias and then of
+  Socrates, at whose death he was present. His philosophy was a one-sided
+  development of the Socratic teaching. He held virtue to consist in
+  complete self-denial and in disregard of riches, honour, or pleasure of
+  every kind. He himself lived as a beggar. He died in Athens at an
+  advanced age.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antis´trophe.</b> See <i>Strophe</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anti-submarine.</b> See <i>Submarine</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anti-Taurus</b>, a mountain range of Anatolia, Asia Minor,
+  extending from the Cicilian Taurus towards the north-east, and connecting
+  the Taurus mountain system with Mount Ararat, Mount Elbruz, and the
+  Caucasus. See <i>Taurus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antith´esis</b> (opposition), a figure of speech consisting in a
+  contrast or opposition of words or sentiments; as, 'When our vices
+  <i>leave us</i>, we flatter ourselves we <i>leave them</i>'; 'The
+  prodigal <i>robs his heir</i>, the miser <i>robs himself</i>'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antitoxin</b>, the name given to a class of bodies of unknown
+  nature having the capacity of neutralizing the poisonous substances
+  (toxins) by which certain bacteria produce disease. If such a toxin be
+  introduced every few days in increasing doses, into, e.g., the horse, and
+  if, after some months of this treatment, the animal be bled, its serum
+  contains the antitoxin to the toxins used. The use of the antitoxin to
+  the toxin of diphtheria is most efficacious in curing that disease, and
+  the treatment has caused a great fall in the death-rate. It ought to be
+  applied as soon as possible after signs appear in the throat. An
+  antitoxic treatment is also applicable in cases of tetanus (lock-jaw), a
+  disease liable to follow any wound contaminated with dirt, especially
+  with manured soil. Less success has been achieved when the disease is
+  fully established, but if the antitoxin be injected immediately after the
+  wound has been incurred, then the subsequent development of the disease
+  is prevented. This preventive treatment has been attended with marked
+  effect in the case of wounds received in war, which it is almost
+  impossible to keep free from contamination. Antitoxins were extensively
+  used during the European War. (1914-8). In bacterial diseases other than
+  those mentioned, sera have been produced by injecting into large animals
+  dead and living bacteria, e.g. the organisms of epidemic cerebro-spinal
+  meningitis (spotted fever), pneumonia, blood-poisoning, &amp;c., and
+  these sera probably depend <!-- Page 192 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page192"></a>[192]</span>for their action on the presence of bodies
+  similar to antitoxins. See <i>Bacteria</i>, <i>Diphtheria</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anti-trade Winds</b>, a name given to any of the upper tropical
+  winds which move northward or southward in the same manner as the
+  trade-winds which blow beneath them in the opposite direction. These
+  great aerial currents descend to the surface after they have passed the
+  limits of the trade-winds, and form the south-west or west-south-west
+  winds of the north temperate, and the north-west or west-north-west winds
+  of the south temperate zones.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antitrinita´rians</b>, all who do not receive the doctrine of the
+  divine Trinity, or the existence of three persons in the Godhead;
+  especially applied to those who oppose such a doctrine on philosophical
+  grounds, as contrasted with Unitarians, who reject the doctrine as not
+  warranted by Scripture.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´titype</b>, that which is correlative to a type; by theological
+  writers the term is employed to denote the reality of which a <i>type</i>
+  is the prophetic symbol.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´tium</b>, in ancient Italy, one of the most ancient and powerful
+  cities of Latium, the chief city of the Volsci, and often at war with the
+  Romans, by whom it was finally taken in 338 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> It was 38 miles distant from Rome, a flourishing
+  seaport, and became a favourite residence of the wealthy Romans. It was
+  destroyed by the Saracens, but vestiges of it remain at Porto d'Anzo,
+  near which many valuable works of art have been found.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antivari</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-t&#x113;´va<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-r&#x113;), a seaport town on the eastern
+  shore of the Adriatic, ceded to Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin
+  (1878). Antivari was opened as a free port on 23rd Oct., 1909. It was
+  occupied by the Austrians in 1916, and by the Italians in Nov., 1918.
+  Pop. 2500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antlers</b>, the horns of the deer tribe, or the snags or branches
+  of the horns.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ant-lion</b>, the larva of a Neuropterous insect
+  (<i>Myrmel&#x115;on formic&#x101;rius</i>), which in its perfect state
+  greatly resembles a dragon-fly; curious on account of its ingenious
+  method of catching the insects&mdash;chiefly ants&mdash;on which it
+  feeds. It digs a funnel-shaped hole in the driest and finest sand it can
+  find, and when the pit is deep enough, and the sides are quite smooth and
+  sloping, it buries itself at the bottom with only its formidable
+  mandibles projecting, and waits till some luckless insect stumbles over
+  the edge, when it is immediately seized, its juices sucked, and the dead
+  body jerked out. It inhabits Southern Europe.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antofagas´ta</b>, a Chilian seaport on the Bay of Morena, and a
+  territory of the same name taken from Bolivia in the war of 1879-82, and
+  definitely ceded to Chile in 1885. The territory has an area of 46,408
+  sq. miles; pop. (1919), 235,506. The port is connected by railway with
+  the silver and other mines lying inland, and exports silver, copper,
+  cubic nitre, &amp;c., partly from Bolivia. Pop. (1919), 69,175.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antoinette</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-twa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-net), Marie. See <i>Marie
+  Antoinette</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antokolski</b>, Mark, Russian sculptor of Jewish extraction, born
+  at Vilna in 1843. He studied at the Petrograd Academy of Fine Arts, and
+  his earliest success was a wooden statue <i>The Jewish Tailor</i> (1864).
+  In 1868 he received a grant for travelling, and whilst in Italy he
+  finished his famous statue, <i>Ivan the Terrible</i>. He was made an
+  academician, and in 1878 was awarded the first prize for sculpture at the
+  Paris International Exhibition. In 1888 he settled permanently in Paris,
+  where he died in 1902. His works include: <i>Peter the Great</i> (1872),
+  <i>Christ before the People</i> (1874), <i>The Death of Socrates</i>
+  (1876), <i>Spinoza</i> (1882), <i>Yermak</i> and <i>The Sleeping
+  Beauty</i> (1900).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antommarchi</b> (-mär´k&#x113;), Carlo Francesco, Italian
+  physician, born in Corsica in 1780, died in Cuba 1838. He was professor
+  of anatomy at Florence when he offered himself as physician to Napoleon
+  at St. Helena. Napoleon at first received him with reserve, but soon
+  admitted him to his confidence, and testified his satisfaction with him
+  by leaving him a legacy of 100,000 francs. On his return to Europe he
+  published <i>Les Derniers Moments de Napoléon</i> (2 vols., 8vo,
+  1823).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antonell´i</b>, Giacomo, cardinal, born 1806, died 1876. He was
+  educated at the Grand Seminary of Rome, where he attracted the attention
+  of Pope Gregory XVI, who appointed him to several important offices. On
+  the accession of Pius IX in 1846 Antonelli was raised to the dignity of
+  cardinal-deacon; two years later he became president and Minister of
+  Foreign Affairs, and in 1850 was appointed Secretary of State. During the
+  sitting of the &OElig;cumenical Council (1869-70) he was a prominent
+  champion of the papal interest. He strongly opposed the assumption of the
+  united Italian crown by Victor Emanuel.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antonell´o</b> (of Messina), an Italian painter who died at Venice,
+  probably in 1493, and is said to have introduced oil-painting into Italy,
+  having been instructed in it by Jan Van Eyck. Three works by him are in
+  the National Gallery, London.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antoni´nus, Itinerary of.</b> See <i>Itinerary</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antoni´nus</b>, Marcus Aurelius. See <i>Aurelius</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antoni´nus, Wall of</b>, a barrier erected by the Romans across the
+  isthmus between the Forth and the Clyde, in the reign of Antoninus Pius.
+  Its western extremity was at or near Dunglass Castle, its eastern at
+  Carriden, and the whole length of it exceeded 27 miles. It was
+  constructed <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 140 by Lollius Urbicus, the
+  imperial <!-- Page 193 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page193"></a>[193]</span>legate, and consisted of a ditch 40 feet
+  wide and 20 feet deep, and a rampart of stone and earth on the south side
+  24 feet thick and 20 feet in height. It was strengthened at either end
+  and along its course by a series of forts and watch-towers. It may still
+  be traced at various points, and is commonly known as <i>Graham's
+  Dyke</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:16%;">
+      <a href="images/image073.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image073.jpg"
+      alt="Antoninus Pius" title="Antoninus Pius" /></a>
+    Coin of Antoninus Pius
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Antoni´nus Pius</b>, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, Roman emperor, was born
+  at Lavinium, near Rome, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 86, died <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 161. In 120 <span class="scac">A.D.</span> he
+  became consul, and he was one of the four persons of consular rank among
+  whom Hadrian divided the supreme administration of Italy. He then went as
+  proconsul to Asia, and after his return to Rome became more and more the
+  object of Hadrian's confidence. In <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 138 he
+  was selected by that emperor as his successor, and the same year he
+  ascended the throne. He speedily put down the persecutions of the
+  Christians, and carried on but a few wars. In Britain he extended the
+  Roman dominion, and, by raising a new wall (see preceding article), put a
+  stop to the invasions of the Picts and Scots. The senate gave him the
+  surname <i>Pius</i>, that is, dutiful or showing filial affection,
+  because to keep alive the memory of Hadrian he had built a temple in his
+  honour. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius, his adopted son.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anto´nius</b>, Marcus (Mark Antony), Roman triumvir, born 83 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, was connected with the family of Cæsar by his
+  mother. Debauchery and prodigality marked his youth. To escape his
+  creditors he went to Greece in 58, and from thence followed the consul
+  Gabinius on a campaign in Syria as commander of the cavalry. He served in
+  Gaul under Cæsar in 52 and 51. In 50 he returned to Rome to support the
+  interests of Cæsar against the aristocratical party headed by Pompey, and
+  was appointed tribune. When war broke out between Cæsar and Pompey,
+  Antony led reinforcements to Cæsar in Greece, and in the battle of
+  Pharsalia he commanded the left wing. He afterwards returned to Rome with
+  the appointment of Master of the Horse and Governor of Italy (47). In 44
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he became Cæsar's colleague in the
+  consulship. Soon after Cæsar was assassinated, Antony, by the reading of
+  Cæsar's will, and by the oration which he delivered over his body,
+  excited the people to anger and revenge, and the murderers were obliged
+  to flee. After several quarrels and reconciliations with Octavianus,
+  Cæsar's heir (see <i>Augustus</i>), Antony departed to Cisalpine Gaul,
+  which province had been conferred upon him against the will of the
+  Senate. But Cicero thundered against him in his famous <i>Philippics</i>;
+  the Senate declared him a public enemy, and entrusted the conduct of the
+  war against him to Octavianus and the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. After a
+  campaign of varied fortunes Antony fled with his troops over the Alps.
+  Here he was joined by Lepidus, who commanded in Gaul, and through whose
+  mediation Antony and Octavianus were again reconciled. It was agreed that
+  the Roman world should be divided among the three conspirators, who were
+  called <i>triumviri</i>. Antony was to take Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; and
+  Octavianus, Africa and Sicily. They decided upon the proscription of
+  their mutual enemies, each giving up his friends to the others, the most
+  celebrated of the victims being Cicero the orator. Antony and Octavianus
+  departed in 42 for Macedonia, where the united forces of their enemies,
+  Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army, which was, however, speedily
+  defeated at Philippi. Antony next visited Athens, and thence proceeded to
+  Asia. In Cilicia he ordered Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, to apologize for
+  her insolent behaviour to the <i>triumviri</i>. She appeared in person,
+  and her charms fettered him for ever. He followed her to Alexandria,
+  where he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of the world, till
+  he was aroused by a report that hostilities had commenced in Italy
+  between his own relatives and Octavianus. A short war, followed, which
+  was decided in favour of Octavianus before the arrival of Antony in
+  Italy. A reconciliation was effected, which was sealed by the marriage of
+  Antony with Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. A new division of the
+  Roman dominions was now made (in 40), by which Antony obtained the East,
+  Octavianus the West. After his return to Asia Antony gave himself up
+  entirely to Cleopatra, assuming the style of an Eastern despot, and so
+  alienating many of his adherents and embittering public opinion against
+  him at Rome. At length war was declared at Rome against the Queen of
+  Egypt, and Antony was deprived of his consulship and government. Each
+  party assembled its forces, and Antony lost, in the naval battle at
+  Actium, 31 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, the dominion of the world. He
+  followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, and on the arrival of Octavianus his
+  fleet and cavalry deserted, and his infantry was defeated. Deceived by a
+  false report of her death which Cleopatra had disseminated, he fell upon
+  his own sword (30 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>).&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Mommsen, <i>Roman History</i>; Plutarch,
+  <i>Lives</i> (translated by Langhorne); De Quincey, <i>Essay on the
+  Cæsars</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antonoma´sia</b>, in rhetoric, the use of the name of some office,
+  dignity, profession, science, or trade instead of the true name of the
+  person, as <!-- Page 194 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page194"></a>[194]</span>when <i>his majesty</i> is used for a
+  king, <i>his lordship</i> for a nobleman; or when, instead of Aristotle,
+  we say, <i>the philosopher</i>; or, conversely, the use of a proper noun
+  instead of a common noun; as, a <i>Solomon</i> for a wise man.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antony</b>, Mark. See <i>Antonius</i> (<i>Marcus</i>).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Antony, St.</b> See <i>Anthony</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´trim</b>, a county of Ireland, province of Ulster, in the
+  north-east of the island; area, 702,654 acres, of which about a third are
+  arable. The eastern and northern districts are comparatively mountainous,
+  with tracts of heath and bog, but no part rises to a great height. The
+  principal rivers are the Lagan and the Bann, which separate Antrim from
+  Down and Londonderry respectively. The general soil of the plains and
+  valleys is strong loam. Flax, oats, and potatoes are the principal
+  agricultural produce. Cattle, sheep, swine, and goats are extensively
+  reared. There are salt-mines and beds of iron-ore, which is worked and
+  exported. A range of basaltic strata stretches along the northern coast,
+  of which the celebrated Giant's Causeway is the most remarkable portion,
+  the vast aggregates of natural rock pillars there being very striking.
+  The interior also contains some scenes of picturesque beauty,
+  particularly the fertile valley of the Lagan, between Belfast and
+  Lisburn. Much of the scenery of the county, however, is dreary and
+  monotonous. Lough Neagh, the largest lake of the United Kingdom, is
+  principally in Antrim. Its waters are carried to the sea by the Bann,
+  which is of no use for navigation, being obstructed by weirs and rocks.
+  The spinning of linen and cotton yarn, and the weaving of linen and
+  cotton, are the staple manufactures, but the cotton manufacture is small
+  compared with that of linen. The principal towns are Belfast, Lisburn,
+  Ballymena, Larne, and Carrickfergus. In 1898 Belfast, the former capital,
+  was constituted into a county borough. About fifty per cent of the
+  inhabitants are Presbyterians, being the descendants of Scottish
+  immigrants of the seventeenth century. The county sends four members to
+  Parliament; Belfast returns nine. Pop. (excluding Belfast) 193,864
+  (1911).&mdash;The town of Antrim, at the north end of Lough Neagh, is a
+  small place with a pop. of 1826.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ant-thrush</b>, a name given to certain passerine or perching birds
+  having resemblances to the thrushes and supposed to feed largely on ants.
+  They all have longish legs, short wings, and a short tail. The true
+  ant-thrushes of the Old World belong to the genus Pitta. They chiefly
+  inhabit southern and south-eastern Asia and the Eastern Archipelago, but
+  are also found in Africa and Australia, and are birds of brilliant
+  plumage, exhibiting black, white, scarlet, blue, and green in vivid
+  contrast, there being generally no blending of colours by means of
+  intermediate hues. These birds are not now regarded as allied to the
+  thrushes, nor are they allied to the ant-birds, or ant-thrushes of the
+  New World, which live among close foliage and bushes. Some of these are
+  called ant-shrikes and ant-wrens. They belong to several genera.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ant´werp</b> (Du. and Ger. <i>Antwerpen</i>, Fr. <i>Anvers</i>),
+  the chief port of Belgium, and one of the first on the Continent, the
+  capital of a province of the same name, on the Scheldt, about 50 miles
+  from the open sea. It lies in a fertile plain at an abrupt turn of the
+  river, which is here from 160 to 280 yards wide, and has a depth varying
+  from 25 to 50 feet. It is strongly fortified, being completely surrounded
+  on the land side by a semicircular inner line of fortifications, the
+  defences being completed by an outer line of forts and outworks. Fine
+  quays have been constructed along the river banks. The general appearance
+  of the city is exceedingly picturesque, an effect produced by the
+  numerous churches, convents, and magnificent public buildings, the
+  stately antique houses that line its older thoroughfares, and the
+  profusion of beautiful trees with which it is adorned. The older streets
+  are tortuous and irregular, but those in the newer quarters are wide and
+  regular. Some of the squares are very handsome. The cathedral, with a
+  spire 400 feet high, one of the largest and most beautiful specimens of
+  Gothic architecture in Belgium, contains Rubens' celebrated masterpieces,
+  <i>The Descent from the Cross</i>, <i>The Elevation of the Cross</i>, and
+  <i>The Assumption</i>. The other churches of note are St. James's, St.
+  Andrew's, and St. Paul's, all enriched with paintings by Rubens, Vandyck,
+  and other masters. Among the other buildings of note are the exchange,
+  the town hall, the palace, the theatre, academy of the fine arts, picture
+  and sculpture galleries, &amp;c. The harbour accommodation is extensive
+  and excellent, large new docks and quays having been recently built, and
+  other works being under construction or contemplated. The shipping trade
+  is now very large, Antwerp being a great centre of the world's commerce,
+  and the goods being largely in transit. The entries of vessels in a year
+  aggregate over 13,000,000 tons. Much of the trade is with Britain. There
+  are numerous but not very important industries. Antwerp is mentioned as
+  early as the eighth century, and in the eleventh and twelfth it had
+  attained a high degree of prosperity. In the sixteenth century it is said
+  to have had a pop. of 200,000, and it had then an extensive foreign
+  trade. The wars between the Netherlands and Spain greatly injured its
+  commerce, which was almost ruined by the closing of the navigation of the
+  Scheldt in accordance with the peace of Westphalia (1648). It was only in
+  the nineteenth century that its prosperity revived. In the European War
+  <!-- Page 195 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page195"></a>[195]</span>(1914-8), the Germans, under General von
+  Beseler, entered Antwerp on 7th Oct., 1914, and remained there until
+  Nov., 1918. Pop. (1919), 322,857.&mdash;The province consists of a
+  fertile plain 1093 sq. miles in area, and has a pop. of over
+  1,000,000.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:15%;">
+      <a href="images/image074.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image074.jpg"
+      alt="altcaption" title="altcaption" /></a>
+    Anubis
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Anu´bis</b> (<i>Anepo</i> on the monuments), one of the deities of
+  the ancient Egyptians, the son of Osiris by Isis. The Egyptian sculptures
+  represent him with the head, or under the form, of a jackal, with long
+  pointed ears. His office was to conduct the souls of the dead from this
+  world to the next, and in the lower world he weighed the actions of the
+  deceased previous to their admission to the presence of Osiris.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anúpshahr</b> (<i>a</i>-nöp´shär), a town of Hindustan, United
+  Provinces, on the Ganges, 75 miles <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of
+  Delhi, a resort of Hindu pilgrims who bathe in the Ganges. Pop.
+  15,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anu´ra</b>, or <b>Anou´ra</b> (Gr. <i>an</i>, negative,
+  <i>oura</i>, a tail), an ord. of Batrachians which lose the tail when
+  they reach maturity, such as the frogs and toads.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anuradhapura.</b> See <i>Anarajapura</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´nus</b>, the opening at the lower or posterior extremity of the
+  alimentary canal through which the excrement or waste products of
+  digestion are expelled.</p>
+
+  <p><b>An´vil</b>, an instrument on which pieces of metal are laid for the
+  purpose of being hammered. The common smith's anvil is generally made of
+  seven pieces, namely, the core or body; the four corners for the purpose
+  of enlarging its base; the projecting end, which contains a square hole
+  for the reception of a set or chisel to cut off pieces of iron; and the
+  beak or conical end, used for turning pieces of iron into a circular
+  form, &amp;c. These pieces are each separately welded to the core and
+  hammered so as to form a regular surface with the whole. When the anvil
+  has received its due form, it is faced with steel, and is then tempered
+  in cold water. The smith's anvil is generally placed loose upon a wooden
+  block. The anvil for heavy operations, such as the forging of ordnance
+  and shafting, consists of a huge iron block deeply embedded, and resting
+  on piles of masonry.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anville</b>, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' (jän<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span> ba<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>p-t&#x113;st
+  b&#x14D;r-g&#x113;-nyön<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span> dän<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-v&#x113;l), a celebrated French
+  geographer, born 1697, died 1782; published a great number of maps and
+  writings illustrative of ancient and modern geography.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anynaks</b>, a negro tribe inhabiting the banks of the Upper Sobat
+  (a tributary of the White Nile), between the Egyptian Sudan and
+  Abyssinia. They rebelled against British authority in 1912.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anzacs</b>, a composite word used as the name of the British
+  colonial troops in the Gallipoli undertaking. The men being from
+  Australia and New Zealand, their organization was officially known as the
+  Australian-New Zealand Army Corps. The full title, however, was much too
+  cumbersome, and a clerk in one of the head-quarters offices at Zeitoun,
+  where the troops were in training, hit upon the word <i>Anzacs</i>,
+  formed from the initial letters of the long title. The Anzacs landed near
+  Gaba Tepe, Gallipoli, on the morning of 25th April, 1915, and had their
+  first encounter with the Germans on the Western Front on 6th May, 1916.
+  In 1916 the word Anzac was officially adopted by the War Office.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Anzin</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-zan<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town of France, department of Nord,
+  about 1 mile north-west of Valenciennes, in the centre of an extensive
+  coal-field, with blast-furnaces, forges, rolling-mills, foundries,
+  &amp;c. Pop. 14,325.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aonia</b>, in ancient geography a name for part of B&oelig;otia in
+  Greece, containing Mount Helicon and the fountain Aganippe, both haunts
+  of the muses.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´orist</b>, the name given to one of the tenses of the verb in
+  some languages (as the Greek), which expresses indefinite past time.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aor´ta</b>, in anatomy, the great artery or trunk of the arterial
+  system, proceeding from the left ventricle of the heart, and giving
+  origin to all the arteries except the pulmonary. It first rises towards
+  the top of the breast-bone, when it is called the <i>ascending aorta</i>;
+  then makes a great curve, called the transverse or <i>great arch of the
+  aorta</i>, whence it branches off to the head and upper extremities;
+  thence proceeding towards the lower extremities, under the name of the
+  <i>descending aorta</i>, it branches off to the trunk; and finally
+  divides into the two iliacs, which supply the pelvis and lower
+  extremities.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aosta</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-os´ta<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>; ancient <b>Augusta Prætoria</b>), a
+  town of north Italy, 50 miles <span class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Turin,
+  on the Dora-Baltea, with an ancient triumphal arch, remains of an
+  amphitheatre, &amp;c. Pop. 7000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aoudad</b> (a-ö´dad), the <i>Ammotr&#x103;gus
+  tragel&#x103;phus</i>, a quadruped allied to the sheep, most closely to
+  the mouflon, from which, however, it may be easily distinguished by the
+  heavy mane, commencing at the throat and falling as far as the knees. It
+  is a native of North Africa, inhabiting the loftiest and most
+  inaccessible rocks.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apaches</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-pä´chez), a warlike race of
+  North-American Indians, numbering between 5000 and 6000, and inhabiting
+  Arizona, New Mexico, and <!-- Page 196 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page196"></a>[196]</span>Oklahoma. The final surrender of the tribe
+  took place in 1886, but a few in Mexico still maintain their independence
+  and hostility to the whites. The name <i>Apache</i> was assumed by
+  Parisian hooligans, notorious for their criminal outrages.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´anage</b>, an allowance which the younger princes of a reigning
+  house in some European countries receive from the revenues of the
+  country, generally together with a grant of public domains, that they may
+  be enabled to live in a manner becoming their rank.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´atite</b>, a translucent but seldom transparent mineral, which
+  crystallizes in a regular six-sided prism, usually terminated by a
+  truncated six-sided pyramid. It passes through various shades of colour,
+  from white to yellow, green, blue, and occasionally red, scratches
+  fluor-spar but is scratched by felspar, and has a specific gravity of
+  about 3.5. It is a compound of calcium phosphate with calcium fluoride or
+  chloride. It occurs principally in igneous rocks, particularly diorites.
+  The very coarse-grained granites of Ontario contain apatite crystals of
+  corresponding size, which have been picked out as a source of artificial
+  phosphate manures. Apatite supplies to soils almost all the phosphorus
+  available for plants in a state of nature.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ape</b>, a common name of a number of quadrumanous animals
+  inhabiting the Old World (Asia and the Asiatic Islands, and Africa), and
+  including a variety of species. The word <i>ape</i> was formerly applied
+  indiscriminately to all quadrumanous mammals; but it is now limited to
+  the anthropoid or man-like monkeys. The family includes the chimpanzee,
+  gorilla, orang-outang, &amp;c., and has been divided into three genera,
+  Troglod&#x45E;tes, Simia, and Hylob&#x103;tes. See <i>Chimpanzee</i>,
+  <i>Gibbon</i>, <i>Gorilla</i>, <i>Monkey</i>, <i>Orang</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apeldoorn</b> (ä´pel-d&#x14D;rn), a town of Holland, province of
+  Guelderland, 17 miles north of Arnhem, with manufactures of paper. The
+  royal palace Loo is here. Pop. 44,474.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apelles</b> (a-pel´&#x113;z), the most famous of the painters of
+  ancient Greece and of antiquity, was born in the fourth century <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, probably at Colophon. Ephorus of Ephesus was
+  his first teacher, but attracted by the renown of the Sicyonian school he
+  went and studied at Sicyon. In the time of Philip he went to Macedonia,
+  and there a close friendship between him and Alexander the Great was
+  established. The most admired of his pictures was that of Venus rising
+  from the sea and wringing the water from her dripping locks. His portrait
+  of Alexander with a thunderbolt in his hand was no less celebrated. He
+  died about the end of the century. Among the anecdotes told of Apelles is
+  the one which gave rise to the Latin proverb, 'Ne sutor ultra
+  crepidam'&mdash;'Let not the shoemaker go beyond the shoe'. Having heard
+  a cobbler point out an error in the drawing of a shoe in one of his
+  pictures he corrected it, whereupon the cobbler took upon him to
+  criticize the leg, and received from the artist the famous reply.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´ennines</b> (Lat. <i>Mons Apenninus</i>), a prolongation of the
+  Alps, forming the 'backbone of Italy'. Beginning at Savona, on the Gulf
+  of Genoa, the Apennines traverse the whole of the peninsula and also
+  cross over into Sicily, the Strait of Messina being regarded merely as a
+  gap in the chain. The average height of the mountains composing the range
+  is about 4000 feet, and nowhere do they reach the limits of perpetual
+  snow, though some summits exceed 9000 feet in height. Monte Corno, called
+  also Gran Sasso d'Italia (Great Rock of Italy), which rises among the
+  mountains of the Abruzzi, is the loftiest of the chain, rising to the
+  height of 9541 feet, Monte Majella (9151) being next. Monte Gargano,
+  which juts out into the Adriatic from the <i>ankle</i> of Italy, is a
+  mountainous mass upwards of 5000 feet high, completely separated from the
+  main chain. On the Adriatic side the mountains descend more abruptly to
+  the sea than on the western or Mediterranean side, and the streams are
+  comparatively short and rapid. On the western side are the valleys of the
+  Arno, Tiber, Garigliano, and Volturno, the largest rivers that rise in
+  the Apennines, and the only ones of importance in the peninsular portion
+  of Italy. They consist almost entirely of limestone rocks, and are
+  exceedingly rich in the finest marbles. On the south slopes volcanic
+  masses are not uncommon. Mount Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the
+  continent of Europe, is an instance. The lower slopes are well clothed
+  with vegetation, the summits are sterile and bare.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apenrade</b> (ä´pen-rä-de), a seaport in Schleswig-Holstein, on a
+  fiord of the Little Belt, beautifully situated, and carrying on a
+  considerable fishing industry. Pop. 7800.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ape´rient</b>, a medicine which, in moderate doses, gently but
+  completely opens the bowels: examples, castor-oil, Epsom salts, senna,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apet´alous</b>, a botanical term applied to flowers or
+  flowering-plants which are destitute of petals or corolla.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aphanip´tera</b>, an order of wingless insects, composed of the
+  different species of fleas. See <i>Flea</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apha´sia</b> (Gr. <i>a</i>, not, and <i>phasis</i>, speaking), in
+  pathology, a symptom of certain morbid conditions of the nervous system,
+  in which the patient loses the power of expressing ideas by means of
+  words, or loses the appropriate use of words, the vocal organs the while
+  remaining intact and the intelligence sound. There is sometimes an entire
+  loss of words as connected with ideas, and sometimes only the loss of a
+  few. In one form of the disease, called <i>aphemia</i>, the <!-- Page 197
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page197"></a>[197]</span>patient can
+  think and write, but cannot speak; in another, called <i>agraphia</i>, he
+  can think and speak, but cannot express his ideas in writing. In a great
+  majority of cases, where post-mortem examinations have been made, morbid
+  changes have been found in the left frontal convolution of the brain.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aphe´lion</b> (Gr. <i>apo</i>, from, and <i>h&#x113;lios</i>, the
+  sun), that point of the orbit of the earth or any other planet which is
+  remotest from the sun.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aphe´mia.</b> See <i>Aphasia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aphides</b> (af´i-d&#x113;z). See <i>Aphis</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image075.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image075.jpg"
+      alt="Aphides" title="Aphides" /></a>
+    Aphides
+
+    <p class="poem">Cabbage-leaf Plant-louse (<i>Aphis
+    brassicæ</i>)&mdash;1, 2. Male, natural size and magnified. 3, 4,
+    Female, natural size and magnified.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Aphis</b>, a genus of insects (called plant-lice) of the ord.
+  Hemiptera, the type of the family Aph&#x12D;d&#x113;s. The species are
+  very numerous and destructive. The <i>A. rosæ</i> lives on the rose; the
+  <i>A. fabæ</i> on the bean; the <i>A. hum&#x16D;li</i> is injurious to
+  the hop, the <i>A. granaria</i> to cereals, and <i>A. lanig&#x115;ra</i>
+  or woolly aphis equally so to apple trees. The aphides are furnished with
+  an inflected beak, and feelers longer than the thorax. In the same
+  species some individuals have four erect wings and others are entirely
+  without wings. The feet are of the ambulatory kind, and the abdomen
+  usually ends in two horn-like tubes, from which is ejected the substance
+  called honey-dew, a favourite food of ants. (See <i>Ant</i>.) The aphides
+  illustrate parthenogenesis; hermaphrodite forms produced from eggs
+  produce viviparous wingless forms, which again produce others like
+  themselves, and thus multiply during summer, one individual giving rise
+  to millions. Winged sexual forms appear late in autumn, the females of
+  which, being impregnated by the males, produce eggs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apho´nia</b> (Gr. <i>a</i>, not, and <i>ph&#x14D;n&#x113;</i>,
+  voice), in pathology, the greater or less impairment, or the complete
+  loss of the power of emitting vocal sound. The slighter and less
+  permanent forms often arise from extreme nervousness, fright, and
+  hysteria. Slight forms of structural aphonia are of a catarrhal nature,
+  resulting from more or less congestion and tumefaction of the mucous and
+  submucous tissues of the larynx and adjoining parts. Severer cases are
+  frequently occasioned by serous infiltration into the submucous tissue,
+  with or without inflammation of the mucous membrane of the larynx and of
+  its vicinity. The voice may also be affected in different degrees by
+  inflammatory affections of the fauces and tonsils; by tumours in these
+  situations; by morbid growths pressing on or implicating the larynx or
+  trachea; by aneurisms; and most frequently by chronic laryngitis and its
+  consequences, especially thickening, ulceration, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aph´orism</b>, a brief, sententious saying, in which a
+  comprehensive meaning is involved, as 'Familiarity breeds contempt';
+  'Necessity has no law'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aphrodite</b> (af-ro-di´t&#x113;), the goddess of love among the
+  Greeks; counterpart of the Roman Venus. A festival called Aphrodisia was
+  celebrated in her honour in various parts of Greece, but especially in
+  Cyprus. See <i>Venus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aphthæ</b> (af´th&#x113;), a disease occurring especially in
+  infants, but occasionally seen in old persons, and consisting of small
+  white ulcers upon the tongue, gums, inside of the lips, and palate,
+  resembling particles of curdled milk: commonly called <i>thrush</i> or
+  <i>milk-thrush</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´pia</b>, the chief place and trading centre of the Samoa Islands,
+  on the north side of the Island of Upolu. It has a wireless station.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´piary</b> (Lat. <i>apis</i>, a bee), a place for keeping bees.
+  The apiary should be well sheltered from strong winds, moisture, and the
+  extremes of heat and cold. The hives should face the south or south-east,
+  and should be placed on shelves 2 feet above the ground, and about the
+  same distance from each other. There is no place for handling bees like
+  the open air in suitable weather, and for this reason bee-houses, or
+  bee-sheds, formerly in use, are not much in vogue now. As to the form of
+  the hives and the materials of which they should be constructed there are
+  great differences of opinion. The old dome-shaped straw <i>skep</i> is
+  still in general use among the cottagers of Great Britain. Its cheapness
+  and simplicity of construction are in its favour, while it is excellent
+  for warmth and ventilation; but it has the disadvantage that its interior
+  is closed to inspection, and the honey can only be got out by stupefying
+  the bees with the smoke of the common puff-ball or chloroform, or by
+  fumigating with sulphur, which entails the destruction of the swarm.
+  Wooden hives of square box-like form are now gaining general favour among
+  bee-keepers. They usually consist of a large breeding chamber below and
+  two sliding removable boxes called 'supers' above for the abstraction of
+  honey without disturbing the contents of the main chamber. It is of great
+  importance that the apiary should be situated in the neighbourhood of
+  good feeding <!-- Page 198 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page198"></a>[198]</span>grounds, such as gardens, clover-fields,
+  or heath-covered hills. When their stores of honey are removed, the bees
+  must be fed during the winter and part of spring with syrup or with a
+  solution consisting of 2 lb. loaf-sugar to a pint of water. In the early
+  spring slow and continuous feeding (a few ounces of syrup each day) will
+  stimulate the queen to deposit her eggs, by which means the colony is
+  rapidly strengthened and throws off early swarms. New swarms may make
+  their appearance as early as May and as late as August, but swarming
+  usually takes place in the intervening months. See <i>Bee-keeping</i>,
+  <i>Hives</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apic´ius</b>, Marcus Gabius, a Roman epicure in the time of
+  Augustus and Tiberius, who, having exhausted his vast fortune on the
+  gratification of his palate, and having <i>only</i> about £80,000 left,
+  poisoned himself that he might escape the misery of plain diet. The book
+  of cookery published under the title of <i>Apicius</i> was written by one
+  Cælius, and belongs to a much later date.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´pion</b>, a Greek grammarian, born in Egypt, lived in the reigns
+  of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, <span class="scac">A.D.</span>
+  15-54, and went to Rome to teach grammar and rhetoric. Among his works,
+  one or two fragments only of which remain, was one directed against the
+  Jews, which was replied to by Josephus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´pios</b>, a genus of leguminous climbing plants, producing edible
+  tubers on underground shoots. An American species (<i>A.
+  tuber&#x14D;sa</i>) has been used as a substitute for the potato, but its
+  tubers, though numerous, are small.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:22%;">
+      <a href="images/image076.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image076.jpg"
+      alt="altcaption" title="altcaption" /></a>
+    Apis
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>A´pis</b>, a bull to which divine honours were paid by the ancient
+  Egyptians, who regarded him as a symbol of Osiris. At Memphis he had a
+  splendid residence, containing extensive walks and courts for his
+  entertainment, and he was waited upon by a large train of priests, who
+  looked upon his every movement as oracular. He was not suffered to live
+  beyond twenty-five years, being secretly killed by the priests and thrown
+  into a sacred well. Another bull, characterized by certain marks, as a
+  black colour, a triangle of white on the forehead, a white
+  crescent-shaped spot on the right side, &amp;c., was selected in his
+  place. His birthday was annually celebrated, and his death was a season
+  of public mourning. See <i>Animal Worship</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´pis</b>, a genus of insects. See <i>Bee</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´pium</b>, a genus of umbelliferous plants, including celery.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aplacen´tal.</b> See <i>Placenta</i>, <i>Marsupialia</i>, and
+  <i>Echidna</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aplanat´ic.</b> See <i>Optics</i>, <i>Photography</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aplysia.</b> See <i>Sea-hare</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apoc´alypse</b> (Gr. <i>apokalypsis</i>, a revelation), the name
+  given to the last book of the New Testament, in the English version
+  called <i>The Revelation of St. John the Divine</i>. Although a Christian
+  work, the <i>Apocalypse</i> belongs to a class of literature dealing with
+  eschatological subjects and much in vogue among the Jews of the first
+  century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> It is generally believed that the
+  <i>Apocalypse</i> was written by the apostle John in his old age (<span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 95-97) in the Isle of Patmos, whither he had
+  been banished by the Roman Emperor Domitian. Anciently its genuineness
+  was maintained by Justin Martyr, Irenæus, Clement of Alexandria,
+  Tertullian, and many others; while it was doubted by Dionysius of
+  Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom, and, nearer our own times, by
+  Luther. The <i>Apocalypse</i> has been explained differently by almost
+  every writer who has ventured to interpret it, and has furnished all
+  sorts of sects and fanatics with quotations to support their creeds or
+  pretensions. The modern interpreters may be divided into three
+  schools&mdash;namely, the <i>historical school</i>, who hold that the
+  prophecy embraces the whole history of the Church and its foes from the
+  time of its writing to the end of the world; the <i>Præterists</i>, who
+  hold that the whole or nearly the whole of the prophecy has been already
+  fulfilled, and that it refers chiefly to the triumph of Christianity over
+  Paganism and Judaism; and the <i>Futurists</i>, who throw the whole
+  prophecy, except the first three chapters, forward upon a time not yet
+  reached by the Church&mdash;a period of no very long duration, which is
+  immediately to precede Christ's second coming. See
+  <i>Bible</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: R.&nbsp;H. Charles,
+  <i>Studies in the Apocalypse</i>; F.&nbsp;C. Burkitt, <i>Jewish and Christian
+  Apocalypses</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apocalyptic Number</b>, the mystic number 666 found in <i>Rev.</i>
+  xiii, 18. As early as the second century ecclesiastical writers found
+  that the name Antichrist was indicated by the Greek characters expressive
+  of this number. By Irenæus the word <i>Lateinos</i> was found in the
+  letters of the number, and the Roman Empire was therefore considered to
+  be Antichrist. Protestants generally believe it has reference to the
+  Papacy, and, on the other hand, Catholics connect it with Protestantism.
+  It is, however, almost certain that the number <!-- Page 199 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page199"></a>[199]</span>refers to Nero, for by
+  transliterating the Greek <i>Kaisar Neron</i> into Hebrew, and adding
+  together the sums denoted by the Hebrew letters, we obtain the number
+  666.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apocar´pous</b>, in botany, a term applied to such fruits as are
+  the produce of a single flower, and are formed of one carpel, or a number
+  of carpels free and separate from each other.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apoc´rypha</b> (Gr., 'things concealed or spurious'), a term
+  applied in the earliest churches to various sacred or professedly
+  inspired writings, sometimes given to those whose authors were unknown,
+  sometimes to those with a hidden meaning, and sometimes to those
+  considered objectionable. The term is specially applied to the fourteen
+  undermentioned books, which were written during the two centuries
+  preceding the birth of Christ. They were written, not in Hebrew, but in
+  Greek, and the Jews never allowed them a place in their sacred canon.
+  They were incorporated into the Septuagint, and thence passed to the
+  Vulgate. The Greek Church excluded them from the canon in 360 at the
+  Council of Laodicea. The Latin Church treated them with more favour, but
+  it was not until 1546 that they were formally admitted into the canon of
+  the Church of Rome by a decree of the Council of Trent. The Anglican
+  Church says they may be read for example of life and instruction of
+  manners, but that the Church does not apply them to establish any
+  doctrine. All other Protestant churches in Britain and America ignore
+  them. The following fourteen books form the Apocrypha of the English
+  Bible: The first and second <i>Books of Esdras</i>, <i>Tobit</i>,
+  <i>Judith</i>, the rest of the <i>Book of Esther</i>, the <i>Wisdom of
+  Solomon</i>, the <i>Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach</i>, or
+  <i>Ecclesiasticus</i>, <i>Baruch the Prophet</i>, the <i>Song of the
+  Three Children</i>, <i>Susanna and the Elders</i>, <i>Bel and the
+  Dragon</i>, the <i>Prayer of Manasses</i>, and the first and second
+  <i>Books of Maccabees</i>. Besides the Apocryphal books of the Old
+  Testament there are many spurious books composed in the earlier ages of
+  Christianity, and published under the names of Christ and his apostles,
+  or of such immediate followers as from their character or means of
+  intimate knowledge might give an apparent plausibility to such forgeries.
+  These writings comprise: 1st, the <i>Apocryphal Gospels</i>, which treat
+  of the history of Joseph and the Virgin before the birth of Christ, of
+  the infancy of Jesus, and of the acts of Pilate; 2nd, the <i>Apocryphal
+  Acts of the Apostles</i>; and 3rd, the <i>Apocryphal Apocalypses</i>,
+  none of which have obtained canonical recognition by any of the
+  churches.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Wace, <i>The
+  Apocrypha</i>; Porter, in Hastings' <i>Bible Dict.</i>, i, pp. 111-23;
+  W.&nbsp;D.&nbsp;F. Oesterley, <i>Book of the Apocrypha</i>; R.&nbsp;H. Charles,
+  <i>Religious Development between the Old and the New Testaments</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apocyna´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of dicotyledonous plants, having for
+  its type the genus Apoc&#x45E;num or dog-bane. The species have opposite
+  or sometimes whorled leaves without stipules; the corolla monopetalous,
+  hypogynous, and with the stamens inserted upon it; fruit two-celled. The
+  plants yield a milky juice, which is generally poisonous; several yield
+  caoutchouc, and a few edible fruits. The bark of several species is a
+  powerful febrifuge. To the order belongs the periwinkle (Vinca). See
+  <i>Cow-tree</i>, <i>Periwinkle</i>, <i>Oleander</i>, <i>Tanghin</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´oda.</b> See <i>Proteolepadidæ</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´odal Fishes</b>, the name applied to such malacopterous fishes
+  as want ventral fins. They constitute a small natural family, of which
+  the common eel is an example.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apo´dösis</b>, in grammar, the latter member of a conditional
+  sentence (or one beginning with <i>if</i>, <i>though</i>, &amp;c.)
+  dependent on the condition or <i>prot&#x103;sis</i>; as, if it rain
+  (<i>protasis</i>) I shall not go (<i>apodosis</i>).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´ogee</b> (-j&#x113;; Gr. <i>apo</i>, from, and <i>g&#x113;</i>,
+  the earth), that point in the orbit of the moon or a planet where it is
+  at its greatest distance from the earth; also the greatest distance of
+  the sun from the earth when the latter is in <i>aphelion</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apol´da</b>, a town of Germany, in Saxe-Weimar, at which woollen
+  goods are extensively manufactured. Pop. 22,610.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apollina´rians</b>, a sect of Christians who maintained the
+  doctrine that Christ had a human body and a human sensitive soul, but no
+  human rational mind, the Divine Logos (the Word) taking the place of the
+  mind, and that God was consequently united in him with the human body and
+  the sensitive soul. Apollinaris, the author of this opinion, was, from
+  <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 362 till at least <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 382, Bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, and a zealous
+  opposer of the Arians. As a man and a scholar he was highly esteemed, and
+  was among the most popular authors of his time. He formed a congregation
+  of his adherents at Antioch, and made Vitalis their bishop. The
+  <i>Apollinarians</i>, or <i>Vitalians</i>, as their followers were
+  called, soon spread their settlements in Syria and the neighbouring
+  countries, established several societies, with their own bishops, and one
+  even in Constantinople; but many adherents drifted away to Monophysitism,
+  and the sect soon became extinct.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apollina´ris Water</b>, a natural aerated water, belonging to the
+  class of acidulated soda waters, and derived from the Apollinarisbrunnen,
+  a spring in the valley of the Ahr, near the Rhine, in Rhenish Prussia,
+  forming a highly-esteemed beverage.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:26%;">
+      <a href="images/image077.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image077.jpg"
+      alt="Apollo Belvedere" title="Apollo Belvedere" /></a>
+    Apollo Belvedere (Vatican, Rome)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Apol´lo</b>, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (Latona), who, being
+  persecuted by the jealousy of Hera (Juno), after tedious wanderings and
+  <!-- Page 200 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page200"></a>[200]</span>nine days' labour, was delivered of him
+  and his twin sister, Art&#x115;mis (Diana), on the Island of Delos.
+  Skilled in the use of the bow, he slew the serpent Python on the fifth
+  day after his birth; afterwards, with his sister Art&#x115;mis, he killed
+  the children of Niob&#x113;. He aided Zeus in the war with the Titans and
+  the giants. He destroyed the Cyclopes, because they forged the
+  thunderbolts with which Zeus killed his son and favourite Asklepios
+  (Æsculapius). According to some traditions he invented the lyre, though
+  this is generally ascribed to Hermes (Mercury). The brightest creation of
+  polytheism, Apollo is also the most complex, and many aspects of the
+  people's life were reflected in his cult. He was originally the sun-god;
+  and though in Homer he appears distinct from Helios (the sun), yet his
+  real nature is hinted at even here by the epithet Ph&oelig;bus, that is,
+  the radiant or beaming. In later times the view was almost universal that
+  Apollo and Helios were identical. From being the god of light and purity
+  in a physical sense, he gradually became the god of moral and spiritual
+  light and purity, the source of all intellectual, social, and political
+  progress. He thus came to be regarded as the god of song and prophecy,
+  the god that wards off and heals bodily suffering and disease, the
+  institutor and guardian of civil and political order, and the founder of
+  cities. His worship was introduced at Rome at an early period, probably
+  in the time of the Tarquins. Among the ancient statues of Apollo that
+  have come down to us, the most remarkable is the one called <i>Apollo
+  Belvedere</i>, from the Belvedere Gallery in the Vatican at Rome. This
+  statue was discovered at Frascati in 1455, and purchased by Pope Julian
+  II, the founder of the Vatican museum. It is a copy of a Greek statue of
+  the third century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and dates probably from
+  the reign of Nero.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apollodo´rus</b>, a Greek writer who flourished 140 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> Among the numerous works he wrote on various
+  subjects, the only one extant is his <i>Bibliothec&#x113;</i>, which
+  contains a concise account of the mythology of Greece down to the heroic
+  age.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apollo´nius of Perga</b>, Greek mathematician, called the 'great
+  geometer', flourished about 240 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and was
+  the author of many works, only one of which, a treatise on <i>Conic
+  Sections</i>, partly in Greek and partly in an Arabic translation, is now
+  extant.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apollo´nius of Rhodes</b>, a Greek rhetorician and poet, flourished
+  about 230 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Of his various works we have
+  only the <i>Argonautica</i>, an epic poem of considerable merit, though
+  perhaps written with too much care and labour. It deals with the story of
+  the Argonautic expedition.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apollo´nius of Ty´ana</b>, in Cappadocia, a Pythagorean philosopher
+  who was born in the beginning of the Christian era, early adopted the
+  Pythagorean doctrines, abstaining from animal food and maintaining a
+  rigid silence for five years. He travelled extensively in Asia, professed
+  to be endowed with miraculous powers, such as prophecy and the raising of
+  the dead, and was on this account set up by some as a rival to Christ.
+  His ascetic life, wise discourses, and wonderful deeds obtained for him
+  almost universal reverence, and temples, altars, and statues were erected
+  to him. He died at Ephesus about the end of the first century. A
+  narrative of his strange career, containing many fables, with, perhaps, a
+  kernel of truth, was written by Philostratus about a century later.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apollo´nius of Tyre</b>, the hero of a tale which had an immense
+  popularity in the Middle Ages and which indirectly furnished the plot of
+  Shakespeare's <i>Pericles, Prince of Tyre</i>. The story, originally in
+  Greek, first appeared in the third century after Christ.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apoll´os</b>, a Jew of Alexandria, who learned the doctrines of
+  Christianity at Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla, became a preacher of
+  the gospel in Achaia and Corinth, and an assistant of Paul in his
+  missionary work. Some have regarded him as the author of the <i>Epistle
+  to the Hebrews</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apoll´yon</b> ('the Destroyer'), a name used in <i>Rev.</i> ix, 11
+  for the angel of the bottomless pit.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apologetics</b> (-jet´iks), this term, as used in Christian
+  theology, does not carry with it the idea of excuse or regretful
+  acknowledgment, but signifies a defensive or vindicatory statement, which
+  accords with its meaning in the original Greek. In the conventional
+  division of systematic theology apologetics comes first in order, and is
+  followed by the disciplines of dogmatics <!-- Page 201 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page201"></a>[201]</span>and ethics, which
+  expound Christian belief and Christian duty respectively. There is a
+  tendency, however, in the more recent treatment of systematic theology,
+  to include the defence or vindication of the various Christian doctrines
+  within the dogmatic scheme, leaving to apologetics&mdash;in so far as it
+  may be regarded as a separate discipline from dogmatics&mdash;the
+  discussion of such general themes as religion and revelation, authority
+  and inspiration, and the essence and truth of Christianity. Such
+  discussions belong essentially to what is now often called philosophy of
+  religion. The preference of the term philosophy of religion to that of
+  apologetics is indicative at once of the wider theological outlook of our
+  time and of the conciliatory, adaptable, and more sympathetic spirit in
+  which the Christian apologist approaches the new thought and
+  culture.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: A.&nbsp;B. Bruce,
+  <i>Apologetics</i>; R. Mackintosh, <i>First Primer of Apologetics</i>;
+  J.&nbsp;R. Illingworth, <i>Reason and Revelation</i>; A.&nbsp;E. Garvie, <i>A
+  Handbook of Christian Apologetics</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apologue</b> (ap´o-log), a story or relation of fictitious events
+  intended to convey some useful truths. It differs from a parable in that
+  the latter is drawn from events that take place among mankind, whereas
+  the apologue may be founded on supposed actions of brutes or inanimate
+  things. Æsop's fables are good examples of apologues.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apol´ogy,</b> a term at one time applied to a defence of one who is
+  accused, or of certain doctrines called in question. Of this nature is
+  the <i>Apology of Socrates</i> written by Plato; also a work with the
+  same title sometimes attributed to Xenophon. The name passed over to
+  Christian authors, who gave the name of apologies to the writings which
+  were designed to defend Christianity against the attacks and accusations
+  of its enemies, particularly the pagan philosophers, and to justify its
+  professors before the emperors. Of this sort were those by Justin Martyr,
+  Athenagoras, Tertullian, Tatian, and others.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aponeuro´sis</b>, in anatomy, a name of certain greyish-white
+  shining membranes, composed of interlacing fibres, sometimes continuous
+  with the muscular fibre, and differing from tendons merely in having a
+  flat form. They serve several purposes, sometimes attaching the muscles
+  to the bones, sometimes surrounding the muscle and preventing its
+  displacement, &amp;c. See <i>Anatomy</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apophthegm</b> (ap´o-them), a short pithy sentence or maxim. Julius
+  Cæsar wrote a collection of them, and we have a collection by Francis
+  Bacon.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apoph´yllite</b>, a species of mineral of a foliated structure and
+  pearly lustre, called also fish-eye stone. It belongs to the Zeolite
+  family, and is a hydrated silicate of lime and potash, containing also
+  fluorine.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´oplexy</b>, sudden abolition of consciousness, followed after
+  recovery of consciousness by persistent disturbance of sensation or
+  voluntary motion, from suspension of the functions of the cerebrum,
+  resulting from blocking or rupture of the blood-vessels of the brain. In
+  a complete apoplexy the person falls suddenly, is unable to move his
+  limbs or to speak, gives no proof of seeing, hearing, or feeling, and the
+  breathing is stertorous or snoring, like that of a person in deep sleep.
+  The premonitory symptoms of this dangerous disease are drowsiness,
+  giddiness, dulness of hearing, frequent yawning, disordered vision, noise
+  in the ears, vertigo, &amp;c. It is most frequent between the ages of
+  fifty and seventy. A large head, short neck, full chest, sanguine and
+  plethoric constitution, and corpulency are generally considered signs of
+  predisposition to it; but the state of the heart's action, with a
+  plethoric condition of the vascular system, has a more marked influence.
+  Out of sixty-three cases carefully investigated only ten were fat and
+  plethoric, twenty-three being thin, and the rest of ordinary habit. The
+  common predisposing causes are disease or senile changes in the
+  blood-vessels and affections of the valves of the heart; but other
+  factors may possibly play some part either as exciting or predisposing
+  causes, such as long and intense thought, continued anxiety, habitual
+  indulgence of the temper and passions, sedentary and luxurious living,
+  sexual indulgence, intoxication, &amp;c. More or less complete recovery
+  from a first and second attack is common, but a third is almost
+  invariably fatal.&mdash;Cf. Grasset, <i>Traité du système
+  nerveux</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aposiope´sis</b>, in rhetoric, a sudden break or stop in speaking
+  or writing, usually for mere effect or a pretence of unwillingness to say
+  anything on a subject; as, 'his character is such&mdash;but it is better
+  I should not speak of <i>that</i>', or Virgil's "Quos ego&mdash;sed motos
+  praestat componere fluctus" (<i>Aen.</i> I, 135).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apos´tasy</b> (Gr. <i>apostasis</i>, a standing away from), a
+  renunciation of opinions or practices and the adoption of contrary ones,
+  usually applied to renunciation of religious opinions. It is always an
+  expression of reproach. What one party calls <i>apostasy</i> is termed by
+  the other <i>conversion</i>. Catholics, also, call those persons
+  <i>apostates</i> who forsake a religious order or renounce their
+  religious vows without a lawful dispensation.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A posterio´ri.</b> See <i>A priori</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apos´tles</b> (literally, persons sent out, from the Gr.
+  <i>apostellein</i>, to send out), the twelve men whom Jesus selected to
+  attend him during his ministry, and to promulgate his religion. Their
+  names were as follows: Simon Peter, and Andrew his brother; James, and
+  John his brother, <!-- Page 202 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page202"></a>[202]</span>sons of Zebedee; Philip; Bartholomew;
+  Thomas; Matthew; James, the son of Alpheus; Lebbæus his brother, called
+  <i>Judas</i> or <i>Jude</i>; Simon, the Canaanite; and Judas Iscariot. To
+  these were subsequently added Matthias (chosen by lot in place of Judas
+  Iscariot) and Paul. The Bible gives the name of apostle to Barnabas also,
+  who accompanied Paul on his missions (<i>Acts</i>, xiv, 14). In a wider
+  sense those preachers who first taught Christianity in heathen countries
+  are sometimes termed apostles; for example, St. Denis, the apostle of the
+  Gauls; St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany; St. Augustine, the apostle
+  of England; Francis Xavier, the apostle of the Indies; Adalbert of
+  Prague, apostle of Prussia Proper. During the life of the Saviour the
+  apostles more than once showed a misunderstanding of the object of His
+  mission, and during His sufferings evinced little courage and firmness of
+  friendship for their great and benevolent Teacher. After His death they
+  received the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, that they might be
+  enabled to fulfil the important duties for which they had been chosen.
+  According to one interpretation of <i>Matthew</i>, xvi, 18, Christ seems
+  to appoint St. Peter the first of the apostles; and the Pope claims
+  supreme authority from the power which Christ thus gave to St. Peter, of
+  whom all the Popes, according to the Catholic dogma, are successors in an
+  uninterrupted line.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apostles' Creed</b>, a well-known formula or declaration of
+  Christian belief, formerly believed to be the work of the apostles
+  themselves, but it can only be traced to the fourth century. See
+  <i>Creed</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apostol´ic</b>, or <b>Apostol´ical</b>, pertaining or relating to
+  the apostles.&mdash;<i>Apostolic Church</i>, the Church in the time of
+  the apostles, constituted according to their design. The name is also
+  given to the four churches of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem,
+  and is claimed by the Roman Catholic Church, and occasionally by the
+  Episcopalians.&mdash;<i>Apostolic Constitutions</i> and <i>Canons</i>, a
+  collection of regulations attributed to the apostles, but generally
+  supposed to be spurious. They appeared in the fourth century, are divided
+  into eight books, and consist of rules and precepts relating to the duty
+  of Christians, and particularly to the ceremonies and discipline of the
+  Church.&mdash;<i>Apostolic fathers</i>, the Christian writers who during
+  any part of their lives were contemporary with the apostles. There are
+  five&mdash;Clement, Barnabas, Hermas, Ignatius,
+  Polycarp.&mdash;<i>Apostolic king</i>, a title granted by the Pope to the
+  kings of Hungary, first conferred on St. Stephen, the founder of the
+  royal line of Hungary, on account of what he accomplished in the spread
+  of Christianity.&mdash;<i>Apostolic see</i>, the see of the Popes or
+  Bishops of Rome: so called because the Popes profess themselves the
+  successors of St. Peter, its founder.&mdash;<i>Apostolic succession</i>,
+  the uninterrupted succession of bishops, and, through them, of priests
+  and deacons (these three orders of ministers being called the
+  <i>apostolical orders</i>), in the Church by regular ordination from the
+  first apostles down to the present day. All Episcopal churches hold
+  theoretically, and the Roman Catholic Church and many members of the
+  English Church strictly, that such succession is essential to the
+  officiating priest, in order that grace may be communicated through his
+  administrations.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apostol´ics</b>, <b>Apostolici</b>, or <b>Apostolic Brethren</b>,
+  the name given to certain sects who professed to imitate the manners and
+  practice of the apostles. The last and most important of these sects was
+  founded about 1260 by Gerhard Segarelli of Parma. They went barefooted,
+  begging, preaching, and singing throughout Italy, Switzerland, and
+  France; announced the coming of the kingdom of heaven and of purer times;
+  denounced the papacy, and its corrupt and worldly church; and inculcated
+  the complete renunciation of all worldly ties, of property, settled
+  abode, marriage, &amp;c. This society was formally abolished, 1286, by
+  Honorius IV. In 1300 Segarelli was burned as a heretic, but another chief
+  apostle appeared&mdash;Dolcino, a learned man of Milan. In self-defence
+  they stationed themselves in fortified places whence they might resist
+  attacks. After having devastated a large tract of country belonging to
+  Milan they were subdued, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1307, by the
+  troops of Bishop Raynerius, in their fortress Zebello, in Vercelli, and
+  almost all destroyed. Dolcino was burned. The survivors afterwards
+  appeared in Lombardy and in the south of France as late as 1368.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apo´str&#x14F;ph&#x113;</b> (Gr., 'a turning away from'), a
+  rhetorical figure by which the orator changes the course of his speech,
+  and makes a short impassioned address to one absent as if he were
+  present, or to things without life and sense as if they had life and
+  sense. The same term is also applied to a comma when used to contract a
+  word, or to mark the possessive case, as in 'John's book'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apothecaries' weight</b>, the weight used in dispensing drugs, in
+  which the pound (lb.) is divided into 12 ounces (<a
+  href="images/ounce.png"><img src="images/ounce.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2.5ex" alt="ounce" /></a>), the ounce into 8 drachms (<a
+  href="images/drachm.png"><img src="images/drachm.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2.5ex" alt="drachm" /></a>), the drachm into 3 scruples (<a
+  href="images/scruple.png"><img src="images/scruple.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2.5ex" alt="scruple" /></a>), and the scruple into 20
+  grains (grs.), the grain being equivalent to that in avoirdupois
+  weight.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apoth´ecary</b>, in a general sense, one who keeps a shop or
+  laboratory for preparing, compounding, and vending medicines, and for the
+  making up of medical prescriptions. In England the term was long applied
+  (as to some little extent still) to a regularly licensed class of medical
+  practitioners, being such persons as were members of, <!-- Page 203
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page203"></a>[203]</span>or licensed
+  by, the <i>Apothecaries' Company</i> in London. The apothecaries of
+  London were at one time ranked with the grocers, with whom they were
+  incorporated by James I in 1606. In 1617, however, the apothecaries
+  received a new charter as a distinct company. They were not yet regarded
+  as having the right to prescribe, but only to dispense, medicines; but in
+  1703 the House of Lords conferred that right on them, and they afterwards
+  became a well-established branch of the medical profession. In 1815 an
+  Act was passed providing that no person should practise as an apothecary
+  in any part of England or Wales unless after serving an apprenticeship of
+  five years with a member of the society, and receiving a certificate from
+  the society's examiners. As in country places every practitioner must be
+  to some extent an apothecary, this Act gave the society an undue
+  influence over the medical profession. Dissatisfaction therefore long
+  prevailed, but nothing of importance was done till the Medical Act of
+  1858, which brought the desired reform. The Apothecaries' Society,
+  governed by a master, two wardens, and twenty-two assistants, has
+  prescribed a course of medical instruction and practice which candidates
+  for the licence of the society must pass through. Since 1874
+  apprenticeship has not been necessary.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apothe´cium</b>, in botany, the receptacle of lichens, consisting
+  of the spore-cases or asci, and of the paraphyses or barren threads.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apotheo´sis</b> (deification), a solemnity among the ancients by
+  which a mortal was raised to the rank of the gods. The custom of placing
+  mortals, who had rendered their countrymen important services, among the
+  gods was very ancient among the Greeks. The Romans, for several
+  centuries, deified none but Romulus, and first imitated the Greeks in the
+  fashion of frequent apotheosis after the time of Cæsar. From this period
+  apotheosis was regulated by the decrees of the senate, and accompanied
+  with great solemnities. Almost all the Roman emperors were deified.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appalachian Mountains</b> (ap-pa-l&#x101;´chi-an), also called
+  <b>Alleghanies</b>, a vast mountain range in N. America extending for
+  1300 miles from Cape Gaspé on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, s.w. to Alabama.
+  The system has been divided into three great sections: the
+  <i>northern</i> (including the Adirondacks, the Green Mountains, the
+  White Mountains, &amp;c.), from Cape Gaspé to New York; the
+  <i>central</i> (including a large portion of the Blue Ridge, the
+  Alleghanies proper, and numerous lesser ranges), from New York to the
+  valley of the New River; and the <i>southern</i> (including the
+  continuation of the Blue Ridge, the Black Mountains, the Smoky Mountains,
+  &amp;c.), from the New River southwards. The chain consists of several
+  ranges generally parallel to each other, the altitude of the individual
+  mountains increasing on approaching the south. The highest peaks rise
+  over 6600 feet (not one at all approaching the snow-level), but the mean
+  height is about 2500 feet. Lake Champlain is the only lake of great
+  importance in the system, but numerous rivers of considerable size take
+  their rise here. Magnetite, hematite, and other iron ores occur in great
+  abundance, and the coal-measures are among the most extensive in the
+  world. Gold, silver, lead, and copper are also found in small quantities,
+  while marble, limestone, fire-clay, gypsum, and salt abound. The forests
+  covering many of the ranges yield large quantities of valuable timber,
+  such as sugar-maple, white birch, beech, ash, oak, cherry tree, white
+  poplar, white and yellow pine, &amp;c., while they form the haunts of
+  large numbers of bears, panthers, wild cats, and wolves.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appalachicola</b> (-chi-c&#x14D;´la), a river of the United States,
+  formed by the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers, which unite near the
+  northern border of Florida; length, about 100 miles; it flows into the
+  Gulf of Mexico, and is navigable.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appam</b>, the name of a British merchant ship of the
+  Elder-Dempster line captured by the German raiding cruiser <i>Moewe</i>
+  (Sea-gull) on 16th Jan., 1916. A German prize crew succeeded in bringing
+  the <i>Appam</i> westward, and was able to pass the British cordon off
+  Chesapeake Bay and to reach Norfolk, Virginia. The vessel was carrying,
+  among others, an ex-governor of Sierra Leone and some military officers
+  from the west coast of Africa, but the passengers were at once released
+  and allowed to return to England.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appanage.</b> See <i>Apanage</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appa´rent</b>, among mathematicians and astronomers, applied to
+  things as they appear to the eye, in distinction to what they really are.
+  Thus they speak of apparent motion, magnitude, distance, height, &amp;c.
+  The <i>apparent magnitude</i> of a heavenly body is the angle subtended
+  at the spectator's eye by the diameter of that body, and this, of course,
+  depends on the distance as well as the real magnitude of the body;
+  <i>apparent motion</i> is the motion a body seems to have in consequence
+  of our own motion, as the motion of the sun from east to west,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appari´tion</b>, according to a belief held by some, a disembodied
+  spirit manifesting itself to mortal sight; according to the common theory
+  an illusion involuntarily generated, by means of which figures or forms,
+  not present to the actual sense, are nevertheless depicted with a
+  vividness and intensity sufficient to create a temporary belief in their
+  reality. Such illusions are now generally held to result from an
+  over-excited brain, a strong imagination, or some bodily malady. In
+  perfect health the mind not only possesses a control over its powers, but
+  the <!-- Page 204 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page204"></a>[204]</span>impressions of the external objects alone
+  occupy its attention, and the play of imagination is consequently
+  checked, except in sleep, when its operations are relatively more feeble
+  and faint. But in an unhealthy state of the mind, when its attention is
+  partly withdrawn from the contemplation of external objects, the
+  impressions of its own creation, or rather reproduction, will either
+  overpower or combine themselves with the impressions of external objects,
+  and thus generate illusions which in the one case appear alone, while in
+  the other they are seen projected among those external objects to which
+  the eyeball is directed. This theory explains satisfactorily a large
+  majority of the stories of apparitions; still there are some which it
+  seems insufficient to account for.&mdash;See <i>Crystal Gazing</i>,
+  <i>Hypnotism</i>, <i>Spiritualism</i>.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography:</span> F. Podmore, <i>Modern Spiritualism</i>;
+  F.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;H. Myers, <i>Human Personality, and its survival of bodily
+  Death</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appeal´</b>, in legal phraseology, the removal of a cause from an
+  inferior tribunal to a superior, in order that the latter may revise, and
+  if it seem needful reverse or amend, the decision of the former. The
+  supreme court of appeal for Great Britain is the House of Lords. Certain
+  defects in connection with the settlement of appeals by this body were
+  remedied by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876, while a new court of
+  appeal was established as a division of the Supreme Court of Judicature.
+  In Ireland there is also a Court of Appeal similar to that in England;
+  while in Scotland the highest court is the Court of Session. From the
+  decisions of the Indian and all colonial courts, and the courts of the
+  Isle of Man and the Channel Islands, appeal may be made to the Privy
+  Council. Appeals from the decisions of justices of a borough or county
+  may be made to the quarter-sessions of either respectively, in cases of
+  summary jurisdiction, or upon a point of law to divisional courts of the
+  High Court of Justice, which was established at the same time as the
+  Court of Appeal; from quarter-sessions, county and other inferior courts,
+  to the High Court. In Scotland the Court of Session reviews the decisions
+  of the county courts, there being an appeal from its decisions to the
+  House of Lords.&mdash;In France the court of final appeal in all cases is
+  the <i>cour de cassation</i>.&mdash;In the United States the system of
+  appeals differs in different States.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appearance in law</b> is the first formal act incumbent on a
+  defendant who intends to resist the claim in the writ or action served
+  upon him. It consists usually in lodging in court a written notice
+  stating simply that the defendant intends to dispute the claim. Failure
+  to enter appearance within the prescribed time entails decree passing
+  against the defendant in absence, but procedure exists in all courts for
+  enabling such decrees to be recalled within a limited period. Appearance
+  should be entered under protest if it is desired to dispute the
+  jurisdiction of the court or the regularity of the writ.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appendicitis</b>, a disease which has become well known in recent
+  times through the more accurate methods of diagnosis and the increased
+  safety of surgical operation. It is caused by inflammation of the
+  vermiform appendix, a narrow, hollow, worm-like body from 2 to 4 inches
+  long, opening at one end into the large intestine and forming a
+  cul-de-sac at the other. In appendicitis the inflammation begins in the
+  appendix and frequently spreads to the neighbouring parts, causing
+  inflammation of the cæcum, a condition known as perityphlitis. The most
+  frequent cause of appendicitis is a hard piece of insufficiently-digested
+  food becoming lodged in the appendix. Occasionally orange pips, grape
+  stones, &amp;c., are the cause, though not so often as is popularly
+  supposed.</p>
+
+  <p>The symptoms are: abdominal pain (especially low down at the right
+  side), fever, nausea, vomiting, constipation; these varying according to
+  the intensity of the attack. Three types are recognized:</p>
+
+  <p>1. A mild type, when the symptoms subside in a few days and the
+  patient soon <i>appears</i> to be in normal health.</p>
+
+  <p>2. A severe type, in which, if left alone, the appendix bursts into
+  the abdominal cavity and death from general peritonitis results.</p>
+
+  <p>3. Another type, in which the inflammation in the appendix leads to
+  the formation of a localized abscess, sometimes of great size.</p>
+
+  <p>The treatment for the severe and for the abscess-forming types is
+  essentially immediate operation; while for the mild type operation may
+  either be performed at once or after the attack has passed off. Anyone
+  who has had one attack of appendicitis is liable to have it repeated in a
+  much severer form, hence the advisability of having the appendix removed
+  after the first attack, however slight. During an attack, prior to
+  surgical interference, complete rest in bed is essential. Abdominal pain
+  should be treated with frequent hot fomentations, and the diet should be
+  reduced to small quantities of fluid.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appenzell</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>p'pen-tsel), a Swiss canton, wholly
+  enclosed by the canton of St. Gall; area, 162 sq. miles. It is divided
+  into two independent portions or half-cantons, Outer-Rhoden, which is
+  Protestant, and Inner-Rhoden, which is Catholic. It is an elevated
+  district, traversed by branches of the Alps; Mount Säntis in the centre
+  being 8250 feet high. It is watered by the Sitter and by several smaller
+  affluents of the Rhine. Glaciers occupy the higher valleys. Flax, hemp,
+  grain, fruit, &amp;c., are produced, but the wealth of Inner-Rhoden lies
+  in its herds <!-- Page 205 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page205"></a>[205]</span>and flocks&mdash;that of Outer-Rhoden in
+  its manufactures of embroidered muslins, gauzes, cambrics, and other
+  cotton stuffs; also of silk goods and paper. The town of Appenzell (Ger.
+  <i>Abtenzelle</i>, abbot's cell) is the capital of Inner-Rhoden, on the
+  Sitter, with about 4300 inhabitants. Trogen is the capital of
+  Outer-Rhoden, Herisau the largest town (pop. 11,000). Pop. Outer-Rhoden,
+  60,000; Inner-Rhoden, 15,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apperception.</b> See <i>Metaphysics</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´petite</b>, in its widest sense, means the natural desire for
+  gratification, either of the body or the mind; but is generally applied
+  to the recurrent and intermittent desire for food. A healthy appetite is
+  favoured by work, exercise, plain living, and cheerfulness; absence of
+  this feeling, or defective appetite (<i>anorexia</i>), indicates diseased
+  action of the stomach, or of the nervous system or circulation, or it may
+  result from vicious habits. Depraved appetite (<i>pica</i>), or a desire
+  for unnatural food, as chalk, ashes, dirt, soap, &amp;c., depends often
+  in the case of children on vicious tastes or habits; in grown-up persons
+  it may be symptomatic of dyspepsia, pregnancy or chlorosis. Insatiable or
+  canine appetite or voracity (<i>bulimia</i>) when it occurs in childhood
+  is generally symptomatic of worms; in adults common causes are pregnancy,
+  vicious habits, and indigestion caused by stomach complaints or gluttony,
+  when the gnawing pains of disease are mistaken for hunger.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´pian</b>, a Roman historian of the second century after Christ,
+  a native of Alexandria, was governor and manager of the imperial revenues
+  under Hadrian, Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, in Rome. He compiled in Greek
+  a Roman history, from the earliest times to those of Augustus, in
+  twenty-four books, of which only eleven have come down to us. Appian's
+  style is not attractive, but he gives us much valuable information.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appia´ni</b>, Andrea, a painter, born at Milan in 1754, died in
+  1817. As a fresco-painter he excelled every contemporary painter in
+  Italy. He displayed his skill particularly in the cupola of Santa Maria
+  di S. Celso at Milan, and in the paintings representing the legend of
+  Cupid and Psyche prepared for the walls and ceiling of the villa of the
+  Archduke Ferdinand at Monza (1795). Napoleon appointed him royal court
+  painter, and portraits of almost the whole of the imperial family were
+  painted by him.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appian Way</b>, called <i>Regina Viarum</i>, the Queen of Roads:
+  the oldest and most renowned Roman road, was constructed during the
+  censorship of Appius Claudius Cæcus (313-310 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>). It was built with large square stones on a
+  raised platform, and was made direct from the gates of Rome to Capua, in
+  Campania. It was afterwards extended through Samnium and Apulia to
+  Brundusium, the modern Brindisi. It was partially restored by Pius VI,
+  and between 1850 and 1853 it was excavated by order of Pius IX as far as
+  the eleventh milestone from Rome.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appius Claudius</b>, surnamed <i>Cæcus</i>, or the blind, a Roman
+  patrician, elected censor 312 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, which
+  office he held four years. While in this position he made every effort to
+  weaken the power of the Plebs, and constructed the road and aqueduct
+  named after him. He was subsequently twice consul, and once dictator. In
+  his old age he became blind, but in 280 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he
+  made a famous speech in which he induced the senate to reject the terms
+  of peace fixed by Pyrrhus. He is the earliest Roman writer of prose and
+  verse whose name we know.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appius Claudius Crassus</b>, one of the Roman <i>decemvirs</i>,
+  appointed 451 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> to draw up a new code of
+  laws. He and his colleagues plotted to retain their power permanently,
+  and at the expiry of their year of office refused to give up their
+  authority. The people were incensed against them, and the following
+  circumstances led to their overthrow. Appius Claudius had conceived an
+  evil passion for Virginia, the daughter of Lucius Virginius, then absent
+  with the army in the war with the Æqui and Sabines. At the instigation of
+  Appius, Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, claimed Virginia as the
+  daughter of one of his own female slaves, and the <i>decemvir</i>, acting
+  as judge, decided that in the meantime she should remain in the custody
+  of the claimant. Virginius, hastily summoned from the army, appeared with
+  his daughter next day in the forum, and appealed to the people; but
+  Appius Claudius again adjudged her to Marcus Claudius. Unable to rescue
+  his daughter, the unhappy father stabbed her to the heart. The
+  <i>decemvirs</i> were deposed by the indignant people 449 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, and Appius Claudius died in prison or was
+  strangled.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apple</b> (<i>Pyrus Malus</i>), the fruit of a well-known tree of
+  the nat. ord. Rosaceæ, or the tree itself. The apple belongs to the
+  temperate regions of the globe, over which it is almost universally
+  spread and cultivated. The tree attains a moderate height, with spreading
+  branches; the leaf is ovate; and the flowers are produced from the wood
+  of the former year; but more generally from very short shoots or spurs
+  from wood of two years' growth. The original of all the varieties of the
+  cultivated apple is the wild crab, which has a small and extremely sour
+  fruit, and is a native of most of the countries of Europe. Apples have
+  been used as food and cultivated for upwards of 4000 years, and were
+  probably introduced into Britain by the Romans. The greater number of the
+  varieties now grown have, however, been cultivated only within the last
+  century or so. To the facility of multiplying varieties by grafting is to
+  be ascribed the amazing extension <!-- Page 206 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page206"></a>[206]</span>of the sorts of apples,
+  the number of varieties known being over 2000. Many of the more marked
+  varieties are known by general names, as pippins, codlins, rennets,
+  &amp;c. The oldest apple in cultivation is a variety called 'the lady',
+  which originated in Britain early in the seventeenth century. Apples for
+  the table are characterized by a firm juicy pulp, a sweetish acid
+  flavour, regular form, and beautiful colouring; those for cooking by the
+  property of forming by the aid of heat into a pulpy mass of equal
+  consistency, as also by their large size and keeping properties; apples
+  for cider must have a considerable degree of astringency, with richness
+  of juice. The propagation of apple trees is accomplished by seeds,
+  cuttings, suckers, layers, budding, or grafting, the last being almost
+  the universal practice. The tree thrives best in an open situation where
+  it will receive the maximum amount of sunshine and protection from cold
+  winds. The protection is particularly necessary in districts where cold
+  winds and frosts prevail during the flowering season. The wood of the
+  apple tree or the common crab is hard, close-grained, and often richly
+  coloured, and is suitable for turning and cabinet work. The fermented
+  juice (<i>verjuice</i>) of the crab is employed in cookery and medicine.
+  Apples are largely imported into Great Britain from the Continent and the
+  United States and Canada. The designation apple, with various modifying
+  words, is applied to a number of fruits having nothing in common with the
+  apple proper, as alligator-apple, love-apple, &amp;c.&mdash;Cf. A.&nbsp;E.
+  Wilkinson, <i>The Apple</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´pleby</b>, county town of Westmorland, England, on the Eden, 28
+  miles <span class="scac">S.S.E.</span> of Carlisle. Disfranchised in
+  1832, it gave its name to a parliamentary division of the county until
+  1918. It has an old castle, the keep of which, called Cæsar's Tower, is
+  still fairly well preserved. Pop. (1921), 1786.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apple of discord</b>, according to the story in Greek mythology,
+  the golden apple thrown into an assembly of the gods by the goddess of
+  discord (Eris) bearing the inscription 'for the fairest'.
+  Aphrod&#x12B;t&#x113; (Venus), Hera (Juno), and Ath&#x113;n&#x113;
+  (Minerva) became competitors for it, and its adjudication to the first by
+  Paris so inflamed the jealousy and hatred of Hera to all of the Trojan
+  race (to which Paris belonged) that she did not cease her machinations
+  till Troy was destroyed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apple of Sodom</b>, a fruit described by old writers as externally
+  of fair appearance, but turning to ashes when plucked; probably the fruit
+  of <i>Sol&#x101;num sodom&#x113;um</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´pleton</b>, a city of Wisconsin, United States, 100 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> of Milwaukee by rail. It has many flour, paper,
+  saw, and woollen mills, and other manufactories, and is the seat of a
+  collegiate institute and of the Lawrence University. Pop. (1920),
+  19,561.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appliqué</b>, in needlework or metal-work, a design or feature
+  having the appearance of being independently made and attached to the
+  surface of the object it adorns. When the ornament is sunk into the body
+  of the object it is called <i>inlay</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appoggiatura</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>p-poj-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-tö´ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), in music, a small additional note of
+  embellishment preceding the note to which it is attached, and taking away
+  from the principal note a portion of its time.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appoint´ment</b>, a term in English law signifying the exercise of
+  some power, reserved in a conveyance or settlement, of burdening,
+  selling, or otherwise disposing of the lands or property conveyed. Such a
+  reserved power is termed a <i>power of appointment</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appomatt´ox Court-house</b>, a village in Virginia, United States,
+  20 miles <span class="scac">E.</span> of Lynchburg. Here, on 9th April,
+  1865, General Lee surrendered to General Grant, and thus virtually
+  concluded the American Civil War.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apponyi</b>, Albert, Count, Hungarian statesman, born in 1846.
+  Leader of the Conservative National party, he joined the Liberal party in
+  1899, and in 1901 was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies. He
+  was Minister of Education in 1906 and 1917, and again in 1918. In 1920 he
+  was at the head of the delegation which came to Paris to settle the
+  peace-terms with Hungary.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apposi´tion</b>, in grammar, the relation in which one or more
+  nouns or substantive phrases or clauses stand to a noun or pronoun, which
+  they explain or characterize without being predicated of it, and with
+  which they agree in case; as Cicero, the <i>orator</i>, lived in the
+  first century before Christ; the opinion, <i>that a severe winter is
+  generally followed by a good summer</i>, is a vulgar error.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apprai´ser</b>, a person employed to value property, and duly
+  licensed to do so by licence taken out every year. The valuation must be
+  duly set down in writing, and there is a certain fixed scale of charges
+  for the appraiser's services.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apprehen´sion</b>, the seizing of a person as a criminal whether
+  taken in the act or on suspicion, and with or without a warrant, a
+  warrant being necessary when the person apprehending is not present at
+  the commission of the offence. See <i>Arrest</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appren´tice</b>, one bound by indenture to serve some particular
+  individual or company of individuals for a specified time, in order to be
+  instructed in some art, science, or trade. In England a person under the
+  age of twenty-one cannot bind himself apprentice, and accordingly the
+  usual way is for a relation or friend to become a contracting party to
+  the indenture, and engage for the faithful performance of the agreement.
+  <!-- Page 207 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page207"></a>[207]</span>An infant cannot be bound apprentice by
+  his friends without his own expressed consent. In Scotland a boy under
+  fourteen or a girl under twelve years of age cannot become a party to an
+  indenture without the concurrence of a parent or guardian; above that age
+  they may enter into an indenture of themselves, and thereby become
+  personally bound. An indenture is determinable by the consent of the
+  parties to it, and also by the death, bankruptcy, or retirement from
+  business of the master. <i>Parish apprentices</i> are bound out by the
+  guardians of the poor to suitable persons, and in this case the consent
+  of the apprentice is not necessary. The system of apprenticing by
+  indenture is now much less common than formerly.&mdash;Cf. R.&nbsp;A. Bray,
+  <i>Boy Labour and Apprenticeship</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Approach´es</b>, in field-engineering, an old-fashioned name for
+  what are now called 'communication trenches'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appropria´tion.</b> See <i>Impropriation</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appro´ver</b> (ap-prö´v&#x117;r), in English law, any accomplice in
+  a crime who is allowed by the judges of jail-delivery to become king's
+  evidence, that is, to be examined in evidence against his accomplices, it
+  being understood that the approver will himself be pardoned upon making a
+  full and open confession.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Approxima´tion</b>, a term used in mathematics to signify a
+  continual approach to a quantity required, when no process is known for
+  arriving at it exactly. Although, by such an approximation, the exact
+  value of a quantity cannot be discovered, yet, in practice, it may be
+  found sufficiently correct; thus the diagonal of a square, whose sides
+  are represented by unity, is &radic;2, the exact value of which quantity
+  cannot be obtained; but its approximate value may be substituted in the
+  nicest calculations.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Appuleius.</b> See <i>Apuleius</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´ricot</b> (<i>Prunus Armeni&#x103;ca</i>), a fruit of the plum
+  genus which was introduced into Europe from Asia more than three
+  centuries before Christ, and into England from Italy in 1524. It is a
+  native of Armenia and other parts of Asia and also of Africa. The apricot
+  is a low tree, of rather crooked growth, with somewhat heart-shaped
+  leaves and sessile flowers. The fruit is sweet, more or less juicy, of a
+  yellowish colour, about the size of a peach, and resembling it in
+  delicacy of flavour. Some of the best varieties are 'Frogmore Early',
+  'Moorpark', 'Royal', &amp;c. The wood is coarsely grained and soft.
+  Apricot trees are chiefly raised against walls, and are propagated by
+  budding and grafting.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apries</b> (&#x101;´pri-&#x113;z), Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, the
+  eighth king of the twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He succeeded his father
+  Psammetichus in 590 or 589 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> The Jews under
+  Zedekiah revolted against their Babylonian oppressors and allied
+  themselves with Apries, who was, however, unable to raise the siege of
+  Jerusalem, which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. A still more unfortunate
+  expedition against Cyrene brought about revolt in his army, in
+  endeavouring to suppress which Apries was defeated and slain about 570
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>A´pril</b> (Lat. <i>Apr&#x12B;lis</i>, from <i>aperire</i>, to
+  open, because the buds open at this time), the fourth month of the year.
+  The strange custom of making fools on 1st April by sending people upon
+  errands which end in disappointment, and raise a laugh at the expense of
+  the person sent, prevails throughout Europe. It has been connected with
+  the miracle plays of the Middle Ages, in which the Saviour was
+  represented as having been sent, at this period of the year, from Annas
+  to Caiaphas and from Pilate to Herod. This explanation, however, is
+  perhaps itself a piece of April fooling. In France the party fooled is
+  called <i>un poisson d'avril</i>, 'an April fish'; in Scotland, a 'gowk',
+  or cuckoo.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A prio´ri</b> ('from what goes before'), a phrase applied to a mode
+  of reasoning by which we proceed from general principles or notions to
+  particular cases, as opposed to <i>a posteriori</i> ('from what comes
+  after') reasoning, by which we proceed from knowledge previously
+  acquired. Mathematical proofs are of the <i>a priori</i> kind; the
+  conclusions of experimental science are <i>a posteriori</i>. It is also a
+  term applied to knowledge independent of all experience.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/image078.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image078.jpg"
+      alt="Apse" title="Apse" /></a>
+    Apse&mdash;Church of Sta Maria in Trastevere, Rome
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Apse</b>, a portion of any building forming a termination or
+  projection semicircular or polygonal in plan, and having a roof forming
+  externally a semi-dome or semi-cone, or having ridges corresponding to
+  the angles of the polygon; <!-- Page 208 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page208"></a>[208]</span>especially such a semicircular or
+  polygonal recess projecting from the east end of the choir or chancel of
+  a church, in which the altar is placed. The apse was developed from the
+  somewhat similar part of the Roman basilicæ, in which the magistrate
+  (<i>prætor</i>) sat.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´sheron</b>, a peninsula on the western shore of the Caspian Sea
+  formed by the eastern extremity of the Caucasus Mountains. It extends for
+  about 40 miles, and terminates in Cape Apsheron. It yields immense
+  quantities of petroleum. See <i>Baku</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:15%;">
+      <a href="images/image079.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image079.jpg"
+      alt="Apsides" title="Apsides" /></a>
+    <i>aa</i>, Apsides
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Apsis</b>, pl. <b>Ap´sides</b> or <b>Apsi´des</b>, in astronomy,
+  one of the two points of the orbit of a heavenly body situated at the
+  extremities of the major axis of the ellipse formed by the orbit, one of
+  the points being that at which the body is at its greatest and the other
+  that at which it is at its least distance from its primary. In regard to
+  the earth and the other planets, these two points are called the aphelion
+  and perihelion; and in regard to the moon they are called the apogee and
+  perigee. The line of the apsides has a slow forward angular motion in the
+  plane of the planet's orbit, being retrograde only in the case of Venus.
+  This in the earth's orbit produces the anomalistic year. See
+  <i>Anomaly</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apt</b> (ät; ancient <b>Apta Julia</b>), a town of Southern France,
+  department Vaucluse, 32 miles east by south of Avignon, with an ancient
+  Gothic cathedral. Pop. 6336.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´tera</b> (Gr. <i>apteros</i>, wingless), wingless insects, such
+  as lice and certain others, popularly called <i>Spring-tails</i>, and
+  composed of two groups, Collembola and Thysanura.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:24%;">
+      <a href="images/image080.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image080.jpg"
+      alt="Apteryx" title="Apteryx" /></a>
+    Apteryx (<i>Apteryx Mantelli</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ap´teryx</b>, a nearly extinct genus of cursorial birds,
+  distinguished from the ostriches by having three toes with a rudimentary
+  hallux, which forms a spur. They are natives of the South Island of New
+  Zealand; are totally wingless and tailless, with feathers resembling
+  hairs; about the size of a small goose; with long curved beak something
+  like that of a curlew. They are entirely nocturnal, feeding on insects,
+  worms, and seeds.&mdash;<i>A. austr&#x101;lis</i>, called
+  <i>Kiwi-kiwi</i> from its cry, is the best-known species.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apuleius</b>, or <b>Appuleius</b> (ap-&#x16B;-l&#x113;´us), author
+  of the celebrated satirical romance in Latin called the <i>Golden
+  Ass</i>, born at Madaura, in Numidia, about <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 125; the time of his death is unknown. He
+  studied at Carthage, then at Athens, where he became warmly attached to
+  the Platonic philosophy, and finally at Rome. Returning to Carthage he
+  married a rich widow, whose relatives accused him of gaining her consent
+  by magic, and the speech by which he successfully defended himself is
+  still extant. Besides his <i>Golden Ass</i> (which is also known as the
+  <i>Metamorphoses</i>, and which was translated into English by W.
+  Adlington in 1566), with its fine episode of Cupid and Psyche, he was
+  also the author of many works on philosophy and rhetoric, some of which
+  are still extant.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apu´lia</b>, a department or division in the south-east of Italy,
+  on the Adriatic, composed of the provinces of Foggia, Bari, and Lecce;
+  area, 7376 sq. miles. Pop. 2,237,791.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apure</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-pö´r&#x101;), a navigable river of
+  Venezuela, formed by the junction of several streams which rise in the
+  Andes of Colombia; it falls into the Orinoco.&mdash;<i>Apure</i>, one of
+  the States of Venezuela, has a pop. of 30,008.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Apurimac</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-pö-r&#x113;-ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k´), a river of South America, which
+  rises in the Andes of Peru, and, being augmented by the Vilcamayu and
+  other streams, forms the Ucayale, one of the principal head-waters of the
+  Amazon.&mdash;The department of Apurimac in Peru has an area of 8187 sq.
+  miles, and a pop. of 177,887.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aq´ua</b> (Lat. for water), a word much used in pharmacy and old
+  chemistry.&mdash;<i>Aqua fortis</i> (= strong water), a weak and impure
+  nitric acid. It has the power of eating into steel and copper, and hence
+  is used by engravers, etchers, &amp;c.&mdash;<i>Aqua marina</i>, a fine
+  variety of beryl. See <i>Aquamarine</i>.&mdash;<i>Aqua regia</i>, or
+  <i>aqua regalis</i> (= royal water), a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric
+  acids, with the power of dissolving gold and other precious
+  metals.&mdash;<i>Aqua Tofana</i>, a poisonous fluid made about the middle
+  of the seventeenth century by an Italian woman Tofana or Toffania, who is
+  said to have procured the death of no fewer than 600 individuals by means
+  of it. It consisted chiefly, it is supposed, of a solution of
+  crystallized arsenic.&mdash;<i>Aqua vitæ</i> (= water of life), or simply
+  <i>aqua</i>, a name familiarly applied to the <i>whisky</i> of Scotland,
+  corresponding in meaning with the <i>usquebaugh</i> of Ireland, the
+  <i>eau de vie</i> (brandy) of the French. <!-- Page 209 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page209"></a>[209]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Aq´uamarine</b>, a name given to some of the finest varieties of
+  beryl of a sea-green or blue colour. Varieties of topaz are also so
+  called.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aqua´rium</b>, a vessel or series of vessels constructed wholly or
+  partly of glass and containing salt or fresh water in which are kept
+  living specimens of marine or fresh-water animals along with aquatic
+  plants. In principle the aquarium is based on the interdependence of
+  animal and vegetable life; animals consuming oxygen and exhaling carbonic
+  acid, plants reversing the process by absorbing carbonic acid and giving
+  out oxygen. The aquarium must consequently be stocked both with plants
+  and animals, and for the welfare of both something like a proper
+  proportion should exist between them. The simplest form of aquarium is
+  that of a glass vase; but aquaria on a larger scale consist of a tank or
+  a number of tanks with plate-glass sides and stone floors, and contain
+  sand and gravel, rocks, sea-weeds, &amp;c. By improved arrangements light
+  is admitted from above, passing through the water in the tanks and
+  illuminating their contents, while the spectator is in comparative
+  darkness. The most important aquarium is at the zoological station at
+  Naples. There is also one, on a smaller scale, at Plymouth, maintained by
+  the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Aquaria on a
+  large scale have been constructed in connection with public parks or
+  gardens, and the name is also given to places of public entertainment in
+  which large aquaria are exhibited.&mdash;Cf. G.&nbsp;C. Bateman,
+  <i>Fresh-water Aquaria</i>; M.&nbsp;J. Newbigin, <i>The Aquarium</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aquarius</b> (Lat., the Water-bearer), a sign of the zodiac which
+  the sun enters about the 21st of Jan.: it now enters the formerly
+  coincident constellation Aquarius about a month later.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aquatint</b>, a method of etching on copper by which a beautiful
+  effect is produced, resembling a fine drawing in sepia or Indian ink. The
+  special character of the effect is the result of sprinkling
+  finely-powdered resin or mastic over the plate, and causing this to
+  adhere by heat, the design being previously etched, or being now traced
+  out. The nitric acid (aqua fortis) acts only in the interstices between
+  the particles of resin or mastic, thus giving a slightly granular
+  appearance.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aqua Tofa´na.</b> See <i>Aqua</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aqua vitæ.</b> See <i>Aqua</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aq´ueduct</b> (Lat. <i>aqua</i>, water, <i>duco</i>, to lead), an
+  artificial channel or conduit for the conveyance of water from one place
+  to another: more particularly applied to structures for conveying water
+  from distant sources for the supply of large cities. Aqueducts were
+  extensively used by the Romans, and many of them still remain in
+  different places on the Continent of Europe, some being still in use. The
+  Pont du Gard in the south of France, 14 miles from Nîmes, is still nearly
+  perfect, and is a grand monument of the Roman occupation of this country.
+  The ancient aqueducts were constructed of stone or brick, sometimes
+  tunnelled through hills, and carried over valleys and rivers on arches.
+  The Pont du Gard spans the River Gard, and was built to convey to Nîmes
+  the water of springs rising in the neighbourhood of the modern Uzés. It
+  is built of great blocks of stone; its height is 160 feet; length of the
+  highest arcade, 882 feet. The aqueduct at Segovia, originally built by
+  the Romans, has in some parts two tiers of arcades 100 feet high, is 2921
+  feet in length, and is one of the most admired works of antiquity. One of
+  the most remarkable aqueducts of modern times is that constructed by
+  Louis XIV for conveying the waters of the Eure to Versailles. The
+  extensive application of metal pipes has rendered the construction of
+  aqueducts of the old type less necessary; but what may be called aqueduct
+  bridges are still frequently constructed in connection with canals and
+  also with water-works for the supply of towns. Where canals exist canal
+  aqueducts are common, since the water in any section of a canal must be
+  kept on a perfect level.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image081.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image081.jpg"
+      alt="Aqueduct" title="Aqueduct" /></a>
+    Aqueduct at Segovia
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Many large towns now derive a supply of water from sources at a great
+  distance, and in <!-- Page 210 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page210"></a>[210]</span>bringing the water to the place where it
+  is required much tunnelling is often necessary as well as digging and
+  excavating in the open. A tunnel furnishing a water channel may be driven
+  through miles of rock strata of various kinds, and in many places it may
+  have to be lined with concrete or cement wholly or partially, brick-work
+  also being much employed. Instead of tunnelling, the channel may be
+  formed on the plan of 'cut and cover', being first cut in the ground and
+  then covered over, leaving the surface much in the same state as before.
+  And, of course, iron piping is often used in connection with such
+  tunnels, the water being conveyed so far in an aqueduct of one kind, and
+  so far in one of another kind, according as is deemed most suitable. In
+  the Thirlmere aqueduct, which brings water to Manchester, there are 45
+  miles of cast-iron pipes, 37 miles of cut-and-cover work, and 14 miles of
+  tunnels proper. Pipes are naturally laid where valleys occur, and the
+  water simply enters the pipes at one end and flows out at the other by
+  the influence of gravity, there being a suitable chamber constructed at
+  either end of the pipe line where there is a junction with a section of
+  tunnel. Aqueduct bridges were first introduced into England in the
+  eighteenth century, the first being the aqueduct at Barton Bridge
+  conveying the Bridgewater Canal across the Irwell. In such bridges the
+  water-channel may be made of cast iron. There are great aqueduct bridges
+  on some of the Indian canals, such as the Nadrai bridge on the Lower
+  Ganges Canal. In America water is often carried long distances in
+  <i>flumes</i> or open wooden channels, supported, where necessary, on
+  trestles. Great wooden pipes are also common there, built of large staves
+  and hooped round with iron or steel. These often rest on the surface of
+  the ground without any covering.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C. Herschel, <i>Frontinus</i>; Wegmann,
+  <i>Water-supply of City of New York</i>; J.&nbsp;F. Bateman, <i>The Manchester
+  Waterworks</i>; J.&nbsp;M. Gale, <i>The Glasgow Waterworks</i>; A. Prescott
+  Folwell, <i>Water Supply Engineering</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aq´ueous humour</b>, the limpid watery fluid which fills the space
+  between the cornea and the crystalline lens in the eye.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aqueous rocks</b>, composed of matter deposited by water from
+  suspension or solution. Called also <i>sedimentary rocks</i>. See
+  <i>Geology</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aquifolia´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of plants; the holly tribe. The
+  species consist of trees and shrubs, and the order includes the common
+  holly (<i>Ilex Aquifolium</i>) and the <i>I. paraguayensis</i>, or
+  Paraguayan tea tree.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aquila</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k´w&#x113;-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town in Italy, capital of the
+  province of Aquila, 55 miles north-east of Rome, the seat of a bishop, an
+  attractive and interesting town with spacious streets and handsome
+  palaces. In 1703 and 1706 it suffered severely from earthquakes. Pop.
+  22,050.&mdash;The province has an area of 2493 sq. miles. Pop.
+  422,634.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aq´uila</b>, a companion of St. Paul (<i>Acts</i>, xviii, 2, 3).
+  Expelled from Rome, he and his wife, Priscilla, settled in Corinth, where
+  Paul stayed with them. They were converted to Christianity by the
+  Apostle.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aq´uila</b>, a native of Pontus, flourished about <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 130. He became a Jewish proselyte, and made a
+  close and accurate translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek,
+  extant only in fragments.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aq´uila</b>, name of a constellation in the northern hemisphere.
+  See <i>Constellations</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aquila´ria.</b> See <i>Aloes-wood</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aquile´gia.</b> See <i>Columbine</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aquileia</b> (ak-wi-l&#x113;´ya), an ancient city near the head of
+  the Adriatic Sea, in Upper Italy, built by the Romans in 182 or 181 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> Commanding the <span class="scac">N.E.</span>
+  entrance into Italy, it became important as a commercial centre and a
+  military post, and was frequently the base of imperial campaigns. In 425
+  it was destroyed by Attila. The modern Aquileia or Aglar is a small place
+  of some 1700 inhabitants, consisting chiefly of fishermen.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aquinas</b> (a-kw&#x12B;´nas; i.e. of Aquino), St. Thomas, a
+  celebrated scholastic divine, born in 1225 or 1227, most probably at the
+  castle of Rocco Secca, near Aquino. His father was Count of Aquino, in
+  the kingdom of Naples. He was educated at the Benedictine monastery of
+  Monte Casino, and at the University of Naples, where he studied for six
+  years. About the age of seventeen he entered a convent of Dominicans,
+  much against the wishes of his family. He attended the lectures of
+  Albertus Magnus at Cologne, in whose company he visited Paris in 1245 or
+  1246. Here he became involved in the dispute between the university and
+  the Begging Friars as to the liberty of teaching, advocating the rights
+  claimed by the latter with great energy. In 1257 he received the degree
+  of doctor from the Sorbonne, and began to lecture on theology, rapidly
+  acquiring the highest reputation. In 1263 he is found at the Chapter of
+  the Dominicans in London. In 1268 he was in Italy, lecturing in Rome,
+  Bologna, and elsewhere. In 1271 he was again in Paris lecturing to the
+  students; in 1272 he was professor at Naples. In 1263 he had been offered
+  the archbishopric of Naples by Clement IV, but refused the offer. He
+  died, in 1274, on his way to Lyons to attend a general council for the
+  purpose of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches. He was called, after the
+  fashion of the times, the <i>angelic doctor</i>, and was canonized by
+  John XXII. The most important of his numerous works, which are all
+  written in Latin, are the <i>Summa Theologica</i>, <!-- Page 211 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page211"></a>[211]</span>which, although only
+  professing to treat of theology, is in reality a complete and systematic
+  summary of the knowledge of the time, and the <i>Summa Philosophica</i>.
+  The work of St. Thomas consisted in an effort to harmonize the new
+  scientific teachings of the age&mdash;derived from Arabian and Byzantine
+  sources&mdash;with the doctrine of the Church, and to refute heresy. His
+  disciples were known as <i>Thomists</i>. See <i>Thomism</i>.&mdash;Cf. P.
+  Conway, <i>St. Thomas Aquinas</i>; and article in <i>Hastings'
+  Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aquita´nia</b>, later <b>Aquitaine</b>, a Roman province in Gaul,
+  which comprehended the countries on the coast from the Garonne to the
+  Pyrenees, and from the sea to Toulouse. It was brought into connection
+  with England by the marriage of Henry II with Eleanor, daughter of the
+  last Duke of Aquitaine. The title to the province was for long disputed
+  by England and France, but it was finally secured by the latter
+  (1453).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arabah´</b>, a deep rocky valley or depression in north-western
+  Arabia, between the Dead Sea and Gulf of Akabah, a sort of continuation
+  of the Jordan valley.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arabesque</b> (ar´a-besk), a species of ornamentation for enriching
+  flat surfaces, often consisting of fanciful figures, human or animal,
+  combined with floral forms. There may be said to be three periods and
+  distinctive varieties of arabesque&mdash;(<i>a</i>) the Roman or
+  Græco-Roman, introduced into Rome from the East when pure art was
+  declining; (<i>b</i>) the Arabesque of the Moors as seen in the Alhambra,
+  introduced by them into Europe in the Middle Ages; (<i>c</i>) Modern
+  Arabesque, which took its rise in Italy in the Renaissance period of art.
+  The arabesques of the Moors, who are prohibited by their religion from
+  representing animal forms, consist essentially of complicated ornamental
+  designs based on the suggestion of plant-growth, combined with extremely
+  complex geometrical forms.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arabgir</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>b-g&#x113;r´), or <b>Arabkir´</b>, a town
+  in Asia, 147 miles <span class="scac">W.S.W.</span> of Erzerum, noted for
+  its manufacture of silk and cotton goods. Pop. between 20,000 and
+  30,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ara´bia</b>, a vast peninsula in the S.W. of Asia, bounded on the
+  <span class="scac">N.</span> by the great Syro-Babylonian plain, <span
+  class="scac">N.E.</span> by the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, <span
+  class="scac">S.</span> or <span class="scac">S.E.</span> by the Indian
+  Ocean, and <span class="scac">S.W.</span> by the Red Sea and Gulf of
+  Suez. Its length from <span class="scac">N.W.</span> to <span
+  class="scac">S.E.</span> is about 1800 miles, its mean breadth about 600
+  miles, its area approximately 1,200,000 sq. miles, its population
+  probably less than 5,000,000. Roughly described, it exhibits a central
+  table-land surrounded by a series of deserts, with numerous scattered
+  oases, while around this is a line of mountains parallel to and
+  approaching the coasts, and with a narrow rim of low grounds
+  (<i>teh&#x101;ma</i>) between them and the sea. In its general features
+  Arabia resembles the Sahara, of which it may be considered a
+  continuation. Like the Sahara, it has its wastes of loose sand, its
+  stretches of bare rocks and stones, its mountains devoid of vegetation,
+  its oases with their wells and streams, their palm-groves and cultivated
+  fields&mdash;islands of green amidst the surrounding desolation. Rivers
+  proper there are none. By the ancients the whole peninsula was broadly
+  divided into three great sections&mdash;Arabia Petræa (containing the
+  city Petra), Deserta (desert), and Felix (happy). The first and last of
+  these answer roughly to the modern divisions of the region of Sinai in
+  the <span class="scac">N.W.</span> and Yemen in the <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span>, while the name <i>Deserta</i> was vaguely given
+  to the rest of the country. (See <i>Explorations, Modern</i>.) The
+  principal divisions at the present are Madian in the north-west; south of
+  this, Hejaz, Assir, and Yemen, all on the Red Sea, the last named
+  occupying the south-western part of the peninsula, and comprising a
+  <i>teh&#x101;ma</i> or maritime lowland on the shores of the Red Sea,
+  with an elevated inland district of considerable breadth; Hadramaut on
+  the south coast; Oman occupying the south-east angle; El-Hasa and Koveït
+  on the Persian Gulf; El-Hamad (Desert of Syria), Nefûd, and Jebel Shammar
+  in the north; Nejd, the Central Highlands, which occupies a great part of
+  the interior of the country, while south of it is the great unexplored
+  Dahkna or sandy desert. Between 1902-5 a joint commission of British and
+  Turkish officers laid down a boundary line defining the limits between
+  Turkish territory and that of the independent Arab tribes in political
+  relations with Great Britain. Nearly the whole of Southern Arabia came
+  within the sphere of British influence. Madian belongs to Egypt; the
+  Hejaz, Yemen, Bahr-el-Hasa, Koveït, &amp;c., were more or less under the
+  suzerainty of Turkey until 1914. The rest of the country is ruled by
+  independent chiefs&mdash;sheikhs, emirs, and imâms&mdash;while the title
+  of sultan has been assumed by the chief of the Wahabis in Nejd, the
+  sovereign of Oman (who has a subsidy from the Indian Government), and
+  some petty princes in the south of the peninsula. On 9th June, 1916, the
+  Grand Shereef of Mecca declared himself independent of the Turkish
+  Government, and an Arab revolt spread rapidly. The Grand Shereef Hussein
+  then announced to the Moslem world that the Shereefate of Mecca was
+  henceforth independent, and on 4th Nov., 1916, he had himself formally
+  proclaimed King, or Sultan, of Arabia. The status of the whole of Arabia
+  was determined by the Peace Conference. (See <i>Hejaz</i>,
+  <i>Mesopotamia</i>, <i>Syria</i>, <i>Sykes-Picot Treaty</i>.) The chief
+  towns are Mecca, the birthplace of Mahomet; Medina, the place to which he
+  fled from Mecca (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 622), and where he is
+  buried; Hodeida, a seaport exporting Mocha coffee; <!-- Page 212 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page212"></a>[212]</span>Aden, on the <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> coast, belonging to Britain; Sana, the capital
+  of Yemen; and Muscat, the capital of Oman. The chief towns of the
+  interior are Haïl, the residence of the Emir of Jebel Shammar; Oneizah,
+  under the same ruler; and Rijadh, capital of Nejd and Hasa. The most
+  flourishing portions of Arabia are in Oman, Hadramaut, and Nejd. In the
+  two former are localities with numerous towns and villages and settled
+  industrious populations like that of India or Europe.</p>
+
+  <p>The climate of Arabia in general is marked by extreme heat and
+  dryness. Aridity and barrenness characterize both high and low grounds,
+  and the date-palm is often the only representative of vegetable
+  existence. There are districts which in the course of the year are hardly
+  refreshed by a single shower of rain. Forests there are few or none.
+  Grassy pastures have their place supplied by steppe-like tracts, which
+  are covered for a short season with aromatic herbs, serving as food for
+  cattle. The date-palm furnishes the staple article of food; the cereals
+  are wheat, barley, maize, and millet; various sorts of fruit flourish;
+  coffee and many aromatic plants and substances, such as gum-arabic,
+  benzoin, mastic, balsam, aloes, myrrh, frankincense, &amp;c., are
+  produced. There are also cultivated in different parts of the peninsula,
+  according to the soil and climate, beans, rice, lentils, tobacco, melons,
+  saffron, colocynth, poppies, olives, &amp;c. Sheep, goats, oxen, the
+  horse, the camel, ass, and mule supply man's domestic and personal wants.
+  Among wild animals are gazelles, ostriches, the lion, panther, hyena,
+  jackal, &amp;c. Among mineral products are saltpetre, mineral pitch,
+  petroleum, salt, sulphur, and several precious stones, as the carnelian,
+  agate, and onyx. The people of Arabia, according to their own traditions,
+  are derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs and the naturalized Arabs or
+  Mustarab. They are leading either a settled agricultural life or a
+  nomadic existence. In Southern Arabia the Jews form a large element in
+  the towns' population. Commerce is largely in the hands of foreigners,
+  among whom the Jews and Banians (Indian merchants) are the most
+  numerous.</p>
+
+  <p>The history of Arabia previous to Mahomet is obscure. The earliest
+  inhabitants are believed to have been of the Semitic race. Jews in great
+  numbers migrated into Arabia after the destruction of Jerusalem, and,
+  making numerous proselytes, indirectly favoured the introduction of the
+  doctrines of Mahomet. With his advent the Arabians revolted and united
+  for the purpose of extending the new creed; and under the
+  caliphs&mdash;the successors of Mahomet&mdash;they attained great power,
+  and founded large and powerful kingdoms in three continents. (See
+  <i>Caliphs</i>.) On the fall of the caliphate of Bagdad in 1258 the
+  decline set in, and on the expulsion of the Moors from Spain the foreign
+  rule of the Arabs came to an end. In the sixteenth century Turkey subdued
+  Hejaz and Yemen, and received the nominal submission of the tribes
+  inhabiting the rest of Arabia. The allegiance of Hejaz was renounced
+  early in the European War; but Yemen achieved its independence in the
+  seventeenth century, and maintained it till 1871, when the territory
+  again fell into the hands of the Turks. In 1839 Aden was occupied by the
+  British. Oman early became virtually independent of the caliphs, and grew
+  into a well-organized kingdom. In 1507 its capital, Maskat or Muscat, was
+  occupied by the Portuguese, who were not driven out till 1659. The
+  Wahabis appeared towards the end of the eighteenth century, and took an
+  important part in the political affairs of Arabia, but their progress was
+  interrupted by Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, and they suffered a complete
+  defeat by Ibrahim Pasha. He extended his power over most of the country,
+  but the events of 1840 in Syria compelled him to renounce all claims to
+  Arabia. The Hejaz thus again became subject to Turkish sway, and until
+  1914 Turkey continually extended its rule not only over Yemen, but also
+  over the district of El-Hasa on the Persian Gulf.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir R.&nbsp;F. Burton, <i>Pilgrimage to Medina
+  and Mecca</i>; E. Reclus, <i>Les Arabes</i>; C.&nbsp;M. Doughty, <i>Arabia
+  Deserta</i>, and <i>Wanderings in Arabia</i>; G.&nbsp;W. Bury, <i>Arabia
+  Infelix</i>; S.&nbsp;M. Zwemer, <i>Arabia, the Cradle of Islam.</i></p>
+
+  <p><i>Arabian Language and Literature.</i>&mdash;The Arabic language
+  belongs to the Semitic dialects, among which it is distinguished for its
+  richness, softness, and high degree of development. By the spread of
+  Islam it became the sole written language and the prevailing speech in
+  all South-Western Asia and Eastern and Northern Africa, and for a time in
+  Southern Spain, in Malta, and in Sicily; and it is still used as a
+  learned and sacred language wherever Islam is spread. Almost a third part
+  of the Persian vocabulary consists of Arabic words, and there is the same
+  proportion of Arabic in Turkish. The Arabic language is written in an
+  alphabet of its own, which has also been adopted in writing Persian,
+  Hindustani, Turkish, &amp;c. As in all Semitic languages (except the
+  Ethiopic), it is read from right to left. The vowels are usually omitted
+  in Arabic manuscripts, only the consonants being written.</p>
+
+  <p>Poetry among the Arabs had a very early development, and before the
+  time of Mahomet poetical contests were held and prizes awarded for the
+  best pieces. The collection called the <i>Moallakât</i> contains seven
+  pre-Mahommedan poems by seven authors. Many other poems belonging to the
+  time before Mahomet, some <!-- Page 213 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page213"></a>[213]</span>of equal age with those of the
+  <i>Moallakât</i>, are also preserved in collections. Mahomet gave a new
+  direction to Arab literature. The rules of faith and life which he laid
+  down were collected by Abu-Bekr, first caliph after his death, and
+  published by Othman, the third caliph, and constitute the
+  <i>Koran</i>&mdash;the Mahommedan Bible. The progress of the Arabs in
+  literature, the arts and sciences, may be said to have begun with the
+  government of the caliphs of the family of the Abbassides, <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 749, at Bagdad, several of whom, as Harun al
+  Rashid and Al Mamun, were munificent patrons of learning: and their
+  example was followed by the Ommiades in Spain. In Spain were established
+  numerous academies and schools, which were visited by students from other
+  European countries; and important works were written on geography,
+  history, philosophy, medicine, physics, mathematics, arithmetic,
+  geometry, and astronomy. Most of the geography in the Middle Ages is the
+  work of the Arabs, and their historians since the eighth century have
+  been very numerous. The philosophy of the Arabs was of Greek origin, and
+  derived principally from that of Aristotle. Numerous translations of the
+  scientific works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers were made,
+  principally by Christian scholars who resided as physicians at the Courts
+  of the caliphs. These were diligently studied in Bagdad, Damascus, and
+  Cordova, and, being translated into Latin, became known in the west of
+  Europe. Of their philosophical authors the most celebrated are Alfarabi
+  (tenth century), Ibn Sina or Avicenna (died <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 1037), Alghazzali (died 1111), Ibn Roshd or
+  Averroes (twelfth century), called by pre-eminence The Commentator,
+  &amp;c. In medicine they excelled all other nations in the Middle Ages,
+  and they are commonly regarded as the earliest experimenters in
+  chemistry. Their mathematics and astronomy were based on the works of
+  Greek writers, but the former they enriched, simplified, and extended. It
+  was by them that algebra was introduced to the Western peoples, and the
+  Arabic numerals were similarly introduced. Astronomy they especially
+  cultivated, for which famous schools and observatories were erected at
+  Bagdad and Cordova. The <i>Almagest</i> of Ptolemy in an Arabic
+  translation was early a textbook among them. Alongside of science poetry
+  continued to be cultivated, but after the ninth or tenth centuries it
+  grew more and more artificial. Among poets were Abu Nowas, Asmai, Abu
+  Temmam, Motenabbi, Abul-Ala, Busiri, Tograi, and Hariri. Tales and
+  romances in prose and verse were written. The tales of fairies, genii,
+  enchanters, and sorcerers in particular passed from the Arabians to the
+  Western nations, as in <i>The Thousand and One Nights.</i> Some of the
+  books most widely read in the Middle Ages, such as <i>The Seven Wise
+  Masters,</i> the <i>Fables of Pilpay</i> (or Bidpai), and the <i>Romance
+  of Antar</i> found their way into Europe through the instrumentality of
+  the Arabs. At the present day Arabic literature is almost confined to the
+  production of commentaries and scholia, discussions on points of dogma
+  and jurisprudence, and grammatical works on the classical language. There
+  are a few newspapers published in Arabic.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C. Huart, <i>History of Arabic
+  Literature;</i> R.&nbsp;A. Nicholson, <i>Literary History of the
+  Arabs.</i></p>
+
+  <p><b>Arabian Architecture.</b> See <i>Moorish Architecture</i>,
+  <i>Saracenic Architecture</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arabian Gulf.</b> See <i>Red Sea</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arabian Nights</b>, or <b>The Thousand and One Nights</b>, (Ar. Alf
+  Layla wa-Layla), a celebrated collection of Eastern tales, based upon an
+  old work, called <i>Hazar Afsana</i>, long current in the East, and
+  supposed to have been derived by the Arabians from India, through the
+  medium of Persia. They were first introduced into Europe in the beginning
+  of the eighteenth century by means of the French translation of Antoine
+  Galland. Of some of them no original MS. is known to exist; they were
+  taken down by Galland from the oral communication of a Syrian friend. The
+  story which connects the tales of <i>The Thousand and One Nights</i> is
+  as follows: The Sultan Shahriyar, exasperated by the faithlessness of his
+  bride, made a law that every one of his future wives should be put to
+  death the morning after marriage. At length one of them, Sheherazade, the
+  generous daughter of the grand-vizier, succeeded in abolishing the cruel
+  custom. By the charm of her stories the fair narrator induced the sultan
+  to defer her execution every day till the dawn of another, by breaking
+  off in the middle of an interesting tale which she had begun to relate.
+  In the form we possess them these tales belong to a comparatively late
+  period, though the exact date of their composition is not known. Lane,
+  who published a translation of a number of the tales, with valuable
+  notes, is of opinion that they took their present form some time between
+  1475 and 1525. Sir Richard Burton's complete English translation was
+  issued in 16 vols. (1885-8).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arabian Sea</b>, the part of the Indian Ocean between Arabia and
+  India.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arabic Figures</b>, the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0; of
+  Indian origin, introduced into Europe by the Moors. They did not come
+  into general use till after the invention of printing.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ara´bi Pasha</b>, Egyptian soldier and revolutionary leader, born
+  1839. In Sept., 1881, he headed a military revolt, and was for a time
+  virtually dictator of Egypt. Britain interfered, and after a short
+  campaign, beginning with the bombardment of Alexandria and ending with
+  the <!-- Page 214 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page214"></a>[214]</span>defeat of Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir, he
+  surrendered, and was banished to Ceylon, being pardoned in 1900. He died
+  in obscurity in Cairo in 1911.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arable Land</b>, land which is fit for ploughing, and capable of
+  being cultivated, as distinguished from grass-land, wood-land, common
+  pasture, mountains, forests, morasses, and waste. In Government returns
+  the term is applied to land that is actually under regular cultivation.
+  The land capable of being cultivated amounts in England and Wales to
+  about 25 per cent, and in Ireland to about 13 per cent. In the course of
+  the last thirty or forty years there has, however, been a considerable
+  diminution in the area of land actually cultivated, as a result of large
+  foreign imports of grain and other agricultural products.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arabs.</b> The Arabs, as a race, are of middle stature, of a
+  powerful though slender build, and have a skin of a more or less brownish
+  colour; in towns and the uplands often almost white. Their features are
+  well cut, the nose straight, the forehead high. They are naturally
+  active, intelligent, and courteous; and their character is marked by
+  temperance, bravery, and hospitality. The first religion of the Arabs,
+  the worship of the stars, was supplanted by the doctrines of
+  Mahommedanism, which succeeded rapidly in establishing itself throughout
+  Arabia. Besides the two principal sects of Islam, the Sunnites and the
+  Shiites, there also exists, in considerable numbers, a third Mahommedan
+  sect, the Wahabis, which arose in the latter half of the eighteenth
+  century, and for a time possessed great political importance in the
+  peninsula. The mode of life of the Arabs is either nomadic or settled.
+  The nomadic tribes are termed Bedouins (or Bedawins), and among them are
+  considered to be the Arabs of the purest blood.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aracacha</b>, or <b>Arracacha</b> (ar-a-kä'cha), a genus of
+  umbelliferous plants of Southern and Central America. The root of <i>A.
+  esculenta</i> is divided into several lobes, each of which is about the
+  size of a large carrot. These are boiled like potatoes and largely eaten
+  in South America.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aracan</b> (ar-a-kan'), the most northern division of Lower Burmah,
+  on the Bay of Bengal; chief town and seaport Akyab. It was ceded to the
+  English in 1826, as a result of the first Burmese war.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Araçari</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-sä'r&#x113;), native name of a genus of
+  brilliant birds (Pteroglossus) closely allied to the toucans, but
+  generally smaller; natives of the warm parts of South America.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aracati</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ka<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-t&#x113;'), a Brazilian river-port,
+  State of Ceará, on the River Jaguaribe, about 10 miles from its mouth.
+  Exports hides and cotton. Pop. about 10,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ara´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of monocotyledonous plants, mostly
+  tropical, having the genus Arum as the type. Most of the species have
+  tuberous roots abounding in starch, which forms a wholesome food after
+  the acrid juice has been washed out. See <i>Arum</i>, <i>Caladium</i>,
+  <i>Dumb-cane</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arachis</b> (ar´a-kis), a genus of leguminous plants much
+  cultivated in warm climates, and esteemed a valuable article of food. The
+  most remarkable feature of the genus is that when the flower falls the
+  stalk supporting the small undeveloped fruit lengthens, and bending
+  towards the ground pushes the fruit into the ground, when it begins to
+  enlarge and ripen. The pod of <i>A. hypog&oelig;a</i> (popularly called
+  ground, earth, or pea nut) is of a pale-yellow colour, and contains two
+  seeds the size of a hazel-nut, in flavour sweet as almonds, and yielding
+  when pressed an excellent oil.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arachnida</b> (a-rak´ni-da; Gr. <i>arachn&#x113;</i>, a spider), a
+  class of Arthropoda or higher Annulose animals including the Spiders,
+  Scorpions, Mites, Ticks, &amp;c. They have the body divided into a number
+  of segments or <i>somites</i>, some of which have always articulated
+  appendages (limbs, &amp;c.). There is often a pair of nervous ganglia in
+  each somite, although in some forms (as spiders) the nervous system
+  becomes modified and concentrated. They are oviparous and somewhat
+  resemble insects, but they have a united head and thorax, and do not
+  undergo a metamorphosis similar to insects. They respire by tracheæ, by
+  pulmonary sacs, or by the skin.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´ack</b>, or <b>Ar´rack</b>, a spirituous liquor manufactured in
+  the East Indies from a great variety of substances. It is often distilled
+  from fermented rice, or it may be distilled from the juice of the
+  coco-nut and other palms. Pure arack is clear and transparent, of a
+  yellowish or straw colour, and with a peculiar but agreeable taste and
+  smell; it contains at least 52 to 54 per cent of alcohol.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arad</b> (o'rod), a town of the former kingdom of Hungary, on the
+  Maros, 30 miles north of Temeswar, divided by the river into O (Old) Arad
+  and Uj (New) Arad, connected by a bridge; it has a fortress, and is an
+  important railway centre, with a large trade and manufactures. The town
+  is now within the confines of Roumania, Uj Arad being called Arodul Neo.
+  Population of Old and New Arad together, 63,166.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´adus</b> (now <b>Ruad</b>), an inlet about a mile in
+  circumference lying 2 miles off the Syrian coast, 35 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.</span> of Tripolis; the site of the Ph&oelig;nician
+  stronghold Arvad, a city second only to Tyre and Sidon; now occupied by
+  about 3000 people, mainly fishermen.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arafat´</b>, or <b>Jebel er Rahmeh</b> ('Mountain of Mercy'), a
+  hill in Arabia, about 200 feet high, with stone steps reaching to the
+  summit, 15 miles south-east of Mecca; one of the principal objects of
+  pilgrimage among Mahommedans, who <!-- Page 215 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page215"></a>[215]</span>say that it was the
+  place where Adam first received his wife Eve after they had been expelled
+  from Paradise and separated from each other 120 years. A sermon delivered
+  on the mount constitutes one great ceremony of the <i>Hajj</i>; or
+  pilgrimage to Mecca, and entitles the hearer to the name and privileges
+  of a <i>Hajji</i> or pilgrim.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´ago</b>, Dominique François, a French physicist, born in 1786,
+  died at Paris in 1853. After studying in the Polytechnic School at Paris,
+  he was appointed a secretary of the Bureau des Longitudes. In 1806 he was
+  associated with Biot in completing in Spain the measurements of Delambre
+  and Méchain to obtain an arc of the meridian. Before he got back to
+  France he had been shipwrecked and narrowly escaped being enslaved at
+  Algiers. In 1809 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences and appointed
+  a professor at the Polytechnic School. He distinguished himself by his
+  researches in the polarization of light, galvanism, magnetism, astronomy,
+  &amp;c. His discovery of the magnetic properties of substances devoid of
+  iron, made known to the Academy of Sciences in 1824, procured him the
+  Copley medal of the Royal Society of London in 1825. A further
+  consideration of the same subject led to the equally remarkable discovery
+  of the production of magnetism by electricity. He took part in the
+  revolution of 1848, and held the office of Minister of War and Marine in
+  the provisional Government. At the <i>coup d'état</i> of Dec., 1852, he
+  refused to take the oath to the Government of Louis Napoleon, but the
+  oath was not pressed. His works, which were posthumously collected and
+  published, consist, besides his <i>Astronomie Populaire</i>, chiefly of
+  contributions to learned societies, and biographical notices
+  (<i>éloges</i>) of deceased members of the Academy of Sciences.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arago</b>, Emmanuel, son of Dominique François, French advocate and
+  politician, was born at Paris in 1812; called to the bar 1837; took part
+  in the revolution of 1848; renounced politics after the <i>coup
+  d'état</i> of Dec., 1852, but continued to practise at the bar. After the
+  fall of the Empire he again took a prominent part in public affairs, and
+  held several important offices. He is author of a volume of poems and
+  many theatrical pieces. He died in 1896.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arago</b>, Étienne, brother of Dominique Arago, born 1802, died
+  1892. He founded the journals <i>La Réforme</i> and <i>Le Figaro</i>; was
+  director of the Théâtre du Vaudeville, 1829; took part in the revolution
+  of 1848; was condemned to transportation, 1849; fled from France, but
+  returned in 1859; was mayor of Paris during the Franco-Prussian war, and
+  appointed archivist to the École des Beaux Arts, 1878. He was author of
+  upwards of 100 dramas, <i>La Vie de Molière,</i> <i>Les Bleus et les
+  Blancs</i>, and other works.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aragon´, Kingdom of</b>, a former province or kingdom of Spain, now
+  divided into three provinces of Teruel, Huesca, and Saragossa; bounded on
+  the <span class="scac">N.</span> by the Pyrenees, <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> by Navarre, <span class="scac">W.</span> by
+  Castile, <span class="scac">S.</span> by Valencia, and <span
+  class="scac">E.</span> by Catalonia; length about 190 miles, average
+  breadth 90 miles; area, 18,298 sq. miles. It was governed by its own
+  monarchs until the union with Castile on the marriage of Ferdinand and
+  Isabella (1469).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arago´na</b>, a town in Sicily, 8 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.N.E.</span> of Girgenti. Pop. 16,000. In the neighbourhood
+  is the mud volcano of Macculuba.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aragonite</b>, a mineral formed of calcium carbonate crystallized
+  in the rhombic system; specific gravity 2.94 (compare <i>Calcite</i>).
+  Aragonite passes into calcite in the course of geological time, but is
+  important as the mineral precipitated to form the oolitic limestones of
+  warm seas, and from being the material of most molluscan shells. It was
+  first found in Aragon.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Araguaya</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-gw&#x12B;'a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a Brazilian river, principal affluent
+  of the Tocantins; rises about the 18th degree of <span
+  class="scac">S.</span> lat.; in its course northwards forms the boundary
+  between the two States of Matto Grosso and Goyaz, and falls into the
+  Tocantins near lat. 6° <span class="scac">S.</span>; length, about 1300
+  miles, of which over 1000 are navigable.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´ral</b>, a salt-water lake in Asia, in Russian territory, about
+  150 miles <span class="scac">W.</span> of the Caspian Sea, between 43°
+  42´ and 46° 44´ <span class="scac">N.</span> lat., and 58° 18´ and 61°
+  46´ <span class="scac">E.</span> long.; length 270 miles, breadth 165;
+  area, 26,650 sq. miles (or not much smaller than Scotland). It stands 240
+  feet above the level of the Caspian, and 160 feet above the
+  Mediterranean. It receives the Amu Darya or Oxus and the Syr Darya or
+  Jaxartes, and contains a multitude of sturgeon and other fish. It is
+  encircled by desert sandy tracts, and its shores are without harbours. It
+  has no outlet. The Aral contains a large number of small islands;
+  steamers have been placed on it by the Russians.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ara´lia</b>, a genus of plants with small flowers arranged in
+  umbels and succulent berries, the type of the nat. ord. Araliaceæ, which
+  is nearly related to the Umbelliferæ, but the species are of a more
+  shrubby habit. They are natives chiefly of tropical or sub-tropical
+  countries, and in Britain are represented by the ivy; ginseng belongs to
+  the order. From the pith of <i>A. papyrif&#x115;ra</i> is obtained the
+  Chinese rice-paper.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´ram</b>, Eugene, a self-taught scholar whose unhappy fate has
+  been made the subject of a ballad by Hood and a romance by Lord Lytton,
+  was born in Yorkshire, 1704, executed for murder, 1759. In 1734 he set up
+  a school at Knaresborough. About 1745 a shoemaker of that place, named
+  Daniel Clarke, was suddenly missing under suspicious circumstances; and
+  no light was thrown on the matter till full thirteen <!-- Page 216
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page216"></a>[216]</span>years
+  afterwards, when an expression dropped by one Richard Houseman,
+  respecting the discovery of a skeleton supposed to be Clarke's, caused
+  him to be taken into custody. From his confession an order was issued for
+  the apprehension of Aram, who had long quitted Yorkshire, and was at the
+  time acting as usher at the grammar-school at Lynn. He was brought to
+  trial on 3rd Aug., 1759, at York, where, notwithstanding an able and
+  eloquent defence which he made before the court, he was convicted of the
+  murder of Clarke, and sentenced to death. He was among the first to
+  recognize the affinity of the Celtic to the other European languages, and
+  under favourable circumstances might have done some valuable work in
+  philological science.&mdash;Cf. W. Bristow, <i>The Genuine Account of the
+  Life and Trial of Eugene Aram</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aramæ´an</b>, or <b>Aramaic</b>. See <i>Semitic Languages</i>,
+  <i>Syriac</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´an</b>, an island lying off the W. coast of Donegal, Ireland,
+  has an area of 4335 acres, a lighthouse, and a pop. of 1308, chiefly
+  engaged in fishing.&mdash;Also called <i>North Island of Aran</i>, or
+  <i>Arranmore</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arane´idæ</b>, the spider family.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aran Islands</b>, or <b>South Islands of Aran</b>, three islands at
+  the mouth of Galway Bay, off the W. coast of Ireland. The largest,
+  Aranmore or Inishmore, comprises 7635 acres, and has a pop. of 2592; the
+  next, Inishmaan, 2252 acres, pop. 473; and the least, Inishere, 1400
+  acres, pop. 456. They are remarkable for a number of architectural
+  remains of a very early date. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in
+  agriculture and fishing.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aranjuez</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-<i>h</i>u<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>-eth´), a small town and palace in Spain,
+  30 miles from Madrid, with splendid gardens laid out by Philip II. The
+  Court used to reside here from Easter till the close of June, when the
+  number of people increased from 4000 to 20,000. It has a wireless
+  station. Pop. 12,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arany</b> (o-ron´y), Janos, Hungarian poet, born 1817, died 1882.
+  He was for some time a strolling player, but became professor of Latin at
+  the Normal School of Szalonta, professor of Hungarian literature at Nagy
+  Körös, and secretary of the Hungarian Academy. Author of <i>The Lost
+  Constitution</i>, <i>Katalin</i>, and a series of three connected
+  narrative poems on the fortunes of Toldi.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arap´ahoes</b>, a tribe of American Indians located near the
+  head-waters of the Arkansas and Platte Rivers. They number in all about
+  2000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arapaima</b> (a-ra-p&#x12B;´ma), a genus of South American
+  fresh-water fishes, ord. Physostomi, family Osteoglossidæ, one species of
+  which (<i>A. gigas</i>) grows to the length of 15 or 16 feet, and forms a
+  valuable article of food in Brazil and Guiana. It is covered with large
+  bony scales, and has a bare and bony head.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´arat</b>, a celebrated mountain in Armenia, an isolated volcanic
+  mass showing two separate cones known as the Great and Little Ararat,
+  resting on a common base and separated by a deep intervening depression.
+  The elevations are: Great Ararat, 16,916 feet; Little Ararat, 12,840
+  feet; the connecting ridge, 8780 feet. Vegetation extends to 14,200 feet,
+  which marks the snow-line. According to the Bible Mount Ararat was the
+  resting-place of the Ark when the waters of the Flood abated.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Araro´ba</b>, or <b>Arraroba</b>, the powdered bark of
+  <i>And&#x12B;ra arar&#x14D;ba</i>. See <i>Andira</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´ras</b> (the ancient <b>Araxes</b>), a river of Asia Minor,
+  rising <span class="scac">S.</span> of Erzerum at the foot of the
+  Bingol-dagh; it flows for some miles through South Caucasia, turning
+  eastwards to the Erivan plain <span class="scac">N</span>. of Ararat. It
+  then sweeps in a semi-circle mostly between Caucasia and Persia round to
+  its confluence with the Kur, 60 miles from its mouth in the Caspian;
+  length, 500 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ara´tus</b>, a Greek poet, born at Soli in Cilicia; lived about 270
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span>; was a favourite of Ptolemy Philadelphus.
+  His poem <i>Phænomena</i> is a version of a prose work on astronomy by
+  Eudoxus; one verse of it is quoted by St. Paul in his address to the
+  Athenians (<i>Acts</i>, xvii, 28).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ara´tus of Sicyon</b>, a statesman of ancient Greece, born 272
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span> In 251 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he
+  overthrew the tyrant of Sicyon and joined that city to the Achæan League,
+  which he greatly extended. He accepted the aid of Antigonus Doson, King
+  of Macedon, against the Spartans, and became in time little more than the
+  adviser of the Macedonian king, who had now made the League dependent on
+  himself. He is said to have been poisoned by Philip V of Macedon, 213
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Arauca´nians</b>, a South American native race in the southern part
+  of Chile, occupying a territory stretching from about 37° to 40° of <span
+  class="scac">S.</span> lat. They are warlike and more civilized than many
+  of the native races of S. America, and maintained almost unceasing war
+  with the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when their independence was
+  recognized by Spain, though their territory was much curtailed. Their
+  early contests with the Spaniards were celebrated in Ercilla's Spanish
+  poem <i>Araucana</i>. With the Republic of Chile they were long at feud,
+  and in 1861 had at their head a French adventurer named Antoine de
+  Tounens, who claimed the title of king. In 1882 they submitted to Chile.
+  The Chilian province of Arauco receives its name from them.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/image082.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image082.jpg"
+      alt="Araucaria" title="Araucaria" /></a>
+    Chile pine (<i>Araucaria imbric&#x101;ta</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Arauca´ria</b>, a genus of trees of the coniferous or pine order,
+  indigenous to Australasia and South America. The species are large
+  evergreen trees with pretty large, stiff, flattened, and <!-- Page 217
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page217"></a>[217]</span>generally
+  imbricated leaves, verticillate spreading branches, and bearing large
+  cones, each scale having a single large seed. The species <i>A.
+  imbric&#x101;ta</i> (the Chile pine or monkey-puzzle), with hard, sharp,
+  pointed leaves, was introduced into Britain in 1796. It is a native of
+  the mountains of Southern Chile, where it forms vast forests and yields a
+  hard durable wood. Its seeds are eaten when roasted. The Moreton Bay pine
+  of New South Wales (<i>A. Cunninghamii</i>) supplies a valuable timber
+  used in house and boat building, in making furniture, and in other
+  carpenter work. A species, <i>A. excelsa</i>, or Norfolk Island pine,
+  abounds in several of the South Sea Islands, where it attains a height of
+  220 feet with a circumference of 30 feet, and is described as one of the
+  most beautiful of trees. Its foliage is light and graceful, and quite
+  unlike that of <i>A. imbricata</i>, having nothing of its stiff
+  formality. Its timber is of some value, being white, tough, and
+  close-grained.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arau´co</b>, a province of Chile, named from the Araucanian
+  Indians; area, 2189 sq. miles; pop. 73,260; capital, Lebu.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Araval´li Hills</b>, a range of Indian mountains running <span
+  class="scac">N.E.</span> and <span class="scac">S.W.</span> across the
+  Rajputána country, which they separate into two natural
+  divisions&mdash;desert plains on the <span class="scac">N.W.</span> and
+  fertile lands on the <span class="scac">S.E.</span>; highest point, Mount
+  Abu (5653 feet).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Araxes.</b> See <i>Aras</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´b&#x103;ces</b>, one of the generals of Sardanapälus, King of
+  Assyria. He revolted and defeated his master, and became the founder of
+  the Median Empire in 846 <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´balist.</b> See <i>Cross-bow</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arbe´la</b> (now <b>Erbil</b>), a place in the vilayet of Bagdad,
+  giving name to the decisive battle fought by Alexander the Great against
+  Darius, at Gaugamela, about 50 miles distant from it, 1st Oct., 331 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Arbitrage</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r´bi-tra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>zh), or <b>Arbitration of Exchanges</b>,
+  an operation or calculation by which the currency of one country is
+  converted into that of another through the medium of intervening
+  currencies, for the purpose of ascertaining whether direct or indirect
+  drafts and remittances are preferable.&mdash;<i>Arbitrageur</i> (a<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r´bi-tra<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-zheur) is one who makes
+  calculations of currency exchanges. See <i>Stock Exchange</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arbitra´tion</b>, the hearing and determination of a cause between
+  parties in controversy, by a person or persons chosen by the parties.
+  This may be done by one person, but it is common to choose more than one.
+  Frequently two are nominated, one by each party, with a third, the
+  <i>umpire</i> (or, in Scotland, sometimes the <i>oversman</i>), who is
+  called on to decide in case of the primary arbitrators differing. In such
+  a case the umpire may be agreed upon either by the parties themselves, or
+  by the arbitrators when they have received authority from the parties to
+  the dispute to settle this point. The determination of arbitrators is
+  called an <i>award</i>. By the law of England the authority of an
+  arbitrator cannot be revoked by any of the parties without the leave of
+  the court or of a judge.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>:
+  Russell, <i>Arbitration</i>; Redman, <i>Arbitration</i>; Scots Law, see
+  Bell, <i>On Arbitration</i>; American Law, see Morse, <i>Law of
+  Arbitration</i>; R.&nbsp;G. Morris, <i>International Arbitration</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´blast.</b> See <i>Cross-bow</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arbo´ga</b>, an old Swedish city, province of Westmannland; once an
+  important commercial town, now only of historical interest from having
+  been at one time a residence of the family of Vasa, the scene of Church
+  assemblies and national diets, and for the antiquities in its
+  neighbourhood. Pop. 5050.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arbois</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-bwä), a town of France, department of
+  Jura; famous for its wines. Pop. 5000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arbor Day</b>, a day officially set apart in the United States for
+  the annual planting of trees by the people, and especially by
+  school-children. The custom was instituted in 1872.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arbore´tum</b> (Lat. <i>arbor</i>, a tree), a place in which a
+  collection of different trees and shrubs is cultivated for scientific or
+  educational purposes. The largest arboretum in Britain, perhaps the
+  finest in the whole world, is that of the Royal Gardens, at Kew,
+  inaugurated in 1762, to which 180 acres are now devoted. Next in
+  celebrity <!-- Page 218 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page218"></a>[218]</span>are the arboreta at Edinburgh (Inverleith)
+  and at Dublin (Glasnevin), the Botanical Gardens at Oxford, and the
+  Botanic Gardens at Glasgow. Other arboreta are that of the Jardin des
+  Plantes, Paris, and the Arnold Arboretum, at Jamaica Plain, Boston. The
+  term arboretum has also been applied in a restricted sense, as in the
+  <i>Arboretum Fruticetum Britannicum</i>, the monumental work by J.&nbsp;C.
+  Loudon.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´boriculture</b> includes the culture of trees and shrubs, as
+  well as all that pertains to the preparation of the soil, the sowing of
+  the seeds, and the treatment of the plants in their young state, the
+  preparation of the land previous to their final transplantation, their
+  just adaptation to soil and situation, their relative growth and progress
+  to maturity, their management during growth, and the proper season and
+  period for felling them.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arbor Vitæ</b> (literally, 'tree of life'), the name of several
+  coniferous trees of the genus Thuja, allied to the cypress, with
+  flattened branchlets, and small imbricated or scale-like leaves. The name
+  is derived from valuable medicinal properties having formerly been
+  ascribed to the aromatic resin they mostly yield. Those generally
+  cultivated in Britain are: the common Arbor Vitæ (<i>Thuja
+  occident&#x101;lis</i>), a native of North America, where it grows to a
+  height of 40 or 50 feet, introduced into Britain about 1566; the giant
+  Arbor Vitæ or Red Cedar (<i>Thuja gigantea</i>), introduced in 1854; and
+  the Chinese Arbor Vitæ (<i>Thuja orient&#x101;lis</i>).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arbroath</b> (ar-br&#x14D;th´), or <b>Aberbrothock</b>, a royal
+  municipal and police burgh and seaport in the county of Forfar, Scotland,
+  at the mouth of the small River Brothock. Its ancient abbey, founded by
+  William the Lion in 1178, and dedicated to Saints Mary and Thomas à
+  Becket, is now a picturesque ruin. There are numerous flax and hemp
+  spinning-mills and factories, and much canvas and linen is made; also
+  tanning, shoemaking, and fishing, and a small shipping trade, but the
+  harbour is bad. Pop. 19,499. It unites with Montrose, Forfar, Brechin,
+  and Inverbervie (the Montrose burghs) in sending a member to
+  Parliament.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arbuth´not</b>, John, an eminent physician and distinguished wit,
+  born at Arbuthnot, Kincardineshire, Scotland, 1667, died 1735. He
+  received the degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of St.
+  Andrews, and went to London, where he soon distinguished himself by his
+  writings and by his skill in his profession. In 1704 he was chosen Fellow
+  of the Royal Society, and soon after he was appointed physician
+  extraordinary, and then physician in ordinary to Queen Anne. About this
+  time he became intimate with Swift, Pope, Gay, and other wits of the day.
+  His writings, other than professional or scientific, include his
+  contributions (in conjunction with Swift and Pope) to the <i>Memoirs of
+  Martinus Scriblerus</i>, <i>History of John Bull</i>, <i>Art of Political
+  Lying</i>, &amp;c. He was conspicuous not only for learning and wit, but
+  also for worth and humanity.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´butus</b>, a genus of plants belonging to the Ericaceæ, or heath
+  order, and comprising a number of small trees and shrubs, natives chiefly
+  of Europe and N. America. <i>Arb&#x16D;tus Un&#x115;do</i> abounds near
+  the lakes of Killarney, where its fine foliage adds charms to the
+  scenery. The bright red or yellow berries, somewhat like the strawberry,
+  have an unpleasant taste and narcotic properties. The Corsicans make wine
+  from them. The trailing arbutus or may-flower of N. America, a plant with
+  fragrant and beautiful blossoms, is <i>Epigæa repens</i>, of the same
+  nat. ord.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arc</b>, a portion of a curved line, especially of a circle. It is
+  by means of circular arcs that all angles are
+  measured.&mdash;<i>Electric</i> or <i>Voltaic arc</i>, the luminous arc
+  of intense brightness and excessively high temperature which is formed by
+  an electric current in crossing over the interval of space between the
+  carbon points of an electric lamp. See <i>Arc-light</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arc</b>, Jeanne d'. See <i>Joan of Arc</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´ca</b>, a genus of bivalve molluscs, family Arcadæ, whose shells
+  are known as <i>ark-shells</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arcachon</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-ka<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-sh&#x14D;n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town of <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> France, department Gironde, on the almost
+  landlocked basin of Arcachon, a much-frequented bathing-place, with great
+  oyster-breeding establishments. It is connected by railway with Bordeaux.
+  Pop. 10,266.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arcade</b>, a series of arches supported on piers or pillars, used
+  generally as a screen and support of a roof, or of the wall of a
+  building, and having beneath the covered part an ambulatory as round a
+  cloister, or a footpath with shops or dwellings, as frequently seen in
+  old Italian towns. Sometimes a porch or other prominent part of an
+  important building is treated with arcades. At the present day Bologna,
+  Padua, and Berne have fine examples of mediæval arcaded streets, and
+  among more modern work various streets in Turin, and the Rue de Rivoli,
+  Paris, are lined with arcades, with shops underneath. In mediæval
+  architecture the term arcade is also applied to a series of arches
+  supported on pillars forming an ornamental dressing or enrichment of a
+  wall, a mode of treatment of very frequent occurrence in the towers,
+  apses, and other parts of churches. In modern use the name arcade is
+  often applied to a passage or narrow street containing shops arched over
+  and covered with glass, as for example the Burlington Arcade, London, the
+  Royal Arcade at Newcastle, and the Gallería Vittorio Emmanuele in Milan.
+  <!-- Page 219 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page219"></a>[219]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Arca´dia</b>, the central and most mountainous portion of the
+  Peloponnesus (Morea), the inhabitants of which in ancient times were
+  celebrated for simplicity of character and manners. Their occupation was
+  almost entirely pastoral, and thus the country came to be regarded as
+  typical of rural simplicity and happiness. At the present day Arcadia
+  forms a nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece. Area, 2028 sq. miles. Pop.
+  162,324.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arca´dius</b>, born in 377, died 408; son of the Emperor
+  Theodosius, on whose death in 395 the empire was divided, he obtaining
+  the East, and his brother Honorius the West. He proved a feeble and
+  pusillanimous prince.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arcanum, The Great</b> (meaning secret), a term applied in the
+  Middle Ages to the highest problems of alchemy and the discovery of the
+  supposed great secrets of nature, such as the philosopher's stone and the
+  elixir of life. See <i>Alchemy</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arcature</b>, in architecture, a small arcade built into a wall or
+  applied against it, decorative rather than structural. Arcatures occur in
+  Anglo-Norman churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arcesilaus</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-ses-i-l&#x101;´us), a Greek
+  philosopher, the founder of the second or middle academy, was born about
+  315 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, died 239 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> He left no writings, and of his opinions so
+  little is known that it has been doubted whether he was a strict
+  Platonist or a sceptic.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:26%;">
+      <a href="images/image083.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image083.jpg"
+      alt="Parts of an Arch" title="Parts of an Arch" /></a>
+    Parts of an Arch
+
+    <p class="poem"><i>a.</i> Abutments. <i>i.</i> Impost. <i>p.</i> Piers.
+    <i>v.</i> Voussoirs or arch-stones. <i>k.</i> Keystone. <i>s.</i>
+    Springers. <i>In.</i> Intrados. <i>Ex.</i> Extrados. </p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a
+  href="images/image084.jpg"><img style="width:100%"
+  src="images/image084.jpg" alt="Lancet and Horse-shoe arches"
+  title="Lancet and Horse-shoe arches" /></a></span> <b>Arch</b>, a
+  structure composed of separate pieces, such as stones or bricks, having
+  the shape of truncated wedges, arranged on a curved line, so as to retain
+  their position by mutual pressure. The separate stones which compose the
+  arch are called <i>voussoirs</i> or <i>arch-stones</i>; the extreme or
+  lowest voussoirs are termed <i>springers</i>, and the uppermost or
+  central one is called the <i>keystone</i>. The under or concave side of
+  the voussoirs is called the <i>intrados</i>, and the upper or convex side
+  the <i>extrados</i> of the arch. The supports which afford resting and
+  resisting points to the arch are called <i>piers</i> and
+  <i>abutments</i>. The upper part <span class="figleft"
+  style="width:26%;"><a href="images/image085.jpg"><img style="width:100%"
+  src="images/image085.jpg" alt="Segmental and Semicircular arches"
+  title="Segmental and Semicircular arches" /></a></span> of the pier or
+  abutment, where the arch rests&mdash;technically where it <i>springs
+  from</i>&mdash;is the <i>impost</i>. The <i>span</i> of an arch is in
+  circular arches the length of its chord, and generally the width between
+  the points of its opposite imposts whence it springs. The <i>rise</i> of
+  an arch is the height of the highest point of its intrados above the line
+  of the imposts; this point is sometimes called the <i>under side of the
+  crown</i>, the highest point of the extrados being the <i>crown</i>.
+  Arches are designated in various ways, as from their shape (circular,
+  elliptic, &amp;c.), or from the resemblance of the whole contour of the
+  curve to some familiar <span class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a
+  href="images/image086.jpg"><img style="width:100%"
+  src="images/image086.jpg" alt="Ogee and Equilateral arches" title="Ogee and Equilateral arches"
+  /></a></span> object (lancet arch, horse-shoe arch), or from the method
+  used in describing the curve, as equilateral, three-centred,
+  four-centred, ogee, and the like; or from the style of architecture to
+  which they belong, as Roman, pointed, and Saracenic
+  arches.&mdash;<i>Triumphal arch</i>, originally a simple decorated arch
+  under which a victorious Roman general and army passed in triumph. At a
+  later period the triumphal arch was a richly-sculptured, massive, and
+  permanent structure, having an archway passing through it, with generally
+  a smaller arch on either side. The name is sometimes given to an arch,
+  generally of wood decorated with flowers or evergreens, erected on
+  occasion of some public rejoicing, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archæan</b> (är-k&#x113;´an) <b>Rocks</b> (Gr. <i>archaios</i>,
+  ancient), the oldest rocks of the earth's crust, <!-- Page 220 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page220"></a>[220]</span>mostly crystalline in
+  character, and embracing granites, gneisses, mica-schists, &amp;c., all
+  devoid of fossil remains. These rocks underlie a group of stratified and
+  igneous masses that are usually distinguished from them as Huronian; the
+  first beds with a well-marked fauna (lowest Cambrian) lie above the
+  Huronian, and the Huronian and the Archæan groups are often conveniently
+  classed together as pre-Cambrian, and are separated from the stratified
+  and fossiliferous formations, which indeed have chiefly taken origin from
+  them. The core of the Malvern range, and the rocks of <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> Sutherland, are examples of Archæan masses in
+  Great Britain.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archæol´ogy</b> (Gr. <i>archaios</i>, ancient, and <i>logos</i>, a
+  discourse), the study of antiquity, or the science which takes cognizance
+  of the history of nations and peoples as evinced by the remains,
+  architectural, implemental, or otherwise, which belong to the earlier
+  epoch of their existence. In a more extended sense the term embraces
+  every branch of knowledge which bears on the origin, religion, laws,
+  languages, science, arts, and literature of ancient peoples. It is to a
+  great extent synonymous with <i>prehistoric annals</i>, as a large if not
+  the principal part of its field of study extends over those periods in
+  the history of the human race in regard to which we possess almost no
+  information derivable from written records. Archæology divides the
+  primeval period of the human race, more especially as exhibited by
+  remains found in Europe, into the <i>stone</i>, the <i>bronze</i>, and
+  the <i>iron</i> ages, these names being given in accordance with the
+  materials employed for weapons, implements, &amp;c., during the
+  particular period. The <i>stone</i> age has been subdivided into the
+  <i>palæolithic</i> and <i>neolithic</i>, the former being that older
+  period, in which the stone implements were not polished as they are in
+  the latter and more recent period. The <i>bronze</i> age, which admits of
+  a similar subdivision, is that in which implements were of copper or
+  bronze. In this age the dead were burned and their ashes deposited in
+  urns or stone chests, covered with conical mounds of earth or cairns of
+  stones. Gold and amber ornaments appear in this age. The <i>iron</i> age
+  is that in which implements, &amp;c., of iron begin to appear, although
+  stone and bronze implements are found along with them. The word
+  <i>age</i> in this sense (as explained under <i>Age</i>) simply denotes
+  the stage at which a people has arrived. The phrase stone age, therefore,
+  merely marks the period before the use of bronze, the bronze age that
+  before the employment of iron, among any specific people. See
+  <i>Excavations</i>; <i>Crete</i>; <i>Egypt</i>; &amp;c&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir J. Evans, <i>Stone Implements of
+  Great Britain</i>; Boyd-Dawkins, <i>Early Man in Britain</i>; J. Geikie,
+  <i>Prehistoric Europe</i>; R. Munro, <i>Lake Dwellings of Europe</i>; Sir
+  W. Ridgeway, <i>Early Age of Greece</i>; H.&nbsp;R. Hall, <i>Ægean
+  Archæology</i>; W.&nbsp;M. Flinders Petrie, <i>Methods and Aims in
+  Archæology</i>; A.&nbsp;P.&nbsp;F. Michaelis, <i>A Century of Archæological
+  Discoveries</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:29%;">
+      <a href="images/image087.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image087.jpg"
+      alt="Archæopteryx" title="Archæopteryx" /></a>
+    Archæopteryx macrura, a fossil lizard-tailed bird
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Archæopteryx</b> (är-k&#x113;-op´te-riks), a fossil bird from the
+  oolitic limestone of Solenhofen, of the size of a rook, and differing
+  from all known birds in having two free claws representing the thumb and
+  forefinger projecting from the wing, and about twenty tail vertebræ free
+  and prolonged as in mammals.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archangel</b> (ärk´&#x101;n-jel; Gr. prefix, <i>arch-</i>, denoting
+  chief), an angel of superior or of the highest rank. The only archangel
+  mentioned by name in Scripture is Michael in the <i>Epistle of
+  Jude</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archangel</b> (ärk-&#x101;n´jel), a seaport, capital of the Russian
+  government of same name, on the right bank of the Northern Dvina, about
+  20 miles above its mouth in the White Sea. Below the town the river
+  divides into several branches and forms a number of islands, on one of
+  which, called Sollenbole, is the harbour. The houses are mostly of wood;
+  the place has some manufactures and an important trade, exporting
+  linseed, flax, tow, tallow, train-oil, mats, timber, pitch and tar,
+  &amp;c. The port is closed for six months by ice. Archangel, founded in
+  1584, was long the only port which Russia possessed. Pop.
+  43,388.&mdash;The province, which before the Russian revolution extended
+  from the Ural Mountains to Finland, had an area of 326,063 sq. miles.
+  Pop. 483,500.&mdash;For the Archangel Expedition of 1918, see
+  <i>Murmansk</i>, <i>Russia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archangel´ica.</b> See <i>Angelica</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<h3>ARCHÆOLOGY: ANTIQUITIES OF THE STONE, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES</h3>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:62%;">
+      <a href="images/image088.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image088.jpg"
+      alt="Archæology" title="Archæology" /></a>
+    <p class="poem">OLDER STONE AGE: 1, Flint Pick. 2, Carved Mammoth Tusk.
+    3, Double Scraper. 4, Barbed Harpoon Heads. LATER STONE AGE: 5, Pick of
+    Deer Antler. 6, Flint and Pyrites. 7, Stone Celt in Haft. 8, Arrowhead.
+    9, Bowl. BRONZE AGE: 10, Celt. 11, Drinking-cup. 12, Ornamental Pin.
+    13, Spear-head. 14, Bronze Tweezers. 15, 16, Gold Bracelets. 17,
+    Engraved Pin. 18, Short Sword. 19, Spectacle Brooch. 20, Razor. EARLY
+    IRON AGE: 21, Bronze Brooch. 22, Bone Hand-comb for weaving. 23, Bronze
+    Mirror. 24, Bronze Jug. 25, Bronze Spoon. 26, Iron Currency Bars. 27,
+    Bronze Brooch.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+  <p><b>Archbishop</b> (ärch-), a chief bishop, or bishop over other
+  bishops; a metropolitan prelate. The establishment of this dignity is to
+  be traced up to an early period of Christianity, when the bishops and
+  inferior clergy met in the capitals to deliberate on spiritual affairs,
+  and the bishop of the city where the meeting was held presided. In
+  England there are two archbishops&mdash;those of Canterbury and York; the
+  former styled <!-- Page 221 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page221"></a>[221]</span><i>Primate of all England</i>, the latter
+  <i>Primate of England</i>. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the first peer
+  of the realm, having precedence before all great officers of the Crown
+  and all dukes not of royal birth. He crowns the sovereign, and when he is
+  invested with his archbishopric he is said to be enthroned. He can grant
+  special licences to marry at any time or place, and can confer degrees
+  otherwise to be obtained only from the universities. He is addressed by
+  the titles of <i>your grace</i> and <i>most reverend father in God</i>,
+  and writes himself <i>by divine providence</i>, while the Archbishop of
+  York and the bishops only write <i>by divine permission</i>. The first
+  Archbishop of Canterbury was Augustine, appointed <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 598 by Ethelbert. Next in dignity is the
+  Archbishop of York, between whom and the Archbishop of Canterbury the
+  Lord High-Chancellor of England has his place in precedency. The first
+  Archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed in 622. The incomes of the
+  sees are £15,000 and £10,000 respectively. An Archbishop of Wales was
+  first appointed in 1920. Scotland had two archbishops&mdash;St. Andrews
+  and Glasgow. Ireland had four, but the Episcopal Church has but
+  two&mdash;Armagh and Dublin, the former being <i>Primate of all
+  Ireland</i>, the latter <i>Primate of Ireland</i>. There are four Roman
+  Catholic archbishops in England and Wales&mdash;Westminster, Cardiff,
+  Birmingham, and Liverpool; two in Scotland&mdash;St. Andrews and
+  Edinburgh, and Glasgow; four in Ireland&mdash;Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, and
+  Tuam.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archdeacon</b> (ärch-), in England, an ecclesiastical dignitary
+  next in rank below a bishop, having a certain jurisdiction over a part of
+  the diocese. From two to four archdeacons are appointed by the bishops,
+  under whom they perform their duties, and they hold courts which decide
+  cases subject to an appeal to the bishop.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archduke</b>, a title peculiar to the royal family of
+  Austria&mdash;the Habsburgs, who ruled until 1918.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archelaus</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-k&#x113;-l&#x101;´us), the name of
+  several personages in ancient history, one of whom was the son of Herod
+  the Great. He received from Augustus the sovereignty of Judea, Samaria,
+  and Idumea. The people, tired of his tyrannical and bloody reign, accused
+  him before Augustus, who banished him to Gaul.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archer</b>, William, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at
+  Perth, Scotland, in 1856. Educated at Edinburgh University, he went to
+  London after some experience of journalism at Edinburgh, and after a
+  visit to Australia was called to the bar, and was dramatic critic for
+  <i>The World</i> from 1884 to 1905. Subsequently he has been dramatic
+  critic for <i>The Tribune</i> and <i>The Nation</i>. He has done much to
+  introduce Ibsen to the English public, by translating his dramas and
+  otherwise, and has written <i>English Dramatists of To-day</i>; <i>A Life
+  of Macready</i>; <i>About the Theatre: Essays and Studies</i>; <i>Masks
+  or Faces?: a Study on the Psychology of Acting</i>; <i>The Theatrical
+  World</i> (a collection of his dramatic criticisms) (5 vols.); <i>Study
+  and Stage</i>; <i>America To-Day</i> (the result of a visit in 1900);
+  <i>Poets of the Younger Generation</i>; <i>Real Conversations</i> (the
+  result of a series of interviews with persons of note); <i>Through
+  Afro-America</i> (1910); <i>The Life, Trial, and Death of Francisco
+  Ferrer</i> (1911); <i>Play-Making</i> (1912); <i>The Thirteen Days</i>
+  (1915); <i>India and the Future</i> (1917); <i>War is War</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archer-fish</b>, a name given to the <i>Tox&#x14F;tes
+  jacul&#x101;tor</i>, a scaly-finned, acanthopterygian fish, about 6
+  inches long, inhabiting the seas around Java, which has the faculty of
+  shooting drops of water to the distance of 3 or 4 feet at insects,
+  thereby causing them to fall into the water, when it seizes and devours
+  them. The soft, and even the spiny portions of their dorsal fins are so
+  covered with scales as to be scarcely distinguishable from the rest of
+  the body.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:24%;">
+      <a href="images/image089.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image089.jpg"
+      alt="Assyrian Archer" title="Assyrian Archer" /></a>
+    Assyrian Archer
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Arch´ery</b>, the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. The use of
+  these weapons in war and the chase dates from the earliest antiquity.
+  Ishmael, we learn from <i>Gen</i>. xxi, "became an archer". The
+  Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, Parthians, excelled in the use of the
+  bow; and while the Greeks and Romans themselves made little use of it,
+  they employed foreign archers as mercenaries. Coming to much more recent
+  times, we find the Swiss famous as archers, but they generally used the
+  arbalist or cross-bow, and were no match for their English rivals, who
+  preferred the long-bow. (See <i>Bow</i>.) The English victories of
+  Cressy, Poietiers, and Agincourt, gained against apparently overwhelming
+  odds, may be ascribed to the bowmen. Archery disappeared gradually as
+  firearms came into use, and as an instrument of war or the chase the bow
+  is now confined to the most savage tribes of both hemispheres. But though
+  the bow has been long abandoned among <!-- Page 222 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page222"></a>[222]</span>civilized nations as a
+  military weapon, it is still cherished as an instrument of healthful
+  recreation, encouraged by archery clubs or societies, which have been
+  established in many parts of Britain. The oldest, and by far the most
+  historically important of these societies, is the Royal Company of
+  Archers, called also the King's Body-guard for Scotland, formed
+  originally, it is said, by James I, but constituted in its present form
+  by an Act of the Privy Council of Scotland, in 1676, and having its
+  head-quarters in Edinburgh, counting among its members many of the
+  nobility and gentry of the northern kingdom, and holding annual meetings,
+  where prizes are competed for. In recent years a number of clubs have
+  been formed in the United States. Archery has the merit of forming a
+  sport open to women as well as men.&mdash;<span
+  class="scac">BIBLIOGRAPHY:</span> William Garrard, <i>The Arte of
+  Warre</i>; E.&nbsp;S. Morse, <i>Archery, Ancient and Modern</i>; H.&nbsp;A. Ford,
+  <i>The Theory and Practice of Archery</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:28%;">
+      <a href="images/image090.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image090.jpg"
+      alt="Egyptian Archer" title="Egyptian Archer" /></a>
+    Egyptian Archer with arrow-heads and stone-tipped reed arrow
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Arches, Court of,</b> the chief and most ancient consistory court,
+  belonging to the archbishopric of Canterbury, for the debating of
+  spiritual causes. It is named from the church in London, St. Mary le Bow,
+  or Bow Church (so called from a fine <i>arched</i> crypt), where it was
+  formerly held. The jurisdiction of this court extends over the province
+  of Canterbury. The office of president or dean is now merged in that of
+  the judge appointed by the Public Worship Regulation Act (1874). The
+  court now sits in the library of Lambeth Palace.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archil,</b> or <b>Orchil</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r´kil, or´kil), a red, violet, or purple
+  colouring matter obtained from various kinds of lichens, the most
+  important of which are the <i>Roccella tinctoria</i> and the <i>R.
+  fuciformis</i>, natives of the rocks of the Canary and Cape Verde
+  Islands, Mozambique and Zanzibar, South America, &amp;c., and popularly
+  called dyer's-moss. The dye is used for improving the tints of other
+  dyes, as from its want of permanence it cannot be employed alone; but the
+  aniline colours have largely superseded it. Cudbear and litmus are of
+  similar origin.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archilochus</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-kil´o-kus) <b>of Paros,</b> one of the
+  earliest Ionian lyric poets, the first Greek poet who composed iambic
+  verses according to fixed rules. He flourished about 700 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> His iambic poems were renowned for force of
+  style, liveliness of metaphor, and a powerful but bitter spirit of
+  satire. In other lyric poems of a graver character he was also considered
+  as a model. All his works are lost but a few fragments.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archiman´drite,</b> in the Greek Church, an abbot or abbot-general,
+  who has the superintendence of many abbots and convents. The title dates
+  from the fourth century.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archime´dean Screw,</b> a machine for raising water, said to have
+  been invented by Archimedes. It is formed by winding a tube spirally
+  round a cylinder so as to have the form of a screw, or by hollowing out
+  the cylinder itself into a double or triple-threaded screw and enclosing
+  it in a water-tight case. When the screw is placed in an inclined
+  position and the lower end immersed in water, by causing the screw to
+  revolve, the water may be raised to a limited extent.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archimedes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-ki-m&#x113;´d&#x113;z), a celebrated
+  ancient Greek physicist and geometrician, born at Syracuse, in Sicily,
+  about 287 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He devoted himself entirely to
+  science, and enriched mathematics with discoveries of the highest
+  importance, upon which the moderns have founded their admeasurements of
+  curvilinear surfaces and solids. Archimedes is the only one among the
+  ancients who has left us anything satisfactory on the theory of mechanics
+  and on hydrostatics. He first taught the hydrostatic principle to which
+  his name is attached, "that a body immersed in a fluid loses as much in
+  weight as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid", and determined by
+  means of it that an artist had fraudulently added too much alloy to a
+  crown which King Hiero had ordered to be made of pure gold. He discovered
+  the solution of this problem while bathing; and it is said to have caused
+  him so much joy that he hastened home from the bath undressed, and crying
+  out, <i>Eur&#x113;ka! Eur&#x113;ka!</i> 'I have found it, I have found
+  it!' Practical mechanics also received a great deal of attention from
+  Archimedes, who boasted that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point he could
+  move the world. He is the inventor of the compound pulley, probably of
+  the endless screw, the Archimedean screw, &amp;c. During the siege of
+  Syracuse by the Romans he is said to have constructed many wonderful
+  machines with which he repelled their attacks, and he is stated to have
+  set on fire their fleet by burning-glasses. At the moment when the <!--
+  Page 223 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page223"></a>[223]</span>Romans gained possession of the city by
+  assault (212 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), tradition relates that
+  Archimedes was slain while sitting in the market-place contemplating some
+  mathematical figures which he had drawn in the sand.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archipel´ago</b>, a term originally applied to the Ægean, the sea
+  lying between Greece and Asia Minor, then to the numerous islands
+  situated therein, and subsequently to any cluster of islands. In the
+  Grecian Archipelago the islands nearest the European coast lie together
+  almost in a circle, and for this reason are called the <i>Cyclades</i>
+  (Gr. <i>kyklos</i>, a circle); those nearest the Asiatic, being farther
+  from one another, the <i>Sporades</i> ('scattered'). (See these articles,
+  and <i>Negropont</i>, <i>Scio</i>, <i>Samos</i>, <i>Rhodes</i>,
+  <i>Cyprus</i>, &amp;c.) The Malay, Indian, or Eastern Archipelago, on the
+  east of Asia, includes Borneo, Sumatra, and other large islands.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Architec´ture</b>, in a general sense, is the art of designing and
+  constructing houses, bridges, and other buildings for the purposes of
+  civil life; or, in a more limited but very common sense, that branch of
+  the fine arts which has for its object the production of edifices not
+  only convenient for their special purpose, but characterized by unity,
+  beauty, and often grandeur.&mdash;The first habitations of man were such
+  as nature afforded, or cost little labour to the occupant&mdash;caves,
+  huts, and tents. But as soon as men rose in civilization and formed
+  settled societies they began to build more commodious and comfortable
+  habitations. They bestowed more care on the materials, preparing bricks
+  of clay or earth, which they at first dried in the air, but afterwards
+  baked by fire; and subsequently they smoothed stones and joined them at
+  first without, and at a later period with, mortar or cement. After they
+  had learned to build houses, they erected temples for their gods on a
+  larger and more splendid scale than their own dwellings. The Egyptians
+  are the most ancient nation known to us among whom architecture had
+  attained the character of a fine art. Other ancient peoples among whom it
+  had made great progress were the Babylonians, whose most celebrated
+  buildings were temples, palaces, and hanging gardens; the Assyrians,
+  whose capital, Nineveh, was rich in splendid buildings; the
+  Ph&oelig;nicians, whose cities, Sidon, Tyre, &amp;c., were adorned with
+  equal magnificence; and the Israelites, whose temple was a wonder of
+  architecture. But comparatively few architectural monuments of these
+  nations have remained till our day.</p>
+
+  <p>This is not the case with the architecture of Egypt, however, of which
+  we possess ample remains in the shape of pyramids, temples, sepulchres,
+  obelisks, &amp;c. Egyptian chronology is far from certain, but the
+  greatest of the architectural monuments of the country, the pyramids of
+  Ghizeh, are at least as old as 2800 or 2700 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> The Egyptian temples had walls of great
+  thickness and sloping on the outside from bottom to top; the roofs were
+  flat, and composed of blocks of stone reaching from one wall or column to
+  another. The columns were numerous, close, and very thick, generally
+  without bases, and exhibiting great variety in the designs of their
+  capitals. The principle of the arch, though known, was not employed for
+  architectural purposes. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes carved in
+  stone, and on the walls sculptures in outline of deities and animals,
+  with innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects which belong
+  to this style.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image091.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image091.jpg"
+      alt="Egyptian Architecture" title="Egyptian Architecture" /></a>
+    Egyptian&mdash;Restoration of Temple of Luxor
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The earliest architectural remains of Greece are of unknown antiquity,
+  and consist of massive walls built of huge blocks of stone. In historic
+  times the Greeks developed an architecture of noble simplicity and
+  dignity. The discoveries in Crete and Argolis have shown that Greek
+  architecture owes much less than was supposed to Egyptian and Chaldæan
+  architecture. It is considered to have attained its greatest perfection
+  in the age of Pericles, or about 460-430 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>
+  The great masters of this period were Phidias, Ictinus, Callicrates,
+  &amp;c. All the extant buildings are more or less in ruins. The style is
+  characterized by beauty, harmony, and simplicity in the highest degree.
+  Distinctive of it are what are called the <i>orders</i> of architecture,
+  by which term are understood certain modes of proportioning and
+  decorating the column and its superimposed entablature. The Greeks had
+  three orders, called respectively the <i>Doric</i>, <i>Ionic</i>, and
+  <i>Corinthian</i>. (See articles under these names.) Greek buildings were
+  abundantly adorned with sculptures, and painting was extensively used,
+  the details of the structures being enriched by different colours or
+  tints. Lowness of roofs and the absence of arches were distinctive
+  features of Greek architecture, in which, as in that of Egypt,
+  horizontality of line is another characteristic mark. The most remarkable
+  public edifices of the Greeks were temples, of which the most <!-- Page
+  224 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page224"></a>[224]</span>famous is
+  the Parthenon at Athens. Others exist in various parts of Greece as well
+  as in Sicily, Southern Italy, Asia Minor, &amp;c., where important Greek
+  communities were early settled. Their theatres were semicircular on one
+  side and square on the other, the semicircular part being usually
+  excavated in the side of some convenient hill. This part, the auditorium,
+  was filled with concentric seats, and might be capable of containing
+  20,000 spectators. A number exist in Greece, Sicily, and Asia Minor, and
+  elsewhere. By the end of the Peloponnesian War (<i>c.</i> 400 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>) the best period of Greek architecture was over;
+  a noble simplicity had given place to excess of ornament. After the death
+  of Alexander the Great (323 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) the decline
+  was still more marked.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image092.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image092.jpg"
+      alt="Byzantine Architecture" title="Byzantine Architecture" /></a>
+    Byzantine&mdash;Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Among the Romans there was no original development of architecture as
+  among the Greeks, though they early took the foremost place in the
+  construction of such works as aqueducts and sewers, the arch being in
+  early and extensive use among this people. As a fine art, however, Roman
+  architecture had its origin in copies of the Greek models, all the
+  Grecian orders being introduced into Rome, and variously modified. Their
+  number, moreover, was augmented by the addition of two new
+  orders&mdash;the <i>Tuscan</i> and the <i>Composite</i>. The Romans
+  became acquainted with the architecture of the Greeks soon after 200
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, but it was not till about two centuries
+  later that the architecture of Rome attained (under Augustus) its
+  greatest perfection. Among the great works now erected were temples,
+  aqueducts, amphitheatres, magnificent villas, triumphal arches,
+  monumental pillars, &amp;c. The <i>amphitheatre</i> differed from the
+  theatre in being a completely circular or rather elliptical building,
+  filled on all sides with ascending seats for spectators and leaving only
+  the central space, called the <i>arena</i>, for the combatants and public
+  shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous structure of this kind. The
+  <i>thermæ</i>, or baths, were vast structures in which multitudes of
+  people could bathe at once. Magnificent tombs were often built by the
+  wealthy. Remains of private residences are numerous, and the excavations
+  at Pompeii in particular have thrown great light on the internal
+  arrangements of the Roman dwelling-house. Almost all the successors of
+  Augustus embellished Rome more or less, erected splendid palaces and
+  temples, and adorned, like Hadrian, even the conquered countries with
+  them. But after the period of Hadrian (<span class="scac">A.D.</span>
+  117-138) Roman architecture is considered to have been on the decline.
+  The refined and noble style of the Greeks was neglected, and there was an
+  attempt to embellish the beautiful more and more. This decline was all
+  the more rapid at a later time owing to the disturbed state of the Empire
+  and the incursions of the barbarians.</p>
+
+  <p>In Constantinople, after its virtual separation from the Western
+  Empire, arose a style of art and architecture which was practised by the
+  Greek Church during the whole of the Middle Ages. This is called the
+  Byzantine style. The church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, built by
+  Justinian (reigned 527-565), offers the most typical specimen of the
+  style, of which the fundamental principle was an application of the Roman
+  arch, the dome being the most striking feature of the building. In the
+  most typical examples the dome or cupola rests on four pendentives.</p>
+
+  <p>After the dismemberment of the Roman Empire the beautiful works of
+  ancient architecture were almost entirely destroyed by the Goths,
+  Vandals, and other barbarians in Italy, Greece, Asia, Spain, and Africa;
+  or what was spared by them was ruined by the fanaticism of the
+  Christians. A new style of architecture now arose, two forms of which,
+  the Lombard and the Norman Romanesque, form important phases of art. The
+  Lombard prevailed in North Italy and South Germany from the eighth or
+  ninth to the thirteenth century (though the Lombard rule came to an end
+  in 774); the Norman Romanesque flourished, especially in Normandy and
+  England, from the eleventh to the middle of the thirteenth century. The
+  semicircular arch is the most characteristic feature of this style. With
+  the Lombard Romanesque were combined Byzantine features, and buildings in
+  the pure Byzantine style were also erected in Italy, as the church of St.
+  Mark at Venice.</p>
+
+<h3>ARCHITECTURE</h3>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;">
+      <a href="images/image093.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image093.jpg"
+      alt="Architecture" title="Architecture" /></a>
+  </div>
+  <p>The conquests of the Moors introduced a fresh <!-- Page 225 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page225"></a>[225]</span>style of architecture
+  into Europe after the eighth century&mdash;the Moorish or Saracenic. This
+  style accompanied the spread of Mahommedanism after its rise in Arabia in
+  the seventh century. The edifices erected by the Moors and Saracens in
+  Spain, Egypt, and Turkey are distinguished, among other things, by a
+  peculiar form of the arch, which forms a curve constituting more than
+  half a circle or ellipse. A peculiar flowery decoration, called
+  <i>arabesque</i>, is a common ornament of this style, of which the
+  building called the Alhambra (q.v.) is perhaps the chief glory.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:25%;">
+      <a href="images/image094.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image094.jpg"
+      alt="Norman Romanesque Architecture" title="Norman Romanesque Architecture" /></a>
+    Norman Romanesque&mdash;Galilee Chapel, Durham Cathedral
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The Germans were unacquainted with architecture until the time of
+  Charlemagne. He introduced into Germany the Byzantine and Romanesque
+  styles. Afterwards the Moorish or Arabian style had some influence upon
+  that of the Western nations, and thus originated the mixed style which
+  maintained itself till the middle of the thirteenth century. Then began
+  the modern Gothic style, which grew up in France, England, and Germany.
+  Its striking characteristics are its pointed arches, its pinnacles and
+  spires, its large buttresses, clustered pillars, vaulted roofs, profusion
+  of ornament, and, on the whole, its lofty, bold character. Its most
+  distinctive feature, as compared with the Greek or the Egyptian style, is
+  the predominance in it of perpendicular or rising lines, producing forms
+  that convey the idea of soaring or mounting upwards. Its greatest
+  capabilities have been best displayed in ecclesiastical edifices. The
+  Gothic style is divided into four principal epochs: the Early Pointed, or
+  general style of the thirteenth century; the Decorated, or style of the
+  fourteenth century; the Perpendicular, practised during the fifteenth and
+  early part of the sixteenth centuries; and the Tudor, or general style of
+  the sixteenth century. This style lasted in England up to the seventeenth
+  century, being gradually displaced by that branch of the Renaissance or
+  modified revival of ancient Roman architecture which is known as the
+  <i>Elizabethan style</i>, and which is perhaps more purely an English
+  style than any other that can be named.</p>
+
+  <p>The rise of the Renaissance style in Italy is the greatest event in
+  the history of architecture after the introduction of the Gothic style.
+  The Gothic style had been introduced into the country and extensively
+  employed, but had never been thoroughly naturalized. The Renaissance is a
+  revival of the classic style based on the study of the ancient models;
+  and having practically commenced in Florence about the beginning of the
+  fifteenth century, it soon spread with great rapidity over Italy and the
+  greater part of Europe. The most illustrious architects of this early
+  period of the style were Brunelleschi, who built at Florence the dome of
+  the cathedral, the Pitti Palace, &amp;c., besides many edifices at Milan,
+  Pisa, Pesaro, and Mantua; Alberti, who wrote an important work on
+  architecture, and erected many beautiful churches; Bramante, who began
+  the building of St. Peter's, Rome, and Michael Angelo, who erected its
+  magnificent dome. On St. Peter's were also employed Raphael, Peruzzi, and
+  San Gallo. The noblest building in this style of architecture in Britain
+  is St. Paul's, London, the work of Sir Christopher Wren.</p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image095.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image095.jpg"
+      alt="Italian Gothic Architecture" title="Italian Gothic Architecture" /></a>
+    Italian Gothic&mdash;Doges' Palace, Venice
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Since the Renaissance period there has been no architectural
+  development requiring special note. In buildings erected at the present
+  day some one of the various styles of architecture is employed according
+  to taste. Modern <!-- Page 226 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page226"></a>[226]</span>dwelling-houses have necessarily a style
+  of their own as far as stories and apartments and windows and chimneys
+  can give them one. In general the Grecian style, as handed down by Rome
+  and modified by the Italian architects of the Renaissance, from its right
+  angles and straight entablatures, is more convenient, and fits better
+  with the distribution of our common buildings, than the pointed and
+  irregular Gothic. But the occasional introduction of the Gothic outline
+  and the partial employment of its ornaments has undoubtedly an agreeable
+  effect both in public and private edifices; and we are indebted to it,
+  among other things, for the spire, a structure exclusively Gothic, which,
+  though often misplaced, has become an object of general approbation and a
+  pleasing landmark to cities and villages. The works most characteristic
+  of the present day are the large bridges, viaducts, &amp;c., in many of
+  which iron is the sole or most characteristic portion of the
+  material.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image096.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image096.jpg"
+      alt="Renaissance Architecture" title="Renaissance Architecture" /></a>
+    Renaissance&mdash;St. Peter's, Rome
+  </div>
+
+  <p>A few words may be added on the architecture of India and China.
+  Although many widely-differing styles are to be found in India, the
+  oldest and only true native style of Indian ecclesiastical architecture
+  is the Buddhist, the earliest specimens dating from 250 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> Among the chief objects of Buddhist art are
+  <i>stupas</i> or <i>topes</i>, built in the form of large towers, and
+  employed as <i>dágobas</i> to contain relics of Buddha or of some noted
+  saint. Other works of Buddhist art are temples or monasteries excavated
+  from the solid rock, and supported by pillars of the natural rock left in
+  their places. Buddhist architecture is found in Ceylon, Tibet, Java,
+  &amp;c., as well as in India. The most remarkable Hindu or Brahmanical
+  temples are in Southern India. They are pyramidal in form, rising in a
+  series of stories. The Saracenic or Mohammedan architecture afterwards
+  introduced into India is, of course, of foreign origin. The Chinese have
+  made the <i>tent</i> the elementary feature of their architecture; and of
+  their style any one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are
+  depicted upon common chinaware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper
+  side, as if made of canvas instead of wood. (For further information see
+  <i>Greek</i>, <i>Roman</i>, <i>Gothic</i>, <i>English</i>, <i>French</i>,
+  <i>Russian Architecture</i>; and <i>Building</i>, <i>Fine Arts</i>,
+  <i>Arch</i>, <i>Column</i>, <i>Aqueduct</i>, <i>Corinthian</i>,
+  <i>Doric</i>, <i>Ionic</i>, <i>Theatre</i>, &amp;c.)&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J. Ruskin, <i>Seven Lamps of
+  Architecture</i>; E.&nbsp;A. Freeman, <i>History of Architecture</i>;
+  Viollet-le-Duc, <i>How to build a House</i>; J.&nbsp;T. Micklethwaite,
+  <i>Modern Parish Churches</i>; H.&nbsp;H. Statham, <i>Architecture for General
+  Readers</i> and <i>Critical History of Architecture</i>; J. Fergusson,
+  <i>History of Architecture in all Countries</i>; F.&nbsp;M. Simpson, <i>A
+  History of Architectural Development</i>; <i>Cyclopedia of
+  Architecture</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Architrave</b> (är´ki-träv), in architecture, the part of an
+  entablature which rests immediately on the heads of the columns, being
+  the lowest of its three principal divisions, the others being the
+  <i>frieze</i> and the <i>cornice</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archives</b> (är´k&#x12B;vz). See <i>Records</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archivolt</b> (är´ki-volt), in architecture, the ornamental band of
+  mouldings on the face of an arch and following its contour.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archons</b> (är´konz), the chief magistrates of ancient Athens,
+  chosen to superintend civil and religious concerns. They were nine in
+  number; the first was properly the <i>arch&#x14D;n</i>, or
+  <i>arch&#x14D;n ep&#x14D;n&#x45E;mos</i>, by whose name the year was
+  distinguished in the public records; the second was called
+  <i>arch&#x14D;n basileus</i>, or king archon, who exercised the functions
+  of high priest; the third, <i>polemarchos</i>, or general of the forces.
+  The other six were called <i>thesmoth&#x115;tai</i>, or legislators.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Archytas</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-k&#x12B;´tas), an ancient Greek
+  mathematician, statesman, and general, who flourished about 400 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, and belonged to Tarentum in Southern Italy. The
+  invention of the analytic method in mathematics is ascribed to him, as
+  well as the solution of many geometrical and mechanical problems. He
+  constructed various machines and automata, among the most celebrated of
+  which was his flying pigeon. He was a Pythagorean in philosophy, and
+  Plato and Aristotle are said to have been both deeply indebted to him.
+  Only inconsiderable fragments of his works are extant.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arcis-sur-Aube</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-s&#x113;-su<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-&#x14D;b), a small town of France,
+  department Aube, at which, in 1814, was fought a battle between Napoleon
+  and the Allies, after which the latter marched to Paris. Pop. 3000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arc-light</b>, a certain kind of electric light in which the
+  illuminating source is the current of electricity passing between two
+  sticks of carbon <!-- Page 227 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page227"></a>[227]</span>kept a short distance apart, one of them
+  being in connection with the positive, the other with the negative
+  terminal of a battery or dynamo.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arco</b>, a town of Tyrol, near Lake Garda, a favourite winter
+  resort of invalids. Pop. 3800.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arcole</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r´ko-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a village in North Italy, 15 miles
+  <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of Verona, celebrated for the battles of
+  15th, 16th, and 17th Nov., 1796, fought between the French under
+  Bonaparte and the Austrians, in which the latter were defeated with great
+  slaughter.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arcos´ de la Fronte´ra</b>, a city of Spain, 30 miles <span
+  class="scac">E.</span> by <span class="scac">N.</span> from Cadiz, on the
+  Guadalete, here crossed by a stone bridge, on a sandstone rock 570 feet
+  above the level of the river. On the highest part of the rock stands the
+  castle of the dukes of Arcos, partly in ruins. The principal manufactures
+  are leather, hats, and cordage. Pop. 13,980.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´cot</b>, two districts and a town of India, within the
+  Presidency of Madras.&mdash;<i>North Arcot</i> is an inland district with
+  an area of 7616 sq. miles. The country is partly flat and partly
+  mountainous, where intersected by the Eastern Gháts. Pop.
+  2,200,000.&mdash;<i>South Arcot</i> lies on the Bay of Bengal, and has
+  two seaports, Cuddalor and Porto Novo. Area 5217 sq. miles. Pop.
+  2,170,000.&mdash;The town <i>Arcot</i> is in North Arcot, on the Palar,
+  about 70 miles <span class="scac">W.</span> by <span
+  class="scac">S.</span> of Madras. There is a military cantonment at 3
+  miles' distance. The town contains handsome mosques, a nabob's palace in
+  ruins, and the remains of an extensive fort. Arcot played an important
+  part in the wars which resulted in the ascendancy of the British in
+  India. It was taken by Clive, 31st Aug., 1751, and heroically defended by
+  him against an apparently overwhelming force under Raja Sahib. Pop.
+  11,475.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arctic</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rk´tik), an epithet given to the north
+  pole from the proximity of the constellation of the Bear, in Greek called
+  <i>arktos</i>. The <i>Arctic Circle</i> is an imaginary circle on the
+  globe, parallel to the equator, and 23° 28´ distant from the north pole.
+  This and its opposite, the <i>Antarctic</i>, are called the two polar
+  circles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arctic Expeditions.</b> See <i>North Polar Expeditions</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arctic Ocean</b>, that part of the water surface of the earth which
+  surrounds the north pole, and washes the northern shores of Europe, Asia,
+  and America; its southern boundary roughly coinciding with the Arctic
+  Circle (lat. 66° 30´ <span class="scac">N.</span>). It encloses many
+  large islands, and contains large bays and gulfs which deeply indent the
+  northern shores of the three continents. Its great characteristic is ice,
+  which is perpetual nearly everywhere.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arctic Regions</b>, the regions round the north pole, and extending
+  from the pole on all sides to the Arctic Circle in lat. 66° 30´ <span
+  class="scac">N.</span> The Arctic or North Polar Circle just touches the
+  northern headlands of Iceland, cuts off the southern and narrowest
+  portion of Greenland, crosses Fox's Strait north of Hudson's Bay, whence
+  it goes over the American continent to Behring's Strait. Thence it runs
+  to Obdorsk at the mouth of the Obi, then crossing Northern Russia, the
+  White Sea, and the Scandinavian Peninsula, returns to Iceland. Though
+  much skill and heroism have been displayed in the exploration of this
+  portion of the earth, there is still an area round the pole estimated at
+  2,500,000 sq. miles, which is a blank to geographers. Many have adopted
+  the belief in the existence of an open polar sea about the north pole.
+  But this belief is not supported by any positive evidence. Valuable
+  minerals, fossils, &amp;c., have been discovered within the Arctic
+  regions. In the archipelago north of the American continent excellent
+  coal frequently occurs. The mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland.
+  Fossil ivory is obtained in islands at the mouth of the Lena. In
+  Scandinavia, parts of Siberia, and north-west America, the forest region
+  extends within the Arctic Circle. The most characteristic of the natives
+  of the Arctic regions are the Esquimaux. The most notable animals are the
+  white-bear, the musk-ox, the reindeer, and the whalebone whale.
+  Fur-bearing animals are numerous. The most intense cold ever registered
+  in those regions was 74° below zero F. The aurora borealis is a brilliant
+  phenomenon of Arctic nights. See <i>North Polar Expeditions</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arc´tium.</b> See <i>Burdock</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arc´tomys.</b> See <i>Marmot</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arctu´rus</b>, or <b>Alpha Boötis</b>, a fixed star of the first
+  magnitude in the constellation of Boötes (the Ploughman), is one of the
+  brightest stars in the northern heavens, yellow in colour. Its light is
+  believed to be intrinsically at least 140 times as brilliant as the
+  sun's, and to take over 40 years to reach us. It is notable as having a
+  comparatively large proper motion.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ardahan´</b>, a small fortified town about 6400 feet above the sea,
+  between Kars and Batúm in Armenia. It was captured by the Russians in
+  1877, and ceded to them by the Berlin Treaty, 1878. It was handed over to
+  Turkey by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, but the Turkish troops
+  evacuated it after the armistice in 1918.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´dea</b>, the genus to which the heron belongs, type of the
+  family Ard&#x113;idæ, which includes also cranes, storks, bitterns,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´debil</b>, or <b>Ardabil</b>, a Persian town, province of
+  Azerbaijan, near the Karasu, a tributary of the Aras, about 40 miles from
+  the Caspian, in an elevated and healthy situation; it has mineral springs
+  and a considerable trade. Pop. 16,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ardèche</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-d&#x101;sh), a department in the south
+  of France (Languedoc), on the west side of the <!-- Page 228 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page228"></a>[228]</span>Rhone, taking its name
+  from the River Ardèche, which rises within it, and falls into the Rhone
+  after a course of 46 miles; area, 2144 sq. miles. It is generally of a
+  mountainous character, and contains the culminating point of the
+  Cevennes. Silk and wine are produced. Annonay is the principal town, but
+  Privas is the capital. Pop. (1921), 294,308.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arden, Forest of</b>, a wood in Warwickshire. Shakespeare is
+  supposed to have used it as a setting for <i>As You Like It</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ardennes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-den´), an extensive tract of hilly land
+  stretching over a large portion of the north-east of France and
+  south-west of Belgium. Anciently the whole tract formed one immense
+  forest (<i>Arduenna Silva</i> of Cæsar); but large portions are now
+  occupied by cultivated fields and populous towns.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ardennes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-den´), a frontier department in the
+  north-east of France; area, 2027 sq. miles, partly consisting of the
+  Forest of Ardennes. There are extensive slate-quarries, numerous
+  ironworks, and important manufactures of cloth, ironware, leather, glass,
+  earthenware, &amp;c. It was the scene of many battles during the European
+  War (1914-8). Chief towns, Mézières (the capital), Rocroi, and Sedan.
+  Pop. 277,791.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ardnamurchan</b> (-mur´<i>h</i>an) <b>Point</b>, the most westerly
+  point of the Island of Great Britain, in Argyllshire, having a
+  lighthouse, 180 feet above sea-level, visible 18 to 20 miles off.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´doch</b>, a parish in south Perthshire, celebrated for its Roman
+  remains, one, a camp, being the most perfect existing in Scotland.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ardross´an</b>, a seaport of Scotland, in Ayrshire, on the Firth of
+  Clyde. It has a large harbour and shipbuilding yards, and is a centre of
+  steamship services with Arran, Ireland, and Douglas, I.O.M. Pop. (1921),
+  7214.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ards´ley</b>, East and West, an urban district or town of England,
+  W. Riding of Yorkshire, several miles north-west of Wakefield, with
+  collieries, iron-mines, ironworks, &amp;c. Pop. (1921), 7058.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Are</b> (är), the unit of the French land measure, equal to 100 sq.
+  metres, or 1076.44 English sq. feet. A <i>hectare</i> is 100 ares, equal
+  to 2.47 English acres. The tenth part of an are is called a
+  <i>déciare</i>, and a hundredth part a <i>centiare</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´rea</b>, the superficial content of any figure or space, the
+  quantity of surface it contains in terms of any unit. See
+  <i>Mensuration</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Are´ca</b>, a genus of lofty palms with pinnated leaves, and a
+  drupe-like fruit enclosed in a fibrous rind. <i>A. Cat&#x115;chu</i> of
+  the Coromandel and Malabar coasts is the common areca palm which yields
+  areca or betel-nuts, and also the astringent juice catechu. <i>A.
+  olerac&#x115;a</i> is the cabbage tree or cabbage palm of the West
+  Indies. With lime and the leaves of the betel-pepper, the areca-nuts when
+  green form the celebrated masticatory of the East. They are an important
+  article in Eastern trade.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arecibo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-re-th&#x113;´b&#x14D;), a seaport town
+  on the north coast of the Island of Porto Rico. Pop. 9612.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Areiopagus.</b> See <i>Areopagus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Are´na</b>, the enclosed space in the central part of the Roman
+  amphitheatres, in which took place the combats of gladiators or wild
+  beasts. It was usually covered with sand or saw-dust to prevent the
+  gladiators from slipping, and to absorb the blood. See
+  <i>Amphitheatre</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arenaceous Rocks</b> include all sediments in which quartz sand is
+  the most important constituent. Owing to its resistance to comminution
+  and to chemical attack, quartz accumulates in sea-beaches while other
+  mineral matter becomes removed. Hence sands gather near a shore and
+  ultimately become consolidated by various natural cements into
+  sandstones, those cemented by silica being styled quartzites. Sand-dunes
+  in deserts or on coasts are unconsolidated arenaceous rock-masses.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´endal</b> a seaport of Southern Norway, exporting timber, wood
+  pulp, and iron, and owning numerous ships. It is a well-built place,
+  having been rebuilt since the great fire of 1868. Wood pulp, paper, and
+  cotton are manufactured. Pop. 11,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arenenberg Castle</b> (mediæval, <b>Narrenberg</b>), a castle and
+  estate in the Swiss Canton Thurgau, the possession of Queen Hortense, who
+  died there in 1837. In 1855 it became the property of the Empress
+  Eugénie.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arenga</b>, a term sometimes used as the generic name of the areng
+  or gomuti palm, which is then botanically designated <i>Arenga
+  saccharifera</i>. See <i>Gomuti</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arenic´ola.</b> See <i>Lobworm</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Are´olar Tissue</b>, an assemblage of fibres in bundles, pervading
+  almost every part of the animal structure, and connected with each other
+  so as to form innumerable small cavities, the whole serving as a means by
+  which the various organs and parts of organs are connected together. It
+  is called also <i>Cellular Tissue</i> and <i>Connective Tissue</i>. The
+  fibres are of two kinds&mdash;white fibrous tissue and yellow elastic
+  fibrous tissue, and interspersed among the bundles or occupying the
+  cellular cavities are cells and corpuscles of several kinds. It is a
+  tissue found in large quantities under the skin, covering the muscles,
+  the blood-vessels, and nerves, and in various parts forming a kind of
+  protective covering for delicate and important organs. It is because of
+  its general distribution, and because of its binding various structures
+  together, that it is called <i>connective</i>.&mdash;In botany the term
+  is sometimes applied to the <i>non</i>-vascular substance, composed
+  entirely of untransformed cells, which forms the soft substance of
+  plants. <!-- Page 229 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page229"></a>[229]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Areom´eter</b> (from Gr. <i>araios</i>, thin, <i>metron</i>, a
+  measure), an instrument for measuring the specific gravity of liquids; a
+  <i>hydrometer</i> (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Areop´agus</b>, the oldest of the Athenian courts of justice, an
+  assembly having a position more august than an ordinary court, and in its
+  best days exercising a general supervision over public morals. It
+  obtained its name from its place of meeting, on the Hill of Ares (Mars),
+  near the Acropolis or citadel of Athens. Another explanation connects the
+  word with <i>Aræ</i> (Curses), commonly known as <i>Semnæ</i> (Awful
+  Goddesses), who were the guardians of the hill. It existed from very
+  remote times, and the crimes tried before it were wilful murder,
+  poisoning, robbery, and arson, while it had under its control also
+  dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the State and in religion.
+  Its meetings were held in the open air, and its members were selected
+  from those who had held the office of archon. The tribunal eventually
+  lost many of its powers, but it continued to exist in name at least as
+  late as the time of Cicero or later, having had an existence of seven or
+  eight hundred years.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arequipa</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-r&#x101;-k&#x113;´pa<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a city of Peru,
+  capital of a province of same name, situated in a fertile valley, 7850
+  feet above sea-level, at a distance of about 55 miles from the coast and
+  on the railway which runs from its port Mollendo inland to Puno on Lake
+  Titicaca. Behind the city rises the volcano of Arequipa, or Peak of Misti
+  (20,328 feet). The climate is healthy but the locality is liable to
+  earthquakes, one of which almost completely destroyed the town in 1868,
+  after which it was rapidly rebuilt. A considerable trade is carried on
+  through Mollendo, there being a large transit trade with the interior,
+  and the town carries on various industries, manufacturing cotton and
+  woollen goods, &amp;c. It was founded in 1540. Pop. 35,000 to
+  40,000.&mdash;The province has an area of 21,947 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+  229,007.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ares</b> (&#x101;´r&#x113;z). See <i>Mars</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arethu´sa</b>, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Nereus and Doris,
+  a nymph changed by Art&#x115;mis into a fountain in order to free her
+  from the pursuit of the river-god Alpheus. This fountain was said to
+  exist in the small Island of Ortygia, near Syracuse, and was fabled to
+  have a subterranean connection with the River Alpheus in Greece.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aretino</b> (ä-r&#x101;-t&#x113;´nö), Guido. See <i>Guido</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aretino</b>, Pietro, Italian poet, born at Arezzo 1492, died at
+  Venice 1556, the natural son of a nobleman called Luigi Bacci. He early
+  displayed a talent for satirical poetry, and when still a young man was
+  banished from Arezzo on account of a sonnet against indulgences. He went
+  to Perugia, and thence to Rome (1517), where he secured the papal
+  patronage, but subsequently lost it through writing licentious sonnets.
+  Through the influence of the Medici family he found an opportunity to
+  insinuate himself into the favour of Francis I. In 1527 Aretino went to
+  Venice, where he acquired powerful friends, among them the Bishop of
+  Vicenza. By his devotional writings he regained the favour of the Roman
+  Court. He called himself 'the divine', and 'the scourge of princes', but
+  he was also their abject flatterer, and that solely to obtain money. The
+  obscenity of some of his writings was such that his name has become
+  proverbial for licentiousness. Among them are five comedies and a
+  tragedy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arezzo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ret´s&#x14D;; ancient <b>Arretium</b>),
+  a city of Central Italy, capital of a province of the same name in
+  Tuscany, near the confluence of the Chiana with the Arno. It has a noble
+  cathedral, containing some fine pictures and monuments; remains of an
+  ancient amphitheatre, &amp;c. It was one of the twelve chief Etruscan
+  towns, and in later times fought long against the Florentines, to whom it
+  had finally to succumb. It is the birthplace of Mæcenas, Petrarch, Pietro
+  Aretino, Redi, and Vasari. Pop. 50,093.&mdash;The province of Arezzo
+  contains 1274 sq. miles, and 292,763 inhabitants (1915).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gal</b>, <b>Argol</b>, or <b>Tartar</b>, a hard crust formed on
+  the sides of vessels in which wine has been kept, red or white according
+  to the colour of the wine. It is an impure bitartrate of potassium.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image097.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image097.jpg"
+      alt="Argali" title="Argali" /></a>
+    Argali (<i>Ovis ammon</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gali</b>, a species of wild sheep (<i>Capr&#x14F;vis
+  Arg&#x103;li</i> or <i>Ovis ammon</i>) found on the mountains <!-- Page
+  230 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page230"></a>[230]</span>of
+  Siberia, Central Asia, and Kamtchatka. It is 4 feet high at the
+  shoulders, and proportionately stout in its build, with horns nearly 4
+  feet in length measured along the curve, and at their base about 19
+  inches in circumference. It lives in small herds. This true argali must
+  not be confounded with the North-African wild sheep, called the bearded
+  argali and known as the arni, the Algerian moufflon, and the Barbary
+  sheep.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gall</b>, Sir Samuel (1572-1639), one of the early English
+  adventurers to Virginia. He planned and executed the abduction of
+  Pocahontas, the daughter of the Indian chief Powhattan, in order to
+  secure the ransom of English prisoners. He was deputy-governor of
+  Virginia (1617-9), and was accused of many acts of rapacity and tyranny.
+  In 1620 he served in an expedition against Algiers, and was knighted by
+  James I.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gand Lamp</b>, a lamp named after its inventor, Aimé
+  <i>Argand</i>, a Swiss chemist and physician (born 1755, died 1803), the
+  distinctive feature of which is a burner forming a ring or hollow
+  cylinder covered by a chimney, so that the flame receives a current of
+  air both on the inside and on the outside.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argaum</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-ga<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>´u<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>m), a village of India, in Berar,
+  celebrated for the victory of General Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) over
+  the Mahrattas under Scindia and the Rajah of Berar, 29th Nov., 1803.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gelander</b>, Friedrich Wilhelm August, German astronomer, born
+  in 1799. He added to the knowledge of the progressive motion of the solar
+  system in space, and published a catalogue of 560 stars having 'proper
+  motion'. His works include: <i>Atlas des nördlichen gestirnten
+  Himmels</i> (1857), <i>Neue Uranometrie</i> (1843), &amp;c. He died in
+  1875.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argemone</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-jem´o-n&#x113;), a small genus of
+  ornamental American plants of the poppy order. From the seeds of <i>A.
+  mexic&#x101;na</i> is obtained an oil very useful to painters. The
+  handsomest species is <i>A. grandifl&#x14D;ra</i>, which has large
+  flowers of a pure white colour.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argensola</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-<i>h</i>en-s&#x14D;´la<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Lupercio and
+  Bartolomé Leonardo de, brothers, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, the former
+  in 1565, died in 1613; the latter born in 1566, died in 1631. Lupercio
+  produced tragedies and lyric poems; Bartolomé a number of poems and a
+  historical work, <i>The Conquest of the Moluccas</i>. Their writings are
+  singularly alike in character, and are reckoned among the Spanish
+  classics. The tragedies are of the heavy Senecan type, but the satirical
+  writings of both brothers are full of pungent wit of a pleasing kind.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argenson</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-zha<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-s&#x14D;n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Marc Pierre de Voyer, Comte d',
+  celebrated French statesman, born in 1696, died 1764. After holding a
+  number of subordinate offices he became minister for foreign affairs, and
+  succeeded in bringing about the Congress of Breda, which was the prelude
+  to that of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was present at the battle of Fontenoy, and
+  was exiled to his estate for some years through the machinations of
+  Madame Pompadour. His <i>Considérations sur le Gouvernement de la
+  France</i> was a very advanced study on the possibility of combining with
+  a monarchic form of government democratic principles and local
+  self-government. <i>Les Essais, ou Loisirs d'un Ministre d'État</i>,
+  published in 1785, is a collection of characters and anecdotes in the
+  style of Montaigne.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gent</b>, in coats of arms, the heraldic term expressing silver:
+  represented in engraving by a plain white surface.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argentan</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-zha<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-tän<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a French town, department of Orne
+  (Normandy), with an old castle and some manufactures. Pop. 6300.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argenteuil</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-zha<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-teu-y&#x117;), a town in France,
+  department Seine-et-Oise, 7 miles below Paris; it has an active trade in
+  wine, fruit, and vegetables. Pop. 24,282.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argentie´ra</b>, or <b>Kim&#x14D;li</b> (ancient,
+  <b>Cim&#x14D;lus</b>), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the
+  Cyclades, about 18 miles in circumference, rocky and sterile. It produces
+  a detergent chalk called <i>Cimolian earth</i> (q.v.), used in washing
+  and bleaching. Pop. 1337.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gentine</b>, a silvery-white slaty variety of calc-spar,
+  containing a little silica with laminæ usually undulated. It is found in
+  primitive rocks and frequently in metallic veins.&mdash;Argentine is also
+  the name of a small British fish (<i>Scop&#x115;lus bore&#x101;lis</i>)
+  less than 2 inches long and of a silvery colour.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gentine Republic</b>, formerly called the United Provinces of
+  <b>La Plata</b>, a vast country of South America, the extreme length of
+  which is 2300 miles, and the average breadth a little over 500 miles, the
+  total area 1,153,119 sq. miles. It consists of fourteen provinces, ten
+  territories, and one federal district. It is bounded on the <span
+  class="scac">N.</span> by Bolivia; on the <span class="scac">E.</span> by
+  Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; on the <span
+  class="scac">S.</span> by the Antarctic Ocean; and on the <span
+  class="scac">W.</span> by the Andes. It comprises four great natural
+  divisions: (1) the Andine region, containing the provinces of Mendoza,
+  San Juan, Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy; (2) the Pampas,
+  containing the provinces of Santiago, Santa Fé, Cordova, San Luis, and
+  Buenos Ayres, with the territories Formosa, Pampa, and Chaco; (3) the
+  Argentine 'mesopotamia', between the Rivers Paraná and Uruguay,
+  containing the provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and the territory
+  Misiones; (4) Patagonia, including the eastern half of Tierra del Fuego.
+  With the exception of the <span class="scac">N.W.</span>, where lateral
+  branches of the Andes run into the <!-- Page 231 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page231"></a>[231]</span>plain for 150 or 200
+  miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which is hilly, the characteristic
+  feature of the country is the great monotonous and level plains called
+  'pampas'. In the north these plains are partly forest-covered, but all
+  the central and southern parts present vast treeless tracts, which afford
+  pasture to immense herds of horses, oxen, and sheep, and are varied in
+  some places by brackish swamps, in others by salt steppes. The great
+  water-course of the country is the Paraná, having a length of fully 2000
+  miles from its source in the mountains of Goyaz, Brazil, to its junction
+  with the Uruguay, where begins the estuary of La Plata. The Paraná is
+  formed by the union of the Upper Paraná and Paraguay Rivers, near the
+  <span class="scac">N.E.</span> corner of the State. Important tributaries
+  are the Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado. The Paraná, Paraguay, and
+  Uruguay are valuable for internal navigation. Many of the streams which
+  tend eastward terminate in marshes and salt lakes, some of which are
+  rather extensive. Not connected with the La Plata system are the Colorado
+  and the Rio Negro, the latter formerly the southern boundary of the
+  State, separating it from Patagonia. The source of the Negro is Lake
+  Nahuel Huapi, in Patagonia (area, 1200 sq. miles), in the midst of
+  magnificent scenery. The level portions of the country are mostly of
+  tertiary formation, and the river and coast regions consist mainly of
+  alluvial soil of great fertility. In the pampas clay have been found the
+  fossil remains of extinct mammalia, some of them of colossal size.</p>
+
+  <p>European grains and fruits, including the vine, have been successfully
+  introduced, and large areas are now under wheat, maize, flax, and other
+  crops, another source of wealth consisting in the countless herds of
+  cattle and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the pampas,
+  and which multiply there very rapidly. Gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin,
+  lead, and iron, besides marble, jasper, precious stones, and bitumen, are
+  found in the mountainous districts of the <span class="scac">N.W.</span>,
+  while petroleum wells have been discovered on the Rio Vermejo; but the
+  development of this mineral wealth has hitherto been greatly retarded by
+  the want of proper means of transport. As a whole there are not extensive
+  forests in the State except in the region of the Gran Chaco (which
+  extends also into Bolivia), where there is known to be 60,000 sq. miles
+  of timber. Thousands of square miles are covered with thistles, which
+  grow to a great height in their season. Cacti also forms great thickets.
+  Peach and apple trees are abundant in some districts. The native fauna
+  includes the puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the llama, the alpaca, the
+  vicuña, armadillos, the rhea or nandu, a species of ostrich, &amp;c. The
+  climate is agreeable and healthy, 97° being about the highest temperature
+  experienced. The rainfall is very scanty in some districts, and is
+  nowhere very large.</p>
+
+  <p>As a whole this vast country is very thinly inhabited, some parts of
+  it as yet being very little known. The native Indians were never very
+  numerous, and have given little trouble to the European settlers. Tribes
+  of them yet in the savage state still inhabit the less-known districts,
+  and live by hunting and fishing. Some of the Gran Chaco tribes are said
+  to be very fierce, and European travellers have been killed by them. The
+  European element is strong in the republic, more than half the population
+  being Europeans or of pure European descent. Large numbers of immigrants
+  arrive from Southern Europe, the Italians having the preponderance among
+  those of foreign birth. The typical inhabitants of the pampas are the
+  <i>Gauchos</i>, a race of half-breed cattle-rearers and horse-breakers;
+  they are almost continually on horseback, galloping over the plains,
+  collecting their herds and droves, taming wild horses, or catching and
+  slaughtering cattle. In such occupations they require a marvellous
+  dexterity in the use of the lasso and bolas.</p>
+
+  <p>The River La Plata was discovered in 1512 by the Spanish navigator
+  Juan Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata territory had been brought into the
+  possession of Spain by the end of the sixteenth century. In 1810 the
+  territory cast off the Spanish rule, and in 1816 the independence of the
+  United States of the Rio de la Plata was formerly declared, but it was
+  long before a settled government was established. The present
+  constitution dates from 1853, being modified in 1866 and 1898. The
+  executive power is vested in a president&mdash;elected by the
+  representatives of the fourteen provinces for a term of six years. A
+  national congress of two chambers&mdash;a Senate and a House of
+  Deputies&mdash;wields the legislative authority, and the republic is
+  making rapid advances in social and political life. The national revenue
+  for 1918 amounted to about £32,860,306, while the expenditure amounted to
+  £34,407,074; the public debt was, at the end of 1916, about £120,000,000.
+  There are about 22,000 miles of railway opened. The external commerce is
+  important, the chief exports being beef and mutton, wheat, maize, and
+  linseed, wool, skins and hides, tallow. The imports are chiefly
+  manufactured goods. The trade is largely with Britain and France, and is
+  increasing rapidly, the exports having advanced from £9,000,000 in 1876
+  and £73,200,000 in 1908 to £201,360,000 in 1920. The imports in 1920 were
+  £170,820,000. The chief denomination of money is the dollar or
+  <i>peso</i>, value (in gold) 4<i>s.</i> Buenos Ayres (or Aires) is the
+  capital. Other towns are Rosario, Cordova, La Plata, Tucuman, Mendoza,
+  and <!-- Page 232 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page232"></a>[232]</span>Santa-Fé. The population of the republic,
+  which is rapidly increasing by immigration, was, in 1905, 5,678,197, and
+  8,284,266 in 1918; of the capital, 1,637,155 (1918).&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C.&nbsp;E. Akers, <i>History of South America,
+  1854 to 1904</i>; W.&nbsp;H. Hudson, <i>The Naturalist in La Plata</i>; Keane
+  and Markham, <i>Central and South America</i> (in Stanford's
+  <i>Compendium of Geography and Travel</i>); Martinez and Lewandowski,
+  <i>Argentine in the Twentieth Century</i>; Sir John Foster Fraser, <i>The
+  Amazing Argentine</i>; H. Stephens, <i>Illustrated Descriptive
+  Argentina</i>; <i>The Argentine Year Book</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gentite</b>, sulphide of silver, a blackish or lead-grey
+  mineral, a valuable ore of silver found in the crystalline rocks of many
+  countries.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argentometer.</b> See <i>Hydrometer</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argillaceous Rocks</b> are rocks in which clay prevails (including
+  shales and slates).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argives</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r´j&#x12B;vz), or <b>Argivi</b>, the
+  inhabitants of Argos; used by Homer and other ancient authors as a
+  generic appellation for all the Greeks.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´go.</b> See <i>Argonauts</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argol.</b> See <i>Argal</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argolis.</b> See <i>Argos</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argon</b>, a gas which is fairly widely distributed in the free
+  state and is a constant constituent of the atmosphere, of which it forms
+  about 1 per cent by volume. It was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and
+  Professor Ramsay in 1894. During their determinations of the density of
+  nitrogen they noticed that the density of nitrogen derived from the air
+  differed from the density of nitrogen derived from ammonia and other
+  compounds of nitrogen, and after a series of very careful experiments
+  they succeeded in isolating a new gas, which they named Argon. The gas
+  occurs in sea and river water, in plants, in the blood of animals, and
+  the gases issuing from volcanoes and mineral springs. It is always in the
+  free state and never in combination, and is associated with nitrogen. It
+  is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, and may be liquefied and
+  solidified. It is heavier than air, and is chemically a very inert
+  substance. It is usually referred to as one of the <i>rare</i> gases of
+  the atmosphere. Argon is manufactured in fairly large quantity from air,
+  making use of the inertness of the substance compared to oxygen and
+  nitrogen, the chief constituents of the air. Several methods are in use,
+  e.g. nitrogen may be removed by passing it repeatedly over red-hot
+  magnesium; thus the nitrogen is absorbed and the argon left. When oxygen
+  and nitrogen of air are absorbed by a mixture of 90 per cent calcium
+  carbide and 10 per cent calcium chloride previously heated to redness
+  <i>in vacuo</i>, a gas becoming richer and richer in argon is obtained.
+  Another method of preparing argon is by fractionation of liquid air. It
+  is used for filling electric bulbs.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:29%;">
+      <a href="images/image098.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image098.jpg"
+      alt="Argonaut" title="Argonaut" /></a>
+    Argonaut&mdash;Female
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gonaut</b>, a molluscous animal of the genus Argonauta,
+  belonging to the dibranchiate or two-gilled cuttle-fishes, distinguished
+  by the females possessing a single-chambered external shell, not
+  organically connected with the body of the animal. The males have no
+  shell and are of much smaller size than the females. The shell is
+  fragile, translucent, and boat-like in shape; it serves as the receptacle
+  of the ova or eggs of the female, which sits in it with the respiratory
+  tube or 'funnel' turned towards the carina or 'keel'. This famed mollusc
+  swims only by ejecting water from its funnel, and it can crawl in a
+  reversed position, carrying its shell over its back like a snail. The
+  account of its floating on the surface of the sea, with its sail-shaped
+  arms extended to catch the breeze, and with the six other arms as oars,
+  is a mere fable. The argonaut, or <i>paper-nautilus</i>, must be
+  carefully distinguished from the <i>pearly-nautilus</i> or nautilus
+  proper (<i>Nautilus Pompilius</i>).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argonauts</b>, in the legendary history of Greece, those heroes who
+  performed a hazardous voyage to Colchis, a far-distant country at the
+  eastern extremity of the Euxine (Black Sea), with Jason in the ship
+  <i>Argo</i>, for the purpose of securing a golden fleece, which was
+  preserved suspended upon a tree, and under the guardianship of a
+  sleepless dragon. By the aid of Medea, daughter of the King of Colchis,
+  Jason was enabled to seize the fleece, and, after many strange
+  adventures, to reach his home at Iolcos in Thessaly. Among the Argonauts
+  were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus and Theseus.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: A.&nbsp;R. Hope Moncrieff, <i>Classic Myth and
+  Legend</i>; Kingsley, <i>The Heroes</i>; N. Hawthorne, <i>The
+  Wonder-book</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argo-Navis</b>, the southern constellation of the Ship, is almost
+  entirely invisible in Britain. It contains Canopus, next to Sirius the
+  brightest <!-- Page 233 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page233"></a>[233]</span>fixed star. In the great nebula in Argo is
+  situated the remarkable star Eta Argûs. It is variable, generally faint,
+  but in 1837 it became temporarily one of the brightest stars in the
+  sky.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argonne</b>, a district of France, between the Rivers Meuse, Marne,
+  and Aisne, celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez against the Prussians
+  in 1792, and for the military movements and actions which took place
+  therein previous to the battle of Sedan, in 1870.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argonne, Battle of.</b> When, in the autumn of 1914, the Allies
+  retreated towards the Marne, the German Crown Prince's army endeavoured
+  to invest Verdun. His right wing advanced through the thick and extensive
+  forest of Argonne, but took precipitate flight after the battle of the
+  Marne before the army of General Sarrail. In the summer of 1915 the Crown
+  Prince endeavoured to hack his way through the French Argonne lines,
+  using much heavy artillery, poison-gas, liquid-fire, and tear-shells. A
+  final effort to break through was made in September, between Le Four de
+  Paris and Vienne-le-Château, but, after gaining a footing in the first
+  line of French trenches, the Germans were hurled back by a dashing
+  counter-attack. The great salient from the Argonne to St. Mihiel was the
+  salvation of Verdun.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gos</b>, a town of Greece, in the north-east of the
+  Peloponnesus, between the Gulfs of Ægina and Nauplia or Argos. This town
+  and the surrounding territory of Argolis were famous from the legendary
+  period of Greek history onwards. Here, besides Argos, was Mycenæ, where
+  Agamemnon ruled. Modern Argos is a straggling place of 10,000
+  inhabitants, with some ancient remains. The territory Argolis forms a
+  nomarchy of Greece. Pop., Argolis and Corinthia, 153,172. The capital is
+  Nauplia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argos´toli</b>, a city of the Ionian Islands, capital of
+  Cephalonia, and the residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. 14,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gosy</b>, a poetical name for a large merchant-vessel; derived
+  from <i>Ragusa</i>, a port which was formerly more celebrated than now,
+  and whose vessels did a considerable trade with England. It is popularly
+  but erroneously connected with the ship <i>Argo</i> in which Jason
+  sailed. See <i>Argonauts</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argot</b> (Fr.; a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-g&#x14D;), the jargon, slang, or
+  peculiar phraseology of a class or profession; originally the
+  conventional slang of thieves and vagabonds, invented for the purpose of
+  disguise and concealment. Some of François Villon's poems are written in
+  argot.&mdash;Cf. W. von Knoblauch, <i>Dictionary of Argot</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arguim</b>, or <b>Arguin</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-gwim´, a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-gwin´), a small island on the west
+  coast of Africa, not far from Cape Blanco, formerly a centre of trade.
+  Its possession was violently disputed between the Portuguese, Dutch,
+  English, and French.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gument</b>, a term sometimes used as synonymous with the
+  <i>subject</i> of a discourse, but more frequently appropriated to any
+  kind of method employed for the purpose of confuting or at least
+  silencing an opponent. Logicians have reduced arguments to a number of
+  distinct heads, such as the <i>argumentum ad judicium</i>, which founds
+  on solid proofs and addresses to the judgment; the <i>argumentum ad
+  verecundiam</i>, which appeals to the modesty or bashfulness of an
+  opponent by reminding him of the great names or authorities by whom the
+  view disputed by him is supported; the <i>argumentum ad ignorantiam</i>,
+  the employment of some logical fallacy towards persons likely to be
+  deceived by it; and the <i>argumentum ad hominem</i>, an argument which
+  presses a man with consequences drawn from his own principles and
+  concessions, or his own conduct. See <i>Fallacy</i>, <i>Logic</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argument of the People</b>, the document set forth by the Council
+  of the Army on 15th Jan., 1649, fifteen days before the execution of King
+  Charles I. See <i>Levellers</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´gus</b>, in Greek mythology, a fabulous being, said to have had
+  a hundred eyes, placed by Juno to guard Io. Hence 'argus-eyed', applied
+  to one who is exceedingly watchful.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image099.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image099.jpg"
+      alt="Argus-pheasant" title="Argus-pheasant" /></a>
+    Argus-pheasant (<i>Argus gigant&#x113;us</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Argus-pheasant</b> (<i>Argus gigant&#x113;us</i>), a large, <!--
+  Page 234 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page234"></a>[234]</span>beautiful, and very singular species of
+  pheasant, found native in the south-east of Asia, more especially in
+  Sumatra and some of the other islands. The males measure from 5 to 6 feet
+  from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail, which has two
+  greatly-elongated central feathers. The plumage is exceedingly beautiful,
+  the secondary quills of the wings, which are longer than the primary
+  feathers, being each adorned with a series of ocellated or eye-like spots
+  (whence the name&mdash;see <i>Argus</i>) of brilliant metallic hues. The
+  general body plumage is brown.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argyll</b>, or <b>Argyle</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-g&#x12B;l´), an extensive county in the
+  south-west of the Highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland
+  and partly of islands belonging to the Hebrides group, the chief of which
+  are Islay, Mull, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Luing, Lismore, and Colonsay, with
+  Iona and Staffa. On the land side the mainland is bounded north by
+  Inverness; east by Perth and Dumbarton; elsewhere surrounded by the Firth
+  of Clyde and its connections and the sea; area, 3255 sq. miles (or over
+  2,000,000 acres), of which the islands comprise about 1000 sq. miles. It
+  is greatly indented by arms of the sea, which penetrate far inland, the
+  most important of these being Loch Sunart, Loch Linnhe (the extremities
+  of which are Loch Eil and Loch Leven), Loch Etive, Loch Fyne, Loch
+  Tarbert, Loch Riddon, Loch Striven, and Loch Long. The mainland is
+  divided into six districts of Northern Argyle, Lorn, Argyle, Cowal,
+  Knapdale, and Kintyre; the two first being subdivided into the
+  sub-districts of Lochiel, Ardgour, Sunart, Ardnamurchan, Morven, and
+  Appin. The county is exceedingly mountainous, the chief summits being
+  Bidean-nam-Bian (3766 feet), Ben Laoigh (3708 feet), Ben Cruachan (3611
+  feet), Benmore, in Mull (3185 feet), the Paps of Jura (2565 feet), and
+  Ben Arthur or the Cobbler (2891 feet). There are several lakes, the
+  principal of which is Loch Awe. Cattle and sheep are reared in numbers,
+  and fishing is largely carried on, as is also the making of whisky. There
+  is but little arable land. The chief minerals are slate, marble,
+  limestone, and granite. County town, Inveraray; others, Campbeltown,
+  Oban, and Dunoon. Pop. (1921), 76,856.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argyll, Campbells of</b>, a historic Scottish family, raised to the
+  peerage in the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more
+  eminent members are: Archibald, 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of
+  Flodden, 1513.&mdash;Archibald, 5th Earl, attached himself to the party
+  of Mary of Guise, and was the means of averting a collision between the
+  Reformers and the French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency
+  after Mary's abdication, but afterwards commanded her troops at the
+  battle of Langside; died 1575.&mdash;Archibald, 8th Earl and 1st
+  Marquess, born 1598: a zealous partisan of the Covenanters; created a
+  marquess by Charles I. It was by his persuasion that Charles II visited
+  Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in 1651. At the Restoration he was
+  committed to the Tower, and afterwards sent to Scotland, where he was
+  tried for high treason, and beheaded in 1661.&mdash;Archibald, 9th Earl,
+  son of the preceding, served the king with great bravery at the battle of
+  Dunbar, and was excluded from the general pardon by Cromwell in 1654. On
+  the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he refused to take the required oath
+  except with a reservation. For this he was tried and sentenced to death.
+  He managed to escape to Holland, from whence he returned with a view of
+  aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan, however, failed, and he was taken
+  and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was beheaded in
+  1685.&mdash;Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding, died
+  1703; took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-9, which placed
+  William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important
+  appointments and the title of duke.&mdash;John, 2nd Duke and Duke of
+  Greenwich, son of the above, born 1678, died 1743; served under
+  Marlborough at the battles of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and
+  assisted at the sieges of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium
+  in his own country for his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had
+  the military command in Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an indecisive
+  battle with the Earl of Mar's army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and
+  forced the Pretender to quit the kingdom. He was long a supporter of
+  Walpole, but his political career was full of intrigue. He is the Duke of
+  Argyll in Scott's <i>Heart of Midlothian</i>.&mdash;George Douglas
+  Campbell, <span class="scac">K.G.</span>, <span class="scac">K.T.</span>,
+  &amp;c., 8th Duke (of United Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early
+  took a part in politics, especially in discussions regarding the
+  Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In 1852 he became Lord Privy Seal under
+  Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord Palmerston in 1859;
+  Postmaster-General in 1860; Secretary for India from 1868 to 1874; again
+  Lord Privy Seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to agree with his
+  colleagues on their Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wrote <i>The Reign
+  of Law</i>, <i>Scotland as it Was and as it Is</i>, &amp;c.&mdash;John
+  Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of, son of the 8th Duke and a
+  daughter of the 2nd Duke of Sutherland, was born in 1845, and succeeded
+  his father in 1900. He completed his education at Trinity College,
+  Cambridge, sat in Parliament as member for Argyllshire, 1868-78, was
+  Governor-General of Canada from 1878 to 1883, and again sat in Parliament
+  as member for South Manchester from 1895 to 1900, as a Liberal-Unionist.
+  He married the Princess Louise of Great Britain, fourth daughter of Queen
+  Victoria, in 1871. <!-- Page 235 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page235"></a>[235]</span>He died in 1914. His works include: <i>The
+  United States after the War</i>, <i>Imperial Federation</i>, <i>Canadian
+  Pictures</i>, <i>Memories of Canada and Scotland</i>, <i>Life of Lord
+  Palmerston</i>, <i>Tales and Poems</i>, <i>The Psalms in English
+  Verse</i>, <i>Life and Times of Queen Victoria</i>, <i>Yesterday and
+  To-day in Canada</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders</b> (Princess Louise's), raised
+  by the 5th Duke of Argyll (1794), received their present title in 1872.
+  The regiment served under Sir David Baird in Cape Colony, and at
+  Balaklava made itself immortal as Sir Colin Campbell's 'thin red line'.
+  It was further distinguished in the European War at Gheluvelt, Le Cateau,
+  and the second battle of Ypres.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argyro-Castro</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r´gi-r&#x14D;-), a town in Albania, 40
+  miles north-west of Janina; built on three ridges intersected by deep
+  ravines, across which are several bridges. It was occupied by the Greeks
+  in 1916. Pop. about 10,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Argyropu´los</b>, Johannes, one of the principal revivers of Greek
+  learning in the fifteenth century. Born in Constantinople 1415, died at
+  Rome 1486.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aria</b>, in music. See <i>Air</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ariadne</b> (a-ri-ad´ne), in Greek mythology, a daughter of Minos,
+  King of Crete. She gave Theseus a clue of thread to conduct him out of
+  the labyrinth after his defeat of the Minotaur. Theseus abandoned her on
+  the Isle of Naxos, where she was found by Dionysus, who married her.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aria´na</b>, the ancient name of a large district in Asia, forming
+  a portion of the Persian Empire; bounded on the north by the provinces of
+  Bactriana, Margiana, and Hyrcania; east by the Indus; south by the Indian
+  Ocean and the Persian Gulf; west by Media.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ariano</b> (ä-r&#x113;-ä´n&#x14D;), a town in South Italy, province
+  of Avellino, 44 miles north-east of Naples, the seat of a bishop, with a
+  handsome cathedral. Pop. 17,650.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´ians</b>, the adherents of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius, who,
+  about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 318, promulgated the doctrine that
+  Christ was a created being inferior to God the Father in nature and
+  dignity, though the first and noblest of all created beings; and also
+  that the Holy Spirit is not God, but created by the power of the Son.
+  Arianism has been defined as an attempt to determine the relations of the
+  Persons of the Trinity on a basis of distinction and subordination. It
+  does not seem to have sprung from any strong ethical impulse; its
+  philosophy was pagan, and the object of the leaders political rather than
+  religious. The doctrines were condemned by the Council of Nicæa in 325.
+  Arius died in 336, and after his death his party gained considerable
+  accessions, including several emperors, and for a time held a strong
+  position. Since the middle of the seventh century, however, the Arians
+  have nowhere constituted a distinct sect, although similar opinions have
+  been advanced by various theologians in modern times. The Arian
+  controversy was revived in England during the eighteenth century by
+  William Whiston and Dr. Samuel Clarke.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: H.&nbsp;M. Gwatkin, <i>Studies of
+  Arianism</i>; J.&nbsp;H. Newman, <i>Arians of the Fourth Century</i>; J.&nbsp;H.
+  Colligan, <i>Arian Movement in England</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arica</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-r&#x113;´ka<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a seaport of Chile, 30 miles S. of
+  Tacna; previous to 1880 it belonged to Peru. It has suffered frequently
+  from earthquakes, being in 1868 almost entirely destroyed, part of it
+  being also submerged by an earthquake wave. Pop. about 4000. It has a
+  wireless station.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arica</b>. See <i>Tacna-Arica Dispute</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arichat</b> (-shat´), a seaport town and fishing station of Nova
+  Scotia, on a small bay, south coast of Madame Island. Pop. about
+  2500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ariège</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-r&#x113;-&#x101;zh), a mountainous
+  department of France, on the northern slopes of the Pyrenees, comprising
+  the ancient countship of Foix and parts of Languedoc and Gascony. The
+  principal rivers are the Ariège, Arize, and Salat, tributaries of the
+  Garonne. Sheep and cattle are reared; the arable land is small in
+  quantity. Chief town, Foix. Area, 1892 sq. miles. Pop. (1921),
+  172,851.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´riel</b>, a symbolic name for Jerusalem in the Old Testament; in
+  the demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's
+  <i>Tempest</i>, Ariel was the "tricksy spirit" whom Prospero had in his
+  service.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aries</b> (&#x101;´ri-&#x113;z; Lat.), the Ram, a northern
+  constellation. It is the first of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which
+  the sun enters at the vernal equinox, about the 21st of March. The "First
+  Point in Aries" is where the equator cuts the ecliptic in the ascending
+  node, from which point the right ascensions of heavenly bodies are
+  reckoned on the equator, and their longitudes upon the ecliptic. Owing to
+  the precession of the equinoxes the sign Aries no longer corresponds with
+  the constellation Aries, which it did 2000 years ago.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/image100.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image100.jpg"
+      alt="Aril" title="Aril" /></a>
+    Aril, Fruit of Nutmeg
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´il</b>, or <b>Aril´lus</b>, in some plants, as in the nutmeg, an
+  extra covering of the seed, outside of the true seed-coats, proceeding
+  from the placenta, partially investing the seed, and falling off
+  spontaneously. It is either succulent or cartilaginous, coloured,
+  elastic, rough, or knotted. In the nutmeg it is known as <i>mace</i>.
+  <!-- Page 236 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page236"></a>[236]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Arimas´pians</b>, in ancient Greek traditions, a people who lived
+  in the extreme north-east of the ancient world. They were said to be
+  one-eyed and to carry on a perpetual war with the gold-guarding griffins,
+  whose gold they endeavoured to steal. Cf. Milton, <i>Paradise Lost</i>,
+  II, 943.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arimathæ´a</b>, a town of Palestine, identified with the modern
+  <i>Ramleh</i>, 22 miles <span class="scac">W.N.W.</span> of
+  Jerusalem.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ari´on</b>, an ancient Greek poet and musician, born at Methymna,
+  in Lesbos, flourished about 625 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He lived
+  at the Court of Periander of Corinth, and afterwards visited Sicily and
+  Italy. Returning from Tarentum to Corinth with rich treasures, the
+  avaricious sailors resolved to murder him. Apollo, however, having
+  informed him in a dream of the impending danger, Arion in vain
+  endeavoured to soften the hearts of the crew by the power of music. He
+  then threw himself into the sea, when one of a shoal of dolphins, which
+  had been attracted by his music, received him on his back and bore him to
+  land. The sailors, having returned to Corinth, were confronted by Arion
+  and convicted of their crime. The lyre of Arion, and the dolphin which
+  rescued him, became constellations in the heavens. A fragment of a hymn
+  to Poseidon, ascribed to Arion, is extant.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arios´to, Ludovi´co</b>, one of the most celebrated poets of Italy,
+  was born at Reggio, in Lombardy, 8th Sept., 1474, of a noble family; died
+  6th June, 1533. His lyric poems in the Italian and Latin languages,
+  distinguished for ease and elegance of style, introduced him to the
+  notice of the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, son of Duke Ercole I of Ferrara.
+  In 1503 Ippolito employed him in his service and used his counsel in the
+  most important affairs. In this service he began and finished, in ten or
+  eleven years, his immortal poem, the <i>Orlando Furioso</i>, which was
+  published in 1515, and immediately became highly popular. He afterwards
+  entered the service of Alfonso I, Duke of Ferrara, the cardinal's
+  brother, a lover of the arts, who put much confidence in him. After
+  quelling disturbances that had broken out in the wild and mountainous
+  Garfagnana, he returned to Ferrara, where he employed himself in the
+  composition of his comedies, and in putting the last touches to his
+  <i>Orlando</i>. The <i>Orlando Furioso</i> is a continuation of the
+  <i>Orlando Innamorato</i> of Bojardo, details the chivalrous adventures
+  of the paladins of the age of Charlemagne, and extends to forty-six
+  cantos. The best English translation is that of Rose (1823). Cf. E.
+  Gardner, <i>Ariosto: the Prince of Court Poets</i>; J.&nbsp;S. Nicholson,
+  <i>Life and Genius of Ariosto</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arish.</b> See <i>El Arish</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aristæus</b>, in Greek mythology, son of Apollo and Cyrene, the
+  introducer of bee-keeping. Cf. Virgil, <i>Georgics</i>, IV, 315-558.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aristarchus</b> (a-ris-tär´kus), an ancient Greek grammarian, born
+  at Samothrace 220 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, died at Cyprus 143
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He edited Homer's poems with the greatest
+  acuteness and ability, endeavouring to restore the text to its genuine
+  state, and to clear it of all interpolations and corruptions; hence the
+  phrase, Aristarchian criticism. His edition of Homer furnished the basis
+  of all subsequent ones.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aristarchus</b>, an ancient Greek astronomer belonging to Samos,
+  flourished about 155 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and first asserted
+  the revolution of the earth about the sun; also regarded as the inventor
+  of the sun-dial.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aris´teas</b>, a personage of ancient Greek legend, represented to
+  have lived over many centuries, disappearing and reappearing by
+  turns.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aristides</b> (a-ris-t&#x12B;´d&#x113;z), a statesman of ancient
+  Greece, for his strict integrity surnamed the <i>Just</i>. He was one of
+  the ten generals of the Athenians when they fought with the Persians at
+  Marathon, 490 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Next year he was eponymous
+  archon, and in this office enjoyed such popularity that he excited the
+  jealousy of Themistocles, who succeeded in procuring his banishment by
+  ostracism (about 483). Three years after, when Xerxes invaded Greece with
+  a large army, the Athenians hastened to recall him, and Themistocles now
+  admitted him to his confidence and councils. In the battle of Platæa
+  (479) he commanded the Athenians, and had a great share in gaining the
+  victory. To defray the expenses of the Persian war he persuaded the
+  Greeks to impose a tax, which should be paid into the hands of an officer
+  appointed by the States collectively, and deposited at Delos. The
+  confidence which was felt in his integrity appeared in their entrusting
+  him with the office of apportioning the contribution. He died at an
+  advanced age about 468 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, so poor that he
+  was buried at the public expense.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aristip´pus</b> (c. 425-366 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), a
+  disciple of Socrates, and founder of a philosophical school among the
+  Greeks, which was called the <i>Cyrenaic</i>, from his native city
+  Cyr&#x113;n&#x113;, in Africa; flourished 380 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> His moral philosophy differed widely from that
+  of Socrates, and was a science of refined voluptuousness. His fundamental
+  principles were&mdash;that all human sensations may be reduced to two,
+  pleasure and pain. Pleasure is a gentle, and pain a violent emotion. All
+  living beings seek the former and avoid the latter. Happiness is nothing
+  but a continued pleasure, composed of separate gratifications; and as it
+  is the object of all human exertions, we should abstain from no kind of
+  pleasure. Still we should always be governed by taste and reason in our
+  enjoyments. His doctrines were taught only by his daughter
+  Ar&#x115;t&#x113;, and by his grandson Aristippus the younger, by whom
+  they were <!-- Page 237 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page237"></a>[237]</span>systematized. Other Cyrenaics compounded
+  them into a particular doctrine of pleasure, and are hence called
+  <i>Hedonici</i>. His writings are lost.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aristoc´racy</b> (Gr. <i>aristos</i>, best, <i>kratos</i>, rule), a
+  form of government by which the wealthy and noble, or any small
+  privileged class, rules over the rest of the citizens. The term has now
+  become almost entirely social in meaning, and is mostly applied to the
+  nobility or chief persons in a State.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aristogeiton</b> (-g&#x12B;´ton), a citizen of Athens, whose name
+  is rendered famous by a conspiracy (514 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>)
+  formed in conjunction with his friend Harmodius against the tyrants
+  Hippias and Hipparchus, the sons of Pisistratus. Both Aristogeiton and
+  Harmodius lost their lives through their attempts to free the country,
+  and were reckoned martyrs of liberty.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aristolochia</b> (-l&#x14D;´ki-a), a genus of plants, the type of
+  the ord. Aristolochiaceæ, which consists of dicotyledonous
+  monochlamydeous plants, with an inferior 3-6-celled fruit, found for the
+  most part in the hotter parts of the world, and in many cases used
+  medicinally on account of their tonic and stimulating properties. The
+  genus has emmenagogic qualities, especially the European species <i>A.
+  rotunda</i>, <i>A. longa</i>, and <i>A. Clemat&#x12B;tis</i>. <i>A.
+  bracte&#x101;ta</i> is used in India as an anthelminthic; <i>A.
+  odoratissima</i>, a West Indian species, is a valuable bitter and
+  alexipharmic. <i>A. serpentaria</i> is the Virginian snake-root,
+  popularly regarded as a remedy for snake bites.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aristophanes</b> (-tof´a-n&#x113;z), the greatest comic poet of
+  ancient Greece, born at Athens probably about the year 455 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, died 375 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Little
+  is known of his life. He appeared as a poet in 427 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, and having indulged in some sarcasms on the
+  powerful demagogue Cleon, was ineffectually accused by the latter of
+  having unlawfully assumed the title of an Athenian citizen. He afterwards
+  revenged himself on Cleon in his comedy of the <i>Knights</i>, in which
+  he himself acted the part of Cleon, because no actor had the courage to
+  do it. Of fifty-four (or forty-four) comedies attributed to him, eleven
+  only remain; believed to be the flower of the ancient comedy, and
+  distinguished by wit, humour, and poetry, as also by grossness. In them
+  there is constant reference to the manners, actions, and public
+  characters of the day, the freedom of the old Greek comedy allowing an
+  unbounded degree of personal and political satire. The names of his
+  extant plays are <i>Acharnians</i>, <i>Knights</i>, <i>Clouds</i>,
+  <i>Wasps</i>, <i>Peace</i>, <i>Birds</i>, <i>Lysistrata</i>,
+  <i>Thesmophoriazusæ</i>, <i>Frogs</i>, <i>Ecclesiasuzæ</i>, and
+  <i>Plutus</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: B.&nbsp;B. Rogers,
+  <i>Complete Works of Aristophanes, with verse translation</i> (by far the
+  best translation); Hookham-Frere, <i>Translation</i> (five plays only);
+  Couat, <i>Aristophane et l'ancienne comédie attique</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´istotle</b> (Gr. <i>Aristot´eles</i>), a distinguished
+  philosopher and naturalist of ancient Greece, the founder of the
+  Peripatetic school of philosophy, was born in 384 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> at Stagira, in Macedonia; died at Chalcis, 322
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span> His father, Nicomachus, was physician to
+  Amyntas II, King of Macedonia, and claimed to be descended from
+  Æsculapius. Aristotle had lost his parents before he came, at about the
+  age of seventeen, to Athens to study in the school of Plato. With that
+  philosopher he remained for twenty years, became pre-eminent among his
+  pupils, and was known as the 'Intellect of the School'. Upon the death of
+  Plato, 348 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, he took up his residence at
+  Atarneus, in Mysia, on the invitation of his former pupil Hermeias, the
+  ruler of that city, on whose assassination by the Persians, 343 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, he fled to Mitylene with his wife Pythias, a
+  near relative of Hermeias. During his residence at Mitylene he received
+  an invitation from Philip of Macedon to superintend the education of his
+  son Alexander, then in his fourteenth year. This relationship between the
+  great philosopher and the future conqueror continued for five or six
+  years, during which the prince was instructed in grammar, rhetoric,
+  poetry, logic, ethics, and politics, and in those branches of physics
+  which had even then made some considerable progress. On Alexander
+  succeeding to the throne Aristotle continued to live with him as his
+  friend and councillor till he set out on his Asiatic campaign (334 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>). He returned to Athens and established his
+  school in the Lyceum, a gymnasium attached to the temple of Apollo
+  Lyceius, which was assigned to him by the State. He delivered his
+  lectures in the wooded walks of the Lyceum while walking up and down with
+  his pupils. From the action itself, or more probably from the name of the
+  walks (<i>peripatoi</i>), his school was called Peripatetic. Pupils
+  gathered to him from all parts of Greece, and his school became by far
+  the most popular in Athens. The statement that he had two circles of
+  pupils, the <i>exoteric</i> and the <i>esoteric</i> has given rise to
+  much controversy. By some it has been held that Aristotle published
+  during his lifetime popular discourses with a view to make way for his
+  doctrines in Athenian society, then impregnated with Platonic theories,
+  and that these are called exoteric in contradistinction to those in which
+  are embodied his matured opinions. It was during the time of his teaching
+  at Athens that Aristotle is believed to have composed the great bulk of
+  his works. But it is not possible to speak with any certainty about the
+  chronology of his writings, as the references may be additions of
+  editors. On the death of Alexander a revolution occurred in Athens
+  hostile to the Macedonian interests with which Aristotle was identified.
+  He therefore retired to Chalcis, where he soon after died. Sir <!-- Page
+  238 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page238"></a>[238]</span>Charles
+  Walston, in 1891, opened a tomb near Eretria which he supposed to be that
+  of Aristotle. According to Strabo he bequeathed all his works to
+  Theophrastus, who, with other disciples of Aristotle, amended and
+  continued them. They afterwards passed through various hands, till, about
+  50 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, Andronicus of Rhodes put the various
+  fragments together and classified them according to a systematic
+  arrangement. Many of the books bearing his name are spurious, others are
+  of doubtful genuineness. The whole are generally divided into logical,
+  theoretical, and practical. The logical works are comprehended under the
+  title <i>Organon</i> (Instrument). The theoretical are divided into
+  physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The physical works (including
+  those on natural history) are on the <i>General Principles of Physical
+  Science</i>, <i>The Heavens</i>, <i>Generation and Destruction</i>,
+  <i>Meteorology</i>, <i>Natural History of Animals</i>, <i>On the Parts of
+  Animals</i>, <i>On the Generation of Animals</i>, <i>On the Locomotion of
+  Animals</i>, <i>On the Soul</i>, <i>On Memory</i>, <i>Sleep and
+  Waking</i>, <i>Dreams</i>, <i>Divination</i>. In mathematics there are
+  two treatises, <i>On Indivisible Lines</i> and <i>Mechanical
+  Problems</i>. <i>The Metaphysics</i> consist of fourteen books; the title
+  (<i>Ta meta ta Physika</i>, 'the things following the Physics',) is the
+  invention of an editor. The practical works embrace ethics, politics,
+  economics, and treatises on art, and comprise the <i>Nicomachæan
+  Ethics</i> (so called because dedicated to his son, Nicomachus), <i>The
+  Politics</i>, <i>&OElig;conomics</i>, <i>Poetry</i>, and <i>Rhetoric</i>.
+  Among the lost works are the dialogues and others termed exoteric. A
+  treatise <i>On the Constitution of Athens</i> was discovered in 1891. His
+  style is devoid of grace and elegance. His works were first printed in a
+  Latin translation, with the commentaries of Averroes, at Venice in 1489;
+  the first Greek edition was that of Aldus Manutius (5 vols., 1495-8). See
+  <i>Peripatetic Philosophy</i>.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Blakesley, <i>Life of Aristotle</i>;
+  S.&nbsp;H. Butcher, <i>Poetics</i> (with translation and excursus); R. Shute,
+  <i>History of the Aristotelian Writings</i>; J.&nbsp;C. Wilson,
+  <i>Aristotelian Studies</i>; E. Zeller, <i>Aristotle and the Earlier
+  Peripatetics</i>; E. Barker, <i>Political Thought of Plato and
+  Aristotle</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aristox´enus,</b> an ancient Greek musician and philosopher of
+  Tarentum, born about 324 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He studied music
+  under his father Mnesias, and philosophy under Aristotle, whose successor
+  he aspired to be. He endeavoured to apply his musical knowledge to
+  philosophy, and especially to the science of mind, but it only appears to
+  have furnished him with far-fetched analogies and led him into a kind of
+  materialism. We have a work on the <i>Elements of Harmony</i> by him.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arith´metic</b> (Gr. <i>arithmos</i>, number) is primarily the
+  science of numbers. As opposed to algebra it is the practical part of the
+  science. Although the processes of arithmetical operations are often
+  highly complicated, they all resolve themselves into the repetition of
+  four primary operations&mdash;addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
+  division. Of these the two latter are only complex forms of the two
+  former, and subtraction again is merely a reversal of the process of
+  addition. Little or nothing is known as to the origin and invention of
+  arithmetic. Some elementary conception of it is in all probability coeval
+  with the first dawn of human intelligence. In consequence of their rude
+  methods of numeration, the science made but small advance among the
+  ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and it was not until the
+  introduction of the decimal scale of notation and the Arabic, or rather
+  Indian, numerals into Europe that any great progress can be traced. In
+  this scale of notation every number is expressed by means of the ten
+  digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, by giving each digit a local as
+  well as its proper or natural value. The value of every digit increases
+  in a tenfold proportion from the right towards the left; the distance of
+  any figure from the right indicating the power of 10, and the digit
+  itself the number of those powers intended to be expressed: thus 3464 =
+  3000 + 400 + 60 + 4 = 3 × 10<sup>3</sup> + 4 × 10<sup>2</sup> + 6 × 10 +
+  4. The earliest arithmetical signs appear to have been hieroglyphical,
+  but the Egyptian hieroglyphics were too diffuse to be of any arithmetical
+  value. The units were successive strokes to the number required, the ten
+  an open circle, the hundred a curled palm-leaf, the thousand a lotus
+  flower, ten thousand a bent finger. The letters of the alphabet afforded
+  a convenient mode of representing figures, and were used accordingly by
+  the Chaldeans, Hebrews, and Greeks. The first nine letters of the Hebrew
+  alphabet represented the units, the second nine tens, the remaining four
+  together with five repeated with additional marks, hundreds; the same
+  succession of letters with added points was repeated for thousands, tens
+  of thousands, and hundreds of thousands. The Greeks followed the same
+  system up to tens of thousands. They wrote the different classes of
+  numbers in succession as we do, and they transferred operations performed
+  on units to numbers in higher places; but the use of different signs for
+  the different ranks clearly shows a want of full perception of the value
+  of place as such. They adopted the letter M as a sign for 10,000 and by
+  combining this mark with their other numerals they could note numbers as
+  high as 100,000,000. The Roman numerals, which are still used in marking
+  dates or numbering chapters, were almost useless for purposes of
+  computation. From one to four were represented by vertical strokes <a
+  href="images/arith1.png"><img src="images/arith1.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="I" /></a>, <a href="images/arith2.png"><img
+  src="images/arith2.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="II"
+  /></a>, <a href="images/arith3.png"><img src="images/arith3.png"
+  class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="III" /></a>, <a
+  href="images/arith4.png"><img src="images/arith4.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="IIII" /></a>, five by <a
+  href="images/arith5.png"><img src="images/arith5.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="V" /></a>, ten by <a
+  href="images/arith6.png"><img src="images/arith6.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="X" /></a>, fifty by <a
+  href="images/arith7.png"><img src="images/arith7.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="L" /></a>, one hundred by <a
+  href="images/arith8.png"><img src="images/arith8.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="square C" /></a>, afterwards <a
+  href="images/arith9.png"><img src="images/arith9.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="C" /></a>, five hundred by <a
+  href="images/arith10.png"><img src="images/arith10.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="D" /></a>, a thousand <!-- Page 239 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page239"></a>[239]</span>by <a
+  href="images/arith11.png"><img src="images/arith11.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="M" /></a>. These signs were derived from each
+  other according to particular rules, thus <a
+  href="images/arith5.png"><img src="images/arith5.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="V" /></a> was the half of <a
+  href="images/arith6.png"><img src="images/arith6.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="X" /></a>, <a href="images/arith12.png"><img
+  src="images/arith12.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="inverted
+  V" /></a> being also used; <a href="images/arith7.png"><img
+  src="images/arith7.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="L" /></a>
+  was likewise the half of <a href="images/arith9.png"><img
+  src="images/arith9.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="C" /></a>.
+  <a href="images/arith11.png"><img src="images/arith11.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="M" /></a> was artistically written <a
+  href="images/arith11.png"><img src="images/arith11.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="M" /></a> and <a href="images/arith13.png"><img
+  src="images/arith13.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="cIc*"
+  /></a> and <a href="images/arith14.png"><img src="images/arith14.png"
+  class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="Ic*" /></a>, afterwards <a
+  href="images/arith10.png"><img src="images/arith10.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="D" /></a>, became five hundred. <a
+  href="images/arith15.png"><img src="images/arith15.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="ccI" /></a> represented 5000, <a
+  href="images/arith16.png"><img src="images/arith16.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="ccIc*c*" /></a> 10,000, <a
+  href="images/arith17.png"><img src="images/arith17.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="Ic*c*c*" /></a> 50,000, <a
+  href="images/arith18.png"><img src="images/arith18.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="cccIc*c*c*" /></a> 100,000. They were also
+  compounded by addition and subtraction, thus <a
+  href="images/arith19.png"><img src="images/arith19.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="IV" /></a> stood for four, <a
+  href="images/arith20.png"><img src="images/arith20.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="VI" /></a> for six, <a
+  href="images/arith21.png"><img src="images/arith21.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="XXX" /></a> for thirty, <a
+  href="images/arith22.png"><img src="images/arith22.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="XL" /></a> for forty, <a
+  href="images/arith23.png"><img src="images/arith23.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="LX" /></a> for sixty. Arithmetic is divided into
+  <i>abstract</i> and <i>practical</i>: the former comprehends notation,
+  numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, measures and
+  multiples, fractions, powers and roots; the latter treats of the
+  combinations and practical applications of these and the so-called rules,
+  such as reduction, compound addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
+  division, proportion, interest, profit and loss, &amp;c. Another division
+  is <i>integral</i> and <i>fractional</i> arithmetic, the former treating
+  of integers, or whole numbers, and the latter of fractions. Decimal
+  fractions were invented in the sixteenth century, and logarithms,
+  embodying the last great advance in the science, in the seventeenth
+  century.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arithmet´ical</b>, pertaining to arithmetic or its
+  operations.&mdash;<i>Arithmetical mean</i>, the middle term of three
+  quantities in arithmetical progression, or half the sum of any two
+  proposed numbers; thus 11 is the arithmetical mean to 8 and
+  14.&mdash;<i>Arithmetical progression</i>, a series of numbers increasing
+  or decreasing by a common difference, as 1, 3, 5, 7,
+  &amp;c.&mdash;<i>Arithmetical signs</i>, certain symbols used in
+  arithmetic, and indicating processes or facts. The common signs used in
+  arithmetic are the following: <a href="images/sig_plus.png"><img
+  src="images/sig_plus.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="plus
+  sign" /></a> signifying that the numbers between which it is placed are
+  to be added; <a href="images/sig_minus.png"><img
+  src="images/sig_minus.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="minus
+  sign" /></a> - that the second is to be subtracted from the first; <a
+  href="images/sig_times.png"><img src="images/sig_times.png"
+  class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="times sign" /></a> that the one is
+  to be multiplied by the other; <a href="images/sig_divide.png"><img
+  src="images/sig_divide.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="divide
+  sign" /></a> that the former is to be divided by the latter; <a
+  href="images/sig_equals.png"><img src="images/sig_equals.png"
+  class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="equals sign" /></a> signifies that
+  the one number is equal to the other; <a
+  href="images/sig_proport.png"><img src="images/sig_proport.png"
+  class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="proportional signs - colons"
+  /></a> are the signs placed between the members of a proportional series,
+  as 4 : 6 :: 8 : 12. A small figure placed on the right hand of another at
+  the top signifies the corresponding power of the number beside which it
+  is placed, as 5<sup>2</sup>, 4<sup>3</sup>, meaning the square of 5 and
+  the cube of 4. <a href="images/sig_sqrt.png"><img
+  src="images/sig_sqrt.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="cube
+  root" /></a> placed before or over a number signifies the square root of
+  that number; with a figure it signifies the root of a higher power, as <a
+  href="images/sig_cbrt.png"><img src="images/sig_cbrt.png" class="middle"
+  style="height:2ex" alt="cube root" /></a>, which means cube root. A
+  period placed to the left of a series of figures indicates that they are
+  decimal fractions.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´rius</b>, the originator of the Arian heresy. See
+  <i>Arians</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arizo´na</b>, a former territory of the United States, admitted
+  into the union as a sovereign State on 14th Feb., 1912, is bounded south
+  by Mexico, west by California and Nevada (the River Colorado forming the
+  greater part of the boundary), north by Utah, and east by New Mexico;
+  area, 113,956 sq. miles. The surface is generally mountainous, but many
+  fertile and well-watered valleys lie between the ridges. Part of the
+  surface consists of deserts often entirely destitute of vegetation. The
+  territory belongs to the basin of the Colorado, which passes through a
+  portion of it, besides forming the boundary; while the Gila and Little
+  Colorado, tributaries of the Colorado, traverse it from east to west. The
+  canyons of the Colorado form a wonderful feature, the river flowing for
+  hundreds of miles in a deep rocky channel with walls rising
+  perpendicularly to the height of 1500 to 6000 feet. In some parts timber
+  is plentiful. The rainfall is small, and irrigation has been employed for
+  agricultural purposes. Large tracts of elevated land have been found
+  excellently adapted as pastures for sheep and cattle. The territory is
+  rich in copper, gold, silver, lead, and other minerals, and mining is
+  largely carried on, with much copper smelting and refining. The capital
+  is Ph&oelig;nix. Pop. 29,053. The Southern and the Santa Fé Pacific
+  Railways traverse it. Pop. (1920), 333,903 (of which 171,468 are white),
+  exclusive of Apaches and other Indians on reservations (area, 29,017 sq.
+  miles; pop. (1920), 42,400).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arjish Dagh</b>, the loftiest peak of the peninsula of Asia Minor,
+  at the western extremity of the Anti-Taurus Range, 13,150 feet; an
+  extinct volcano; on the <span class="scac">N.</span> and <span
+  class="scac">N.E.</span> slopes are extensive glaciers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ark</b>, the name applied in our translation of the Bible to the
+  boat or floating house in which Noah resided during the flood or deluge;
+  to the floating vessel of bulrushes in which the infant Moses was laid;
+  and to the chest in which the tables of the law were preserved&mdash;the
+  <i>ark of the covenant</i>. This last was made of shittim-wood, overlaid
+  within and without with gold, about 3¾ feet long by 2¼ feet high and
+  broad, and over it were placed the golden covering or mercy-seat and the
+  two cherubim. It was placed in the sanctuary of the temple of Solomon;
+  before his time it was kept in the tabernacle, and was moved about as
+  circumstances dictated. At the captivity it appears to have been either
+  lost or destroyed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arkansas</b> (ar´kan-sa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span> or ar-kan´sas), one of the United States
+  of America, bounded north by Missouri; east by the Mississippi, which
+  separates it from the States of Mississippi and Tennessee; south by
+  Louisiana and Texas; and west by the Indian Territory and Texas; area,
+  53,335 sq. miles. The surface in the east is low, flat, and swampy,
+  densely wooded, and subject to frequent inundations from the numerous
+  streams which water it. Towards the centre it becomes more diversified,
+  presenting many undulating slopes and hills of moderate elevation. In the
+  west it <!-- Page 240 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page240"></a>[240]</span>rises still higher, being traversed by a
+  range of hills called the Ozark, which attains a height of 2000 feet,
+  some peaks rising to 3000. In various parts the prairies are of great
+  extent; the forests also are extensive, principally of oak, hickory, ash,
+  cotton, linden, maple, locust, and pine. Coal and other minerals are
+  worked. The principal rivers, all tributaries of the Mississippi, are the
+  Arkansas, the Red River, the St. Francis, and the Washita. Near the
+  centre of the State are warm springs, much resorted to for chronic
+  rheumatic and paralytic affections. The climate is subject to great
+  extremes of heat and cold, and in the lower districts is unhealthy to new
+  settlers. The staple products are cotton and maize; fruit is tolerably
+  abundant. Many districts are admirably adapted for grazing, and great
+  numbers of excellent cattle are reared. Arkansas was colonized as early
+  as 1685 by the French. As part of Louisiana it was purchased by the
+  United States in 1803. It was made into a separate territory in 1819, and
+  admitted into the Union in 1836. It was one of the seceding States. The
+  capital is Little Rock. The enumerated population in 1920 was
+  1,750,995.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arkansas</b>, a river of the United States, which gives its name to
+  the above State, the largest affluent of the Mississippi after the
+  Missouri. It rises in the Rocky Mountains, about lat. 39° <span
+  class="scac">N.</span>, long. 107° <span class="scac">W.</span>, flows in
+  a general south-easterly direction through Colorado, Kansas, the Indian
+  Territory, and lastly through the State of Arkansas, and after a course
+  of 2170 miles enters the Mississippi. During greater part of the year it
+  is navigable for steamboats for 800 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arkite.</b> See <i>Explosives</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ark´low</b>, a town in Ireland, County Wicklow, on the right bank
+  of the Avoca, which falls into the sea about 500 yards below the town;
+  the scene of a severe fight during the rebellion of 1798. Fishing is the
+  chief industry. Pop. 5042.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image101.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image101.jpg"
+      alt="Arkwright's Water Frame" title="Arkwright's Water Frame" /></a>
+    Arkwright's Water Frame
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ark´wright</b>, Sir Richard, famous for his inventions in
+  cotton-spinning, was born at Preston, in Lancashire, in 1732, died 1792.
+  The youngest of thirteen children, he was bred to the trade of a barber.
+  When about thirty-five years of age he gave himself up exclusively to the
+  subject of inventions for spinning cotton. The thread spun by Hargreaves'
+  jenny could not be used except as weft, being destitute of the firmness
+  or hardness required in the longitudinal threads or warp. But Arkwright
+  supplied this deficiency by the invention of the <i>spinning-frame</i>,
+  which spins a vast number of threads of any degree of fineness and
+  hardness, leaving the operator merely to feed the machine with cotton and
+  to join the threads when they happen to break. His invention introduced
+  the system of spinning by rollers, the carding, or <i>roving</i> as it is
+  technically termed (that is, the soft, loose strip of cotton), passing
+  through one pair of rollers, and being received by a second pair, which
+  is made to revolve with (as the case may be) three, four, or five times
+  the velocity of the first pair. By this contrivance the roving is drawn
+  out into a thread of the desired degree of tenuity and hardness. His
+  inventions being brought into a pretty advanced state, Arkwright removed
+  to Nottingham in 1768 in order to avoid the attacks of the same lawless
+  rabble that had driven Hargreaves out of Lancashire. Here his operations
+  were at first greatly fettered by a want of capital; but two gentlemen of
+  means having entered into partnership with him, the necessary funds were
+  obtained, and Arkwright erected his first mill, which was driven by
+  horses, at Nottingham, and took out a patent for spinning by rollers in
+  1769. As the mode of working the machinery by horse-power was found too
+  expensive, he built a second factory on a much larger scale at Cromford,
+  in Derbyshire, in 1771, the machinery of which was turned by a
+  water-wheel. Having made several additional discoveries and improvements
+  in the processes of carding, roving, and spinning, he took out a fresh
+  patent for the whole in 1775, and thus completed a series of the most
+  ingenious and complicated machinery. Notwithstanding a series of
+  law-suits in defence of his patent rights, and the destruction of his
+  property by mobs, he amassed a large fortune. He was knighted by George
+  III in 1786.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arlberg</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rl´ber<i>h</i>), a branch of the Rhætian
+  Alps, in the west of Tyrol, between it and Vorarlberg, pierced by the
+  fourth longest railway tunnel in the world. It is 6½ miles long, and was
+  finished in Nov., 1883, and connects the valley of the Inn with that of
+  the Rhine, and the Austrian railway system with the Swiss railways. <!--
+  Page 241 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page241"></a>[241]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´lecdon</b>, an urban district of England, in Cumberland, 4 miles
+  east of Whitehaven, with coal and iron mines. Pop. (1921), 5152.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arles</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rl; ancient, <b>Arel&#x101;te</b>), a
+  town of Southern France, department Bouches du Rhône, 17 miles south-east
+  of Nismes. It was an important town at the time of Cæsar's invasion, and
+  under the later emperors it became one of the most flourishing towns on
+  the farther side of the Alps. It still possesses numerous ancient
+  remains, of which the most conspicuous are those of a Roman amphitheatre,
+  which accommodated 24,000 spectators. It has a considerable trade,
+  manufactures of silk, &amp;c., and furnishes a market for the surrounding
+  country. Pop. 16,746.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´lington</b>, Henry Bennet, Earl of, member of the Cabal
+  ministry, and one of the scheming creatures of Charles II, born 1618,
+  died 1685. He is supposed to have lived and died a Roman Catholic.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´lon</b>, a Belgian town, capital province of Luxemburg, a
+  thriving town, with manufactures of ironware, leather, tobacco, &amp;c.
+  Pop. 12,012.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arm</b>, the upper limb in man, connected with the thorax or chest
+  by means of the scapula or shoulder-blade, and the clavicle or
+  collar-bone. It consists of three bones, the arm-bone
+  (<i>hum&#x115;rus</i>), and the two bones of the fore-arm (<i>radius</i>
+  and <i>ulna</i>), and it is connected with the bones of the hand by the
+  <i>carpus</i> or wrist. The head or upper end of the arm-bone fits into
+  the hollow called the <i>glenoid cavity</i> of the scapula, so as to form
+  a joint of the ball-and-socket kind, allowing great freedom of movement
+  to the limb. The lower end of the humerus is broadened out by a
+  projection on both the outer and inner sides (the outer and inner
+  <i>condyles</i>), and has a pulley-like surface for articulating with the
+  fore-arm to form the elbow-joint. This joint somewhat resembles a hinge,
+  allowing of movement only in one direction. The ulna is the inner of the
+  two bones of the fore-arm. It is largest at the upper end, where it has
+  two processes, the <i>coronoid</i> and the <i>olecranon</i>, with a deep
+  groove between to receive the humerus. The radius&mdash;the outer of the
+  two bones&mdash;is small at the upper and expanded at the lower end,
+  where it forms part of the wrist-joint. The muscles of the upper arm are
+  either <i>flexors</i> or <i>extensors</i>, the former serving to bend the
+  arm, the latter to straighten it by means of the elbow-joint. The main
+  flexor is the <i>biceps</i>, the large muscle which may be seen standing
+  out in front of the arm when a weight is raised. The chief opposing
+  muscle of the biceps is the <i>triceps</i>. The muscles of the fore-arm
+  are, besides flexors and extensors, <i>pronators</i> and
+  <i>supinators</i>, the former turning the hand palm downwards, the latter
+  turning it upwards. The same fundamental plan of structure exists in the
+  limbs of all vertebrate animals.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arma´da</b>, the Spanish name for any large naval force; usually
+  applied to the Spanish fleet vaingloriously designated the <i>Invincible
+  Armada</i>, intended to act against England <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 1588. It was under the command of the Duke of
+  Medina-Sidonia, and consisted of 130 great war vessels, larger and
+  stronger than any belonging to the English fleet, with 30 smaller ships
+  of war, and carried 19,295 marines, 8460 sailors, 2088 slaves, and 2630
+  cannon. It had scarcely quitted Lisbon on 29th May, 1588, when it was
+  scattered by a storm, and had to be refitted in Corunna. It was to
+  co-operate with a land force collected in Flanders under the Prince of
+  Parma, and to unite with this it proceeded through the English Channel
+  towards Calais. In its progress it was attacked by the English fleet
+  under Lord Howard, who, with his lieutenants, Drake, Hawkins, and
+  Frobisher, endeavoured by dexterous seamanship and the discharge of
+  well-directed volleys of shot to destroy or capture the vessels of the
+  enemy. The great lumbering Spanish vessels suffered severely from their
+  smaller opponents, which most of their shot missed. Arrived at length off
+  Dunkirk, the armada was becalmed, thrown into confusion by fire-ships,
+  and many of the Spanish vessels destroyed or taken. The Duke of
+  Medina-Sidonia, owing to the severe losses, at last resolved to abandon
+  the enterprise, and conceived the idea of reconveying his fleet to Spain
+  by a voyage round the north of Great Britain; but storm after storm
+  assailed his ships, scattering them in all directions, and sinking many.
+  Some went down on the cliffs of Norway, others in the open sea, others on
+  the Scottish coast, others on the coast of Ireland. In all, seventy-two
+  large vessels and over 10,000 men were lost.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J.&nbsp;A. Froude, <i>Spanish Story of the
+  Armada</i>; Sir J.&nbsp;K. Laughton, <i>State Papers relating to the Defeat of
+  the Spanish Armada</i>; J.&nbsp;R. Hale, <i>Story of the Great Armada</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armadale</b>, a town of Scotland, Linlithgowshire, in coal and iron
+  district. Pop. 4739.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image102.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image102.jpg"
+      alt="Armadillos" title="Armadillos" /></a>
+    Armadillos&mdash;Left, Hairy Armadillo. Right, Kappler's Armadillo
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Armadi´llo</b> (genus Das&#x45E;pus), an edentate mammal peculiar
+  to South America, consisting <!-- Page 242 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page242"></a>[242]</span>of various species, belonging to a family
+  intermediate between the sloths and ant-eaters. They are covered with a
+  hard bony shell, divided into belts, composed of small separate plates
+  like a coat of mail, flexible everywhere except on the forehead,
+  shoulders, and haunches, where it is not movable. The belts are connected
+  by a membrane which enables the animal to roll itself up like a hedgehog.
+  These animals burrow in the earth, where they lie during the daytime,
+  seldom going abroad except at night. They are of different sizes: the
+  largest, <i>Dasypus gigas</i>, being 3 feet in length without the tail,
+  and the smallest only 10 inches. They subsist chiefly on fruits and
+  roots, sometimes on insects and flesh. They are inoffensive, and their
+  flesh is esteemed good food.&mdash;There is a genus of isopodous
+  Crustacea called Armadillo, consisting of animals allied to the
+  wood-lice, capable of rolling themselves into a ball.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armageddon</b> (-ged´don), the great battlefield of the Old
+  Testament, where the chief conflicts took place between the Israelites
+  and their enemies&mdash;the table-land of Esdraelon in Galilee and
+  Samaria, in the centre of which stood the town of Megiddo, on the site of
+  the modern Lejjun: used figuratively in the <i>Apocalypse</i> to signify
+  the place of 'the battle of the great day of God'. It may, however, be
+  <i>har migdo</i>, his fruitful mountain, 'the mountain land of Israel'.
+  The phrase 'an Armageddon' expresses any great slaughter or final
+  conflict, and has been frequently applied to the Great War of 1914-8.
+  During this war severe fighting took place in Sept., 1918, on the field
+  of Armageddon, the entrance to the passes of Megiddo. The battle ended in
+  an overwhelming victory for General Allenby's armies. See
+  <i>Megiddo</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armagh</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-mä´), a county of Ireland, in the
+  province of Ulster; surrounded by Monaghan, Tyrone, Lough Neagh, Down,
+  and Louth; area, 328,086 acres, of which about a half is under tillage.
+  The north-west of the county is undulating and fertile. The northern
+  part, bordering on Lough Neagh, consists principally of extensive bogs.
+  On the southern border is a range of barren hills. The chief rivers are
+  the Blackwater, which separates it from Tyrone; the Upper Bann, which
+  discharges itself into Lough Neagh; and the Callan, which falls into the
+  Blackwater. There are several small lakes. The manufacture of linen is
+  carried on very extensively. Armagh, Lurgan, and Portadown are the chief
+  towns. The county sends three members to Parliament. Pop.
+  120,291.&mdash;The county town, <i>Armagh</i>, is situated partly on a
+  hill, about half a mile from the Callan. It has a Protestant cathedral
+  crowning the hill, a Gothic building dating from the eighth century,
+  repaired and beautified recently; a new Roman Catholic cathedral in the
+  pointed Gothic style, and various public buildings. It is the see of an
+  archbishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, who is primate of all
+  Ireland, and is a place of great antiquity. Pop. 7356.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armagnac</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-nya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k), an ancient territory of France, in
+  the province of Gascony, some of the counts of which hold prominent
+  places in the history of France. Bernard VII, son of John II, surnamed
+  the Hunchback, succeeded his brother, John III, in 1391, and was called
+  to Court by Isabella of Bavaria, with the view of heading the Orleans in
+  opposition to the Burgundian faction, where he no sooner gained the
+  ascendancy than he compelled the queen to appoint him Constable of
+  France. He showed himself a merciless tyrant, and became so generally
+  execrated that the Duke of Burgundy, to whom Isabella had turned for
+  help, found little difficulty in gaining admission into Paris, and even
+  seizing the person of Armagnac, who was cast into prison in 1418, when
+  the exasperated populace burst in and killed him and his followers. John
+  V, grandson of the above, who succeeded in 1450, made himself notorious
+  for his crimes. He was assassinated in his castle of Lectoure in 1473 by
+  an agent of Louis XI, against whom he was holding out.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´mature</b>, a term applied to the piece of soft iron which is
+  placed across the poles of permanent or electro-magnets for the purpose
+  of receiving and concentrating the attractive force. In the case of
+  permanent magnets it is also important for preserving their magnetism
+  when not in use, and hence it is sometimes termed the <i>keeper</i>. It
+  produces this effect in virtue of the well-known law of induction, by
+  which the armature, when placed near or across the poles of the magnet,
+  is itself converted into a temporary magnet with reversed poles, and
+  these, reacting upon the permanent magnet, keep its particles in a state
+  of constant magnetic tension, or, in other words, in that constrained
+  position which is supposed to constitute magnetism. A horse-shoe magnet
+  should therefore never be laid aside without its armature; and in the
+  case of straight bar-magnets two should be placed parallel to each other,
+  with their poles reversed, and a keeper or armature across them at both
+  ends. The term is also applied to the core and coil of the
+  electro-magnet, which revolves before the poles of the permanent magnet
+  in the magneto-electric machine.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arme Blanche</b>, a term applied to the rapier and duelling-foil,
+  and frequently also to all weapons other than fire-arms. The phrase is
+  particularly applied to the sabres and lances carried by cavalry, but
+  also to the bayonet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arme´nia</b>, a mountainous country of Western Asia, of great
+  historical interest as the original seat of one of the oldest civilized
+  peoples in the <!-- Page 243 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page243"></a>[243]</span>world. The name Armenia occurs in the
+  <i>Vulgate</i>, but the Hebrew name is Ararat. It has an area of about
+  120,000 sq. miles, and is intersected by the Euphrates, which divides it
+  into the ancient divisions, Armenia Major and Armenia Minor. The country
+  is an elevated plateau, enclosed on several sides by the ranges of Taurus
+  and Anti-Taurus, and partly occupied by other mountains, the loftiest of
+  which is Ararat. Several important rivers take their rise in Armenia,
+  namely, the Kur or Cyrus, and its tributary the Aras or Araxes, flowing
+  east to the Caspian Sea; the Halys or Kizil-Irmak, flowing north to the
+  Black Sea; and the Tigris and Euphrates, which flow into the Persian
+  Gulf. The chief lakes are Van and Urumiyah. The climate is rather severe.
+  The soil is on the whole productive, though in many places it would be
+  quite barren were it not for the great care taken to irrigate it. Wheat,
+  barley, tobacco, hemp, grapes, and cotton are raised; and in some of the
+  valleys apricots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts are grown. The
+  inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine Armenian stock, a branch of the
+  Aryan or Indo-European race; but besides them, in consequence of the
+  repeated subjugation of the country, various other races have obtained a
+  footing. The total number of Armenians is estimated at 2,900,000, of whom
+  one-half are in Armenia. The remainder, like the Jews, are scattered over
+  various countries, and are generally engaged in commercial pursuits. They
+  everywhere retain, however, their distinct nationality.</p>
+
+  <p>Little is known of the early history of Armenia, but it was a separate
+  State as early as the eighth century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, when
+  it became subject to Assyria, as it also did subsequently to the Medes
+  and the Persians. It was conquered by Alexander the Great in 325 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, but regained its independence about 190 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> Its king, Tigranes, son-in-law of the celebrated
+  Mithrid&#x101;tes, was defeated by the Romans under Lucullus and Pompey
+  between 69-66 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, but was left on the throne.
+  Since then its fortunes have been various under the Romans, Parthians,
+  Byzantine emperors, Persians, Saracens, and Turks. Until quite recently
+  Armenia had no political existence, having been partitioned between
+  Turkey, Persia, and Russia, the last acquiring considerable portions in
+  1829 and 1878. The hope of the Armenians to see their country formed into
+  an autonomous province administered by Christians was frustrated by the
+  Treaty of Berlin in 1878. The advanced party amongst the Armenians,
+  therefore, determined to obtain their object by the production of
+  disturbances and the spread of a revolutionary movement. The Porte
+  retaliated by wholesale massacres of the Armenians in 1896, 1904, and
+  1908. The Armenian revolutionary and national parties in the meantime
+  continued their activity and propaganda. Armenia proclaimed its
+  independence in Aug., 1918. In Jan., 1920, the Supreme Council of the
+  Allied Governments recognized the Armenian Republic of Erivan. A mandate
+  for Armenia was also offered to the United States of America, but it was
+  refused by the American Senate in May, 1920. On 18th March, 1922, Soviet
+  Russia concluded a treaty with Turkey, giving to the latter most of
+  Armenia. Batum was attached to Georgia. See <i>Erivan</i>, <i>Russia</i>,
+  <i>Turkey</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>The Armenians received Christianity at an early date, most probably at
+  the beginning of the third century, although native historians maintain
+  that several of the apostles preached in Armenia. The real apostle of
+  Armenia was Gregory the Illuminator, in the third century. During the
+  Monophysitic disputes they held with those who rejected the twofold
+  nature of Christ, and being dissatisfied with the decisions of the
+  Council of Chalcedon (451) they separated from the Greek Church in 536.
+  The Popes had at different times attempted to gain them over to the Roman
+  Catholic faith, but have not been able to unite them permanently and
+  generally with the Roman Church. There are, however, small numbers here
+  and there of United Armenians, who acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of
+  the Pope, agree in their doctrines with the Catholics, but retain their
+  peculiar ceremonies and discipline. But the far greater part are yet
+  Monophysites, and have remained faithful to their old religion and
+  worship. Their doctrine differs from the orthodox chiefly in their
+  admitting only one nature in Christ, and believing the Holy Spirit to
+  proceed from the Father alone. Their sacraments are seven in number. They
+  adore saints and their images, but do not believe in purgatory. Their
+  hierarchy differs little from that of the Greeks. The <i>Catholicus</i>,
+  or head of the Church, has his seat at Etchmiadzin, a monastery near
+  Erivan, the capital of former Russian Armenia, on Mount Ararat.</p>
+
+  <p>The Armenian language belongs to the Indo-European family of
+  languages, and is most closely connected with the Iranic group. The Old
+  Armenian or Haikan language, which is still the literary and
+  ecclesiastical language, is distinguished from the New Armenian, the
+  ordinary spoken language, which contains a large intermixture of Persian
+  and Turkish elements. The most flourishing period of Armenian literature
+  extended from the fourth to the fourteenth century. It then declined, but
+  a revival began in the seventeenth century, and at the present day
+  wherever any extensive community of Armenians has settled they have set
+  up a printing-press. The Armenian Bible, translated from a Syriac
+  version, and revised by means of <!-- Page 244 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page244"></a>[244]</span>the Septuagint, by
+  Isaac the Great and St. Mesrop, early in the fifth century, is a model of
+  the classic style.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E.&nbsp;N. and
+  H. Buxton, <i>Travel and Politics in Armenia</i>; N.&nbsp;T. Gregor,
+  <i>History of Armenia</i>; W.&nbsp;L. Williams, <i>Armenia, Past and
+  Present</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armentières</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ty&#x101;r), a town in France,
+  department Nord, 10 miles <span class="scac">W.N.W.</span> of Lille, on
+  the Lys. The town had extensive manufactures of linen and cotton goods
+  and an extensive trade. The Germans captured Armentières by massed
+  assault early in April, 1918, after methodically shelling the town for
+  about two years and destroying almost every building in it. The enemy's
+  offensive was intended to achieve greater results. Indeed, its object was
+  to break through to the Channel ports. It began on 9th April, after
+  artillery preparation, from La Bassée to Armentières. When, however, the
+  battle of Armentières died down, the enemy plan to break through to the
+  coast had been definitely and finally frustrated. German losses were
+  extremely heavy, their attacks having been made with massed troops. (See
+  <i>Ypres</i>.) Pop. 28,086.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arm´felt</b>, Gustav Moritz, Count of, Swedish soldier, born 1757,
+  died 1814. Though he had been highly favoured and loaded with honours by
+  Gustavus III, he incurred the enmity of the Duke of Sudermania, guardian
+  of the young king, Gustavus IV, and was deprived of all his titles and
+  possessions. He was restored to his fortune and honours in 1799, when
+  Gustavus IV attained his majority, and held several high military posts.
+  Ultimately, however, he entered the Russian service, was made count,
+  chancellor of the University of Abo, president of the department for the
+  affairs of Finland, member of the Russian Senate, and served in the
+  campaign against Napoleon in 1812.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armida</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-m&#x113;´da<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a beautiful enchantress in Tasso's
+  <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i>, who succeeds in bringing the hero Rinaldo,
+  with whom she had fallen violently in love, to her enchanted gardens.
+  Here he completely forgets the high task to which he had devoted himself,
+  until messengers from the Christian host having arrived at the island,
+  Rinaldo escapes with them by means of a powerful talisman. In the sequel
+  Armida becomes a Christian.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´millary Sphere</b> (Lat. <i>armilla</i>, a hoop), an
+  astronomical instrument consisting of an arrangement of rings, all
+  circles of one sphere, intended to represent the principal circles of the
+  celestial globe, the rings standing for the meridian of the station, the
+  ecliptic, the tropics, the arctic and antarctic circles, &amp;c., in
+  their relative positions. Its main use is to give a representation of the
+  apparent motions of the celestial bodies.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armin´ians</b>, a sect or party of Christians, so called from
+  Jacobus <i>Arminius</i> or Harmensen. (See <i>Arminius</i>.) They were
+  called also <i>Remonstrants</i>, from their having presented a
+  <i>remonstrance</i> to the States-general in 1610. The Arminian doctrines
+  are: (1) Conditional election and reprobation, in opposition to absolute
+  predestination. (2) Universal redemption, or that the atonement was made
+  by Christ for all mankind, though none but believers can be partakers of
+  the benefit. (3) That man, in order to exercise true faith, must be
+  regenerated and renewed by the operation of the Holy Spirit, which is the
+  gift of God; but that this grace is not irresistible and may be lost, so
+  that men may relapse from a state of grace and die in their sins.
+  Arminianism being a revolt against certain aspects of Calvinism,
+  especially the absolutism of the eternal decrees, its doctrines were
+  vehemently attacked by the Calvinists of Holland, and were condemned by
+  the Synod of Dort in 1619. The Arminians, in consequence, were treated
+  with great severity; many of them fled to, and spread in, other
+  countries, and though there is no longer any particular sect to which the
+  name is exclusively applied, many bodies are classed as Arminians, as
+  being opposed to the Calvinists on the question of
+  predestination.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Regenboog,
+  <i>Historie der Remonstranten</i>; Caspar Brandt, <i>Life of Arminius</i>
+  (English translation by J. Guthrie); W.&nbsp;B. Pope, <i>Compendium of
+  Christian Theology</i> (3 vols.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armin´ius</b>, an ancient German hero celebrated by his
+  fellow-countrymen as their deliverer from the Roman yoke, born about
+  18-16 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, assassinated <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 19. Having been sent as a hostage to Rome, he
+  served in the Roman army, and was raised to the rank of <i>eques</i>.
+  Returning home, he found the Roman governor, Quintilius Varus, making
+  efforts to Romanize the German tribes near the Rhine. Placing himself at
+  the head of the discontented tribes he completely annihilated the army of
+  Varus, consisting of three legions, in a three days' battle fought in the
+  Teutoburg Forest. For some time he baffled the Roman general Germanicus,
+  and after many years' resistance to the vast power of the Empire he drew
+  upon himself the hatred of his countrymen by aiming at the regal
+  authority, and was assassinated. A national monument to his memory was
+  inaugurated on the Grotenburg, near Detmold, in 1875.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: see Tacitus, <i>Annals</i> (translated by
+  Murphy); O. Kemmer, <i>Arminius</i>; F.&nbsp;W. Fischer, <i>Armin und die
+  Römer</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arminius</b>, Jacobus (properly Jakob Harmensen), founder of the
+  sect of Arminians or Remonstrants, born in South Holland in 1560, died
+  1609. He studied at Utrecht, in the University of Leyden, and at Geneva,
+  where his chief preceptor in theology was Theodore Beza (1582). On his
+  return to Holland he was appointed minister of one of the churches in
+  <!-- Page 245 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page245"></a>[245]</span>Amsterdam, and chosen to undertake the
+  refutation of a work which strongly controverted Beza's doctrine of
+  predestination; but he happened to be convinced by the work which he had
+  undertaken to refute. Elected in 1603 professor of divinity at Leyden, he
+  openly declared his opinions, and was involved in harassing
+  controversies, especially with his fellow professor Gomarus. These
+  contests, with the continual attacks on his reputation, at length
+  impaired his health and brought on a complicated disease, of which he
+  died. See <i>Arminians</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´mitage</b>, Edward, English historical painter, born 1817, died
+  1896. He studied under Delaroche at the École des Beaux Arts, Paris, was
+  one of the ablest pupils of that painter, and in 1842 exhibited at the
+  Salon (in the Louvre) a picture of <i>Prometheus Bound</i>. At the
+  exhibition of cartoons for historical pictures in Westminster Hall (1843)
+  he obtained a premium of £300 for his design of <i>Cæsar's First Invasion
+  of Britain</i>. Other similar premiums were gained by his <i>Spirit of
+  Religion</i> (1845), and <i>Battle of Meeanee</i> (1847&mdash;£500). He
+  now went to study at Rome, and exhibited at the Academy in 1848 his
+  <i>Henry VIII and Katherine Parr</i>, and his <i>Trafalgar</i> (<i>Death
+  of Nelson</i>). He had pictures in most of the subsequent Academy
+  exhibitions up nearly to the time of his death. In 1867 he was elected an
+  associate, and in 1872 a full academician. He did much for the
+  restoration of fresco painting in England. A large number of his pictures
+  were biblical in subject, such as <i>Ahab and Jezebel</i>, <i>Esther's
+  Banquet</i>, <i>The Remorse of Judas</i>, <i>Joseph and Mary</i>,
+  <i>Herod's Birthday Feast</i>, &amp;c. As professor of painting to the
+  Royal Academy he delivered lectures on painting, which were published in
+  1883. In 1898 appeared a volume of his <i>Pictures and Drawings</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armor´ica</b> (from two Celtic words signifying 'upon the sea'), a
+  name anciently applied to all north-western Gaul, afterwards limited to
+  what is now Brittany. Hence <i>Armoric</i> is one name for Breton or the
+  language of the inhabitants of Brittany, a Celtic dialect closely allied
+  to Welsh.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armour.</b> See <i>Arms</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armoured Car</b>, a self-propelled car completely protected by
+  bullet-proof armour-plating. Such a car is a stage in the development of
+  mechanical warfare, i.e. warfare by means of a self-propelled, armed, and
+  manned machine. The idea is a very ancient one, some form of protected
+  vehicle having been in use among the Chinese in almost prehistoric times.
+  The modern armoured car is constructed on a strongly-engined chassis, and
+  is provided with a bullet-proof armour-plating both for engine and crew.
+  This armour is continued low down over the wheels. The armament of such a
+  car consists of two heavy machine-guns, firing through slits in the
+  armour-plating of the body of the car.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armour-plates</b>, iron or steel plates with which the sides of
+  vessels of war are covered with the view of rendering them shot-proof.
+  See <i>Iron-clad Vessels</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arms, Coat of</b>, or <b>Armorial Bearings</b>, a collective name
+  for the devices borne on shields, on banners, &amp;c., as marks of
+  dignity and distinction, and, in the case of family and feudal arms,
+  descending from father to son. They were first employed by the Crusaders,
+  and became hereditary in families at the close of the twelfth century.
+  They took their rise from the knights painting their banners or shields
+  each with a figure or figures proper to himself, to enable him to be
+  distinguished in battle when clad in armour. See <i>Heraldry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arms, College of.</b> See <i>Herald</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image103.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image103.jpg"
+      alt="Armour" title="Armour" /></a>
+    Armour, from the effigy of Sir Richard Peyton, in Tong Church,
+    Shropshire
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Arms</b> and <b>Armour</b>. The former term is applied to weapons
+  of offence, the latter to the various articles of defensive covering used
+  in war and military exercises, especially before the introduction of
+  gunpowder. Weapons of offence are divisible into two distinct
+  sections&mdash;firearms, and arms used without gunpowder or other
+  explosive substance. The first arms of offence would probably be wooden
+  clubs, then would follow wooden weapons made more deadly by means of
+  stone or bone, stone axes, <!-- Page 246 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page246"></a>[246]</span>slings, bows and arrows with heads of
+  flint or bone, and afterwards various weapons of bronze. Subsequently a
+  variety of arms of iron and steel was introduced, which comprised the
+  sword, javelin, pike, spear or lance, dagger, axe, mace, chariot scythe,
+  &amp;c.; with a rude artillery consisting of catapults, ballistæ, and
+  battering-rams. From the descriptions of Homer we know that almost all
+  the Grecian armour, defensive and offensive, in his time was of bronze;
+  though iron was sometimes used. The lance, spear, and javelin were the
+  principal weapons of this age among the Greeks. The bow is not often
+  mentioned. Among ancient nations the Egyptians seem to have been most
+  accustomed to the use of the bow, which was the principal weapon of the
+  Egyptian infantry. Peculiar to the Egyptians was a defensive weapon
+  intended to catch and break the sword of the enemy. With the Assyrians
+  the bow was a favourite weapon; but with them lances, spears, and
+  javelins were in more common use than with the Egyptians. Most of the
+  large engines of war&mdash;chariots with scythes projecting at each side
+  from the axle, catapults, and ballistæ&mdash;seem to have been of
+  Assyrian origin. During the historical age of Greece the characteristic
+  weapon was a heavy spear from 21 to 24 feet in length. The sword used by
+  the Greeks was short, and was worn on the right side. The Roman sword was
+  from 22 to 24 inches in length, straight, two-edged, and obtusely
+  pointed, and as by the Greeks was worn on the right side. It was used
+  principally as a stabbing weapon. It was originally of bronze. The most
+  characteristic weapon of the Roman legionary soldier, however, was the
+  <i>pilum</i>, which was a kind of pike or javelin, some 6 feet or more in
+  length. The pilum was sometimes used at close quarters, but more commonly
+  it was thrown. The favourite weapons of the ancient Germanic races were
+  the battle-axe, the lance or dart, and the sword. The weapons of the
+  Anglo-Saxons were spears, axes, swords, knives, and maces or clubs. The
+  Normans had similar weapons, and were well furnished with archers and
+  cavalry. The cross-bow was a comparatively late invention introduced by
+  the Normans. Gunpowder was not used in Europe to discharge projectiles
+  till the beginning of the fourteenth century. Cannon are first mentioned
+  in England in 1338, and there seems to be no doubt that they were used by
+  the English at the siege of Cambrai in 1339. The projectiles first used
+  for cannon were of stone. Hand fire-arms date from the fifteenth century.
+  At first they required two men to serve them, and it was necessary to
+  rest the muzzle on a stand in aiming and firing. The first improvement
+  was the invention of the match-lock, about 1476; this was followed by the
+  wheel-lock, and about the middle of the seventeenth century by the
+  flint-lock, which was in universal use until it was superseded by the
+  percussion-lock, the invention of a Scottish clergyman early in the
+  nineteenth century. The needle-gun dates from 1838. The only important
+  weapon not a fire-arm that has been invented since the introduction of
+  gunpowder is the bayonet, which is believed to have been invented about
+  1650. See <i>Cannon</i>, <i>Musket</i>, <i>Rifle</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:24%;">
+      <a href="images/image107.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image107.jpg"
+      alt="Horse-armour" title="Horse-armour" /></a>
+    Horse-armour of Maximilian I of Germany <i>a</i>, Chamfron. <i>b</i>,
+    Manefaire. <i>c</i>, Poitrinal, poitrel, or breastplate. <i>d</i>,
+    Croupiere or buttock-piece.
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:11%;">
+      <a href="images/image106.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image106.jpg"
+      alt="Chain Armour" title="Chain Armour" /></a>
+    Chain Armour
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/image105.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image105.jpg"
+      alt="Roman Armour" title="Roman Armour" /></a>
+    Roman Armour&mdash;Soldiers wearing Cuirass
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:24%;">
+      <a href="images/image104.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image104.jpg"
+      alt="Greek Armour" title="Greek Armour" /></a>
+    Greek Armour
+  </div>
+
+<div style="clear: both"></div>
+  <div class="figright" style="width:15%;">
+      <a href="images/image108.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image108.jpg"
+      alt="Light Plate Armour" title="Light Plate Armour" /></a>
+    Allecret (Light Plate) Armour, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1540
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Some kind of defensive covering was probably of almost as early
+  invention as weapons of offence. The principal pieces of defensive armour
+  used by the ancients were shields, helmets, cuirasses, and greaves. In
+  the earliest ages of Greece the shield is described as of immense size,
+  but in the time of the Peloponnesian War (about 420 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>) it was much smaller. The Romans had two sorts
+  of shields: the <i>scutum</i>, a large oblong rectangular <!-- Page 247
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page247"></a>[247]</span>highly-convex
+  shield, carried by the legionaries; and the <i>parma</i>, a small round
+  or oval flat shield, carried by the light-armed troops and the cavalry.
+  In the declining days of Rome the shields became larger and more varied
+  in form. The helmet was a characteristic piece of armour among the
+  Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. Like all other body armour it
+  was usually made of bronze. The helmet of the historical age of Greece
+  was distinguished by its lofty crest. The Roman helmet in the time of the
+  early emperors fitted close to the head, and had a neck-guard and hinged
+  cheek-pieces fastened under the chin, and a small bar across the face for
+  a visor. Both Greeks and Romans wore cuirasses, at one time of bronze,
+  but afterwards of flexible materials. Greaves for the legs were worn by
+  both, but among the Romans usually on one leg. The ancient Germans had
+  large shields of plaited osier covered with leather; afterwards their
+  shields were small, bound with iron, and studded with bosses. The
+  Anglo-Saxons had round or oval shields of wood, covered with leather, and
+  having a boss in the centre; and they had also corselets, or coats of
+  mail, strengthened with iron rings. The Normans were well protected by
+  mail; their shields were somewhat triangular in shape, their helmets
+  conical. In Europe generally metal armour was used from the tenth to the
+  eighteenth century, and at first consisted of a tunic made of iron rings
+  firmly sewn flat upon strong cloth or leather. The rings were afterwards
+  interlinked one with another so as to form a garment of themselves,
+  called <i>chain-mail</i>. Another variety of this flexible armour was
+  known as <i>banded-mail</i>. This consisted of rings sewn upon a fabric
+  foundation, the whole being covered with leather. In addition to this,
+  'scale armour', which had been in use from the very earliest periods of
+  history, was still in common fashion in the thirteenth century. By
+  degrees the suit of mail was reinforced by the addition of pieces of
+  plate on the breast, knees, elbows, and arms, and by the end of the
+  fourteenth century the full suit of plate had been evolved, the mail
+  being only worn as a skirt round the waist or as a coif attached to the
+  helmet. The golden age of plate armour is the middle of the fifteenth
+  century, when the design was light and graceful, and at the same time
+  fully protective. In the sixteenth century, when 'shock tactics' of
+  cavalry were the order of the day, the 'war harness' became heavier. This
+  was particularly noticeable in the armour for the joust or tournament, in
+  which sport the aim of the contestants was to score points and not to
+  inflict injury. Many of these jousting armours weigh over 80 lb. The
+  weapons in use through the whole of the plate-armour period were the
+  lance, the sword, the axe or war-hammer, the long-bow, and the cross-bow.
+  The introduction of fire-arms in the fourteenth century was one of the
+  causes which led to the increase of weight in armour, for the armourer
+  was continually improving and strengthening his products to make them
+  proof against musket and pistol, and he generally succeeded, but by doing
+  so increased the weight till it became insupportable. In the seventeenth
+  century leg armour was abandoned, and by the end of the civil war the
+  popular defence was the steel cap and breastplate. In the eighteenth
+  century armour entirely disappeared, except for ceremonial, and was
+  thought to be entirely obsolete till it was revived in the recent war in
+  the form of the steel shrapnel-helmet, which was favoured by all the
+  Allies and also by the enemy. The German troops occasionally used heavy
+  body armour. Daggers and clubs, weapons likewise thought <!-- Page 248
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page248"></a>[248]</span>to be
+  obsolete, were frequently used by all combatants, especially on
+  raids.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: A. Hutton, <i>The
+  Sword of the Centuries</i>; H.&nbsp;S. Cowper, <i>The Art of Attack</i>; C.
+  ffoulkes, <i>Armour and Weapons</i>; C.&nbsp;H. Ashdown, <i>British and
+  Foreign Arms and Armour</i>; C. Hall, <i>Modern Weapons of War by
+  Land</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armstrong</b>, John, Scottish poet and physician, born about 1709,
+  died 1779. After studying medicine in Edinburgh he settled in London. In
+  1744 he published his chief work, the <i>Art of Preserving Health</i>, a
+  didactic poem. This work raised his reputation to a height which his
+  subsequent efforts scarcely sustained. In 1746 he became physician to a
+  hospital for soldiers, and in 1760 he was appointed physician to the
+  forces which went to Germany. After his return to London he published a
+  collection of his <i>Miscellanies</i>, which contained, however, nothing
+  valuable. He afterwards visited France and Italy, and published an
+  account of his tour under the name of Lancelot Temple. His last
+  production was a volume of <i>Medical Essays</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armstrong</b>, William George, Lord, engineer and mechanical
+  inventor, born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 10th Nov., 1810. He was trained as a
+  solicitor, and practised as such for some time. Among his early
+  inventions were the hydro-electric machine, a powerful apparatus for
+  producing frictional electricity, and the hydraulic crane. In 1847 the
+  Elswick works, near Newcastle, were established for the manufacture of
+  his cranes and other heavy iron machinery, and these works are now among
+  the most extensive of their kind. Here the first rifled ordnance gun
+  which bears his name was made in 1854. His improvements in the
+  manufacture of guns and shells led to his being appointed engineer of
+  rifled ordnance under Government, and he was knighted in 1858. This
+  appointment came to an end in 1863, since which time his ordnance has
+  taken a prominent place in the armaments of different countries. He was
+  made a peer, as Baron Armstrong, in 1887. He died 27th Dec., 1900.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Armstrong Gun</b>, a kind of cannon, so called from its inventor.
+  It has an inner tube or core of steel, rifled with numerous shallow
+  grooves, the tube being surrounded by a jacket of spirally-coiled bars of
+  wrought iron, so disposed as to bring the metal into the most favourable
+  position for the strain to which it is to be exposed. His first guns were
+  small, but larger ones were soon made, and afterwards those of the very
+  highest calibre. The breech-loading principle was also adopted in them,
+  and special provision to effect this satisfactorily was invented by him.
+  The improved shells introduced by him were of the elongated and pointed
+  type now so well known, the charge being inserted in a special chamber
+  behind the bore.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Army</b>, a collection of bodies of men armed, disciplined, and
+  organized for war. The essence of a modern army is that it shall be
+  composed of organized units each under its own commander, grouped in
+  formations of ever-increasing size, and owing allegiance through these
+  commanders to one supreme head. Discipline and organization are
+  essential, or such a force becomes merely a collection of armed men.</p>
+
+  <p>In the early days of our history every able-bodied man was, to a
+  greater or lesser extent, a possible fighting man, and all had arms of
+  one kind or another. Consequently, when an army was required, landowners
+  and county authorities were ordered to provide the troops necessary.
+  Every free landowner between the ages of sixteen and sixty was liable to
+  service, which was limited to two months in a year. This was the Saxon
+  'fyrd' system. Later it was improved on by the institution of 'Thane's
+  Service', which made it incumbent on the more considerable landowners to
+  appear fully armed and mounted, and to serve for the whole campaign. The
+  horse, however, was only used as a means of locomotion: for fighting
+  purposes their riders dismounted, as did the dragoons of the seventeenth
+  century and the mounted infantry of still more modern times. The fyrd was
+  an unorganized and undisciplined force and entirely ephemeral in its
+  nature, so that we find the Danish kings of England casting about for
+  some more permanent force, which came into existence under the title of
+  the 'House Carles', or Royal Guard. With the Norman Conquest the fyrd was
+  largely supplanted by the feudal system of knight's service, according to
+  which the country was divided into knight's fees, each of which had to
+  provide its quotum of men. The gradual appearance of the custom of
+  avoiding service by payments of money&mdash;in time regulated under the
+  name of scutage&mdash;led to the employment of paid mercenaries, who for
+  some two centuries were almost invariably foreigners. In the twelfth
+  century it was found that sufficient troops could not be provided under
+  these two systems, so the fyrd was re-established as a National Militia
+  by the Assize of Arms, and in the next century further steps were taken
+  to protect it under the Statute of Winchester. In the fourteenth century
+  the archer, with his longbow, became a very important part of the
+  fighting forces of England, and an army of those days consisted of the
+  heavily-armed and armoured knights and men-at-arms for shock action, and
+  the unarmoured archers for 'volley action', to use a later term. With the
+  gradual disappearance of the foreign mercenaries, it became the custom
+  for the king to issue indents to certain influential subjects for the
+  raising of paid troops. <!-- Page 249 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page249"></a>[249]</span>From this custom arose the free companies,
+  which, in time, became nothing more or less than commercial undertakings.
+  The indents were accepted, and the men enlisted primarily for what could
+  be got out of the business of fighting, either in the shape of ransom or
+  the sack of towns. Some attempt was also made at tactical organization,
+  and an army of the period was divided into vanguard, battle, and
+  rearguard. Artillery also was beginning to be developed in Germany for
+  siege purposes. The sixteenth century saw the first formation of
+  companies into regiments, though as yet of no fixed strength. Arms were
+  also modernized, and by the end of the century muskets, 18-feet pikes,
+  and swords, were the arms of infantry instead of the varied assortment of
+  halberds, pikes, muskets, harquebuses, and longbows common at the
+  beginning. Elizabeth introduced the press-gang as an aid to recruiting,
+  and abolished the white coat of the soldier in favour of a long red or
+  blue cassock. In the next century Cromwell's new model army became the
+  first standing army of England, and, though it was disbanded by Act of
+  Parliament at the Restoration, one of its
+  regiments&mdash;Monk's&mdash;remained, and is now the Coldstream Guards.
+  After this regiments were raised from time to time on one pretext or
+  another, and the nucleus of a standing army became a <i>fait
+  accompli</i>, though it was for a long time considered more as an
+  appanage of the king than as a national institution. With the standing
+  army came the first beginnings of civilian control, a Secretary-at-War
+  being appointed in 1660. He had, however, no responsibility, and was
+  subordinate to the commander-in-chief, and it was not till 1710 that he
+  assumed his present responsibility to Parliament. During the eighteenth
+  century the strength of the army rose or fell according to the state of
+  the military barometer and the success or otherwise of the various
+  recruiting expedients, among which was the first attempt at a
+  short-service system in 1703. In 1871-2 the old numbering in regiments
+  was abolished and a territorial designation substituted. According to
+  this scheme, the first twenty-five regiments, all of which had already
+  two battalions, were grouped together, the rest being joined arbitrarily
+  to form new regiments under county designations. With these regiments
+  were affiliated the militia and volunteer battalions, which have now been
+  amalgamated into the Special Reserve and the Territorial Force.</p>
+
+  <p>For the requirements of the war of 1914-8 the Empire, as a whole,
+  including India, raised and maintained a total of 8,654,467 men, of which
+  the contribution of the United Kingdom was over 6,000,000. Casualties for
+  the whole Empire were 3,060,616, of which the United Kingdom has for her
+  share nearly 2,500,000, including 666,083 killed, 1,644,786 wounded, and
+  140,312 missing.</p>
+
+  <p>During 1918 the combatant strength of all arms of the British army in
+  France fluctuated between 1,293,000 in March and 1,164,790 in November,
+  while the rifle or infantry strength was from 616,000 to 416,748 during
+  the same periods. From the date of the armistice to 31st Dec., 1919, the
+  following number of demobilizations and discharges were
+  effected:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>Demobilized.&mdash;Officers, 144,144; other ranks, 3,332,882.</p>
+
+  <p>Discharged as medically unfit.&mdash;Officers, 23,476; other ranks,
+  207,500.</p>
+
+  <p>Discharged from reserves.&mdash;Other ranks, 143,603.</p>
+
+  <p>The modern British army is governed by the Army Council (instituted
+  1904), presided over by the Secretary of State for War. This Council,
+  which consists of five military and five civilian members, including the
+  president, works through the War Office, of which the principal
+  departments are in charge of one or other of the members of the Council.
+  On the military side these departments are those of the Chief of the
+  Imperial General Staff, the Adjutant-General to the Forces, the
+  Quartermaster-General to the Forces, and the Master-General of the
+  Ordnance. For administrative and training purposes the United Kingdom is
+  divided into seven Commands and the London District. When necessary,
+  Commands are further subdivided into Districts. The army, generally
+  speaking, consists of (1) the Regular Army, (2) the Territorial Force,
+  and (3) the Reserves. The service battalions, which formed such a large
+  and important part of the army in the war, do not, properly speaking,
+  form part of the permanent military forces, though the organization of
+  the army as a whole is such that it is capable of expansion to any extent
+  by the process of raising new battalions and affiliating them to existing
+  regular or territorial units. The regular army comprises the Household
+  Cavalry, Cavalry of the Line, the Royal Regiment of Artillery, the Corps
+  of Royal Engineers, the Brigade of Guards, and Infantry of the Line. In
+  addition there are administrative troops and services such as the Royal
+  Army Service Corps, the Royal Army Medical Corps, with its allied service
+  Queen Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service, the Royal Army
+  Ordnance Corps, and others. Other corps brought into existence during the
+  war, such as the Tank and Machine-gun Corps, have at present no permanent
+  status. In the future, however, machine-gun companies will form an
+  integral portion of each battalion of the regular army.</p>
+
+  <p>Under the conditions of the war the old national method of voluntary
+  recruitment was <!-- Page 250 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page250"></a>[250]</span>found to be insufficient, and recourse was
+  had to the principle of universal military service. Under the Military
+  Service Acts the age limit was gradually raised till it finally included
+  all men up to the age of fifty. Exceptions were made in the case of
+  munition-workers, or those employed on work of national importance. Since
+  the signature of the Treaty of Peace the army so raised was gradually
+  demobilized till, by 31st March, 1920, it had decreased to 400,000,
+  including 100,000 Indians paid by the Imperial Government. Concurrently
+  with demobilization, voluntary enlistment was reintroduced, and the
+  post-war army is once more a voluntary one, in which men serve under very
+  much improved conditions as to pay and prospects. The period of service
+  under this system is twelve years, of which seven normally are with the
+  colours and five in the reserve: in certain cases modifications of these
+  periods are allowed, and, in addition, a soldier may be allowed to extend
+  his colour service to the full twelve years, or, in exceptional cases, to
+  complete twenty-one years for pension. Discharge or transfer to the
+  reserve is ordinarily granted on completion of the agreed period of
+  service. Pay of all ranks was very materially improved in 1919. Whereas
+  formerly a private soldier on enlistment received 1<i>s.</i> a day, he
+  now receives 2<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i>, and after two years' service
+  3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> To this last amount is added, under very reasonable
+  conditions, a further daily sum of 6<i>d.</i> proficiency pay. A sergeant
+  now gets 7<i>s.</i> a day instead of from 2<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> to
+  3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>, and a regimental sergeant-major 14<i>s.</i>
+  instead of 5<i>s.</i> or 6<i>s.</i> Add to these rates of pay free
+  rations, free housing, free medical attendance, and, in the future,
+  doubtless free education, and it must be admitted that the present-day
+  soldier is not badly paid. The rate of pay is a flat rate for all arms,
+  special allowances being given where necessary.</p>
+
+  <p>The Household Cavalry comprises the 1st and 2nd Life Guards and the
+  Horse Guards (Blues). In peace-time they serve only in London and
+  Windsor. They alone retain the old cavalry rank of corporal of horse
+  instead of sergeant. Cavalry of the line consists of dragoon guards,
+  dragoons, hussars, and lancers. The dragoon guards are numbered
+  separately from 1 to 7, while dragoons, hussars, and lancers run
+  consecutively from 1 to 21. A regiment of cavalry is commanded by a
+  lieutenant-colonel and consists of 25 officers and 497 other ranks. Each
+  regiment is organized in three squadrons commanded by majors, while a
+  squadron is divided into four troops, each under a subaltern officer,
+  troops being further subdivided into sections under non-commissioned
+  officers. Cavalry regiments, except hussars, carry guidons or standards
+  for ceremonial purposes. These differ from the colours of infantry in
+  that they are not consecrated and are carried by non-commissioned
+  officers instead of by officers. Hussars carry no standards. There are
+  six cavalry depots for recruiting and preliminary-training purposes, i.e.
+  for lancers at Woolwich, hussars at Scarborough, Bristol, and Dublin, and
+  dragoons at Newport (Mon.) and Dunbar. The Cavalry Special Reserve
+  consists of the Irish Horse and King Edward's Horse, and during the war
+  reserve cavalry regiments were maintained.</p>
+
+  <p>The Royal Regiment of Artillery comprises batteries of horse artillery
+  designated by letters of the alphabet, and batteries of field, siege,
+  heavy, and mountain by numbers. A battery, with some exceptions in the
+  case of the heaviest type, consists of six guns or howitzers, horse
+  artillery having 13-pounder guns, and field artillery 18-pounder guns or
+  4.5-inch howitzers. Horse artillery is intended to act with cavalry, and
+  is therefore provided with a rather lighter gun. It can go anywhere that
+  cavalry can go, and all the gun detachments are mounted. Field artillery
+  works with infantry, and the gun detachments either walk or are carried
+  on the limbers, only the officers, certain non-commissioned officers, and
+  specialists such as scouts, range-finders, and trumpeters being
+  mounted.</p>
+
+  <p>A battery is commanded by a major, with a captain as
+  second-in-command, and is organized in three sections of two guns each
+  under a subaltern. These sections are again subdivided into subsections
+  of one gun each under a sergeant. Each gun is drawn by six horses, the
+  driver of the leading pair being responsible for direction and pace. A
+  corporal in the Royal Artillery is known as a bombardier, and the rank
+  and file as gunners or drivers, according to their special duties, though
+  drivers are also trained to some extent as gunners.</p>
+
+  <p>Heavy and siege artillery have come into their own in the late war,
+  and consist roughly of all armament heavier than that of field artillery.
+  Sixty-pounders and 4.7-inch howitzers form heavy batteries, while guns of
+  6 inch and upwards drawn by mechanical transport or mounted on railway
+  trucks are known as siege batteries. Mountain artillery, of which most of
+  the batteries are in India, is armed with 2.95-inch screw guns capable of
+  being dismantled and carried piecemeal on mules. Another form is found on
+  the west coast of Africa, where carriers take the place of mules. These
+  guns are brought into action very quickly, but their shell-power is
+  small.</p>
+
+  <p>The corps of Royal Engineers is responsible for the construction and
+  maintenance of barracks, fortifications, and other military works, and
+  for the personnel required for search-lights and electrical
+  communications of the coast and anti-aircraft defences. With few
+  exceptions the personnel of the corps is recruited entirely from <!--
+  Page 251 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page251"></a>[251]</span>skilled tradesmen and artisans. For
+  service in the field, Royal Engineer units known as field squadrons and
+  field companies accompany the fighting troops, and carry a certain amount
+  of bridging material and tools. More highly specialized units carry out
+  such services as mining, heavy bridging, railway, survey, and
+  sound-ranging work. An important feature of Royal Engineer work in war is
+  the supply of materials and stores, for which purpose an elaborate
+  organization is provided in addition to the units already noted.</p>
+
+  <p>The Brigade of Guards&mdash;the infantry of the household
+  troops&mdash;comprises the five regiments of foot-guards. These are the
+  Grenadier, the Coldstream, the Scots, the Irish, and the Welsh Guards of
+  from one to three battalions each. Being household troops these regiments
+  are subject to certain special regulations and have certain privileges.
+  As a general rule they serve only in London, Windsor, or Aldershot, and
+  only leave England for active service, though individual battalions have
+  served in the past both in Cairo and Gibraltar.</p>
+
+  <p>The infantry, of which there are sixty-eight regiments of from two to
+  four battalions each, provides the bulk of the army. Infantry is formed
+  into regiments for recruiting and territorial distribution purposes, but
+  the battalion is the actual unit both for fighting and administration. In
+  many cases the Army List gives the name of an officer holding the
+  appointment of colonel of the regiment: this is in all cases a purely
+  honorary appointment and entails no duties or responsibilities. An
+  infantry battalion is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of
+  32 officers and 1000 other ranks. Both in peace and war a battalion is
+  divided into head-quarters and four companies, each of the latter having
+  six officers, including the company commander, who is a major or senior
+  captain. Subalterns command platoons. For recruiting purposes for
+  infantry of the line the country is divided into Regimental Districts, in
+  which are located the depots of the regiment concerned: these depots are
+  commanded by a senior officer of one of the battalions of the regiment
+  with the necessary staff for training purposes. Recruits are usually
+  first trained at the depot and later transferred to the battalion
+  requiring them. The Regimental Districts are again combined into larger
+  districts in which are situated the Record Offices dealing with the
+  regiments of the district. The denomination of the district dealing with
+  any particular regiment is shown in the Army List in brackets. The
+  principles of interior organization are the same throughout the army, and
+  as they can be best illustrated with the example of an infantry battalion
+  a short description of this organization follows. Owing to the continual
+  growth of military science, the improvement in arms and means of
+  destruction generally, and the confusion and noise inseparable from a
+  modern battle, the size of the personally-controlled unit has gradually
+  decreased till, in the present day, in the British army, it is accepted
+  as an axiom that no larger number of men than six can be conveniently
+  controlled in battle by one man. In former days companies, battalions,
+  and even larger formations were both controlled and received their
+  executive orders direct from their commanders&mdash;and to such an extent
+  was this carried that Fortescue, in his <i>History of the British
+  Army</i>, notes that Marlborough was in the habit of putting his whole
+  army through the platoon exercise by means of flags and bugle-calls.
+  This, of course, was not actually in face of the enemy, but the principle
+  is the same. The stress of modern war now makes individual control of
+  large bodies impossible, and the British army is therefore organized both
+  for peace and war in a series of units of ever-increasing size, each
+  under its own commander, who is responsible to his immediate superior for
+  the well-being, training, and leading of his command. Taking the infantry
+  organization as an example, we find that in the lowest stage, that of the
+  'section', the command is both personal and direct, in that the corporal
+  controls and commands the six men composing his fighting unit personally
+  and directly by word of mouth. In peace-time, and for administrative and
+  training purposes, the section may reach to ten men, who live, work, and
+  play together. In the next stage&mdash;that of the 'platoon', consisting
+  of four sections&mdash;we find the control is rather less personal and
+  direct, in that the platoon commander, a subaltern, controls his command
+  largely through his subordinates, the section commanders. A further stage
+  is that of the 'company', which consists of four platoons and company
+  head-quarters. A company is commanded by a major or senior captain, has a
+  captain as second-in-command, and a company sergeant-major and
+  quartermaster-sergeant to assist in running it. Here again the control is
+  less direct though still personal. The next stage is the amalgamation of
+  companies into a battalion, consisting of a head-quarters and four
+  companies. Battalion head-quarters consist of a lieutenant-colonel
+  commanding, a major second-in-command, an adjutant, and a quartermaster.
+  Certain other officers, when required, and the regimental sergeant-major
+  and quartermaster-sergeant, and various other ranks make up the total of
+  some 130. The commanding officer of a battalion is directly responsible
+  for the well-being of his command, for its training, discipline,
+  equipment, and general efficiency. In carrying on his duties he works
+  through his company <!-- Page 252 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page252"></a>[252]</span>commanders, and with the assistance of the
+  regimental staff mentioned above, so that we have a direct chain of
+  command and responsibility from the corporal commanding a section of six
+  to ten men through platoons and companies to the lieutenant-colonel
+  commanding a battalion of some thousand men. A detail of armament made
+  possible by the enormous increase of machine-guns necessitated during the
+  war is interesting. Thirty-two Lewis-guns are now provided for each
+  infantry battalion, and are distributed to alternate sections in a
+  platoon. Thus in each platoon two sections are known as rifle sections
+  and two as Lewis-gun sections, and these arms are normally used by the
+  respective sections; but men of all sections are trained in the use of
+  both rifle and Lewis-gun.</p>
+
+  <p>When we come to formations larger than a battalion, we find the system
+  of control and command becoming less and less personal and direct, as in
+  all such formations the commander works to a less or greater extent
+  through his staff. Roughly speaking, the staff is of two divisions, the
+  one consisting of the general staff branch and the other of the branch of
+  the adjutant and quartermaster-general. Again speaking very generally,
+  the general staff is charged with duties bearing directly on military
+  operations, while officers of the adjutant and quartermaster-general's
+  branch deal more with administrative questions. Officers of the general
+  staff are known as general staff officers, while those of the other
+  branch are called, for example, assistant or deputy-assistant adjutant or
+  quartermaster-general, according to their several duties.</p>
+
+  <p>The formation in which distinct and separate units are first collected
+  under one superior commander is known as a brigade. This, according to
+  present establishment, consists of three battalions and a trench-mortar
+  battery, the whole under a general officer called a brigadier-general,
+  assisted by a staff of two officers&mdash;a brigade-major and a
+  staff-captain. Since March, 1920, however, the title of brigadier-general
+  has been altered to 'colonel-commandant'. The strength of a brigade is
+  something over 3000 of all ranks. In a division, which is the next
+  highest formation, and which is commanded by a major-general with a staff
+  of three general staff officers and three officers belonging to the A.G.
+  and Q.M.G. branch, we find the first appearance of a mixed force. It is
+  not a force of 'all arms', as cavalry is not included, but, in addition
+  to infantry (three brigades), it has a considerable strength in
+  artillery, besides engineers and the necessary administrative troops. Two
+  or more divisions, together with a cavalry regiment and certain other
+  troops, form an 'army corps', and two or more corps go to make up an
+  'army'. These are not at present peace-time formations of the British
+  army.</p>
+
+  <p>Of the administrative troops and services already mentioned, the Royal
+  Army Service Corps provides for the material wants of the army both in
+  the way of food and transport. It is organized in companies designated by
+  numerals.</p>
+
+  <p>The Royal Army Medical Corps provides the personnel and organization
+  for the medical and sanitary services of the army. In peace-time this
+  service is organized on a garrison basis, hospitals being established
+  where required for the use of all troops in that particular garrison. For
+  war purposes medical officers are still attached to regiments, and in
+  addition the corps provides the personnel and organization necessary for
+  field ambulances, casualty clearing-stations, hospital trains and ships,
+  and various classes of fixed hospitals. The corps is organized in
+  numbered companies, and the rank and file are trained in first aid and
+  ambulance duties generally. It is administered by a director-general of
+  Army Medical Services with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is an
+  officer of the adjutant-general's department.</p>
+
+  <p>The other departments and administrative services of the army consist
+  of the Royal Army Ordnance Corps, dealing generally with munitions of
+  war; the Army Pay Department; the Royal Army Chaplains' Department; and
+  the Royal Army Veterinary Corps, of which the functions are sufficiently
+  designated by their title. In addition, there are manufacturing
+  establishments at Woolwich Arsenal and elsewhere.</p>
+
+  <p>The Army Reserve consists of men who have completed their term of
+  colour service, or service with a unit, and have thus passed into civil
+  life, though still remaining liable for a period of years to be recalled
+  to the colours if mobilization is ordered.</p>
+
+  <p>The Special Reserve was formed under the Territorial and Reserve
+  Forces Act of 1907 out of the old militia. It consists generally of one
+  battalion to each regiment of infantry, and is numbered consecutively
+  with regular battalions of the regiment. It will, in the future, probably
+  be again known as the Militia.</p>
+
+  <p>The Royal Marines&mdash;artillery and infantry, or the 'blue' and the
+  'red' marines, Kipling's "soldier and sailor too"&mdash;are not part of
+  the army proper, as they are administered entirely by the Admiralty. They
+  are, however, amenable to the Army Act when serving ashore. The term of
+  service is for twelve years, which may be extended to make up twenty-one.
+  Men may be transferred to or from the army at their own request.</p>
+
+  <p>The Territorial Force, or, as it is to be called in future, the
+  Territorial Army, is raised entirely <!-- Page 253 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page253"></a>[253]</span>on a county or
+  territorial basis. It was originally created by the Territorial and
+  Reserve Forces Act of 1907 out of a nucleus of the old yeomanry and
+  volunteers. It is raised and administered by County Associations in each
+  county and principal city. These associations consist of a president,
+  chairman, military representative, and co-opted members. The
+  administration of the Territorial Army is carried out by the County
+  Associations in accordance with schemes provided by the Army Council,
+  while all questions of training are reserved to the War Office. The
+  Territorial Army consists of all arms, including machine-gun corps and
+  the necessary administrative services: its full war establishment is
+  fixed at approximately 345,000 of all ranks, though, for the present,
+  only some 60 per cent of them are to be enlisted. The rejuvenated
+  Territorial Army is to be in all respects a true second line of imperial
+  defence, self-contained and self-supporting, while the regular army and
+  its special reserve of militia battalions form the first line. Defence
+  entails a certain amount of offence to bring it to a successful issue: it
+  has therefore been decided that the new Territorial Army will not be
+  relegated merely to the duty of guarding the country from invasion, but
+  will, in a national emergency, be entitled to take its place under its
+  own organization in the fighting line in any part of the world where its
+  services may be required. This will entail enlistment for general
+  service, but the interest of the force and of individuals composing it
+  are safeguarded by the proviso that before the Territorial Army can be
+  ordered out of the country an Act authorizing the movement be passed by
+  Parliament. It is further provided that the Territorial Army will on no
+  account be called on to supply drafts for regular regiments, and that in
+  case fresh regiments have to be raised on the lines of the New Army, the
+  machinery of the Territorial Army will be used to organize them.
+  Enlistment will be for three or four years, according to whether a man
+  has served during the European War (1914-8) or not; age limits are
+  normally between 18 and 38. The army is to be organized in one cavalry
+  (yeomanry) division of 12 regiments, and 14 infantry divisions each under
+  a selected general officer, either regular or territorial. Pay and
+  allowances during training periods will be as in the regular army, and in
+  addition certain bounties will be obtainable. Training periods will be
+  fifteen days in camp annually, besides a minimum number of drills and a
+  musketry course. On completion of colour service a man will pass to the
+  Territorial Reserve.</p>
+
+  <p>The New Army, consisting of the 'service battalions' of existing
+  regiments, is a product of the war. When, on the outbreak of war, many
+  new regiments were rapidly raised, they were affiliated to regular
+  regiments with consecutive numbers after the territorial battalions, and
+  this organization was continued and extended to cope with the personnel
+  obtained under the Military Service Acts.</p>
+
+  <p>Educational establishments connected with the army include the Staff
+  College, the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, and the Royal Military
+  Academy at Woolwich. At the Staff College officers obtain a course of
+  instruction and study to fit them for service on the staff of the army.
+  At Sandhurst, where the course of instruction is two years, some 700
+  gentlemen cadets are trained for commissions in the guards, cavalry, and
+  infantry of the line, and the Indian army. At Woolwich gentlemen cadets
+  desirous of entering the Royal Artillery or the Royal Engineers receive
+  their training. In addition to these there are schools of gunnery and
+  engineering, the Small Arms School at Hythe, the School of Physical
+  Training at Aldershot, and many others: while, for sons and orphans of
+  soldiers, there are the Duke of York's Royal Military School and the
+  Royal Hibernian School. The Royal Hospital, Chelsea, and the Royal
+  Hospital, Kilmainham, Dublin, are institutions for the care of old and
+  distressed soldiers. In every garrison there are garrison schools for
+  soldiers under fully qualified army schoolmasters, while in the future
+  there is likely to be a very great increase in educational facilities of
+  all kinds for the rank and file of the army. The training of the British
+  army for war now embraces a variety of subjects, and at the Royal
+  Military College and Academy the gentlemen cadets are not only taught the
+  principles and practice of their future profession, but are also
+  instructed in the methods of imparting their knowledge to others. For
+  example, the course of training at the Royal Military College embraces
+  drill and weapon training&mdash;under which head is included musketry
+  (both theory and practice) and bayonet work&mdash;physical training, and
+  riding. As part of the physical-training course they receive instruction
+  as to the best methods of organizing regimental assaults-at-arms and
+  sports. Among the more academic subjects are military history and
+  tactics, field sketching and topography, field engineering, military law
+  and administration, and elementary hygiene. A great deal of practical
+  work is done, and the course of two years is designed to fit a young
+  officer, on joining his regiment, to undertake the entire charge and
+  training of his troop or platoon. At the Royal Military Academy extra
+  subjects, such as artillery work and more advanced engineering, are also
+  taught.</p>
+
+  <p>As to the soldier's training generally, drill is insisted on as an aid
+  to discipline, which it <!-- Page 254 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page254"></a>[254]</span>undoubtedly is, and exact performance of
+  the various movements ordered is expected. In other branches of training
+  more individuality is allowed, and the days when the bayonet-exercise was
+  performed by a battalion to the music of the regimental band having
+  passed, considerable latitude as to positions and execution is permitted
+  in this particular branch, attention being principally concentrated on
+  inculcating the 'offensive spirit'. The modern soldier also learns how to
+  use a Lewis-gun, to throw or fire a grenade, what to do in case of a gas
+  attack, the rudiments of field engineering, and how to keep himself
+  healthy.</p>
+
+  <p>In addition to the more generally-known units of the army there are
+  certain corps which, though raised in the colonies, still form part of
+  the army, and which are administered by the imperial authorities. Under
+  this head are the Royal Malta Artillery (local service); the West India
+  Regiment (two battalions) and the West African Regiment, both for general
+  service and both administered by the War Office. Among other colonial
+  corps maintained by the imperial Government, though not forming part of
+  the regular army, are the West African Frontier Force (Nigeria) and the
+  King's African Rifles (East Africa). Both these are administered by the
+  Colonial Office.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Dominions.</i>&mdash;The military forces of the self-governing
+  dominions are raised and organized under the laws of such dominions.</p>
+
+  <p>Those of the Commonwealth of Australia are organized on a system of
+  compulsory military training for all males between the ages of twelve and
+  twenty-six. In the earlier stages boys are trained in cadet corps, from
+  which they pass to the Citizen Army, and from there, having attained the
+  age of twenty-six, to recognized rifle clubs. The annual period of
+  training in the Citizen Army is sixteen days. When the scheme is in full
+  working order this force will consist of twenty-three 4-battalion
+  brigades of infantry, twenty-three regiments of light horse, fifty-six
+  4-gun batteries, and the necessary complement of engineers and
+  administrative troops. During the war this organization was in abeyance,
+  and regiments were raised as required for overseas service, and, though
+  proposals for conscription were negatived, the commonwealth still managed
+  to send some 330,000 men to the various theatres of war out of 417,000
+  raised. The casualties, killed, wounded, and missing, were 210,724.</p>
+
+  <p>The Commonwealth also maintains a small permanent force of trained
+  professional soldiers.</p>
+
+  <p>The New Zealand forces are also organized on the principle of
+  universal training for all males. The details differ somewhat from those
+  in favour in Australia, but the principle is the same, i.e. that every
+  male should be trained for home defence. Boys of from twelve to eighteen
+  years of age are trained in cadet corps, from which they pass to
+  regiments of the Territorial Force, and from twenty-five to thirty belong
+  to the reserve. Cadets do annually a specified number of drills, while
+  the territorial training extends to seven clear days, a musketry course,
+  and certain drills every year. For the purposes of the war, conscription
+  was introduced in 1916, and 220,000 men were raised between 1914 and
+  1918, out of which the casualties were nearly 57,000.</p>
+
+  <p>Canada, unlike Australia and New Zealand, has no system of graduated
+  military training. The military forces of the dominion are organized as a
+  militia under a Minister of Militia and Defence working with a Council.
+  This militia is recruited by voluntary enlistment, and, on the outbreak
+  of war, consisted of a permanent force of 3000 and some 60,000 men who
+  had received militia training. This made possible the rapid dispatch to
+  France of a division which, by 1916, had increased to a corps of four
+  divisions and a cavalry brigade. Like the Mother Country and New Zealand,
+  Canada introduced conscription in 1917, and during the war raised nearly
+  641,000 men and suffered 206,149 casualties, of which 56,110 were killed,
+  149,733 wounded, and 306 missing.</p>
+
+  <p>The Union of South Africa divides its military forces into the
+  permanent force and the citizen force. There is also a coast-defence
+  force. The permanent force consists of the five regiments of the South
+  African Mounted Rifles. South Africa's greatest military effort during
+  the war was directed towards German South-West and East Africa, but some
+  27,000 men were enlisted for and sent to Europe out of a total number of
+  136,000 raised. This total does not include coloured troops. The
+  casualties were 18,000.</p>
+
+  <p>In other self-governing portions of the Empire troops were raised as
+  required, and in the West and East African colonies the existing
+  formations of native troops were considerably increased for service in
+  suitable portions of the various theatres of war. The official statement
+  of troops raised shows under the heading of 'other colonies' 134,837,
+  including coloured troops from South Africa and the West Indies. The
+  casualties among them amounted to 7519.</p>
+
+  <p><i>The Army in India.</i>&mdash;The military forces in India consist
+  of those units of British cavalry, artillery, and infantry temporarily
+  serving in the country, and the Indian army proper, consisting of
+  regiments recruited from among the native inhabitants and normally
+  serving there. Enlistment is voluntary and for general service, one of
+  the promises made by a man on enrolment being "to go wherever ordered by
+  land and sea and not to allow caste usages to interfere with his duties
+  as a soldier". The Indian army, as a disciplined and organized force,
+  dates from the <!-- Page 255 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page255"></a>[255]</span>years between 1748 and 1758. In 1748 Major
+  Stringer Lawrence arrived in Madras with a commission from the Company as
+  commander-in-chief. His first act was to form the existing European
+  independent companies into regiments; his second to raise certain native
+  independent companies. In 1758 he formed these companies in their turn
+  into battalions, which he designated 'coast sepoys', and which still
+  exist under their present names of the 61st Pioneers and following
+  numbers. His system was extended to the other presidencies, and at the
+  period of the mutiny, in 1857, the native army in India consisted of some
+  230,000 regular troops, besides irregulars. When the post-mutiny
+  reconstruction took place, the army was reorganized on an irregular basis
+  instead of as regular regiments on the British model. According to this
+  new system, the number of British officers in a regiment was considerably
+  reduced; native officers were given command of troops and companies,
+  while the British officer's command became the squadron, or wing. Native
+  artillery, with the exception of certain mountain batteries, was
+  abolished, and cavalry was reconstituted on the Silladar system, whereby,
+  in consideration of a larger monthly pay than was given to the infantry
+  sepoy, the trooper, or sowar, provided his own horse and sword. The
+  system thus introduced virtually remains to the present day, though it
+  has been modified and improved to suit later conditions. The infantry
+  officer's command has decreased from the wing of four companies to the
+  double company of two, and it is now known as a company and is organized
+  in four platoons on the British service model, platoons being commanded
+  by Indian officers. Of late years the number of British officers with an
+  Indian regiment has been increased to twelve, and at the present time a
+  committee is sitting in India to deliberate on the future construction of
+  the army. It is therefore impossible to give details of its future
+  strength. This, just before the war, was some 160,000, organized in 38
+  regiments of cavalry, the corps of guides, 3 regiments of sappers and
+  miners, 118 regiments of infantry of 1 battalion each, and 10 regiments
+  of Gurkhas of 2 battalions each. There were also 13 mountain batteries.
+  The 'Imperial Service Troops', of which many contingents took part in the
+  war, are raised, paid, and maintained by princes and chiefs as a
+  contribution to the defence of the country, while their training is
+  supervised by British inspecting officers. The 'Indian Defence Force',
+  which has lately replaced the volunteers, and in which service is
+  compulsory for Europeans, is available for home defence only. During the
+  war India, by voluntary enlistment, provided 1,401,350 men. Of these many
+  new regiments were formed, and second, third, and fourth battalions added
+  to existing regiments. Casualties were very nearly 114,000, including
+  some 48,000 killed. Native Indian officers of cavalry are known as
+  ressaldars, ressaiders, and jemadars, while those of the infantry are
+  called subadars and jemadars. In each regiment the senior Indian officer
+  is called ressaldar or subadar-major.</p>
+
+  <p>The army in India, by which is meant all military forces in India, is
+  administered by a commander-in-chief, who is a member of council. The
+  head-quarter staff includes a military secretary, the chief of the
+  general staff, an adjutant and a quartermaster-general, director-general
+  of ordnance and military works, and a director of medical
+  services.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Hon. J.&nbsp;W.
+  Fortescue, <i>History of the British Army</i>; C.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;C. Oman, <i>A
+  History of the Art of War: Middle Ages</i>; C.&nbsp;H. Firth, <i>Cromwell's
+  Army</i>; C. Walton, <i>History of the British Standing Army,
+  1660-1700</i>; War Office, <i>Army Book for the British Empire</i>; F.&nbsp;N.
+  Maude, <i>Evolution of Modern Strategy</i>; G.&nbsp;F.&nbsp;R. Henderson, <i>The
+  Science of War</i>; C. Romagny, <i>Histoire générale de l'armée
+  nationale</i>; Heimann, <i>L'Armée allemande</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Army Act.</b> See <i>Military Law</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:22%;">
+      <a href="images/image109.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image109.jpg"
+      alt="Army Worm" title="Army Worm" /></a>
+    Army Worm
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Army Worm</b>, the very destructive larva of the moth
+  <i>Helioph&#x12D;la</i> or <i>Leucania unipuncta</i>, so called from its
+  habit of marching in compact bodies of enormous number, devouring almost
+  every green thing it meets. It is about 1½ inches long, greenish in
+  colour, with black stripes, and is found in various parts of the world,
+  but is particularly destructive in North America. The larva of
+  <i>Sci&#x103;ra militaris</i>, a European two-winged fly, is also called
+  army worm.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arnat´to</b>, or <b>Annotta</b>. See <i>Annatto</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arnauld</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-n&#x14D;), the name of a French family,
+  several members of which greatly distinguished themselves.&mdash;Antoine,
+  an eminent French advocate, was born 1560, died 1619. Distinguished as a
+  zealous defender of the cause of Henry IV, and for his powerful and
+  successful defence of the University of Paris against the Jesuits in
+  1594. His family formed the nucleus of the sect of the Jansenists (see
+  <i>Jansenius</i>) in France.&mdash;His son Antoine, called the <i>Great
+  Arnauld</i>, was born 6th Feb., 1612, at Paris, died 9th Aug., 1694, at
+  Brussels. He devoted himself to theology, and was received in 1641 among
+  the doctors of the Sorbonne. He engaged in all the quarrels of the French
+  Jansenists with the Jesuits, the clergy, and the Government, was the
+  chief Jansenist writer, and was considered their head. Excluded from <!--
+  Page 256 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page256"></a>[256]</span>the
+  Sorbonne, he retired to Port Royal, where he wrote, in conjunction with
+  his friend Nicole, a celebrated system of logic (hence called the <i>Port
+  Royal Logic</i>). On account of persecution he fled, in 1679, to the
+  Netherlands. His works, which are mainly controversies with the Jesuits
+  or the Calvinists, are very voluminous.&mdash;His brother Robert, born
+  1588, died 1674, retired to Port Royal, where he wrote a translation of
+  Josephus, and other works.&mdash;Robert's daughter Angélique, born 1624,
+  died 1684, was eminent in the religious world, and was subjected to
+  persecution on account of her unflinching adherence to Jansenism.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´nauts.</b> See <i>Albania</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arndt</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rnt), Ernst Moritz, German patriot and
+  poet, was born 1769, died 1860. He was appointed professor of history at
+  Greifswald in 1806, and stirred up the national feeling against Napoleon
+  in his work <i>Geist der Zeit</i> (<i>Spirit of the Time)</i>. In 1812-3
+  he zealously promoted the war of independence by a number of pamphlets,
+  poems, and spirited songs, among which it is sufficient to refer to his
+  <i>Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland?</i>, <i>Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen
+  liess</i>, and <i>Was blasen die Trompeten? Husaren, heraus!</i>, which
+  were caught up and sung from one end of Germany to the other. In 1817 he
+  married a sister of the theologian Schleiermacher, and settled at Bonn in
+  order to undertake the duties of professor of history. He was, however,
+  suspended till 1840 on account of his liberal opinions, when he was
+  restored to his chair on the accession of Frederick William IV.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arndt</b>, Johann, celebrated German mystic theologian, born 1555,
+  died 1621. His principal work, <i>Wahres Christenthum</i> (True
+  Christianity), is still popular in Germany, and has been translated into
+  almost all European languages. Another of his publications is
+  <i>Paradiesgaertlein</i>, translated into English (The Garden of
+  Paradise).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arne</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rn), Thomas Augustine, English composer,
+  born at London 1710, died 1778. His first opera, <i>Fair Rosamond</i>,
+  was performed in 1733 at Lincoln's-Inn Fields, and was received with
+  great applause. Then followed a version of Fielding's <i>Tom Thumb</i>,
+  altered into <i>The Opera of Operas</i>, a musical burlesque. His style
+  in the <i>Comus</i> (1738) is still more original and cultivated. To him
+  we owe the national air <i>Rule, Britannia</i>, originally given in a
+  popular piece called the <i>Masque of Alfred</i>. After having composed
+  two oratorios and several operas he received the degree of Doctor of
+  Music at Oxford. He composed, also, music for several of the songs in
+  Shakespeare's dramas, and various pieces of instrumental music.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arnee´</b>, one of the numerous Indian varieties of the buffalo
+  <i>(Bub&#x103;lus arni)</i>, remarkable as being the largest animal of
+  the ox kind known. It measures about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and
+  from 9 to 10½ feet long from the muzzle to the root of the tail. It is
+  found chiefly in the forests at the base of the Himalayas.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arn´hem</b>, or <b>Arnheim</b>, a town in Holland, province of
+  Gelderland, 18 miles south-west of Zutphen, on the right bank of the
+  Rhine. Pleasantly situated, it is a favourite residential resort, and it
+  contains many interesting public buildings; manufactures cabinet wares,
+  mirrors, carriages, mathematical instruments, &amp;c.; has paper-mills,
+  and its trade is important. In 1795 it was stormed by the French, who
+  were driven from it by the Prussians in 1813. Pop. 70,664 (1917).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arnhem Land</b>, a portion of the northern territory of S.
+  Australia, lying west of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and forming a sort of
+  peninsula.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´ni</b>, a town of Madras, on the Cheyair River, 16 miles south
+  of Arcot; formerly a large military station; stormed by Clive in 1751,
+  and scene of defeat of Hyder Ali by Sir Eyre Coote in 1782. Pop.
+  5050.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´nica</b>, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositæ, containing
+  eighteen species, one of which is found in Central Europe, <i>A.
+  mont&#x101;na</i> (leopard's bane or mountain tobacco), but is not a
+  native of Britain. It has a perennial root, a stem about 2 feet high,
+  bearing on the summit flowers of a dark golden yellow. In every part of
+  the plant there is an acrid resin and a volatile oil, and in the flowers
+  an acrid bitter principle called <i>arnicin</i>. The root contains also a
+  considerable quantity of tannin. A tincture of it is employed as an
+  external application to wounds and bruises. It was introduced into
+  English gardens about the middle of the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´nim</b>, Elisabeth von, a German writer, also known as Bettina,
+  wife of Louis Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet Clemens Brentano;
+  born at Frankfort in 1785, died at Berlin 1859. Even in her childhood she
+  manifested an inclination towards eccentricities and poetical
+  peculiarities of many kinds. She entered into correspondence with Goethe,
+  for whom she entertained a violent passion, although he was then in his
+  sixtieth year. In 1835 she published Goethe's <i>Briefwechsel mit einem
+  Kinde</i> (Goethe's Correspondence with a Child), containing, among
+  others, the letters that she alleged to have passed between her and
+  Goethe. Her later writings dealt with subjects like the emancipation of
+  the Jews, and the abolition of capital punishment. Her husband, Ludwig
+  Achim von Arnim, born at Berlin in 1781, died 1831, distinguished himself
+  as a writer of novels. In concert with her brother, Clemens Brentano, he
+  published a collection of popular German songs and ballads entitled
+  <i>Des Knaben Wunderhorn</i>.&mdash;Her daughter, <!-- Page 257 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page257"></a>[257]</span>Gisela von Arnim, is
+  known in literature by her <i>Dramatische Werke</i> (3 vols.,
+  1857-63).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´no</b> (ancient <b>Arnus</b>), a river of Italy which rises in
+  the Etruscan Apennines, makes a sweep to the south and then flows
+  westwards, divides Florence into two parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4
+  miles below it, into the Tuscan Sea, after a course of 130 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arno´bius</b>, an early Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric
+  at Sicca Veneria, in Numidia, and in 303 became a Christian; he died
+  about 326. He wrote seven books of <i>Disputationes adversus Gentes</i>
+  (or <i>Adversus Nationes</i>), in which he refuted the objections of the
+  heathens against Christianity. This work betrays a defective knowledge of
+  Christianity, but is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and
+  Roman mythology.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arnold</b>, an urban district or town of England, Nottinghamshire,
+  3 miles north-east of Nottingham, with lace and hosiery manufactures,
+  &amp;c. It has a church built in the twelfth century, and a tower dating
+  from the fifteenth century and restored in 1868 and 1877. Pop.
+  11,800.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´nold</b>, Benedict, a general in the American army during the
+  War of Independence, born in 1741. He rendered his name infamous by his
+  attempt to betray the strong fortress of West Point, with all the arms
+  and immense stores which were there deposited, into the hands of the
+  British. The project failed through the capture of Major André, when
+  Arnold made his escape to the British lines. He received a commission as
+  brigadier-general in the British army, and took part in several marauding
+  expeditions. He subsequently settled in the West Indies, and ultimately
+  came to London, where he died in 1801.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´nold</b>, Sir Edwin, <span class="scac">K.C.I.E.</span>, poet,
+  Sanskrit scholar, and journalist, born 1832. Educated at Oxford, where he
+  took the Newdigate prize for a poem entitled the <i>Feast of
+  Belshazzar</i> in 1852, he was successively second master in King Edward
+  VI's College at Birmingham, and principal of the Sanskrit College at
+  Poonah in Bombay. In 1861 he joined the editorial staff of the <i>Daily
+  Telegraph</i>, with which he was henceforth connected. He died in 1904.
+  He was author of <i>Poems, Narrative and Lyrical</i>; translations from
+  the Greek and Sanskrit; <i>The Light of Asia</i>, a poem on the life and
+  teaching of Buddha; <i>The Light of the World</i>; <i>Pearls of the
+  Faith</i>; <i>Lotus and Jewel</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´nold</b>, Matthew, English critic, essayist, and poet, was born
+  at Laleham, near Staines, 1822, being a son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He
+  was educated at Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford, and became a Fellow of
+  Oriel College. He was private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, 1847-51;
+  appointed inspector of schools, 1851; professor of poetry at Oxford,
+  1858; published <i>A Strayed Reveller and other poems</i>, 1848;
+  <i>Empedocles on Etna</i>, 1853; <i>Merope</i>, 1858; <i>Essays in
+  Criticism</i>, 1865; <i>On the Study of Celtic Literature</i>, 1867;
+  <i>Schools and Universities on the Continent</i>, 1868; <i>St. Paul and
+  Protestantism</i>, 1870; <i>Literature and Dogma</i>, 1873; <i>Last
+  Essays on Church and Religion</i>, 1877; <i>God and the Bible</i>, 1878;
+  <i>Discourses on America</i>, 1885, &amp;c. He received the degree of
+  <span class="scac">LL.D.</span> from Edinburgh, and that of <span
+  class="scac">D.C.L.</span> from Oxford, and lectured in Britain and in
+  America. He died in 1888. A complete edition of his works in 15 vols.
+  appeared in 1905.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: H.&nbsp;W. Paul,
+  <i>Matthew Arnold</i> (English Men of Letters Series); G. Saintsbury,
+  <i>Matthew Arnold</i> (Modern English Writers Series); G.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;E. Russell,
+  <i>Matthew Arnold</i> (Literary Lives Series); F. Bickley, <i>Matthew
+  Arnold and his Poetry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´nold</b>, Thomas, headmaster of Rugby School, and professor of
+  modern history in the University of Oxford, born at Cowes, in the Isle of
+  Wight, in 1795, died 1842. He entered Oxford in his sixteenth year, and
+  in 1815 he was elected Fellow of Oriel College, and both in that year and
+  1817 he obtained the chancellor's prize for Latin and English essays.
+  After taking deacon's orders he settled at Laleham, near Staines, where
+  he employed himself in preparing young men for the universities. In 1828
+  he was appointed headmaster of Rugby School, and devoted himself to his
+  new duties with the greatest ardour. While giving due prominence to the
+  classics, he deprived them of their exclusiveness by introducing various
+  other branches into his course, and he was particularly careful that the
+  education which he furnished should be in the highest sense moral and
+  Christian. His success was remarkable. Not only did Rugby School become
+  crowded beyond any former precedent, but the superiority of Dr. Arnold's
+  system became so generally recognized that it may be justly said to have
+  done much for the general improvement of the public schools of England.
+  In 1841 he was appointed professor of modern history at Oxford, and
+  delivered his introductory course of lectures with great success. His
+  chief works are his edition of Thucydides, his <i>History of Rome</i>
+  (unhappily left unfinished), and his <i>Sermons</i>. There is an
+  admirable memoir of him by A.&nbsp;P. Stanley, Dean of Westminster (London, 2
+  vols., 1845).&mdash;Cf Lytton Strachey, <i>Eminent Victorians</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´nold of Brescia</b>, an Italian religious and political reformer
+  and martyr of the twelfth century. He was one of the disciples of
+  Abélard, and attracted a considerable following by preaching against the
+  corruption of the clergy. Excommunicated by Innocent II, he withdrew to
+  Zürich, but soon reappeared in Rome, where he was taken and burned
+  (1155).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arnold-Forster</b>, Hugh Oakeley, grandson of <!-- Page 258
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page258"></a>[258]</span>Dr. Arnold of
+  Rugby, and adopted son of the late W.&nbsp;E. Forster, <span
+  class="scac">M.P.</span>, whose wife was his aunt, was born in 1855, died
+  in 1909. He was educated at Rugby and University College, Oxford. He sat
+  as member of Parliament for West Belfast from 1892, for Croydon from
+  1906, as a Liberal Unionist, was Parliamentary Secretary to the Admiralty
+  from 1900 to 1903, then Secretary of State for War, a position which he
+  held till Dec., 1905, having put forward sweeping proposals for the
+  improvement of our army. He wrote on various subjects, especially books
+  for popular instruction, including <i>How to Solve the Irish Land
+  Question</i>, <i>The Citizen Reader</i>, <i>This World of Ours</i>,
+  <i>Things New and Old</i>, <i>In a Conning Tower</i>, <i>A History of
+  England</i>, <i>English Socialism of To-day</i>, <i>Military Needs and
+  Military Policy</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´non</b>, a river in Palestine, the boundary between the country
+  of the Moabites and that of the Amorites, afterwards of the Israelites, a
+  tributary of the Dead Sea. It is now called Wady-el-Mojib.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´not</b>, or <b>Ar´nut</b>, a name of the agreeably flavoured
+  farinaceous tubers of the earth-nut or pig-nut (<i>Bunium
+  flexu&#x14D;sum</i> and <i>B. Bulbocast&#x103;num</i>). See
+  <i>Earth-nut</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´nott</b>, Dr. Neil, an eminent physician and physicist, was born
+  at Arbroath, 1788, died 1874. Having graduated as <span
+  class="scac">M.A.</span> at Aberdeen, he then studied medicine, and was
+  appointed a surgeon in the East India Company's naval service. In 1811 he
+  commenced practice in London. In 1837 he was appointed extraordinary
+  physician to the queen. In 1827 he published <i>Elements of Physics</i>,
+  and in 1838 a treatise on <i>Warming and Ventilation</i>, &amp;c. He is
+  widely known as the inventor of a stove which is regarded as one of the
+  most economical arrangements for burning fuel, a ventilating
+  chimney-valve, and his water-bed for the protection of the sick against
+  bed-sores. In 1869 he gave £1000 to each of the four Scottish
+  universities and £2000 to London University for the promotion of the
+  study of physics. He was a strong advocate of a scientific as opposed to
+  a purely classical education.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arnprior</b>, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 35 miles west of
+  Ottawa, on the right bank of the River Ottawa, where it is joined by the
+  Madawaska, and with important railway connections. Pop. 4405.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arnsberg</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rnz´ber<i>h</i>), a town in Prussia,
+  province Westphalia, capital of the district of same name, on the Ruhr.
+  Pop. 10,256.&mdash;The district of Arnsberg has an area of 2972 sq.
+  miles, and a population of 2,400,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arnstadt</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rn´sta<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>t), a town of Germany, in
+  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 11 miles south by west of Erfurt, upon the
+  Gera, which divides it into two parts. It has manufactures in leather,
+  &amp;c., and a good trade in grain and timber. Pop. 17,907.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arnswalde</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rnz´va<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-de), a town of Prussia, province
+  Brandenburg, 39 miles south-east of Stettin. Pop. 8730.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´nulf</b>, great-grandson of Charlemagne, elected King of Germany
+  in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 887; invaded Italy, captured Rome, and
+  was crowned emperor by the Pope (896); died <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 898.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aroi´deæ.</b> See <i>Araceæ</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´olsen</b>, a German town, capital of Waldeck. Pop. 2793.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aromat´ics</b>, drugs, or other substances which yield a fragrant
+  smell, and often a warm pungent taste, as calamus (<i>Ac&#x14D;rus
+  Cal&#x103;mus</i>), ginger, cinnamon, cassia, lavender, rosemary, laurel,
+  nutmegs, cardamoms, pepper, pimento, cloves, vanilla, saffron. Some of
+  them are used medicinally as tonics, stimulants, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aromatic Vinegar</b>, a very volatile and powerful perfume made by
+  adding the essential oils of lavender, cloves, &amp;c., and often
+  camphor, to crystallizable acetic acid. It is a powerful excitant in
+  fainting, languor, and headache.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aro´na</b>, an ancient Italian town near the south extremity of
+  Lago Maggiore. Pop. 4474. In the vicinity is the colossal statue of San
+  Carlo Borromeo, 70 feet in height, exclusive of pedestal 42 feet
+  high.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aroos´took</b>, a river of the north-eastern United States and New
+  Brunswick, a tributary of the St. John, length 120 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arou´ra</b>, or <b>Aru´ra</b>, an ancient Egyptian measure of
+  surface, according to Herodotus the square of 100 cubits, containing,
+  21,904 sq. feet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arpad</b>, founder of the Magyar monarchy, born about 870, died
+  907. See <i>Hungary</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arpeggio</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-pej´&#x14D;), the distinct sound of the
+  notes of an instrumental chord; the striking the notes of a chord in
+  rapid succession, as in the manner of touching the harp instead of
+  playing them simultaneously.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arpent</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-pän<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), formerly a French measure of land,
+  equal to five-sixths of an English acre; but it varied in different parts
+  of France; the Parisian arpent contained 32,400 sq. feet, the common
+  arpent 40,000 sq. feet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arpino</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-p&#x113;´n&#x14D;; ancient
+  <b>Arpinum</b>), a town of Southern Italy, province of Caserta,
+  celebrated as the birthplace of Gaius Marius and Cicero. It manufactures
+  woollens, linen, paper, &amp;c. Pop. 10,309.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arqua</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r´kwa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a village of Northern Italy, about 13
+  miles south-west of Padua, where the poet Petrarch died, 18th July, 1374.
+  A monument has been erected over his grave. Pop. 1700.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´quebus</b>, a hand-gun; a species of fire-arm of the sixteenth
+  century, resembling a musket. It was fired from a forked rest, and
+  sometimes <!-- Page 259 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page259"></a>[259]</span>cocked by a wheel, and carried a ball that
+  weighed nearly 2 ounces. A larger kind used in fortresses carried a
+  heavier shot.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arraca´cha.</b> See <i>Aracacha</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arracan´.</b> See <i>Aracan</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´rack.</b> See <i>Arack</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´ragon.</b> See <i>Aragon</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´rah</b>, a town of British India, in Shahabad district, Bengal,
+  rendered famous during the mutiny of 1857 by the heroic resistance of a
+  body of twenty civilians and fifty Sikhs, cooped up within a detached
+  house, to a force of 3000 sepoys, who were ultimately routed and
+  overthrown by the arrival of a small European reinforcement. Pop.
+  46,170.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arraignment</b> (ar-r&#x101;n´-), the act of calling or setting a
+  prisoner at the bar of a court to plead guilty or not guilty to the
+  matter charged in an indictment or information. In Scots law the term is
+  <i>calling the diet</i>.&mdash;The <i>Clerk of Arraigns</i> is an officer
+  attached to assize courts and to the Old Bailey, who assists in the
+  arraignment of prisoners, and puts formal questions to the jury.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´ran</b>, an island of Scotland, in the Firth of Clyde, part of
+  Bute county; length, north to south, 20 miles; breadth, about 10 miles;
+  area, 165 sq. miles, or 105,814 acres, of which about 15,000 are under
+  cultivation. It is of a wild and romantic appearance, particularly the
+  northern half, where the island attains its loftiest summit in Goatfell,
+  2866 feet high. The coast presents several indentations, of which that of
+  Lamlash, forming a capacious bay, completely sheltered by Holy Island, is
+  one of the best natural harbours in the west of Scotland. On the small
+  island of Pladda, about a mile from the south shore, a lighthouse has
+  been erected. The geology of Arran has attracted much attention, as
+  furnishing within a comparatively narrow space distinct sections of the
+  great geological formations; while the botany possesses almost equal
+  interest, both in the variety and the rarity of many of its plants. Among
+  objects of interest are relics of Danish forts, standing stones, cairns,
+  &amp;c. Lamlash and Brodick are villages. The island is a favourite
+  resort of summer visitors, and is reached by steamer from Ardrossan. Pop.
+  8294.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arran, Earls of.</b> See <i>Hamilton, Family of</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrangement</b>, in music, the adaptation of a composition to
+  voices or instruments for which it was not originally written; also, a
+  piece so adapted.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´ran Islands.</b> See <i>Aran</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arraro´ba.</b> See <i>Araroba</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arras</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-rä), a town of France, capital of the
+  department Pas-de-Calais, well built, with several handsome squares and a
+  citadel, cathedral, public library, botanic garden, museum, and numerous
+  flourishing industries. In the Middle Ages it was famous for the
+  manufacture of tapestry, to which the English applied the name of the
+  town itself (arrazo). The battle of Arras was fought and Vimy Ridge taken
+  by the Allies on 9th April, 1917. Pop. 24,200.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrest´</b> is the apprehending or restraining of one's person,
+  which, in civil cases, can take place legally only by process in
+  execution of the command of some court or officers of justice; but in
+  criminal cases any man may arrest without warrant or precept, and every
+  person is liable to arrest without distinction, but no man is to be
+  arrested unless charged with such a crime as will at least justify
+  holding him to bail when taken. <i>Magna Charta</i> and the <i>Habeas
+  Corpus Act</i> are the two great statutes for securing the liberty of the
+  subject against unlawful arrests and suits.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrest´ment</b>, in Scots law, a process by which a creditor may
+  attach money or movable property which a third party holds for behoof of
+  his debtor. In 1870 an Act was passed for Scotland which provides that
+  only that part of the weekly wages of labourers, and of workpeople
+  generally, which is in excess of 20<i>s</i>. is liable to arrestment for
+  debt.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrest of Judgment</b>, in law, the staying or stopping of a
+  judgment after verdict, for causes assigned. Courts have power to arrest
+  judgment for intrinsic causes appearing upon the face of the record; as
+  when the declaration varies from the original writ; when the verdict
+  differs materially from the pleadings; or when the case laid in the
+  declaration is not sufficient in point of law to found an action
+  upon.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arre´tium.</b> See <i>Arezzo</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrhenath´erum</b>, a genus of oat-like grasses, of which <i>A.
+  elatius</i>, sometimes called French rye-grass, is a valuable fodder
+  plant.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrhenius</b>, Svante August, famous Swedish physicist and chemist,
+  born 19th Feb., 1859, at Wyk, near Upsala. He was educated at the
+  Universities of Upsala (1876-81) and Stockholm (1881-4), spent two years
+  in travelling, and after doing much original research was appointed
+  professor of physics at the University of Stockholm. To him is due the
+  establishment of the theory of electrolytic dissociation, supplying a
+  reasonable explanation of many chemical phenomena otherwise insoluble. He
+  subsequently extended the application of the electrolytic theory to the
+  phenomena of atmospheric electricity. His dissertation <i>Sur la
+  conductibilité galvanique des électrolytes</i> appeared in 1884. Among
+  his other works is <i>Worlds in the Making</i> (English translation,
+  1908).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´ria</b>, the heroic wife of a Roman named Cæc&#x12B;na Pætus.
+  Pætus was condemned to death in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 42 for his
+  share in a conspiracy against the emperor Claudius, and was encouraged to
+  suicide by his wife, who stabbed herself and then <!-- Page 260 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page260"></a>[260]</span>handed the dagger to
+  her husband with the words, 'It does not hurt, Pætus!'</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´rian</b>, or <b>Flavius Arrianus</b>, a Greek historian, native
+  of Nicomedia, flourished in the second century, under the emperor Hadrian
+  and the Antonines. He was first a priest of Ceres; but at Rome he became
+  a disciple of Epictetus, was honoured with the citizenship of Rome, and
+  was advanced to the senatorial and even consular dignities. His extant
+  works are: <i>The Expedition of Alexander</i>, in seven books; a book
+  <i>On the Affairs of India</i>; an <i>Epistle to Hadrian</i>; a
+  <i>Treatise on Tactics</i>; a <i>Periplus of the Euxine Sea</i>; a
+  <i>Periplus of the Red Sea</i>; and his <i>Enchiridion</i>, a moral
+  treatise, containing the discourses of Epictetus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´ris</b>, in architecture, the line in which the two straight or
+  curved surfaces of a body, forming an exterior angle, meet each
+  other.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arro´ba</b> (Spanish), a weight formerly used in Spain, and still
+  used in the greater part of Central and South America. In the States of
+  Spanish origin its weight is generally equal to 25.35 lb. avoirdupois; in
+  Brazil it equals 32.38 lb.&mdash;Also a measure for wine, spirits, and
+  oil, ranging from 2¾ gallons to about 10 gallons.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arröe</b>, Danish island. See <i>Aeröe</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrondissement.</b> See <i>France</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrow.</b> See <i>Archery, Bow</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrowhead</b> (Sagittaria), a genus of aquatic plants found in all
+  parts of the world within the torrid and temperate zones, nat. ord.
+  Alismaceæ, distinguished by possessing barren and fertile flowers, with a
+  three-leaved calyx and three coloured petals. The common arrowhead (<i>S.
+  sagittifolia</i>), the only native species in Britain, is known by its
+  arrow-shaped leaves with lanceolate straight lobes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrowheaded Characters.</b> See <i>Cuneiform Writing</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrow Lake</b>, an expansion of the Columbia River, in British
+  Columbia, Canada; about 95 miles long from <span class="scac">N.</span>
+  to <span class="scac">S.</span>; often regarded as forming two
+  lakes&mdash;Upper and Lower Arrow Lake.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrowrock Dam.</b> See <i>Dams</i> and <i>Reservoirs</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image110.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image110.jpg"
+      alt="Arrow-root" title="Arrow-root" /></a>
+    Arrow-root (<i>Maranta arundin&#x101;c&#x115;a</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Arrow-root</b>, a starch largely used for food and for other
+  purposes. Arrow-root proper is obtained from the rhizomes or rootstocks
+  of several species of plants of the genus Maranta (nat. ord. Marantaceæ),
+  and perhaps owes its name to the scales which cover the rhizome, which
+  have some resemblance to the point of an arrow. Some, however, suppose
+  that the name is due to the fact of the fresh roots being used as an
+  application against wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows, and others say
+  that <i>arrow</i> is a corruption of <i>ara</i>, the Indian name of the
+  plant. The species from which arrow-root is most commonly obtained is
+  <i>M. arundin&#x101;c&#x115;a</i>, hence called the <i>arrow-root
+  plant</i>. Brazilian arrow-root, or tapioca meal, is got from the large
+  fleshy root of <i>Manihot utilissima</i>, after the poisonous juice has
+  been got rid of; East Indian arrow-root, from the large rootstocks of
+  <i>Curc&#x16D;ma angustifolia</i>; Chinese arrow-root, from the creeping
+  rhizomes of <i>Nelumbium speci&#x14D;sum</i>; English arrow-root, from
+  the potato; Portland arrow-root, from the corms of <i>Arum
+  macul&#x101;tum</i>; and Oswego arrow-root, from Indian corn. Analyses
+  made in 1902 and 1906 show that the idea generally held of the nourishing
+  qualities of arrow-root is a delusion, and that the proteids, which are
+  true muscle-builders, are present in an extremely small extent.
+  Arrow-root, however, mixed with eggs, milk, and flavourings, is largely
+  used in the dietary of invalids.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arrowsmith</b>, Aaron, a distinguished English chartographer, born
+  1750, died 1823; he raised the execution of maps to a perfection it had
+  never before attained.&mdash;His nephew, John, born 1790, died 1873, was
+  no less distinguished in the same field; his <i>London Atlas of Universal
+  Geography</i> may be specially mentioned.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arroyo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-r&#x14D;´yo), the name of two towns of
+  Spain, in Estremadura, the one, called Arroyo del Puerco (pop. 5727),
+  about 10 miles west of Caceres; the other, called Arroyo Molinos de
+  Montanches, about 27 miles south-east of Caceres, memorable from the
+  victory gained by Lord Hill over a French force under General Gerard,
+  28th Oct., 1811. <!-- Page 261 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page261"></a>[261]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´ru</b> (or <b>Aroo</b>) <b>Islands,</b> a group belonging to the
+  Dutch, south of western New Guinea, and extending from north to south
+  about 127 miles. They are composed of coralline limestone, nowhere
+  exceeding 200 feet above the sea, and are well wooded and tolerably
+  fertile. The natives belong to the Papuan race, and some of them are
+  Christians. The chief exports are trepang, tortoise-shell, pearls,
+  mother-of-pearl, and edible birds'-nests. Pop. of group about 20,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arsa´ces,</b> the founder of a dynasty of Parthian kings (256 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>), who, taking their name from him, are called
+  Arsacidæ. There were thirty-one in all. See <i>Parthia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´samas</b>, a manufacturing town in the Russian government of
+  Nijni-Novgorod, on the Tesha, 250 miles east of Moscow, with a cathedral
+  and large convent. Pop. 12,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´senal</b>, a royal or public magazine or place appointed for the
+  making, repairing, keeping, and issuing of military stores. An arsenal of
+  the first class should include factories for guns and gun-carriages,
+  small-arms, small-arms ammunition, harness, saddlery, tents, and powder;
+  a laboratory and large store-houses. In arsenals of the second class
+  workshops take the place of the factories. The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich,
+  which manufactures warlike implements and stores for the army and navy,
+  was formed about 1720, and comprises factories, laboratories, &amp;c.,
+  for the manufacture and final fitting up of almost every kind of arms and
+  ammunition. Great quantities of military and naval stores are kept at the
+  dockyards of Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Pembroke. In France there
+  are various arsenals or depots of war-material, which is manufactured at
+  Mézières, Toulouse, Besançon, &amp;c.; the great naval arsenals are Brest
+  and Toulon. Until 1919 the chief German arsenals were at Spandau,
+  Strassburg, and Dantzig. The chief Austrian arsenal was the immense
+  establishment at Vienna, which included gun-factory, laboratory,
+  small-arms and carriage factories, &amp;c. Russia had her principal
+  arsenal at Petrograd, with supplementary factories of arms and ammunition
+  at Briansk, Kiev, and elsewhere. In Italy Turin is the centre of the
+  military factories. There are a number of arsenals in the United States,
+  but individually they are of little importance.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´senic</b> (symbol <b>As</b>, atomic weight 75), a common element
+  usually found combined with metals as arsenides, the commonest of which
+  is arsenical pyrites, FeAsS. It has a steel colour and high metallic
+  lustre, and tarnishes on exposure to the air, first changing to yellow,
+  and finally to black. In hardness it equals copper; it is extremely
+  brittle, and very volatile, beginning to sublime before it melts. It
+  burns with a blue flame, and emits a smell of garlic. Its specific
+  gravity is 5.76. It forms compounds with most of the metals. Combined
+  with sulphur it forms orpiment and realgar, which are the yellow and red
+  sulphides of arsenic. Orpiment is the true <i>arsenicum</i> of the
+  ancients. With oxygen arsenic forms two compounds, the more important of
+  which is arsenious oxides or arsenic trioxide
+  (As<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub>), which is the <i>white arsenic</i>, or
+  simply <i>arsenic</i> of the shops. It is usually seen in white, glassy,
+  translucent masses, and is obtained by sublimation from several ores
+  containing arsenic in combination with metals, particularly from
+  arsenical pyrites. Of all substances arsenic is that which has most
+  frequently occasioned death by poisoning, both by accident and design.
+  The best remedies against the effects of arsenic on the stomach are
+  ferric hydroxide or magnesic hydroxide, or a mixture of both, with
+  copious draughts of bland liquids of a mucilaginous consistence, which
+  serve to procure its complete ejection from the stomach. Oils and fats
+  generally, milk, albumen, wheat-flour, oatmeal, sugar or syrup, have all
+  proved useful in counteracting its effect. Like many other virulent
+  poisons it is a safe and useful medicine, especially in skin diseases,
+  when judiciously employed. It is used as a flux for glass, and also for
+  forming pigments. The arsenite of copper (Scheele's green) and a double
+  arsenite and acetate of copper (emerald green) were formerly largely used
+  to colour paper-hangings for rooms; but as poisonous gases are liable to
+  be given off, the practice has been to a great extent abandoned. Arsenic
+  compounds have been used for colouring confectionery, and other articles,
+  bright green, but their chief industrial use is in the preparation of
+  insecticides. Arsenic is found in crude oil of vitriol, and occasionally
+  in products such as grape-sugar, beer, &amp;c., in the manufacture of
+  which oil of vitriol is employed. Plants die when placed in a solution of
+  arsenic, but corn is often steeped in such a solution, previous to
+  planting, for preventing smut, and the growth of the future plant is not
+  injured thereby.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arshin</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-sh&#x113;n´), a Russian measure of
+  length equal to 28 inches.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arsin´oë</b>, a city of ancient Egypt on Lake M&oelig;ris, said to
+  have been founded about 2300 B.&nbsp;C., but renamed after Arsinoë, wife and
+  sister of Ptolemy II of Egypt, and called also <i>Crocodilopolis</i>,
+  from the sacred crocodiles kept at it.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´sis</b>, a term applied in prosody to that syllable in a measure
+  where the emphasis is put; in elocution, the elevation of the voice, in
+  distinction from <i>thesis</i>, or its depression. <i>Arsis</i> and
+  <i>thesis</i>, in music, are the strong position and weak position of the
+  bar, indicated by the down-beat and up-beat in marking time.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´son</b>, in English law, the malicious burning of a
+  dwelling-house or outhouse of another man, which by the common law is
+  felony, and which, if <!-- Page 262 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page262"></a>[262]</span>any person is therein, is capital. Also,
+  the wilful setting fire to any church, chapel, warehouse, mill, barn,
+  agricultural produce, ship, coal-mine, and the like. In Scotland it is
+  called <i>wilful fire-raising</i>, and in both England and Scotland it is
+  a considerable aggravation of the crime if the burning is to defraud
+  insurers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Art</b>, in its most extended sense, as distinguished from nature
+  on the one hand and from science on the other, has been defined as every
+  regulated operation or dexterity by which organized beings pursue ends
+  which they know beforehand, together with the rules and the result of
+  every such operation or dexterity. Science consists in <i>knowing</i>,
+  art in <i>doing</i>. In this wide sense it embraces what are usually
+  called the useful arts. In a narrower and purely æsthetic sense it
+  designates what are more specifically termed the fine arts, as
+  architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and poetry. The useful arts
+  have their origin in positive practical needs, and restrict themselves to
+  satisfying them. The fine arts minister to the sentiment of taste through
+  the medium of the beautiful in form, colour, rhythm, or harmony. See
+  <i>Fine Arts</i>, <i>Painting</i>, <i>Sculpture</i>, &amp;c.&mdash;In the
+  Middle Ages it was common to give certain branches of study the name of
+  arts.&mdash;Cf. A.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;R. Carter, <i>History of Art<i>, </i>The Year's
+  Art</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Art Collections.</b> See <i>Collections, Artistic</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Art</b>, Teaching of. With the advent of the present industrial age
+  the teaching of art has undergone a profound change. The fine and the
+  industrial arts have been equally affected. In mediæval times, and in the
+  earlier classic ages, the system of apprenticeship prevailed, and all
+  teaching of the arts and of the artistic crafts was given by masters of
+  the various arts or trades to the apprentices who worked under their
+  guidance as assistants. Standards of excellence were maintained by trade
+  guilds, who enforced rules as to workmanship as well as rules for the
+  economic conditions of each trade or craft. The painter of pictures, or
+  of mural decorations, was trained in the same way as any other craftsman,
+  working as an apprentice under a master.</p>
+
+  <p>When, in the last century, machinery driven by steam-power took the
+  place of hand labour in industry, the small independent workshops
+  gradually disappeared, as the industrial centres increased in those
+  localities where coal or raw material was most easily obtained; and, as
+  the processes of each trade or craft became more and more subdivided and
+  specialized, the old system of apprenticeship, which had become
+  unnecessary, broke down. The teaching and tradition of the small
+  independent craft workshops had no counterpart in the new centralized
+  industrial systems. Even the painters of pictures needed no longer to
+  prepare their own materials, for special industries arose, and mechanical
+  processes were developed, for the work which formerly had been done in
+  the artists' workshops by apprentices. The fine arts in this way suffered
+  the loss of their old systems of teaching and instruction.</p>
+
+  <p>To meet the need for a revival of art teaching in the crafts and other
+  industries, there arose a movement towards the centralization of teaching
+  in schools of art during the latter half of the nineteenth century.
+  Following the impulse given to that movement by the great exhibition in
+  1850, the British Government founded the schools of science and art in
+  London and in most of the important provincial towns. Earlier in the
+  century bodies of artists had founded national academies for the teaching
+  of art; and the teaching of drawing was gradually adopted as a part of
+  ordinary school education. Step by step training in schools of art or
+  technical schools took the place of the teaching formerly given during
+  apprenticeship in every craft workshop. The ancient guilds were replaced
+  by the new trades unions, but these took no part in the maintenance of
+  artistic standards nor of quality in workmanship.</p>
+
+  <p>At the present time the teaching of art begins with the early school
+  lessons in drawing, and is carried on in special technical classes or
+  schools of art, where teachers of the 'fine arts' and of the artistic
+  crafts give instruction to students preparing for professional work. In a
+  few of the artistic trades the system of apprenticeship still survives,
+  but the teaching given by that means is usually supplemented by
+  attendance at a school of art or technical school. Under the Education
+  Act of 1918 attendance at technical classes in the daytime became
+  compulsory for apprentices in all industrial trades.</p>
+
+  <p>The subject of art teaching was formerly disregarded by the
+  universities, but has become definitely within their province since the
+  founding of the Slade professorships at Oxford, Cambridge, and London
+  Universities, and of the professorship of fine art at the University of
+  Edinburgh.</p>
+
+  <p>The chief schools of art in Great Britain are the schools of the Royal
+  Academy in London, the Slade School at University College, London, and
+  the Royal College of Art at South Kensington, also the Central School of
+  Arts and Crafts, and the other large metropolitan schools of the London
+  County Council.</p>
+
+  <p>In most of the English provincial towns are municipal or other schools
+  of art under the control of the Board of Education.</p>
+
+  <p>In Scotland the chief schools are the four central
+  institutions&mdash;the Edinburgh College of Art, and the schools of art
+  of Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Dundee. In each of these a diploma is given on
+  the satisfactory completion of a prescribed course of study. <!-- Page
+  263 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page263"></a>[263]</span></p>
+
+  <p>In Ireland the chief schools are those of the Royal Hibernian Academy
+  in Dublin, and the provincial schools of art under the Department of
+  Agriculture and Technology.</p>
+
+  <p>On the Continent the chief centre of artistic training has for many
+  years been in Paris. Advanced students from most European and American
+  art schools spend some of the later period of their study in the schools
+  of Paris, in painting, in sculpture, or in architecture. There is,
+  naturally, a valuable incentive and stimulation due to this gathering
+  together of advanced students from all countries, as well as to the high
+  academic tradition and sense of style of the French.</p>
+
+  <p>The 'atelier' system, which is followed in the French schools, is
+  simple and personal. The expenses of an 'atelier', or studio, are borne
+  by a group of students by the consent and under the guidance of an artist
+  of reputation, who visits the 'atelier' at stated intervals, but is not
+  concerned in its administration. In this way the relations between the
+  professor and his pupils are extremely direct and personal. Most of the
+  distinguished artists of Paris are attached to some 'atelier' to which
+  chosen pupils are admitted.</p>
+
+  <p>There are also in Paris excellent schools for training in the applied
+  arts, schools for furniture-making, printing, jewellery, and other
+  artistic trades. These are on private foundations, but also receive State
+  aid.</p>
+
+  <p>The teaching of art that is given at the present day as a part of
+  ordinary general education attempts little more than a training in the
+  elements of drawing, with some practice in the use of colour. The purpose
+  of the drawing lesson is the attainment of skill in the representation of
+  objects rather than the training of the æsthetic sense, or of artistic
+  judgment or taste.</p>
+
+  <p>In the schools of art opportunities are provided for training in
+  drawing and painting, sculpture, and architecture, and in the general
+  principles of design in these arts, and in many of the artistic crafts
+  and industrial processes. In some localities, where particular industries
+  or artistic trades are concentrated, special schools for artistic and
+  technical training are provided. The present tendency is towards the
+  development of special schools for particular artistic trades or
+  professions.</p>
+
+  <p>A complete system of training in any art must of necessity include:
+  (1) actual technical practice; (2) teaching of the canons of workmanship
+  of the art; (3) acquaintance with its historical development, especially
+  with the notable examples and the highest achievements of past masters in
+  the art.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arta</b> (ancient <b>Ambracia</b>), a gulf, town, and river of
+  north-western Greece. The town was transferred by Turkey to Greece in
+  1881 (pop. 8000). It stands on the River Arta, which for a considerable
+  distance above its mouth formed a part of the boundary between Greece and
+  Turkey.&mdash;The province of Arta has an area of 395 sq. miles, and a
+  pop. of 52,400.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artaxerx´es</b> (Old Pers. <i>Artakhsathra</i>, 'the mighty'), the
+  name of several Persian kings:&mdash;1. <b>Artaxerxes</b>, surnamed
+  Longim&#x103;nus, succeeded his father Xerxes I, 465 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> He subdued the rebellious Egyptians, terminated
+  the war with Athens, governed his subjects in peace, and died 425 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>&mdash;2. <b>Artaxerxes</b>, surnamed Mnemon,
+  succeeded his father Darius II in the year 405 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> After having vanquished his brother Cyrus he
+  made war on the Spartans, who had assisted his enemy, and forced them to
+  abandon the Greek cities and islands of Asia to the Persians. On his
+  death, 359 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, his son Ochus ascended the
+  throne under the name of&mdash;3. <b>Artaxerxes Ochus</b> (359 to 339
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span>). After having overcome the
+  Ph&oelig;nicians and Egyptians, and displayed great cruelty in both
+  countries, he was poisoned by his general Bagoas.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arte´di</b>, Peter, a Swedish naturalist, born 1705, drowned at
+  Amsterdam 1735. He studied at Upsala, turned his attention to medicine
+  and natural history, and was a friend of Linnæus. His <i>Bibliotheca
+  Ichthyologica</i> and <i>Philosophia Ichthyologica</i>, together with a
+  life of the author, were published at Leyden in 1738.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artel</b>, a name for co-operative associations in Russia. These
+  associations were known in ancient Russia as <i>drushina</i> or
+  <i>wataga</i>. The artels originally consisted of bodies of men
+  associating for the purpose of jointly undertaking a piece of work and
+  dividing the profits. Artels were formed in the thirteenth and fourteenth
+  centuries for the co-operation of their members in hunting and fishing.
+  Inspired and stimulated by the Schulze-Delitzsch associations established
+  in Germany, the Russian artels have extended their activity to various
+  branches of industrial life. There are now consum artels, credit artels,
+  and insurance artels, but the most important are the artisan and
+  industrial artels. Some of the artels, however, are little more than
+  trade guilds with mutual responsibility.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´t&#x115;mis</b>, an ancient Greek divinity, identified with the
+  Roman Diana. She was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto or Latona,
+  and was the twin sister of Apollo, born in the Island of Delos. She is
+  variously represented as a huntress, with bow and arrows; as a goddess of
+  the nymphs, in a chariot drawn by four stags; and as the moon-goddess,
+  with the crescent of the moon above her forehead. She was a maiden
+  divinity, never conquered by love, except when Endymion made her feel its
+  power. She demanded the strictest chastity from her worshippers, and she
+  is represented as having changed <!-- Page 264 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page264"></a>[264]</span>Actæon into a stag, and
+  caused him to be torn in pieces by his own dogs, because he had secretly
+  watched her as she was bathing. The Artemisia was a festival celebrated
+  in her honour at Delphi. The famous temple of Artemis at Ephesus was
+  considered one of the wonders of the world, but the goddess worshipped
+  there was very different from the huntress goddess of Greece, being of
+  Eastern origin, and regarded as the symbol of fruitful nature.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artemi´sia</b>, Queen of Caria, in Asia Minor, about 352-350 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, sister and wife of Maus&#x14D;lus, to whom she
+  erected in her capital, Halicarnassus, a monument, called the
+  Mausol&#x113;um, which was reckoned among the seven wonders of the
+  world.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artemi´sia</b>, a genus of plants of numerous species, nat. ord.
+  Compositæ, comprising mugwort, southernwood, and wormwood. Certain alpine
+  species are the flavouring ingredient in absinthe. See
+  <i>Wormwood</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artemi´sium</b>, a promontory in Eub&oelig;a, an island of the
+  Ægean, near which several naval battles between the Greeks and Persians
+  were fought, 480 <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´temus Ward</b>. See <i>Browne, Charles Farrar</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´teries</b>, the system of cylindrical vessels or tubes,
+  membranous, elastic, and pulsatile, which convey the blood from the heart
+  to all parts of the body, by ramifications which, as they proceed,
+  diminish in size and increase in number, and terminate in minute
+  capillaries uniting the ends of the arteries with the beginnings of the
+  veins. There are two principal arteries or arterial trunks: the
+  <i>aorta</i>, which rises from the left ventricle of the heart and
+  ramifies through the whole body, sending off great branches to the head,
+  neck, and upper limbs, and downwards to the lower limbs, &amp;c.; and the
+  <i>pulmonary artery</i>, which conveys venous blood from the right
+  ventricle to the lungs, to be purified in the process of respiration.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arteriot´omy</b>, the opening or cutting of an artery for the
+  purpose of blood-letting, as, for instance, to relieve pressure of the
+  brain in apoplexy.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image111.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image111.jpg"
+      alt="Artesian Well" title="Artesian Well" /></a>
+    Artesian Well. <span class="scac">A. A.</span> Outcrops of pervious
+    stratum (<span class="scac">C</span>) acting as collecting areas. <span
+    class="scac">B</span> and <span class="scac">D</span>. Impervious
+    stratum.
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Arte´sian Wells</b>, so called from the French province of Artois,
+  where they appear to have been first used on an extensive scale, are
+  perpendicular borings into the ground through which water rises to the
+  surface of the soil, producing a constant flow or stream, the ultimate
+  sources of supply being higher than the mouth of the boring, and the
+  water thus rising by the well-known law. They are generally sunk in
+  valley plains and districts where the lower pervious strata are bent into
+  basin-shaped curves. The rain falling on the outcrops of these saturates
+  the whole porous bed, so that when the bore reaches it the water by
+  hydraulic pressure rushes up towards the level of the highest portion of
+  the strata. The supply is sometimes so abundant as to be used extensively
+  as a moving power, and in arid regions for fertilizing the ground, to
+  which purpose artesian springs have been applied from a very remote
+  period. Thus many artesian wells have been sunk in the Algerian Sahara,
+  which have proved an immense boon to the district. The water of most of
+  these is potable, but a few are a little saline, though not to such an
+  extent as to influence vegetation. The hollows in which London and Paris
+  lie are both perforated in many places by borings of this nature. At
+  London they were first sunk only to the sand, but afterwards into the
+  chalk. One of the most celebrated artesian wells is that of Grenelle,
+  near Paris, 1798 feet deep, completed in 1841, after eight years' work.
+  Artesian wells are now common in many countries, and have been sunk to
+  the depth of a mile or more. As the temperature of water from great
+  depths is invariably higher than that at the surface, artesian wells have
+  been made to supply warm water for heating manufactories, greenhouses,
+  hospitals, fish-ponds, &amp;c. They have also been made in the United
+  States and Australia for the purpose of irrigation. Petroleum wells are
+  generally of the same technical description. Artesian wells are now made
+  with larger diameters than formerly, and altogether their construction
+  has been rendered much more easy in modern times. See <i>Boring</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arteveld</b>, or <b>Artevelde</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r´te-velt, a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r´te-vel-de), the name of two men
+  distinguished in the history of the Low Countries.&mdash;1. Jacob van, a
+  brewer of Ghent, born about 1300, was selected by his fellow-townsmen to
+  lead them in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. In 1338 he
+  was appointed captain of the forces of Ghent, and for several years
+  exercised a sort of sovereign power. A proposal to make the Black Prince,
+  son of Edward III of England, Governor of Flanders led to an insurrection
+  in which Arteveld lost his life (1345).&mdash;2. Philip, son of the
+  former, at the head of the forces of Ghent gained a great victory over
+  the Count of Flanders, Louis II, and for a time assumed the state of a
+  sovereign prince. His reign proved short-lived. The Count <!-- Page 265
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page265"></a>[265]</span>of Flanders
+  returned with a large French force, fully disciplined and skilfully
+  commanded. Arteveld was rash enough to meet them in the open field at
+  Roosebeke, between Courtrai and Ghent, in 1382, and fell with 25,000
+  Flemings.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arthri´tis</b> (Gr. <i>arthron</i>, a joint), any inflammatory
+  distemper that affects the joints, particularly chronic rheumatism or
+  gout.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arthro´dia</b>, a species of articulation, in which the head of one
+  bone is received into a shallow socket in another; a ball-and-socket
+  joint.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arthrop´oda</b>, one of the two primary divisions (Anarthropoda
+  being the other) into which modern naturalists have divided the
+  sub-kingdom Annulosa, having the body composed of a series of segments,
+  some always being provided with articulated appendages. The division
+  comprises Crustaceans, Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Insects.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arthrozo´a</b>, a name sometimes given to all articulated animals,
+  including the arthropoda and worms.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arthur</b>, Chester Alan, twenty-first President of the United
+  States, born 1830, died 1886, was the son of Scottish parents, his father
+  being pastor of Baptist churches in Vermont and New York. He chose law as
+  a profession, and practised in New York. As a politician he became a
+  leader in the Republican party. During the civil war he was energetic as
+  quarter-master-general of New York in getting troops raised and equipped.
+  He was afterwards collector of customs for the port of New York. In 1880
+  he was elected Vice-President, succeeding as President on the death of
+  Garfield in 1881.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´thur, King</b>, an ancient British hero of the sixth century,
+  son of Uther Pendragon and the Princess Igerna, wife of Gorlois, Duke of
+  Cornwall. He married Guinevere, or Ginevra; established the famous order
+  of the Round Table; and reigned, surrounded by a splendid Court, twelve
+  years in peace. After this, as the poets relate, he conquered Denmark,
+  Norway, and France, slew the giants of Spain, and went to Rome. From
+  thence he is said to have hastened home on account of the faithlessness
+  of his wife, and Modred, his nephew, who had stirred up his subjects to
+  rebellion. He subdued the rebels, but died in consequence of his wounds,
+  on the Island of Avalon. The story of Arthur is supposed to have some
+  foundation in fact, and has ever been a favourite subject with our
+  romanticists and our poets. It is generally believed that Arthur was one
+  of the last great Celtic chiefs who led his countrymen from the west of
+  England to resist the settlement of the Saxons in the country. But many
+  authorities regard him as a leader of the Cymry of Cumbria and
+  Strath-Clyde against the Saxon invaders of the east coast and the Picts
+  and Scots north of the Forth and the Clyde. See <i>Grail</i>,
+  <i>Merlin</i>, <i>Round Table</i>.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J. Rhys, <i>Studies in the Arthurian
+  Legend</i>; W. Lewis Jones, <i>King Arthur in History and Legend</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arthur's Seat</b>, a picturesque hill within the King's Park in the
+  immediate vicinity of Edinburgh; has an altitude of 822 feet; descends
+  rollingly to the <span class="scac">N.</span> and <span
+  class="scac">E.</span> over a base each way of about five furlongs;
+  presents an abrupt shoulder to the <span class="scac">S.</span>, and
+  breaks down precipitously to the <span class="scac">W.</span> It is
+  composed of a diversity of eruptive rocks, with some interposed and
+  up-tilted sedimentary ones; and derives its name somehow from the
+  legendary King Arthur.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´tiad</b> (Gr. <i>artios</i>, even-numbered), in chemistry, a
+  name given to an element of even equivalency, as a dyad, tetrad, &amp;c.:
+  opposed to a perissad, an element of uneven equivalency, such as a monad,
+  triad, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artichoke</b> (<i>Cyn&#x103;ra Scol&#x45E;mus</i>), sometimes
+  called 'the Globe Artichoke', a well-known plant of the nat. ord.
+  Compositæ, somewhat resembling a thistle, with large divided prickly
+  leaves. The erect flower-stem terminates in a large round head of
+  numerous imbricated oval spiny scales which surround the flowers. The
+  fleshy bases of the scales with the large receptacle are the parts that
+  are eaten. Artichokes were introduced into England early in the sixteenth
+  century. The Jerusalem artichoke (a corruption of the It.
+  <i>girasole</i>, a sunflower), or <i>Helianthus tuber&#x14D;sus</i>, is a
+  species of sunflower, whose roots are used like potatoes; it was
+  introduced into England in the early part of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Article</b>, in grammar, a part of speech used before nouns to
+  limit or define their application. In English <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> is
+  usually called the indefinite article (the latter form being used before
+  a vowel sound), and <i>the</i>, the definite article, but they are also
+  described as adjectives. <i>An</i> was originally the same as <i>one</i>,
+  and <i>the</i> as <i>that</i>. In Latin there were no articles, and Greek
+  has only the definite article.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Articles, Lords of the</b>, in Scottish history, a committee chosen
+  equally from each estate or division of Parliament to prepare the various
+  measures, which, when completed, were laid before the Parliament for
+  adoption or rejection. They were first appointed in 1369, and gradually
+  became a recognized part of the Scottish legislative machinery. Abolished
+  1690.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Articles, The Six</b>, in English ecclesiastical history, articles
+  imposed by a statute (often called the Bloody Statute) passed in 1541,
+  the thirty-third year of the reign of Henry VIII. They decreed the
+  acknowledgment of transubstantiation, the sufficiency of communion in one
+  kind, the obligation of vows of chastity, the propriety of private
+  masses, celibacy of the clergy, <!-- Page 266 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page266"></a>[266]</span>and auricular confession. Acceptance of
+  these doctrines was made obligatory on all persons under the severest
+  penalties; the Act, however, was relaxed in 1544, and repealed in
+  1549.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Articles, The Thirty-nine</b>, of the Church of England, a
+  statement of the particular points of doctrine, thirty-nine in number,
+  maintained by the English Church; first promulgated by a convocation held
+  in London in 1562-3, and confirmed by royal authority; founded on and
+  superseding an older code issued in the reign of Edward VI. The first
+  five articles contain a profession of faith in the Trinity; the
+  incarnation of Jesus Christ, His descent to hell, and His resurrection;
+  the divinity of the Holy Ghost. The three following relate to the canon
+  of the Scripture. The eighth article declares a belief in the Apostles',
+  Nicene, and Athanasian creeds. The ninth and following articles contain
+  the doctrine of original sin, of justification by faith alone, of
+  predestination, &amp;c. The nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first
+  declare the Church to be the assembly of the faithful; that it can decide
+  nothing except by the Scriptures. The twenty-second rejects the doctrine
+  of purgatory, indulgences, the adoration of images, and the invocation of
+  saints. The twenty-third decides that only those lawfully called shall
+  preach or administer the sacraments. The twenty-fourth requires the
+  liturgy to be in English. The twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth declare the
+  sacraments effectual signs of grace (though administered by evil men), by
+  which God excites and confirms our faith. They are two: baptism and the
+  Lord's supper. Baptism, according to the twenty-seventh article, is a
+  sign of regeneration, the seal of our adoption, by which faith is
+  confirmed and grace increased. In the Lord's supper, according to article
+  twenty-eight, the bread is the communion of the body of Christ, the wine
+  the communion of his blood, but only through faith (article
+  twenty-ninth); and the communion must be administered in both kinds
+  (article thirty). The twenty-eighth article condemns the doctrine of
+  transubstantiation, and the elevation and adoration of the host; the
+  thirty-first rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous; the
+  thirty-second permits the marriage of the clergy; the thirty-third
+  maintains the efficacy of excommunication. The remaining articles relate
+  to the supremacy of the king, the condemnation of Anabaptists, &amp;c.
+  They were ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. All candidates for ordination
+  must subscribe these articles, but they are not binding upon laymen,
+  except judges and certain university officials. This formulary is now
+  accepted by the Episcopalian Churches of Scotland, Ireland, and
+  America.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Articles of Association</b> are the rules framed by a company for
+  the administration of its affairs. Public companies usually have separate
+  articles of their own, but this is not essential. When a registered
+  company has no articles, its business procedure is regulated by the
+  statutory form, found in Schedule 1 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act,
+  1908, and known as Table A. When separate articles are used they must be
+  printed, signed, stamped, and filed along with the memorandum of
+  association. Unlike the memorandum, the articles may be altered at any
+  time, by special resolution, provided the alteration is within the powers
+  given by the memorandum. Thus, where preferred shares are created by the
+  memorandum, their privileges are more secure than if merely issued under
+  the articles. The articles are intended merely for internal
+  administration, and, while binding in questions between the company and
+  its members as such, they do not affect third parties, unless the company
+  has acted <i>ultra vires</i> and this was discoverable from the articles,
+  which the public can inspect at a nominal fee.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir F.&nbsp;B. Palmer, <i>Company Law</i>; A.
+  Coles, <i>Guide for the Company Secretary</i>; A.&nbsp;F. Topham,
+  <i>Principles of Company Law</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Articles of War.</b> See <i>Military Law</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Articula´ta</b>, the third great section of the animal kingdom
+  according to the arrangement of Cuvier, applied to invertebrates such as
+  insects and worms, in which the body displays a jointed structure. The
+  name is now obsolete. See <i>Arthropoda</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Articula´tion</b>, in anatomy a joint; the joining or juncture of
+  the bones. This is of three kinds: (1) <i>Diarthr&#x14D;sis</i>, or a
+  movable connection, such as the ball-and-socket joint; (2)
+  <i>Synarthr&#x14D;sis</i>, immovable connection, as by suture, or
+  junction by serrated margins; (3) <i>Symphysis</i>, or union by means of
+  another substance, by a cartilage, tendon, or ligament.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artificial Limbs.</b> Artificial limbs of a primitive kind have
+  been in use from very early times; but, as the material of which they
+  were made was perishable, few specimens have been preserved. In the
+  museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London there is a good
+  specimen of a Roman artificial leg which is believed to date back to the
+  third century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> This leg is made of wood,
+  covered with thin bronze; it has an iron sole-plate, and was fastened on
+  by means of a waist-belt.</p>
+
+  <p>In Irish legend we are told of Nuada, who led the tribe of the Dananns
+  back to Ireland, having an artificial hand made of silver; from this he
+  received the name of Argetlam or Silver-handed. In mediæval times Goetz
+  von Berlichingen, who lost his right hand at the siege of Landshut
+  (1505), had a hand made of iron to supply its place.</p>
+
+  <p>Great improvements have been made in the manufacture of artificial
+  limbs during the last <!-- Page 267 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page267"></a>[267]</span>fifty years. After the Franco-Prussian war
+  the French Government adopted an artificial arm and hand known as the
+  'Beaufort' and issued it to the soldiers who required it. This hand had a
+  movable thumb controlled by a cord passing up the arm and fastened to a
+  loop band over the opposite shoulder. An Englishman named Heather Bigg
+  invented a hand with a movable thumb which was worked by a piston and
+  controlled by a rubber ball fastened under the arm-pit. These designs
+  have been improved upon from time to time, and an artificial hand can now
+  be made which is capable of opening and closing at will, and of lifting
+  and holding light articles.</p>
+
+  <p>Artificial legs vary in design, from the simple pin leg to ingenious
+  contrivances such as the 'Anglesey' leg, which is made of seasoned willow
+  wood with steel ankles and knee-joints. This 'Anglesey' leg is the
+  standard best-quality limb in Great Britain. The German artificial-limb
+  makers use leather instead of wood. These leather legs fit comfortably,
+  but are too heavy, as they have to be supported by steel bands.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artillery</b>, all ordnance such as guns and howitzers as opposed
+  to small arms and machine-guns. The term is also used for the troops who
+  serve these arms.</p>
+
+  <p>Generally speaking, artillery is divided into field, heavy, and siege
+  artillery. For details of organization see <i>Army</i>. The earliest form
+  of artillery was a metal tube which was placed in a convenient position
+  on the ground. The charge of gunpowder was ignited by placing a match to
+  a hole bored at the closed end, and the resulting explosion forced the
+  projectile&mdash;a stone&mdash;more or less in the required direction.
+  Later on this primitive weapon was provided with wheels. In another form
+  one man fired it while a second man supported it on his shoulder. In the
+  later Middle Ages guns of various calibres were known by the names of
+  birds of prey or reptiles; among such were falcons and falconets,
+  culverins and demi-culverins. The fourteenth century saw the development
+  of artillery for siege purposes&mdash;chiefly by the Germans&mdash;and in
+  the next century it began to be employed in open warfare; while in 1537
+  the present Honourable Artillery Company was formed in London to
+  encourage the use of all 'weapons of volley'. These weapons of volley
+  were not even confined to fire-arms, but included bows and cross-bows.
+  The earliest English troops raised as artillery personel were called the
+  Regiment of Firelocks. Of late years artillery science has made almost
+  inconceivable progress, thanks to which, <i>inter alia</i>, it is no
+  longer necessary for the target to be visible from the gun-position. This
+  fact, combined with the use of smokeless powder, makes the locating of
+  hostile batteries exceedingly difficult. All field artillery, by which is
+  meant guns and howitzers, which accompany mobile troops are designed on
+  the quick-firing principle, by which the inevitable recoil at the moment
+  of firing is absorbed by an arrangement known as the recoil-carriage,
+  thus preventing any movement of the gun-carriage proper, and avoiding
+  unnecessary labour for the gun-detachments, while at the same time
+  allowing the men composing it to remain under cover of the shield with
+  which the guns are provided. With the quick-firing gun, propellent and
+  projectile are combined in one cartridge similar to that in use with
+  small arms; with the howitzer they are separated. This difference is due
+  to the fact that whereas guns are designed for a flat trajectory with a
+  deep zone of fire-effect, howitzers are intended for high-angle fire with
+  an almost vertical fall of shrapnel-bullets. This effect is produced by
+  varying the charge for different ranges. A field battery consists of 6
+  guns or howitzers and 12 ammunition-wagons. Both guns and wagons are of
+  the limbered type, i.e. in two detachable parts, and the weight behind
+  the team of an English gun is approximately 2 tons.</p>
+
+  <p>As to tactical principles, it is recognized that the function of
+  artillery is to assist the other arms, that it cannot by itself win a
+  battle, and that its true <i>métier</i> is to prepare the way for and
+  assist the infantry. During 1914-18 some 700,000 officers and men served
+  with the Royal Regiment.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artillery Company, The Honourable</b>, the oldest existing body of
+  volunteers in Great Britain, instituted in 1537, revived in 1610. It
+  comprises six companies of infantry, besides artillery, and furnishes a
+  guard of honour to the sovereign when visiting the city of London.
+  Previous to 1842 the Company elected their own officers, but since that
+  date they have been appointed by the Crown.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artillery Schools</b>, institutions established for the purpose of
+  giving a special training to the officers, and in some cases the men,
+  belonging to the artillery service. In Great Britain the artillery
+  schools are at Woolwich and Shoeburyness. The Department of Artillery
+  studies at Woolwich give artillery officers the means of continuing their
+  studies after they have completed the usual course at the Royal Military
+  College, and of qualifying for appointments requiring exceptional
+  scientific attainments. The School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness gives
+  instruction in gunnery to officers and men, and conducts all experiments
+  connected with artillery and stores. The sands at the mouth of the Thames
+  afford ample opportunity for artillery practice and firing at long
+  ranges. The Royal Artillery Institution at Woolwich contains a museum,
+  lecture-room, and printing-press, from which professional and scientific
+  papers are periodically issued. <!-- Page 268 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page268"></a>[268]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Artiodac´tyla</b> (Gr. <i>artios</i>, even numbered,
+  <i>dakt&#x45E;los</i>, a finger or toe), a section of the Ungulata or
+  hoofed mammals, comprising all those in which the number of the toes is
+  even (two or four), including the ruminants, such as the ox, sheep, deer,
+  &amp;c., and also a number of non-ruminating animals, as the hippopotamus
+  and the pig.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Act</b>, an English Act of
+  Parliament passed in 1868 to empower town councils and other local
+  authorities to demolish or improve dwellings unfit for human habitation,
+  and to build and maintain better dwellings in lieu thereof. Other Acts
+  for the same object were passed in 1875, 1879, and 1882. See
+  <i>Housing</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artocarpa´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of plants, the bread-fruit order, by
+  some botanists ranked as a sub-order of the Urticaceæ or nettles. They
+  are trees or shrubs, with a milky juice, which in some species hardens
+  into caoutchouc, and in the cow-tree (<i>Bros&#x12D;mum
+  Galactodendron</i>) is a milk as good as that obtained from the cow. Many
+  of the plants produce an edible fruit, of which the best known is the
+  bread-fruit (Artocarpus).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artois</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-twä), a former province of France,
+  anciently one of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, now almost
+  completely included in the department of Pas-de-Calais.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artois, The Battle of.</b> See <i>European War</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arts</b>, the name given to certain branches of study in the Middle
+  Ages, originally called the 'liberal arts' to distinguish them from the
+  'servile arts' or mechanical occupations. These arts were usually given
+  as grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, and
+  astronomy. Hence originated the terms 'art classes', 'degrees in arts',
+  'Master of Arts', &amp;c., still in common use in universities, the
+  faculty of arts being distinguished from those of divinity, law,
+  medicine, or science. See <i>University</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artsybashev</b>, Mikhail, Russian author, born in 1878. After a
+  number of short stories he wrote, at the age of twenty-five, a novel
+  entitled <i>Sanin</i>, published in 1907, which placed him at once among
+  the most famous contemporary Russian authors. Whatever opinion literary
+  critics may hold of this novel, his wonderful realism, simplicity of
+  style, and psychological analysis cannot be disputed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Art Unions</b>, associations for encouraging art, an object which
+  they mainly pursue by disposing of pictures, sculptures, &amp;c., by
+  lottery among subscribers. They seem to have originated in France during
+  the time of Napoleon I. They soon afterwards took root in Germany, where
+  they have been very successful. The first art union established in
+  Britain was that at Edinburgh in 1834. Art unions were legalized by the
+  Art Unions Act, 1846 See <i>Lottery</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Artvin</b>, a town in the Republic of Georgia, in the Caucasus,
+  about 35 miles inland from Batum. Pop. 6720.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aruba</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-rö´ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), an island off the north coast of
+  Venezuela, belonging to Holland (a dependency of Curaçoa), about 30 miles
+  long and 7 broad; surface generally rock, quartz being abundant, and
+  containing considerable quantities of gold; a phosphate which is exported
+  for manure is also abundant. The climate is healthy. Pop. 9481
+  (1916).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aru Islands.</b> See <i>Arru Islands</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image112.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image112.jpg"
+      alt="Arum" title="Arum" /></a>
+     Cuckoo Pint or Wake Robin (<i>Arum macul&#x101;tum</i>).
+
+    1, Spadix. 2, Stamen. 3, Female flower. 4, Fruit.
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>A´rum</b>, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Araceæ. <i>A.
+  macul&#x101;tum</i> (the common wake-robin, lords-and-ladies, or cuckoo
+  pint) is abundant in woods and hedges in England and Ireland, but is rare
+  in Scotland. It has acrid properties, but its corm yields a starch which
+  is known by the name of Portland sago or arrowroot. At one time this was
+  prepared to a considerable extent in Portland Island. All the species of
+  this genus develop much heat during flowering.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´undel</b>, a town in Sussex, England, on the River Arun, 4 miles
+  from its mouth, the river being navigable to the town for vessels of 250
+  tons. The castle of Arundel, the chief residence of the dukes of Norfolk,
+  stands on a knoll on the north-east side of the town. Pop. (1921),
+  2741.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ar´undel</b>, Thomas, third son of Richard <!-- Page 269 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page269"></a>[269]</span>FitzAlan, Earl of
+  Arundel, born 1352, died 1413. He was Chancellor of England and
+  Archbishop of Canterbury. He concerted with Bolingbroke to deliver the
+  nation from the oppression of Richard II, and was a bitter persecutor of
+  the Lollards and followers of Wycliffe.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arundelian Marbles</b>, a series of ancient sculptured marbles
+  discovered by William Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece at the
+  expense of and for Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who lived in the time
+  of James I and Charles I, and was a liberal patron of scholarship and
+  art. After the Restoration they were presented by the grandson of the
+  collector to the University of Oxford. Among them is the <i>Parian
+  Chronicle</i>, a chronological account of the principal events in
+  Grecian, and particularly in Athenian, history, during a period of 1186
+  years, from the reign of Cecrops (1450 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) to
+  the archonship of Diognetus (264 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arun´do.</b> See <i>Phragmites</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aruspices</b> (a-rus´pi-s&#x113;z), or <b>Haruspices</b>, a class
+  of priests in ancient Rome, of Etrurian origin, whose business was to
+  inspect the entrails of victims killed in sacrifice, and by them to
+  foretell future events.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aruwimi</b>, a large river of equatorial Africa, a tributary of the
+  Congo, on the north bank.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arval Brothers</b> (<i>Fratres Arv&#x101;les</i>), a college or
+  company of twelve members elected for life from the highest ranks in
+  ancient Rome, so called from offering annually public sacrifices for the
+  fertility of the fields (Lat. <i>arvum</i>, a field).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arve</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rv), a river rising in the Savoyan Alps,
+  passes through the valley of Chamonix, and falls into the Rhone near
+  Geneva, after a course of about 50 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Arvic´ola</b>, a genus of rodent animals, sub-ord. Muridæ or Mice.
+  There are three British species. <i>A. amphibia</i> is the water-vole (or
+  water-rat), and <i>A. agrestis</i> is the field-vole or short-tailed
+  field-mouse. They are prolific animals, having three or four litters in
+  the year, each consisting of from four to ten young.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´ryan</b>, or <b>Indo-European Family of Languages</b>. See
+  <i>Indo-European Family</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As</b>, a Roman weight of 12 ounces, answering to the libra or
+  pound, and equal to 237.5 grains avoirdupois, or 327.1873 grammes French
+  measure. In the most ancient times of Rome the copper or bronze coin
+  which was called <i>as</i> actually weighed an <i>as</i>, or a pound, but
+  in 264 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> it was reduced to 2 ounces, in 217
+  to 1 ounce, and in 191 to ½ ounce.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:15%;">
+      <a href="images/image113.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image113.jpg"
+      alt="As" title="As" /></a>
+    As (half real size)&mdash;Specimen in British Museum
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>A´sa</b>, great grandson of Solomon and third King of Judah; he
+  ascended the throne at an early age, and distinguished himself by his
+  zeal in rooting out idolatry with its attendant immoralities. He died
+  after a prosperous reign of forty-one years.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asafe´tida</b>, or <b>Asaf&oelig;tida</b>, a fetid inspissated sap
+  from Central Asia, the solidified juice of the <i>Narthex Asafetida</i>,
+  a large umbelliferous plant. It is used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic,
+  and in cases of flatulency, in hysteric paroxysms, and other nervous
+  affections. Notwithstanding its very disagreeable odour it is used as a
+  seasoning in the East, and sometimes in Europe. An inferior sort is the
+  product of certain species of Ferula.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asagræ´a.</b> See <i>Sabadilla</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asa´ma</b>, an active volcano of Japan, about 50 miles north-west
+  of Tokio, 8260 feet high.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´saph</b>, a Levite and psalmist appointed by David as leading
+  chorister in the divine services. His office became hereditary in his
+  family, or he founded a school of poets and musicians, which were called,
+  after him, "the sons of Asaph". See <i>Psalms</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asaph, St.</b>, a small cathedral city and bishop's see in Wales,
+  15 miles north-west of Flint; founded about 550 by St. Kentigern or St.
+  Mungo, bishop of Glasgow, and named after his disciple St. Asaph, from
+  whom both the diocese and town took their name. The cathedral was built
+  about the close of the fifteenth century; it consists of a choir, a nave,
+  two aisles, and a transept. Pop. 1833.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asarabac´ca</b>, a small hardy European plant, nat. ord.
+  Aristolochiaceæ (<i>As&#x103;rum europ&oelig;um</i>). Its leaves are
+  acrid, bitter, and nauseous, and its root is extremely acrid. Both the
+  leaves and root were formerly used as an emetic. It entered into the
+  composition of medicated snuffs recommended in cases of headache.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´arum.</b> See <i>Asarabacca</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asben</b>, <b>Air</b>, or <b>Ahir</b>, a kingdom of Africa, in the
+  Sahara. It consists of a succession of mountain groups and valleys, with
+  a generally western slope, and attains in its highest summits a height of
+  over 5000 feet. The valleys are very fertile, and often of picturesque
+  appearance. The inhabitants are Tuaregs or Berbers, with an admixture of
+  negro blood. They live partly in villages, partly as nomads. The country
+  is nominally ruled over by a sultan, who resides in the capital, Agades.
+  Pop. about 60,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asbes´tos</b>, or <b>Asbestus</b>, a remarkable and highly-useful
+  mineral, a fibrous variety of several members of the hornblende family,
+  composed of separable filaments, with a silky lustre. The fibres are
+  sometimes delicate, flexible, and elastic; at other times stiff and
+  brittle. It is incombustible, and anciently was wrought into a <!-- Page
+  270 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page270"></a>[270]</span>soft,
+  flexible cloth, which was used as a shroud for dead bodies. In modern
+  times it has been manufactured into incombustible cloth, gloves, felt,
+  paper, &amp;c.; is employed in gas-stoves; is much used as a covering to
+  steam boilers and pipes; is mixed with metallic pigments, and used as a
+  paint on wooden structures, roofs, partitions, &amp;c., to render them
+  fire-proof, and is employed in various other ways, the manufacture having
+  recently greatly developed. Some varieties are compact, and take a fine
+  polish, others are loose, like flax or silky wool. <i>Ligniform
+  asbestos</i>, or <i>mountain-wood</i>, is a variety presenting an
+  irregular filamentous structure, like wood. <i>Rock-cork</i>,
+  <i>mountain-leather</i>, <i>fossil-paper</i>, and <i>fossil-flax</i> are
+  varieties. Asbestos is found in many parts of the world, but is chiefly
+  supplied by Italy, Canada, and Australia. Mineralogically it is distinct
+  from chrysotile, which is used for similar purposes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asbjörnsen</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s´byeurn-sen), Peter Kristen, born 1812,
+  died 1885, a distinguished Norwegian naturalist and collector of the
+  popular tales and legends, fairy stories, &amp;c., of his native
+  country.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asbury Park</b>, a small town on the coast of New Jersey, United
+  States, a great summer resort. Its population increases during the summer
+  months from 10,000 to 100,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´calon</b>, or <b>Ash´kelon</b>, a ruined town of Palestine, on
+  the sea-coast, 40 miles <span class="scac">W.S.W.</span> of Jerusalem. It
+  was occupied by the Crusaders under Richard I after a great battle with
+  Saladin (1192) and by General Allenby's troops in Nov., 1917.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asca´nius</b>, the son of Æneas and Creusa, and the companion of
+  his father's wanderings from Troy to Italy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´caris.</b> See <i>Nematoda</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ascen´sion</b> (discovered on Ascension Day), an island of volcanic
+  origin belonging to Britain, near the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean,
+  about lat. 7° 55' <span class="scac">S.</span>; long. 14° 25' <span
+  class="scac">W.</span>; 700 miles north-west of St. Helena; area, about
+  34 sq. miles. Pop. 196 (1914). It is retained by Britain as a naval
+  sanatorium, coaling and victualling station, and store depot. It has a
+  steam factory, naval and victualling yards, hospitals, and a coal depot.
+  It is celebrated for its turtle, which are the finest in the world. Wild
+  goats are plentiful, and oxen, sheep, pheasants, guinea-fowl, and rabbits
+  have been introduced, and thrive well. The village of Georgetown, the
+  seat of government, stands on the west side of the island, which is
+  governed under the admiralty by a naval officer.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ascension, Right</b>, of a star or other heavenly body, in
+  astronomy, the arc of the equator intercepted between the first point of
+  Aries and that point of the equator which comes to the meridian at the
+  same instant with the star.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ascension Day</b>, the day on which the ascension of the Saviour is
+  commemorated, often called <i>Holy Thursday</i>: a movable feast, always
+  falling on the Thursday but one before Whitsuntide.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ascet´icism</b> and <b>Ascet´ics</b> (from the Gr.
+  <i>ask&#x113;sis</i>, meaning practice, bodily exercise, or athletic
+  training). The early Christians, who devoted themselves to severe
+  exercises of piety and strove to distinguish themselves from the world by
+  abstinence from sensual enjoyments and by voluntary penances, adopted the
+  name to signify the practice of spiritual things. Ascetics and asceticism
+  have played an important part in the Christian Church, but the principle
+  of striving after a higher and more spiritual life by subduing the animal
+  appetites and passions has no necessary connection with Christianity.
+  Thus there were ascetics among the Jews previous to Christ, and
+  asceticism was inculcated by the Stoics, while in its most extreme form
+  it may still be seen among the Brahmans and Buddhists. Monasticism was
+  but one phase of asceticism. It must also be borne in mind that in the
+  history of asceticism, pagan, Christian, Jewish, and Mohammedan, we are
+  often dealing not only with religious but distinctly abnormal
+  temperaments. See <i>Monasticism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asch</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>sh), a town of Czecho-Slovakia, in the
+  extreme north-western corner of former Bohemia, with manufactures of
+  cotton, woollen, and silk goods, bleachfields, dyeworks, &amp;c. Pop.
+  21,583.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aschaffenburg</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-sha<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>f´en-bör<i>h</i>), a town of Bavaria, on
+  the Main and Aschaff, 26 miles <span class="scac">E.S.E.</span> of
+  Frankfort. The chief edifice is the castle of Johannisberg, built between
+  1605 and 1614, and for centuries the summer residence of the Elector.
+  There are manufactures of coloured paper, tobacco, liqueurs, &amp;c. Pop.
+  29,891.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ascham</b> (as´kam), Roger, a learned Englishman, born in 1515 of a
+  respectable family in Yorkshire, died 1568. He was entered at St. John's
+  College, Cambridge, 1530, and was elected fellow in 1534 and tutor in
+  1537. He was Latin secretary to Edward VI and also to Mary. He was tutor
+  to Princess Elizabeth during her girlhood, and he became her secretary
+  after she ascended the throne. In 1544 he wrote his <i>Toxophilus, or
+  Schole of Shooting</i>, in praise of his favourite amusement and
+  exercise&mdash;archery. Between 1563 and 1568 he wrote his
+  <i>Scholemaster</i>, a treatise on the best method of teaching children
+  Latin. Some of his writings, including many letters, were in Latin. He
+  wrote the best English style of his time. His life was written by Dr.
+  Johnson to accompany an edition of his works published in 1769.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aschersleben</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>sh´&#x117;rz-l&#x101;-ben), a town of
+  Prussian Saxony, in the district of Magdeburg, <!-- Page 271 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page271"></a>[271]</span>near the junction of
+  the Eine with the Wipper. Industries: woollens, machinery and metal
+  goods, sugar, paper, &amp;c. Pop. 28,968.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ascid´ia</b> (Gr. <i>askos</i>, a wine-skin), the name given to the
+  'Sea-squirts' or main section of the Tunicata, a class of animals of low
+  grade, resembling a double-necked bottle, of a leathery or gristly
+  nature, found at low-water mark on the sea-beach, and dredged from deep
+  water attached to stones, shells, and fixed objects. One of the prominent
+  openings admits the food and the water required in respiration, the other
+  is the excretory aperture. A single <i>ganglion</i> represents the
+  nervous system, placed between the two apertures. Male and female
+  reproductive organs exist in each ascidian. They pass through peculiar
+  phases of development, the young ascidian appearing like a tadpole-body.
+  They may be <i>single</i> or <i>simple</i>, <i>social</i> or
+  <i>compound</i>. In <i>social ascidians</i> the peduncles of a number of
+  individuals are united into a common tubular stem, with a partial common
+  circulation of blood. In these animals evolutionists see a link between
+  the Mollusca and the Vertebrata.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:24%;">
+      <a href="images/image114.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image114.jpg"
+      alt="Ascidians" title="Ascidians" /></a>
+    Ascidians
+
+    <p class="poem">1, Perophora: <i>a</i>, mouth; <i>b</i>, vent;
+    <i>c</i>, intestinal canal; <i>d</i>, stomach; <i>e</i>, common tubular
+    stem. 2, Ascidia echinata. 3, Ascidia virginea. 4, Cynthia
+    quadrangularis. 5, Botryllus violaceus.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Asclepliada´ceæ,</b> an order of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, the
+  distinguishing characteristic of which is that the anthers adhere to the
+  five stigmatic processes, the whole sexual apparatus forming a single
+  mass. The pollination arrangements are peculiar, recalling those of
+  orchids. The members of this order are shrubs, or sometimes herbaceous
+  plants, occasionally climbing, almost always with a milky juice. Many of
+  them are employed as purgatives, diaphoretics, tonics, and febrifuges,
+  and others as articles of food. Asclepias is the typical genus. See
+  <i>Asclepias</i>, <i>Calotropis</i>, <i>Stapelia</i>,
+  <i>Stephanotis</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ascle´piades</b> (-d&#x113;z), the name of a number of ancient
+  Greek writers&mdash;poets, grammarians, &amp;c&mdash;of whom little is
+  known, and also of several ancient physicians, the most celebrated of
+  whom was <i>Asclepiades</i>, of Bithynia, who acquired considerable
+  repute at Rome about the beginning of the first century <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Ascle´pias</b>, or <b>Swallow-wort</b>, a genus of plants, the type
+  and the largest genus of the nat. ord. Asclepiadaceæ. Most of the species
+  are North American herbs, having opposite, alternate, or verticillate
+  leaves. Many of them possess powerful medicinal qualities. <i>A.
+  decumbens</i> is diaphoretic and sudorific, and has the singular property
+  of exciting general perspiration without increasing in any sensible
+  degree the heat of the body; <i>A. curassavica</i> is emetic, and its
+  roots are frequently sent to England as ipecacuanha; the roots of <i>A.
+  tuber&#x14D;sa</i> are famed for diaphoretic properties. Many other
+  species are also used as medicines, and several are cultivated for the
+  beauty of their flowers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asclepios.</b> See <i>Æsculapius</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´coli</b>, or <b>Ascoli Piceno</b> (ancient,
+  <b>Asc&#x16D;lum</b>), a province in Central Italy.&mdash;The capital of
+  the province, also called <i>Ascoli Piceno</i>, episcopal see of the
+  Marches (the ancient Asc&#x16D;lum), is situated 90 miles north-east of
+  Rome and contains, among several handsome new buildings, the remains of
+  temples, an ancient theatre, &amp;c. It has also many fine
+  pre-Renaissance buildings, such as the Gothic Church S. Francesco and the
+  Palazzo del Commune. At Castel Trosino, near Ascoli, a necropolis of the
+  seventh century was discovered in 1895. Population of the town, 28,882;
+  of the province, 261,835 (1915).</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´coli Satriano</b> (ancient, <b>Asc&#x16D;lum Ap&#x16D;lum</b>),
+  a town of S. Italy, province Foggia. Pop. 9700.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ascomyce´tes</b> (-t&#x113;z), one of the main subdivisions of the
+  Eumycetes or Higher Fungi, distinguished by their principal spores being
+  produced in organs called <i>asci</i>. Typically, an <i>ascus</i> is a
+  cylindrical or club-shaped structure containing at maturity eight
+  <i>ascospores</i>, which are usually liberated explosively and thereafter
+  dispersed by the wind. As a rule numerous asci are massed together in a
+  layer or <i>ascus-hymenium</i>, which is variously disposed on a more or
+  less massive fruit-body, according to the form and structure of which the
+  group is further subdivided into a number of sections and families, the
+  chief being Erysiphales, Plectascineæ, Pyrenomycetes, Discomycetes
+  (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asco´nius</b> (Quintus A. Pedianus), a Roman writer of the first
+  century <span class="scac">A.D.</span>, who wrote a life of Sallust, a
+  reply to the detractors of Virgil, and commentaries on Cicero's orations,
+  some of which are extant.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´cot,</b> an English race-course adjacent to the <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> extremity of the great park of Windsor. The
+  races, which take place in the second week in June, constitute, for value
+  of stakes and quality <!-- Page 272 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page272"></a>[272]</span>of horses, the best meeting of the year,
+  as it is the most fashionable.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´gard</b> (literally, gods' yard, or the abode of the gods), in
+  Scandinavian mythology the home of the gods or <i>Æsir</i>, rising, like
+  the Greek Olympus, from <i>midgard</i>, or the middle world, that is, the
+  earth. It was here that Odin and the rest of the gods, the twelve Æsir,
+  dwelt&mdash;the gods in the mansion called Gladsheim, the goddesses
+  dwelling in Vingulf. Walhalla, in which heroes slain in battle dwelt, was
+  also here. Below the boughs of the ash tree Yggdrasill the gods assembled
+  every day in council.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asgill</b> (as´gil), John, an eccentric English writer, a lawyer by
+  profession, born 1659, died 1738. In 1699 he published a pamphlet to
+  prove that Christians were not necessarily liable to death, death being
+  the penalty imposed for Adam's sin and Christ having satisfied the law.
+  Having crossed over to Ireland, he was beginning to get into a good
+  practice, and was elected to the Irish House of Commons, when his
+  pamphlet was ordered to be burned by the public hangman, and he himself
+  was expelled the House. His whole subsequent life was passed in pecuniary
+  and other troubles, mostly in the Fleet or within the rules of the King's
+  Bench.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ash</b> (<i>Frax&#x12D;nus</i>), a genus of deciduous trees
+  belonging to the nat. ord. Oleaceæ, having imperfect flowers and a
+  seed-vessel prolonged into a thin wing at the apex (called a
+  <i>samara</i>). There are a good many species, chiefly indigenous to
+  North America. The common ash (<i>F. excelsior</i>), the only species
+  indigenous to Central and Northern Europe, has a smooth bark, and grows
+  tall and rather slender. The branches are flattened; the leaves have five
+  pairs of pinnæ, terminated by an odd one, dark-green in colour;
+  lanceolate, with serrated edges. The flowers are produced in loose spikes
+  from the sides of the branches, and are succeeded by flat seeds which
+  ripen in autumn. It is one of the most useful of British trees on account
+  of the excellence of its hard tough wood and the rapidity of its growth,
+  but often suffers greatly from a canker caused by the fungus <i>Nectria
+  ditissima</i>. There are many varieties of it, as the weeping-ash, the
+  curled-leaved ash, the entire-leaved ash, &amp;c. The flowering or manna
+  ash (<i>F. Ornus</i>), by some placed in a distinct genus (Ornus), is a
+  native of the south of Europe and Palestine. It yields the substance
+  called manna, which is obtained by making incisions in the bark, when the
+  juice exudes and hardens. Among American species are the white ash (<i>F.
+  americana</i>), with lighter bark and leaves; the red or black ash (<i>F.
+  pubescens</i>), with a brown bark; the black ash (<i>F.
+  sambucifolia</i>), the blue ash, the green ash, &amp;c. They are all
+  valuable trees. The mountain-ash or rowan belongs to a different
+  order.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/image115.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image115.jpg"
+      alt="Ash" title="Ash" /></a>
+    Common Ash (<i>Frax&#x12D;nus excelsior</i>)
+
+    <p class="poem">1, Hermaphrodite flower. 2, Anthers of male flower.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ash</b>, or <b>Ashes</b>, the incombustible residue of organic
+  bodies (animal or vegetable) remaining after combustion; in common usage,
+  any incombustible residue of bodies used as fuel; as a commercial term,
+  the word generally means the ashes of vegetable substances, from which
+  are extracted the alkaline matters called potash, pearl-ash, kelp,
+  barilla, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ashan´go</b>, a region in the interior of Southern Africa between
+  lat. 1° and 2° <span class="scac">S.</span>, and between the Ogowe and
+  the Lower Congo, a mountainous country in the French territory. The
+  inhabitants belong to the Bantu stock, and among them are a dwarfish
+  people, the Obongo, said to be about 4½ feet high at most.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ashanti´</b>, a British territory in West Africa belonging to the
+  Gold Coast Colony, of which it forms a large inland portion, under a
+  chief commissioner; area about 20,000 sq. miles. It is in great part
+  hilly, well-watered, and covered with dense tropical vegetation, and rich
+  forests with excellent timber trees. The country round the towns,
+  however, is carefully cultivated. The crops are chiefly rice, maize,
+  millet, sugar-cane, <!-- Page 273 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page273"></a>[273]</span>cocoa, and yams, the last forming the
+  staple vegetable food of the natives. Rubber is also a product. The
+  domestic animals are cows, horses of small size, goats, and a species of
+  hairy sheep. The wild animals include the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo,
+  lion, hippopotamus, &amp;c. Birds are numerous, and crocodiles and other
+  reptiles abound. Gold is abundant, and mining concessions are now
+  successfully worked. The Ashantis make excellent cotton and silk cloths,
+  articles in gold and other metals, earthenware, leather, &amp;c. Ashanti
+  used to form a kingdom ruled despotically, human sacrifices being very
+  common. It is now under British administration, and attention is given to
+  education, sanitation, agriculture, means of communication, &amp;c. There
+  are Government schools at Coomassie and Sunyani and a number of
+  missionary schools. The chief town is Coomassie (or Kumassi), now reached
+  by a railway from the coast (length 168 miles); its population is 24,000.
+  The British first came in contact with the Ashantis in 1807, and
+  hostilities continued off and on till 1826, when they were driven from
+  the sea-coast. Immediately after the transfer of the Dutch settlements on
+  the Gold Coast to Britain in 1872&mdash;when the entire coast remained in
+  British hands&mdash;the Ashantis reclaimed the sovereignty of the tribes
+  round the settlement of Elmina. This brought on a war, leading to a
+  British expedition in 1874, in which Coomassie was captured. In 1896 the
+  country became a British protectorate. In 1901 a rebellion had to be put
+  down, and next year Ashanti was fully annexed. Pop. 287,814
+  (1911).&mdash;Cf. R.&nbsp;A. Freeman, <i>Travels and Life in Ashantee and
+  Jaman</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ash´bourne</b>, a town of England, in Derbyshire, 12 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> of Derby, with manufactures of cottons and lace.
+  Pop. 4039.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ash´burton</b>, a town in Devonshire, England, 16 miles <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> of Exeter, a parliamentary borough till 1868,
+  and till 1918 giving name to a parliamentary division. Pop. (1921),
+  2362.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ash´burton</b>, Alexander Baring, Lord, a British statesman and
+  financier, born 1774, died 1848. A younger son of Sir Francis Baring, he
+  was bred to commercial pursuits, which for some years kept him in the
+  United States and Canada, and in 1810 he became head of the great firm of
+  Baring Brothers &amp; Co. He sat in Parliament from 1806 to 1835, when he
+  was raised to the peerage, after being a member of Peel's Government
+  (1834-5).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ash´burton Treaty</b>, a treaty concluded at Washington, 1842, by
+  Alexander Baring, Lord Ashburton, and the President of the United States;
+  it defined the boundaries between the States and Canada, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ashby-de-la-Zouch</b> (ash´bi-del-a-zöch´), a town in
+  Leicestershire, England, on the borders of Derbyshire, with manufactures
+  of hosiery, leather, &amp;c. Pop. (1921), 4983.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ash´dod</b>, a place on the coast of Palestine, formerly one of the
+  chief cities of the Philistines, now an insignificant village.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´sher</b>, one of Jacob's sons, and founder of the tribe called
+  after him, who occupied a fertile territory in Palestine along the coast
+  between Carmel and Lebanon.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ashe´ra</b>, an ancient Semitic goddess whose symbol was the
+  phallus. In the Revised Version of the Old Testament this word is used to
+  translate what in the Authorized Version is translated "grove", as
+  connected with the idolatrous practices into which the Jews were prone to
+  fall.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ash´ford</b>, a thriving town of England, in Kent, situated near
+  the confluence of the upper branches of the River Stour, with large
+  locomotive and railway-carriage works. It gives name to a parliamentary
+  division of the county. Pop. (1921), 14,355.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ashington</b>, an urban district or town of England,
+  Northumberland, north-east of Morpeth, and about 2 miles from the sea, in
+  a district of collieries. Pop. (1921), 29,406.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ashi´ra</b>, a native race or people of Western Equatorial Africa,
+  to the south of the Ogowe River, in the French Congo Territory.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ash´land</b>, a city of the United States, in Wisconsin. Pop.
+  (1920), 11,334.&mdash;Also a city of Kentucky. Pop. (1920), 14,729.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ash´lar</b>, masonry consisting of stones squared and smoothed in
+  front and built in regular courses.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ashley, Lord.</b> See <i>Shaftesbury, First Earl of</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ashmead-Bartlett</b>, Sir Ellis, English politician, born in 1849.
+  He entered Parliament in 1880, and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from
+  1885 to 1892. He served in the Græco-Turkish and South African wars, and
+  was knighted in 1892. He died in 1902.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ash´mole</b>, Elias, English antiquary, born 1617, died 1692. He
+  became a chancery solicitor in London, but afterwards studied at Oxford,
+  taking up mathematics, physics, chemistry, and particularly astrology. He
+  published <i>Theatrum Chymicum</i> in 1652. On the Restoration he
+  received the post of Windsor Herald, and other appointments both
+  honourable and lucrative. In 1672 appeared his <i>History of the Order of
+  the Garter</i>. He presented to the University of Oxford his collection
+  of rarities, to which he afterwards added his books and MSS., thereby
+  commencing the Ashmolean Museum.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ash´taroth.</b> See <i>Astarte</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ashton-in-Makerfield</b>, a town of Lancashire, England, 4 miles
+  from Wigan, with collieries, cotton-mills, &amp;c. Pop. (1921),
+  22,489.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ashton-under-Lyne</b>, a municipal and parliamentary borough of
+  Lancashire, England, 6 miles <!-- Page 274 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page274"></a>[274]</span>east of Manchester, on the north bank of
+  the River Tame, a well-built place, with handsome streets and public
+  buildings. The chief employment is the cotton manufacture, but there are
+  also collieries and ironworks, which employ a great many persons. Pop.
+  51,080; (municipal borough) (1921), 43,333.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ashton-upon-Mersey</b>, a town or urban district of England,
+  Cheshire, on the south side of the Mersey, several miles south-west of
+  Manchester. Pop. (1921), 7780.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ashura´da</b>, a small island in the <span class="scac">S.E.</span>
+  corner of the Caspian, formed by Russia into a trading station.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ash-Wednesday</b>, the first day of Lent, so called from a custom
+  in the Western Church of sprinkling ashes that day on the heads of
+  penitents, then admitted to penance. The period at which the fast of
+  Ash-Wednesday was instituted is uncertain; but it probably dates from the
+  eighth century at least. In the Roman Catholic Church the ashes are now
+  strewn on the heads of all the clergy and people present. In the Anglican
+  Church Ash-Wednesday is regarded as an important fast day.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asia</b>, the largest of the great divisions of the earth; length,
+  from the extreme south-western point of Arabia, at the Strait of
+  Bab-el-Mandeb, to the extreme north-eastern point of Siberia&mdash;East
+  Cape, or Cape Vostochni, in Behring's Strait&mdash;6900 miles; breadth,
+  from Cape Chelyuskin, in Northern Siberia, to Cape Romania, the southern
+  extremity of the Malay Peninsula, 5300 miles; area estimated at
+  17,250,000 sq. miles, about a third of all the land of the earth's
+  surface. On three sides, <span class="scac">N.</span>, <span
+  class="scac">E.</span>, and <span class="scac">S.</span>, the ocean forms
+  its natural boundary, while in the <span class="scac">W.</span> the
+  frontier is marked mainly by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, Caspian
+  Sea, the Caucasus, the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal, and
+  the Red Sea. There is no proper separation between Asia and Europe, the
+  latter being really a great peninsula of the former. Asia, though not so
+  irregular in shape as Europe, is broken in the <span
+  class="scac">S.</span> by three great peninsulas, Arabia, Hindustan, and
+  Farther India, while the east coast presents peninsular projections and
+  islands, forming a series of sheltered seas and bays, the principal
+  peninsulas being Kamtshatka and Corea. The principal islands are those
+  forming the Malay or Asiatic Archipelago, which stretch round in a wide
+  curve on the <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of the continent. Besides the
+  larger islands&mdash;Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Mindanao, and Luzon
+  (in the Philippine group)&mdash;there are countless smaller islands
+  grouped round these. Other islands are Ceylon, in the <span
+  class="scac">S.</span> of India; the Japanese Islands and Sakhalin on the
+  <span class="scac">E.</span> of the continent; Formosa, <span
+  class="scac">S.E.</span> of China; Cyprus, <span class="scac">S.</span>
+  of Asia Minor; and New Siberia and Wrangell, in the Arctic Ocean.</p>
+
+  <p>The mountain systems of Asia are of great extent, and their
+  culminating points are the highest in the world. The greatest of all is
+  the Himálaya system, which lies mainly between long. 70° and 100° <span
+  class="scac">E.</span> and lat. 28° and 37° <span class="scac">N.</span>
+  It extends, roughly speaking, from north-west to south-east, its total
+  length being about 1500 miles, forming the northern barrier of Hindustan.
+  The loftiest summits are Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high, Godwin-Austen,
+  28,265, and Kanchinjinga, 28,156. The principal passes, which rise to the
+  height of 18,000 to 20,000 feet, are the highest in the world. A second
+  great mountain system of Central Asia, connected with the north-western
+  extremity of the Himálaya system by the elevated region of Pamir (about
+  long. 70°-75° <span class="scac">E.</span>, lat. 37°-40° <span
+  class="scac">N.</span>), is the Thian-Shan system, which runs
+  north-eastward for a distance of 1200 miles. In this direction the Altai,
+  Sayan, and other ranges continue the line of elevations to the
+  north-eastern coast. A north-western continuation of the Himálaya is the
+  Hindu Kush, and farther westward a connection may be traced between the
+  Himálaya mass and the Elburz range (18,460) feet, south of the Caspian,
+  and thence to the mountains of Kurdistan, Armenia, and Asia Minor.</p>
+
+  <p>There are vast plateaux and elevated valley regions connected with the
+  great central mountain systems, but large portions of the continent are
+  low and flat. Tibet forms the most elevated table-land in Asia, its mean
+  height being estimated at 15,000 feet. On its south is the Himálayan
+  range, while the Kuen-Lun range forms its northern barrier. Another great
+  but much lower plateau is that which comprises Afghanistan, Baluchistan,
+  and Persia, and which to the north-west joins into the plateau of Asia
+  Minor. The principal plain of Asia is that of Siberia, which extends
+  along the north of the continent and forms an immense alluvial tract
+  sloping to the Arctic Ocean. Vast swamps or peat-mosses called
+  <i>tundras</i> cover large portions of this region. South-west of
+  Siberia, and stretching eastward from the Caspian, is a low-lying tract
+  consisting to a great extent of steppes and deserts, and including in its
+  area the Sea of Aral. In the east of China there is an alluvial plain of
+  some 200,000 sq. miles in extent; in Hindustan are plains extending for
+  2000 miles along the south slope of the Himálaya; and between Arabia and
+  Persia, watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, is the plain of Mesopotamia
+  or Assyria, one of the richest in the world. Of the deserts of Asia the
+  largest is that of Gobi (long. 90°-120° <span class="scac">E.</span>,
+  lat. 40°-48° <span class="scac">N.</span>), large portions of which are
+  covered with nothing but sand or display a surface of bare rock. An
+  almost continuous desert region may also be traced from the desert of
+  North Africa through Arabia (which is largely occupied by bare <!-- Page
+  275 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page275"></a>[275]</span>deserts),
+  Persia, and Baluchistan to the Indus.</p>
+
+<h3>POLITICAL MAP OF ASIA</h3>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;">
+      <a href="images/image116.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image116.jpg"
+      alt="Asia" title="Asia" /></a>
+  </div>
+  <p>Some of the largest rivers of Asia flow northward to the Arctic
+  Ocean&mdash;the Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena. The Hoang-Ho and
+  Yang-tse, and the Amoor, are the chief of those which flow into the
+  Pacific. The Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irawadi, and Indus flow into the Indian
+  Ocean. The Persian Gulf receives the united waters of the Euphrates and
+  the Tigris. There are several systems of inland drainage, large rivers
+  falling into lakes which have no outlet.</p>
+
+  <p>The largest lake of Asia (partly also European) is the Caspian Sea,
+  which receives the Kur from the Caucasus (with its tributary the Aras
+  from Armenia), and the Sefid Rud and other streams from Persia (besides
+  the Volga from European Russia, and the Ural, which is partly European,
+  partly Asiatic). The Caspian lies in the centre of a great depression,
+  being 83 feet below the level of the Sea of Azov. East from the Caspian
+  is the Sea of Aral, which, like the Caspian, has no outlet, and is fed by
+  the Rivers Amu-Darya (Oxus) and Syr-Darya. Still farther east, to the
+  north of the Thian-Shan Mountains, and fed by the Ili and other streams,
+  is Lake Balkhash, also without an outlet and very salt. Other lakes
+  having no communication with the ocean are Lob Nor, in the desert of
+  Gobi, receiving the River Tarim, and the Dead Sea, far below the level of
+  the Mediterranean, and fed by the Jordan. The chief fresh-water lake is
+  Lake Baikal, in the south of Siberia, between long. 104° and 110° E., a
+  mountain lake from which the Yenisei draws a portion of its waters.</p>
+
+  <p>Geologically speaking, large areas of Asia are of comparatively recent
+  date, the lowlands of Siberia, for instance, being submerged during the
+  tertiary period, if not more recently. Many geologists believe that
+  subsequently to the glacial period there was a great sea in Western Asia,
+  of which the Caspian and Aral Seas are the remains. The desiccation of
+  Central Asia is still going on, as is also probably the upheaval of a
+  great part of the continent. The great mountain chains and elevated
+  plateaux are of ancient origin, however, and in them granite and other
+  crystalline rocks are largely represented. Active volcanoes are only met
+  with in the extreme east (Kamtchatka) and in the Eastern Archipelago.
+  From the remotest times Asia has been celebrated for its mineral wealth.
+  In the Altai and Ural Mountains gold, iron, lead, and platinum are found;
+  in India and other parts rubies, diamonds, and other gems are, or have
+  been, procured; salt in Central Asia; coal in China, India, Central Asia,
+  &amp;c.; petroleum in the districts about the Caspian and in Burmah;
+  bitumen in Syria; while silver, copper, sulphur, &amp;c., are found in
+  various parts.</p>
+
+  <p>Every variety of climate may be experienced in Asia, but as a whole it
+  is marked by extremes of heat and cold and by great dryness, this in
+  particular being the case with vast regions in the centre of the
+  continent and distant from the sea. The great lowland region of Siberia
+  has a short but very hot summer, and a long but intensely cold winter,
+  the rivers and their estuaries being fast bound with ice, and at a
+  certain depth the soil is hard frozen all the year round. The northern
+  part of China to the east of Central Asia has a temperate climate with a
+  warm summer, and in the extreme north a severe winter. The districts
+  lying to the south of the central region, comprising the Indian and
+  Indo-Chinese Peninsulas, Southern China, and the adjacent islands,
+  present the characteristic climate and vegetation of the southern
+  temperate and tropical regions modified by the effects of altitude. Some
+  localities in Southern Asia have the heaviest rainfall anywhere known. As
+  the equator is approached the extremes of temperature diminish till at
+  the southern extremity of the continent they are such as may be
+  experienced in any tropical country. Among climatic features are the
+  monsoons of the Indian Ocean and the eastern seas, and the cyclones or
+  typhoons, which are often very destructive.</p>
+
+  <p>The plants and animals of Northern and Western Asia generally resemble
+  those of similar latitudes in Europe (which is really a prolongation of
+  the Asiatic continent), differing more in species than in genera. The
+  principal mountain trees are the pine, larch, and birch; the willow,
+  alder, and poplar are found in lower grounds. In the central region
+  European species reach as far as the Western and Central Himálaya, but
+  are rare in the Eastern. They are here met by Chinese and Japanese forms.
+  The lower slopes of the Himálaya are clothed almost exclusively with
+  tropical forms. Higher up, between 4000 and 10,000 feet, are found all
+  the types of trees and plants that belong to the temperate zone, there
+  being extensive forests of conifers. Here is the native home of the
+  deodar cedar. The south-eastern region, including India, the Eastern
+  Peninsula, and China, with the islands, contains a vast variety of plants
+  useful to man and having here their original habitat, such as the
+  sugar-cane, rice, cotton, and indigo, pepper, cinnamon, cassia, clove,
+  nutmeg, and cardamoms, banana, coco-nut, areca, and sago palms; the mango
+  and many other fruits, with plants producing a vast number of drugs,
+  caoutchouc, and gutta-percha. The forests of India and the Malay
+  Peninsula contain oak, teak, sâl, and other timber woods, besides
+  bamboos, palms, sandal-wood, &amp;c. The palmyra palm is characteristic
+  of Southern India; while the talipot palm flourishes on the western coast
+  of Hindustan, Ceylon, and the Malay <!-- Page 276 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page276"></a>[276]</span>Peninsula. The
+  cultivated plants of India and China include wheat, barley, rice, maize,
+  millet, sugar-cane, tea, coffee, indigo, cotton, jute, opium, tobacco,
+  &amp;c. In North China and the Japanese Islands large numbers of
+  deciduous trees occur, such as oaks, maples, limes, walnuts, poplars, and
+  willows, the genera being European but the individual species Asiatic.
+  Among cultivated plants are wheat, and in favourable situations rice,
+  cotton, the vine, &amp;c. Coffee, rice, sugar, &amp;c., are extensively
+  grown in some of the islands of the Asiatic Archipelago. In Arabia and
+  the warmer valleys of Persia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan aromatic
+  shrubs are abundant. Over large parts of these regions the date palm
+  flourishes and affords a valuable article of food. Gum-producing acacias
+  are, with the date palm, the commonest trees in Arabia. African forms are
+  found extending from the Sahara along the desert region of Asia.</p>
+
+  <p>Nearly all the mammals of Europe are found in Northern Asia, with
+  numerous additions to the species. Central Asia is the native land of the
+  horse, the ass, the ox, the sheep, and the goat. Both varieties of the
+  camel, the single and the double humped, are Asiatic. To the inhabitants
+  of Tibet and the higher plateaux of the Himálaya the yak is what the
+  reindeer is to the tribes of the Siberian plain, almost their sole wealth
+  and support. The elephant, of a different species from that of Africa, is
+  a native of tropical Asia. The Asiatic lion, which inhabits Arabia and
+  Persia, and still exists in the north-west of India, is smaller than the
+  African species. Bears are found in all parts, the white bear in the far
+  north, and other species in the more temperate and tropical parts. The
+  tiger is the most characteristic of the larger Asiatic Carnivora. It is
+  found in Armenia and throughout the entire continent, being absent,
+  however, from the greater portion of Siberia and from the high table-land
+  of Tibet; it is found also in Sumatra, Java, and Bali. In South-Eastern
+  Asia and the islands we find the rhinoceros, buffalo, ox, deer,
+  squirrels, porcupines, &amp;c. In birds nearly every order is
+  represented. Among the most interesting forms are the hornbills, the
+  peacock, the Impey pheasant, the tragopan or horned pheasant, and other
+  gallinaceous birds, the pheasant family being very characteristic of
+  South-Eastern Asia. It was from Asia that the common domestic fowl was
+  introduced into Europe. The tropical parts of Asia abound in monkeys, of
+  which the species are numerous. Some are tailed, others, such as the
+  orang, are tailless, but none have prehensile tails like the American
+  monkeys. In the Malay Archipelago marsupial animals, so characteristic of
+  Australia, first occur in the Moluccas and Celebes, while various mammals
+  common in the western part of the Archipelago are absent. A similar
+  transition towards the Australian type takes place in the species of
+  birds. (See <i>Wallace's Line</i>.) Of marine mammals the dugong is
+  peculiar to the Indian Ocean; in the Ganges is found a peculiar species
+  of dolphin. At the head of the reptiles stands the Gangetic crocodile,
+  frequenting the Ganges and other large rivers. Among the serpents are the
+  cobra de capello, one of the most deadly snakes in existence; there are
+  also large boas and pythons, besides sea and fresh-water snakes. The seas
+  and rivers produce a great variety of fish. The Salmonidæ are found in
+  the rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean. Two rather remarkable fishes
+  are the climbing perch and the archer-fish. The well-known goldfish is a
+  native of China.</p>
+
+  <p>Asia is mainly peopled by races belonging to two great ethnographic
+  types, the Caucasic or fair type, and the Mongolic or yellow. To the
+  former belong the Aryan, or Indo-European, and the Semitic races, both of
+  which mainly inhabit the south-west of the continent; to the latter
+  belong the Malays and Indo-Chinese in the <span class="scac">S.E.</span>,
+  as well as the Mongolians proper (Chinese, &amp;c.), occupying nearly all
+  the rest of the continent. To these may be added certain races of
+  doubtful affinities, as the Dravidians of Southern India, the Cingalese
+  of Ceylon, the Ainos of Yesso, and some negro-like tribes called
+  Negritos, which inhabit Malacca and the interior of several of the
+  islands of the Eastern Archipelago. The total population is estimated at
+  823,000,000, or more than half that of the whole world, of which
+  330,000,000 inhabit Chinese territory, 302,000,000 British, and
+  25,000,000 Russian. Portions of Asia are under the control of European
+  Powers (Russia, Great Britain, Holland, France), of the United States of
+  America, China, and Japan. The chief States are China, Japan, Corea,
+  Siam, Afghanistan, Persia, and Arabia. The chief religions are the
+  Brahmanism of India, the Buddhism of Burmah, China, &amp;c., the creeds
+  of Confucius and Lao-tse in China, and the various forms of Mahommedanism
+  in Arabia, Persia, India, &amp;c. More than a half of the whole
+  population profess some form of Buddhism. Several native Christian sects
+  are found in India, Armenia, Kurdistan, and Syria.</p>
+
+  <p>Asia is generally regarded as the cradle of the human race. It
+  possesses the oldest historical documents, and, next to the immediately
+  contiguous kingdom of Egypt, the oldest historical monuments in the
+  world. The Old Testament contains the oldest historical records which we
+  have of any nation in the form of distinct narrative. The period at which
+  Moses wrote was probably 1500 or 1600 years before the Christian era. His
+  and the later Jewish writings confine themselves almost exclusively to
+  the history of the Hebrews; but in Babylonia, as in Egypt, <!-- Page 277
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page277"></a>[277]</span>civilization
+  had made great advances long before this time. The earliest seat of the
+  Aryan race some assign to the banks of the Oxus. Hence, perhaps from the
+  pressure of the Mongolian tribes to the north, they spread themselves to
+  the south-east and south-west, finally occupying Northern India, Persia,
+  and other parts of Western Asia, and spreading into Europe, perhaps about
+  2000-1500 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> In China authentic history
+  extends back probably to about 1000 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, with
+  a long preceding period of which the names of dynasties are preserved
+  without chronological arrangement. The kingdoms of Assyria, Babylonia,
+  Media, and Persia predominated by turns in South-Western Asia. In regard
+  to the history of these monarchies, much light has been obtained from the
+  decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions. The arms of the Pharaohs
+  extended into Asia, but their conquests there were short-lived. From
+  Cyrus (559 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), who extended the empire of
+  Persia from the Indus to the Mediterranean, while his son, Cambyses,
+  added Egypt and Libya to it, to the conquest of Alexander (330 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>) Persia was the dominant Power in Western Asia.
+  Alexander's great empire became broken up into separate kingdoms, which
+  were finally absorbed in the Roman Empire, and this ultimately extended
+  to the Tigris. Soon after the most civilized portions of the three
+  continents had been reduced under one empire, the great event took place
+  which forms the dividing-line of history, the birth of Christ and the
+  spread of Christianity. In <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 226 a
+  protracted struggle began between the newer Persian Empire and the
+  Romans, which lasted till the advent of Mahomet, and the conquests of the
+  Arabians. Persia was the first great conquest of Mahomet's followers.
+  Syria and Egypt soon fell before their arms, and within forty years of
+  the celebrated flight of Mahomet from Mecca (the <i>Hejra</i>), the sixth
+  of the caliphs, or successors of the Prophet, was the most powerful
+  sovereign of Asia. The Mongols next became the dominant race. In 999
+  Mahmud, whose father, born a Turkish slave, became Governor of Ghazni,
+  conquered India, and established his rule. The dynasty of the Seljuk
+  Tartars was established in Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium, and Kharism, and
+  was distinguished for its struggles with the Crusaders. Othman, an emir
+  of the Seljuk sultan of Iconium, established the Ottoman Empire in 1300.
+  About 1220 Genghis Khan, an independent Mongol chief, made himself master
+  of Central Asia, conquered Northern China, overran Turkestan,
+  Afghanistan, and Persia; his successors took Bagdad and abolished the
+  caliphate. In Asia Minor they overthrew the Seljuk dynasty. One of them,
+  Timur or Tamerlane, carried fire and sword over Northern India and
+  Western Asia, defeated and took prisoner Bajazet, the descendant of
+  Othman (1402), and received tribute from the Greek emperor. The Ottoman
+  Empire soon recovered from the blow inflicted by Timur, and
+  Constantinople was taken and the Eastern Empire finally overthrown by the
+  Sultan Mohammed II in 1453. China recovered its independence about 1368
+  and was again subjected by the Manchu Tartars (1618-45), soon after which
+  it began to extend its empire over Central Asia. Siberia was conquered by
+  the Cossacks on behalf of Russia (1580-4). The same country effected a
+  settlement in the Caucasus about 1786, and has since continued to make
+  steady advances into Central Asia. The discovery by the Portuguese of the
+  passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope led to their establishment on
+  the coast of the peninsula (1498). They were speedily followed by the
+  Spanish, Dutch, French, and British. The struggle between the two last
+  Powers for the supremacy of India was completed by the destruction of the
+  French settlements (1760-5). At present the forms of government in Asia
+  range from the primitive rule of the nomad sheik to the constitutional
+  monarchy of Japan.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography:</span> Sven
+  Hedin, <i>Through Asia</i>; H.&nbsp;F. Blanford, <i>Elementary Geography of
+  India, Burma, and Ceylon</i>; Max. Müller, <i>The Sacred Books of the
+  East</i>; A. Little, <i>The Far East</i>; R. Cobbold, <i>Innermost
+  Asia</i>; Colonel A. Durand, <i>The Making of a Frontier</i>; J.&nbsp;G.&nbsp;C.
+  Chamberlain, <i>Continents and their Peoples</i>; E. Huntington, <i>The
+  Pulse of Asia</i>; E.&nbsp;C. Hannah, <i>Eastern Asia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asia, Central,</b> a designation loosely given to the regions in
+  the centre of Asia east of the Caspian, also called Turkestan, and
+  formerly Tartary. The eastern portion belongs to China, the western to
+  Russia. Russian Central Asia comprises the Kirghiz Steppe (Uralsk,
+  Turgai, Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, &amp;c.), and what was the
+  government-general of Turkestan till 1918, besides the territory of the
+  Turkomans, or Transcaspia and Merv. See <i>Turkestan, Republic
+  of</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asia Minor</b>, the most westerly portion of Asia, being the
+  peninsula lying west of the Upper Euphrates, and forming part of Asiatic
+  Turkey. It forms an extensive plateau, with lofty mountains rising above
+  it, the most extensive ranges being the Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which
+  border it on the south and south-east, and rise to over 10,000 feet.
+  There are numerous salt- and freshwater lakes. The chief rivers are the
+  Kizil-Irmak (Halys), Sakaria (Sangarius), entering the Black Sea; and the
+  Sarabat (Hermus) and Menderes (Mæander), entering the Ægean. The coast
+  regions are generally fertile, and have a genial climate; the interior is
+  largely arid and dreary. Valuable forests and fruit-trees abound. Smyrna
+  is the chief town. <i>Anatolia</i> is an equivalent name. See <i>European
+  War</i>; <i>Turkey</i>. <!-- Page 278 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page278"></a>[278]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Asiago</b>, a town in Italy in the province of Vicenza, capital of
+  the Seven Communes (Sette Communi). In the great European War several
+  battles were fought on the Asiago Plateau. The town was evacuated by the
+  Italians on 28th May, 1916, but retaken on 25th June, 1916. See
+  <i>European War</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asiatic Societies</b>, learned bodies instituted for the purpose of
+  collecting information respecting the different countries of Asia, such
+  as the Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded in 1784 by Sir William Jones;
+  and the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, established
+  by Colebrooke, and opened in 1823. There are similar societies on the
+  European Continent and in America, such as the Société Asiatique at
+  Paris, founded in 1822; the Oriental Society of Germany (Deutsche
+  Morgenländische Gesellschaft), founded in 1845; and the Oriental Society
+  at Boston, founded in 1842.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asiphona´ta</b>, or <b>Asiphon´ida</b>, an order of
+  lamellibranchiate, bivalve molluscs, destitute of the siphon or tube
+  through which, in the Siphonata, the water that enters the gills is
+  passed outwards. It includes the oysters, the scallop-shells, the
+  pearl-oyster, the mussels, and in general the most useful and valuable
+  molluscs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asir.</b> See <i>Hejaz</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Askabad´</b>, the administrative centre of the Russian province of
+  Transcaspia, situated in the Akhal Tekke oasis, and occupied by Skobelev
+  in Jan., 1881, after the sack of Geok Tepé. Its distance from Merv is 232
+  miles, from Herat 388 miles. Pop. 54,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´kew</b>, Anne, a victim of religious persecution, born 1521,
+  martyred 1546. She was a daughter of Sir William Askew of Lincolnshire,
+  and was married to a wealthy neighbour named Kyme, who, irritated by her
+  Protestantism, drove her from his house. In London, whither she went
+  probably to procure a divorce, she spoke against the dogmas of the old
+  faith, and, being tried, was condemned to death as a heretic. Being put
+  to the rack to extort a confession concerning those with whom she
+  corresponded, she continued firm, and was then taken to Smithfield,
+  chained to a stake, and burned.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Askja</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>sk´ya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a volcano near the centre of Iceland,
+  first brought into notice by an eruption in 1875. Its crater is 17 miles
+  in circumference, surrounded by a mountain-ring from 500 to 1000 feet
+  high, the height of the mountain itself being between 4000 and 5000
+  feet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´mannshausen</b> (-hou-zn), a Prussian village on the Rhine, in
+  the district of Wiesbaden, celebrated for its wine. Many judges prefer
+  the red wine of Asmannshausen to the best Burgundy, but it retains its
+  merits for three or four years only.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asmo´dai</b>, or <b>Asmo´deus</b>, an evil spirit, who, as related
+  in the book of Tobit, slew seven husbands of Sara, daughter of Raguel,
+  but was driven away into the uttermost parts of Egypt by the young Tobias
+  under the direction of the angel Raphael. Asmodai signifies a desolater,
+  a destroying angel, identical with the demon A&#x113;shma of the
+  Zend-Avesta. He is represented in the Talmud as the prince of demons who
+  drove King Solomon from his kingdom.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asmonæ´ans</b>, a family of high priests and princes who ruled over
+  the Jews for about 130 years, from 153 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>,
+  when Jonathan, son of Mattathias, the great-grandson of Chasmon or
+  Asmonæus, was nominated to the high-priesthood.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asnières</b> (än-y&#x101;r), a town on the Seine, a <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> suburb of Paris, a favourite boating resort of
+  the Parisians. Pop. 42,583.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aso´ka</b>, an Indian sovereign who reigned from 264 to 228 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> over the whole of Northern India, grandson of
+  Chandragupta or Sandracottus. He embraced Buddhism, and forced his
+  subjects also to become converts. Many temples and <i>stupas</i>, or
+  brick cupolas, still remaining are attributed to him.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aso´ka</b> (<i>Jonesia as&#x14D;ca</i>), an Indian tree, nat. ord.
+  Leguminosæ, having a lovely flower, showing orange, scarlet, and
+  bright-yellow tints; sacred to the god Siva, and often mentioned in
+  Indian literature.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aso´pus</b>, the name of several rivers in Greece, of which the
+  most celebrated is in B&oelig;otia.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:29%;">
+      <a href="images/image117.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image117.jpg"
+      alt="Asp" title="Asp" /></a>
+    Asp (<i>Naja haje</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Asp</b>, or <b>Aspic</b> (<i>Naja</i>, or <i>Vip&#x115;ra
+  haje</i>), a species of viper found in Egypt, resembling the cobra de
+  capello or spectacle-serpent of the East Indies, and having a very
+  venomous bite. When <!-- Page 279 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page279"></a>[279]</span>approached or disturbed it elevates its
+  head and body, swells out its neck, and appears to stand erect to attack
+  the aggressor. Hence the ancient Egyptians believed that the asps were
+  guardians of the spots they inhabited, and the figure of this reptile was
+  adopted as an emblem of the protecting genius of the world. The balancing
+  motions made by it in the endeavour to maintain the erect attitude have
+  led to the employment of the asp as a dancing serpent by the African
+  jugglers. The "deaf adder that stoppeth her ear" of <i>Psalm</i> lviii,
+  4, 5 is translated asp in the margin, and seems to have been this
+  species. Cleopatra is said to have committed suicide by means of an asp's
+  bite, but the incident is generally associated with the Cerastes or
+  horned viper, not with the haje. The name asp is also given to a viper
+  (<i>Vipera aspis</i>) common on the continent of Europe.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asparagine</b>, or <b>Aminosuccinamic Acid</b>,
+  CH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub>, CH(NH<sub>2</sub>)COOH, is a white
+  crystalline substance of unpleasant acid taste found in the shoots of
+  asparagus, in potato and dahlia tribes, and in many other plants, from
+  which it may be extracted by means of water.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aspar´agus</b> (<i>Aspar&#x103;gus officin&#x101;lis</i>), a plant
+  of the order Liliaceæ, the young shoots of which, cut as they are
+  emerging from the ground, are a favourite culinary vegetable. In Greece,
+  and especially in the southern steppes of Russia and Poland, it is found
+  in profusion; and its edible qualities were esteemed by the ancients.
+  Pliny states that asparagus was in his time cultivated in gardens,
+  particularly at Ravenna. The best asparagus is grown in gardens near the
+  sea, and hundreds of acres are devoted to its cultivation in Holland and
+  Belgium. It grows wild in Essex and Lincolnshire, but does not attain
+  nearly to the size of the cultivated plant. It is usually raised from
+  seed; and the plants should remain three years in the ground before they
+  are cut; after which, for several years, they will continue to afford a
+  regular annual supply. The beds are protected by straw or litter in
+  winter. Its diuretic properties are ascribed to the presence of a
+  crystalline substance found also in the potato, lettuce, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aspa´sia</b>, a celebrated woman of ancient Greece, was born at
+  Miletus, in Ionia, but passed a great part of her life at Athens, where
+  her house was the general resort of the most distinguished men in Greece.
+  She won the affection of Pericles, who united himself to Aspasia as
+  closely as was permitted by the Athenian law, which declared marriage
+  with a foreign woman illegal. Her power in the State has often been
+  exaggerated, but it is beyond question that her genius left its mark upon
+  the administration of Pericles. In 432-431 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>
+  she was accused of impiety, and was only saved from condemnation by the
+  eloquence and tears of Pericles. After his death (429 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>) Aspasia is said to have attached herself to a
+  wealthy but obscure cattle-dealer of the name of Lysicles, whom she
+  raised to a position of influence in Athens. Nothing more is known of her
+  life. She had a son by Pericles, who was legitimated (430 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>) by a special decree of the people. There is a
+  bust bearing her name in the Pio Clementino Museum in the Vatican.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aspatria</b>, a town (urban district) of England, Cumberland, 8
+  miles north-east of Maryport, with an agricultural college. Pop.
+  3340.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´pe</b>, a town of Southern Spain, province of Alicante. Pop.
+  (1921), 3525.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´pect</b>, in astrology, denotes the situation of the planets
+  with respect to each other. There are five different major aspects: the
+  sextile, when the planets are 60° distant; quartile, when they are 90°
+  distant; trine, when 120° distant; opposition, when 180° distant; and
+  conjunction, when both are in the same longitude. The aspects were
+  classed by astrologers as <i>benign</i>, <i>malignant</i>, or
+  <i>indifferent</i>, according to their fancied influences upon human
+  affairs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aspect of Land.</b> See <i>Exposure</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´pen</b>, or trembling poplar (<i>P&#x14D;p&#x16D;lus
+  trem&#x16D;la</i>), a species of poplar indigenous to Britain and to most
+  mountainous regions throughout Europe and Asia. It is a beautiful tree of
+  rapid growth and extremely hardy, with nearly circular toothed leaves,
+  smooth on both sides, and attached to footstalks so long and slender as
+  to be shaken by the slightest wind; wood light, porous, soft, and of a
+  white colour, useful for various purposes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asper</b>, or <b>Aspre</b>, a small Turkish coin, of which there
+  are 120 in the piastre, value <sup>1</sup>/<sub>54</sub><i>d</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aspergill´us</b>, the brush used in Roman Catholic churches for
+  sprinkling holy water on the people. It is said to have been originally
+  made of hyssop.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´pern</b> and <b>Esslingen</b> (or <b>Essling</b>) (es´ling-en),
+  two villages east of Vienna, and on the opposite bank of the Danube;
+  celebrated as the chief contested positions in the bloody but indecisive
+  battle fought between the Archduke Charles and Napoleon I, 21st and 22nd
+  May, 1809, when it was estimated that the Austrians lost a third of their
+  army, and the French no less than half.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asper´ula</b>, the woodruff genus of plants.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asphalt</b>, or <b>Asphal´tum</b>, the most common variety of
+  bitumen; also called mineral pitch. Asphalt is a compact, glossy,
+  brittle, black or brown mineral, which breaks with a polished fracture,
+  melts easily with a strong pitchy odour when heated, and when pure burns
+  without leaving any ashes. It is found in the earth in many parts of
+  Asia, Europe, and America, and in a soft or liquid state on the surface
+  of the <!-- Page 280 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page280"></a>[280]</span>Dead Sea, which, from this circumstance,
+  was called <i>Asphalt&#x12B;tes</i>. It is of organic origin, the asphalt
+  of the great Pitch Lake of Trinidad being derived from bituminous shales,
+  containing vegetable remains in the process of transformation. Asphalt is
+  produced artificially in making coal-gas. During the process much tarry
+  matter is evolved and collected in retorts. If this be distilled, naphtha
+  and other volatile matters escape, and asphalt is left behind. It is
+  sometimes called <i>Jew's Pitch</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asphalte</b> (or <b>Asphalt</b>) <b>Rock</b>, a limestone
+  impregnated with bitumen, found in large quantities in various localities
+  in Europe, as in the Val de Travers, Neufchâtel, Switzerland; in the
+  department of Ain in France; in Alsace, Hanover, Holstein, Sicily,
+  &amp;c. These rocks contain a variable quantity of bitumen (from 7 or 8
+  to 20 or 30 per cent) naturally diffused through them. The Val de Travers
+  asphalt was discovered in 1710. In 1837 an English patent was taken out
+  for its application to roads, pavements, terraces, areas, roofs, &amp;c.
+  Since then other asphalte-rocks, as well as artificial preparations made
+  by mixing bitumen, gas-tar, pitch, or other materials with sand, chalk,
+  &amp;c., have been brought into competition with it.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´phodel</b> (<i>Asphod&#x115;lus</i>), a genus of plants, ord.
+  Liliaceæ, consisting of perennials, with fasciculated fleshy roots,
+  flowers arranged in racemes, six stamens inserted at the base of the
+  perianth, a sessile almost spherical ovary with two cells, each
+  containing two ovules; fruit a capsule with three cells, in each of which
+  there are, as a rule, two seeds. Two species are cultivated in Britain as
+  garden flowers, the yellow asphodel (<i>Asphodelus lut&#x115;us</i>) and
+  the white asphodel (<i>Asphodelus albus</i>). The English word 'daffodil'
+  is a perversion of asphodel. The <i>Asphodelus ram&#x14D;sus</i>, which
+  attains a height of 5 feet, is cultivated in Algeria and elsewhere, its
+  tubercles yielding a very pure alcohol, and the residue, together with
+  the stalks and leaves, being used in making pasteboard and paper. The
+  asphodel was a favourite plant among the ancients, who were in the habit
+  of planting it round their tombs. In Greek religion it is associated with
+  Persephone, the dead, and the underworld.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asphyx´ia</b>, literally, the state of a living animal in which no
+  pulsation can be perceived, but the term is more particularly applied to
+  a suspension of the vital functions from causes hindering respiration.
+  The normal accompaniments of death from asphyxia are dark fluid blood, a
+  congested brain and exceedingly congested lungs, the general engorgement
+  of the viscera, and an absence of blood from the left cavities of the
+  heart while the right cavities and pulmonary artery are gorged. The
+  restoration of asphyxiated persons has been successfully accomplished at
+  long periods after apparent death. The attempt should be made to maintain
+  the heat of the body and to secure the inflation of the lungs as in the
+  case of the apparently drowned. See <i>Respiratory System</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asphyxiating Gas.</b> See <i>Poison Gas</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aspic</b>, a dish consisting of a clear savoury meat jelly,
+  containing fowl, game, fish, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aspidistra</b>, a genus of plants of the lily family, comprising
+  three or four species, natives of China and Japan, being plants with
+  large smooth oblong lanceolate leaves, rising from an underground
+  rhizome, and with campanulate flowers of a dull purplish or brownish
+  colour. They are now very common in Britain, being especially cultivated
+  as indoor plants.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aspid´ium</b>, a genus of ferns, nat. ord. Polypodiaceæ, comprising
+  the shield-fern and male-fern.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´pinwall.</b> See <i>Colon</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´pirate</b>, a name given to any sound like our <i>h</i>, to the
+  letter <i>h</i> itself, or to any mark of aspiration, as the Greek rough
+  breathing (<span title="h" class="grk">&#x1FFE;</span>). Such characters
+  or sounds as the Sanskrit <i>kh</i>, <i>gh</i>, <i>bh</i>, and the Greek
+  <i>ch</i>, <i>th</i>, <i>ph</i>, are called <i>aspirates</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´pirator</b>, an instrument used to promote the flow of a gas
+  from one vessel into another by means of a liquid. The simplest form of
+  aspirator is a cylindrical vessel containing water, with a pipe at the
+  upper end which communicates with the vessel containing the gas, and a
+  pipe at the lower end also, with a stopcock and with its extremity bent
+  up. By allowing a portion of the water to run off by the pipe at the
+  lower part of the aspirator a measured quantity of air or other gas is
+  sucked into the upper part.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asple´nium</b>, a genus of ferns, of the nat. ord. Polypodiaceæ.
+  Nine species are found in Britain, among them the well-known
+  Wall-rue.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aspromon´te</b>, a mountain of Italy in the south-west of Calabria,
+  where Garibaldi was wounded and taken prisoner with the greater part of
+  his army, in Aug., 1862.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aspropot´amo.</b> See <i>Achelous</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aspull</b>, a town (urban district) of England, Lancashire, 2 or 3
+  miles north-east of Wigan, with large collieries and other works. Pop.
+  7851.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asquith</b>, Herbert Henry, prominent politician of the Liberal
+  party, born in 1852, educated at City of London School and Balliol
+  College, Oxford, where he graduated with high distinction. Called to the
+  Bar in 1876, he became Q.C. in 1890; in 1886 was elected member of
+  Parliament for East Fife, and held his seat for this constituency
+  uninterruptedly until Dec., 1918, when he was defeated. From 1892 to 1895
+  he was Home Secretary, being also made a Privy Councillor in the former
+  year. Both in regard to the South African War and various other
+  questions, when out of office, he spoke more <!-- Page 281 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page281"></a>[281]</span>in harmony with the
+  views of Lord Rosebery than with those of Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman, but
+  under the latter he accepted the post of Chancellor of the Exchequer in
+  the ministry formed in Dec., 1905. On the retirement of Sir Henry in 1908
+  he succeeded him as Prime Minister. He at once hastened to draw up the
+  Liberal reform programme, the list of measures including the Lloyd George
+  Budget (1909), the Parliament Act (1911), the Insurance Act, and the
+  Irish Home Rule Bill. In May, 1915, a cabinet crisis having resulted from
+  disagreements, Asquith formed a Coalition Government, eight Unionists
+  being admitted. Towards the end of 1916 there was a feeling in the
+  country not only that the Coalition cabinet of twenty-three ministers was
+  unwieldy, but that Mr. Asquith's Government was not sufficiently
+  energetic and showed too much hesitation in dealing with the vital
+  problems of the war. Mr. Asquith therefore resigned on 5th Dec., 1916,
+  and Mr. Lloyd George formed a new ministry. Unseated in the General
+  Election of 1918, Mr. Asquith accepted the invitation to stand for
+  Paisley in 1920. He was returned by a majority of 2834.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´rael</b>, the Mahommedan angel of death, who takes the soul from
+  the body.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ass</b> (<i>Equus as&#x12D;nus</i>), a species of the horse genus,
+  supposed by Darwin to have sprung from the wild variety (<i>Asinus
+  t&oelig;ni&#x14F;pus</i>) found in Abyssinia; by some writers to be a
+  descendant of the <i>on&#x103;ger</i> or wild ass, inhabiting the
+  mountainous deserts of Tartary, &amp;c.; and by others to have descended
+  from the kiang or djiggetai (<i>A. hemi&#x14F;nus</i>) of South-Western
+  Asia. The ass was used in Egypt long before the horse, and it played an
+  important part in Homeric Greece. According to Aristotle, however, it was
+  unknown in his time in Pontus, Scythia, and in the land of the Celts. The
+  ass seems to have been introduced into England in the days of Ethelred,
+  but did not become common before the end of the seventeenth century. Both
+  in colour and size the ass is exceedingly variable, ranging from dark
+  grey and reddish brown to white, and from the size of a Newfoundland dog
+  in North India to that of a good-sized horse. In the south-western
+  countries of Asia and in Egypt, in some districts of Southern Europe, as
+  in Spain, and in Kentucky and Peru, great attention has been paid to
+  selection and interbreeding, with a result no less remarkable than in the
+  case of the horse. Thus in Syria there appear to be four distinct breeds:
+  a light and graceful animal used by ladies, an Arab breed reserved for
+  the saddle, an ass of heavier build in use for ploughing and draft
+  purposes, and the large Damascus breed. The efforts made to raise the
+  deteriorated British breed have only been partially successful. The male
+  ass is mature at two years of age, the female still earlier. The she-ass
+  carries her young eleven months. The teeth of the young ass follow the
+  same order of appearance and renewal as those of the horse. The life of
+  the ass does not usually exceed thirty years. It is in general much
+  healthier than the horse, and is maintained in this condition by a
+  smaller quantity and coarser quality of food; it is superior to the horse
+  in its ability to carry heavy burdens over the most precipitous roads,
+  and is in no respect its inferior in intelligence, despite the reputation
+  for stupidity which it has borne from very ancient times. The skin is
+  used as parchment to cover drums, &amp;c., and in the East is made into
+  shagreen. The hybrid offspring of the horse and the female ass is the
+  hinny, that of the ass and the mare is the mule; but the latter is by far
+  the larger and more useful animal. Asses' milk, long celebrated for its
+  sanative qualities, more closely resembles that of a woman than any
+  other. It is very similar in taste, and throws up an equally fluid cream,
+  which is not convertible into butter.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assa.</b> See <i>Piave, Battles of the</i>; <i>European
+  War</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assab´</b>, a bay of Africa on the south-west coast of the Red Sea,
+  belonging to the Italian territory of Eritrea, which has been acquired
+  since Italy established here a colony and free port in 1881.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assaf&oelig;tida.</b> See <i>Asafetida</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assai-palm</b> (as-&#x12B;; <i>Euterpe olerac&#x115;a</i>), a
+  native of tropical S. America, only about 4 inches in diameter and 60 or
+  80 feet high, with a crown of leaves, beneath which a small fruit grows
+  on branched horizontal spadices. The pulp of the fruit mixed with water
+  is used as a beverage.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assal´</b>, a salt lake in North-Eastern Africa, in Adal.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assam´</b>, one of the fifteen provinces of British India,
+  separated from Eastern Bengal and reconstituted in 1912; area, 53,015 sq.
+  miles. It forms a series of fertile valleys watered by the Brahmaputra
+  and its tributaries, the valley of the Brahmaputra, which is the main
+  one, consisting of rich alluvial plains, either but little elevated above
+  the river, or so low that large extents of them are flooded for three or
+  four days once or twice in the year, while the course of the river often
+  changes. The climate is marked by great humidity, and malarious diseases
+  are common in the low grounds; otherwise it is not unhealthy. The whole
+  province, except the cultivated area, may be designated as forest, the
+  trees including teak, sâl, sissoo, the date and sago palm, the areca palm
+  (the betel-nut tree), the Indian fig tree, &amp;c. The article of most
+  commercial importance is tea, which was first exported in 1838, and the
+  yield of which is now over 100,000,000 pounds annually. Other crops
+  raised are rice, Indian corn, pulse, oil-seeds, <!-- Page 282 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page282"></a>[282]</span>sugar-cane, hemp, jute,
+  potatoes, &amp;c. In the jungles and forests roam herds of elephants, the
+  rhinoceros, tiger, buffalo, leopard, bear, wild hog, jackal, fox, goat,
+  and various kinds of deer. Among serpents are the python and the cobra.
+  Pheasants, partridges, snipe, wild peacock, and many kinds of water-fowl
+  abound. Coal, petroleum, and limestone are found in abundance; iron is
+  smelted to a small extent; gold-dust is met with; lime is exported to
+  Bengal. There is no single Assamese nationality, and the Assamese
+  language is merely a modern dialect of Bengali. Pop. 6,713,635, 3,637,828
+  of whom are Hindus, 1,886,528 Mahommedans, 66,430 Christians, 10,506
+  Buddhists, the rest being chiefly hill tribes of aboriginal faiths. The
+  labourers in the tea-gardens are mostly drawn from Bengal. In 1826 Assam
+  became a possession of Britain, being taken from the Burmese, who had
+  made themselves masters of it about the end of the eighteenth century.
+  The largest town is Sylhet (pop. 14,000).&mdash;Cf. E.&nbsp;A. Gait,
+  <i>History of Assam</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´sapan</b> (<i>Sciuropt&#x115;rus volucella</i>), the
+  flying-squirrel of N. America, a little animal with folds of skin along
+  its sides which enable it to take leaps of 40 or 50 yards.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assass´ins</b> (from <i>hashsh&#x101;sh&#x12B;n</i>, drinkers of
+  <i>hashish</i>), an Asiatic order or society having the practice of
+  assassination as its most distinctive feature, founded by Hassan Ben
+  Sabbah, the Himyarite, a <i>dai</i> or missionary of the heterodox
+  Mahommedan sect the Ismailites. The society grew rapidly in numbers, and
+  in 1090 the Persian fortress of Alamut fell into their hands. Other
+  territories were added, and the order became a recognized military power.
+  Its organization comprised seven ranks, at its head being the
+  Sheikh-al-Jebala or 'Old man of the mountains'. Upon a select band fell
+  the work of assassination, to which they were stimulated by the
+  intoxicating influence of <i>hashish</i>. For nearly two centuries they
+  maintained their power under nine sheikhs. Hassan, after a long and
+  prosperous reign, died in 1124. Most of his successors died violent
+  deaths at the hands of relatives or dependents. After proving themselves
+  strong enough to withstand the powerful sultans Noureddin and Saladin,
+  and making themselves feared by the Crusaders, the <i>Assassins</i> were
+  overcome by the Tartar leader Hulaku. The last chief, Rokneddin, was
+  killed for an act of treachery subsequent to his capture, and his death
+  was followed by a general massacre of the assassins, in which 12,000
+  perished. Dispersed bands led a roving life in the Syrian mountains, and
+  it is alleged that in the Druses and other small existing tribes their
+  descendants are still to be found. See <i>Crusades</i>; <i>Khoja</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assault´</b>, in law, an attempt or offer, with force and violence,
+  to do a corporal hurt to another, as by striking at him with or without a
+  weapon. If a person lift up or stretch forth his arm and offer to strike
+  another, or menace anyone with any staff or weapon, it is an assault in
+  law. Assault, therefore, does not necessarily imply a hitting or blow,
+  because in trespass for assault and battery a man may be found guilty of
+  the assault and acquitted of the battery. But every battery includes an
+  assault.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assaye</b>, or <b>Assye</b> (as-s&#x12B;´), a village in Southern
+  India, in Hyderabad, where Wellington (then Major-General Wellesley)
+  gained a famous victory in 1803. With only 4500 troops at his disposal he
+  completely routed the Mahratta force of 50,000 men and 100 guns. The
+  victory, however, cost him more than a third of his men.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assaying</b>, the estimation of the amount of pure metal present in
+  an ore or an alloy. The term was originally applied to testing of gold
+  and silver only. It is now usually applied to the determination of the
+  quantity of valuable metal in an ore or alloy, and is also sometimes
+  applied to the estimation of any element which may affect the value of
+  the ore.</p>
+
+  <p>Assaying, therefore, means the estimation of one or more metals in an
+  ore or alloy. Before an assay can be made, an average sample of the
+  material must be obtained. If an ore, pieces of material are taken from
+  different parts of the vein or, if already mined, from different parts of
+  the dump. The pieces are crushed up finely and divided into four equal
+  parts. Two of these parts are then mixed and divided into four again, and
+  so on until an average sample has been obtained. In the case of metals in
+  ingots or bars, samples are obtained by drilling and chipping corners or
+  edges. Coins, which are never homogeneous, may be rolled out into a thin
+  sheet and cut into small pieces. A preliminary examination is made to
+  determine the constituents. Finally an assay of the substance is made.
+  The methods used are determined by the metals and the proportions of
+  these present in the ore or alloy. Originally the term assaying was
+  applied to dry methods, i.e. the substance was heated in a special
+  crucible with a suitable flux, and a bead of metal was obtained which was
+  weighed. An assay now may be carried out in various ways, for example, by
+  fusing with a reducing agent and obtaining a bead of metal, or by
+  dissolving the substance to be assayed in suitable solvent and
+  precipitating the metal as an insoluble salt, or volumetric methods may
+  be used. Dry assaying is still used for gold. The assay depends on first
+  heating the gold ore or alloy with lead in a porous crucible, that is,
+  <i>cupelling</i> it. Lead oxidizes on heating in a furnace; part
+  volatilizes, and part of the oxide is absorbed by the cupel and carries
+  with it oxides of other metals with the exception <!-- Page 283 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page283"></a>[283]</span>of gold and silver. The
+  proportion of lead must be regulated, depending on the metals alloyed
+  with gold. A bead is obtained containing gold and silver. This is beaten
+  out into a thin plate, and then rolled out until it is thin enough to be
+  rolled up by hand. The gold alloy is rolled up in the fingers into a
+  cornette and treated with nitric acid. This dissolves silver, leaving a
+  brittle cornette of gold, which is thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed.
+  All gold alloys and silver alloys must be assayed, and their fineness
+  stamped on them. The Goldsmith's Company of London is the statutory
+  assay-master of England.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography:</span> C.
+  and J.&nbsp;J. Beringer, <i>A Text-book of Assaying</i>; E.&nbsp;A. Wraight,
+  <i>Assaying in Theory and Practice</i>; J. Park, <i>A Text-book of
+  Practical Assaying</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´segai</b> (from Ar. <i>as-zahayah</i>), a spear used as a weapon
+  among the Kaffirs of S. Africa, made of hard wood tipped with iron, and
+  used for throwing or thrusting.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assembly, General</b>, the supreme ecclesiastical court of the
+  Established Church of Scotland, consisting of delegates from every
+  presbytery, university, and royal burgh in Scotland. It has the
+  countenance of a representative of the king, styled the Lord High
+  Commissioner, who is always a nobleman. It holds its meetings annually
+  and (according to the present practice) in the month of May, usually
+  sitting for ten or twelve days. In its judicial capacity as a court of
+  review, and as the court of last resort, the General Assembly has a right
+  to determine finally every question brought from the inferior courts, by
+  reference, complaint, or appeal. It possesses, besides, a general
+  superintendence of the discipline of the Church, of the management of the
+  inferior courts, of the conduct of the clergy, and of the morals of the
+  people. In its legislative capacity it has the power of enacting statutes
+  with regard to every subject of ecclesiastical cognizance, which are
+  binding on the Assembly itself, on the inferior courts, and on the
+  individual members of the Church. But by an Act of Assembly in 1697, from
+  its substance and design named the Barrier Act, every proposition for a
+  new law must first be considered in the form of an overture; and though
+  it should be approved of by the Assembly it cannot be enacted as a
+  statute till it has been first transmitted to the several presbyteries of
+  the Church for their consideration, and has received the sanction of at
+  least a majority of the presbyteries. The United Free Church of Scotland
+  has also a General Assembly similar in its constitution and functions to
+  that of the Established Church, and the same is the case with the
+  Presbyterian Churches of Ireland and America.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assembly, National</b> (France), a body set up in France on the eve
+  of the Revolution. Upon the convocation of the States-General by Louis
+  XVI the privileged nobles and clergy refused to deliberate in the same
+  chamber with the commons or <i>tiers-état</i> (third estate). The latter,
+  therefore, on the proposition of the Abbé Siéyès, constituted themselves
+  an <i>assemblée nationale</i>, with legislative powers (17th June, 1789).
+  They bound themselves by oath not to separate until they had furnished
+  France with a constitution, and the Court was compelled to give its
+  assent. In the 3250 decrees passed by the Assembly were laid the
+  foundations of a new epoch, and, having accomplished this task, it
+  dissolved itself, 30th Sept., 1791.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assembly of Divines.</b> See <i>Westminster Assembly</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assembly, The Right of</b>, is an essential principle of popular
+  government, as understood by the British and American constitutions. The
+  right of British citizens to assemble peaceably for any purpose which is
+  not strictly prohibited by law is implied in the right of petition, as
+  affirmed in the Bill of Rights (q.v.). Unlawful assembly, which is a
+  criminal offence, is distinguished from the offence of riot. Whilst the
+  latter is an actual attempt to carry an unlawful purpose into effect, the
+  former is defined as "an assembly with intent to carry out a common
+  purpose which may lead to a breach of the peace".</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´sen</b>, chief town of the province of Drenthe, Holland. Pop.
+  13,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assent´, The Royal</b>, is the approbation given by the sovereign
+  in Parliament to a Bill which has passed both Houses, after which it
+  becomes a law. It may either be done in person, when the sovereign comes
+  to the House of Peers and the assent (in Norman French) is declared by
+  the Clerk of Parliament; or it may be done by letters-patent under the
+  great seal, signed by the sovereign.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´ser, John</b>, a learned British ecclesiastic, originally a monk
+  of St. David's, distinguished as the instructor, companion, and
+  biographer of Alfred the Great, who appointed him abbot of two or three
+  different monasteries, and finally Bishop of Sherborne, where he died in
+  908 or 910. His life of Alfred, written in Latin in 893 (<i>Annales Rerum
+  Gestarum Ælfredi Magni</i>), is of very great value, though its
+  authenticity has been questioned. There are several English translations
+  of it.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assessed Taxes</b>, taxes charged upon persons by means of a
+  schedule or paper sent to each, and strictly including such taxes as the
+  income-tax, the house-tax, local rates, &amp;c. In Britain the so-called
+  assessed taxes include those upon servants, carriages, dogs, armorial
+  bearings, &amp;c., though these are really excise licence duties.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asses´sor</b>, a person appointed to ascertain and fix the amount
+  of taxes, rates, &amp;c.; or a <!-- Page 284 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page284"></a>[284]</span>person who sits along with the judges in
+  certain courts, and assists them with his professional knowledge.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´sets</b> (Fr. <i>assez</i>, enough), property or goods available
+  for the payment of a bankrupt or deceased person's obligations. Assets
+  are personal or real, the former comprising all goods, chattels, &amp;c.,
+  devolving upon the executor as saleable to discharge debts and legacies.
+  In commerce and bankruptcy the term is often used as the antithesis of
+  'liabilities', to designate the stock in trade and entire property of an
+  individual or an association.&mdash;<i>Intangible</i> (or fictitious)
+  assets are those not represented by any existing value, e.g. goodwill;
+  <i>liquid</i> assets are cash, investments, or other immediately
+  available funds.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asside´ans</b>, <b>Haside´ans</b>, or <b>Hasidim</b> ('the pious'),
+  one of the two great sects into which, after the Babylonish captivity,
+  the Jews were divided with regard to the observance of the law&mdash;the
+  Hasidim accepting it in its later developments, the Zadikim professing
+  adherence only to the law as given by Moses. See <i>Pharisees</i>,
+  <i>Talmudists</i>, <i>Rabbinists</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assien´to</b>, the permission of the Spanish Government to a
+  foreign nation to import negro slaves from Africa into the Spanish
+  colonies in America, for a limited time, on payment of certain duties. It
+  was accorded to the Netherlands about 1552, to the Genoese in 1580, and
+  to the French Guinea Company (afterwards the Assiento Company) in 1702.
+  In 1713 the celebrated <i>Assiento Treaty</i> with Britain for thirty
+  years was concluded at Utrecht. By this contract the British obtained the
+  right to send yearly a ship of 500 tons, with all sorts of merchandise,
+  to the Spanish colonies. This led to frequent abuses and contraband
+  trade; acts of violence followed, and in 1739 a war broke out between the
+  two Powers. At the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, four years more
+  were granted to the British; but by the Treaty of Madrid, two years
+  later, £100,000 sterling were promised for the relinquishment of the two
+  remaining years, and the contract was annulled.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assignats</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s-&#x113;-nya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), the name of the national paper
+  currency in the time of the French Revolution. Assignats to the value of
+  400,000,000 francs were first struck off by the Constituent Assembly,
+  with the approbation of the king, 19th April, 1790, to be redeemed with
+  the proceeds of the sale of the confiscated goods of the Church. On the
+  27th Aug. of the same year Mirabeau urged the issuing of 2,000,000,000
+  francs of new assignats, which caused a dispute in the Assembly. Vergasse
+  and Dupont, who saw that the plan was an invention of Clavière for his
+  own enrichment, particularly distinguished themselves as the opponents of
+  the scheme. Mirabeau's exertions, however, were seconded by Péthion, and
+  800,000,000 francs more were issued. They were increased by degrees to
+  45,578,000,000, and their value rapidly declined. In the winter of 1792-3
+  they lost 30 per cent, and, in spite of the law to compel their
+  acceptance at their nominal value, they continued to fall, till in the
+  spring of 1796 they had sunk to one three hundred and forty-fourth their
+  nominal value. This depreciation was due partly to the want of confidence
+  in the stability of the Government, partly to the fact that the
+  coarsely-executed and easily-counterfeited assignats were forged in great
+  numbers. They were withdrawn by the Directory from the currency, and at
+  length redeemed by mandats at one-thirtieth of their nominal value.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assignee´</b>, a person appointed by another to transact some
+  business, or exercise some particular privilege or power. Formerly the
+  persons appointed under a commission of bankruptcy, to manage the estate
+  of the bankrupt on behalf of the creditors, were so called, but now they
+  are called <i>trustees</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assign´ment</b> is a transfer by deed of any property, or right,
+  title, or interest in property, real or personal. Assignments are usually
+  given for leases, mortgages, and funded property.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assiniboi´a</b>, the smallest of the four districts into which that
+  portion of the north-western territories of Canada now forming the
+  provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta was divided in 1882. It lay on the
+  west of Manitoba, with Saskatchewan on the north and Alberta on the west,
+  the United States on the south. The name is now given to an electoral
+  district of the province of Saskatchewan. The region contains much good
+  wheat land. Regina was the capital, as it now is of the new province.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assiniboine</b>, a river of Canada, which flows through Manitoba
+  and joins the Red River at Winnipeg, about 40 miles above the entrance of
+  the latter into Lake Winnipeg, after a somewhat circuitous course of
+  about 500 miles from the west and north-west. Steamers ply on it for over
+  300 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assiout.</b> See <i>Siout</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assisi</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s-s&#x113;'s&#x113;), a small town in
+  Italy, in the province of Umbria, 20 miles north of Spoleto, the see of a
+  bishop, and famous as the birthplace of St. Francis d'Assisi. The
+  splendid church built over the chapel where the saint received his first
+  impulse to devotion is one of the finest remains of mediæval Gothic
+  architecture.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assi´zes</b>, a term chiefly used in England to signify the
+  sessions of the courts held at Westminster prior to Magna Charta, but
+  thereafter appointed by successive enactments to be held annually in
+  every county. Twelve judges, who are members of the highest courts in
+  England, twice in every year perform a <i>circuit</i> into all the
+  counties into which the kingdom is divided (the <!-- Page 285 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page285"></a>[285]</span>counties being grouped
+  into seven circuits), to hold these assizes, at which both civil and
+  criminal cases are decided. Occasionally this circuit is performed a
+  third time for the purpose of jail-delivery. In London and Middlesex,
+  instead of circuits, courts of <i>nisi prius</i> are held. At the assizes
+  all the justices of the peace of the county are bound to attend. Special
+  commissions of assize are granted for inquest into certain causes. In
+  Scotland the term <i>assize</i> is still applicable to the jury in
+  criminal cases.</p>
+
+  <p>Among the more important historic uses of the term <i>assize</i> are
+  its application to any sitting or deliberative council, and its
+  transference thence to their ordinances, decrees, or assessments. In the
+  latter sense we have the Assizes of Jerusalem, a code of feudal laws
+  formulated in 1099 under Godfrey of Bouillon; the Assizes of Clarendon
+  (1166), of Northampton (1176), and of Woodstock (1184); also the
+  <i>assisæ venalium</i> (1203), for regulating the prices of articles of
+  common consumption; the Assize of Arms (1181), an ordinance for
+  organizing the national militia, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assmanshausen.</b> See <i>Asmannshausen</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Associated Counties</b>, a term applied to Essex, Cambridge,
+  Norfolk, Suffolk, and Hertford, with, subsequently, Huntingdon and
+  Lincoln. The association was formed in 1642 to raise an army for the
+  Parliament and keep the war out of their own districts. The successive
+  leaders were Lord Grey of Wark, the Earl of Manchester, and Cromwell.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Association of Ideas</b>, a doctrine of both psychological and
+  philosophical import. In psychology the term is used to comprise the
+  conditions under which one idea is able to recall another to
+  consciousness. It is, therefore, the doctrine which deals with the
+  reproduction of past experience by a present object of consciousness. The
+  phrase 'association of ideas' was first introduced by Locke, and dealt
+  with by Berkeley and Hartley, who became the founder of the so-called
+  <i>Associationist School</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ass´onance</b>, in poetry, a term used when the terminating words
+  of lines have the same vowel sound but make no proper rhyme. Such verses,
+  having what we should consider false rhymes, are regularly employed in
+  Spanish poetry; but cases are not wanting in leading British poets. Mrs.
+  Browning not only used them frequently, but justified the use of
+  them.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assouan</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s-s&#x14D;-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n´), or <b>Aswan</b>
+  (<i>Sy&#x113;n&#x113;</i>), a town of Upper Egypt, on the east bank of
+  the Nile, below the first cataract, opposite the Island of Elephantine.
+  The granite quarries of the Pharaohs are here. Pop. 15,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assouan Dam</b>, a great dam constructed across the Nile in Upper
+  Egypt, near Assouan, at the foot of the first cataract. It is about a
+  mile and a quarter long, and is provided with a large number of sluices
+  in two tiers. It was originally built to a height of about 96 feet
+  between 1898 and 1902, and raised to a height of 112 feet above bed-rock
+  between 1907 and 1911. It is intended to regulate the supply of water for
+  irrigation purposes to the country lower down, the water being stored up
+  at the time when the river is high, and allowed to escape when it is
+  required for the crops. When the reservoir is full it forms a lake about
+  130 miles long. The dam was planned by Sir William Willcocks, and the
+  work carried out under Sir William Garstin and Sir Benjamin Baker, at a
+  cost of £5,000,000 (Egyptian).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assump´sit</b>, in English law, an action to recover compensation
+  for the non-performance of a <i>parole</i> promise; that is, a promise
+  not contained in a deed under seal. Assumpsits are of two kinds,
+  <i>express</i> and <i>implied</i>. The former are where the contracts are
+  actually made in word or writing; the latter are such as the law implies
+  from the justice of the case; e.g. employment to do work implies a
+  promise to pay.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assumption.</b> See <i>Asuncion</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assumption, Feast of</b>, the ecclesiastical festival celebrating
+  the miraculous ascent into Heaven of the Virgin Mary's body as well as
+  her soul, kept on the 15th of August. The legend first appeared in the
+  third or fourth century, and the festival was instituted some three
+  centuries later.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Assurance.</b> See <i>Insurance</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:33%;">
+      <a href="images/image118.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image118.jpg"
+      alt="Assyrian bas-relief" title="Assyrian bas-relief" /></a>
+    Assyrian bas-relief from the Palace of Nimrûd showing Lion-hunting
+    about 884 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Assyr´ia</b> (the <b>Asshur</b> of the Hebrews, <b>Athurâ</b> of
+  the ancient Persians), an ancient monarchy in Asia, intersected by the
+  upper course of the Tigris, and having the Armenian Mountains on the
+  north and Babylonia on the south; area, about 50,000 sq. miles; surface
+  partly mountainous, hilly, or undulating, partly a portion of the fertile
+  Mesopotamian plain. The numerous remains of ancient habitations show how
+  thickly this vast flat must have once been <!-- Page 286 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page286"></a>[286]</span>peopled; now, for the
+  most part, it is a mere wilderness. Geographically and historically,
+  however, Assyria and Babylonia are interdependent, and the Assyrians and
+  Babylonians are ethnographically and linguistically the same race.
+  Whereas, however, the classical authors speak of Assyria to the exclusion
+  of Babylonia, the decipherment of the inscriptions has proved that
+  Babylonia was the mother-country, and that Assyria, except during a
+  period of eight centuries, was a dependency of the former. This discovery
+  coincides with the contents of the tenth chapter of <i>Genesis</i>. See
+  <i>Babylonia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ast</b>, Georg Anton Friedrich, German philosopher, 1776-1841. He
+  wrote on æsthetics and the history of philosophy, but is best known as an
+  editor of Plato, whose works he published with a Latin translation and
+  commentary.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´tacus.</b> See <i>Crayfish</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astar´te</b>, a Syrian goddess, probably corresponding to the
+  <i>Ashtaroth</i> of the Hebrews, and representing the productive power of
+  nature. She was a moon-goddess. Some regard her as corresponding to
+  <i>Hera</i> (<i>Juno</i>), and others identify her with
+  <i>Aphrodit&#x113;</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astatic needle</b>, a magnetic needle having another needle of the
+  same intensity fixed parallel to it, the poles being reversed, so that
+  the needles neutralize one another, and are unaffected by the earth's
+  magnetism; used in the <i>astatic galvanometer</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´ter</b>, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositæ, comprehending
+  several hundred species, scattered over Europe and Asia, but mostly
+  natives of North America. Many are cultivated as ornamental plants. One,
+  <i>A. Tripolium</i>, is native in Britain, and is found in salt marshes,
+  having a pretty purple flower. Asters generally flower late in the
+  season, and some are hence called Michaelmas or Christmas Daisies. The
+  China Aster, not an aster proper (<i>Aster</i> or <i>Callist&#x115;phus
+  chinensis</i>), is a very showy annual, of which there are many
+  varieties.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asterabad´.</b> See <i>Astrabad</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aste´ria</b>, a name applied to a variety of corundum, which
+  displays an opalescent star of six rays of light when cut with certain
+  precautions; and also to the <i>cat's-eye</i>, which consists of quartz,
+  and is found especially in Ceylon.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aster´idæ.</b> See <i>Asteroidea</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´terisk</b>, the figure of a star, thus *, used in printing and
+  writing, as a reference to a passage or note in the margin, or to fill
+  the space when a name, or the like, is omitted.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asteroi´dea</b>, the ord. of the Echinodermata to which the
+  star-fishes belong. See <i>Star-fishes</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´teroids</b>, <b>Planetoids</b>, or <b>Minor Planets</b>, a
+  numerous group of very small planets revolving round the sun, in the
+  great majority of cases at mean distances, intermediate between those of
+  Mars and Jupiter, in orbits of large eccentricity at considerable
+  inclination to the ecliptic. The diameter of the largest is not supposed
+  to exceed 450 miles, while most of the others are very much smaller. Over
+  one thousand are known, and new members are being constantly discovered.
+  The first to be discovered was Ceres, on 1st Jan., 1801, and within seven
+  years more Pallas, Juno, and Vesta were seen. The diminutive size of
+  these four bodies, and resemblances in their orbits, gave rise to the
+  opinion that they were but the fragments of a planet that had formerly
+  existed and had been brought to an end by some catastrophe. For nearly
+  forty years investigations were carried on, but no more planets were
+  discovered till 8th Dec., 1845, when a fifth planet in the same region of
+  the solar system was discovered. The rapid succession of discoveries that
+  followed was for a time taken as a corroboration of the disruption
+  theory, but the breadth of the zone occupied makes the hypothesis of a
+  shattered planet more than doubtful. In recent years a few have been
+  discovered which are at times considerably within the orbit of Mars, the
+  nearest perihelia being less than 15 million miles beyond the earth's
+  orbit. Another group, known as the 'Trojan Planets', has been found,
+  whose mean distances are practically identical with that of Jupiter. The
+  total mass of the asteroids cannot exceed one-fourth that of the earth,
+  and is probably much less. See <i>Planets</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asterol´epis</b>, a genus of primitive ganoid fishes, found only in
+  a fossil state in the Old Red Sandstone. They were about 1 foot long, and
+  the head and body were enclosed in armour of strong bony plates.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asthma</b> (ast´ma), difficulty of respiration, returning at
+  intervals, with a sense of stricture across the chest and in the lungs, a
+  wheezing, hard cough at first, but more free towards the close of each
+  paroxysm, with a discharge of mucus, followed by a remission. Asthma is
+  essentially a spasm of the muscular tissue which is contained in the
+  smaller bronchial tubes. It generally attacks persons advanced in years,
+  and seems, in some instances, to be hereditary. The exciting causes are
+  various&mdash;accumulation of blood or viscid mucus in the lungs, noxious
+  vapours, a cold and foggy atmosphere, or a close, hot air, flatulence,
+  accumulated fæces, violent passions, organic diseases in the thoracic
+  viscera, &amp;c. In recent years a treatment first used by Dr. Alexander
+  Francis has come into prominence. By far the most important part of the
+  treatment consists in obviating or removing the several exciting causes.
+  It seldom proves fatal except as inducing dropsy, consumption,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asti</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s´t&#x113;), a town of Northern Italy,
+  province of Alessandria, 28 miles <span class="scac">E.S.E.</span> of
+  Turin, the see of <!-- Page 287 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page287"></a>[287]</span>a bishop, with an old cathedral. In the
+  Middle Ages it was one of the most powerful republics of Northern Italy.
+  It was the birthplace of Alfieri, the poet, whose statue adorns the
+  principal square. There is also an equestrian statue of King Humbert. The
+  industries comprise silk, matches, gold, mosaic wares, &amp;c. A
+  favourite wine is produced in the neighbourhood. Asti, anciently
+  <i>Asta</i>, was a place of some importance under the Roman emperors, and
+  in the Middle Ages was an independent republic. Pop. 41,252.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astig´matism</b> (Gr. <i>a</i>, not, <i>stigma</i>, spot, mark), a
+  malformation or imperfection, congenital or accidental, of the globe of
+  the eye, in consequence of which the individual does not see objects
+  clear and distinct, but with a blurred outline. It is due to the cornea
+  or transparent outer coat of the eye not being regularly spherical, but
+  having different degrees of curvature in different directions. Usually
+  the degree of convexity is not the same horizontally as it is vertically,
+  so that the rays from an object, instead of converging into one focus,
+  meet in more than one. If a person with this defect is looking at
+  vertical lines crossed by horizontal ones he will see the one set more
+  distinctly than the other, though a slight movement will enable him to
+  see the other distinctly also, but not at the same time. Almost all eyes
+  are more or less astigmatic, but persons only become aware of it when it
+  is excessive. Special lenses are required to correct it&mdash;usually
+  lenses plane in one direction and concave or convex in the other. Short
+  sight or long sight is often associated with astigmatism, so that
+  suitable spectacles cannot be very easily provided.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astle</b>, Thomas, English antiquary, born 1735, died 1803. He was
+  a trustee of the British Museum and keeper of the public records in the
+  Tower. His chief work, <i>The Origin and Progress of Writing</i>,
+  appeared in 1784, and the portion dealing with mediæval handwriting is
+  still of value. He formed a famous collection of MSS., the most valuable
+  portion of which is now in the British Museum.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astom´ata</b>, one of the two groups into which the Protozoa are
+  divided with regard to the presence or absence of a mouth, of which organ
+  the Astomata are destitute. The group comprises two classes, Gregarinida
+  and Rhizopoda. See <i>Stomatoda</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aston Manor</b>, formerly a municipal and parliamentary borough of
+  Warwickshire, England, situated about 1½ miles <span
+  class="scac">E.N.E.</span> of Birmingham, and engaged in similar branches
+  of industry. It was incorporated with Birmingham in 1911 and gives its
+  name to one of its parliamentary divisions. Pop. 75,029.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astor</b>, John Jacob, born near Heidelberg, Germany, 1703, died at
+  New York, 1848. In 1783 he emigrated to the United States, settled at New
+  York, and became extensively engaged in the fur trade. In 1811 the
+  settlement of Astoria, founded by him, near the mouth of the Columbia
+  River, was formed to serve as a central depot for the fur trade between
+  the lakes and the Pacific. He subsequently engaged in various
+  speculations, and died worth £4,000,000, leaving £80,000 to found the
+  Astor Library in New York. This institution is contained in a splendid
+  building, enlarged in 1859 at the cost of his son, and comprises about
+  260,000 volumes. Since 1895 it has formed part of the New York public
+  library.&mdash;His great-grandson, William Waldorf Astor, born in 1848,
+  died in 1919, naturalized in England in 1899, was made a baron in 1916
+  and a viscount in 1917.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astor, Lady.</b> Nancy Witcher, Viscountess Astor, married the
+  second Viscount Astor in 1906. She is a daughter of the late Colonel
+  Chiswell Dabney Langhorne, of Virginia, United States. In Nov., 1919, she
+  was elected member of Parliament for the Sutton division of Plymouth, and
+  was the first woman to take a seat in the House of Commons.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astor´ga</b>, a city of Spain, province of Leon; the <i>Asturica
+  Augusta</i> of the Romans. It figured prominently during the Peninsular
+  War; it was taken by the French after an obstinate defence, 1810, and
+  retaken by the Spaniards, 1812. Pop. 5682.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asto´ria</b>, a town of Oregon, United States, on the Columbia
+  River, with numerous salmon-canning establishments. Pop. 10,595. See
+  <i>Astor</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astrabad´</b>, a town of Persia, province of same name, about 24
+  miles <span class="scac">E.</span> of the Caspian. It was formerly the
+  residence of the Kajar princes, the ancestors of the present Persian
+  dynasty. It is very unhealthy, but is still the centre of a considerable
+  trade. Pop. estimated at from 10,000 to 30,000. The province of Astrabad
+  has an area of 5800 sq. miles, and a pop. of 150,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astræ´a</b>, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Zeus and Themis,
+  the goddess of justice. During the golden age she dwelt on earth, but on
+  that age passing away she withdrew from the society of men and was placed
+  among the stars, where she forms the constellation Virgo. The name was
+  given to one of the asteroids, discovered in 1845. It revolves round the
+  sun in 1511.10 solar days, and is about 2½ times the distance of the
+  earth from the sun.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´tragal</b>, in architecture, a small semicircular moulding, with
+  a fillet beneath it, which surrounds a column in the form of a ring,
+  separating the shaft from the capital.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astrag´alus</b>, a genus of papilionaceous plants, herbaceous or
+  shrubby, and often spiny. <i>A. gummifer</i> yields gum tragacanth.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astrag´alus</b>, the upper bone of the foot <!-- Page 288 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page288"></a>[288]</span>supporting the tibia;
+  the buckle, ankle, or sling bone. It is a strong irregularly-shaped bone,
+  and is connected with the others by powerful ligaments.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astrakhan</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s-tra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-<i>h</i>a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n'), a Russian city, capital of
+  government of same name, on an elevated island in the Volga, about 30
+  miles above its mouth in the Caspian, communicating with the opposite
+  banks of the river by numerous bridges. It is the seat of a Greek
+  archbishop and has a large cathedral, as well as places of worship for
+  Mahommedans, Armenians, &amp;c. The manufactures are large and
+  increasing, and the fisheries (sturgeon, &amp;c.) very important. It is
+  the chief port of the Caspian, and has regular steam communication with
+  the principal towns on its shores. In 1919 the town was made a naval base
+  by the Bolshevist Government of Moscow. Pop. 163,800, composed of various
+  races.&mdash;The government (or province) has an area of 91,042 sq.
+  miles. It consists almost entirely of two vast steppes, separated from
+  each other by the Volga, and forming for the most part arid sterile
+  deserts. In 1918 the district of Astrakhan proclaimed its autonomy and
+  independence of Moscow. Pop. 1,427,500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astrakhan</b>, a name given to sheepskins with a curled woolly
+  surface obtained from a variety of sheep found in Búkhara, Persia, and
+  Syria; also a rough fabric with a pile in imitation of this.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astralite.</b> See <i>Explosives</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astral Spirits</b>, spirits formerly believed to people the
+  heavenly bodies or the aerial regions. In the Middle Ages they were
+  variously conceived as fallen angels, souls of departed men, or spirits
+  originating in fire, and belonging neither to heaven, earth, nor hell.
+  Paracelsus regarded them as demoniacal in character.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astrin´gent</b>, a medicine which contracts the organic textures
+  and canals of the body, thereby checking or diminishing excessive
+  discharges. The chief astringents are the mineral acids, alum,
+  lime-water, chalk, salts of copper, zinc, iron, lead, silver; and among
+  vegetables catechu, kino, oak-bark, and galls.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astroca´ryum</b>, a genus of tropical American palms, species of
+  which yield oil and valuable fibre. Tucum oil and tucum thread are
+  obtained from <i>A. vulg&#x101;re</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>As´trolabe</b>, an instrument formerly used for taking the altitude
+  of the sun or stars, now superseded by the quadrant and sextant. The name
+  was also formerly given to an armillary sphere.&mdash;Cf. Chaucer,
+  <i>Treatise on the Astrolabe</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astrolabe Bay</b>, an inlet on the <span class="scac">N.E.</span>
+  coast of Australian New Guinea.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astrol´ogy</b>, literally, the science or doctrine of the stars.
+  The name was formerly used as equivalent to astronomy, but is now
+  restricted in meaning to the pseudo-science which pretends to enable men
+  to judge of the effects and influences of the heavenly bodies on human
+  and other mundane affairs, and to foretell future events by their
+  situations and conjunctions. As usually practised, the whole heavens,
+  visible and invisible, were divided by great circles into twelve equal
+  parts, called <i>houses</i>. As the circles were supposed to remain
+  immovable, every heavenly body passed through each of the twelve houses
+  every twenty-four hours. The portion of the zodiac contained in each
+  house was the part to which chief attention was paid, and the position of
+  any planet was settled by its distance from the boundary circle of the
+  house, measured on the ecliptic. The houses had different names and
+  different powers, the first being called the house of life, the second
+  the house of riches, the third of brethren, the sixth of marriage, the
+  eighth of death, and so on. The part of the heavens about to rise was
+  called the <i>ascendant</i>, the planet within the house of the ascendant
+  being <i>lord of the ascendant</i>. The different <i>aspects</i> of the
+  planets were of great importance. To <i>cast a person's nativity</i> (or
+  <i>draw his horoscope</i>) was to find the position of the heavens at the
+  instant of his birth, which being done, the astrologer, who knew the
+  various powers and influences possessed by the sun, the moon, and the
+  planets, could predict what the course and termination of that person's
+  life would be. The temperament of the individual was ascribed to the
+  planet under which he was born, as <i>saturnine</i> from <i>Saturn</i>,
+  <i>jovial</i> from <i>Jupiter</i>, <i>mercurial</i> from <i>Mercury</i>,
+  <i>&amp;c.</i>, words which are now used with little thought of their
+  original meaning. The virtues of herbs, gems, and medicines were supposed
+  to be due to their ruling planets. The history of astrology, which was
+  the foster-sister of astronomy, goes back to the early days of the human
+  race. Egyptians and Hindus, as well as the nations on the Euphrates and
+  Tigris, were zealous astrologers. The Christian Church strongly opposed
+  the teachings of astrology, but its study spread among Jews and Arabs
+  during the Middle Ages. Francis Bacon abused the astrologers of his day,
+  and Swift wrote against them his famous <i>Prediction for the Year 1708,
+  by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq.</i>&mdash;<span
+  class="scac">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span>: E.&nbsp;H. Bennet, <i>Astrology</i>; G.
+  Wilde, <i>Chaldean Astrology Up-to-date</i>; A. Maury, <i>La Magie et
+  l'astrologie à l'antiquité et au moyen âge</i>; A.&nbsp;J. Pearce, <i>Textbook
+  of Astrology</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astron´omy</b> (from Gr. <i>astron</i>, a heavenly body, and
+  <i>nemein</i>, to classify or arrange) is that science which investigates
+  the motions, distances, magnitudes, and various phenomena of the heavenly
+  bodies. The science may be divided into several branches. <i>Descriptive
+  astronomy</i> denotes merely a presentation of astronomical facts in a
+  systematic but popular form; <i>practical astronomy</i> treats of the
+  instruments used in observing the celestial bodies, the methods <!-- Page
+  289 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page289"></a>[289]</span>of their
+  employment, and the manner of deducing results from the observations;
+  investigation of the causes of the motions of these bodies was formerly
+  termed <i>physical astronomy</i>, but now generally <i>dynamical</i> or
+  <i>gravitational astronomy</i>; <i>physical astronomy</i> or
+  <i>astro-physics</i> is the comparatively modern branch which deals with
+  their physical conditions, radiation, temperature, and chemical
+  constitution. Recent years have added two new fields of investigation
+  which are full of promise for the advancement of astronomical science.
+  The first of these&mdash;<i>celestial photography</i>&mdash;has furnished
+  us with invaluable light-pictures of the sun, moon, and other bodies, and
+  has recorded the existence of myriads of stars invisible even to the best
+  telescopes; while the second, <i>spectrum analysis</i>, now employed by
+  many scientists, reveals to us a knowledge of the physical constituents
+  of the universe, telling us for instance that in the sun (or his
+  atmosphere) there exist many of the elements familiar to us on the earth.
+  It is also applied to the determination of the velocities with which
+  stars are approaching, or receding from, our system; and to the
+  measurement of movements taking place within the solar atmospheric
+  envelopes. From analysis of some of the unresolved nebulæ the inference
+  is drawn that they are not star-swarms but simply incandescent gas;
+  whence a second inference results favourable to the hypothesis of the
+  gradual condensation of nebulæ, and the successive evolutions of suns and
+  systems.</p>
+
+  <p>The most remote period to which we can go back in tracing the history
+  of astronomy refers us to a time about 2500 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, when the Chinese are said to have recorded the
+  simultaneous conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, and the moon.
+  This remarkable phenomenon is found, by calculating backward, to have
+  taken place 2460 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Astronomy has also an
+  undoubtedly high antiquity in India. The mean annual motion of Jupiter
+  and Saturn was observed as early as 3062 years <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>; tables of the sun, moon, and planets were
+  formed, and eclipses calculated. In the time of Alexander the Great, the
+  Chaldeans or Babylonians had carried on astronomical observations for
+  1900 years. They regarded comets as bodies travelling in extended orbits,
+  and predicted their return; and there is reason to believe that they had
+  correct ideas regarding the solar system. The priests of Egypt gave
+  astronomy a religious character; but their knowledge of the science is
+  testified to only by their ancient zodiacs and the position of their
+  pyramids with relation to the cardinal points. It was among the Greeks
+  that astronomy took a more scientific form. Thales of Miletus (born 639
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) predicted a solar eclipse, and his
+  successors held opinions which are in many respects wonderfully in
+  accordance with modern ideas. Pythagoras (500 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>) and his followers formed theories of the
+  planetary system. They taught the sphericity and revolution of the earth,
+  but placed an imaginary 'Central Fire', not the sun itself, at the centre
+  of the system. Great progress was made in astronomy under the Ptolemies,
+  and we find Timochares and Aristyllus employed about 300 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> in making useful planetary observations. But
+  Aristarchus of Samos (born 267 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) is said,
+  on the authority of Archimedes, to have far surpassed them, by teaching
+  the double motion of the earth around its axis and around the sun. A
+  hundred years later Hipparchus determined more exactly the length of the
+  solar year, and the eccentricity of the ecliptic, discovered the
+  precession of the equinoxes, and even undertook a catalogue of the stars.
+  It was in the second century after Christ that Claudius Ptolemy, a famous
+  mathematician of Pelusium in Egypt, propounded the system that bears his
+  name, viz., that the earth was the centre of the universe, and that the
+  sun, moon, and planets revolved around it in the following order: nearest
+  to the earth was the sphere of the moon; then followed the spheres of
+  Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; then came the sphere
+  of the fixed stars; these were succeeded by two <i>crystalline</i>
+  spheres and an outer sphere named the <i>primum mobile</i> or first
+  movable, which last was again circumscribed by the <i>c&oelig;lum
+  empyreum</i>, of a cubic shape, wherein happy souls found their abode.
+  The Arabs began to make scientific astronomical observations about the
+  middle of the eighth century, and for 400 years they prosecuted the
+  science with assiduity. Ibn-Yunis (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1000)
+  made important observations of the perturbations and eccentricities of
+  Jupiter and Saturn. In the sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus, born in
+  1473, introduced the system that bears his name, and which recognized the
+  sun's central place in the solar system, and that all the other bodies,
+  the earth included, revolve around it. This arrangement of the universe
+  (see <i>Copernicus</i>) came at length to be generally received on
+  account of the simplicity it substituted for the complexities and
+  difficulties of the theory of Ptolemy. The observations and calculations
+  of Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer, born in 1546, continued over many
+  years, were of the highest value, and secured for him the title of
+  regenerator of practical astronomy. His assistant and pupil, Kepler, born
+  in 1571, was enabled, principally from the data provided by his master's
+  labours, to arrive at those laws which have made his name famous: 1. That
+  the planets move, not in circular, but in elliptical orbits, of which the
+  sun occupies a focus. 2. That the radius vector, or imaginary straight
+  line joining the sun and any planet, moves over equal <!-- Page 290
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page290"></a>[290]</span>spaces in
+  equal times. 3. That the squares of the times of the revolutions of the
+  planets are as the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. Galileo,
+  who died in 1642, advanced the science by his observations and by the new
+  revelations he made through his telescopes, which established the truth
+  of the Copernican theory. Newton, born in 1642, carried physical
+  astronomy suddenly to comparative perfection. Accepting Kepler's laws as
+  a statement of the facts of planetary motion, he deduced from them his
+  theory of gravitation. The science was enriched towards the close of the
+  eighteenth century by the discovery by Herschel of the planet Uranus and
+  its satellites, the resolution of the Milky Way into myriads of stars,
+  and the investigation of nebulæ and of double and triple stars. The
+  splendid analytical researches of Lalande, Lagrange, Delambre, and
+  Laplace mark the same period. The nineteenth century opened with the
+  discovery of the first four minor planets; and the existence of another
+  planet (Neptune), more distant from the sun than Uranus, was, in 1845,
+  independently predicted by Leverrier and Adams. Of late years the sun has
+  attracted a number of observers, the spectroscope and photography having
+  been especially fruitful in this field of investigation. By various
+  methods the sun's mean distance has been ascertained within very small
+  limits of error, and found to be nearly 93,000,000 miles. Many additions
+  have been made to the known secondary planets or satellites, including
+  some with retrograde motions. A vast number of asteroids has been
+  discovered, and the width of the zone occupied by them found to be much
+  more extensive. Much success has been achieved in ascertaining the
+  parallax of fixed stars.</p>
+
+  <p>The objects with which astronomy has chiefly to deal are the earth,
+  the sun, the moon, the planets, the fixed stars, comets, nebulæ, and
+  meteors. The stellar universe is composed of an unknown host of stars,
+  many millions in number. Those visible to the naked eye were in ancient
+  times grouped into the constellations still recognized. The nebulæ are
+  cloud-like patches of light scattered all over the heavens. Some of them
+  have been resolved into star-clusters, but many of them are masses of
+  incandescent gas. Of the so-called fixed stars, many form binary or
+  multiple systems, the members revolving in orbits under each other's
+  attractions, while other more scattered groups are moving clusters,
+  travelling in parallel paths through space like flocks of birds. Variable
+  stars and extinct or dark stars are also known. The fixed stars preserve,
+  at least to unaided vision, an unalterable relation to each other,
+  because of their vast distance from the earth. Their apparent movement
+  from east to west is the result of the earth's revolution on its axis in
+  twenty-four hours from west to east. The planets have not only an
+  apparent, but also a real and proper motion, since, like our earth, they
+  revolve around the sun in their several orbits and periods. The nearest
+  of these bodies to the sun is <i>Mercury</i>. <i>Venus</i>, the second
+  planet from the sun, is to us the brightest and most beautiful of all the
+  planets. The <i>Earth</i> is the first planet accompanied by a satellite
+  or moon. <i>Mars</i>, the next planet, has two satellites, discovered in
+  1877. Its surface has a variegated character, and the existence of land,
+  water, snow, and ice has been inferred. The <i>Asteroids</i>, of which
+  over 1000 are known, form a broad zone of small bodies, at distances from
+  a little beyond the earth's to that of Jupiter. <i>Jupiter</i>, the
+  largest planet, has at least nine satellites, of which the two outermost
+  have retrograde motion. Its surface is diversified by spots, markings,
+  and bands parallel to its equator. <i>Saturn</i>, with its nine or more
+  satellites and broad thin rings in its equatorial plane, is, perhaps, the
+  most striking telescopic object in the heavens.
+  <i>Ur&#x103;nus</i>&mdash;discovered by Herschel in 1781&mdash;is
+  accompanied by four satellites. <i>Neptune</i>, the farthest removed from
+  the sun, has one satellite, the motion of which is retrograde. Besides
+  the planets, quite a number of comets are known to be members of the
+  solar system. The physical constitution of these bodies is still one of
+  the enigmas of astronomy. The observation of meteors has recently
+  attracted much attention. They are seen in largest numbers in the autumn
+  months. Meteor streams are supposed to represent the results of the
+  disintegration of comets. Among the more modern astronomers we may
+  mention: Gustav Kirchhoff, G.&nbsp;B. Donati, Christian Doppler, H.&nbsp;C. Vogel,
+  Sir William Huggins, Simon Newcomb, and Sir David Gill. See <i>Earth</i>,
+  <i>Sun</i>, <i>Moon</i>, <i>Planet</i>, <i>Comet</i>, <i>Stars</i>,
+  <i>Asteroids</i>, <i>Celestial Photography</i>, <i>Spectrography</i>,
+  &amp;c.&mdash;<span class="scac">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span>: Sir J.&nbsp;N. Lockyer,
+  <i>Dawn of Astronomy</i>; Sir G.&nbsp;C. Lewis, <i>Historical Survey of the
+  Astronomy of the Ancients</i>; Sir. F.&nbsp;W. Dyson, <i>Astronomy</i>; Sir R.
+  Ball, <i>Atlas, and Popular Guide to the Heavens</i>; G.&nbsp;P. Serviss,
+  <i>Astronomy with an Opera-glass</i>; <i>The Pleasures of the
+  Telescope</i>; A.&nbsp;M. Clerke, <i>History of Astronomy during the 19th
+  Century</i>, H. Macpherson, <i>Romance of Modern Astronomy</i>; C.&nbsp;A.
+  Young, <i>General Astronomy</i>; G.&nbsp;F. Chambers, <i>Handbook of
+  Astronomy</i> (3 vols.); E.&nbsp;W. Maunder, <i>Astronomy of the Bible</i>;
+  A.&nbsp;C. D. Crommelin, <i>The Star World</i>; Agnes Giberne, <i>Sun, Moon,
+  and Stars</i> (popular).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astropalia</b>, an island in the Ægean Sea. It was occupied during
+  the Balkan war of 1912 by the Italians under Admiral Presbitero and
+  General d'Ameglio.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astrophysics.</b> See <i>Spectroscopy</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Astur.</b> See <i>Goshawk</i>. <!-- Page 291 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page291"></a>[291]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Astu´ria</b>, or <b>The Asturias</b>, a Spanish principality, now
+  forming the province of Oviedo, on the north coast of Spain; an alpine
+  region, with steep and jagged mountain ridges, valuable minerals,
+  luxuriant grazing lands, and fertile well-watered valleys. The heir
+  apparent of Spain has borne since 1388 the title of Prince of the
+  Asturias. See <i>Spain</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asty´ages</b> (-j&#x113;z), last king of the Medes, 593-558 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, deposed by Cyrus, an event which transferred
+  the supremacy from the Medes to the Persians.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asuncion</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-su<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>n-th&#x113;-on´), or <b>Nuestra Señora de
+  la Asuncion</b> (Eng. <i>Assumption</i>), the chief city of Paraguay, on
+  the River Paraguay, picturesquely situated and with good public
+  buildings. It was founded in 1537 on the feast of the Assumption. Its
+  trade is mostly in the yerba tea, hides, tobacco, oranges, &amp;c. It was
+  taken and plundered by the Brazilians in 1869. A railway runs for a short
+  distance into the interior. Pop. (1920), 99,836.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/image119.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image119.jpg"
+      alt="Aswail" title="Aswail" /></a>
+    Aswail (<i>Ursus labi&#x101;tus</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>As´wail</b>, the native name for the sloth-bear (<i>Ursus
+  labi&#x101;tus</i>) of the mountains of India, an uncouth, unwieldy
+  animal, with very long black hair, inoffensive when not attacked. Its
+  usual diet consists of roots, bees'-nests, grubs, snails, ants, &amp;c.
+  Its flesh is in much favour as an article of food. When captured young it
+  is easily tamed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asy´lum</b>, a sanctuary or place of refuge, where criminals and
+  debtors sheltered themselves from justice, and from which they could not
+  be taken without sacrilege. Temples were anciently asylums, as were
+  Christian churches in later times. (See <i>Sanctuary</i>.) The term is
+  now usually applied to an institution for receiving, maintaining, and, so
+  far as possible, ameliorating the condition of persons labouring under
+  certain bodily defects or mental maladies; sometimes also a refuge for
+  the unfortunate.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asylum, Right of.</b> See <i>Extradition</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asymptote</b> (as'im-t&#x14D;t), in geometry, a line which is
+  continually approaching a curve, but never meets it, however far either
+  of them may be prolonged. This may be conceived as a tangent to a curve
+  at an infinite distance. See <i>Conic Sections</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Asyn´deton</b>, a figure of speech by which connecting words are
+  omitted; as 'I came, I saw, I conquered', or Cicero's 'Abiit, excessit,
+  evasit, erupit'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atacama</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ta<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-kä'ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a desert region on the west coast of
+  S. America belonging to Chile, partly in the province of Atacama, partly
+  in the territory of Antofagasta. It mainly consists of a plateau
+  extending from Copiapó northward to the River Loa, and lies between the
+  Andes and the sea. It forms the chief nitrate district of Chile, there
+  being also rich silver-mines, while gold is also found, as well as
+  argentiferous lead, copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron; with guano on the
+  coast. The northern portion belonged to Bolivia until 1904. The Chilian
+  province of Atacama has an area of 30,711 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+  63,893.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ataca´mite</b>, a combination of the hydroxide and chloride of
+  copper, occurring abundantly in some parts of South America, as at
+  Atacama, whence it has its name. It is worked as an ore in South America,
+  and is exported to England.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atahual´pa</b>, the last of the Incas, succeeded his father in 1529
+  on the throne of Quito, whilst his brother Huascar obtained the kingdom
+  of Peru. They soon made war against each other, when the latter was
+  defeated, and his kingdom fell into the hands of Atahualpa. The
+  Spaniards, taking advantage of these internal disturbances, with Pizarro
+  at their head invaded Peru, and advanced to Atahualpa's camp. Here, while
+  Pizarro's priest was telling the Inca how the Pope had given Peru to the
+  Spaniards, fire was opened on the unsuspecting Peruvians, Atahualpa was
+  captured, and, despite the payment of a vast ransom in gold, was executed
+  (1533).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atalan´ta</b>, in Greek mythology, a famous huntress of Arcadia.
+  She was to be obtained in marriage only by him who could outstrip her in
+  a race, the consequence of failure being death. One of her suitors
+  obtained from Aphrod&#x12B;t&#x113; (Venus) three golden apples, which he
+  threw behind him, one after another, as he ran. Atalanta stopped to pick
+  them up, and was not unwillingly defeated. There was another Atalanta
+  belonging to B&oelig;otia, who cannot very well be distinguished, the
+  same stories being told about both.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ataman.</b> See <i>Hetman</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´avism</b> (Lat. <i>at&#x103;vus</i>, an ancestor), in biology,
+  the tendency to reproduce the ancestral type in animals or plants which
+  have become considerably modified by breeding or cultivation; the
+  reversion of a descendant to some peculiarity of a more or less remote
+  ancestor. See <i>Mendelism</i>, <i>Natural Selection</i>,
+  <i>Evolution</i>, <i>Heredity</i>. The term <i>atavism</i> is also
+  frequently used in <!-- Page 292 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page292"></a>[292]</span>sociological literature, in the sense of
+  reversion to more primitive types, as explanation of criminal instincts
+  and pathological phenomena.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ataxy</b>, or <b>Ataxia</b>, in medicine, irregularity in the
+  animal functions, or in the symptoms of a disease. See <i>Locomotor
+  Ataxy</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atba´ra</b>, the most northerly tributary of the Nile. It rises in
+  the Abyssinian highlands, receives several large tributaries, and enters
+  the Nile about 18° <span class="scac">N.</span> The town of Atbara is
+  situated about 380 miles <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of Wadi Halfa.
+  The battle of Atbara, between the British under Earl Kitchener (then Sir
+  Herbert), and the followers of the Mahdi, was fought on 8th April,
+  1898.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atchafalay´a</b> ('Lost Water'), a river of the United States, an
+  outlet of the Red River which strikes off before the junction of that
+  river with the Mississippi, flows southward, and enters the Gulf of
+  Mexico by Atchafalaya Bay. Its length is about 225 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atcheen´.</b> See <i>Acheen</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atch´ison</b>, a city of Kansas, United States, on the Missouri,
+  about 30 miles from Leavenworth, an important railway centre with an
+  increasing trade. Pop. (1920), 12,630.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´t&#x113;</b>, among the Greeks, the goddess of hate, injustice,
+  crime, and retribution, daughter of Zeus according to Homer, but of
+  &#x114;ris (Strife) according to Hesiod.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´eles</b>, a genus of American monkeys. See
+  <i>Spider-monkey</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ateliers Nationaux</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-tl-y&#x101; na<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-syo-n&#x14D;), or national workshops,
+  were established by the French Provisional Government in 1848. They
+  interfered much with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw
+  themselves on the Government for work. The breaking up of the system led
+  to disorders, but it was abolished in July, 1848.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atella´næ Fab´ulæ</b> (called also <b>Oscan plays</b>), a kind of
+  light interlude, in ancient Rome, performed not by the regular actors,
+  but by freeborn young Romans; it originated from the ancient
+  <i>Atella</i>, a city of the Oscans. They were the origin of the Italian
+  <i>commedie dell'arte</i>. Cf. Munk, <i>De Fabulis Atellanis</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atesh´ga</b> (the place of fire), a sacred place of the Guebres or
+  Persian fire-worshippers, on the Peninsula of Apsheron, on the W. coast
+  of the Caspian, visited by large numbers of pilgrims, who bow before the
+  sacred flames which issue from the bituminous soil.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ath</b> (ät), a fortified town of Belgium, in the province of
+  Hainaut, on the Dender; it carries on weaving, dyeing, and printing
+  cottons. It was the scene of fighting in Nov., 1918. Pop. 11,108.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athabas´ca</b>, a river and lake of Canada. The river rises on the
+  eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains not far from Mount Hooker, in the
+  province of Alberta, flows <span class="scac">N.E.</span> and <span
+  class="scac">N.</span>, and falls into Lake Athabasca after a course of
+  about 600 miles.&mdash;<i>Lake Athabasca</i>, or Lake of the Hills, is
+  about 190 miles <span class="scac">S.S.E.</span> of the Great Slave Lake,
+  to which its waters are carried by means of the Slave River. It is about
+  200 miles in length from east to west, and 35 miles wide where widest,
+  but narrows to a point at either extremity.&mdash;The former district of
+  <i>Athabasca</i>, in 1905 divided between the two new provinces of
+  Alberta and Saskatchewan, had British Columbia on the west, Keewatin on
+  the east, Alberta and Saskatchewan districts on the south, the parallel
+  of 60° on the north, being crossed by the Athabasca and the Peace Rivers.
+  Lake Athabasca is partly in Alberta, partly in Saskatchewan.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athali´ah</b>, daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, and wife of Joram,
+  King of Judah. After the death of her son Ahaziah, she opened her way to
+  the throne by the murder of forty-two princes of the royal blood. She
+  reigned six years; in the seventh the high-priest Jehoiada placed Joash,
+  the young son of Ahaziah, who had been secretly preserved, on the throne
+  of his father, and Athaliah was slain. Cf. 2 <i>Kings</i>, xi. The story
+  of Athaliah supplied Racine with the plot of one of his most famous
+  tragedies.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athana´sian Creed</b>, a creed or exposition of Christian faith,
+  supposed formerly to have been drawn up by St. Athanasius, though this
+  opinion is now generally rejected, and the composition often ascribed to
+  Hilary, Bishop of Arles (about 430). It is an explicit avowal of the
+  doctrines of the Trinity (as opposed to Arianism, of which Athanasius was
+  a great opponent) and of the incarnation, and contains what are known as
+  the 'damnatory clauses', in which it declares that damnation must be the
+  lot of those who do not believe the true and catholic faith. It is
+  contained in the <i>Book of Common Prayer</i>, to be read on certain
+  occasions.&mdash;<span class="scac">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span>: F.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;A. Hort,
+  <i>Two Dissertations</i>; G.&nbsp;D.&nbsp;W. Ommanney, <i>Critical Dissertation on
+  the Athanasian Creed</i>; J.&nbsp;A. Robinson, <i>The Athanasian Creed</i>;
+  E.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;S. Gibson, <i>The Three Creeds</i>; R.&nbsp;O.&nbsp;P. Taylor, <i>Athanasian
+  Creed in the Twentieth Century</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athana´sius, St.</b>, Archbishop of Alexandria, a renowned father
+  of the Church, born in that city about <span class="scac">A.D.</span>
+  296, died 373. While yet a young man he attended the Council at Nice
+  (325), where he gained the highest esteem of the fathers by the talents
+  which he displayed in the Arian controversy. He had a great share in the
+  decrees passed here, and thereby drew on himself the hatred of the
+  Arians. Shortly afterwards he was appointed Archbishop of Alexandria. The
+  complaints and accusations of his enemies at length induced the Emperor
+  Constantine to summon him in 334 before the Councils of Tyre and
+  Jerusalem, when he was suspended, and <!-- Page 293 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page293"></a>[293]</span>afterwards banished to
+  Trèves. The death of Constantine put an end to this banishment, and
+  Constantius recalled the holy patriarch. His return to Alexandria
+  resembled a triumph. Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 342.
+  Again in 355 he was sentenced to be banished, when he retired into those
+  parts of the desert which were entirely uninhabited. He was followed by a
+  faithful servant, who, at the risk of his life, supplied him with the
+  means of subsistence. Here Athanasius composed many writings, full of
+  eloquence, to strengthen the faith of the believers, or expose the
+  falsehood of his enemies. When Julian the Apostate ascended the throne,
+  toleration was proclaimed to all religions, and Athanasius returned to
+  his former position at Alexandria. His next controversy was with the
+  heathen subjects of Julian, who excited the emperor against him, and he
+  was obliged to flee in order to save his life. The death of the emperor
+  and the accession of Jovian (363) again brought him back; but Valens
+  becoming emperor, and the Arians recovering the superiority, he was once
+  more compelled to flee. He concealed himself in the tomb of his father,
+  where he remained four months, until Valens allowed him to return. From
+  this period he remained undisturbed in his office till he died. Of the
+  forty-six years of his official life he spent twenty in banishment, and
+  the greater part of the remainder in defending the Nicene Creed.
+  Athanasius was not so much a speculative theologian as a great Christian
+  pastor (cf. L. Duchesne, <i>Histoire ancienne. de l'Église</i>, 1907).
+  His writings, which are in Greek, are on polemical, historical, and moral
+  subjects. The polemical treat chiefly of the doctrines of the Trinity,
+  the incarnation of Christ, and the divinity of the Holy Spirit. The
+  historical ones are of the greatest importance for the history of the
+  Church. See <i>Athanasian Creed</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´theism</b> (Gr. <i>a</i>, priv., and <i>Theos</i>, God), the
+  disbelief of the existence of a God or supreme intelligent being; the
+  doctrine opposed to <i>theism</i> or <i>deism</i>. The term has been
+  often loosely used as equivalent with <i>infidelity</i> generally, with
+  deism, with pantheism, and with the denial of immortality. The most
+  famous exponents of atheism were La Mettrie, Holbach, Feuerbach, and Carl
+  Vogt; whilst Comte and Haeckel have put forward systems of thought
+  essentially atheistic.&mdash;<span class="scac">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span>: R.
+  Flint, <i>Anti-theistic Theories</i>; J.&nbsp;S. Blackie, <i>Natural History
+  of Atheism</i>; F.&nbsp;A. Lange, <i>History of Materialism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ath´eling</b>, a title of honour among the Anglo-Saxons, meaning
+  one who is of noble blood. The title was gradually confined to the
+  princes of the blood royal, and in the ninth and tenth centuries was used
+  exclusively for the sons or brothers of the reigning king.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atheling</b>, Edgar. See <i>Edgar Atheling</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ath´elney</b>, formerly an island in the midst of fens and marshes,
+  now drained and cultivated in Somersetshire, England, about 7 miles
+  southeast of Bridgwater. Alfred the Great took refuge in it during a
+  Danish invasion, and afterwards founded an abbey there.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ath´elstan</b>, King of England, born 895, died 941, succeeded his
+  father, Edward the Elder, in 925. He was victorious in his wars with the
+  Danes of Northumberland, and the Scots, by whom they were assisted. After
+  a signal overthrow of his enemies at Brunanburgh he governed in peace and
+  with great ability.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ath&#x113;´na</b>, or <b>Ath&#x113;n&#x113;</b>, a Greek goddess,
+  identified by the Romans with Minerva, the representative of the
+  intellectual powers; the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and M&#x113;tis (that
+  is, wisdom or cleverness). According to the legend, before her birth Zeus
+  swallowed her mother, and Athena afterwards sprang from the head of Zeus
+  with a mighty war shout and in complete armour. In her character of a
+  wise and prudent warrior she was contrasted with the fierce Ares (Mars).
+  In the wars of the giants she slew Pallas and Enceladus. In the wars of
+  the mortals she aided and protected heroes. She is also represented as
+  the patroness of the arts of peace. The sculptor, the architect, and the
+  painter, as well as the philosopher, the orator, and the poet, considered
+  her their tutelar deity. She is also represented among the healing gods.
+  In all these representations she is the symbol of the thinking faculty,
+  the goddess of wisdom, science, and art; the latter, however, only in so
+  far as invention and thought are comprehended. In the images of the
+  goddess a manly gravity and an air of reflection are united with female
+  beauty in her features. As a warrior she is represented completely armed,
+  her head covered with a gold helmet. As the goddess of peaceful art she
+  appears in the dress of a Grecian matron. To her insignia belong the
+  Ægis, the Gorgon's head, the round Argive buckler; and the owl, the cock,
+  the serpent, an olive branch, and a lance were sacred to her. All Attica,
+  but particularly Athens, was sacred to her, and she had numerous temples
+  there. Her most brilliant festival at Athens was the Panathenæa.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athenæ´um</b>, the temple of Athena or Minerva, at Athens,
+  frequented by poets, learned men, and orators. The same name was given at
+  Rome to the school which Hadrian established on the Capitoline Mount for
+  the promotion of literary and scientific studies. In modern times the
+  same name is given to literary clubs and establishments connected with
+  the sciences. It is also the title of several literary periodicals.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athenæ´us</b>, a Greek rhetorician and grammarian, who lived at the
+  end of the second and <!-- Page 294 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page294"></a>[294]</span>beginning of the third century after
+  Christ, author of an encyclopædic work, in the form of conversation,
+  called <i>The Professors at the Dinner-table</i> (<i>Deipnosophistæ</i>),
+  which is a rich but ill-arranged treasure of historical, antiquarian,
+  philosophical, grammatical, &amp;c., knowledge.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athenag´oras</b>, a Platonic philosopher of Athens, a convert to
+  Christianity, who wrote a Greek <i>Apology for the Christians</i>,
+  addressed to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, in 177, one of the earliest
+  that appeared.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ath´ens</b> (Gr. <i>Ath&#x113;nai</i>, Lat. <i>Ath&#x113;næ</i>),
+  anciently the capital of Attica and centre of Greek culture, now the
+  capital of the kingdom of Greece. It is situated in the central plain of
+  Attica, about 4 miles from the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Ægina, an arm of
+  the Ægean Sea running in between the mainland and the Peloponnesus. It is
+  said to have been founded about 1550 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> by
+  Cecrops, the mythical Pelasgian hero, and to have borne the name Cecropia
+  until under Erechtheus it received the name of Athens in honour of
+  Ath&#x113;n&#x113;. The Acropolis, an irregular oval crag 150 feet high,
+  with a level summit 1000 feet long by 500 in breadth, was the original
+  nucleus of the city, which, according to tradition, was extended by
+  Theseus when Athens became the head of the confederate Attic States. The
+  three chief eminences near the Acropolis&mdash;the Areopagus to the
+  north-west, the Pnyx to the south-west, and the Museum to the south of
+  the Pnyx&mdash;were thus included within the city boundary as the sites
+  of its chief public buildings, the city itself, however, afterwards
+  taking a northerly direction. On the east ran the Ilissus and on the west
+  the Cephissus, while to the south-west lay three harbours&mdash;Phalerum,
+  the oldest and nearest; the Piræus, the most important; and Munychia, the
+  Piræan Acropolis. At the height of its prosperity the city was connected
+  with its harbours by three massive walls (the 'long walls'). The
+  architectural development of Athens may be dated from the rule of the
+  Pisistratids (560-510 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), who are credited
+  with the foundation of the huge temple of the Olympian Zeus, completed by
+  Hadrian seven centuries later, the erection of the Pythium or temple of
+  the Pythian Apollo, and of the Lyceum or temple of Apollo
+  Lyceus&mdash;all near the Ilissus; and to whom were due the enclosure of
+  the Academy, a gymnasium and gardens to the north of the city, and the
+  building of the Agora with its Portico or Stoa, Bouleuterium or
+  Senate-house, Tholus, and Prytaneum. With the foundation of Athenian
+  democracy under Clisthenes, the Pnyx or place of public assembly, with
+  its semicircular area and cyclopean wall, first became of importance, and
+  a commencement was made of the Dionysiac theatre (theatre of Dionysus or
+  Bacchus) on the south side of the Acropolis. After the destruction
+  wrought by the Persians in 480 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>,
+  Themistocles reconstructed the city upon practical lines and with a
+  larger area, enclosing the city in new walls 7½ miles in circumference,
+  erecting the north wall of the Acropolis, and developing the maritime
+  resources of the Piræus; while Cimon added to the southern fortifications
+  of the Acropolis, placed on it the temple of Wingless Victory, planted
+  the Agora with trees, laid out the Academy, and built the Theseum on an
+  eminence north of the Areopagus; his brother-in-law, Peisianax, erected
+  the famous Stoa Poecil&#x113;, a hall with walls covered with paintings
+  (whence the <i>Stoics</i> got their name). Under Pericles the highest
+  point of artistic development was reached. An Odeum was erected on the
+  east of the Dionysiac theatre for the recitations of rhapsodists and
+  musicians; and with the aid of the architects Ict&#x12B;nus, Callicrates,
+  and Mnesicles, and of the sculptor Phidias, the Acropolis was perfected.
+  Covering the whole of the western end rose the Propylæa, the splendid
+  structure through which the Acropolis was entered, constructed of
+  Pentelic marble and consisting of a central gateway portico with two
+  wings in the form of Doric temples. Just outside the Propylæa was the
+  small temple of Wingless Victory. A short distance within the entrance
+  stood the bronze statue of Athena Promachus, a colossal work of Phidias,
+  66 feet high, showing the goddess in complete armour and leaning on a
+  lance. Beyond it to the left was the Erechtheum, the shrine of Athena
+  Polias, guardian of the city, containing a very ancient and sacred statue
+  of Athena in olive-wood; while to the right, on the highest part of the
+  Acropolis, was the marble Parthenon or temple of Athena, the crowning
+  glory of the whole. This renowned structure, still glorious in its ruins,
+  was built under the auspices of Pericles, Phidias being the sculptor and
+  artistic adviser, and Ict&#x12B;nus and Callicrates the architects. It is
+  in the Doric style, and among its numerous sculptures were fifty
+  life-size statues, while in the interior was a chryselephantine (gold and
+  ivory) figure of the goddess, 39 feet high. (See <i>Parthenon</i>.) Minor
+  statues and shrines occupied the rest of the area of the Acropolis, which
+  was for the time wholly appropriated to the worship of the guardian
+  deities of the city. The Acropolis museum, a building of recent date,
+  contains an interesting and valuable collection of works of art found
+  here. In the interval between the close of the Peloponnesian War and the
+  battle of Chæronea few additions were made to the city. But the long
+  walls and Piræus, destroyed by Lysander, were restored by Conon, and
+  under the orator Lycurgus the Dionysiac temple was completed, the
+  Panathenaic stadium commenced, and the choragic monuments of Lysicrates
+  and Thrasyllus <!-- Page 295 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page295"></a>[295]</span>erected. Later on Ptolemy Philadelphus
+  gave Athens the Ptolemæum near the Theseum, Attalus I the stoa north-east
+  of the Agora, Eumenes II that near the great theatre, and Antiochus
+  Epiphanes carried on the Olympieum. Under the Romans it continued a
+  flourishing city, Hadrian in the second century adorning it with many new
+  buildings, and constructing an aqueduct, finished by his son Antoninus
+  Pius. At this time also a wealthy citizen, Herodes Atticus, did much to
+  beautify the city, and in particular constructed an Odeum, the ruins of
+  which are still conspicuous. Indeed Athens was at no time more splendid
+  than under the Antonines, when Pausanias visited and described it. But
+  after a time Christian zeal, the attacks of barbarians, and robberies of
+  collectors made sad inroads among the monuments. About <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 420 paganism was totally annihilated at Athens,
+  and when Justinian closed even the schools of the philosophers, the
+  reverence for buildings associated with the names of the ancient deities
+  and heroes was lost. The Parthenon was turned into a church of the Virgin
+  Mary, and St. George stepped into the place of Theseus. Finally, in 1456,
+  the place fell into the hands of the Turks. The Parthenon became a
+  mosque, and in 1687 was greatly damaged by an explosion at the siege of
+  Athens by the Venetians. Enough, however, remains of it and of the
+  neighbouring structures to attest the splendour of the Acropolis; while
+  of the other buildings of the city, the Theseum, or temple of Theseus,
+  and the Horologium, or temple of the Winds, are admirably preserved, as
+  are also structures belonging to the Pnyx, Panathenaic stadium (restored
+  and again used for games), &amp;c. The Theseum, indeed, is said to be the
+  best preserved building of all ancient Greece, and is hardly less
+  imposing than the Parthenon. Of more than a hundred columns that belonged
+  to the Olympieum or temple of the Olympian Zeus, completed by Hadrian,
+  only fifteen are still standing. Soon after the commencement of the war
+  of liberation in 1821 the Turks surrendered Athens, but captured it again
+  in 1826-7. The Great Powers now intervened to bring about the
+  independence of Greece. The Turks evacuated Athens in 1833, and the
+  troops of King Otho then entered the city. In 1835 it became the royal
+  residence, and it soon began to make rapid progress, though its natural
+  position is by no means advantageous. The modern city mostly lies north,
+  north-east, and north-west of the Acropolis, and consists mainly of
+  straight and well-built streets. Among the principal buildings are the
+  royal palace, a stately building with a façade of Pentelic marble
+  (completed 1843), the university, the academy of science, national museum
+  of archaeology, public library, exhibition building, polytechnic
+  institute, theatre, and observatory. There are two universities, the
+  National University, opened in 1836, and the Capodistrian University with
+  3250 students. There are valuable museums, in particular the National
+  Museum and that in the Polytechnic School, which contains the Schliemann
+  collection, &amp;c. These are constantly being added to by excavations.
+  There are four foreign archæological schools or institutes, the French,
+  German, American, and British. The Zappeion or exhibition building is a
+  handsome structure, erected at the expense of the brothers Zappas to
+  exhibit Greek industries. Tramways have been made in the principal
+  streets, and the city is connected by tramway and railway (6 miles) with
+  its port, the Piræus. Athens has also railway connection with the north
+  and west of the kingdom as well as with the Peloponnesus. The Piræus is
+  the chief Greek centre of trade and industry. Water is brought from Mount
+  Pentelicus on the north-east, the aqueduct begun by Hadrian being
+  utilized in supplying the city. Pop. 167,479, and including the Piræus
+  241,058.&mdash;<span class="scac">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span>: E.&nbsp;A. Gardner,
+  <i>Ancient Athens</i>; J.&nbsp;E. Harrison, <i>Mythology and Monuments of
+  Ancient Athens</i>; W. Warde Fowler, <i>The City-State</i>, chapter vi;
+  W.&nbsp;M. Leake, <i>Topography of Athens and the Demi</i>; C.&nbsp;H. Weller,
+  <i>Athens and its Monuments</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athens</b>, the name of many places in the United States, the chief
+  being in Georgia, and containing the Georgia University and the State
+  college of agriculture. It carries on the cotton manufacture, has
+  manufactures of agricultural implements, &amp;c., and is a centre of
+  trade. It was founded in 1801. Pop. 14,913.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ath´erine</b> (<i>Ather&#x12B;na</i>), the name of a genus of small
+  fishes abundant in the Mediterranean and caught in British waters,
+  especially on the coasts of the south of England, some of them being
+  highly esteemed as food. They are also known as <i>Sand-smelts</i>. There
+  are two British species.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athero´ma</b>, in pathology, a term applied to a change that may
+  take place in the inner coat of an artery, consisting in a kind of fatty
+  degeneration, leading to an aneurism or bursting. Also an encysted tumour
+  containing matter of a curdy appearance.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ath´erstone</b>, a town in Warwickshire, England, 8 miles <span
+  class="scac">S.E.</span> of Tamworth, and equidistant (100 miles) from
+  London, Liverpool, and Lincoln. It has manufactures of hats, and is the
+  reputed birthplace of the poet Drayton. Pop. (1921), 20,849 (rural
+  district).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ath´erton</b>, town of England, Lancashire, 13 miles north-west of
+  Manchester; cotton-factories, collieries, and ironworks give chief
+  employment to the inhabitants. Pop. (1921), 19,863.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athletes</b> (ath´l&#x113;ts; Gr. <i>athl&#x113;tai</i>, from
+  <i>athlos</i>, a contest, <i>athlon</i>, a prize), originally, in ancient
+  <!-- Page 296 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page296"></a>[296]</span>Greece, combatants who took part and
+  contended for a prize (<i>athlon</i>) in the public games. The profession
+  was an honourable one; tests of birth, position, and character were
+  imposed, and crowns, statues, special privileges, and pensions were among
+  the rewards of success. (See <i>Games</i>.) The word is used in a similar
+  sense at the present day, but is more especially applied to persons who
+  can exhibit feats of strength. Games and athletic competitions, if they
+  do not hold such an honourable position to-day as they did in antiquity,
+  are still practised with great enthusiasm and excite the keenest interest
+  in their patrons.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athletic Sports</b>, a general name for certain physical exercises
+  demanding a special natural ability, and embodying a variety of events
+  which conventionally include not only running and jumping but such feats
+  of strength as putting the weight and throwing the hammer. The selection
+  of these events at any athletic meeting is a somewhat arbitrary one, and
+  the inclusion of those which require strength and skill rather than speed
+  and agility rests more on a traditional than a logical basis. A
+  particular feature which distinguishes these exercises as athletic sports
+  is the presence of the idea of competition; thus running and walking, as
+  isolated exercises, can be called 'sports' only when men compete against
+  one another, although the factor of competition may be only indirectly
+  present, as when an athlete endeavours to beat a record.</p>
+
+  <p>In this country athletic sports have long been a national
+  characteristic, and records, more or less authentic, have been handed
+  down for the last hundred years or more. Until comparatively recently,
+  such sports have been the prerogative of the British Isles; but during
+  the last thirty years the United States have adopted them with enormous
+  enthusiasm and success, and more recently still the vogue has extended
+  throughout the Continent, and good results have been obtained by
+  representatives from France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Sweden, and
+  Finland, as well as from all the Colonies. In this country no school, no
+  matter how small or how humble its pretensions, fails to hold its
+  athletic meeting annually. The same applies to all colleges of the
+  leading universities, Oxford and Cambridge, the best representatives of
+  which compete against one another, whilst the smaller universities hold
+  similar competitions. In addition, a large number of clubs are in
+  existence throughout the country for the promotion and encouragement of
+  sports, the whole system of athletics being under the Amateur Athletic
+  Association (founded in 1880), whose rules and regulations for the
+  correct maintenance of athletics in the best interests of amateurism are
+  regarded as a standard throughout the world. Under its auspices an annual
+  meeting&mdash;the Amateur Championships&mdash;is held. This meeting is
+  open to the whole world, and many of the championships have been held at
+  one time or another by distinguished visitors from America, the Colonies,
+  and the Continent. At the time of writing, the association is considering
+  the project of holding two distinct annual meetings, one of which shall,
+  as hitherto, be unrestricted, the other confined to residents in the
+  British Isles. This, which is the most important meeting of the year, has
+  taken place uninterruptedly since its origin in 1866 with the exception
+  of the military interval, 1915-8, and has been successfully resumed in
+  1919. For the past fourteen or fifteen years the meeting has been held in
+  London on the first Saturday in July, and this practice will probably be
+  a permanent one, although hitherto the venue was, in rotation, London,
+  the Midlands, and the North. The university and inter-university meetings
+  are held before Easter, the former at the respective university towns,
+  the latter at Queen's Club, London. Among other important representative
+  contests may be mentioned the Public Schools' Championships (usually in
+  April), the United Hospitals' Championships, the Irish, the Scottish, the
+  Welsh, the Midland and the Northern Counties' Championships. During the
+  war, athletics were practically restricted to the services, and the Army
+  Athletic Championships, held in Aug., 1919, was a successful reunion of
+  soldier athletes from the various theatres of war, and included, for the
+  first time in history, coloured troops.</p>
+
+  <p>The standard inter-university meeting comprises ten events, namely,
+  flat races&mdash;100 yards, ¼ mile, ½ mile, 1 mile, and 3 miles;
+  120-yards hurdle race; the high jump and long jump; putting the weight
+  and throwing the hammer. These events appear in the programme of the
+  Amateur Championship meeting, with the substitution of a 4-miles race for
+  the 3 miles, and the addition of a 220-yards race, a 2-miles walking
+  race, a 2-miles steeplechase (representing a miniature cross-country
+  event), and the pole jump. A relay race, in which four representatives
+  from each club run half a mile, a quarter of a mile, 220 yards, and 220
+  yards respectively, is also included as a standard event; whilst at the
+  1919 meeting a race of 440 yards over hurdles appeared for the first
+  time, and will probably occupy a permanent place in the programme. Two
+  additional Amateur Championship events, 7-miles walk and 10-miles flat
+  race, are usually held at a separate meeting in the spring.</p>
+
+  <p>In addition to the preceding British meetings, a great International
+  contest, the Olympic Games, is held every four years in a country
+  selected by the Olympic committee. This meeting is truly international,
+  the last before 1914 <!-- Page 297 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page297"></a>[297]</span>having taken place at Stockholm in 1912,
+  when representatives from the most distant parts of the world competed
+  with representatives from every country in Europe in a remarkably
+  elaborate programme, which included, in addition to the preceding, such
+  feats as throwing the javelin and the discus, and the classic 'Marathon
+  race' over the traditional distance of 26¼ miles. The 1920 Olympic
+  meeting was arranged to take place at Antwerp.</p>
+
+  <p>Although many excellently arranged athletic sports are held
+  successfully upon a grass course, at any important meeting the races are
+  contested upon a properly-constructed cinder-path, a quarter or a third
+  of a mile in length, and in shape an oval flattened on two sides so as to
+  include as much straight as possible. The width of the running path is
+  variable, but 18 to 24 feet may be regarded as an average. The centre is
+  of grass, and spaces are prepared for the hurdle race, for the jumps, and
+  the other events which are described as the <i>field</i>, as opposed to
+  <i>track</i>, events.</p>
+
+  <p>Flat races are classified as 'sprint races', 'middle distance' and
+  'long distance' races, although the distinction between these is somewhat
+  arbitrary. Whether or no a man is actually capable of running the whole
+  distance in question at full speed, the term 'sprint' is applied to those
+  distances in which an attempt is made to put forth a continuous maximum
+  effort. The limit is, by general consent, fixed at 300 yards. At any good
+  meeting the 100-yards race will be run in 10 seconds; at the very best
+  meeting this time will be beaten; and many runners have been credited
+  with 9<sup>4</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds, a few, under exceptional
+  conditions, with 9<sup>3</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds. The record for 220
+  yards is 21<sup>1</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds. Middle-distance running
+  includes races from a quarter mile to a mile, and races are held at 440
+  yards, 600 yards, 880 yards, 1000 yards, 1 mile, and very occasionally at
+  ¾ mile. With modern specialization, however, it is rare to find any one
+  runner capable of supremacy at more than one of these distances. The ¼
+  mile is the common ground for the sprinter and the middle-distance
+  runner, and 48 seconds has been beaten on several occasions, although it
+  may be said that anything inside 50 seconds is a first-class performance.
+  The record for 600 yards is 1 minute 11 seconds. The ½-mile race has
+  demonstrated latterly, perhaps, the greatest advance of all; and whilst
+  anything under 2 minutes may still be regarded as a good performance, a
+  championship event will most always be won in 3 or 4 seconds faster time;
+  whilst at an Olympic meeting the wonderful record of 1 minute 52½ seconds
+  has been made. The mile, which was originally regarded as a long-distance
+  event, is now legitimately considered as within the capacity of a
+  middle-distance runner. At any first-class meeting 4 minutes 20 seconds
+  will be accomplished, and any diminution of this time may be regarded as
+  of superlative merit. The record, which has stood since 1886, is 4
+  minutes 12¾ seconds, although a recent performance in America, which is a
+  tiny fraction of a second faster, has yet to be passed. Over 1 mile,
+  long-distance running begins, and, as considerable staying-power is
+  required, it is not unusual to find one man prove champion at 4 miles and
+  10 miles, and even the 1-mile race in the same year. No runner has yet
+  achieved the capacity of running 12 miles within the hour, although two
+  or three have been within a few hundred yards of this distance. About ten
+  years ago the fashion became a craze of contesting 'Marathon races' in
+  which all sorts of distances, quite independent of the classic 26¼ miles,
+  were employed. At rare intervals very long-distance running, such as 50
+  miles, is indulged in. For any distance over 20 miles a special form of
+  endurance is called for, rather than orthodox running in good style. As a
+  competition 'walking' is an unsatisfactory exercise, because of the
+  extreme difficulty in deciding when the athlete is still fulfilling the
+  orthodox regulation as to what constitutes fair 'heel and toe', inasmuch
+  as the style of a man who is ostensibly walking, yet actually progressing
+  at a rate faster than 9 miles an hour (faster than the average untrained
+  person can run), is exceedingly difficult to analyse. About fifteen years
+  ago long-distance walking became exceedingly popular, and hundreds of
+  competitors attempted the classic walk to Brighton and back.</p>
+
+  <p>The usual hurdle race is over 120 yards, with ten flights of hurdles
+  10 yards apart, so that a distance of 15 yards separates the start from
+  the first flight, and the same distance the last flight from the finish.
+  The hurdles are 3½ feet high, with perfectly-level top rails. In correct
+  'hurdling' the 'three-stride method' is essential, that is to say, three
+  strides are taken on the flat between the hurdles, and the athlete rises
+  6 feet from the obstacle, taking it in his stride, so that retardation of
+  speed is reduced to a minimum. The skill and accuracy of an accomplished
+  hurdler is remarkable, and the race is frequently run inside 16 seconds;
+  a record of 15 seconds, and even a trifle less, has been
+  accomplished.</p>
+
+  <p>In this country, running long jump and high jump (and to a less extent
+  the pole jump) alone are practised to any extent, although as occasional
+  events the standing high and long jumps are contested, and, still less
+  frequently, the old-fashioned hop, step, and jump. In the long jump the
+  athlete employs all the impetus he can acquire by a sprint of about 30
+  yards. The ideal aimed at is to run at the fastest speed which is <!--
+  Page 298 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page298"></a>[298]</span>consistent with reaching the taking-off
+  board with accuracy, and then to leap as high as possible. A fraction of
+  an inch under 25 feet has been cleared on two occasions, although it may
+  be said that anything over 24 feet is exceptional, and that any jumper
+  capable of 23 feet consistently has a good chance to win an Amateur
+  Championship. The high jump requires skill of a very peculiar character.
+  Whilst the novice regards this feat as dependent on momentum, and takes a
+  correspondingly long run to acquire speed, the crack performer employs
+  his capacity of manipulating his body and limbs so as to cross the bar in
+  a horizontal position. In this way the prodigious height of 6 feet 7
+  inches has been cleared. In general it may be said that first-class
+  jumping begins at 6 feet.</p>
+
+  <p>Pole jumping, a particularly pretty event to watch, has never been
+  practised to any great extent in this country, and, in fact, does not
+  even appear to be so popular here as twenty years ago. The pole employed
+  is of light but strong bamboo about 14 feet long, with a sharp ferrule at
+  one end, which is stuck firmly into the ground. By the help of the pole,
+  which is firmly grasped near the other end, the jumper elevates himself
+  to the bar, over which he throws his legs and his body, finally
+  relinquishing his hold of the pole, to fall on the opposite side. Recent
+  years have witnessed the development of great skill in this event,
+  particularly by the Americans, Canadians, and Swedes, and 13 feet has
+  been cleared.</p>
+
+  <p>The weight or shot is an iron ball weighing 16 lb., which must be put
+  with one hand only from the shoulder within a circle of 7 feet diameter.
+  Although great strength is essential, skill in utilizing the whole of the
+  body plays a very important part. Over 50 feet has been put on several
+  occasions.</p>
+
+  <p>The 'hammer' is a ball of lead or iron attached by a wire to a handle.
+  The total length must not exceed four feet; the weight of the whole must
+  be at least 16 lb. The performer grasps the handle with one or both
+  hands, and, standing within a 7-foot circle, swings the ball round and
+  round to acquire impetus, which is then increased by rapid rotatory
+  movements of his body. Once again skill and co-ordination must be wedded
+  to strength. A crack performer has thrown over 175 feet.</p>
+
+  <p>Throwing the javelin and discus are classical rather than popular
+  events, and their cultivation is fashionable only when an Olympic contest
+  is imminent. Among other 'strong-men' contests, which have long been
+  favourite sports in Scotland, are tossing the <i>caber</i> and putting
+  the stone. The latter is usually a very heavy implement weighing about 56
+  lb.; the 'caber' is the trunk of a fir or other tree, freed from
+  branches, which is held upright close to the chest by the smaller end,
+  and thrown so as to alight on the heavier end.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography:</span> <i>Encyclopædia of Sports and Games</i>;
+  <i>Annual Sporting and Athletic Register</i>; F.&nbsp;A. M. Webster, <i>The
+  Evolution of the Olympic Games, 1829</i> <span
+  class="scac">B.C.-A.D.</span> <i>1914</i>; G. Le Roy, <i>Athlétisme</i>;
+  E.&nbsp;W. Hjertberg, <i>Athletics in Theory and Practice</i>; P. Withington,
+  <i>The Book of Athletics</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athlone´</b>, a town of Ireland, divided by the Shannon into two
+  parts, one in Westmeath, the other in Roscommon; about 76 miles west of
+  Dublin. Its position has made it one of the chief military depots, and a
+  centre of trade by river, canal, and railway. It manufactures woollen
+  goods, linens, &amp;c. Up to 1885 it sent one member to Parliament. Pop.
+  7500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ath´oll</b>, or <b>Athole</b>, a mountainous and romantic district
+  in the north of Perthshire, Scotland, giving the title to a duke of the
+  Murray family who owns a large area there.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athor</b>, <b>Hathor</b>, or <b>Het-her</b>, an Egyptian goddess,
+  identified with Aphrod&#x12B;t&#x113; or Venus. Her symbol was the cow
+  bearing on its head the solar disc and hawk-feather plumes. Her chief
+  temple was at Denderah. From her the third month of the Egyptian year
+  derived its name.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´thos</b> (now <b>Hagion Oros</b> or <b>Monte Santo</b>, that is,
+  Holy Mountain), a mountain 6700 feet high, terminating the most eastern
+  of the three peninsulas of Macedonia that jut in parallel directions into
+  the Archipelago. The name, however, is frequently applied to the whole
+  peninsula, which is about 30 miles long by 5 broad. It is covered with
+  forests, and plantations of olive, vine, and other fruit-trees. Both the
+  surface and coast-line are irregular. The Persian fleet under Mardonius
+  was wrecked here in 493 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and to avoid a
+  similar calamity Xerxes caused a canal, of which traces may yet be seen,
+  to be cut through the isthmus that joins the peninsula to the mainland.
+  On the peninsula there are situated about twenty monasteries and a
+  multitude of hermitages, which contain from 6000 to 8000 monks and
+  hermits of the order of St. Basil. The libraries of the monasteries are
+  rich in literary treasures and manuscripts. Every nation belonging to the
+  Greek Church has here one or more monasteries of its own, which are
+  annually visited by pilgrims. After having passed in the fifteenth
+  century from the sovereignty of the Greek Emperors of Byzantium to that
+  of the Sultans, it fell again into the hands of the Greeks, who occupied
+  it in Nov., 1912. Each of the twenty monasteries is a little republic in
+  itself, and until 1912 they used to pay an annual tribute of nearly £4000
+  to the Turks, and were governed by a synod of twenty monastic deputies
+  and four presidents meeting weekly. They are now ruled either by abbots
+  chosen for life, or by a board of overseers elected for a certain number
+  of years. The revenue of the community is derived from <!-- Page 299
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page299"></a>[299]</span>pilgrims, and
+  from a considerable trade in amulets, rosaries, crucifixes, images, and
+  wooden furniture.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Athy´</b>, a town in Ireland, county of Kildare, 37 miles
+  south-west of Dublin, on the Barrow, which is here joined by the Grand
+  Canal. Its chief trade is in corn. Pop. 3535.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atit´lan</b>, a lake and mountain of Central America in Guatemala.
+  The lake is about 24 miles long and 10 broad; the mountain is an active
+  volcano 12,160 feet high.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atlan´ta</b>, a city in the United States, capital of Georgia, on
+  an elevated ridge, 7 miles south-east of the Chattahoochee River. It is
+  an important railway centre; carries on a large trade in grain, paper,
+  cotton, flour, and especially tobacco, and possesses flour-mills,
+  paper-mills, ironworks, &amp;c. Here are Atlanta University for negro men
+  and women, a theological college, a medical college, &amp;c. Atlanta
+  suffered severely during the Civil War, and a battle was fought there on
+  22nd July, 1864. A fire which broke out on 21st May, 1917, caused damage
+  estimated at more than £1,000,000. Pop. (1920), 200,600.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atlan´tes</b>, or <b>Telam&#x14D;nes</b>, in architecture, male
+  figures used in place of columns or pilasters for the support of an
+  entablature or cornice. Female figures so employed are termed
+  <i>caryatides</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atlantic City</b>, a fashionable watering-place of the United
+  States, on the coast of New Jersey. It is an important air port, and has
+  an aerodrome covering about 160 acres. Pop. 50,682.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atlantic Ocean</b>, the vast expanse of sea lying between the west
+  coasts of Europe and Africa and the east coasts of North and South
+  America, and extending from the Arctic to the Antarctic Ocean; greatest
+  breadth, between the west coast of Northern Africa and the east coast of
+  Florida, 4150 miles; least breadth, between Norway and Greenland, 930
+  miles. The total area of the North Atlantic (including the inland seas)
+  is 13,262,000 sq. miles; the area of the South Atlantic is 12,627,000 sq.
+  miles. The principal inlets and bays are Baffin's and Hudson's Bays, the
+  Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, the North Sea, the Bay of Biscay, and
+  the Gulf of Guinea. The principal islands north of the equator are
+  Iceland, the Faroe and British Islands, the Azores, Canaries, and Cape
+  Verde Islands, Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the West India Islands; and
+  south of the equator, Ascension, St. Helena, and Tristan da Cunha.</p>
+
+  <p>The great currents of the Atlantic are the Equatorial Current
+  (divisible into the Main, Northern, and Southern Equatorial Currents),
+  the Gulf Stream, the North African and Guinea Current, the Southern
+  Connecting Current, the Southern Atlantic Current, the Cape Horn Current,
+  Rennel's Current, and the Arctic Current. The current system is primarily
+  set in motion by the trade-winds which drive the water of the
+  intertropical region from Africa towards the American coasts. The Main
+  Equatorial Current, passing across the Atlantic, is turned by the S.
+  American coast, along which it runs at a rate of 30 to 50 miles a day,
+  till, having received part of the North Equatorial Current, it enters the
+  Gulf of Mexico. Issuing thence between Florida and Cuba under the name of
+  the Gulf Stream, it flows with a gradually-expanding channel nearly
+  parallel to the coast of the United States. It then turns north-eastward
+  into the mid-Atlantic, the larger proportion of it passing southward to
+  the east of the Azores to swell the North African and Guinea Current
+  created by the northerly winds off the Portuguese coast. The Guinea
+  Current, which takes a southerly course, is divided into two on arriving
+  at the region of the north-east trades, part of it flowing east to the
+  Bight of Biafra and joining the South African feeder of the Main
+  Equatorial, but the larger portion being carried westward into the North
+  Equatorial drift. Rennel's Current, which is possibly a continuation of
+  the Gulf Stream, enters the Bay of Biscay from the west, curves round its
+  coast, and then turns north-west towards Cape Clear. The Arctic Current
+  runs along the east coast of Greenland (being here called the Greenland
+  Current), doubles Cape Farewell, and flows up towards Davis' Strait; it
+  then turns to the south along the coasts of Labrador and the United
+  States, from which it separates the Gulf Stream by a cold band of water.
+  Immense masses of ice are borne south by this current from the Polar
+  seas. In the interior of the North Atlantic there is a large area
+  comparatively free from currents, called the Sargasso Sea, from the large
+  quantity of sea-weed (of the genus Sargassum) which drifts into it. A
+  similar area exists in the South Atlantic. In the South Atlantic the
+  portion of the Equatorial Current which strikes the American coast below
+  Cape St. Roque flows southward at the rate of from 12 to 20 miles a day
+  along the Brazil coast under the name of the Brazil Current. It then
+  turns eastward and forms the South Connecting Current, which, on reaching
+  the South African coast, turns northward into the Main and Southern
+  Equatorial Currents. Besides the surface currents, an under current of
+  cold water flows from the poles to the equator, and an upper current of
+  warm water from the equator towards the poles.</p>
+
+  <p>The greatest depth as yet discovered is north of Porto Rico, in the
+  West Indies, namely 27,360 feet. Cross-sections of the North Atlantic
+  between Europe and America show that its bed consists of two great
+  valleys lying in a north-and-south direction, and separated by a ridge,
+  on which there is an average depth of 1800 fathoms. <!-- Page 300
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page300"></a>[300]</span>The mean depth
+  of the North Atlantic is 2047 fathoms, that of the South Atlantic 2067
+  fathoms. A ridge, called the <i>Wyville-Thomson Ridge</i>, with a depth
+  of little more than 200 fathoms above it, runs from near the Butt of
+  Lewis to Iceland, cutting off the colder water of the Arctic Ocean from
+  the warmer water of the Atlantic. The South Atlantic, of which the
+  greatest depth yet found is over 3000 fathoms, resembles the North
+  Atlantic in having an elevated plateau or ridge in the centre with a deep
+  trough on either side. The saltness and specific gravity of the Atlantic
+  gradually diminish from the tropics to the poles, and also from within a
+  short distance of the tropics to the equator. In the neighbourhood of the
+  British Isles the salt has been stated at one thirty-eighth of the weight
+  of the water. The North Atlantic is the greatest highway of ocean traffic
+  in the world. It is also a great area of submarine communication, by
+  means of the telegraphic cables that are laid across its bed. See
+  <i>Oceanography</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atlantic Telegraph.</b> See <i>Telegraph</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atlan´tides</b> (-d&#x113;z), a name given to the Pleiades, which
+  were fabled to be the seven daughters of Atlas or of his brother
+  Hesperus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atlan´tis</b>, an island which, according to Plato, existed in the
+  Atlantic over against the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), was
+  the home of a great nation, and was finally swallowed up by the sea. The
+  legend has been accepted by some as fundamentally true; but others have
+  regarded it as the outgrowth of some early discovery of the New
+  World.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atlan´tosaurus</b>, a gigantic fossil reptile, ord. Dinosauria,
+  obtained in the upper Jurassic strata of the Rocky Mountains, attaining a
+  length of 110 feet or more.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atlas</b>, an extensive mountain system in North Africa, starting
+  near Cape Nun on the Atlantic Ocean, traversing Morocco, Algiers, and
+  Tunis, and terminating on the coast of the Mediterranean; divided
+  generally into two parallel ranges, running <span class="scac">W.</span>
+  to <span class="scac">E.</span>, the Greater Atlas lying towards the
+  Sahara and the Lesser Atlas towards the Mediterranean. The principal
+  chain is about 1500 miles long, and the principal peaks rise above or
+  approach the line of perpetual congelation, Miltsin in Morocco being
+  11,400 feet high, and Tizi Likumpt being 13,150. The highest elevation is
+  perhaps Tizi Tamyurt, estimated at fully 15,000 feet. Silver, antimony,
+  lead, copper, iron, &amp;c., are among the minerals. The vegetation is
+  chiefly European in character, except on the low grounds and next the
+  desert.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atlas</b>, in Greek mythology, the name of a Titan whom Zeus
+  condemned to bear the vault of heaven.&mdash;The same name is given to a
+  collection of maps and charts, and was first used by Gerard Mercator in
+  the sixteenth century, the figure of Atlas bearing the globe being given
+  on the title-pages of such works.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atlas</b>, in anatomy, is the name of the first vertebra of the
+  neck, which supports the head. It is connected with the occipital bone in
+  such a way as to permit of the nodding movement of the head, and rests on
+  the second vertebra or <i>axis</i>, their union allowing the head to turn
+  from side to side.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´las</b>, a kind of silk or silk-satin fabric of Eastern
+  manufacture.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atmidom´eter</b>, an instrument for measuring the evaporation from
+  water, ice, or snow. It somewhat resembles Nicholson's hydrometer, being
+  constructed so as to float in water and having an upright graduated stem,
+  on the top of which is a metal pan. Water, ice, or snow is put into the
+  pan, so as to sink the zero of the stem to a level with the cover of the
+  vessel, and as evaporation goes on the stem rises, showing the amount of
+  evaporation in grains.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atmom´eter</b>, an instrument for measuring the amount of
+  evaporation from a moist surface in a given time. It is often a thin
+  hollow ball of porous earthenware in which is inserted a graduated glass
+  tube. The cavity of the ball and tube being filled with water and the top
+  of the tube closed, the instrument is exposed to the free action of the
+  air; the relative rapidity with which the water transuding through the
+  porous substance is evaporated is marked by the scale on the tube as the
+  water sinks.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´mosphere</b>, primarily the gaseous envelope which surrounds the
+  earth; but the term is applied to that of any orb. Twilight effects show
+  that the atmosphere is sufficiently dense up to a height of 40 miles to
+  scatter or reflect to an appreciable degree the sun's rays, while the
+  phenomena of meteors, which are rendered luminous through friction, show
+  that it extends, though in extremely attenuated form, to 100 or even 200
+  or more miles. It exerts on every part of the earth's surface a pressure
+  of about 15 (14.73) lb. per sq. inch. The existence of this atmospheric
+  pressure was first proved by Torricelli, who thus accounted for the rush
+  of a liquid to fill a vacuum, and who, working out the idea, produced the
+  first barometer. The average height of the mercurial column
+  counterbalancing the atmospheric weight at the sea-level is a little less
+  than 30 inches; but the pressure varies from hour to hour, and, roughly
+  speaking, diminishes in geometrical progression with arithmetical
+  increase in altitude. Of periodic variations there are two maxima of
+  daily pressure, occurring when the temperature is about the mean of the
+  day, and two minima, when it is at its highest and lowest respectively;
+  but the problems of diurnal and seasonal oscillations have yet to be
+  fully solved. The pressure <!-- Page 301 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page301"></a>[301]</span>upon the human body of average size is no
+  less than 14 tons, but as it is exerted equally in all directions no
+  inconvenience is caused by it. It is sometimes convenient to take the
+  atmospheric pressure as a standard for measuring other fluid pressures;
+  thus the steam pressure of 30 lb. per sq. inch on a boiler is spoken of
+  as a pressure of two atmospheres.</p>
+
+  <p>The atmosphere, first subjected to analysis by Priestley and Scheele
+  in the latter part of the eighteenth century, consists practically of
+  oxygen and nitrogen in the almost constant proportion of 20.81 volumes of
+  oxygen to 79.19 volumes of nitrogen, or, by weight, 23.01 parts of oxygen
+  to 76.99 of nitrogen. The gases are associated together, not as a
+  chemical compound, but as a mechanical mixture. Upon the oxygen present
+  depends the power of the atmosphere to support combustion and
+  respiration, the nitrogen acting as a diluent to prevent its too
+  energetic action. It had long been known that atmospheric nitrogen
+  appeared to have a very slightly greater density than nitrogen obtained
+  from other sources. Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay found that the
+  fact was due to a still more inert gas which forms nearly 1 per cent of
+  the air, and which had not previously been separated from nitrogen. This
+  has been named <i>argon</i>. Besides these gases, the atmosphere also
+  contains aqueous vapour in variable quantity, ozone, carbonic acid gas,
+  traces of ammonia, nitric acid, and, in towns, sulphuretted hydrogen and
+  sulphurous acid gas. In addition to its gaseous constituents the
+  atmosphere is charged with dust, bacteria, &amp;c. For other gases which
+  are present in traces, see <i>Neon</i>. See <i>Climate</i>;
+  <i>Meteorology</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C.
+  Flammarion, <i>L'Atmosphère</i>; Sir Napier Shaw, <i>The Weather
+  Map</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atmospheric Engine</b>, name given by early inventors to engines in
+  which the piston is restored to the bottom of its stroke by atmospheric
+  pressure.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atmospheric Railway</b>, so called in consequence of the motive
+  power being derived from the pressure of the atmosphere, or from
+  compressed air. The idea of thus obtaining motion was first suggested by
+  the French engineer Papin, about 200 years ago. In 1810, and again in
+  1827, Medhurst published a scheme for 'propelling carriages through a
+  close-fitting air-tight tunnel by forcing in air behind them'; and in
+  1825 a similar project was patented by Vallance of Brighton. About 1835
+  H. Pinkus, an American residing in England, patented a pneumatic railway.
+  The carriages were to travel on an open line of rails, along which a
+  cast-iron tube of between 3 and 4 feet diameter was to be laid, having a
+  longitudinal slit from 1 to 2 inches wide and closed by a flexible valve
+  along its upper side, through which a connection could be formed between
+  the leading carriage and a piston working within the tube. This method
+  was improved by Messrs. Clegg &amp; Samuda, who in 1840 tried some
+  experiments on a portion of the West London Railway with sufficient
+  success to induce the Government to advance a loan to the Dublin and
+  Kingstown Railway Company, for the construction of a pneumatic line from
+  Kingstown to Dalkey. It was opened for passenger traffic at the end of
+  1843, and was worked for many months. The London and Croydon Company
+  subsequently obtained powers for laying down an atmospheric railway by
+  the side of their other line from London to Croydon, and in experimental
+  trips in 1845 a speed of 30 miles an hour was obtained with sixteen
+  carriages, and of 70 miles with six carriages. But during the intense
+  heat of the summer of 1846 the iron tube frequently became so hot as to
+  melt the composition which sealed the valve, and the line had to be
+  worked by locomotives. The mechanical difficulty of commanding a
+  sufficient amount of rarefaction led to the abandonment of the system for
+  railway purposes. It has been revived, however, for the conveyance of
+  letters and parcels in towns by means of tubes of moderate diameter laid
+  beneath the streets. See <i>Pneumatic Dispatch</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:63%;">
+      <a href="images/image120.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image120.jpg"
+      alt="Atoll" title="Atoll" /></a>
+    Atoll
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Atoll´</b>, the Polynesian name for coral islands of the ringed
+  type enclosing a lagoon in the centre. They are found chiefly in the
+  Pacific in archipelagos, and occasionally are of large size. Suadiva
+  Atoll is 44 miles by 34; Rimsky 54 by 20. See <i>Coral</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atomic Theory</b>, a theory as to the existence and properties of
+  atoms (see <i>Atoms</i>); especially, in chemistry, the theory accounting
+  for the fact that in compound bodies the elements combine in certain
+  constant proportions, by assuming that all bodies are composed of
+  ultimate atoms, the weight of which is different in different kinds of
+  matter. It is associated with the name of Dalton, who systematized and
+  extended the imperfect results of his predecessors. On its practical side
+  the atomic theory asserts three <i>Laws of Combining Proportions</i>: (1)
+  The Law of Constant or Definite Proportions, teaching that in every
+  chemical compound the nature and relative weights of the constituent
+  elements are definite and invariable; thus water invariably consists of 8
+  parts by weight of oxygen to 1 part by weight of hydrogen; (2) The Law of
+  Multiple Proportions, according to which the several proportions in which
+  one element unites with a given weight of another invariably bear towards
+  each other a simple relation; thus 1 part by weight of hydrogen unites
+  with 8 parts by weight of oxygen to form water, and with 16 (i.e. 8×2)
+  parts of oxygen to form peroxide of hydrogen; (3) The Law of Combination
+  <!-- Page 302 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page302"></a>[302]</span>in Reciprocal Proportions, that the
+  proportions in which two elements combine with a third also represent the
+  proportions in which, or in some simple multiple of which, they will
+  themselves combine; thus in olefiant gas hydrogen is present with carbon
+  in the proportion of 1 to 6, and in carbonic oxide, oxygen is present
+  with carbon in the proportion of 8 to 6, 1 to 8 being also the
+  proportions in which hydrogen and oxygen combine with each other. The
+  theory that these <i>proportional numbers</i> are, in fact, nothing else
+  but the relative weights of atoms so far accounts for the phenomena that
+  the existence of these laws might have been predicted by the aid of the
+  atomic hypothesis long before they were actually discovered by analysis.
+  In themselves, however, the laws do not prove the theory of the existence
+  of ultimate particles of matter of a certain relative weight; and
+  although many chemists, even without expressly adopting the atomic theory
+  itself, have followed Dalton in the use of the terms <i>atom</i> and
+  <i>atomic weight</i>, in preference to <i>proportion</i>, <i>combining
+  weight</i>, <i>equivalent</i>, and the like, yet in using the word
+  <i>atom</i> it should be held in mind that it merely denotes the
+  combining weights of the elements. These will remain the same whether the
+  atomic hypothesis which suggested the employment of the term be true or
+  false. Dalton supposed that the atoms are spherical, and invented certain
+  symbols to represent the mode in which he conceived they might combine.
+  The latest atomic hypothesis is one which assigns an electrical structure
+  to the atom. See <i>Chemistry</i>; <i>Electricity</i>; <i>Matter</i>. Cf.
+  H.&nbsp;E. Roscoe and A. Harden, <i>New View of Dalton's Atomic Theory</i>;
+  Sir J.&nbsp;J. Thomson, <i>Atomic Theory</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atomic Weights.</b> See <i>Chemistry</i>; <i>Molecular
+  Weights</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atomists.</b> See <i>Atoms</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atoms</b>, for many years regarded as the ultimate indivisible
+  particles of the chemical elements. The idea originated with some of the
+  ancient philosophers (the atomists), more especially Democritus (450
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), Epicurus, and Lucretius (99-55 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>), and was developed into a definite theory by
+  Dalton (1804). According to Dalton the atoms of any one element are alike
+  in all their properties, but differ from the atoms of other elements, and
+  when chemical combination occurs it takes place between the atoms of the
+  combining elements (see <i>Chemistry</i>). Various views have been held
+  with regard to the nature of atoms. Newton regarded them as hard,
+  ponderable particles, perfectly unalterable, and concluded that the
+  difference between substances was due to different kinds of atoms. Lord
+  Kelvin propounded the view that the properties of atoms might be
+  explained by those of vortices or vortex rings in a homogeneous
+  frictionless fluid. As a result of the researches of British and French
+  physicists on radium, the latest view is that matter and electricity are
+  closely connected, that atoms are not indivisible, but complex aggregates
+  containing positive and negative electrons, the differences between the
+  atoms depending mainly on the numbers of these electrons and their
+  velocity. See <i>Radium</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atonement</b>, in Christian theology, the special work of Christ
+  effected by His life, sufferings, and death. The first explicit
+  exposition of the evangelical doctrine of the atonement is ascribed to
+  Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1093.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atrato</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-trä´t&#x14D;), a river of S. America, in
+  the north-west of Colombia, emptying itself by nine mouths into the Gulf
+  of Darien; it is navigable by steamers of some size for 250 miles, and
+  has long been the subject of schemes for establishing water-communication
+  between the Atlantic and Pacific.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atrauli</b>, a town of India, United Provinces, Aligarh district,
+  clean, well built, and with a good trade. Pop. 16,560.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1
+Part 2, by Various
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+Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 2, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 2
+       Amiel to Atrauli
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34074]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 2 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+are listed at the end of the text.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron";
+[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above";
+[n.] "n with dot below"; [:a] "a with diaeresis"; and so forth.
+
+THE
+
+NEW . GRESHAM
+
+ENCYCLOPEDIA
+
+VOLUME . I . PART . 2
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING
+COMPANY . _Limited_
+
+66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND
+LONDON W.C.2.
+1922
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+VOLUME I PART 2
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PLATES
+
+                                                                  Page
+
+  ANATOMY (Human Skeleton and Muscles)                            153
+
+  ARCHAEOLOGY (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages)   220
+
+  ARCHITECTURE                                                    224
+
+
+MAPS IN COLOUR
+
+  ASIA                                                            274
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
+the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
+transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--
+
+VOWELS
+
+[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.
+
+[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _a_me, Ger. B_a_hn = a of Indian names.
+
+[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.
+
+a, as in f_a_t.
+
+[a:], as in f_a_ll.
+
+_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
+in Indian names.
+
+[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.
+
+e, as in m_e_t.
+
+[.e], as in h_e_r.
+
+[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.
+
+i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
+French and Italian words.
+
+_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eu_ne = Ger. long _oe_, as in S_oe_hne,
+G_oe_the (Goethe).
+
+eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _oe_ short.
+
+[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.
+
+o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.
+
+[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.
+
+[=u] as in t_u_be.
+
+u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.
+
+[u:], as in b_u_ll.
+
+[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _u_ as in d_u_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in
+gr_ue_n, B_ue_hne.
+
+[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
+M_ue_ller.
+
+oi, as in _oi_l.
+
+ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.
+
+CONSONANTS
+
+Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
+have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
+The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
+being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
+explanation are the following:--
+
+ch is always as in ri_ch_.
+
+_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.
+
+g is always hard, as in _g_o.
+
+_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
+similar gutturals.
+
+[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.
+
+r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
+much more strongly trilled.
+
+s, always as in _s_o.
+
+th, as _th_ in _th_in.
+
+_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.
+
+w always consonantal, as in _w_e.
+
+x = ks, which are used instead.
+
+y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
+l[=e]ny).
+
+zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+AMIEL', Henri Frederic, French-Swiss philosophical writer and poet, born at
+Geneva, 1821, died there 1881. Educated at Geneva, he resided a
+considerable time abroad, especially in Germany, and was much influenced by
+German thought and science. On his return he first held the chair of
+aesthetics, and then that of philosophy. He published several volumes of
+poetry as well as other works, but he is best known by his _Journal
+Intime_, published after his death, and translated into English (1885),
+with a critical study by Mrs. Humphry Ward. It shows great critical and
+philosophical power, but is pessimistic.
+
+AMIENS ([.a]-m[=e]-a[n.]), a town of France, capital of the department of
+Somme, on the railway from Boulogne to Paris. It has a citadel, wide and
+regular streets, and several large open areas; a cathedral, one of the
+largest and finest Gothic buildings in Europe, founded in 1220 by Bishop
+Evrard, after designs made by the architect Robert de Luzarches. Having
+water communication with the sea by the Somme, which is navigable for small
+vessels, it has a large trade and numerous important manufactures,
+especially cotton and woollen goods. It was taken by the Germans in 1870,
+and again in 1914, by General von Kluck. Pop. (1911) 93,207.--The _Peace of
+Amiens_, concluded between Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Batavian
+Republic, 27th March, 1802, put an end for a time to the great war which
+had lasted since 1793.
+
+AMIR. See _Emir_.
+
+AMIRANTE ISLANDS ([.a]-m[=e]-r[.a]n't[=a]), a group of eleven small islands
+in the Indian Ocean, lying south-west of the Seychelles, and forming a
+dependency of Mauritius.
+
+AMLWCH (am'loe_h_), a seaport in North Wales, Island of Anglesey. Pop.
+(1921), 2694 (urb. dist.).
+
+AMMANA'TI, Bartolomeo, a sculptor and architect, born at Florence in 1511,
+died 1592; executed the _Leda_ at Florence, a gigantic _Neptune_ for St.
+Mark's Place at Venice, a colossal _Hercules_ at Padua, and after the
+inundation in 1557, which destroyed all the bridges of the Arno, built the
+celebrated Trinity Bridge at Florence, finished in 1570. He was an imitator
+of Michael Angelo without his inspiration and genius.
+
+AMMERGAU ([.a]m'er-gou), a district in Upper Bavaria, having its centre in
+the villages of Ober and Unter Ammergau. The former village is famous on
+account of the Passion Play which is performed there, at intervals usually
+of ten years.
+
+[Illustration: Ammeter.--Front removed to show details.
+
+A. Large magnet. B. Soft-iron keeper magnetized by magnet and acting as
+resistance. D. Cylinder turning within B, and actuated by current entering
+at C1, and flowing through spiral wire (not shown) at base of D, and
+through coil on cylinder to terminal C2. E. Hair-spring regulating pointer.
+F. Pointer stops.]
+
+AM'METER (short for ampere-meter), an instrument used for the measurement
+of electric currents. For commercial use the scale is marked so as to read
+amperes directly, but for experimental purposes it is usual to have a scale
+with divisions numbered in tens, in which case the reading multiplied by a
+suitable constant gives the value of the current in amperes. By employing
+suitable shunts this admits of the one instrument being used for a number
+of ranges.
+
+The types of ammeter and the principles upon which they work are as
+follows: (_a_) _Soft-iron type_, the action of a magnetic field on a piece
+of soft iron; (_b_) _moving-coil type_ and _dynamometer type_, the action
+of a magnetic field on a current-carrying coil; (_c_) _hot-wire type_, the
+expansion of a conductor due to the heating produced by the current; (_d_)
+_induction type_, the action of a magnetic field on the eddy currents
+produced in a metal disc.
+
+The "soft-iron" ammeter can be used for both direct and alternating
+currents, is inexpensive, and is sufficiently accurate for commercial use.
+
+For direct-current measurements where a high degree of accuracy is of first
+importance, a "moving-coil" ammeter is invariably used.
+
+In alternating-current circuits its place is taken by the dynamometer type,
+which reads both direct and alternating currents.
+
+In cases where absence of inductance in the instrument is important, e.g.
+in the measurements in wireless-telegraph and telephone circuits, the
+"hot-wire" ammeter is used. It measures both direct and alternating
+currents, and, when properly used, has a high degree of accuracy.
+
+The "induction" type cannot be used for direct currents, and has the
+limitation that with alternating currents it will read correctly only at
+the frequency for which it is calibrated.
+
+Almost invariably an ammeter gives its full-scale reading when a small
+current, say of the order of one-tenth of an ampere, is passing through the
+instrument itself. In order to read larger currents a device is employed
+whereby a definite fraction of the current to be measured passes through
+the instrument.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Fleming, _A Handbook for the
+Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room_ (2 vols.); G. D. Aspinall Parr,
+_Electrical Measuring Instruments_.
+
+AMMIA'NUS MARCELLI'NUS, a Roman historian, born at Antioch in Syria about
+320, died about 390. He wrote in 31 books (of which the first 13 are lost)
+a history of the Caesars, from Nerva to Valens, which was highly thought of
+by Gibbon for its fidelity. His MS. was printed for the first time at Rome
+in 1474.
+
+[Illustration: Ammon.]
+
+AM'MON (often called AMMON-RA, i.e. Ammon-Sun), an ancient Egyptian deity,
+one of the chief gods of the country, identified by the Greeks with their
+supreme god Zeus, while the Romans regarded him as the representative of
+Jupiter; represented as a ram, as a human being with a ram's head,
+ornamented with the solar disc, or simply with the horns of a ram. There
+was a celebrated temple of Ammon in the Oasis of Siwah in the Libyan
+desert.
+
+AMMON, Oasis of. See _Siwah_.
+
+AMMO'NIA, an alkaline substance, which differs from the other alkalies by
+being gaseous, and is hence sometimes called the _volatile alkali_. It is a
+colourless pungent gas, composed of nitrogen and hydrogen; formula, NH_3.
+It was first prepared by Priestley, who termed it _alkaline air_. He
+obtained it from sal-ammoniac by the action of lime, by which method it is
+yet generally prepared. It is used for many purposes, both in medicine and
+scientific chemistry; not, however, in the gaseous state, but frequently in
+solution in water, under the names of _liquid ammonia_, _aqueous ammonia_,
+or _spirits of hartshorn_. It is generally prepared from the ammoniacal
+liquor obtained as a by-product on distilling coal. Combined with acids,
+ammonia forms salts which are of immense value to agriculture. The
+well-known odour of farmyard manure is very largely due to the formation of
+ammonia during the rotting of the dung. Many animal substances, such as
+bones, clippings and shavings of horn, hoof, &c., and certain vegetable
+matters yield ammonia when heated. Sal-ammoniac is ammonium chloride.
+
+AMMONI'[)A]CUM, a gum-resinous exudation from an umbelliferous plant, the
+_Dor[=e]ma ammoni[)a]cum_. It has a fetid smell, is inflammable, soluble in
+water and spirit of wine; used as an antispasmodic, stimulant, and
+expectorant in chronic catarrh, bronchitic affections, and asthma; also
+used for plasters.
+
+AMMO'NIAPHONE, an instrument, consisting of a metallic tube containing some
+substance saturated with ammonia, peroxide of hydrogen, and a few
+flavouring compounds, fitted with a mouthpiece to breathe through, which is
+said to render the voice strong, clear, rich, and ringing by the inhalation
+of the ammoniacal vapour. It was invented by Dr. Carter Moffat, and was
+suggested by the presence of ammonia in some quantity in the atmosphere of
+Italy--the country of fine singers.
+
+[Illustration: Ammonites obtusus. Ammonites varians]
+
+AM'MONITES, a group of fossil cephalopods, now divided into a large number
+of genera, ranging from the Coal Measures (Texas) to the uppermost
+cretaceous strata. The ammonites differ from the nautili in having the tube
+connecting the chambers placed on the outer margin of the coiled shell,
+while the calcareous neck where it passes through the partitions is
+directed forwards. The partitions are much folded, producing markings like
+the fronds of ferns where they meet the inner wall of the shell. The name
+arises from confusion with a coiled gastropod, which was held to resemble
+the horns of the Egyptian deity Jupiter Ammon.
+
+AM'MONITES, a Semitic race frequently mentioned in Scripture, descended
+from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (_Gen._ xix, 38), often spoken of in
+conjunction with the Moabites. A predatory and Bedouin race, they inhabited
+the desert country east of Gad, their chief city being Rabbath-Ammon
+(Philadelphia). Wars between the Israelites and the Ammonites were
+frequent; they were overcome by Jephthah, Saul, David, Uzziah, Jotham, &c.
+They appear to have existed as a distinct people in the time of Justin
+Martyr, but have subsequently become merged in the aggregate of nameless
+Arab tribes.
+
+AMMO'NIUM, the name given to the hypothetical radicle (formula, NH_4) of
+ammonium salts. It functionates as a metal, has not been isolated, but it
+is believed to exist in an amalgam with mercury.
+
+AMMO'NIUS SAC'CAS, a Greek philosopher who lived about A.D. 175-240.
+Originally a porter in Alexandria, he derived his epithet from the carrying
+of _sacks_ of corn. The son of Christian parents, he abandoned their faith
+for the polytheistic philosophy of Greece. His teaching was historically a
+transition stage between Platonism and Neo-Platonism. Among his disciples
+were Plotinus, Longinus, Origen, &c. The books often attributed to him are
+by a Christian philosopher of the same name.
+
+AMMUNI'TION, another form of the word munition, with a more restricted
+meaning. It is now taken to include cartridges of all sorts for guns,
+howitzers, rifles, and all fire-arms. Ammunition comprises both cartridges
+in which explosive and missiles are combined to form one compact article,
+and also other forms of projectiles of which the explosive agent forms one
+portion and the actual missile the other. Bombs, grenades, shells, powder,
+and bullets are all included in the generic term ammunition. As a
+qualifying word used adjectivally it is found in ammunition-wagon,
+ammunition-carrier, ammunition-mules, ammunition-column, &c. In the British
+service the Royal Army Ordnance Corps is entrusted with the provision of
+supplies of ammunition generally, while the actual distribution in the
+field is the duty of the ammunition-column, a Royal Artillery organization.
+
+AM'NESTY (Gr. _amnestia_, forgetfulness), the releasing of a number of
+persons who have been guilty of political offences from the consequence of
+these offences. The earliest recorded amnesty in history is that of
+Thrasybulus at Athens, and the last act of amnesty passed in Britain was
+that of 1747, after the second Jacobite rebellion.
+
+AM'NION, the innermost membrane surrounding the fetus of mammals, birds,
+and reptiles.--In botany, a gelatinous fluid in which the embryo of a seed
+is suspended, and by which it is supposed to be nourished.
+
+AMO'AFUL, village near Kumassi, West Africa, at which the Ashanti were
+defeated by British troops under Wolseley, 31st Jan., 1874.
+
+[Illustration: Amoeba proteus.]
+
+AMOE'BA, a microscopic genus of rhizopodous Protozoa, of which _A.
+diffl[)u]ens_, common in freshwater ponds and ditches, is the type. It
+exists as a mass of protoplasm, and pushes its body out into finger-like
+processes or pseudopodia, and by means of these moves about or grasps
+particles of food. There is no distinct mouth, and food is engulfed within
+any portion of the soft sarcode body. Reproduction takes place by fission,
+or by a single pseudopodium detaching itself from the parent body and
+developing into a separate amoeba.
+
+AMOEBE'AN POETRY, poetry in which persons are represented as speaking
+alternately, as in some of Virgil's _Eclogues_.
+
+AMOL', a town of Northern Persia, 76 miles N.E. of Teheran. Extensive ruins
+tell of former greatness, the most prominent being the mausoleum of Seyed
+Quam-u-deen, who died in 1378. Pop. in winter estimated at about 40,000.
+
+AMO'MUM, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Zinziberaceae (ginger, &c.),
+natives of warm climates, and remarkable for the pungency and aromatic
+properties of their seeds. Some of the species yield Cardamoms, others
+Grains of Paradise.
+
+AMONTILLA'DO, a dry kind of sherry wine of a light colour, highly esteemed.
+
+AMOOR. See _Amur_.
+
+A'MOR, the god of love among the Romans, equivalent to the Gr. _Er[=o]s_.
+
+AMOR'GO (ancient AMORGOS), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the
+Eastern Cyclades, 22 miles long, 5 miles broad; area, 106 sq. miles; it has
+a town of the same name, with a castle and a large harbour. Pop. 3561.
+
+AM'ORITES, a powerful Canaanitish tribe at the time of the occupation of
+the country by the Israelites; occupied the whole of Gilead and Bashan, and
+formed two powerful kingdoms--a northern, under Og, who is called King of
+Bashan; and a southern, under Sihon, called King of the Amorites; first
+attacked and overthrown by Joshua; subsequently subdued, and made tributary
+or driven to mingle with the Philistines and other remnants of the
+Canaanitish nations.
+
+AMORPHOUS ROCKS or MINERALS, those having no regular structure, or without
+crystallization, even in the minutest particles.
+
+AMORPHOZO'A, a term applied to some of the lower groups of animals, as the
+sponges and their allies, which have no regular symmetrical structure.
+
+AMORTIZA'TION, in law, the alienation of real property to corporations
+(that is, in _mortmain_), prohibited by several English statutes.
+
+A'MOS, one of the minor prophets; flourished under the Kings Uzziah of
+Judah and Jeroboam II of Israel (810 to 784 B.C. by the common chronology).
+Though engaged in the occupations of a peasant he must have had a
+considerable amount of culture, and his book of prophecies has high
+literary merits. It contains denunciations of Israel and the surrounding
+nations, with promises of the Messiah.
+
+AMOY', an important Chinese trading port, on a small island off the
+south-east coast opposite Formosa; has a safe and commodious harbour, and
+its merchants are among the wealthiest and most enterprising in China; one
+of the five ports opened to foreign commerce by the treaty of Nanking in
+1842. The privilege was confirmed and extended by the treaty of Tien-tsin
+in 1858, and the port is now open to all countries. Pop. 114,000.
+
+AMPEL'IDAE. See _Chatterers_.
+
+AMPERE ([.a][n.]-p[=a]r), Andre-Marie, a celebrated French mathematician
+and philosopher, founder of the science of electro-dynamics, born at Lyons
+in 1775, died at Marseilles in 1836; professor of mathematical analysis at
+the Polytechnic School, Paris, and of physics at the College of France.
+What is known as _Ampere's Theory_ is that magnetism consists in the
+existence of electric currents circulating round the particles of magnetic
+bodies, being in different directions round different particles when the
+bodies are unmagnetized, but all in the same direction when they are
+magnetized.
+
+AMPERE, Jean-Jacques-Joseph-Antoine, historian and professor of French
+literature in the College of France; the only son of Andre-Marie Ampere;
+born at Lyons 1800, died 1864; chief works: _Histoire Litteraire de la
+France avant le 12^{_e_} siecle_ (1839); _Introduction a l'Histoire de la
+Litterature francaise au moyen age_ (1841); _Litterature, Voyages et
+Poesies_ (1833); _La Grece, Rome et Dante, Etudes Litteraires d'apres
+Nature; l'Histoire romaine a Rome_ (4 vols. 8vo, 1856-64); _Promenades en
+Amerique_ (1855); _Cesar, Scenes historiques_ (1859), full of hostile
+allusions to the French Empire.
+
+AMPERE (am'p[=a]r), in electricity, the unit employed in measuring the
+strength or intensity of an electric current, being equivalent to the
+current produced by the electro-motive force of one volt in a wire having
+the resistance of one ohm. The name (cf. _Farad_, _Coulomb_, _Watt_, &c.)
+is derived from that of the well-known physicist, Ampere. An _ampere-meter_
+or _ammeter_ is an instrument by which the strength of an electric current
+is given in amperes.
+
+AMPHIB'IA, a class of vertebrate animals, which in their early life breathe
+by gills or branchiae, and afterwards partly or entirely by lungs. The
+Frog, breathing in its tadpole state by gills and afterwards throwing off
+these organs and breathing entirely by lungs in its adult state, is an
+example of the latter phase of amphibian existence. The Proteus of the
+underground caves of Central Europe exemplifies forms in which the gills of
+early life are retained throughout life, and in which lungs are developed
+in addition to the gills. A second character of this group consists in the
+presence of two occipital 'condyles', or processes by means of which the
+skull articulates with the spine or vertebral column; Reptiles possessing
+one condyle only. The class is divided into four orders: the Ophiomorpha
+(or serpentiform), represented by the Blindworms, in which limbs are
+wanting and the body is snake-like; the Urodela or 'Tailed' Amphibians,
+including the Newts, Proteus, Siren, &c.; the Anoura, or Tailless Amphibia,
+represented by the Frogs and Toads; and the Labyrinthodontia, which
+includes the extinct forms known as Labyrinthodons. The term Amphibia was
+originally employed by Linnaeus in his _Systema Naturae_, and adopted by
+Cuvier in his _Tableau Elementaire_. See _Batrachia_.
+
+AMPHIBOL'OGY, in logic, an equivocal phrase or sentence, not from the
+double sense of any of the words, but from its admitting a double
+construction, as 'The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose'.
+
+AMPHIC'TYONIC LEAGUE (or COUNCIL), in ancient Greece, a confederation of
+tribes for the protection of religious worship, but which also discussed
+questions of international law, and matters affecting their political
+union. The most important was that of the twelve northern tribes which met
+alternately at Delphi and Thermopylae. The tribes sent two deputies each,
+who assembled with great solemnity; composed the public dissensions, and
+the quarrels of individual cities, by force or persuasion; punished civil
+and criminal offences, and particularly transgressions of the law of
+nations, and violations of the temple of Delphi. Its calling on the States
+to punish the Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the Sacred Wars,
+595-586, 448-447, 357-346 B.C.
+
+AMPHI'ON, in Greek mythology, son of Zeus and Anti[)o]p[=e], and husband of
+Ni[)o]b[=e]. He had miraculous skill in music, being taught by Mercury, or,
+according to others, by Apollo. In poetic legend he is said to have availed
+himself of his skill when building the walls of Thebes--the stones moving
+and arranging themselves in proper position at the sound of his lyre. See
+_Zethus_.
+
+AMPHIOXUS. See _Lancelet_.
+
+[Illustration: Amphipoda
+
+1. Shore-jumper (_Orchestia littoralis_), 2. Portion showing the
+respiratory organs _a a a_.]
+
+AMPHIP'ODA, an order of sessile-eyed malacostracan crustaceans, with feet
+directed partly forward and partly backward. Many species are found in
+springs and rivulets, others in salt water. The sand-hopper and
+shore-jumper are examples.
+
+AMPHIP'ROSTYLE, in architecture, said of a structure having the form of an
+ancient Greek or Roman oblong rectangular temple, with a prostyle or
+portico on each of its ends or fronts, but with no columns on its sides or
+flanks.
+
+AMPHISBAE'NA (Gr., from _amphis_, both ways, and _bainein_, to go), a genus
+of serpentiform, limbless, lacertilian reptiles; body cylindrical,
+destitute of scales, and divided into numerous annular segments; the tail
+obtuse, and scarcely to be distinguished from the head, whence the belief
+that it moved equally well with either end foremost. There are several
+species, found in tropical America. They feed on ants and earthworms, and
+were formerly, but erroneously, deemed poisonous. In Greek mythology the
+amphisbaena was a serpent believed to possess two heads.
+
+AMPHIS'CII (Gr. _amphi_, on both sides, and _skia_, shadow), a term
+sometimes applied to the inhabitants of the intertropical regions, whose
+shadows at noon in one part of the year are cast to the north and in the
+other to the south, according as the sun is in the southern or northern
+signs.
+
+[Illustration: Amphitheatre at Pompeii]
+
+AMPHITHE'ATRE, an ancient Roman building of an oval form without a roof,
+having a central area (the _arena_) encompassed with rows of seats, rising
+higher as they receded from the centre, on which people used to sit to view
+the combats of gladiators and of wild beasts, and other sports. The first
+amphitheatre at Rome was that constructed by C. Scribonius Curio, 59 B.C.
+The Colosseum at Rome is the largest of all the ancient amphitheatres,
+being capable of containing 100,000 persons, 87,000 of whom occupied
+numbered and reserved seats. That at Verona is one of the best examples
+remaining. Its dimensions are 502 feet by 401, and it is 98 feet high. The
+name means 'both-ways theatre', or 'theatre all round', the theatre forming
+only a semicircular building.
+
+AMPHITRI'T[=E], in Greek mythology, daughter of Oce[)a]nus and Tethys, or
+of Nereus and Doris, and wife of Poseidon (or Neptune), represented as
+drawn in a chariot of shells by Tritons, with a trident in her hand. In the
+Homeric poems she is the personification of the Sea, and her marriage to
+Poseidon is alluded to in a number of scenes depicted on ancient monuments.
+Such are a bas-relief in the glyptothek at Munich and a mosaic in the
+museum at Naples.
+
+AMPHIT'RYON, in Greek legend, King of Thebes, son of Alcaeus, and husband
+of Alcmena. Plautus, and after him Moliere, have made an amour of Jupiter
+with Alcmena the subject of amusing comedies.
+
+AMPHIU'MA, a genus of amphibians which frequent the lakes and stagnant
+waters of North America. The adults retain the clefts at which the gills of
+the tadpole projected.
+
+[Illustration: Amphora
+From a Roman specimen in the British Museum]
+
+AM'PH[)O]RA, a vessel used by the Greeks and Romans for holding liquids;
+commonly tall and narrow, with two handles and a pointed end which fitted
+into a stand or was stuck in the ground to enable it to stand upright; used
+also as a cinerary urn, and as a liquid measure--Greek = 9 gallons; Roman =
+6 gallons.
+
+AMPLEX'ICAUL, in botany, said of a leaf that embraces and nearly surrounds
+the stem.
+
+AM'PLITUDE, in astronomy, the distance of any celestial body (when referred
+by a secondary circle to the horizon) from the east or west points.
+
+AMPTHILL, a market-town of England, Bedfordshire, about 7 miles south-west
+of Bedford. Pop. (1921), 2269.
+
+AMPUL'LA, the Latin name for a vessel bellying out like a jug, which
+contained unguents for the bath; also a vessel for drinking at table. The
+ampulla has also been employed for ceremonial purposes, such as holding the
+oil or chrism used in various Church rites and for anointing monarchs at
+their coronation. The ampulla of the English sovereigns now in use is an
+eagle, weighing about 10 oz., of the purest chased gold, which passed
+through various hands to the Black Prince. The ampulla of the French kings,
+kept at Rheims in the tomb of St. Remy, was destroyed in 1793.
+
+AMPUTA'TION, in surgery, that operation by which a member is separated from
+the body.
+
+AMRA'OTI, a town of British India in Berar; it is celebrated for its
+cotton, and is a place of good trade. Pop. 35,000. The district has an area
+of 4733 sq. miles. Pop. 876,000.
+
+AM'RITSIR, or AMRITSAR ('the pool of immortality'), a flourishing
+commercial town of India, capital of a district of the same name, in the
+Punjab, the centre of the Sikh religion since the end of the sixteenth
+century. It has considerable manufactures of shawls and silks; and receives
+its name from the sacred pond constructed by Ram Das, the apostle of the
+Sikhs, in which the Sikhs and other Hindus immerse themselves that they may
+be purified from all sin. Pop. 152,756.--The district of Amritsir has an
+area of 1601 sq. miles. Pop. 900,000.
+
+AM'RU, originally an opponent, and subsequently a zealous supporter of
+Mahomet, and one of the ablest of the Mahommedan warriors. He brought Egypt
+under the power of the Caliph Omar in 638, and governed it wisely till his
+death in 663. The burning of the famous Alexandrian Library has been
+generally attributed to him, though only on the authority of a writer who
+lived six centuries later.
+
+AM'STERDAM (that is, 'the dam of the Amstel'), one of the chief commercial
+cities of Europe, capital of Holland (but not the residence of the
+sovereign), situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Y or Ij, an
+arm of the Zuider-Zee. On account of the lowness of the site of the city
+the greater part of it is built on piles. It is divided by numerous canals
+into about 90 islands, which are connected by nearly 300 bridges. Many of
+the streets have a canal in the middle with broad brick-paved quays on
+either side, planted with rows of trees; the houses are generally of brick,
+many of them six or seven stories high, with pointed gables turned to the
+streets. Among the public buildings are the old stadthouse, the work of
+Jacob van Kempen, commenced in 1648 and finished in 1655, which is now a
+royal palace, the interior being decorated by the Dutch painters and
+sculptors of the seventeenth century with their masterpieces; the
+justiciary hall, an imitation of a Greek temple; the town hall (fourteenth
+century); the exchange, a handsome building, constructed in 1836 on the
+site of the old bourse built in 1608; the Palace of National Industry; the
+national museum; and the central railway station. The old church is a
+structure of the fourteenth century with stained-glass windows painted by
+Digman in the fifteenth century. The chief educational institutions of the
+kingdom are here, including the city university, a free university,
+gymnasiums and other secondary schools, the national picture gallery or
+museum, containing many masterpieces of Dutch artists, &c. Among its
+numerous industries may be mentioned as a speciality the cutting and
+polishing of diamonds. It has also factories and workshops dealing with
+wool, cotton, silk, tobacco, leather, machinery, and metal goods, glass,
+liqueurs, cocoa, &c. The harbour, formed by the Y, lies along the whole of
+the north side of the city, and is surrounded by various docks and basins.
+The trade is very great, being much facilitated by the great ship-canal (15
+miles long, opened 1876, admitting the largest vessels) connecting the Y
+directly with the North Sea at Y-Muiden, where the entrance is between two
+long piers projecting into the sea. Another canal of much less importance,
+the North Holland Canal (46 miles long, 20 feet deep), connects Amsterdam
+with the Helder. Between the harbour and the Zuider Zee the Y is now
+crossed by a great dam in which are locks to admit vessels and regulate the
+amount of water in the North Sea Canal. The oversea trade of Amsterdam has
+immensely increased since the opening of the great canal, and the foreign
+trade of the kingdom practically centres in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. There
+is also a large trade with the interior by railway, river, and canal. In
+the beginning of the thirteenth century Amsterdam was but a fishing
+village. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries it had attained some
+importance, especially through the Baltic trade. The ruin of Antwerp
+through the troubles with Spain was greatly to its advantage, and during
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Amsterdam was one of the
+wealthiest and most flourishing cities in the world. Its forced alliance
+with France ruined its trade, but since 1813 its commerce has revived.
+Amsterdam is the birthplace of Spinoza and of the painters van de Velde and
+van der Neer. Pop. (1919), 647,120.
+
+AMSTERDAM, a town of New York State, United States, on the Mohawk River and
+the Erie Canal, 33 miles N.W. of Albany; a busy manufacturing town. Pop.
+(1920), 33,524.
+
+AMSTERDAM, New, a town in British Guiana, on the east side of the River
+Berbice, near the sea, with some trade as a seaport. Pop. 8903.
+
+AMSTERDAM ISLAND, a small and almost inaccessible island in the Indian
+Ocean, about halfway in a direct line between the Cape of Good Hope and
+Tasmania. It is sparsely provided with vegetation, and inhabited only by
+sea-birds, but it was taken possession of by France in 1893, along with the
+neighbouring St. Paul. It was discovered by the Dutch in 1633.
+
+AMSTETTEN, a town in Lower Austria, on the Ybbs, and on the railway from
+Vienna to Linz. In 1805 a victory was gained here by the French under Murat
+over the Russians under Bagration. Pop. 3760.
+
+AMUCK', or AMUK, to run, a phrase applied to natives of the Eastern
+Archipelago, who are occasionally seen to rush out in a frantic state of
+temporary mental derangement, making indiscriminate and murderous assaults
+on all that come in their way.
+
+AMU-DARYA. See _Oxus_.
+
+AMU-DARYA, district. See _Turkestan_.
+
+AM'ULET, a piece of stone, metal, &c., marked with certain figures or
+characters, which people in some countries wear about them, superstitiously
+deeming them a protection against diseases, enchantments, witchcraft, &c.
+According to Pliny the elder, the _bulla_, or amulet, was first hung by
+Tarquinius Priscus on the neck of his son. Articles that archaeologists
+have decided to be amulets have been found dating from prehistoric times,
+and they were commonly worn in ancient times by the Jews, Greeks, and
+Romans, as they still are by Persians, Arabs, and many other peoples. See
+_Charms_.
+
+AMUNDSEN, Captain Roald, Norwegian polar explorer, born at Borge, Norway,
+16th July, 1872. He was first-lieutenant on the _Belgica_ during the
+Belgian south polar expedition, 1897-9. He then planned an expedition to
+the area of the north magnetic pole and a north-west passage by water. On
+17th June, 1903, he embarked from Christiania on the small sailing vessel
+the _Gjoea_, with a company of six men, and reached King William Land,
+where the vessel remained for two years. Here he made his headquarters, and
+by numerous excursions was able to prove that the north magnetic pole has
+no stationary position, but is in continual movement. On 11th July, 1906,
+his vessel reached the Behring Strait, and on 30th August entered the
+Pacific. After his return Amundsen began his preparations for an Antarctic
+expedition, and on 9th August, 1910, he sailed from Norway on Nansen's
+ship, the _Fram_, and reached the South Pole on 7th March, 1912. He
+published an account of his North-West Passage expedition, entitled
+_Sydpolen. Den norske Sydpolsfaerd med_ Fram _1910-12_. An English
+translation was published in 1913. Amundsen started on a North Polar
+Expedition in 1918.
+
+AMUR', or AMOOR', one of the largest rivers of Eastern Asia, formed by the
+junction of the Rivers Shilka and Argun; flows first in a south-eastern and
+then in a north-eastern direction till it falls into an arm of the Sea of
+Okhotsk, opposite the Island of Sakhalin, after a course of 1500 miles. It
+forms, for a large portion of its course, part of the boundary-line between
+the Russian and the Chinese dominions, and is navigable throughout for four
+months in the year.--_Amoor Territory._ In 1858 Russia acquired from China
+the territory on the left bank of the Upper and Middle Amoor, together with
+that on both banks of the Lower Amoor. The western portion of the territory
+was organized as a separate province, with the name of the Amoor (area,
+154,795 sq. miles. Pop. 261,500). The eastern portion was joined to the
+Maritime Province of Eastern Siberia.
+
+AM'URATH, or MURAD, the name of several Ottoman sultans. See _Ottoman
+Empire_.
+
+AMYCLAE (a-m[=i]'kl[=e]), a town of ancient Greece, the chief seat of the
+Achaeans in Laconia, a short distance from Sparta, by which it was
+conquered about 800 B.C.
+
+AMYG'DALOID (Gr. _amygdal[=e]_, an almond), meaning 'almond-shaped', a term
+used in anatomy and geology.
+
+AMYG'DALUS, the genus to which the almond belongs.
+
+AM'YL, in chemistry, a hypothetic radicle believed to exist in many
+compounds, especially the fusel-oil series, and having the formula
+C_5H_{11}.--_Amyl Nitrite_, or _Nitrite of Amyl_, an amber-coloured fluid,
+smelling and tasting like essence of pears, which has been employed as an
+anaesthetic and also in relieving cardiac distress, as in angina pectoris.
+
+AM'YLENE (C_5H_{10}), an ethereal liquid with an aromatic odour, prepared
+from fusel-oil. It possesses anaesthetic properties, and has been tried as
+a substitute for chloroform, but is very dangerous.
+
+AMYL'IC ALCOHOL, one of the products of the fermentation of grain, &c.,
+commonly known by the name of fusel-oil (q.v.).
+
+AMYOT (ae-mi-[=o]), Jacques, French writer and scholar, whose translations
+from the Greek have themselves become classics, was born in 1513, and died
+Bishop of Auxerre in 1593, having been for twelve years a professor of
+classics at Bourges, and having enjoyed the patronage of Margaret of
+Navarre and Henry II. His chief translations are those of Plutarch's
+_Lives_ and his _Morals_, the _Aethiopica_ of Heliodorus, and the _Daphnis
+and Chloe_ of Longus. Sir Thomas North's English translation of Plutarch
+(1575), of which Shakespeare made much use, was derived from that of Amyot.
+
+AMYRIDA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees or
+shrubs, the leaves, bark, and fruit of which abound in fragrant resinous
+and balsamic juices. Myrrh, frankincense, and the gum-elemi of commerce are
+among their products. Among the chief genera of the order are _Amyris_,
+_Balsamodendron_, _Boswellia_, and _Canarium_.
+
+A'NA, the neuter plural termination of Latin adjectives in _-[=a]nus_,
+often forming an affix with the names of eminent men to denote a collection
+of their memorable sayings--thus _Scaligeriana_, _Johnsoniana_, the sayings
+of Scaliger, of Johnson; or to denote a collection of anecdotes, or gossipy
+matter, as in _boxiana_. Hence, as an independent noun, books recording
+such sayings; the sayings themselves.
+
+ANABAP'TISTS (from the Gr. _anabaptizein_, to rebaptize), a name given to a
+Christian sect by their adversaries, because, as they objected to infant
+baptism, they rebaptized those who joined their body. Their doctrine is
+based upon the words of Christ in _St. Mark_, xvi, 16. The founder of the
+sect appears to have been Nicolas Storch, a disciple of Luther's, who seems
+to have aimed also at the reorganization of society based on civil and
+political equality. Gathering round him a number of fiery spirits, among
+whom was Thomas Muenzer, he incited the peasantry of Suabia and Franconia
+to insurrection--the doctrine of a community of goods being now added to
+their creed. This insurrection was quelled in 1525, when Muenzer was put to
+the torture and beheaded. After the death of Muenzer the sectaries
+dispersed in all directions, spreading their doctrines wherever they went.
+In 1534 the town of Muenster in Westphalia became their centre of action.
+Under the leadership of Bockhold and Matthias their numbers increased
+daily, and being joined by the restless spirits of the adjoining towns,
+they soon made themselves masters of the town and expelled their
+adversaries. Matthias became their prophet, but he fell in a sally against
+the Bishop of Muenster, Count Waldeck, who had laid siege to the city.
+Bockhold then became leader, assuming the name of John of Leyden, King of
+the New Jerusalem, and Muenster became a theatre of all the excesses of
+fanaticism, lust, and cruelty. The town was eventually taken (June, 1535),
+and Bockhold and a great many of his partisans suffered death. This was the
+last time that the movement assumed anything like political importance. In
+the meantime some of the apostles, who were sent out by Bockhold to extend
+the limits of his kingdom, had been successful in various places, and many
+independent teachers, who preached the same doctrines, continued active in
+the work of founding a new empire of pure Christians. It is true that they
+rejected the practice of polygamy, community of goods, and intolerance
+towards those of different opinions which had prevailed in Muenster; but
+they enjoined upon their adherents the other doctrines of the early
+Anabaptists, and certain heretical opinions in regard to the humanity of
+Christ, occasioned by the controversies of that day about the sacrament.
+The most celebrated of those Anabaptist prophets were Melchior Hoffmann,
+the founder of the Hoffmannists or Millenarians; Galenus Abrahamssohn, from
+whom the sect of the Galenists were called; and Simon Menno, founder of
+various sects known as Mennonites. Menno's principles are contained in his
+_Principles of the True Christian Faith_ (1556), a work which is held as
+authoritative on points of doctrine and worship among the Baptist
+communities at the present day. The application of the term Anabaptist to
+the general body of Baptists throughout the world is unwarranted, because
+these sects have nothing in common with the bodies which sprung up in
+various countries of Europe during the Reformation, except the practice of
+adult baptism. The Baptists themselves repudiate the name Anabaptist, as
+they claim to baptize according to the original institution of the rite,
+and never repeat baptism in the case of those who in their opinion have
+been so baptized. It is under the designation of Mennonites that they exist
+to-day, principally in Holland, Germany, and the United States.
+
+AN'ABAS. See _Climbing-perch_.
+
+ANAB'ASIS (Gr. _anabasis_, a march up country), the title of Xenophon's
+celebrated account of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his
+brother Artaxerxes, King of Persia. The title is also given to Arrian's
+work which records the campaigns of Alexander the Great.
+
+AN'ABLEPS, a genus of fishes of the perch family, found in the rivers of
+Guiana, consisting of but one species, remarkable for a peculiar structure
+of the eyes, in which there is a division of the iris and cornea, by
+transverse ligaments forming two pupils, and making the whole eye appear
+double. The young are brought forth alive.
+
+ANABOLISM (Gr. _ana_, up, and _bole_, a throw), a biological term suggested
+by Michael Foster, and used by Gaskell in 1886, and meaning the building-up
+of organic life, or the process by which a substance is transformed into
+another which is more complex. Anabolism is the constructive phase of
+metabolism (q.v.).
+
+ANACANTHI'NI (Gr. neg. prefix _an_, and _akantha_, a spine), an order of
+osseous fishes, including the cod, plaice, &c., with spineless fins,
+cycloid or ctenoid scales, the ventral fins either absent or below the
+pectorals, and ductless swim-bladder.
+
+ANACARDIA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees and
+shrubs which secrete an acrid resinous juice, which is often used as a
+varnish. Mastic, Japan lacquer, and Martaban varnish are some of their
+products. The cashoo or cashew (genus Anacardium), the pistacia, sumach,
+mango, &c., are members of the order.
+
+ANACH'ARIS, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Hydrocharidaceae, the species of
+which grow in ponds and streams of fresh water; water-thyme or water-weed.
+It appeared in Britain in the nineteenth century. _A. Alsinastrum_ has been
+introduced from North America into European rivers, canals, and ponds, and
+by its rapid growth in dense tangled masses tends to choke them so as
+materially to impede navigation. The plants in our canals perfect no seed,
+their spread being due to vegetative vigour only.
+
+ANACH'RONISM, an error of chronology by which things are represented as
+coexisting which did not coexist; applied also to anything foreign to or
+out of keeping with a specified time. Thus it is an anachronism when
+Shakespeare, in _Troilus and Cressida_, makes Hector quote Aristotle. There
+are anachronisms in the _Cid_ and the _Nibelungenlied_, and also in Dante's
+_Inferno_, when the poet introduces pagan mythology into the Christian
+hell.
+
+ANACOLU'THON, a want of grammatical and logical sequence in the structure
+of a sentence.
+
+[Illustration: Anaconda (_Python tigris_)]
+
+ANACON'DA, the popular name of two of the largest species of the serpent
+tribe, viz. a Ceylonese species of the genus Python (_P. tigris_), said to
+have been met with 33 feet long; and _Eunectes mur[=i]nus_, a native of
+tropical America, allied to the boa-constrictor, and the largest of the
+serpent tribe, attaining the length of 40 feet. They frequent swamps and
+rivers, are without poison fangs, and kill their victims by constriction.
+
+ANACONDA, a town of the United States, Montana, with the largest
+copper-smelting works in the world. Pop. (1920), 11,668.
+
+ANAC'REON, an amatory lyric Greek poet of the sixth century B.C., native of
+Teos, in Ionia. Only a few fragments of his works have come down to us; the
+collection of odes that usually passes under the name of Anacreon is mostly
+the production of a later time, the poetry of the real Anacreon being much
+less frivolous.
+
+ANADYOM'[)E]N[=E] (Gr., 'she who comes forth'), a name given to
+Aphrodit[=e] (Venus) when she was represented as rising from the sea, as in
+the celebrated painting by Apelles, painted for the temple of Aesculapius
+at Cos, and afterwards in the temple of Julius Caesar at Rome.
+
+ANADYR ([.a]-nae'd[=e]r), the most easterly of the larger rivers of Siberia
+and of all Asia; rises in the Stanovoi Mountains, and falls into the Gulf
+of Anadyr; length, 600 miles.
+
+ANAE'MIA (Gr., 'want of blood'), a medical term applied to an unhealthy
+condition of the body, in which there is a diminution of the red corpuscles
+which the blood should contain. The principal symptoms are paleness and
+general want of colour in the skin, languor, emaciation, want of appetite,
+fainting, palpitation, &c.
+
+ANAESTHE'SIA, or ANAESTHE'SIS, a state of insensibility to pain, produced
+by inhaling chloroform, or by the application of other anaesthetic agents.
+
+ANAESTHET'ICS are medical agents chiefly used in surgical operations for
+the abolition of pain. They are divided into (1) _general anaesthetics_,
+those in which complete unconsciousness is produced; (2) _local
+anaesthetics_, those which act upon the nerves of a limited area alone.
+
+The earliest record of attempts to produce anaesthesia is to be found in
+the thirteenth century. Since then many agents have been tried. The first
+scientific effort was in 1800, when Sir Humphry Davy experimented with
+nitrous oxide, but without practical result. In 1844 Wells, an American
+dentist, used nitrous oxide, also without result. In 1846 Morton, another
+American dentist, used ether, and from that time it was increasingly used
+in America. In the same year the first operation under ether was performed
+in University College Hospital, London. In 1847 Sir James Simpson
+(Edinburgh) introduced chloroform. Through his influence it was soon
+largely used throughout England and Scotland, and continued to be the chief
+anaesthetic till about the end of the nineteenth century, when ether again
+became popular in England. To-day, in England, as always in the United
+States, ether is the most widely-used anaesthetic. Much controversy exists
+regarding the respective merits of ether and chloroform. The general
+opinion is, that ether is on the whole safer, but more liable, in the
+British climate, to be followed by bronchitis; while there are various
+conditions when chloroform is still preferable. They are frequently
+combined in use. _Nitrous-oxide gas_ (laughing gas) is much used in
+dentistry. Lately, nitrous oxide has been used with ether; while ether and
+oxygen together were much used with the British Expeditionary Force in
+France during the European War (1914-8). The administration of all
+anaesthetics is helped when the patient is given a hypodermic injection of
+morphia shortly before. _Twilight sleep_, increasingly used in childbirth,
+is the production of a partial anaesthesia by the administration of
+scopolamin morphine. _Local anaesthetics_ are much used in minor surgery,
+and with proper technique act effectively. Cocaine was the first of these,
+and is still widely used. Of later developments, eucaine and novocaine are
+best known. Spinal anaesthesia is the injection of stovaine or similar
+substance into the spinal cord, producing anaesthesia of a large part of
+the body, varying according to the site of the injection.
+
+ANAGAL'LIS, a genus of the nat. ord. Primulaceae, to which belongs the
+Pimpernel, the 'poor man's weather-glass'. See _Pimpernel_.
+
+ANAGNI ([.a]-naen'y[=e]), a town of Italy, province of Rome; the seat of a
+bishopric erected in 487. Pop. 10,400.
+
+AN'AGRAM, the transposition of the letters of a word or words so as to form
+a new word or phrase, a connection in meaning being frequently preserved;
+thus, _evil_, _vile_; _Horatio Nelson_, _Honor est a Nilo_ (honour is from
+the Nile). The seventeenth century was the golden age of the anagram, but
+it was employed by the Hebrews and the Greeks.
+
+ANAHUAC ([.a]-n[.a]-w[.a]k'; Mex., 'near the water'), an old Mexican name
+applied to the plateau of the city of Mexico, from the lakes situated
+there, generally elevated from 6000 to 9000 feet above the sea.
+
+AN'AKIM, the posterity of Anak, the son of Arba, noted in sacred history
+for their fierceness and loftiness of stature. Their stronghold was
+Kirjath-arba or Hebron, which was taken and destroyed by Caleb and the
+tribe of Judah.
+
+ANAKOLU'THON. See _Anacoluthon_.
+
+ANALEP'TIC, a restorative or invigorating medicine or diet.
+
+AN'ALOGUE, in comparative anatomy an organ in one species or group having
+the same function as an organ of different structure in another species or
+group, as the wing of a bird and that of an insect, both serving for
+flight. Organs in different animals having a similar anatomical structure,
+development, and relative position, independent of function or form, such
+as the arm of a man and the wing of a bird, are termed _homologues_.
+
+ANAL'OGY is the mode of reasoning from resemblance to resemblance. When we
+find on attentive examination resemblances in objects apparently diverse,
+and in which at first no such resemblances were discovered, a presumption
+arises that other resemblances may be found by further examination in these
+or other objects likewise apparently diverse. It is on the belief in a
+unity in nature that all inferences from analogy rest. The general
+inference from analogy is always perfectly valid. Wherever there is
+resemblance, similarity or identity of cause somewhere may be justly
+inferred; but to infer the particular cause without particular proof is
+always to reason falsely. Analogy is of great use and constant application
+in science, in philosophy, and in the common business of life.
+
+ANAL'YSIS, the resolution of an object, whether of the senses or the
+intellect, into its component elements. The word was introduced by Boyle in
+the seventeenth century. In philosophy it is the mode of resolving a
+compound idea into its simple parts, in order to consider them more
+distinctly, and arrive at a more precise knowledge of the whole. It is
+opposed to _synthesis_, by which we combine and class our perceptions, and
+contrive expressions for our thoughts, so as to represent their several
+divisions, classes, and relations.
+
+Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the widest sense, the expression and
+development of the functions of quantities by calculation; in a narrower
+sense the resolving of problems by algebraic equations. The analysis of the
+ancients was exhibited only in geometry, and made use only of geometrical
+assistance, whereby it is distinguished from the analysis of the moderns,
+which extends to all measurable objects, and expresses in equations the
+mutual dependence of magnitudes. Analysis is divided into lower and higher,
+the lower comprising, besides arithmetic and algebra, the doctrines of
+functions, of series, combinations, logarithms, and curves, the higher
+comprising the differential and integral calculus, and the calculus of
+variations.
+
+In chemistry, analysis is the process of decomposing a compound substance
+with a view to determine either (_a_) what elements it contains
+(_qualitative analysis_), or (_b_) how much of each element is present
+(_quantitative analysis_). Thus by the first process we learn that water is
+a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and by the second that it consists of
+one part of hydrogen by weight to eight parts of oxygen. As a means of
+testing soils and feeding-stuffs, analysis has given important results; it
+has enabled Liebig to solve the problem of plant-nutrition.
+
+ANAM. See _Annam_.
+
+ANAMOR'PHOSIS, a term denoting a drawing executed in such a manner as to
+present a distorted image of the object represented, but which, when viewed
+from a certain point, or reflected by a curved mirror or through a
+polyhedron, shows the object in its true proportions.
+
+AN'[)A]NAS. See _Pine-apple_.
+
+ANAPA', a seaport of Russia in province Kuban, on the Black Sea, 50 miles
+south-east of Kertsh, constructed by the Turks in 1781, and formerly
+fortified. Pop. about 7000.
+
+AN'APAEST, in prosody, a foot consisting of two short and one long
+syllable, or two unaccented and one accented syllable, e.g.
+
+   )  )  ___  )    )   __    )   )   __   )  )   __
+  The As-syr-ian came down like the wolf on the fold.
+          --(Byron's _The Destruction of Sennacherib_.)
+
+AN'APLASTY, a surgical operation to repair superficial lesions, or make up
+for lost parts, by the employment of adjacent healthy structure or tissue.
+Artificial noses, &c., are thus made.
+
+ANARAJAPOO'RA, or ANURADHAPURA, a ruined city, the ancient capital of
+Ceylon, built about 540 B.C., and said to have covered an area of 300 sq.
+miles, doubtless a great exaggeration. There are still several dagobas in
+tolerable preservation, but the great object of interest is the sacred
+Bo-tree planted over 2000 years, and probably the oldest historical tree in
+the world, but shattered by a storm in 1887.
+
+AN'ARCHISTS, a revolutionary sect or body setting forth as the social ideal
+the extreme form of individual freedom, holding that all government is
+injurious and immoral, and that the destruction of every social form now
+existing must be the first step to the creation of a new social system.
+According to Herbert Spencer, anarchism is the doctrine of _laisser faire_.
+Anarchists usually look upon Diderot as one of their pioneers, and quote
+his lines: "La nature n'a fait ni serviteurs ni maitres. Je ne veux ni
+donner ni recevoir de lois." Historically, however, it is Proudhon who may
+be considered as the father of anarchism. The recognition of the anarchists
+as an independent sect may be dated from the secession of Bakunin and his
+followers from the Social Democrats at the congress of the Hague in 1872,
+since which they have maintained an active propaganda. Their principal
+journals have been _La Revolte_ (Paris), the _Freiheit_ (New York),
+_Liberty_ (Boston), and the _Anarchist_ (London). Among modern philosophers
+of anarchism are Elisee Reclus and Prince Kropotkin.
+
+ANARTHROP'ODA, one of the two great divisions (the Arthropoda being the
+other) of the Annulosa, or ringed animals, in which there are no
+articulated appendages. It includes the leeches, earth-worms, tube-worms,
+&c.
+
+A'NAS, a genus of web-footed birds, containing the true ducks.
+
+ANASARCA. See _Dropsy_.
+
+ANASTA'SIUS I, Emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, A.D. 491, at the age of
+sixty. He was a member of the imperial life-guard, and owed his elevation
+to Ariadne, widow of Zeno, whom he married forty days after the death of
+her husband. He distinguished himself by suppressing the combats between
+men and wild beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale of offices, building
+the fortifications  of Constantinople, &c. His support of the heretical
+Eutychians led to a dangerous rebellion. He died A.D. 518.
+
+ANASTAT'ICA, a genus of cruciferous plants, including the Rose of Jericho
+(_A. hierochuntica_). See _Rose of Jericho_.
+
+ANASTATIC PRINTING, a process by which the perfect facsimile of a page of
+type or an engraving, old or new, can be reproduced and printed in the
+manner of a lithograph. The print or page to be transferred is dipped in
+diluted nitric acid, and, while moist with dilute acid, it is laid face
+downwards on a polished zinc plate and passed through a roller-press. The
+zinc is immediately corroded by the acid contained in the paper, excepting
+on those parts occupied by the ink of the type or engraving. The ink, while
+rejecting the acid, is loosened by it, and deposits a thin film on the
+zinc, thus protecting it from the action of the acid. The result is that
+those parts are left slightly raised in relief and greasy. The plate is
+then treated as in ordinary lithographic printing (q.v.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+F. H. Collins, _Authors' and Printers' Dictionary_; C. T. Jacobi,
+_Printing_; J. Southward, _Modern Printing_.
+
+ANASTOMO'SIS, in animals and plants, the inosculation of vessels, or the
+opening of one vessel into another, as an artery into another artery, or a
+vein into a vein. By means of anastomosis, if the course of a fluid is
+arrested in one vessel it can proceed along others. It is by anastomosis
+that circulation is re-established in amputated limbs, and in aneurism when
+the vessel is tied.
+
+ANATH'EMA, originally a gift hung up in a temple (Gr., _anatith[=e]mi_, to
+lay up), and dedicated to some god, a votive offering; but it gradually
+came to be used for _expulsion_, _curse_. The Roman Catholic Church
+pronounces the sentence of anathema against heretics, schismatics, and all
+who wilfully pursue a course of conduct condemned by the Church. The
+subject of the anathema is declared an outcast from the Church, all the
+faithful are forbidden to associate with him, and the utter destruction of
+his body and soul is foretold.
+
+ANAT'IDAE, a family of swimming birds, including the Ducks, Swans, Geese,
+&c.
+
+ANATO'LIA (from Gr. _anatol[=e]_, the sunrise, the Orient), the modern name
+of Asia Minor (q.v.).
+
+ANATOLIAN RAILWAY. See _Bagdad Railway, Turkey_.
+
+ANATOMY
+
+[Illustration]
+
+ANAT'OMY, in the literal sense, means simply a cutting up, but is now
+generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating
+the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view
+to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science
+which treats of the internal structure of organized bodies. By means of the
+dissection of the human body the surgeon and physician acquire the
+knowledge of the geography of the territory in which all their professional
+operations are carried on. _Comparative anatomy_ is the science which
+compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of
+man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes. The anatomy of an
+animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the
+succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult
+form (_developmental_ or _embryotical anatomy_); with reference to the
+general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (_general
+anatomy_, _histology_); with reference to the changes in structure of
+organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (_morbid_
+or _pathological anatomy_); or with reference to the function, use, or
+purpose performed by the organs or parts (_teleological_ or _physiological
+anatomy_). According to the parts of the body described, the different
+divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, _osteology_, the
+description of the bones; _myology_, of the muscles; _arthrology_, of the
+ligaments and sinews; _splanchnology_, of the viscera or internal organs,
+in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver,
+spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, &c. _Angiology_ describes the vessels
+through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the
+blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic
+vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are
+distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and
+carrying them back into the blood. _Neurology_ describes the system of the
+nerves and of the brain; _dermatology_ treats of the skin.--Among
+anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and
+preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be
+preserved (1) by macerating the body so as to obtain the bones of the
+skeleton; or (2) by treating the body or some part of it with alcohol,
+formalin, or other preservative, which renders its tissues imperishable.
+
+Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned
+Hippocrates the younger (460-377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B.C.),
+Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria (about 300 B.C.), Celsus (53
+B.C.-A.D. 37), and Galen of Pergamus (A.D. 130-200), the most celebrated of
+all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time till the revival
+of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its
+progress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed
+dissection, and published a _System of Anatomy_ which was a textbook in the
+schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of
+Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and
+many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth
+century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered
+the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the
+circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the
+Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned anatomists of later times we can only
+mention Malpighi, Boerhaave, William and John Hunter, the younger Meckel,
+Bichat, Rosenmueller, Quain, Sir A. Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Joh.
+Mueller, Gegenbaur, Owen, and Huxley.
+
+Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for
+enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for
+dissection. An Act of some years previously had, it is true, empowered a
+criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly-qualified persons
+the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was
+far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high
+prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice
+of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the
+notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a
+statute was passed in 1832, which was intended to make provision for the
+wants of surgeons, students, or other duly-qualified persons, by
+permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of
+persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, &c. The Act also
+appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and
+required persons practising the operations to obtain a licence. Relatives
+may effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though
+the deceased had expressed a desire for it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. J.
+Cunningham, _Textbook of Anatomy_; J. Quain, _Elements of Anatomy_; A. M.
+Buchanan, _Manual of Anatomy_; A. Thomson, _Anatomy for Art Students_.
+
+ANAXAG'ORAS, an ancient Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, born at
+Clazomenae, in Ionia, probably about 500 B.C. When only about twenty years
+of age he settled at Athens, and soon gained a high reputation, and
+gathered round him a circle of renowned pupils, including Pericles,
+Euripides, Socrates, &c. At the age of fifty he was publicly charged with
+impiety and condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual
+banishment. He thereupon went to Lampsacus, where he died about 428.
+Anaxagoras belonged to the atomic school of Ionic philosophers. He held
+that there was an infinite number of different kinds of elementary atoms,
+and that these, in themselves motionless and originally existing in a state
+of chaos, were put in motion by an eternal, immaterial, spiritual,
+elementary being, _Nous_ (Intelligence), from which motion the world was
+produced. His conception of _Nous_ as the first cause of movement marks a
+great advance in the history of philosophical thought, for he thus placed
+spirit above matter. The stars were, according to him, of earthy materials;
+the sun a glowing mass, about as large as the Peloponnesus; the earth was
+flat; the moon a dark, inhabitable body, receiving its light from the sun;
+the comets wandering stars.
+
+ANAXIMAN'DER, an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, was born at Miletus in
+611 B.C., and died 547. The fundamental principle of his philosophy is that
+the source of all things is an undefined substance infinite in quantity.
+The firmament is composed of heat and cold, the stars of air and fire. The
+sun occupies the highest place in the heavens, has a circumference
+twenty-eight times larger than the earth, and resembles a cylinder, from
+which streams of fire issue. The moon is likewise a cylinder, nineteen
+times larger than the earth. The earth has the shape of a cylinder, and is
+placed in the midst of the universe, where it remains suspended. His
+philosophy is thus a step in advance of the theories of Thales, the
+conception of the Infinite, however vague, being superior to the idea of
+water constituting the first principle of all things. Anaximander occupied
+himself a great deal with mathematics and geography. To him is credited the
+invention of geographical maps and the first application of the _gnomon_ or
+style fixed on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices and equinoxes.
+
+ANAXIMENES (an-aks-im'e-n[=e]z) OF MILETUS, an ancient Greek (Ionic)
+philosopher, according to whom air was the first principle of all things.
+Finite things were formed from the infinite air by compression and
+rarefaction produced by eternally existent motion; and heat and cold
+resulted from varying degrees of density of the primal element. He
+flourished about 550 B.C.
+
+ANBURY (an'be-ri) (called also CLUB-ROOT and FINGERS AND TOES), a disease
+in turnips, in which knobs or excrescences are formed on the root, which is
+then useless for feeding purposes. Some authorities distinguish anbury
+proper from 'fingers and toes' in turnips, setting it down as a distinct
+disease due to a fungus, while in the other case the roots simply assume a
+bad habit of growth through some unknown influence.
+
+ANCACHS ([.a]n-k[.a]ch'), a department of Peru, between the Andes and the
+Pacific; area, 16,562 sq. miles. Capital Hararaz. Pop. 500,000.
+
+ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, an ancient and widespread practice, displayed in its most
+characteristic form in modern China and ancient Rome, which apparently was
+based upon the belief that dead parents or ancestors, represented by images
+or 'ancestral tablets', could be revived by appropriate ceremonies, such as
+burning incense or offering libations, and give the benefit of their wisdom
+to their descendants who performed the vitalizing ritual and asked for
+their advice upon, or their sanction for, actions affecting the welfare of
+the family. The earliest deity was a dead king (Osiris), whose advice was
+sought by his son and successor. Hence in primitive religions, in which an
+endless variety of modifications of these more ancient beliefs has arisen,
+ancestor-worship may take the form of pious devotion to an actual ancestor
+or to a supernatural deity. As many of the most ancient gods were
+identified with animals, the dead ancestor, or his soul, is believed by
+many peoples to become incarnate in the appropriate animal, which is
+accorded the special veneration of a god or supernatural adviser, and set
+apart as sacred. Ancestor-worship still survives in a great variety of
+forms among various peoples.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive
+Culture_; F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_; D. G.
+Brinton, _Religions of Primitive Peoples_.
+
+ANCHISES (an-k[=i]'s[=e]z), the father of the Trojan hero Aeneas, who
+carried him off on his shoulders at the burning of Troy and made him the
+companion of his voyage to Italy. This voyage, which is not mentioned in
+the Homeric legend, is described by Virgil in his _Aeneid_. He died at
+Drepanum, in Sicily.
+
+[Illustration: Modern Stockless Anchor (Hall's Patent)]
+
+AN'CHOR, an implement for holding a ship or other vessel at rest in the
+water. In ancient times large stones or crooked pieces of wood heavily
+weighted with metal were used for this purpose. The anchor now used is of
+iron, formed with a strong _shank_, at one extremity of which is the
+_crown_, from which branch out two _arms_, terminating in broad _palms_ or
+_flukes_, the sharp extremity of which is the _peak_ or _bill_; at the
+other end of the shank is the _stock_ (fixed at right angles to the plane
+of the arms), behind which is the _ring_, to which a cable can be attached.
+The principal use of the stock is to cause the arms to fall so as one of
+the flukes shall enter the ground. Many anchors are made nowadays without a
+stock. The anchors of the largest size carried by men-of-war are the _best_
+and _small bowers_, the _sheet_, and the _spare_, to which are added the
+_stream_ and the _kedge_, which are used for anchoring in a stream or other
+sheltered place and for warping the vessel from one place to another. Many
+improvements and novelties in the shape and construction of anchors have
+been introduced within recent times. The principal names connected with
+those alterations are those of Lieutenant Rodgers, who introduced the
+_hollow-shanked anchor_ with the view of increasing the strength without
+adding to the weight; Porter, who made the arms and flukes movable by
+pivoting them to the stock instead of fixing them immovably, causing the
+anchor to take a readier and firmer hold, and avoiding the chance of the
+cable becoming foul; Trotman, who further improved on Porter's invention;
+and M. Martin, whose anchor is of very peculiar form, and is constructed so
+as to be self-canting, the arms revolving through an angle of 30deg either
+way, and the sharp points of the flukes being always ready to enter the
+ground.
+
+[Illustration: Type of Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, &c.]
+
+AN'CHORITES, or AN'CHORETS (Gr. _anachor[=e]tai_, persons who have
+withdrawn themselves from the world), in the early Church a class of
+religious persons who generally passed their lives in cells, from which
+they never removed. Their habitations were, in many instances, entirely
+separated from the abodes of other men, sometimes in the depth of
+wildernesses, in pits or caverns; at other times several of these
+individuals fixed their habitations in the vicinity of each other, but they
+always lived personally separate. The continual prevalence of fierce wars,
+civil commotions, and persecutions at the beginning of the Christian era
+must have made retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of
+quiet and contemplative minds. This spirit, however, soon led to fanatical
+excesses; many anchorites went without proper clothing, wore heavy chains,
+and we find at the close of the fourth century Simeon Stylites passing
+thirty years on the top of a column without ever descending from it, and
+finally dying there. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity became blended
+with the Grecian philosophy and strongly tinged with the peculiar notions
+of the East, the anchorites were most numerous; in Europe there were
+comparatively few, and on the development and establishment of the monastic
+system they completely disappeared. See _Asceticism_.
+
+ANCHOVY (an-ch[=o]'vi), a small fish of the Herring family, all the
+species, with exception of the common anchovy (_Engraulis
+encrasich[)o]lus_) and _E. meletta_ (both Mediterranean species),
+inhabitants of the tropical seas of India and America. The common anchovy,
+so esteemed for its rich and peculiar flavour, is not much larger than the
+middle finger. It is caught in vast numbers in the Mediterranean, and
+frequently on the coasts of France, Holland, and the south of England, and
+pickled for exportation. A favourite sauce is made by pounding the pickled
+fish in water, simmering for a short time, adding a little cayenne pepper,
+and straining the whole through a hair-sieve.
+
+ANCHO'VY-PEAR (_Grias caulifl[=o]ra_), a tree of the nat. ord. Myrtaceae, a
+native of Jamaica, growing to the height of 50 feet, with large leaves and
+large white flowers, and bearing a fruit somewhat bigger than a hen's egg,
+which is pickled and eaten like the mango, and strongly resembles it in
+taste.
+
+ANCHU'SA. See _Alkanet_.
+
+ANCHYLO'SIS. See _Ankylosis_.
+
+ANCIENT LIGHTS, in English law, windows or other openings which have been
+in existence for at least twenty years, and during that time have enjoyed
+the access of light without interruption, go that a right is established
+against the obstruction of the light by a neighbouring proprietor.
+
+ANCILLON ([.a][n.]-s[=e]-y[=o][n.]), Jean Pierre Frederic, an author and
+statesman of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1767 (where his father
+was pastor of the French reformed church); died there in 1837. He became
+professor of history in the military academy at Berlin, and in 1806 he was
+charged with the education of the crown-prince. He successively occupied
+several important offices of state, being at last appointed Minister of
+Foreign Affairs. He wrote on philosophy, history, and politics, partly in
+French, partly in German.
+
+ANCKARSTROEM. See _Ankarstroem_.
+
+ANCO'NA, a seaport of Italy, capital of the province of the same name, on
+the Adriatic, 130 miles N.E. of Rome, with harbour works begun by Trajan,
+who built the ancient mole or quay. A triumphal arch of white marble,
+erected in honour of Trajan, stands on the mole. Ancona is a station of the
+Italian fleet, and the commerce is increasing. The town is indifferently
+built, but has some remarkable edifices, among others, the cathedral. There
+is a colossal statue of Count Cavour. Ancona is said to have been founded
+about four centuries B.C., by Syracusan refugees. It fell into the hands of
+the Romans in the first half of the third century B.C., and became a Roman
+colony. Pop. 68,430. The province has an area of 748 sq. miles. Pop.
+333,381.
+
+ANCONA FOWL. See _Poultry_.
+
+ANCRE (ae[n.]-kr), Concino Concini, Marshal and Marquis d', was a native of
+Florence, and on the marriage of Marie de' Medici to Henri IV, in 1600,
+came in her suite to France, where he obtained rapid promotion, more
+especially after the assassination of the king (1610). He became
+successively Governor of Normandy, Marshal of France, and last of all,
+Prime Minister. Being thoroughly detested by all classes, at last a
+conspiracy was formed against him, and he was shot dead on the bridge of
+the Louvre in 1617.
+
+ANCRE, BATTLE OF. This battle was the final one in the British offensive in
+France in 1916. It began on 13th Nov. after a two day's preliminary
+bombardment of the German salient, on both sides of the River Ancre, from
+Beaumont-Hamel to St. Pierre Divion. One area of extraordinary strength was
+the Y ravine which stretches from Beaumont-Hamel plateau towards the river.
+The assaults on both banks of the river were vigorous and determined. A
+fierce struggle was waged in the Y ravine, which Scottish troops ultimately
+cleared with the bayonet. Beaumont-Hamel having fallen, the British line
+was extended well beyond it. Further gains were made on the following day.
+The prisoners captured numbered 7200. This brilliant action paved the way
+for further successes in the spring.
+
+AN'CUS MAR'CIUS, according to the traditionary history of Rome the fourth
+king of that city, who succeeded Tullus Hostilius, 638, and died 614 B.C.
+He was the son of Numa's daughter, and sought to imitate his grandfather by
+reviving the neglected observances of religion. He is said to have built
+the wooden bridge across the Tiber known as the Sublician, constructed the
+harbour of Ostia, and built the first Roman prison.
+
+ANCY'RA. See _Angora_.
+
+ANDALU'SIA (Sp. _Andalucia_), a large and fertile district in the south of
+Spain, bounded N. by Estremadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia, S. by the
+Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Portugal and the Atlantic; area, about 33,777
+sq. miles, comprising the modern provinces of Seville, Huelva, Cadiz, Jaen,
+Cordova, Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. It is traversed throughout its whole
+extent by ranges of mountains, the loftiest being the Sierra Nevada, many
+summits of which are covered with perpetual snow (Mulahacen is 11,678
+feet). Minerals abound, and several mines have been opened by English
+companies, especially in the province of Huelva, where the Tharsis and Rio
+Tinto copper-mines are situated. The principal river is the Guadalquivir.
+The vine, myrtle, olive, palm, banana, carob, &c., grow abundantly in the
+valley of the Guadalquivir. Wheat, maize, barley, and many varieties of
+fruit grow almost spontaneously; besides which, honey, silk, and cochineal
+form important articles of culture. The horses and mules are the best in
+the Peninsula; the bulls are sought for bull-fighting over all Spain; sheep
+are reared in vast numbers. Agriculture is in a backward state, and the
+manufactures are by no means extensive. The Andalusians are descended in
+part from the Moors, of whom they still preserve decided characteristics.
+Andalusia is still famous for its bull-fighters. Pop. 3,828,916.
+
+ANDALUSIAN FOWL. See _Poultry_.
+
+AN'DAMANS, a chain of islands on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, the
+principal being the North, Middle, South, and Little Andamans. Middle
+Andaman is about 60 miles long, and 15 or 16 miles broad; North and South
+Andaman are each about 50 miles long. The Andamanese, about 1315 in number
+(1911), are mostly in a state of nature, living almost naked in the rudest
+habitations. They are small (generally much less than 5 feet), well-formed,
+and active, skilful archers and canoeists, and excellent swimmers and
+divers. These islands have been used since 1858 as a penal settlement by
+the Indian Government, the settlement being at Port Blair, on South
+Andaman. Here rice, coffee, pineapples, nutmegs, &c., are grown, while the
+jungle has been cleared off the neighbouring hills. The natives in the
+vicinity of the settlement have become to some extent civilized. The
+climate is humid, but the settlement is healthy. Pop. 18,000.
+
+ANDANTE ([.a]n-d[.a]n't[=a]; It., 'at a walking pace'), in music, denotes a
+movement somewhat slow, graceful, distinct, and soothing. The word is also
+applied substantively to that part of a sonata or symphony having a
+movement of this character. In Handel's music one often meets the
+expression _andante allegro_, which is equivalent to _andante con moto_.
+
+ANDELYS, LES (l[=a]z [:a][n.]d-l[=e]z), two towns in France called
+respectively Grand and Petit Andely, distant half a mile from each other,
+in the department of Eure, on the right bank of the Seine, 19 miles S.E. of
+Rouen. Grand Andely dates from the sixth century, its church, built in the
+thirteenth century, is one of the finest in the department. Petit Andely
+owes its origin to Richard Coeur de Lion, who, in 1195, built here the
+Chateau Gaillard, in its time one of the strongest fortresses in France,
+but now wholly a ruin. Pop. 5530.
+
+ANDENNE', a town of Belgium, province of Namur, on the right bank of the
+Meuse and 10 miles east of Namur; manufactures delftware, porcelain,
+tobacco-pipes, paper, &c. Pop. 7803.
+
+ANDERNACH ([.a]n'der-n[.a]_ch_), a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the left
+bank of the Rhine, 10 miles N.W. of Coblentz, partly surrounded with walls.
+Pop. 9800.
+
+AN'DERSEN, Hans Christian, a Danish novelist, poet, and writer of fairy
+tales, was born of poor parents at Odense, 2nd April, 1805. He learned to
+read and write in a charity school, from which he was taken when only nine
+years old, and was put to work in a manufactory in order that his earnings
+might assist his widowed mother. In his leisure time he eagerly read
+national ballads, poetry, and plays, and wrote several tragedies full of
+sound and fury. In 1819 he went to Copenhagen, but failed in getting any of
+his plays accepted, and in securing an appointment at the theatre, having
+to content himself for some time with unsteady employment as a joiner. His
+abilities at last brought him under the notice of Councillor Collin, a man
+of considerable influence, who procured for him free entrance into a
+Government school at Slagelse. From this school he was transferred to the
+university, and soon became favourably known by his poetic works. Through
+the influence of Oehlenschlaeger and Ingermann he received a royal grant to
+enable him to travel, and in 1833 he visited Italy, his impressions of
+which he published in _The Improvvisatore_ (1835)--a work which rendered
+his fame European. The scene of his following novel, _O. T._, was laid in
+Denmark, and in _Only a Fiddler_ he described his own early struggles. In
+1835 appeared the first volume of his _Fairy Tales_, of which successive
+volumes continued to be published year by year at Christmas, and which have
+been the most popular and widespread of his works. Among his other works
+are _Picture-books without Pictures_--conversations of the author with the
+moon, who came to visit the poet in his garret; _A Poet's Bazaar_--the
+result of a voyage in 1840 to the East; and a number of dramas. In 1845 he
+received an annuity from the Government. He visited England in 1848, and
+acquired such a command of the language that his next work, _The Two
+Baronesses_, was written in English. In 1855 he published an autobiography,
+under the title _My Life's Romance_, an English translation of which,
+published in 1871, contained additional chapters by the author, bringing
+the narrative to 1867. Among his later works we may mention, _To Be or Not
+To Be_ (1857); _Tales from Jutland_ (1859); _The Ice Maiden_ (1863). He
+died 4th Aug, 1875, having had the pleasure of seeing many of his works
+translated into most of the European languages.
+
+ANDERSON, a town of the United States, Indiana, on the west branch of White
+River, 32 miles north-east of Indianapolis, with various manufacturing
+works. Pop. 23,856.
+
+ANDERSON, Elizabeth Garrett, M.D., born in 1836, maiden name Garrett,
+married Mr. J. S. Anderson of the Orient Line of steamers. She studied
+medicine, but met with many obstacles, the study of medicine by women being
+then discouraged on all hands; at last she was licensed to practise by the
+Apothecaries' Society in 1865, and afterwards passed examinations at the
+University of Paris and obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine. From
+1866 to 1890 she was senior physician to the New Hospital for Women; from
+1876 to 1898 lecturer on medicine in the London School of Medicine for
+Women. She did much to aid in opening the medical profession to women. In
+1908 she was elected Mayor of Aldeburgh, being the first woman to hold the
+position of mayor in England. She died on 17th Dec., 1917. Her daughter
+Louisa Garrett Anderson, born in 1873, went to France in 1914 as Joint
+Organiser of and Chief Surgeon to the Women's Hospital Corps, Voluntary
+Unit.
+
+ANDERSON, James, a Scottish writer on political and rural economy, born at
+Hermiston in 1739, died in 1808. In 1790 he started the _Bee_, which ran to
+eighteen volumes, and contains many useful papers on agricultural,
+economical, and other topics. Some of his other publications, _Recreations
+in Agriculture_, _Natural History_, &c., contain anticipations of theories
+afterwards propounded by Malthus and Ricardo.
+
+ANDERSON, John, F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy in the University
+of Glasgow, born 1726, died 1796. By his will he directed that the whole of
+his effects should be devoted to the establishment of an educational
+institution in Glasgow, to be denominated _Anderson's University_, for the
+use of the unacademical classes. According to the design of the founder,
+there were to be four colleges--for arts, medicine, law, and
+theology--besides an initiatory school. As the funds, however, were totally
+inadequate to the plan, it was at first commenced with only a single course
+of lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry. The institution gradually
+enlarged its sphere of instruction, coming nearer and nearer to the
+original design of its founder, the medical school in particular possessing
+a high reputation. In 1886 it was incorporated with other institutions to
+form the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College (now Glasgow Royal
+Technical College), Anderson's College medical school, however, retaining a
+distinct position.
+
+ANDERSON, Joseph, Scottish antiquary, born in 1832, became a school
+teacher, was for some years newspaper editor, and in 1870 was appointed
+keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. His chief works
+embody the lectures delivered by him as Rhind lecturer in archaeology to
+the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland: _Scotland in Early Christian
+Times_, _Scotland in Pagan Times_, and the _Early Christian Monuments of
+Scotland_. He also edited _The Orkneyinga Saga_, _The Oliphants in
+Scotland_, and Drummond's _Ancient Scottish Weapons_. He died in 1916.
+
+ANDERSON, Robert, M.D., Scottish biographical writer, born 1750, died 1830.
+He furnished biographical and critical notices for _A Complete Edition of
+the Poets of Great Britain_ (1792-5), and was for a time editor of the
+_Edinburgh Magazine_.
+
+ANDERSSON, Carl Jan, an African traveller, born in Sweden in 1827, died in
+the land of the Ovampos, in Western Africa, in July, 1867. He published
+_Lake Ngami, or Discoveries in South Africa_ (London, 2 vols., 1856), and
+_The Okavango River_ (London, 1861). The observations of his last voyage
+were published in 1875 in _Notes of Travel in South Africa_.
+
+ANDES (an'd[=e]z), or, as they are called in Spanish South America,
+CORDILLERAS (ridges) DE LOS ANDES, or simply CORDILLERAS, a range of
+mountains stretching along the whole of the west coast of South America,
+from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama and the Caribbean Sea. In absolute
+length (4500 miles) no single chain of mountains approaches the Andes, and
+only a certain number of the higher peaks of the Himalayan chain rise
+higher above the sea-level; which peak is the highest of all is not yet
+settled. Several main sections of this huge chain are distinguishable. The
+Southern Andes present a lofty main chain, with a minor chain running
+parallel to it on the east, reaching from Tierra del Fuego and the Straits
+of Magellan, northward to about lat. 28deg S., and rising in Aconcagua to a
+height of 23,080 feet. North of this is the double chain of the Central
+Andes, enclosing the wide and lofty plateaus of Bolivia and Peru, which lie
+at an elevation of more than 12,000 feet above the sea. The mountain system
+is here at its broadest, being about 500 miles across. Here are also
+several very lofty peaks, as Illampu or Sorata (21,484 feet), Sahama
+(21,054 feet), Illimani (21,024 feet). Farther north the outer and inner
+ranges draw closer together, and in Ecuador there is but a single system of
+elevated masses, generally described as forming two parallel chains. In
+this section are crowded together a number of lofty peaks, most of them
+volcanoes, either extinct or active. Of the latter class are Pichincha
+(15,918 feet), with a crater 2500 feet deep; Tunguragua (16,685 feet);
+Sangay (17,460 feet); and Cotopaxi (19,550 feet). The loftiest summit here
+appears to be Chimborazo (20,581 feet); others are Antisana (19,260 feet)
+and Cayambe (19,200 feet). Northward of this section the Andes break into
+three distinct ranges, the east-most running north-eastward into Venezuela,
+the westmost running north-westward to the Isthmus of Panama. In the
+central range is the volcano of Tolima (17,660 feet). The western slope of
+the Andes is generally exceedingly steep, the eastern much less so, the
+mountains sinking gradually to the plains. The whole range gives evidence
+of volcanic action, but it consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks.
+Thus mountains may be found rising to the height of over 20,000 feet, and
+fossiliferous to their summits (as Illimani and Sorata or Illampu). There
+are about thirty volcanoes in a state of activity. The loftiest of these
+burning mountains seems to be Gualateiri, in Peru (21,960 feet). The
+heights of the others vary from 13,000 to 20,000 feet. All the districts of
+the Andes system have suffered severely from earthquakes, towns having been
+either destroyed or greatly injured by these visitations. Peaks crowned
+with perpetual snow are seen all along the range, and glaciers are also met
+with, more especially from Aconcagua southwards. The passes are generally
+at a great height, the most important being from 10,000 to 15,000 feet.
+Railways have been constructed to cross the chain at a similar elevation.
+The Andes are extremely rich in the precious metals, gold, silver, copper,
+platinum, mercury, and tin all being wrought; lead and iron are also found.
+The llama and kindred species--the guanaco, vicuna, and alpaca--are
+characteristic of the Andes. Among birds, the condor is the most
+remarkable. The vegetation necessarily varies much according to elevation,
+latitude, rainfall, &c., but generally is rich and varied. Except in the
+south and north little rain falls on the western side of the range, and in
+the centre there is a considerable desert area. On the east side the
+rainfall is heavy in the equatorial regions, but in the south is very
+scanty or altogether deficient. From the Andes rise two of the largest
+water systems of the world--the Amazon and its affluents, and the La Plata
+and its affluents. Besides which, in the north, from its slopes flow the
+Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some tributaries to the Orinoco. The
+mountain chain pressing so close upon the Pacific Ocean, no streams of
+importance flow from its western slopes. The number of lakes is not great;
+the largest and most important is that of Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau.
+In the Andes are towns at a greater elevation than anywhere else in the
+world, the highest being the silver-mining town of Cerro de Pasco (14,270
+feet), the next being Potosi.
+
+AN'DESIN, a kind of felspar containing both soda and lime, and named from
+being first obtained in the Andes.
+
+AN'DESITE, a name given to a crystalline volcanic rock or group of rocks of
+very wide occurrence, consisting mostly of felspar mixed with other
+ingredients, especially hornblende and augite, often also hypersthene and
+mica, the four chief varieties being named accordingly. Andesite is often
+porphyritic in character, with large crystals of felspar scattered through
+it. These rocks are commonly eruptive products of volcanoes of the tertiary
+or more recent periods, and the name was given by C. L. von Buch on account
+of their prevalence in the lavas of volcanoes of the Andes. The Ochils and
+other hills of middle Scotland largely consist of andesite.
+
+ANDIJAN', a town of Russian Turkestan, Ferghana, south of the Syr-Darya, a
+terminus of the Transcaspian Railway, 73 miles north-east of Khokand. Pop.
+82,235.
+
+ANDI'RA, a genus of leguminous American trees, with fleshy plum-like
+fruits. The wood is suitable for building purposes. The bark of _A.
+inermis_, or cabbage tree, is narcotic, and is used as an anthelminthic
+under the name of _worm-bark_ or _cabbage bark_. The powdered bark of _A.
+arar[=o]ba_ is used as a remedy in certain skin diseases, as herpes.
+
+ANDIRON (and'[=i]-[.e]rn), a horizontal iron bar raised on short legs, with
+an upright standard at one end, used to support pieces of wood when burning
+in an open hearth, one andiron being placed on either side of the hearth.
+
+ANDKHOO, or ANDKHOUI ([.a]nd-_h_[:o]', [.a]nd-_h_oe'i), a town of
+Afghanistan, about 200 miles south of Bokhara, on the commercial route to
+Herat. Pop. estimated at 15,000.
+
+ANDOCIDES (an-dos'i-d[=e]z), an Athenian orator, born about 440 B.C., died
+about 393 B.C. He took an active part in public affairs, and was four times
+exiled; the first time along with Alcibiades, for profaning the Eleusinian
+mysteries. Several of his orations are extant, one called _On the
+Mysteries_ being the best.
+
+ANDOR'RA, or ANDORRE', a small nominally independent State in the Pyrenees,
+south of the French department of Ariege, with an area of about 191 sq.
+miles. It has been a separate State for six hundred years, is governed by
+its own civil and criminal codes, and has its own courts of justice, the
+laws being administered by two judges, one of whom is chosen by France, the
+other by the Bishop of Urgel, in Spain. The little State pays an annual due
+of 960 francs to France, and 460 pesetas to the Bishop of Urgel. The chief
+industry is the rearing of sheep and cattle. The commerce is largely in
+importing contraband goods into Spain. The inhabitants, who speak the
+Catalan dialect of Spanish, are simple in their manners, their wealth
+consisting mainly of cattle and sheep. The village of Old Andorra is the
+capital. Pop. 5231.
+
+AN'DOVER, a town in England, in Hants, 12 miles north by west of
+Winchester, with a fine church, and a trade in corn, malt, &c. Interesting
+Roman remains have been found in the vicinity. Pop. (1921), 8569.
+
+AN'DOVER, a town in Massachusetts, 25 miles N.N.W. of Boston, chiefly
+remarkable for its literary institutions--Phillip's Academy, founded in
+1778; the Andover Theological Seminary, founded in 1807; and Abbot Academy,
+a girls' school, founded in 1829. Pop. 7300.
+
+ANDRASSY ([.a]n-drae'sh[=e]), Count Julius, Hungarian statesman, born 1823,
+died in 1890. He took part in the revolution of 1848, was condemned to
+death, but escaped and went into exile. He was appointed Premier when
+self-government was restored to Hungary in 1867; became imperial Minister
+for Foreign Affairs in 1871, but retired from public life in 1879.
+
+ANDRASSY, Julius, Hungarian statesman, son of the preceding. He was born in
+1860, and entered the Reichstag in 1884. He became Minister of the Interior
+in 1906, and retained that office until 1909. In 1912 he represented
+Austria at the conference on the Balkan question. In 1918 he was appointed
+Minister for Foreign Affairs, but soon resigned.
+
+ANDRE (an'dr[=a]), Major John, adjutant-general in the British army during
+the American revolutionary war. Employed to negotiate the defection of the
+American general Arnold, and the delivery of the works at West Point, he
+was apprehended in disguise, 23rd Sept., 1780, within the American lines;
+declared a spy from the enemy, and hanged 2nd Oct., 1780. His remains were
+brought to England in 1821 and interred in Westminster Abbey, where a
+monument has been erected to his memory.
+
+ANDREA DEL SARTO. See _Sarto_.
+
+ANDREAE ([.a]n'dre-[=a]), Johann Valentin, German author, born 1586, died
+1654. He was the author of numerous tracts, several of them of an amusing
+and satirical character. He was long believed to be the founder of the
+celebrated Rosicrucian order, an opinion that received a certain support
+from some of his works, but in all probability the real intention of the
+writer was to ridicule the folly of contemporary alchemists.
+
+AN'DREASBERG, ST., a mining town of the Harz Mountains, in Prussia, 57
+miles S.S.E. of Hanover. Pop. about 4000.
+
+ANDREEV, Leonid Nicolaievitsh, Russian author, born in 1871, died in 1919.
+He studied law at the Universities of Moscow and Petrograd, but finding his
+practice unremunerative he became a police-court reporter for a daily
+paper. At the age of twenty-three he attempted suicide, driven to it by his
+miserable circumstances and struggle for existence. His first story, _About
+a Poor Student_, based upon his own experiences, attracted but little
+attention, and his literary career really began when Gorky discovered his
+talent. He was one of the most prolific Russian writers, the short story
+being his speciality. He was a mystic and a fatalist, like so many of his
+compatriots. His works include: _The Red Laugh_ (1905); _The Seven who were
+Hanged_ (1909); _Judas Iscariot and the Others_ (1910); _A Dilemma_ (1910);
+_Silence and Other Stories_, &c. His works have been translated into many
+European languages.
+
+ANDREW, ST., brother of St. Peter, and the first disciple whom Christ
+chose. He is said to have preached in Scythia, in Thrace and Asia Minor,
+and in Achaia (Greece), and according to tradition he was crucified by
+order of the Roman governor Aegeas at Patrae, now Patras, in Achaia, on a
+cross of the form X (decussate cross), now known as a St. Andrew's cross.
+The Russians revere him as the apostle who brought the gospel to them; the
+Scots, as the patron saint of their country. The day dedicated to him is
+30th Nov. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted by Peter the Great
+in 1698. For the Scottish Knights of St. Andrew or the Thistle, see
+_Thistle_.
+
+AN'DREWES, Lancelot, an eminent and learned bishop of the English Church,
+born in London in 1555, died at Winchester 1626; was high in favour both
+with Queen Elizabeth and James I. In 1605 he became Bishop of Chichester;
+in 1609 was translated to Ely, and appointed one of the king's
+privy-councillors; and in 1618 he was translated to Winchester. He was one
+of those engaged in preparing the authorized version of the Scriptures. He
+left sermons, lectures, and other writings.
+
+AN'DREWS, ST., an ancient city and parliamentary burgh in Fifeshire,
+Scotland, 31 miles north-east from Edinburgh; was erected into a royal
+burgh by David I in 1140, and after having been an episcopal, became an
+archiepiscopal see in 1472, and was for long the ecclesiastical capital of
+Scotland. The cathedral, now in ruins, was begun about 1160, and took 157
+years to finish. The old castle, founded about 1200, and rebuilt in the
+fourteenth century, is also an almost shapeless ruin. In it James III was
+born and Cardinal Beaton assassinated, and in front of it George Wishart
+was burned. There are several other interesting ruins. The trade and
+manufactures are of no importance, but the town is in favour as a
+watering-place. Golf is much played here. Pop. 7597.--The _University of
+St. Andrews_, the oldest of the Scottish universities, founded in 1411,
+consists of the united colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard and the
+college of St. Mary, both at St. Andrews, and embraces also University
+College, Dundee. In 1579 the colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard were
+restricted to the teaching of arts and medicine, and that of St. Mary to
+theology. In 1747 the two former colleges were united by Act of Parliament.
+University College, Dundee, was founded in 1880. The united college of St.
+Salvator and St. Leonard has a principal (who is also principal of the
+university) and twelve professors, and the college of St. Mary has a
+principal and four professors. Degrees, open to women as well as men, are
+conferred in arts, divinity, science, medicine, and law; and the university
+also confers the diploma and title of L.L.A. (Lady Literate in Arts). The
+number of students is 420. In connection with the university is a library,
+founded in 1612 and containing about 150,000 printed volumes and 150 MSS.
+The university unites with the other three Scottish universities in
+returning three members to Parliament. Madras College or Academy, founded
+by Dr. Bell of Madras, the principal secondary school of the place,
+provides accommodation for upwards of 1500 scholars.
+
+AN'DREWS, Thomas, chemist, was born at Belfast in 1813; studied chemistry
+at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson, and for a short time in Paris; then
+medicine at Belfast, Dublin, and Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.D. at
+the last place. After practising and teaching chemistry for ten years in
+Belfast, he became vice-president of the Northern College there, which in
+1849 was converted into Queen's College, and Andrews now became professor
+of chemistry in the college, a post which he held till 1879. He died in
+1885, having received various academic distinctions in the course of his
+life. His name is associated with valuable researches on the heat of
+chemical combustion, and on the nature of ozone, but especially with the
+discovery of the existence of a critical temperature for every gas, above
+which it cannot be liquefied by any pressure, however great. He wrote many
+scientific papers, which have been published in a collective form by P. G.
+Tait and A. Crum Brown.
+
+AN'DRIA, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, with a fine cathedral,
+founded in 1046; the Church of Sant' Agostino, with a beautiful Pointed
+Gothic portal; a college; manufactures of majolica, and a good trade. Pop.
+53,274.
+
+ANDROCLUS, or ANDROCLES, a Roman slave who once pulled a thorn out of a
+lion's paw and dressed the wound. Androclus was afterwards condemned to be
+thrown to the lions in the Circus Maximus, and encountered the same lion
+that he had helped; the beast, instead of attacking him, fawned on him and
+caressed him. The story is told by Aulus Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, v, 14.
+
+ANDROE'CIUM, in botany, the male system of a flower; the aggregate of the
+stamens.
+
+ANDROMACHE (an-drom'a-k[=e]), in Greek legend, wife of Hector, and one of
+the most attractive women of Homer's _Iliad_. The passage describing her
+parting with Hector, when he was setting out to battle, is well known and
+much admired (_Iliad_, vi, 369-502). Euripides and Racine have made her the
+chief character of tragedies.
+
+ANDROM'[)E]DA, in Greek mythology, daughter of the Ethiopian king Cepheus
+and of Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia having boasted that her daughter surpassed
+the Nereids, if not H[=e]ra (Juno) herself, in beauty, the offended
+goddesses prevailed on their father, Poseid[=o]n (Neptune), to afflict the
+country with a horrid sea-monster, which threatened universal destruction.
+To appease the offended god, Andromeda was chained to a rock, but was
+rescued by Perseus; and after death was changed into a constellation. The
+legend forms the subject of tragedies by Euripides and Sophocles, and Ovid
+introduced it into his _Metamorphoses_.
+
+ANDROM'EDA. See _Ericaceae_.
+
+ANDRONI'CUS, the name of four emperors of Constantinople.--ANDRONICUS I,
+Comnenus, born 1110, murdered 1185.--ANDRONICUS II, Palaeologus, born 1258,
+died 1332. His reign is celebrated for the invasion of the
+Turks.--ANDRONICUS III, Palaeologus the Younger, born 1296, died
+1341.--ANDRONICUS IV, Palaeologus, reigned in the absence of John IV. In
+1373 he gave way to his brother Manuel, and died a monk.
+
+ANDRONI'CUS, Livius, the most ancient of the Latin dramatic poets;
+flourished about 240 B.C.; by origin a Greek, and long a slave. A few
+fragments of his works have come down to us.
+
+ANDRONI'CUS of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher who lived at Rome in the
+time of Cicero. He arranged Aristotle's works in much the same form as they
+retain in present editions.
+
+ANDRONI'CUS CYRRHESTES (sir-es't[=e]z), a Greek architect about 100 B.C.,
+who constructed at Athens the Tower of the Winds, an octagonal building,
+still standing. On the top was a Triton, which indicated the direction of
+the wind. Each of the sides had a sort of dial, and the building formerly
+contained a clepsydra or water-clock.
+
+ANDROPO'GON, a large genus of grasses, mostly natives of warm countries.
+_A. Schoenanthus_ is the sweet-scented lemon-grass of conservatories.
+Others also are fragrant.
+
+AN'DROS (now ANDRO), one of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, the
+most northerly of the Cyclades; about 25 miles long and 6 or 7 broad; area,
+100 sq. miles. A considerable trade is done in silk, wine, olives, figs,
+oranges, and lemons. Andro or Castro, the capital, has a good port. Pop.
+18,809.
+
+ANDROS ISLANDS, a group of isles belonging to the Bahamas, lying south-west
+of New Providence, not far from the east entrance to the Gulf of Florida.
+The passages through them are dangerous. Pop. 7545.
+
+ANDRUSSOVO, a Russian village in the government of Smolensk. A treaty was
+signed here between Poland and Russia (1667).
+
+ANDUJAR ([.a]n-_d_oe-_h_aer'), a town in Spain, in Andalusia, 50 miles
+E.N.E. of Cordova, on the Guadalquivir, which is here crossed by a fine
+bridge; manufactures a peculiar kind of porous earthen water-bottles and
+jugs (_alcarazas_). Pop. 16,500.
+
+AN'ECDOTE, originally some particular about a subject not noticed in
+previous works on that subject; now any particular or detached incident or
+fact of an interesting nature; a single passage of private life.
+
+ANEGA'DA, a British West Indian island, the most northern of the Virgin
+group, 10 miles long by 4-1/2 broad; contains numerous salt ponds, from
+which quantities of salt are obtained. Pop. 200.
+
+ANELECTRIC, a body not easily electrified.
+
+ANELECTRODE, the positive pole of a galvanic battery.
+
+[Illustration: Beckley's Improved Robinson Cup Anemometer]
+
+ANEMOM'ETER (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind, _metron_, measure), an instrument for
+measuring the force and velocity of the wind. This force is usually
+measured by the pressure of the wind upon a square plate attached to one
+end of a spiral spring (with its axis horizontal), which yields more or
+less according to the force of the wind, and transmits its motion to a
+pencil which leaves a trace upon paper moved by clockwork. Various
+instruments have been devised for this purpose, but the one most commonly
+adopted by meteorological stations is after the type invented by Dr.
+Robinson of Armagh. It consists of four hemispherical cups A attached to
+the ends of equal horizontal arms, forming a horizontal cross which turns
+freely about a vertical axis B. By means of an endless screw carried by the
+axis a train of wheelwork is set in motion; and the indication is given by
+a hand which moves round a dial; or in some instruments by several hands
+moving round different dials like those of a gas-meter. It is found that
+the centre of each cup moves with a velocity which is almost exactly
+one-third of that of the wind. There are various other forms of the
+instrument, one of which is portable, and is especially intended for
+measuring the velocity of currents of air passing through mines, and the
+ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public buildings. The direction
+of the wind as indicated by a vane can also be made to leave a continuous
+record by various contrivances; one of the most common being a pinion
+carried by the shaft of a vane, and driving a rack which carries a pencil.
+
+ANEM'[)O]N[=E] (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind), wind-flower, a genus of plants
+belonging to the Buttercup family (Ranunculaceae), containing about ninety
+species, found in temperate regions, three of them occurring in Britain:
+the white-flowered (_A. nemor[=o]sa_), the only one truly native; the
+blue-flowered (_A. apenn[=i]na_); and the yellow-flowered (_A.
+ranunculoides_), a common European species naturalized in some parts of
+Britain. Several species are cultivated as florists' flowers.
+
+ANEMOPH'ILOUS, said of flowers that are fertilized by the wind conveying
+the pollen.
+
+ANEM'OSCOPE, any contrivance indicating the direction of the wind;
+generally applied to a vane which turns a spindle descending through the
+roof to a chamber where, by means of a compass-card and index, the
+direction of the wind is shown.
+
+ANEROID BAROMETER. See _Barometer_.
+
+ANE'THUM, a genus of plants; dill.
+
+ANEU'RIN, a poet and prince of the Cambrian Britons who flourished in the
+seventh century, author of an epic poem, the _Gododin_, relating the defeat
+of the Britons of Strathclyde by the Saxons at the battle of Cattraeth. See
+_Celtic Literature_.
+
+AN'EURISM, or ANEURYSM (Gr. _aneurysma_, a widening), the dilatation or
+expansion of some part of an artery. Aneurisms arise partly from the too
+violent motion of the blood, and partly from degenerative changes occurring
+in the coats of the artery, diminishing their elasticity. They are
+therefore more frequent in the great branches; in particular, in the
+vicinity of the heart, in the arch of the aorta, and in the extremities,
+where the arteries are exposed to frequent injuries by stretching, violent
+bodily exertions, thrusts, falls, and contusions. An internal aneurism may
+burst and cause death.
+
+ANGARA', a Siberian river which flows into Lake Baikal at its N. extremity,
+and leaves it near the S.W. end, joining the Yenisei as the Lower Angara or
+Upper Tunguska.
+
+ANGEL (Gr. _angelos_, a messenger), one of those spiritual intelligences
+who are regarded as dwelling in Heaven and employed as the ministers or
+agents of God. To these the name of good angels is sometimes given, to
+distinguish them from bad angels, who were originally created to occupy the
+same blissful abode, but lost it by rebellion. The Old Testament represents
+them as messengers of the Divine will, and Christ spoke of them more than
+once (_St. Matt._ xviii, 10; _St. Luke_, xv, 10). Generally, however,
+Scripture speaks of angels with great reserve, Michael and Gabriel alone
+being mentioned by name in the canonical books, while Raphael is mentioned
+in the Apocrypha. The angels are represented in Scripture as in the most
+elevated state of intelligence, purity, and bliss, ever doing the will of
+God so perfectly that we can seek for nothing higher or better than to aim
+at being like them. There are indications of a diversity of rank and power
+among them, and something like angelic orders--Michael, Gabriel, Raphael,
+Uriel, &c., seraphim and cherubim. They are represented as frequently
+taking part in communications made from heaven to earth, as directly and
+actively ministering to the good of believers, and shielding or delivering
+them from evils incident to their earthly lot. That every person has a good
+and a bad angel attendant on him was an early belief, and is held to some
+extent yet. Roman Catholics, since St. Ambrosius, who died in 397, show a
+certain veneration or worship to angels, and beg their prayers and their
+kind offices. The New Testament, however, formally forbidding such
+veneration (_Col._ ii, 18, &c.), Protestants consider this unlawful.
+
+[Illustration: Angel of Queen Elizabeth]
+
+ANGEL, a gold coin introduced into England in the reign of Edward IV, and
+coined down to the Commonwealth, so named from having the representation of
+the archangel Michael piercing a dragon upon it. It had different values in
+different reigns, varying from 6s. 8d. to 10s.
+
+ANGEL-FISH, a fish, _Squat[=i]na ang[)e]lus_, nearly allied to the sharks,
+very ugly and voracious, preying on other fish. It is from 6 to 8 feet
+long, and takes its name from its pectoral fins, which are very large,
+extending horizontally like wings when spread. This fish connects the rays
+with the sharks, but it differs from both in having its mouth placed at the
+extremity of the head. It is common on the south coasts of Britain, and is
+also called _Monk-fish_ and _Fiddle-fish_.
+
+ANGEL'ICA, a genus of umbelliferous plants, one of which, _A. sylvestris_,
+a tall plant bearing large umbels of white flowers tinged with pink, is
+common in wet places in Britain, and was formerly believed to possess
+_angelic_ properties as an antidote to poison, a specific against
+witchcraft, &c. The name is also given to an allied plant, the
+_Archangelica officin[=a]lis_, found on the banks of rivers and ditches in
+the north of Europe, once generally cultivated as an esculent, and still
+valued for its medicinal properties. It has a large fleshy aromatic root,
+and a strong-furrowed branched stem as high as a man. It is cultivated for
+its agreeable aromatic odour and carminative properties. Its blanched
+stems, candied with sugar, form a very agreeable sweetmeat, possessing
+tonic and stomachic qualities.
+
+ANGELICO ([.a]n-jel'i-k[=o]), FRA, the common appellation of _Fra Giovanni
+da Fiesole_, one of the most celebrated of the early Italian painters. Born
+1387, he entered the Dominican order in 1407, and was employed by Cosmo de'
+Medici in painting the monastery of St. Mark and the church of St.
+Annunziata with frescoes. These pictures gained him so much celebrity that
+Pope Nicholas V invited him to Rome to ornament his private chapel in the
+Vatican, and offered him the archbishopric of Florence, which Angelico
+declined. He died at, Rome 1455. He has been called the 'painter of
+seraphic dreams'. His works were considered unrivalled in finish and in
+sweetness and harmony of colour, and were made the models for religious
+painters of his own and succeeding generations.
+
+ANGELN ([.a]ng'eln), a district in Schleswig of about 300 sq. miles,
+bounded N. by the Bay of Flensburg, S. by the Schlei, E. by the Baltic, the
+only continental territory which has retained the name of the Angles.
+
+ANGELO ([.a]n'je-l[=o]), Michael. See _Buonarotti_.
+
+AN'GELUS, in the Roman Catholic Church, a short form of prayer in honour of
+the incarnation, consisting mainly of versicles and responses, the angelic
+salutation three times repeated, and a collect, so named from the word with
+which it commences, '_Angelus_ Domini' (Angel of the Lord). Hence, also,
+the bell tolled in the morning, at noon, and in the evening to indicate the
+time when the angelus is to be recited. The prayer is attributed to St.
+Bonaventura, and in Germany and Italy it is called 'Ave Maria'.
+
+ANGERMANN (ong'er-m[.a]n), a Swedish river which falls into the Gulf of
+Bothnia, noted for its fine scenery. It is navigable for nearly 70 miles
+for vessels of 600 tons.
+
+ANGERMUENDE ([.a]ng'er-muen-de), a town in Prussia, on Lake Muende, 42
+miles north-east of Berlin. Pop. 8200.
+
+ANGERS ([.a][n.]-zh[=a]), a town and river-port of France, capital of the
+department of Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of the province of Anjou, on the
+banks of the Maine, 5-1/2 miles from the Loire, 150 miles south-west of
+Paris. It has an old castle, built by Louis IX, once a place of great
+strength, now used as a prison, barrack, and powder-magazine; a fine
+cathedral of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with very fine old
+painted windows; is the seat of a bishop, and has a school of arts and
+manufactures; a public library, an art-gallery, a large modern hospital,
+the remains of a hospital founded by Henry II of England in 1155; courts of
+law, theatre, &c. It manufactures sail-cloth, hosiery, leather, and
+chemicals; foundries, &c. In the neighbourhood are immense slate-quarries.
+Pop. 83,786.
+
+ANGEVINS (an'je-vins), natives of Anjou, often applied to the race of
+English sovereigns called Plantagenets (q.v.). Anjou became connected with
+England by the marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, with Geoffrey V,
+Count of Anjou. The Angevin kings of England were Henry II, Richard I,
+John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and Richard II.
+
+ANGILBERT, ST., the most celebrated poet of his age, secretary and friend
+of Charlemagne, whose daughter, Bertha, he married. In the latter part of
+his life he retired to a monastery, of which he became abbot. Died 814.
+
+ANGINA PECTORIS (an'ji-na pek'to-ris), or HEART-SPASM, a disease
+characterized by an extremely acute constriction, felt generally in the
+lower part of the sternum, and extending along the whole side of the chest
+and into the corresponding arm, a sense of suffocation, faintness, and
+apprehension of approaching death: seldom experienced by any but those with
+organic heart-disease. The disease rarely occurs before middle age, and is
+more frequent in men than in women. Those liable to attack must lead a
+quiet, temperate life, avoiding all scenes which would unduly rouse their
+emotions. The first attack is occasionally fatal, but usually death occurs
+as the result of repeated seizures. The paroxysm may be relieved by
+opiates, or the inhalation, under due precaution, of anaesthetic vapours.
+
+ANGIOSPERM (an'ji-o-sp[.e]rm), a term for any plant which has its seeds
+enclosed in a seed-vessel. Exogens are divided into those whose seeds are
+enclosed in a seed-vessel, and those with seeds produced and ripened
+without the production of a seed-vessel. The former are _angiosperms_, and
+constitute the principal part of the species; the latter are _gymnosperms_,
+and chiefly consist of the Coniferae and Cycadaceae.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+ANGLE, the point where two lines meet, or the meeting of two lines in a
+point. A _plane rectilineal angle_ is formed by two straight lines which
+meet one another, but are not in the same straight line; it may be
+considered the degree of opening or divergence of the two straight lines
+which thus meet one another. A _right angle_ is an angle formed by a
+straight line falling on another perpendicularly, or an angle which is
+measured by an arc of 90 degrees. When a straight line, as A B (fig. 1),
+standing on another straight line C D, makes the two angles A B C and A B D
+equal to one another, each of these angles is called a _right angle_. An
+_acute angle_ is that which is less than a right angle, as E B C. An
+_obtuse angle_ is that which is greater than a right angle, as E B D. Acute
+and obtuse angles are both called _oblique_, in opposition to right angles.
+_Exterior_ or _external angles_, the angles of any rectilineal figure
+without it, made by producing the sides; thus, if the sides A B, B C, C A
+of the triangle A B C (fig. 2) be produced to the points F D E, the angles
+C B F, A C D, B A E are called _exterior_ or _external angles_. A _solid
+angle_ is that which is made by more than two plane angles meeting in one
+point and not lying in the same plane, as the angle of a cube. A _spherical
+angle_ is an angle on the surface of a sphere, contained between the arcs
+of two great circles which intersect each other.
+
+ANGLER (_Lophius piscatorius_), also from its habits and appearance called
+FISHING-FROG and SEA-DEVIL, a remarkable fish often found on the British
+coasts. It is from 3 to 5 feet long; the head is very wide, depressed, with
+protuberances, and bearing long separate movable tendrils; the mouth is
+capacious, and armed with formidable teeth. Its voracity is extreme, and it
+is said to lie concealed in the mud, and attract the smaller fishes within
+its reach by gently waving the filamentous appendages on its head.
+
+ANGLES, a Low German tribe who in the earliest historical period had their
+seats in the district about Angeln, in the duchy of Schleswig, and who in
+the fifth century and subsequently crossed over to Britain along with bands
+of Saxons and Jutes (and probably Frisians also), and colonized a great
+part of what from them has received the name of England, as well as a
+portion of the Lowlands of Scotland. The Angles formed the largest body
+among the Germanic settlers in Britain, and founded the three kingdoms of
+East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.
+
+ANGLESEY (ang'gl-s[=e]), or ANGLESEA ('the Angles' Island'), an island and
+county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea, separated from the mainland by the
+Menai Strait; 20 miles long and 17 miles broad; area, 176,630 acres. The
+surface is comparatively flat, and the climate is milder than that of the
+adjoining coast. The chief agricultural products are oats and barley,
+wheat, rye, potatoes, and turnips. Numbers of cattle and sheep are raised.
+Anglesey yields a little copper, lead, silver, ochre, &c. The Menai Strait
+is crossed by a magnificent suspension-bridge, 580 feet between the piers
+and 100 feet above high-water mark, and also by the great Britannia Tubular
+Railway Bridge. The chief market-towns are Beaumaris, Holyhead, Llangefni,
+and Amlweh. The county returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921),
+51,695.
+
+ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, Marquess of, English soldier and statesman,
+was the eldest son of Henry, first Earl of Uxbridge, and was born in 1768.
+He was educated at Oxford, and in 1790 entered Parliament as member for the
+Carnarvon boroughs. In 1793 he entered the army, and in 1794 he took part
+in the campaign in Flanders under the Duke of York. In 1808 he was sent
+into Spain with two brigades of cavalry to join Sir John Moore, and in the
+retreat to Coruna commanded the rear-guard. In 1812 he became, by his
+father's death, Earl of Uxbridge. On Napoleon's escape from Elba he was
+appointed commander of the British cavalry, and at the battle of Waterloo,
+by the charge of the heavy brigade, overthrew the Imperial Guard. For his
+services he was created Marquess of Anglesey. In 1828 he became
+Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland and made himself extremely popular, but was
+recalled in consequence of favouring Catholic Emancipation. He was again
+Lord-Lieutenant in 1830, but lost his popularity by his opposition to
+O'Connell and his instrumentality in the passing of the Irish Coercion
+Acts; and he quitted office in 1833. From 1846-52 he was Master-General of
+the Ordnance. He died in 1854.
+
+ANGLICANISM, the term is capable of a wider use, but is usually employed as
+descriptive of the type of doctrine formulated by the Church of England in
+the period of the Protestant Reformation. The two most notable formularies
+of that period are the Confession of Faith, known as the Thirty-nine
+Articles, which assumed its present shape in 1571, and the Liturgy, known
+as the Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1559 in what was substantially its
+present shape. By the Clerical Subscription Act of 1865 assent is required
+to both Prayer Book and Articles. The Articles are not and never were
+binding upon laymen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mgr. Moyes, _Aspects of Anglicanism_;
+F. Y. Kinsman, _Principles of Anglicanism_.
+
+ANGLING, the art of catching fish with a hook or _angle_ (A. Sax. _angel_)
+baited with worms, small fish, flies, &c. We find occasional allusions to
+this pursuit among the Greek and Latin classical writers; it is mentioned
+several times in the Old Testament, and it was practised by the ancient
+Egyptians. The first reference to angling in England is a passage in a
+tract, entitled _Piers Fulham_, supposed to have been written about the
+year 1420. The oldest work on the subject in English is the _Treatyse of
+Fysshinge with an Angle_, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with a
+treatise on hunting and hawking, the whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana
+Berners or Barnes, prioress of a nunnery near St. Albans. Walton's
+inimitable discourse on angling was first printed in 1653. The chief
+appliances required by an angler are a rod, line, hooks, and baits. Rods
+are made of various materials, and of various sizes. The cane rods are
+lightest, and where fishing-tackle is sold they most commonly have the
+preference; but in country places the rod is often of the angler's own
+manufacture. Rods are commonly made in separate joints, so as to be easily
+taken to pieces and put up again. They are made to taper from the butt end
+to the top, and are usually possessed of a considerable amount of
+elasticity. In length they may vary from 10 feet to more than double that
+length, with a corresponding difference in strength--a rod for salmon being
+necessarily much stronger than one suited for ordinary burn trout. The
+_reel_, an apparatus for winding up the line, is attached to the rod near
+the lower end, where the hand grasps it while fishing. The best are usually
+made of brass, are of simple construction, and so made as to wind or unwind
+freely and rapidly. That part of the line which passes along the rod and is
+wound on the reel is called the _reel line_, and may vary from 20 to 100
+yards in length, according to the size of the water and the habits of the
+fish angled for; it is usually made of twisted horse-hair and silk, or of
+oiled silk alone. The casting line, which is attached to this, is made of
+the same materials, but lighter and finer. To the end of this is tied a
+piece of fine gut, on which the hook, or hooks, are fixed. The casting or
+gut lines should decrease in thickness from the reel line to the hooks. The
+hook, of finely-tempered steel, should readily bend without breaking, and
+yet retain a sharp point. It should be long in the shank and deep in the
+bend; the point straight and true to the level of the shank; and the barb
+long. Their sizes and sorts must of course entirely depend on the kind of
+fish that is angled for. Floats formed of cork, goose and swan quills, &c.,
+are often used to buoy up the hook so that it may float clear of the
+bottom. For heavy fish or strong streams a cork float is used; in slow
+water and for lighter fish quill floats. _Baits_ may consist of a great
+variety of materials, natural or artificial. The principal natural baits
+are worms: common garden worms, brandlings, and red worms, maggots, or
+gentles (the larvae of blow-flies such as are found on putrid meat),
+insects, small fish (as minnows), salmon roe, &c. The artificial flies so
+much used in angling for trout and salmon are composed of hairs, furs, and
+wools of every variety, mingled with pieces of feathers, and secured
+together by plaited wire, or gold and silver thread, marking-silk, wax, &c.
+The wings may be made of the feathers of domestic fowls, or any others of a
+showy colour. Some angling authorities recommend that the artificial flies
+should be made to resemble as closely as possible the insects on which the
+fish is wont to feed, but experience has shown that the most capricious and
+unnatural combinations of feather, fur, &c., have been often successful
+where the most realistic imitations have failed. Artificial minnows, or
+other small fish, are also used by way of bait, and are so contrived as to
+spin rapidly when drawn through the water in order to attract the notice of
+the fish angled for. Angling, especially with the fly, demands a great deal
+of skill and practice, the casting of the line properly being the initial
+difficulty. Nowhere is the art pursued with greater success and enthusiasm
+than in Britain and the United States.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Fishing_ (vol. i),
+_Salmon and Trout_ (vol. ii), _Pike and Coarse Fish_ (Badminton Library);
+H. G. Hutchinson, _Fishing_ (2 vols., Country Life series); Viscount Grey,
+_Fly Fishing_; Gathorne-Hardy, _The Salmon_; Marquess of Granby, _The
+Trout_; H. T. Sheringham, _Elements of Angling_; W. M. Gallichan, _The
+Complete Fisherman_.
+
+ANGLO-CATHOLIC, a term sometimes used to designate those churches which
+hold the principles of the English Reformation, the Anglican or Established
+Church of England and the allied churches. The term is also applied to that
+party in the English Church which favours doctrines and religious forms
+closely approaching those of the Roman Catholic Church, objects to be
+called Protestant, and corresponds closely with the _Ritualistic_ section
+of the Church.
+
+ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. See _Sudan_.
+
+[Illustration: Saxon Architecture. Doorway, Earl's Barton, Northampton]
+
+ANGLO-SAXONS, the name commonly given to the nation or people formed by the
+amalgamation of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain in
+the fifth and sixth centuries after Christ, the Anglo-Saxons being simply
+the English people of the earlier period of English history. The tribes who
+were thus the ancestors of the bulk of the English-speaking nationalities
+came from North Germany, where they inhabited the parts about the mouths of
+the Elbe and Weser, and the first body of them who gained a footing in
+Britain are said to have landed in 449, and to have been led by Hengist and
+Horsa. From the preponderance of the Angles the whole country came to be
+called _Engla-land_, that is, the land of the Angles or English.
+
+Many scholars object to the term 'Anglo-Saxon' as being inaccurate and open
+to misinterpretation. Correctly used, Anglo-Saxon means _English-Saxon_, as
+distinguished from the Old-Saxon of the Continent; incorrectly used, as it
+has been too frequently, it is taken as = Angle + Saxon, a union of Angle
+and Saxon. Camden (1551-1623) is responsible for the widespread use of the
+term; ignorance is responsible for the misuse. Many scholars prefer to
+apply the term 'Old English' to the language and people of England before
+A.D. 1100, partly because this term is more accurate and partly because its
+use helps to emphasize the essential continuity of the language.
+
+The whole Anglo-Saxon community was frequently spoken of as consisting of
+the _eorls_ and the _ceorls_, or the nobles and common freemen. The former
+were the men of property and position, the latter were the small
+landholders, handicraftsmen, &c., who generally placed themselves under the
+protection of some nobleman, who was hence termed their _hlaford_ or lord.
+Besides these there was the class of the serfs or slaves (_theowas_), who
+might be either born slaves or freemen who had forfeited their liberty by
+their crimes, or whom poverty or the fortune of war had brought into this
+position. They served as agricultural labourers on their masters' estates,
+and were mere chattels, as absolutely the property of their master as his
+cattle.
+
+The king (_cyning_, _cyng_) was at the head of the State; he was the
+highest of the nobles and the chief magistrate. He was not looked upon as
+ruling by any Divine Right, but by the will of the people, as represented
+by the _witan_ (wise men) or great council of the nation. The new king was
+not always the direct and nearest heir of the late king, but one of the
+royal family whose abilities and character recommended him for the office.
+He had the right of maintaining a standing army of household troops, the
+duty of calling together the _witan_, and of laying before them public
+measures, with certain distinctions of dress, dwelling, &c., all his
+privileges being possessed and exercised by the advice and consent of the
+_witena-gemot_ or parliament (literally, 'meeting of the wise'). Next in
+rank and dignity to the king were the _ealdormen_, who were the chief witan
+or counsellors, and without whose assent laws could not be made, altered,
+or abrogated. They were at the head of the administration of justice in the
+shires, possessing both judicial and executive authority, and had as their
+officers the _scir-gerefan_ or sheriffs. The ealdormen led the _fyrd_ or
+armed force of the county, and the ealdorman, as such, held possession of
+certain lands attached to the office, and was entitled to a share of fines
+and other moneys levied for the king's use and passing through his hands.
+The whole executive government may be considered as a great aristocratical
+association, of which the ealdormen were the members, and the king little
+more than the president. The ealdorman and the king were both surrounded by
+a number of followers called _thegnas_ or thanes, who were bound by close
+ties to their superior. The king's thanes were the higher in rank; they
+possessed a certain quantity of land, smaller in amount than that of an
+ealdorman, and they filled offices connected with the personal service of
+the king or with the administration of justice. The _scir-gerefa_
+(shire-reeve or sheriff) was also an important functionary. He presided at
+the county court along with the ealdorman and bishop, or alone in their
+absence; and he had to carry out the decisions of the court, levy fines,
+collect taxes, &c. The shires were divided into hundreds and tithings, the
+latter consisting of ten heads of families, who were jointly responsible to
+the State for the good conduct of any member of their body. For the trial
+and settlement of minor causes there was a hundred court held once a month.
+The place of the modern Parliament was held by the _witena-gemot_. Its
+members, who were not elected, comprised the aethelings or princes of the
+blood royal, the bishops and abbots, the ealdormen, the thanes, the
+sheriffs, &c.
+
+One of the peculiar features of Anglo-Saxon society was the _wergyld_,
+which was established for the settling of feuds. A sum, paid either in kind
+or in money, was placed upon the life of every freeman, according to his
+rank in the State, his birth, or his office. A corresponding sum was
+settled for every wound that could be inflicted upon his person; for nearly
+every injury that could be done to his civil rights, his honour, or his
+domestic peace, &c. From the operation of this principle no one from king
+to peasant was exempt.
+
+[Illustration: Ploughing
+From an Anglo-Saxon Calendar in the British Museum.]
+
+Agriculture, including especially the raising of cattle, sheep, and swine,
+was the chief occupation of the Anglo-Saxons. Gardens and orchards are
+frequently mentioned, and vineyards were common in the southern counties.
+The forests were extensive, and valuable both from the mast they produced
+for the swine, and from the beasts of the chase which they harboured.
+Hunting was a favourite recreation among the higher ranks, both lay and
+clerical. Fishing was largely carried on, herrings and salmon being the
+principal fish caught; and the Anglo-Saxon whaling vessels used to go as
+far as Iceland. The manufactures were naturally of small moment. Iron was
+made to some extent, and some cloth, and saltworks were numerous. In
+embroidery and working of gold the English were famous over Europe. There
+was a considerable trade at London, which was frequented by Normans,
+French, Flemings, and the merchants of the Hanse towns. Our Anglo-Saxon
+forefathers were notorious for their excess in eating and drinking, and in
+this respect formed a strong contrast to their Norman conquerors. Ale,
+mead, and cider were the common beverages, wine being limited to the higher
+classes. Pork and eels were favourite articles of food. The houses were
+rude structures, but were often richly furnished and hung with fine
+tapestry. The dress of the people was loose and flowing, composed chiefly
+of linen, and often adorned with embroidery. The men wore their hair long
+and flowing over their shoulders. Christianity was introduced among the
+Anglo-Saxons in the end of the sixth century by St. Augustine, who was sent
+by Pope Gregory the Great, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.
+Kent, then under King Ethelred, was the first place where it took root, and
+thence it soon spread over the rest of the country. The Anglo-Saxon Church
+long remained independent of Rome, notwithstanding the continual efforts of
+the Popes to bring it under their power. It was not till the tenth century
+that this result was brought about by Dunstan. Many Anglo-Saxon
+ecclesiastics were distinguished for learning and ability, but the
+Venerable Bede holds the first place.
+
+_Anglo-Saxon Language._--The Anglo-Saxon language, which is simply the
+earliest form of English, claims kinship with Dutch, Icelandic, Danish,
+Swedish, and German, especially with the Low German dialects (spoken in
+North Germany). It was called by those who spoke it _Englisc_ (English).
+The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature show different dialects, of
+which the northern and the southern were the principal. The former was the
+first to be cultivated as a literary language, but afterwards it was
+supplanted in this respect by the southern or that of Wessex. It is in the
+latter that the principal Anglo-Saxon works are written. The Anglo-Saxon
+alphabet was substantially the same as that which we still use, except that
+some of the letters were different in form, while it had two characters
+either of which represented the sounds of _th_ in _thy_ and in _thing_.
+Nouns and adjectives are declined much as in German or in Latin. The
+pronouns of the first and second person had a dual number, 'we two' or 'us
+two' and 'you two', besides the plural for more than two. The infinitive of
+the verb is in _-an_, the participle in _-ende_, and there is a gerund
+somewhat similar in its usage to the Latin gerund. The verb had four
+moods--indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, but only two
+tenses, the present (often used as a future) and the past. Other tenses and
+the passive voice were formed by auxiliary verbs. Anglo-Saxon words
+terminated in a vowel much more frequently than the modern English, and
+altogether the language is so different that it has to be learned quite
+like a foreign tongue. Yet, notwithstanding the large number of words of
+Latin or French origin that our language now contains, and the changes it
+has undergone, its framework, so to speak, is still Anglo-Saxon. Many
+chapters of the New Testament do not contain more than 4 per cent of
+non-Teutonic words, and as a whole it averages perhaps 6 or 7.
+
+The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in
+prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period,
+one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to
+England. The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is the ancient epic of
+_Beowulf_, extending to more than 6000 lines. Beowulf is a Scandinavian
+prince, who slays a monster named Grendel, after encountering supernatural
+perils, and is at last slain in a contest with a frightful dragon. Its
+scene appears to be laid entirely in Scandinavia. Its date is uncertain;
+parts of it may have been brought over at the emigration from Germany,
+though in its present form it is much later than this. The poetical remains
+include a number of religious poems, or poems on sacred themes;
+ecclesiastical narratives, as lives of saints and versified chronicles;
+psalms and hymns; secular lyrics; allegories, gnomic poems, riddles, &c.
+The religious class of poems was the largest, and of these Caedmon's
+(flourished about 660) are the most remarkable. His poems consist of
+paraphrases of considerable portions of the Bible history, and treat of the
+creation, the temptation, the fall, the exodus of the Israelites, the story
+of Daniel, the incarnation, and the harrowing of hell, or release of the
+ransomed souls by Christ. Other most interesting poems are those ascribed
+to Cynewulf, the _Christ_, _Elene_, and _Juliana_, the subjects
+respectively being Christ, the finding of the cross by the Empress Helena,
+and the life of Juliana. Rhyme was not used in Anglo-Saxon poetry,
+alliteration being employed instead, as in the older northern poetry
+generally. The style of the poetry is highly elliptical, and it is full of
+harsh inversions and obscure metaphors.
+
+[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Brooch
+
+Ornament on front (left) is formed by means of plates of thin gold and
+wire, with bosses of ivory and red glass.]
+
+The Anglo-Saxon prose remains consist of translations of portions of the
+Bible, homilies, philosophical writings, history, biography, laws, leases,
+charters, popular treatises on science and medicine, grammars, &c. Many of
+these were translations from the Latin. The Anglo-Saxon versions of the
+Gospels, next to the Moeso-Gothic, are the earliest scriptural translations
+in any modern language. The Psalms are said to have been translated by
+Bishop Aldhelm (died 709), and also under Alfred's direction; and the
+_Gospel of St. John_ by Bede; but it is not known who were the authors of
+the extant versions. A translation of the first seven books of the Bible is
+believed to have been the work of Aelfric, who was Abbot of Ensham and
+lived about the beginning of the eleventh century. We have also eighty
+homilies from his pen, several theological treatises, a Latin grammar, &c.
+King Alfred was a diligent author, besides being a translator of Latin
+works. We have under his name translations of Boethius' _De Consolatione
+Philosophiae_, the _Universal History_ of Orosius, Bede's _Ecclesiastical
+History_, the _Pastoral Care_ of Gregory the Great, &c. The most valuable
+to us of the Anglo-Saxon prose writings is the _Saxon Chronicle_, as it is
+called, a collection of annals recording important events in the history of
+the country, and compiled in different religious houses. Of this
+_Chronicle_ there are seven MSS. in existence, and the latest text comes
+down to 1154. A considerable body of laws remains, as well as a large
+number of charters. The whole of the literature has never yet been printed.
+For Anglo-Saxon history, see _England_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: (History) H. M.
+Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge); (Language) Sweet,
+_Anglo-Saxon Primer_ and _Reader_; (Literature) B. ten Brink, _Geschichte
+der Englischen Litteratur_; Stopford A. Brooke, _English Literature, from
+the beginning to the Norman Conquest_; Henry Morley, _English Writers_
+(vols. i and ii).
+
+ANGLO-SAXON LAW. Series of laws written in the vernacular, and unique among
+Teutonic peoples, were issued from the seventh century onwards by
+Aethelberht, Hlothhere, Eadric, and Withraed, Kings of Kent, by Ine, King
+of Wessex, by Alfred, Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmund, Edgar,
+Aethelred, and Canute, in addition to a number of important by-laws and
+regulations of various kinds, which bear no king's name. We hear, also, of
+laws issued by other kings which have been lost, and there must have been a
+considerable body of traditional law which was never committed to writing.
+What laws are extant, show us a society mainly agricultural, divided by
+birth into a noble, a free peasant, and a servile class. There was also a
+dependent class in Kent, intermediate between the freeman and the slave.
+The strongest social ties were those of the kindred, and the relationship
+between lord and man.
+
+The laws were issued by the king and his councillors. Cases were decided by
+the production of oaths which varied in value according to the rank of the
+swearer, or by the several forms of the ordeal. No distinction was made
+between civil and criminal law, and even homicide could be atoned for by
+payment of a sum varying according to the social status of the dead man.
+The object of the laws was to restrict private vengeance, to prevent and
+punish theft (primarily of cattle), to stop dishonest trading, to secure
+the persons and residences of the people, to enforce the mutual obligations
+of relatives, and masters and men, to provide adequate defence for the
+kingdom by means of garrisoned boroughs and a well-armed mounted infantry,
+to protect the helpless, and to safeguard the rights of the Church and its
+servants.
+
+The early laws present considerable difficulty owing to their antiquity.
+The laws of Aethelberht are the earliest records in the English language,
+though, like many of the other laws, they are only preserved in a MS. of
+the twelfth century. The standard edition is Liebermann's _Gesetze der
+Angelsachsen_ (Halle, A. S. Max Niemeyer).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pollock and
+Maitland, _History of English Law_; H. M. Chadwick, _Studies in Anglo-Saxon
+Institutions_.
+
+ANGO'LA, a Portuguese territory in Western Africa, south of the Congo,
+extending from the sea to Rhodesia, and from about lat. 6deg S. to lat.
+17deg S. (area, 484,800 sq. miles; pop. 4,119,000). It is a country of
+varied features, and its resources, as yet hardly known, are probably very
+great. The province is rich in malachite, copper, iron, petroleum, and
+salt; rubber supplies are becoming exhausted. The Coanza (Kwanza) is the
+largest river. The capital is the seaport of Loanda; other ports are
+Benguella (or Benguela) and Mossamedes. Three railways now run inland from
+these places. It exports coffee, hides, gum, rubber, wax, &c.
+
+ANGOLA PEA (_Caj[=a]nus indicus_). See _Pigeon Pea_.
+
+ANGO'NILAND, a district of South Africa, lying to the west of the southern
+half of Lake Nyassa, and partly in British Central Africa, partly in
+Rhodesia. It is a plateau with an average height of 4000 feet, the name
+being derived from the Angoni, a race of mixed Zulu blood, who used to make
+murderous raids on their neighbours, and have given much trouble to the
+missionaries and others.
+
+ANGO'RA (ancient, ANCY'RA), a town in Asia Minor, 215 miles E.S.E. of
+Constantinople, with considerable remains of Byzantine architecture, and
+relics of earlier times, both Greek and Roman, such as the remnants of the
+Monumentum Ancyranum, raised in honour of the Emperor Augustus, and giving
+us much valuable information about his public life and work. All the
+animals of this region are long haired, especially the goats (see _Goat_),
+sheep, and cats. This hair forms an important export as well as the fabric
+called camlet here manufactured from it; other exports being goats' skins,
+dye-stuffs, gums, honey and wax, &c. A railway connects it with Skutari.
+Pop. 32,000. In 1920 Kemal Pasha set up a National Government at Angora,
+and refused to recognize the Treaty of Sevres. A treaty concluded with
+France was ratified by the Angora Government on 23rd Oct., 1921.
+
+ANGOSTU'RA, or CIUDAD BOLIVAR, a city of Venezuela, capital of the province
+of Bolivar, on the Orinoco, about 240 miles from the sea, with governor's
+residence, a college, a handsome cathedral, and a considerable trade,
+steamers and sailing-vessels ascending to the town. Exports: gold, cotton,
+indigo, tobacco, coffee, cattle, &c.; imports: manufactured goods, wines,
+flour, &c. Pop. 17,535.
+
+ANGOSTURA BARK, the aromatic bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly from
+_Galip[=e]a officin[=a]lis_, a tree of 10 to 20 feet high, growing in the
+northern regions of South America; nat. ord. Rutaceae. The bark is valuable
+as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also used for a kind of bitters. From this
+bark being adulterated, indeed sometimes entirely replaced, by the
+poisonous bark of _Strychnos Nux-Vomica_, its use as a medicine has been
+almost given up.
+
+ANGOULEME ([.a][n.]-goe-l[=a]m), an ancient town of Western France, capital
+of department Charente, on the Charente, 60 miles N.N.E. of Bordeaux, on
+the summit of a rocky hill. It has a fine old cathedral, built in the
+twelfth century and restored in 1875, a beautiful modern town hall, built
+in 1858, a lyceum, public library, natural history museum, &c. There are
+manufactures of paper, woollens, and linens; distilleries, sugar-works,
+tanneries, &c. Calvin lived here for three years (1527-30). Pop. 38,211.
+
+ANGRA DO HEROISMO, the chief seaport of Terceira, one of the Azores, with
+the only convenient harbour in the whole group. It has a cathedral, a
+military college and arsenal, &c., and is the residence of the
+Governor-General of the Azores, and of the foreign consuls. Pop. 10,057.
+
+ANGRA PEQUENA ([.a]n'gr[.a] pe-k[=a]'n[.a]; Port. 'little bay'), a bay on
+the coast of former German S.W. Africa, where the Bremen commercial firm
+Luederitz in 1883 acquired a strip of territory and established a trading
+station. In 1884, notwithstanding some weak protests of the British,
+Germany took under her protection the whole coast territory from the Orange
+River to 26deg S. lat., and soon after extended the protectorate to the
+Portuguese frontier, but not including the British settlement of Walvis
+Bay. Angra Pequena, called by the Germans Luederitzbucht, was captured by
+the South African forces in Sept., 1915. See _South-West Africa_.
+
+ANGRI ([.a]n'gr[=e]), a town of Southern Italy, 12 miles N.W. of Salerno,
+in the centre of a region which produces grapes, cotton, and tobacco in
+great quantities. In the vicinity of Angri, Teias, King of the Ostrogoths,
+was defeated by Narses. Pop. 11,574.
+
+ANGUILLA (an-gwil'la). See _Eel_.
+
+ANGUILLA (ang-gil'a), or SNAKE ISLAND, one of the British West India
+Islands, 60 miles N.E. of St. Kitts; about 20 miles long, with a breadth
+varying from 3 to 1 1/4 miles; area, 35 sq. miles. A little sugar, cotton,
+tobacco, and maize is grown. There is a saline lake in the centre, which
+yields salt. Pop. 4075, of whom 100 are white.
+
+ANGUIS (ang'gwis). See _Blind-worm_.
+
+ANGUS (ang'gus), a name of Forfarshire.
+
+AN'HALT, formerly a duchy of North Germany, lying partly in the plains of
+the Middle Elbe, and partly in the valleys and uplands of the Lower Harz,
+and almost entirely surrounded by Prussia; area, 888 sq. miles. All sorts
+of grain, wheat especially, are grown in abundance; also flax, rape,
+potatoes, tobacco, hops, and fruit. Excellent cattle are bred. The
+inhabitants are principally occupied in agriculture, though there are some
+iron-works and manufactures of woollens, linens, beet-sugar, tobacco, &c.
+The dukes of Anhalt traced their origin to Bernard (1170-1212), son of
+Albert the Bear. In time the family split up into numerous branches, and
+the territory was afterwards held by three dukes (Anhalt-Koethen,
+Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau). In 1863 the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau
+became sole heir to the three duchies. The united principality,
+incorporated in the German Empire, had one vote in the Bundesrath and two
+in the Reichstag. The executive power, previous to the changes resulting
+from the European War, was vested in the duke, and the legislative in a
+Diet of thirty-six members. The reigning duke in 1918 was Eduard, who
+succeeded his brother on 21st April, 1918. With the outbreak of the
+revolution in Germany in 1918 Anhalt became a republic, but its status in
+the German Republic still remains to be determined. Pop. (1919), 331,258,
+almost all Protestants. The chief towns are Dessau, Bernburg, Koethen, and
+Zerbst.
+
+AN'HOLT, an island belonging to Denmark, in the Cattegat, midway between
+Jutland and Sweden, 7 miles long, 4 1/2 broad, largely covered with
+drift-sand, and surrounded by dangerous banks and reefs. Pop. 300.
+
+ANHY'DRIDE, a chemical term synonymous with acidic oxide (see _Chemistry_)
+and applied to those oxides which unite with water to form acids. They were
+formerly called _anhydrous acids_.
+
+ANHY'DRITE, anhydrous sulphate of calcium, a mineral presenting several
+varieties of structure and colour. The _vulpinite_ of Italy possesses a
+granular structure, resembling a coarse-grained marble, and is used in
+sculpture. Its colour is greyish-white, intermingled with blue.
+
+ANI (ae'n[=e]), a ruined city in Armenia, formerly the residence of the
+Armenian dynasty of the Bagratidae, having in the eleventh century a
+population of 100,000 and 1000 churches. In the thirteenth century it was
+taken by the Tartars, and was destroyed by an earthquake in 1319.
+
+ANICHE ([.a]-n[=e]sh), a town or village in the French department Nord,
+arrondissement Douai, with coal-mines, glass-works, chemical-works, &c.
+Pop. 6927.
+
+ANIENE ([.a]-n[=e]-[=a]'n[=a]). See _Anio_.
+
+AN'ILINE, C_6H_5NH_2, is an extremely important substance as it forms the
+starting-point in the preparation of a large number of substances. It was
+first prepared by Unverdorben, in 1826, by distillation of indigo. Aniline
+is present in small quantity in coal-tar, and is prepared commercially from
+benzene by transforming it by means of nitric acid into nitro-benzene and
+reducing this with scrap-iron and hydrochloric acid. The substance can also
+be prepared by reducing nitro-benzene electrolytically. It is a liquid of
+peculiar odour, boiling at 182deg C., colourless when quite pure, but
+rapidly darkening in colour on standing, so that commercial aniline is
+usually dark-brown. It is a basic substance, and forms crystalline salts
+with acids. The salts, like aniline itself, become coloured on exposure to
+air. Aniline contains the characteristic chemical group NH_2, the amino
+group, and substances containing this group react with nitrous acid at 0deg
+C., forming diazonium compounds; these combine readily with phenols,
+naphthols, and other amino compounds to form azo compounds, highly-coloured
+compounds many of which are dyes. Many dyes are prepared from aniline, e.g.
+rosaniline, magenta, methylene blue, aniline blue, &c., also some
+explosives, e.g. tetranitraniline, which is a powerful explosive prepared
+by nitrating aniline and the substance tetranitromethylaniline, "tetryl",
+used in detonators. Several medicinal substances are also prepared from
+aniline, for instance, antifebrin and atoxyl.
+
+AN'ILISM, aniline poisoning, a name given to the aggregate of symptoms
+which often show themselves in those employed in aniline works, resulting
+from the inhalation of aniline vapours. It may be either acute or chronic.
+In a slight attack of the former kind, the lips, cheeks, and ears become of
+a bluish colour, and the person's walk may be unsteady; in severe cases
+there is loss of consciousness. Chronic anilism is accompanied by
+derangement of the digestive organs and of the nervous system, headaches,
+eruptions on the skin, muscular weakness, &c.
+
+ANIMAL, an organized and sentient living being. Life in the earlier periods
+of natural history was attributed almost exclusively to animals. With the
+progress of science, however, it was extended to plants. In the case of the
+higher animals and plants there is no difficulty in assigning the
+individual to one of the two great kingdoms of organic nature, but in their
+lowest manifestations the vegetable and animal kingdoms are brought into
+such immediate contact that it becomes almost impossible to assign them
+precise limits, and to say with certainty where the one begins and the
+other ends. From _form_ no absolute distinction can be fixed between
+animals and plants. Many animals, such as the sea-shrubs, sea-mats, &c., so
+resemble plants in external appearance that they were, and even yet
+popularly are, looked upon as such. With regard to _internal structure_ no
+line of demarcation can be laid down, all plants and animals being, in this
+respect, fundamentally similar; that is, alike composed of molecular,
+cellular, and fibrous tissues. Neither are the chemical characters of
+animal and vegetable substances more distinct. Animals contain in their
+tissues and fluids a larger proportion of nitrogen than plants, whilst
+plants are richer in carbonaceous compounds than the former. In some
+animals, moreover, substances almost exclusively confined to plants are
+found. Thus the outer wall of the Sea-squirts contains _cellulose_, a
+substance largely found in plant-tissues; whilst _chlorophyll_, the
+colouring-matter of plants, occurs in Hydra and many other lower animals.
+_Power of motion_, again, though broadly distinctive of animals, cannot be
+said to be absolutely characteristic of them. Thus many animals, as
+oysters, sponges, corals, &c., in their mature condition are rooted or
+fixed, while the embryos of many plants, together with numerous
+fully-developed forms, are endowed with locomotive power by means of
+vibratile, hair-like processes called cilia. The distinctive points between
+animals and plants which are most to be relied on are those derived from
+the _nature and mode of assimilation of the food_. Plants feed on
+_inorganic matters_, consisting of water, ammonia, carbonic acid, and
+mineral matters. They can only take in food which is presented to them in a
+_liquid_ or _gaseous_ state. The exceptions to these rules are found
+chiefly in the case of plants which live _parasitically_ on other plants or
+animals, in which cases the plant may be said to feed on organic matters,
+represented by the juices of their hosts. Animals, on the contrary, require
+_organized_ matters for food. They feed either upon plants or upon other
+animals. But even carnivorous animals can be shown to be dependent upon
+plants for subsistence; since the animals upon which Carnivora prey are in
+their turn supported by plants. Animals, further, can subsist on _solid_
+food in addition to liquids and gases; but many animals (such as the
+Tapeworms) live by the mere imbibition of fluids which are absorbed by
+their tissues, such forms possessing no distinct digestive system. Animals
+require a due supply of _oxygen gas_ for their sustenance, this gas being
+used in respiration. Plants, on the contrary, require _carbonic acid_. The
+animal exhales or gives out carbonic acid as the part result of its
+tissue-waste, whilst the plant, taking in this gas, is enabled to decompose
+it into its constituent carbon and oxygen. The plant retains the former for
+the uses of its economy, and liberates the oxygen, which is thus restored
+to the atmosphere for the use of the animal. Animals receive their food
+into the interior of their bodies, and assimilation takes place in their
+internal surfaces. Plants, on the other hand, receive their food into their
+external surfaces, and assimilation is effected in the external parts, as
+is exemplified in the leaf-surfaces under the influence of sunlight. Cf.
+T. J. Parker and W. A. Haswell, _Text-Book of Zoology_; _Cambridge Natural
+History_.
+
+ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. See _Chemistry_.
+
+ANIMALCULE (an-i-mal'k[=u]l), a general name given to many forms of animal
+life from their minute size. The larger examples are just visible to the
+naked eye, but most of them are strictly microscopic. Some are pigmented,
+but the majority are colourless. The term is not applicable to a particular
+zoological type, but it is customary to confine it to the 'Protozoa',
+'Rotifera', or 'Wheel Animalcules'.
+
+ANIMAL HEAT. All animals possess a certain amount of heat or temperature
+which is necessary for the performance of vital action. The only classes of
+animals in which a constantly-elevated temperature is kept up are birds and
+mammals. The bodily heat of the former varies from 39.4deg to 43.9deg C.,
+and of the latter from 35.5deg to 40.5deg C. The mean or average heat of
+the human body is about 99deg F., and it never falls much below this in
+health. Below birds, animals are named 'cold-blooded', this term meaning in
+its strictly-physiological sense that their temperature is usually that of
+the medium in which they live, and that it varies with that of the
+surrounding medium. The temperature of 'warm-blooded' animals is remarkably
+constant, although there are individual variations. In man this variation
+is slight, amounting only to fractions of a degree. The cause of the
+evolution of heat in the animal body is referred to the union (by a process
+resembling ordinary combustion) of the carbon and hydrogen of the system
+with the oxygen taken in from the air in the process of respiration.
+
+ANIMAL MAGNETISM. See _Hypnotism_, _Mesmer_.
+
+ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO, an offence against which societies have been formed
+and laws passed in England and other countries. According to English law,
+if any person shall cruelly beat, ill-treat, overdrive, abuse, or torture
+any domestic animal, he shall forfeit a sum not exceeding L5 for every such
+offence. Bull-baiting, cock-fighting, and the like are also prohibited.
+Provision is also made for the punishment of persons unlawfully and
+maliciously killing, maiming, or wounding cattle, dogs, birds, beasts, and
+other animals.
+
+ANIMAL WORSHIP, a practice found to prevail, or to have prevailed, in the
+most widely-distant parts of the world, both the Old and the New, but
+nowhere to such an amazing extent as in ancient Egypt, notwithstanding its
+high civilization. Nearly all the more important animals found in the
+country were regarded as sacred in some part of Egypt, and the degree of
+reverence paid to them was such that throughout Egypt the killing of a hawk
+or an ibis, whether voluntary or not, was punished with death. The worship,
+however, was not, except in a few instances, paid to them as actual
+deities. The animals were merely regarded as sacred to the deities, and the
+worship paid to them was symbolical.
+
+AN'IMA MUN'DI. See _Pantheism_.
+
+ANIME (an'i-me), a resin obtained from the trunk of an American tree
+(_Hymenaea Courbaril_). It is of a transparent amber colour, has a light,
+agreeable smell, and is soluble in alcohol. It strongly resembles copal,
+and, like it, is used in making varnishes. See _Copal_.
+
+AN'IMISM, the system of medicine propounded by Stahl, and based on the idea
+that the soul (_anima_) is the seat of life. In modern usage the term is
+applied to express the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual
+beings, and especially to the tendency, common among savage races, to
+attribute souls or spirits to inanimate things, and to explain phenomena
+not due to obvious natural causes by attributing them to spiritual agency.
+Amongst the beliefs of animism is that of a human apparitional soul,
+bearing the form and appearance of the body, and living after death a sort
+of semi-human life.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_;
+Andrew Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_.
+
+ANIO (now ANI[=E]NE or TEVER[=O]NE), a river in Italy, a tributary of the
+Tiber, which it enters from the east a short distance above Rome, renowned
+for the natural beauties of the valley through which it flows, and for the
+remains of ancient buildings there situated, as the villas of Maecenas and
+the Emperor Hadrian.
+
+ANISE (an'is; _Pimpinella An[=i]sum_), an annual plant of the nat. ord.
+Umbelliferae, a native of Eastern Asia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean
+coasts, and cultivated in Spain, France, Italy, Malta, &c., whence the
+fruit, popularly called _aniseed_, is imported. This fruit is ovate, with
+ten narrow ribs, between which are oil-vessels. It has an aromatic smell,
+and is largely employed to flavour liqueurs (aniseed or anisette),
+sweetmeats, &c. _Star-anise_ is the fruit of an evergreen Asiatic tree
+(_Illicium anis[=a]tum_), nat. ord. Magnoliaceae, and is brought chiefly
+from China. Its flavour is similar to that of anise, and it is used for the
+same purposes. An essential oil is obtained from both kinds of anise, and
+is used for scenting soaps and in the preparation of cordials.
+
+ANJOU ([.a][n.]-zhoe), an ancient province of France, now forming the
+department of Maine-et-Loire, and parts of the departments of
+Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, and Sarthe; area, about 3000 sq. miles. In 1060
+the province passed into the hands of the House of Gatinais, of which
+sprang Count Godfrey V, who, in 1127, married Matilda, daughter of Henry I
+of England, and so became the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings. Anjou
+remained in the possession of the English kings up to 1204, when John lost
+it to the French king Philip Augustus. In 1226 Louis VIII bestowed this
+province on his brother Charles; but in 1328 it was reunited to the French
+Crown. John I raised it to the rank of a duchy, and gave it to his son
+Louis. Henceforth it remained separate from the French Crown till 1480,
+when it fell to Louis XI.
+
+ANKARSTROEM ([.a]n'k[.a]r-streum), Jan Jakob, the murderer of Gustavus III
+of Sweden, was born about 1762, and was at first a page in the Swedish
+Court, afterwards an officer in the royal bodyguard. He was a strenuous
+opponent of the sovereign's measures to restrict the privileges of the
+nobility, and joined Counts Horn and Ribbing in a plot to assassinate
+Gustavus. The assassination took place on 15th March, 1792. Ankarstroem was
+tried, tortured, and executed in April, dying boasting of his deed.
+
+ANKER, an obsolete measure used in Britain for spirits, beer, &c.,
+containing 8-1/2 imperial gallons. A measure of similar capacity was used
+in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.
+
+AN'KLAM, a town in Prussia, province of Pomerania, 47 miles north-west of
+Stettin, on the River Peene, which is here navigable. Shipbuilding, woollen
+and cotton manufactures, soap-boiling, tanning, &c., are carried on. Pop.
+15,280.
+
+ANKO'BAR, or ANKO'BER, a town in Abyssinia, former capital of Shoa, on a
+steep conical hill 8200 feet high. Pop. 2000.
+
+ANKYLO'SIS, or ANCHYLO'SIS, stiffness of the joints caused by a more or
+less complete coalescence of the bones through ossification, often the
+result of inflammation or injury. False ankylosis is stiffness of a joint
+when the disease is not in the joint itself, but in the tendinous and
+muscular parts by which it is surrounded.
+
+ANKYLOSTOMI'ASIS, a 'worm disease' to which miners are subject in some
+localities, is caused by vast numbers of small parasitic worms
+(_Ankylostoma_ or _Anchylostoma duodenale_) in the duodenum or upper
+portions of the intestinal canal. Deriving their sustenance from the
+system, these worms produce anaemia or bloodlessness (that is, deficiency
+of the red corpuscles of the blood), the sufferers being pallid, feeble,
+short-breathed, liable to faint, and unequal to any laborious work, and
+death may result if a cure is not effected. Fortunately the disease is not
+difficult to cure if the remedies are applied--remedies such as will expel
+the worms from the intestine. The disease is said to be common in tropical
+and sub-tropical countries all over the world. In Europe it was perhaps
+first observed in 1879 in the case of workmen engaged in excavating the St.
+Gothard tunnel. Since 1896 it has been well known in some of the German
+mines; and in 1903 it was detected among the miners engaged in the Dolcoath
+mine in Cornwall. The eggs of the worms are carried from the body with the
+faeces; under favourable circumstances they develop into larvae, which may
+gain entrance again into the human body by the mouth (perhaps in
+drinking-water), to attain full development in the intestine. Careful
+sanitary arrangements are a preventive of the disease, which is also known
+as 'miner's worm', 'miner's anaemia', &c.
+
+ANN, or ANNAT, in Scottish law, the half-year's stipend of a living, after
+the death of the clergyman, payable to his family or next of kin. The right
+to the ann is not vested in the clergyman himself, but in his
+representatives; and, accordingly, it can neither be disposed of by him nor
+attached for his debts.
+
+ANNA, an Anglo-Indian money of account, the sixteenth part of a rupee, and
+of the value of one penny; it is divided into four pice.
+
+AN'NABERG, a town in Saxony, 47 miles south-west of Dresden. Mining (for
+silver, cobalt, iron, &c.) is carried on, and there are manufactures of
+lace, ribbons, fringes, buttons, &c. Pop. 17,025.
+
+ANNA COMNE'NA, daughter of Alexius I, Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. She was
+born 1083, and died 1148. After her father's death she endeavoured to
+secure the succession for her husband, Nicephorus Briennius, but was
+baffled by his want of energy and ambition. She wrote (in Greek) a life of
+her father Alexius (_The Alexiad_, a work in fifteen books). She is a
+character in Sir Walter Scott's _Count Robert of Paris_.
+
+ANNA IVANOV'NA, Empress of Russia, born in 1693, the daughter of Ivan, the
+elder half-brother of Peter the Great. She was married in 1710 to the Duke
+of Courland, in the following year was left a widow, and in 1730 ascended
+the throne of the tsars on the condition proposed by the senate, that she
+would limit the absolute power of the tsars, and do nothing without the
+advice of the council composed of the leading members of the Russian
+aristocracy. But no sooner had she ascended the throne than she declared
+her promise null, and proclaimed herself autocrat of all the Russias. She
+chose as her favourite Ernest John von Biren or Biron, who was soon
+all-powerful in Russia, and ruled with great severity. Several of the
+leading nobles were executed, and many thousand men exiled to Siberia. In
+1737 Anna forced the Courlanders to choose Biren as their duke, and
+nominated him at her death regent of the empire during the minority of
+Prince Ivan (of Brunswick). Anna died in 1740. See _Biren_.
+
+AN'NALS, a history of events in chronological order, each event being
+recorded under the year in which it occurred. The name is derived from the
+first annual records of the Romans, which were called _ann[=a]les
+pontificum_ or _ann[=a]les max[)i]mi_, drawn up by the _pontifex maximus_
+(chief pontiff). The practice of keeping such annals was afterwards adopted
+also by various private individuals, as by Fabius Pictor, Calpurnius Piso,
+and others. The name hence came to be applied in later times to historical
+works in which the matter was treated with special reference to
+chronological arrangement, as to the _Annals_ of Tacitus.
+
+ANNAM', a country of Asia occupying the east side of the South-eastern or
+Indo-Chinese Peninsula, along the China Sea. It comprises Tonquin in the
+north, Annam (in a narrower sense), and Cochin-China farther south; with
+the inland territory of the Laos tribes: together, area, 170,000 sq. miles;
+pop. 15,000,000, 9,000,000 being in Tonquin. In the narrow sense Annam now
+denotes the country between Tonquin and French Cochin-China, under the
+nominal rule of a native king (the present ruler, Khai-Dinh, succeeded to
+the throne in 1916). Annam has an area of 52,100 sq. miles. Pop. (1919),
+5,952,000, including 2117 Europeans. The coast is considerably indented,
+especially at the mouths of the rivers, where it affords many commodious
+harbours. Tonquin is mountainous on the north, but in the east is nearly
+level, terminating towards the sea in an alluvial plain yielding good crops
+of rice, cotton, fruits, ginger, and spices, and a great variety of varnish
+trees, palms, &c. The principal river is the Song-ka, which has numerous
+tributaries, many of them being joined together by canals, both for
+irrigation and commerce. Tonquin is rich in gold, silver, copper, and iron.
+Annam (in the narrow sense) is, generally speaking, unproductive, but
+contains many fertile spots, in which grain, leguminous plants, sugar-cane,
+cinnamon, &c., are produced in great abundance. Agriculture is the chief
+occupation, but many of the inhabitants are engaged in the spinning and
+weaving of cotton and silk into coarse fabrics, the preparation of varnish,
+iron-smelting, and the construction of ships or junks. The inhabitants are
+said to be the ugliest of the Mongoloid races of the peninsula, being under
+the middle size and less robust than the surrounding peoples. Their
+language is monosyllabic, and is connected with the Chinese. The religion
+of the majority is Buddhism, but the educated classes hold the doctrines of
+Confucius. The principal towns are Hanoi, the capital of Tonquin, and Hue,
+the capital of the kingdom and formerly of the whole empire. Annam was
+conquered by the Chinese in 214 B.C., but in A.D. 1428 it completely won
+its independence. The French began to interfere actively in its affairs in
+1847 on the plea of protecting the native Christians. By the treaties of
+1862 and 1867 they obtained the southern and most productive part of
+Cochin-China, subsequently known as French Cochin-China; and in 1874 they
+obtained large powers over Tonquin, notwithstanding the protests of the
+Chinese. Finally, in 1883, Tonquin was ceded to France, and next year Annam
+was declared a French protectorate. After a short period of hostilities
+with China the latter recognized the French claims, and Tonquin is now a
+French colony, while the kingdom of Annam is, since 1886, entirely under
+French direction. Cf. F. R. Eberhardt, _Guide de l' Annam_.
+
+ANNAMABOE (-b[=o]'), a seaport in Western Africa, on the Gold Coast, 10
+miles east of Cape Coast Castle, with some trade in gold-dust, ivory,
+palm-oil, &c. Pop. about 5000.
+
+AN'NAN, a royal and police burgh in Scotland, on the Annan, a little above
+its entrance into the Solway Firth, one of the Dumfries district of burghs.
+Pop. 3928.--The River _Annan_ is a stream 40 miles long running through the
+central division of Dumfriesshire, to which it gives the name of
+_Annandale_.
+
+ANNAP'OLIS, the capital of Maryland, United States, on the Severn, near its
+mouth in Chesapeake Bay. It contains a college (St. John's), a state-house,
+and the United States Naval Academy. Pop. (1920), 11,214.
+
+ANNAP'OLIS, a small town in Nova Scotia, on an inlet of the Bay of Fundy,
+with an important traffic by railway and steamboat. It is one of the oldest
+European settlements in America, dating from 1604.
+
+ANN ARBOR, a town of Michigan, United States, on the Huron River, about 40
+miles west of Detroit; the seat of the State university. It has
+flour-mills, and it manufactures woollens, iron, and agricultural
+implements. Pop. 19,516.
+
+ANNATES (an'n[=a]ts), a year's income claimed for many centuries by the
+Pope on the death of any bishop, abbot, or parish priest, to be paid by his
+successor. In England they were at first paid to the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, but were afterwards appropriated by the Popes. In 1532 the
+Parliament gave them to the Crown; but in 1703 Queen Anne restored them to
+the Church by applying them to the augmentation of poor livings. See _Queen
+Anne's Bounty_.
+
+[Illustration: Annatto (_Bixa Orell[=a]na_)]
+
+ANNAT'TO, or ANNATO, an orange-red colouring matter, obtained from the pulp
+surrounding the seeds of _Bixa Orell[=a]na_, a shrub native to tropical
+America, and cultivated in Guiana, St. Domingo, and the East Indies. It is
+sometimes used as a dye for silk and cotton goods, though it does not
+produce a very durable colour, but it is much used in medicine for tinging
+plasters and ointments, and to a considerable extent by farmers for giving
+a rich colour to milk, butter, and cheese. The colour given by annatto
+approaches very nearly the natural colouring matter of milk fat. It is
+guaranteed to preserve the same colour throughout the year, and is
+considered to be a legitimate colouring matter.
+
+ANNE, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland was born at Twickenham, near
+London, 6th Feb., 1664. She was the second daughter of James II, then Duke
+of York, and Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. With her
+father's permission she was educated according to the principles of the
+English Church. In 1683 she was married to Prince George, brother of King
+Christian V of Denmark. On the arrival of the Prince of Orange in 1688,
+Anne wished to remain with her father; but she was prevailed upon by Lord
+Churchill (afterwards Duke of Marlborough) and his wife to join the
+triumphant party. After the death of William III in 1702 she ascended the
+English throne. Her character was essentially weak, and she was governed
+first by Marlborough and his wife, and afterwards by Mrs. Masham. Most of
+the principal events of her reign are connected with the war of the Spanish
+Succession. The only important acquisition that England made by it was
+Gibraltar, which was captured in 1704. Another very important event of this
+reign was the union of England and Scotland under the name of Great
+Britain, which was accomplished in 1707. Anne seems to have long cherished
+the wish of securing the succession to her brother James, but this was
+frustrated by the internal dissensions of the cabinet. Grieved at the
+disappointment of her secret wishes, she fell into a state of weakness and
+lethargy, and died, 20th July, 1714. The reign of Anne was distinguished
+not only by the brilliant successes of the British arms, but also on
+account of the number of admirable and excellent writers who flourished at
+this time, among whom were Pope, Swift, and Addison. Anne bore her husband
+many children, all of whom died in infancy, except one son, the Duke of
+Gloucester, who died at the age of twelve.
+
+ANNE (of Austria), daughter of Philip III of Spain, was born at Madrid in
+1602, and in 1615 was married to Louis XIII of France. Richelieu, fearing
+the influence of her foreign connections, did everything he could to humble
+her. In 1643 her husband died, and she was left regent, but placed under
+the control of a council. But the Parliament overthrew this arrangement,
+and entrusted her with full sovereign rights during the minority of her son
+Louis XIV. Having brought upon herself the hatred of the nobles by her
+boundless confidence in Cardinal Mazarin, she was forced to flee from Paris
+during the wars of the Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposition, and
+was able in 1661 to transmit to her son unimpaired the royal authority. She
+spent the remainder of her life in retirement, and died 20th Jan., 1666.
+
+ANNEALING (an-[=e]l'ing), a process to which many articles of metal and
+glass are subjected after making, in order to render them more tenacious
+and which consists in heating them and allowing them to cool slowly. When
+the metals are worked by the hammer, or rolled into plates, or drawn into
+wire, they acquire a certain amount of brittleness, which destroys their
+usefulness, and has to be remedied by annealing. The tempering of steel is
+one kind of annealing. Annealing is particularly employed in glass-houses,
+and consists in putting the glass vessels, as soon as they are formed and
+while they are yet hot, into a furnace or oven, in which they are suffered
+to cool gradually. The toughness is greatly increased by cooling the
+articles in oil.
+
+ANNECY ([.a]n-s[=e]), an ancient town in France, department of
+Haute-Savoie, situated on the Lake of Annecy, 21 miles s. of Geneva;
+contains a cathedral and a ruinous old castle once the residence of the
+counts of Genevois; manufactures of cotton, leather, paper, and hardware.
+Pop. 15,622.--The lake is about 9 miles long and 2 broad.
+
+[Illustration: Lobworm (one of the Annelida)]
+
+ANNEL'IDA, or ANNULATA, an extensive division or class of Annulosa or
+articulate animals, so called because their bodies are formed of a great
+number of small rings, the outward signs of internal segmentation. The
+earth-worm, the lobworm, the nereis, and the leech belong to this division.
+They have red, rarely yellow or green, blood circulating in a double system
+of contractile vessels, a double ganglionated nervous cord, and respire by
+external branchiae, internal vesicles, or by the skin. Their organs of
+motion consist of bristles or _setae_, which are usually attached to the
+lateral surfaces of each segment, the bristles being borne on 'foot
+processes' or _parapodia_. The number of body segments varies. As many as
+400 may be found in some sea-worms. A complete digestive system is
+developed, consisting of a mouth--armed with horny jaws and a protrusible
+proboscis--gizzard, stomach, and intestine. See _Earth-worm_, _Leech_, &c.
+
+ANNEXATION, a term applied to the acquisition by a State of territory
+previously belonging to another Power, or independent. It is applicable not
+only to the extension of a State's sovereignty over adjoining territory,
+but also to an acquisition of a remote territory. The inhabitants of the
+annexed territory are absolved from their allegiance to their former
+sovereign. Such annexations in modern history were those of Alsace-Lorraine
+by Germany in 1871, of California by the United States, of Bosnia and
+Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, and of the Boer Republics by Great Britain.
+
+ANNFIELD PLAIN, a straggling colliery town (urban district) of England,
+Durham, about 7 miles south-west of Gateshead. Pop. (1921), 16,524.
+
+ANNOBON', or ANNOBOM, a beautiful Spanish island of Western Africa, south
+of the Bight of Biafra, about 4 miles long by 2 miles broad, and rising
+abruptly to the height of 3000 feet, richly covered with vegetation. Pop.
+2000.
+
+ANNONAY ([.a]n-o-n[=a]), a town in southern France, department of Ardeche,
+37 miles S.S.W. of Lyons, in a picturesque situation. It is the most
+important town of Ardeche, manufacturing paper and glove leather to a large
+extent, also cloth, felt, silk stuffs, gloves, hosiery, chemical manures,
+glue, gelatine, brushes, chocolate, and candles. There is an obelisk in
+memory of Joseph Montgolfier of balloon fame. Pop. 16,660.
+
+AN'NUAL, in botany, a plant that springs from seed, grows up, produces
+seed, and then dies, all within a single year or season. Among annual
+grasses may be noted all our cereals, barley, wheat, rye, and oats.
+
+AN'NUAL, in literature, the name given to a class of publications which at
+one time enjoyed an immense yearly circulation, and were distinguished by
+great magnificence both of binding and illustration, which rendered them
+much sought after as Christmas and New Year presents. Their contents were
+chiefly prose tales and ballads, lyrics, and other poetry. The earliest was
+the _Forget-me-not_, started in 1822, and followed next year by the
+_Friendship's Offering_. The _Literary Souvenir_ was commenced in 1824, and
+the _Keepsake_ in 1827. Among the names of the editors occur those of
+Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. S. C. Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessington,
+Mary Howitt, &c. The popularity of the annuals reached its zenith about
+1829, when no less than seventeen made their appearance; in 1856 the
+_Keepsake_, the last of the series, ceased to exist.
+
+ANNUAL REGISTER, an English publication commenced in 1758 by Dodsley, the
+publisher, and since continued in yearly volumes down to the present day.
+There was also an _Edinburgh Annual Register_, the historical part of which
+was for several years contributed by Sir Walter Scott and afterwards by
+Robert Southey. It commenced in 1808 and came to a close in 1827.
+
+ANNU'ITY, a periodical payment, made annually, or at more frequent
+intervals, and continuing either a certain number of years, or for an
+uncertain period, to be determined by a particular event, as the death of
+the recipient or annuitant, or that of the party liable to pay the annuity;
+or the annuity may be perpetual. An annuity is usually raised by the
+present payment of a certain sum as a consideration whereby the party
+making the payment, or some other person named by him, becomes entitled to
+an annuity, and the rules and principles by which this present value is to
+be computed have been the subjects of careful investigation. The present
+value of a perpetual annuity is evidently a sum of money that will yield an
+interest equal to the annuity, and payable at the same periods; and an
+annuity of this description, payable quarterly, will evidently be of
+greater value than one of the same amount payable annually, since the
+annuitant has the additional advantage of the interest on three of the
+quarterly payments until the expiration of the year. In other words, it
+requires a greater present capital to be put at interest to yield a given
+sum per annum, payable quarterly, than to yield the same annual sum payable
+at the end of each year. The present value of an annuity for a limited
+period is a sum which, if put at interest, will at the end of that period
+give an amount equal to the sum of all the payments of the annuity and
+interest; and, accordingly, if it be proposed to invest a certain sum of
+money in the purchase of an annuity for a given number of years, the
+comparative value of the two may be precisely estimated, the rate of
+interest being given. But annuities for uncertain periods, and particularly
+life annuities, are more frequent, and the value of the annuity is computed
+according to the probable duration of the life by which it is limited. Such
+annuities are often created by contract, whereby the Government or a
+private annuity office agrees, for a certain sum advanced by the purchaser,
+to pay a certain sum in yearly, quarterly, or other periodical payments to
+the person advancing the money, or to some other named by him, during the
+life of the annuitant. Or the annuity may be granted to the annuitant
+during the life of some other person, or during two or more joint lives, or
+during the life of the longest liver or survivor among a number of persons
+named. If a person having a certain capital, and intending to spend this
+capital and the income of it during his own life, could know precisely how
+long he should live, he might lend his capital at a certain rate during his
+life, and by taking every year, besides the interest, a certain amount of
+the capital, he might secure the same annual amount for his support during
+his life in such manner that he should have the same sum to spend every
+year, and consume precisely his whole capital during his life. But since he
+does not know how long he is to live, he agrees with the Government or an
+annuity office to take the risk of the duration of his life, and they agree
+to pay him a certain annuity for life in exchange for the capital which he
+proposes to invest in this way. The probable duration of his life therefore
+becomes a subject of computation; and for the purpose of making this
+calculation tables of longevity are made by noting the proportion of deaths
+at certain ages in the same country or district. Founding on a comparison
+of many such tables, the British Government has empowered the
+Postmaster-General to grant annuities at the following rates, which are
+probably more closely adjusted to their actual value than those of
+insurance companies and other dealers in annuities: To secure an immediate
+annuity of L100, the cost is, for males of 20 years, L2279, 3s. 4d.; for
+females of same age, L2482, 10s.; for males of 30 years, L2045, 8s. 4d.,
+for females, L2258, _6s._ 8d.; for males of 40 years, L1789, 6s. 8d.; for
+females, L1990; for males of 60, L1148, 6s. 8d.; females, L1275, 8s. 4d.;
+and so on. _Deferred_ annuities, that is, such as have their first payments
+postponed for a greater or less number of years, are also granted. We give
+the rates for an annuity of L100 deferred 20 years: Males aged 20, L848,
+6s. 8d.; females, L1014, 13s. 4d.; males aged 35, L557, 1s. 8d.; females,
+L697, 1s. 8d.; and so on. If a person on whose life the deferred annuity is
+to depend should die before payment commences, the purchase-money may be
+returned to his or her representatives, provided that an agreement to that
+effect had been made in the first instance, but in this case the
+purchase-money is necessarily higher. See _Insurance_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Baily, _Life Annuities and Assurances_; J. Henry, _Government Life Annuity
+Commutation Tables_.
+
+ANNULOI'DA, one of Professor Huxley's eight primary groups, a division
+(sub-kingdom) of animals, including the Rotifera, Scolecida (tape-worms,
+&c.), all which are more or less ring-like in appearance, and the
+Echinodermata, whose embryos show traces of annulation.
+
+ANNULO'SA, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals regarded by some as
+synonymous with the Arthropoda or Articulata; according to other
+systematists, including both the Articulata and Annulata or worms.
+
+ANNUNCIATION, the declaration of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary
+informing her that she was to become the mother of our
+Lord.--_Annunciation_ or _Lady Day_ is a feast of the Church in honour of
+the annunciation, celebrated on the 25th of March.--The Italian order of
+_Knights of the Annunciation_ was instituted by Amadeus VI, Duke of Savoy,
+in 1360. The king is always grand-master. The knights must be of high rank,
+and must already be members of the order of St. Mauritius and St. Lazarus.
+The decoration of the order consists of a golden shield suspended from a
+chain or collar of roses and knots, the letters F. E. R. T. being inscribed
+on the roses, and standing for _Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit_ (its bravery
+held Rhodes).--There are two orders of _nuns of the Annunciation_, one
+originally French, founded in 1501 by Joanna of Valois; the other Italian,
+founded in 1604 by Maria Vittoria Fornari of Genoa.
+
+ANNUNZIO ([.a]n-n[u:]nt'sy[=o]), Gabriele d', Italian poet, novelist, and
+dramatist, born at Pescara in 1863, his patronymic being Rapagnetta. He was
+educated at Prato and in Rome, and early took to literature and journalism.
+In 1898 he was elected a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, in
+which he joined the Socialist party. He came before the public when a
+schoolboy with a volume of verse called _Primo Vere_, to which
+others--naturally much more mature--were subsequently added. Several of his
+novels have been published in English, as: _The Child of Pleasure_, _The
+Victim_, _The Triumph of Death_, _The Virgin of the Rocks_, _The Fire of
+Life_. Some of these have been very successful, though disfigured to some
+extent by coarse realism and voluptuousness. He began to write plays later
+in life. Among them _Gioconda_, _The Dead City_, and _Francesca da Rimini_
+may be read in English versions, and _Gioconda_ and _Francesca_ have been
+performed on the English stage. His more recent works include: _Le Martyr
+de Saint Sebastien_ (1911), _Le Chevrefeuille_ (1914), _La Beffa di
+Buccari_ (1918), _Notturno_ (1918). D'Annunzio is the most prominent
+Italian writer of the present day, and in wealth of language and
+distinction of style stands far ahead of all others. He served in the
+European War from 1915-18, and was wounded. In Sept., 1919, he led a raid
+and occupied the port of Fiume. See _European War_ and _Fiume_.
+
+AN'OA, an animal (_Anoa depressicornis_) closely allied to the buffalo,
+about the size of an average sheep, very wild and fierce, inhabiting the
+rocky and mountainous localities of the Island of Celebes. The horns are
+straight, thick at the root, and set nearly in a line with the forehead.
+
+ANO'BIUM, a genus of coleopterous insects, the larvae of which often do
+much damage by their boring into old wood. By means of their heads they
+produce a loud, ticking sound in the wood, the so-called _death-watch_
+ticking. _A. stri[=a]tum_, a common species, when frightened, is much given
+to feigning death.
+
+AN'ODE, (Gr. _ana_, up, _hodos_, way), the positive pole of the voltaic
+current, being that part of the surface of a decomposing body which the
+electric current enters: opposed to _cathode_ (Gr. _kata_, down, _hodos_,
+way), the way by which it departs.
+
+AN'ODON, or ANODON'TA, a genus of lamellibranchiate bivalves, including the
+fresh-water mussels, without or with very slight hinge-teeth. See _Mussel_.
+
+AN'ODYNE, a medicine, such as an opiate or narcotic, which allays pain.
+
+ANOINTING, rubbing the body or some part of it with oil, often perfumed.
+From time immemorial the nations of the East have been in the habit of
+anointing themselves for the sake of health and beauty. The Greeks and
+Romans anointed themselves after the bath. Wrestlers anointed themselves in
+order to render it more difficult for their antagonists to get hold of
+them. In Egypt it was common to anoint the head of guests when they entered
+the house where they were to be entertained. In the Mosaic law a sacred
+character was attached to the anointing of the garments of the priests, and
+things belonging to the ceremonial of worship. The Jewish priests and kings
+were anointed when inducted into office, and were called the _anointed of
+the Lord_, to show that their persons were sacred and their office from
+God. In the Old Testament also the prophecies respecting the Redeemer style
+him _Messias_, that is, the _Anointed_, which is also the meaning of his
+Greek name Christ. The custom of anointing still exists in the Roman
+Catholic Church in the ordination of priests and the confirmation of
+believers and the sacrament of extreme unction. The ceremony is also
+frequently a part of the coronation of kings.
+
+[Illustration: Anomalure (_Anomalurus Peli_)]
+
+ANOM'ALURE (_Anomal[=u]rus_), a genus of rodent animals inhabiting the west
+coast of Africa, resembling the flying-squirrels, but having the under
+surface of the tail furnished for some distance from the root with a series
+of large horny scales, which, when pressed against the trunk of a tree, may
+subserve the same purpose as those instruments with which a man climbs up a
+telegraph pole to set the wires.
+
+ANOM'ALY, a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy, the angle which a
+line drawn from a planet to the sun has passed through since the planet was
+last at its perihelion or nearest distance to the sun. The _anomalistic
+year_ is the interval between two successive times at which the earth is in
+perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 minutes 48 seconds. In consequence of
+the advance of the earth's perihelion among the stars in the same direction
+as the earth's motion, and of the precession of the equinoxes, which
+carries the equinoxes back in the opposite direction to the earth's motion,
+the anomalistic year is about 4 minutes 40 seconds longer than the sidereal
+year, and about 25 minutes longer than the tropical or common year. The
+time of a complete revolution of the perihelion is computed at 108,000
+years.
+
+ANOMU'RA, a section of the crustaceans of the ord. Decapoda, with irregular
+tails not formed to assist in swimming, including the hermit-crabs and
+others.
+
+[Illustration: Anona or Sour-sop (_An[=o]na muric[=a]ta_)]
+
+ANO'NA, a genus of plants, the type of the nat. ord. Anonaceae. _A.
+squam[=o]sa_ (sweet-sop) grows in the West Indian Islands, and yields an
+edible fruit having a thick, sweet, luscious pulp. _A. muric[=a]ta_
+(sour-sop) is cultivated in the West and East Indies; it produces a large
+pear-shaped fruit, of a greenish colour, containing an agreeable
+slightly-acid pulp. The genus produces other edible fruits, as the common
+custard-apple or bullock's heart, from _A. reticul[=a]ta_, and the
+cherimoyer of Peru, from _A. Cherimolia_.
+
+ANONA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of trees and shrubs, having simple, alternate
+leaves, destitute of stipules, by which character they are distinguished
+from the Magnoliaceae, to which they are otherwise closely allied. They are
+mostly tropical plants of the Old and the New World, and are generally
+aromatic. See _Anona_.
+
+ANOPLOTHE'RIUM, an extinct genus of the Ungulata or Hoofed Quadrupeds,
+forming the type of a distinct family, which were in many respects
+intermediate between the swine and the true ruminants. These animals were
+pig-like in form, but possessed long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with two
+rudimentary toes. Some of them were as small as a guinea-pig, others as
+large as an ass. Six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars
+existed in each jaw, the series being continuous, no interval existing in
+the jaw. _A. comm[=u]ne_, from the Eocene rocks, is a familiar species.
+
+ANOPLU'RA, an order of apterous insects, of which the type is the genus
+Pedic[)u]lus or louse,
+
+ANOPSHEHR. See _Anupshahr_.
+
+ANOREXIA. See _Appetite_.
+
+ANOS'MIA, a disease consisting in a diminution or destruction of the power
+of smelling, sometimes constitutional, but most frequently caused by strong
+and repeated stimulants, as snuff, applied to the olfactory nerves.
+
+ANOURA. See _Anura_.
+
+ANQUETIL-DUPERRON ([.a]nk-t[=e]l-d[.u]-p[=a]-ro[n.]), Abraham Hyacinthe, a
+French orientalist, born 1731, died 1805. He studied theology for some
+time, but soon devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian.
+His zeal for the Oriental languages induced him to set out for India, where
+he prevailed on some of the Parsee priests to instruct him in the Zend and
+Pehlevi and to give him some of the Zoroastrian books. In 1762 he returned
+to France with a valuable collection of MSS. In 1771 he published his
+_Zend-Avesta_, a translation of the _Vendidad_, and other sacred books,
+which aroused much interest. Among his other works are _L'Inde en rapport
+avec l'Europe_ (1790), and a selection from the _Vedas_. His knowledge of
+the Oriental languages was by no means exact.
+
+ANSBACH. See _Anspach_.
+
+AN'SELM, St., a celebrated Christian philosopher and theologian, born at
+Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033, died at Canterbury 1109. At the age of
+twenty-seven (1060) he became a monk at Bec, in Normandy, whither he had
+been attracted by the celebrity of Lanfranc. Three years later he was
+elected prior, and in 1078 he was chosen abbot, which he remained for
+fifteen years. During this period of his life he wrote his first
+philosophical and religious works: the dialogues on _Truth_ and
+_Free-will_, and the treatises _Monologion_ and _Proslogion_; and at the
+same time his influence made itself so felt among the monks under his
+charge that Bec became the chief seat of learning in Europe. In 1093 Anselm
+was offered by William Rufus the archbishopric of Canterbury, and accepted
+it, though with great reluctance, and with the condition that all the lands
+belonging to the see should be restored. William II soon quarrelled with
+the archbishop, who would show no subservience to him, and would persist in
+acknowledging Pope Urban II in opposition to the antipope Clement. William
+ultimately had to give way. He acknowledged Urban as Pope, and conferred
+the pallium upon Anselm. The king became his bitter enemy, however, and so
+great were Anselm's difficulties that in 1097 he set out for Rome to
+consult with the Pope. Urban received him with great distinction, but did
+not venture really to take the side of the prelate against the king, though
+William had refused to receive Anselm again as archbishop, and had seized
+on the revenues of the see of Canterbury, which he retained till his death
+in 1100. Anselm accordingly remained abroad, where he wrote most of his
+celebrated treatise on the atonement, entitled _Cur Deus Homo_ (_Why God
+was made Man_). When William was succeeded by Henry I Anselm was recalled;
+but Henry insisted that he should submit to be reinvested in his see by
+himself, although the Popes claimed the right of investing for themselves
+alone. Much negotiation followed, and Henry did not surrender his claims
+till 1107, when Anselm's long struggle on behalf of the rights of the
+Church came to an end. Anselm was a great scholar, a deep and original
+thinker, and a man of the utmost saintliness and piety. Anselm's great
+achievement in philosophy was his ontological argument for the existence of
+God; and his importance in the ecclesiastical history of England cannot be
+exaggerated. The chief of his writings are the _Monologion_, the
+_Proslogion_, and the _Cur Deus Homo_. The first is an attempt to prove
+inductively the existence of God by pure reason without the aid of
+Scripture or authority; the second is an attempt to prove the same by the
+deductive method; the _Cur Deus Homo_ is intended to prove the necessity of
+the incarnation. Among his numerous other writings are more than 400
+letters. His life was written by his domestic chaplain and companion,
+Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, and is edited by M. Rule for the 'Rolls
+Series'. See _Scholasticism_. Cf. Pere Ragey, _Histoire de Saint Anselme_;
+J. M. Rigg, _Anselm of Canterbury_.
+
+ANS'GAR, or ANSHAR, called the _Apostle of the North_, born in 801 in
+Picardy, died in 864 or 865. He took the monastic vows while still in his
+boyhood, and in the midst of many difficulties laboured as a missionary in
+Denmark and Sweden. He died with the reputation of having made, if not the
+first, the most successful attempts to propagate Christianity in the North.
+
+AN'SON, George, Lord, celebrated English navigator, born 1697, died 1762.
+He entered the navy at an early age and became a commander in 1722, and
+captain in 1724. He was for a long time on the South Carolina station. In
+1740 he was made commander of a fleet sent to the South Sea, directed
+against the trade and colonies of Spain. The expedition consisted of five
+men-of-war and three smaller vessels, which carried 1400 men. After much
+suffering and many stirring adventures he reached the coast of Peru, made
+several prizes, and captured and burned the city of Paita. His squadron was
+now reduced to one ship, the _Centurion_, but with it he took the Spanish
+treasure galleon from Acapulco, and arrived in England in 1744 with
+treasure to the amount of L500,000, having circumnavigated the globe. His
+adventures and discoveries are described in the well-known _Anson's
+Voyage_, compiled from materials furnished by Anson. A few days after his
+return he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and not long after
+rear-admiral of the white. His victory over the French admiral Jonquiere,
+near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised him to the peerage, with the title of
+Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton. Four years afterwards he was made First Lord
+of the Admiralty. In 1758 he commanded the fleet before Brest, protected
+the landing of the British at St. Malo, Cherbourg, &c., and received the
+repulsed troops into his vessels. Finally, in 1761, he was appointed to
+convey the queen of George III to England.
+
+ANSO'NIA, a town of the United States, Conn., on the Nangatuck, with
+manufactures of brass and copper, and especially clocks. Pop. 17,643.
+
+ANSPACH ([.a]n'sp[.a]_h_), or ANSBACH, a town in Bavaria, at the junction
+of the Holzbach with the Lower Rezat, 24 miles south-west of Nuernberg.
+Anspach gave its name to an ancient principality or margravate, which had a
+territory of about 1300 sq. miles, with 300,000 inhabitants. in the end of
+the eighteenth century. The last margrave sold his possessions in 1791 to
+Prussia. It was occupied by the French in 1806, and transferred by Napoleon
+to Bavaria. The town has manufactures of trimmings, buttons, straw-wares,
+&c. Pop. 19,995.
+
+AN'STED, David Thomas, an English geologist, born 1814, died 1880. He was
+professor of geology at King's College, London, and assistant-secretary to
+the Geological Society, whose quarterly journal he edited for many years.
+
+AN'STER, John, LL.D., professor of civil law in the University of Dublin,
+born in County Cork, 1793, died 1867. He published a volume of poems, but
+is chiefly known by his fine translation of Goethe's _Faust_, Part I, 1835;
+Part II, 1864.
+
+AN'STEY, Christopher, an English poet, born 1724, died 1805. He was author
+of _The New Bath Guide_, a humorous and satirical production describing
+fashionable life at Bath in the form of a series of letters in different
+varieties of metre, which had a great reputation in its day, but is now
+almost forgotten.
+
+ANSTRUTHER (an'stru_th_-[.e]r; popularly an'st[.e]r), Easter and Wester,
+two small royal and police burghs of Scotland, in Fifeshire, forming, with
+the contiguous royal burgh of Cellardyke or Nether Kilrenny, one fishing
+and seaport town. Total pop. (1921), 4641.
+
+[Illustration: The Wood-ant (_Formica rufa_)
+
+1. Egg. 2. Larva. 3. Cocoon of fine white silk. 4. Young ant, taken out of
+cocoon. 5. Male ant. 6. Female ant. 7. Worker ant. (All magnified.)]
+
+ANT, the common name of hymenopterous (or membranous-winged) insects of
+various genera, of the family Formic[)i]dae, of which there are numerous
+species, at least 2000 being known. They are found in most temperate and
+tropical regions. They are small but powerful insects, and have long been
+noted for their remarkable intelligence and interesting habits. They are
+social insects, living in communities regulated by definite laws, each
+member of the society bearing a well-defined and separate part in the work
+of the colony. Each community consists of males; of females much larger
+than the males; and of barren females, otherwise called neuters, workers,
+or nurses. The neuters are wingless, and the males and females only acquire
+wings for their 'nuptial flight', after which the males perish, and the few
+females which escape the pursuit of their numerous enemies divest
+themselves of their wings, and either return to established nests, or
+become the foundresses of new colonies. The neuters perform all the labours
+of the ant-hill or abode of the community; they excavate the galleries,
+procure food, and feed the larvae or young ants, which have not got organs
+of motion. In fine weather they carefully convey them to the surface for
+the benefit of the sun's heat, and as attentively carry them to a place of
+safety either when bad weather is threatened or the ant-hill is disturbed.
+In like manner they watch over the safety of the nymphs or pupae about to
+acquire their perfect growth. Some communities possess a special type of
+neuters, known as 'soldiers', from the duties that specially fall upon
+them, and from their powerful biting jaws. There is a very considerable
+variety in the materials, size, and form of ant-hills, or nests, according
+to the peculiar nature or instinct of the species. Most of the British ants
+form nests in woods, fields, or gardens, their abodes being generally in
+the form of small mounds rising above the surface of the ground and
+containing numerous galleries and apartments. Some excavate nests in old
+tree-trunks. One little yellow ant (_Myrm[=i]ca domestica_) is common in
+houses in Britain in some localities. Some ants live on animal food, very
+quickly picking quite clean the skeleton of any dead animal they may light
+on. Others live on saccharine matter, being very fond of the sweet
+substance, called honey-dew, which exudes from the bodies of aphides, or
+plant-lice. These they sometimes keep in their nests, and sometimes tend on
+the plants where they feed; sometimes they even superintend their breeding.
+By stroking the aphides with their antennae they cause them to emit the
+sweet fluid, which the ants then greedily sip up. Various other insects are
+looked after by ants in a similar manner, or are found in their nests. It
+has been observed that some species, like the European Red Ant (_Form[=i]ca
+sanguin[)e]a_), resort to violence to obtain working ants of other species
+for their own use, plundering the nests of suitable kinds of their larvae
+and pupae, which they carry off to their own nests to be carefully reared
+and kept as slaves. In temperate countries male and female ants survive, at
+most, till autumn, or to the commencement of cool weather, though a very
+large proportion of them cease to exist long previous to that time. The
+neuters pass the winter in a state of torpor, and of course require no
+food. The only time when they require food is during the season of
+activity, when they have a vast number of young to feed. Some ants of
+Southern Europe feed on grain, and store it up in their nests for use when
+required. Some species have stings as weapons, others only their powerful
+mandibles, or an acrid and pungent fluid (formic acid) which they can emit.
+The name ant is also given to the neuropterous insects otherwise called
+Termites (q.v.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), _Ants,
+Bees, and Wasps_; H. W. Bates, _A Naturalist on the Amazons_; _Cambridge
+Natural History_.
+
+ANTAC'ID, an alkali, or any remedy for acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia
+and diarrhoea are the diseases in which antacids are chiefly employed. The
+principal antacids in use are magnesia, lime, and their carbonates, and the
+carbonates of potash and soda.
+
+ANTAE'US, the giant son of Poseidon (Neptune) and G[=e] (the Earth), who
+was invincible so long as he was in contact with the earth. Heracles
+(Hercules) grasped him in his arms and stifled him suspended in the air,
+thus preventing him from touching the earth.
+
+ANTAKIEH, or ANTAKIA. See _Antioch_.
+
+ANTAL'KALI, a substance which neutralizes an alkali, and is used
+medicinally to counteract an alkaline tendency in the system. All true
+acids have this power.
+
+ANTANANARIVO (an-tan-an-a-r[=e]'v[=o]), the capital of Madagascar, situated
+in the central province of Imerina, on rocky eminences rising from a plain.
+Until 1869 all buildings within the city were of wood or rush, but since
+the introduction of brick and stone, the whole city has been rebuilt. It
+contains two former royal palaces, immense timber structures; a Protestant
+and a Roman Catholic cathedral, mission churches, schools, &c. Antananarivo
+is the residence of the French governor of Madagascar, and there is a
+strong French garrison. It has manufactures of metal work, cutlery, silk,
+&c. Pop. (exclusive of the troops) 63,115.
+
+AN'TAR, an Arabian warrior and poet of the sixth century, author of one of
+the seven Moallakas (poems) hung up in the Kaaba at Mecca; hero of a
+romance analogous in Arabic literature to the Arthurian legend of the
+English. The romance of _Antar_ is composed in rhythmic prose interspersed
+with fragments of verse, many of which are attributed to Antar himself, and
+has been generally ascribed to Asmai (born A.D. 740, died about A.D. 830),
+preceptor to Harun-al-Rashid. It has been published in 32 vols. at Cairo
+(1889).
+
+ANTARCTIC (ant-aerk'tik), a term signifying the opposite of _Arctic_, and
+therefore relating to the southern pole or to the regions near it. The
+_Antarctic Circle_, which of course corresponds to the _Arctic Circle_, is
+a circle parallel to the equator and distant from the south pole 23deg 28',
+marking the area within which the sun does not set when on the tropic of
+Capricorn. The Antarctic Circle has been arbitrarily fixed on as the limits
+of the Antarctic Ocean, it being the average limit of the pack-ice; but the
+name is often extended to embrace a much wider area. The lands within or
+near the Antarctic Circle are but imperfectly known, and a very large area
+around the south pole is altogether unknown. The work of exploration has
+been hitherto baffled at various points by what seems an unsurmountable
+ice-barrier, which in some places is connected with masses of land and may
+as a whole belong to a great Antarctic continent. Among land-masses that
+have long been known to exist in the Antarctic Ocean, though our knowledge
+of them is very imperfect, are those to which have been attached the names
+Graham Land, Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, Enderby Land, South Shetland
+Islands, &c. The Antarctic regions are even colder and more inhospitable
+than the Arctic, and partly on account of their remoteness from the
+maritime nations there have been far fewer efforts at their exploration,
+the south pole being far less a goal of discovery than the north. See
+_South Polar Expeditions_.
+
+[Illustration: Ant-eater (_Myrmecoph[)a]ga jub[=a]ta_)]
+
+ANT-EATER, a name given to mammals of various genera that prey chiefly on
+ants, but usually confined to the genus Myrmecoph[)a]ga, ord. Edentata. In
+this genus the head is remarkably elongated, the jaws destitute of teeth,
+and the mouth furnished with a long, extensile tongue covered with
+glutinous saliva, by the aid of which the animals secure their insect prey.
+The eyes are particularly small, the ears short and round, and the legs,
+especially the fore-legs, very strong, and furnished with long, compressed,
+acute nails, admirably adapted for breaking into the ant-hills. The most
+remarkable species is the _Myrmecoph[)a]ga jub[=a]ta_, or ant-bear, a
+native of the warmer parts of South America. It is from 4 to 5 feet in
+length from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the black bushy tail,
+which is about 2 feet long. The body is covered with long hair,
+particularly along the neck and back. It is a harmless and solitary animal,
+and spends most of its time in sleep. Some are adapted for climbing trees
+in quest of the insects on which they feed, having prehensile tails. All
+are natives of South America. The name ant-eater is also given to the
+pangolins and to the aardvark. The echidna of Australia is sometimes called
+_porcupine ant-eater_.
+
+ANTECE'DENT, in grammar, the noun to which a relative or other pronoun
+refers; as, Solomon was the _prince who_ built the temple, where the word
+_prince_ is the antecedent of _who_.--In logic, that member of a
+hypothetical or conditional proposition which contains the condition, and
+which is introduced by _if_ or some equivalent word or words; as, if the
+sun is fixed, the earth must move. Here the first and conditional
+proposition is the _antecedent_, the second the _consequent_.
+
+ANTEDILU'VIAN, before the flood or deluge of Noah's time; relating to what
+happened before the deluge. In geology the term has been applied to
+organisms, traces of which are found in a fossil state in formations
+preceding the Diluvial (Glacial epoch), particularly to extinct animals
+such as the palaeotherium, the mastodon, &c.
+
+AN'TELOPE, the name given to the members of a large family of Ruminant
+Ungulata or Hoofed Mammalia, closely resembling the Deer in general
+appearance, but essentially different in nature from the latter animals.
+They are included with the Sheep and Oxen in the family of the Cavicornia
+or 'Hollow-horned' Ruminants. Their horns, unlike those of the Deer, are
+not deciduous, but are permanent; are never branched, but are often twisted
+spirally, and may be borne by both sexes. They are found in greatest number
+and variety in Africa. Well-known species are the chamois (European), the
+gazelle, the addax, the eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the springbok, the
+sasin or Indian antelope, and the prongbuck of America.
+
+[Illustration: Antennae
+
+1,1. Filiform Antennae of Cucujo Firefly of Brazil (_Pyroph[)o]rus
+lumin[=o]sus_). 2. Denticulate Antenna; 3. Bipinnate; 4. Lamellicorn; 5.
+Clavate; 6. Geniculate; 7. Antenna and Antennule of Crustacean.]
+
+ANTEN'NAE, the name given to the movable jointed organs of touch and
+hearing attached to the heads of insects, myriapods, &c., and commonly
+called horns or feelers. They present a very great variety of forms.
+
+ANTEQUERA ([.a]n-te-k[=a]'r[.a]), a city of Andalusia, in Spain, in the
+province of Malaga, a place of some importance under the Romans, with a
+ruined Moorish castle. It manufactures woollens, leather, soap, &c. Pop.
+32,360.
+
+ANT'EROS, in Greek mythology, the god of mutual love. According to some,
+however, Anteros is the enemy of love, or the god of antipathy; he was also
+said to punish those who did not return the love of others.
+
+ANTHE'LION, pl. ANTHELIA, a luminous ring, or rings, seen by an observer,
+especially in alpine and polar regions, around the shadow of his head
+projected on a cloud or fog-bank, or on grass covered with dew, 50 or 60
+yards distant, and opposite the sun when rising or setting. It is due to
+the diffraction of light.
+
+ANTHELMIN'THICS, or ANTHELMIN'TICS, a class of remedies used to destroy
+worms when lodged in the alimentary canal; classed as vermicides or
+vermifuges, according as the object is to kill the worms, or to expel them
+by purgation.
+
+AN'THEM, originally a hymn sung in alternate parts; in modern usage, a
+sacred tune or piece of music set to words taken from the Psalms or other
+parts of the Scriptures, first introduced into church service in
+Elizabeth's reign; a developed motet. The anthem may be for one, two, or
+any number of voices, but seldom exceeds five parts, and may or may not
+have an organ accompaniment written for it.
+
+[Illustration: Anthemion]
+
+ANTHE'MION, an ornament or ornamental series used in Greek and Roman
+decoration, which is derived from floral forms, more especially the
+honeysuckle. It was much used for the ornamentation of friezes and
+interiors, for the decoration of fictile vases, the borders of dresses, &c.
+
+AN'THEMIS, a genus of composite plants, comprising the camomile or
+chamomile.
+
+ANTHE'MIUS, a Greek mathematician and architect of Lydia; designed the
+church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and is credited with the invention
+of the dome; died A.D. 534.
+
+[Illustration: The Reproductive Organs of the Lily]
+
+AN'THER, the male organ of the flower; that part of the stamen which is
+filled with pollen.
+
+ANTHESTE'RIA, an annual Greek festival held in honour of all the gods, but
+especially in honour of Dionysus. It celebrated the beginning of spring,
+and the season when the wine of the previous vintage was considered fit for
+use.
+
+ANTHOCY'ANIN, the blue colour of flowers, a pigment obtained from those
+petals of flowers which are blue, by digesting them in spirits of wine.
+
+ANTHOL'OGY (Gr. _anthos_, a flower, and _legein_, to gather), the name
+given to several collections of short poems which have come down from
+antiquity. The first to compile a Greek anthology was Meleager, a Syrian,
+about 60 B.C. He entitled his collection, which contained selections from
+forty-six poets besides many pieces of his own, the _Garland_; a
+continuation of this work by Philip of Thessalonica in the age of Tiberius
+was the first entitled _Anthology_. Later collections are that of
+Constantine Cephalas, in the tenth century, who made much use of the
+earlier ones, and that of Maximus Planudes, in the fourteenth century, a
+monk of Constantinople, whose anthology is a tasteless series of extracts
+from the _Anthology_ of Cephalas, with some additions. The treasures
+contained in both, increased with fragments of the older poets, idylls of
+the bucolic poets, the hymns of Callimachus, epigrams from monuments and
+other works, have been published in modern times as the _Greek Anthology_.
+There is no ancient Latin anthology, the oldest being that of Scaliger
+(1573).
+
+AN'THON, Charles, LL.D., an American editor of classical school-books, and
+of works intended to facilitate the study of Greek and Latin literature;
+born 1797, died 1867. He was long a professor in Columbia College, New
+York.
+
+AN'THONY, St. the founder of monastic institutions, born near Heraclea, in
+Upper Egypt, A.D. 251. Giving up all his property he retired to the desert,
+where he was followed by a number of disciples, who thus formed the first
+community of monks. He died at the age of 105.--_St. Anthony's Fire_, a
+name given to erysipelas.
+
+AN'THRACENE (C_{14}H_{10}) occurs in coal-tar in small quantity, about
+0.25-0.45 per cent. During the distillation of tar a high-boiling fraction,
+boiling above 270deg C., is obtained; this is crude anthracene oil, a
+greenish oily substance which, on further distillation, yields a
+crystalline mass, 50 per cent anthracene. This is carefully purified by
+distillation and chemical treatment to separate the anthracene from the
+other substances occurring with it, and the product obtained is finally
+purified by crystallization. When pure it forms colourless crystalline
+scales melting at 216deg C., and having a violet fluorescence. It forms a
+series of derivatives, the most important being anthraquinone and alizarine
+and the numerous derivatives of these. Anthracene was originally a useless
+product in coal-tar distillation, but it became valuable as soon as it was
+discovered that alizarine--from which many dyes are manufactured directly
+or indirectly--could be prepared from it.
+
+AN'THRACITE, glance or blind coal, a non-bituminous coal of a shining
+lustre, approaching to metallic, and which burns without smoke, with a weak
+or no flame, and with intense heat. It consists of, on an average, 90 per
+cent carbon, 2 oxygen, 3 hydrogen, and 5 ashes. It has some of the
+properties of coal or charcoal, and, like that substance, represents an
+extreme alteration of vegetable substances by loss of gases, either during
+conditions of decay or after entombment among stratified rocks. It is found
+in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in large quantities in the United
+States (Pennsylvania), and near Swansea (South Wales). See _Coal_.
+
+AN'THRAX, a fatal disease to which animals are subject, always associated
+with the presence of an extremely minute micro-organism (_Bacillus
+anthr[)a]cis_) in the blood. It attacks cattle more frequently than other
+animals; sheep, horses, pigs, dogs, and fowls are liable to anthrax, but
+not cats. The mode of infection in animals is chiefly by ingestion. It may
+also be contracted through a wound or scratch in the skin, but this mode of
+infection is commoner in human beings than in animals. It frequently
+assumes an epizootic form, and extends over large districts, affecting all
+classes of animals which are exposed to the exciting causes. It is also
+called splenic fever, and is communicable to man, appearing as carbuncle,
+malignant pustule, or wool-sorter's disease.
+
+ANTHROPOL'ATRY, the worship of man, a word always employed in reproach;
+applied by the Apollinarians, who denied Christ's perfect humanity, towards
+the orthodox Christians.
+
+ANTHRO'POLITE, a petrifaction of the human body or skeleton, or of parts of
+the body, by the encrusting action of calcareous waters, and hence hardly
+to be considered fossil or sub-fossil.
+
+ANTHROPOL'OGY, the science of man, including the study of man's place in
+nature, that is, of the measurement of his agreement with and divergence
+from other animals and the history of the emergence of human
+characteristics; of the distinctive features and geographical distribution
+of the races of mankind, their customs and beliefs; of the remains of
+extinct types of the human family and the evidence relating to their modes
+of life. It puts under contribution all sciences which have man for their
+object, as anatomy, palaeontology, psychology, archaeology, history, and
+comparative religion. All the races of mankind that are now living, much as
+they differ in external appearance, such as colour of skin, character of
+hair, form of skull, face, and body, and stature, belong to one species,
+_Homo Sapiens_; but an earlier species of more brutal type, _H.
+neanderthalensis_, now completely extinct, is known from fossil remains
+found in Germany, Belgium, France, Gibraltar, and Croatia. Three more
+ancient and primitive types, probably representing distinct genera of the
+human family, have been discovered respectively at Piltdown, in Sussex
+(Eoanthropus), at Mauer, near Heidelberg (Palaeanthropus), and in Java, the
+Ape-man (Pithecanthropus). The Piltdown man may represent the very remote,
+but direct, ancestor of modern man; but the Heidelberg man and the Ape-man
+were probably divergent 'sports' whose descendants never became men of the
+modern type.
+
+In structure the gorilla reveals a close kinship with the human family, and
+was probably derived from a common ancestry which probably differentiated
+into man's forerunner and the gorilla's in Miocene times. Of existing races
+the aboriginal Australian is much the most primitive, and represents the
+survival of the earliest type of _Homo Sapiens_ soon after this species
+became differentiated from men of the Neanderthal species. The negro, whose
+home is tropical Africa, is primitive in some respects, but in others is
+highly specialized. He is distinguished by his black skin, flat nose,
+prominent jaws and thick everted lips, and so-called 'woolly' or
+'pepper-corn' hair. In stature he shows a wider range of variation than any
+other race, including, as he does, the tallest and the shortest varieties
+of mankind. The Bushman is a peculiarly distinct racial type now restricted
+to the deserts of South Africa. Though his skin is yellowish rather than
+black, he is akin to the negro. The Mongolian race probably assumed its
+distinctive features, yellowish skin, coarse black hair, and characteristic
+facial and bodily traits, in Eastern Asia; and the aboriginal population of
+America was sprung mainly from the less-specialized branch of this race.
+The so-called white races include three main stocks, a people of short
+stature, olive complexion, and long heads, the Mediterranean race; a taller
+people with fair hair and long heads, the Nordic race; and a short,
+thick-set, black-haired, broad-headed Alpine race, which made its way from
+Asia into Europe many centuries after the other two chief components of
+Europe's population. For long ages in every part of the world intermixture
+has been taking place in varying degrees between the different races of
+mankind, so that to-day probably no pure race exists. See _Ethnography_,
+_Ethnology_, _Man_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Anthropology_; D. G.
+Brinton, _Races and Peoples_; W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_; E.
+Carpenter, _Anthropology_; G. Elliott Smith, _The Migrations of Early
+Culture_; H. G. F. Spurrell, _Modern Man and his Forerunners_;
+_Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques_; _The Journal of the
+Anthropological Institute of Great Britain_.
+
+ANTHROPOM'ETRY, the systematic examination of the height, weight, and other
+physical characteristics of the human body. It was shown in the British
+Association Report of 1888 that variations in stature, weight, and
+complexion, existing in different districts of the British islands, are
+chiefly due to difference of racial origin.
+
+The Scotch male adults stand first in height (68.71 inches), the Irish
+second (67.90 inches), the English third (67.66 inches), and the Welsh last
+(66.66 inches). In weight the Scotch take the first place (165.3 lb.), the
+Welsh the second (158.3 lb.), the English the third (155.0 lb.), and the
+Irish the last (154.1 lb.). The average height of adult females is 4.71
+inches less than the male average, and their average weight 32.2 lb. under
+that of the males. The average height of the adult males of the principal
+races or nationalities of the world may be given as under; but it is
+acknowledged that more numerous measurements might alter some of the
+figures considerably: Polynesians 69.33 inches, Patagonians 69 inches,
+Negroes of the Congo 69 inches, Scotch 68.71 inches, Iroquois Indians 68.28
+inches, Irish 67.90 inches, United States (whites) 67.67 inches, English
+67.66 inches, Norwegians 67.66 inches, Zulus 67.19 inches, Welsh 66.66
+inches, Danes 66.65 inches, Dutch 66.62 inches, American Negroes 66.62
+inches, Hungarians 66.58 inches, Germans 66.54 inches, Swiss 66.43 inches,
+Belgians 66.38 inches, French 66.23 inches, Berbers 66.10 inches, Arabs
+66.08 inches, Russians 66.04 inches, Italians 66 inches, Spaniards 65.66
+inches, Esquimaux 65.10 inches, Papuans 64.78 inches, Hindus 64.76 inches,
+Chinese 64.17 inches, Poles 63.87 inches, Finns 63.60 inches, Japanese
+63.11 inches, Peruvians 63 inches, Malays 62.34 inches, Lapps 59.2 inches,
+Bosjesmans 52.78 inches. General average, 65.25 inches.
+
+ANTHROPOMOR'PHISM, the representation or conception of the Deity under a
+human form, or with human attributes and affections. _Anthropomorphism_ is
+based upon the natural inaptitude of the human mind for conceiving
+spiritual things except through sensuous images, and in its consequent
+tendency to accept such expressions as those of Scripture when it speaks of
+the eye, the ear, and the hand of God, of his seeing and hearing, of his
+remembering and forgetting, of his making man in his own image, &c., in a
+too literal sense. In a general sense anthropomorphism is the assumption of
+man that his own characteristics are present in beings or things widely
+different from himself, more particularly in forces of nature and gods. The
+term is, therefore, also applied to that doctrine which attributes to
+animals mental faculties of the same nature as those of man, though much
+lower in degree: strictly called _biological anthropomorphism_, to
+distinguish it from anthropomorphism proper, or _theological
+anthropomorphism_. Cf. E. Caird, _Evolution of Religion_; J. R.
+Illingworth, _Personality, Human and Divine_.
+
+ANTHROPOPH'AGI, man-eaters, cannibals. Cannibalism was practised in very
+ancient times; and though some peoples, as the New Zealanders and Fijians,
+have given it up in recent times, it is still practised over a wide area in
+Central Africa, where human flesh is a common article of food.
+Superstitious ideas are often associated with cannibalism among those who
+practise it. The Caribs were cannibals at the time of the Spanish conquest,
+and the word 'cannibal' is derived from their name. See _Cannibalism_.
+
+ANTHUS. See _Pipit_.
+
+ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS are guns so mounted that they may be pointed upward to
+fire directly against objects in the air. During the European War these
+guns, fitted with special appliances and ammunition, were used for defence
+against air-raids of the enemy, against Zeppelins and Gothas. The
+anti-aircraft guns are of various types, ranging from light machine-guns up
+to batteries of 3-inch and 6-inch guns. Some of them have brought down
+enemy machines flying at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet.
+
+ANTIBES ([.a][n.]-t[=e]b) (ancient ANTIPOLIS), a fortified town and seaport
+of France, department Alpes-Maritimes, on the Mediterranean, 11 miles
+S.S.W. of Nice; founded about 340 B.C. Pop. 12,198.
+
+ANTI-BURGHER SYNOD, a section of the Scottish Secession Church, which held
+its first meeting in Edinburgh in the house of Adam Gib on 10th April,
+1747. It was formed in consequence of a breach resulting from a controversy
+respecting the religious clause of the oath taken by burgesses in
+Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Perth. Those in favour of the oath were designated
+Burghers, whilst their opponents, who condemned the oath of the burgesses,
+became known as Anti-burghers. The union of the burgher and anti-burgher
+sections was brought about in 1820 through the exertions of John Jamieson,
+minister at the Anti-burgher Church in Nicholson Street, Edinburgh. See
+_United Free Church of Scotland_.
+
+AN'TICHLOR, the name given to any chemical substance, such as hyposulphite
+of sodium, employed to remove the small quantity of chlorine which
+obstinately adheres to the fibres of the cloth when goods are bleached by
+means of chlorine.
+
+AN'TICHRIST, a word occurring in the first and second _Epistles of St.
+John_, and nowhere else in Scripture, in passages having an evident
+reference to a personage real or symbolical mentioned or alluded to in
+various other passages both of the Old and New Testaments. The _idea
+itself_, however, of Antichrist can be traced back to the second century
+B.C., and appears first of all in the _Book of Daniel_. In every age the
+Church has held through all its sects some definite expectation of a
+formidable adversary of truth and righteousness prefigured under this name.
+Thus Roman Catholics have found Antichrist in heresy, and Protestants in
+Romanism. In one point the sects have generally been agreed, namely, in
+regarding the various intimations on this subject in the Old and New
+Testaments as a homogeneous declaration or warning, inspired by the spirit
+of prophecy, of danger to the true religion from some disaffection and
+revolt organized in the latter days by Satan. Most modern critics take a
+different view of the matter. They do not regard the various Scriptural
+writers who have dealt with this subject as having had any common
+inspiration or design. They believe that each writer from his own point of
+view, guided by mere human sagacity, gives expression in his predictions to
+his own individual apprehensions, or narrates as prediction what he already
+knows. Originally Antichrist is nothing else than the incarnate devil, and
+the idea of the battle of God with a human opponent, endowed with devilish
+wickedness, arose under the influence of historical conditions. It is the
+near political horizon which suggests the danger, or contemporary history
+the substance of the prophecy; thus the Antichrist of Daniel is Antiochus
+Epiphanes, that of St. John Nero, that of St. Paul some adversary of
+Christianity about to appear in the time of the Emperor
+Claudius.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Baring-Gould, _Curious Myths of the Middle
+Ages_; W. Bousset, _Antichrist_.
+
+ANTICLI'MAX, a sudden declension of a writer or speaker from lofty to mean
+thoughts or language, as in the well-known lines, quoted in Pope's
+_Martinus Scriblerus on the Art of Sinking in Poetry_ as from an anonymous
+author:
+
+  And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war,
+  Lieutenant-colonel to the Earl of Mar.
+
+Pope, Addison, and Fielding were masters in this art of sudden descent.
+
+[Illustration: _a_, _a._ Anticlinal line. _b._ Synclinal line]
+
+ANTICLI'NAL LINE OR AXIS, in geology, the ridge of a wave-like curve made
+by a series of superimposed strata, the strata dipping from it on either
+side as from the ridge of a house: a _synclinal line_ runs along the trough
+of such a wave.
+
+ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an association formed in England in 1836 to procure
+the repeal of the laws regulating or forbidding the importation of corn.
+The object of the league was attained in 1846.
+
+ANTICOS'TI, an island of Canada, in the mouth of the St. Lawrence, 125
+miles long by 30 miles broad. The interior is mountainous and wooded, but
+there is much good land, and it is well adapted for agriculture.
+
+ANTICY'CLONE, a phenomenon presenting some features opposite to those of a
+cyclone. It consists of a region of high barometric pressure, the pressure
+being greatest in the centre, with light winds flowing outwards from the
+centre, and not inwards as in the cyclone, accompanied with great cold in
+winter and with great heat in summer.
+
+ANTICYRA (an-tis'i-ra), the name of two towns of Greece, the one in
+Thessaly, the other in Phocis, famous for hellebore, which in ancient times
+was regarded as a specific against insanity and melancholy. Hence various
+jocular allusions in ancient writers (_Naviga Anticyram_, sail to
+Anticyra).
+
+AN'TIDOTE, a medicine to counteract the effects of poison.
+
+ANTIETAM (an-t[=e]'tam), a small stream in the United States which falls
+into the Potomac about 50 miles N.W. of Washington; scene of an indecisive
+battle between the Federal and Confederate armies, 17th Sept., 1862.
+
+ANTI-FEDERALISTS, the political party in the United States which after the
+formation of the Federal constitution in 1787 opposed its ratification.
+Whilst the Federalists were striving to turn the federation into a united
+nation, and stood for a strong Government and centralizing tendencies,
+their opponents, the Anti-Federalists, either more democratic, or
+pretending that a strong Government meant a 'disguised' monarchic power,
+endeavoured to preserve a loose disintegrated federation. The
+Anti-Federalist party was gradually transformed into the
+Democratic-Republican party, led by Jefferson.
+
+ANTIFRICTION METAL, a name given to various alloys of tin, zinc, copper,
+antimony, lead, &c., which oppose little resistance to motion, with great
+resistance to the effects of friction, so far as concerns the wearing away
+of the surfaces of contact. Babbitt's metal (50 parts tin, 5 antimony, 1
+copper) is one of them.
+
+ANTIGONE (an-tig'o-n[=e]), in Greek mythology, the daughter of Oedipus and
+Jocasta, celebrated for her devotion to her brother Polynices, for burying
+whom against the decree of King Creon she suffered death. She is the
+heroine of Sophocles' _Oedipus at Colonus_ and his _Antigone_; also of
+Racine's tragedy _Les Freres Ennemis_.
+
+ANTIG'ONISH, a town in the E. of Nova Scotia, in county of the same name;
+the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, with a cathedral, a college, and a
+good harbour. Pop. 1787.
+
+ANTIG'ONUS, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, born about 382 B.C.
+In the division of the empire, after the death of Alexander, Antigonus
+obtained Greater Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia as his dominion. But he soon
+managed to extend his power, being assisted by his warlike son, Demetrius
+Poliorc[=e]t[=e]s. Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus, who had also been
+generals of Alexander, alarmed by his ambition, united themselves against
+him; and a long series of contests ensued in Syria, Phoenicia, Asia Minor,
+and Greece, ending in 301 B.C. with the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in
+which Antigonus was defeated and slain, his dominions being divided among
+the conquerors.
+
+ANTIGONUS GON'ATAS, son of Demetrius Poliorc[=e]t[=e]s, and grandson of the
+above, succeeded his father in the kingdom of Macedon and all his other
+European dominions, but did not obtain actual possession of them for some
+years. He died, after a reign of forty-four years, 239 B.C.
+
+ANTIGUA (an-t[=e]'gwa), one of the British West Indies, the most important
+of the Leeward group; 28 miles long, 20 broad; area, 108 sq. miles. Its
+shores are high and rocky, and much indented by creeks and inlets
+furnishing several good harbours. The surface is diversified by hill and
+dale, but nowhere rises to a greater height than 1500 feet. A considerable
+portion of it is fertile, and the climate is healthy, but there is a
+scarcity of water, there being no streams and few springs, droughts are not
+infrequent, and hurricanes are apt to cause serious loss and damage. Chief
+products are sugar, cotton, and pineapples. The island has fairly good
+shipping connections with the United Kingdom, the United States, and
+Canada. Antigua is governed as a crown colony, the Islands of Barbuda and
+Redonda being attached to it. The capital, St. John, the residence of the
+governor of the Leeward Islands, stands on the shore of a well-sheltered
+harbour in the north-west part of the island. Falmouth (English Harbour) in
+the south has also an excellent harbour with a dockyard. The island was
+discovered by Columbus in 1493; the first settlement was made by the
+English in 1632. Since then, except for a short period of occupation by the
+French, it has been a British possession. Pop. 32,269 (1911).
+
+ANTI-JAC'OBIN, a famous magazine (1797-1818), the original object of which
+was to satirize the Jacobin principles of the Fox section of Whigs;
+principal contributors: Gifford, Canning, Frere, and Ellis.
+
+ANTI-LEBANON, the eastern of the two parallel ranges known as the Mountains
+of Lebanon in Palestine. See _Lebanon_.
+
+ANTILEGOM'ENA (things spoken against or objected to), a term applied by
+early Christian writers to the _Epistle to the Hebrews_, 2 _Peter_,
+_James_, _Jude_, 2 and 3 _John_, and the _Apocalypse_, which, though read
+in the churches, were not for some time received into the canon of
+Scripture.
+
+ANTILLES (an-til'[=e]z), another name for the West Indian Islands
+(excluding Bahamas). See _West Indies_.
+
+ANTILOCHUS (an-til'o-kus), in Greek legend, a son of Nestor, distinguished
+among the younger heroes who took part in the Trojan War by beauty,
+bravery, and swiftness of foot. He was slain by Memnon, but Achilles
+avenged his death.
+
+ANTIMACASS'AR, a covering for chairs, sofas, couches, &c., made of open
+cotton or worsted work, to preserve them from being soiled, as by the oil
+applied to the hair.
+
+ANTIMACHUS (an-tim'a-kus), a Greek poet who lived about 400 B.C., and wrote
+an epic called the _Thebais_ on the mythical history of Thebes, and a long
+elegy called _Lyd[=e]_, inspired by a mistress or wife of that name. Both
+works were full of mythological details. Only fragments of his writings
+remain, and from these it can be gathered that his style was rather
+laboured and artificial. Yet the Alexandrian grammarians ranked him next to
+Homer.
+
+AN'TIMONY (chemical symbol, Sb, from Lat. _stibium_; sp. gr. 6.7, atomic
+wt. 120.2), a brittle metal of a bluish-white or silver-white colour and a
+crystalline or laminated structure. It melts at 630.6deg C., and burns with
+a bluish-white flame. The mineral called stibnite or antimony-glance, is a
+tri-sulphide (Sb_2S_3), and is the chief ore from which the metal is
+obtained. It is found in many places, including France, Spain, Hungary,
+Italy, Canada, Australia, and Borneo. The metal, or, as it was formerly
+called, the _regulus of antimony_, does not rust or tarnish when exposed to
+the air. When alloyed with other metals it hardens them, and is therefore
+used in the manufacture of alloys, such as Britannia-metal, type-metal, and
+pewter. In bells it renders the sound more clear; it renders tin more white
+and sonorous as well as harder, and gives to printing types more firmness
+and smoothness. The salts of antimony are very poisonous. The protoxide is
+the active base of tartar emetic and James's powder, and is justly regarded
+as a most valuable remedy in many diseases.--_Yellow antimony_ is a
+preparation of antimony of a deep yellow colour, used in enamel and
+porcelain painting. It is of various tints, and the brilliancy of the
+brighter hues is not affected by foul air.
+
+ANTINO'MIANISM ('opposition to the law'), the name given by Luther to the
+inference drawn by John Agricola (1492-1566), from the doctrine of
+justification by faith, that the moral law is not binding on Christians as
+a rule of life. The term antinomian has since been applied to all doctrines
+and practices which seem to contemn or discountenance strict moral
+obligations. The Lutherans and Calvinists have both been charged with
+antinomianism, the former on account of their doctrine of justification by
+faith, the latter both on this ground and that of the doctrine of
+predestination. The charge is, of course, vigorously repelled by both.
+
+ANTIN'OMY, the opposition of one law or rule to another law or rule; in the
+Kantian philosophy, that natural contradiction which results from the law
+of reason, when, passing the limits of experience, we seek to conceive the
+complex of external phenomena, or nature, as a world or cosmos.
+
+ANTINOUS (an-tin'o-us), a young Bithynian whom the extravagant love of
+Hadrian has immortalized. He drowned himself in the Nile in A.D. 122.
+Hadrian set no bounds to his grief for his loss. He gave his name to a
+newly-discovered star, erected temples in his honour, called a city after
+him, and caused him to be adored as a god throughout the empire. Statues,
+busts, &c., of him are numerous.
+
+ANTIOCH (an'ti-ok), a town in Syria, famous in ancient times as the capital
+of the Greek Kings of Syria, on the left bank of the Orontes, about 21
+miles from the sea, in a beautiful and fertile plain. It was founded by
+Seleucus Nicator in 300 B.C., and named after his father Antiochus. In
+Roman times it was the seat of the Syrian governors, and the centre of a
+widely-extended commerce. It was called the 'Queen of the East' and 'The
+Beautiful'. Antioch is frequently mentioned in the New Testament, and it
+was here that the disciples of our Saviour were first called Christians
+(_Acts_, xi, 26). In the first half of the seventh century it was taken by
+the Saracens, and in 1098 by the Crusaders. They established the
+principality of Antioch, of which the first ruler was Bohemond, and which
+lasted till 1268, when it was taken by the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. In
+1516 it passed into the hands of the Turks. The modern Antioch, or
+_Antakieh_, has recently grown from a small place to a flourishing town.
+Pop. estimated at 30,000.--There was another Antioch, in Pisidia, at which
+St. Paul preached on his first missionary journey.
+
+[Illustration: Medal of Antiochus Epiphanes]
+
+ANTIOCHUS (an-t[=i]'o-kus), a name of several Graeco-Syrian kings of the
+dynasty of the Seleuc[)i]dae.--ANTIOCHUS I, called _S[=o]t[=e]r_
+('saviour'), was the son of Seleucus, general of Alexander the Great, and
+founder of the dynasty. He was born about 324 B.C., and succeeded his
+father in 280 B.C. During the greater part of his reign he was engaged in a
+protracted struggle with the Gauls who had crossed from Europe, and by whom
+he was killed in battle, 261 B.C.--ANTIOCHUS II, surnamed _Theos_ (god),
+succeeded his father, lost several provinces by revolt, and was murdered in
+246 B.C. by Laodic[=e], his wife, whom he had put away to marry
+Beren[=i]c[=e], daughter of Ptolemy.--ANTIOCHUS III, surnamed the _Great_,
+grandson of the preceding, was born 242 B.C., succeeded in 223 B.C. The
+early part of his reign embraced a series of wars against revolted
+provinces and neighbouring kingdoms, his expeditions extending to India,
+over Asia Minor, and afterwards into Europe, where he took possession of
+the Thracian Chersonese. Here he encountered the Romans, who had conquered
+Philip V of Macedon, and were prepared to resist his further progress.
+Antiochus gained an important adviser in Hannibal, who had fled for refuge
+to his Court; but he lost the opportunity of an invasion of Italy while the
+Romans were engaged in war with the Gauls, of which the Carthaginian urged
+him to avail himself. The Romans defeated him by sea and land, and he was
+finally overthrown by Scipio at Mount Sip[)y]lus, in Asia Minor, 190 B.C.,
+and very severe terms were imposed upon him. He was killed while plundering
+a temple in Elymais to procure money to pay the Romans.--ANTIOCHUS IV,
+called _Epiph[)a]nes,_ youngest son of the above, is chiefly remarkable for
+his attempt to extirpate the Jewish religion, and to establish in its place
+the polytheism of the Greeks. This led to the insurrection of the
+Maccabees, by which the Jews ultimately recovered their independence. He
+died 164 B.C.
+
+ANTIOQUIA ([.a]n-t[=e]-[=o]-k[=e]'[.a]), a town of South America, in
+Colombia, on the River Cauca; founded in 1542. Pop. 8730. It gives name to
+a department of the republic; area, 22,752 sq. miles. Pop. 739,434.
+Capital, Medellin.
+
+ANTIP'AROS (ancient, OLI[)A]ROS), one of the Cyclades Islands in the
+Grecian Archipelago, containing a famous stalactitic grotto or cave. It
+lies south-west of Paros, from which it is separated by a narrow strait,
+and has an area of 10 sq. miles, and about 700 inhabitants.
+
+ANTIP'ATER, a general and friend of Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander
+the Great. On the death of Alexander, in 323 B.C., the regency of Macedonia
+was assigned to Antipater, who succeeded in establishing the Macedonian
+rule in Greece on a firm footing. He died 317 B.C., at an advanced age.
+
+ANTIP'ATHY, a special dislike exhibited by individuals to particular
+objects or persons, usually resulting from physical or nervous
+organization. An antipathy is often an unaccountable repugnance to what
+people in general regard with no particular dislike, as certain sounds,
+smells, articles of food, &c., and it may be manifested by fainting or
+extreme discomfort.
+
+ANTIPHLOGIS'TIC, a term applied to medicines or methods of treatment that
+are intended to counteract inflammation, such as bloodletting, purgatives,
+diaphoretics, &c.
+
+AN'TIPHON, a Greek orator, born near Athens; founder of political oratory
+in Greece. His orations are the oldest extant, and he is said to have been
+the first who wrote speeches for hire. He was put to death for taking part
+in the revolution of 411 B.C., which established the oligarchic government
+of the Four Hundred. Antiphon seems to have specialized in homicide cases;
+his most celebrated speech is _On the Murder of Herodas_. Cf. Sir R. C.
+Jebb, _Attic Orators_; J. F. Dobson, _The Greek Orators_.
+
+ANTIPHON, or ANTIPH'ONY ('alternate song'), in the Christian Church a verse
+first sung by a single voice, and then repeated by the whole choir; or any
+piece to be sung by alternate voices.
+
+ANTIPODES (an-tip'o-d[=e]z), the name given relatively to people or places
+on opposite sides of the earth, so situated that a line drawn from one to
+the other passes through the centre of the earth and forms a true diameter.
+The longitudes of two such places differ by 180deg. The difference in their
+time is about twelve hours, and their seasons are reversed.
+
+ANTIPODES ISLANDS, a group of small uninhabited islands in the South
+Pacific Ocean, about 460 miles S.E. by E. of New Zealand; so called from
+being nearly antipodal to Greenwich. Antipodes Island rises to 1300 feet,
+and is largely covered with coarse grass; huts have been fitted up to
+shelter castaways.
+
+AN'TIPOPE, the name applied to those who at different periods have produced
+a schism in the Roman Catholic Church by opposing the authority of the
+Pope, under the pretence that they were themselves Popes. The Roman Church
+cannot admit that there ever existed two Popes; but the fact is, that in
+several cases the competitors for the papal chair were equally Popes; that
+is to say, the claims of all were equally good. Each was frequently
+supported by whole nations, and the schism was nothing but the struggle of
+political interests. Twenty-nine antipopes are enumerated in Church
+history; the last of them is Felix V, 1439-49.
+
+ANTIPYRET'ICS, medicines given for the purpose of reducing fever by
+lowering the patient's temperature, whether by causing perspiration or
+otherwise. Quinine, antipyrin, phenacetin, are common antipyretics. An
+aperient or purgative often serves the same purpose.
+
+ANTIPY'RIN, a drug obtained from coal-tar products, valuable in reducing
+fever and in relieving pain, being much used in nervous headache and
+neuralgia.
+
+AN'TIQUARIES, those devoted to the study of ancient times through their
+relics, as old places of burial, remains of ancient habitations, early
+monuments, implements or weapons, statues, coins, medals, paintings,
+inscriptions, books, and manuscripts, with the view of arriving at a
+knowledge of the relations, modes of living, habits, and general condition
+of the people who created or employed them. Societies or associations of
+antiquaries have been formed in all countries of European civilization. In
+Britain the Society of Antiquaries of London was founded in 1572, revived
+in 1717. and incorporated in 1751. The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland
+was founded in 1780, incorporated in 1783, and has the management of a
+large national antiquarian museum in Edinburgh. One of the best-known
+antiquarian societies in Europe is the _Societe Royale des Antiquaires du
+Nord_ at Copenhagen.
+
+ANTIQUES (an-t[=e]ks'), a term specifically applied to the remains of
+ancient art, as statues, paintings, vases, cameos, and the like, and more
+especially to the works of Grecian and Roman antiquity.
+
+ANTIRRHINUM (an-ti-r[=i]'num) (from _anti_, instead of, and _rhis_, snout),
+a genus of annual or perennial plants of the nat. ord. Scrophulariaceae,
+commonly known as _snapdragon_, on account of the peculiarity of the
+blossoms, which, by pressing between the finger and thumb, may be made to
+open and shut like a mouth. They all produce showy flowers, and are much
+cultivated in gardens. Many varieties of some of them, such as the great or
+common snapdragon (_Antirrhinum majus_), have been produced by gardeners.
+The lesser snapdragon grows in sandy soil, and is found in cornfields in
+the south of England and Ireland.
+
+ANTISANA ([.a]n-t[=e]-s[:a]'n[.a]), a volcano in the Andes of Ecuador, 35
+miles S.E. by E. of Quito. Whymper, who ascended it in 1880, makes its
+height 19,260 feet.
+
+ANTIS'CIANS (Gr. _anti_, over against, _skia_, a shadow), those who live
+under the same meridian, at the same distance N. and S. of the equator, and
+whose shadows at noon consequently are thrown in contrary directions.
+
+ANTISCORBU'TICS, remedies against scurvy. Lemon-juice, ripe fruit, milk,
+salts of potash, green vegetables, potatoes, fresh meat, and raw or
+lightly-boiled eggs, are some of the principal foodstuffs containing
+antiscorbutic vitamines.
+
+ANTI-SEM'ITISM, hostility to the Jews (Semites), actively exhibited in
+severities and attacks of various kinds. The movement assumed vast
+proportions about 1880 and manifested itself in various countries,
+especially Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Roumania, and France. It may
+be attributed to different motives in different countries, but on the whole
+owed its origin not only to the fact of the Jews being a 'peculiar people'
+by race and religion, but also to the comparatively high position won by
+them in modern times in the financial and political worlds. The religious
+element is quite prominent in the popular attacks on the Jew, although
+modern anti-Semitism is essentially social and economic. In Western Russia
+there was a great outburst against the Jews in 1881, in which men, women,
+and children were slaughtered. The Government of the Tsar, by its
+anti-Jewish policy, may be said to have sanctioned this murderous outbreak,
+which was followed by harsh laws and actual persecutions, though afterwards
+there was a mitigation of the severity shown towards the Jews. Yet in 1903
+the world was startled by a terrible massacre of Jews at Kishinev, in
+Bessarabia, connived at by the authorities on the spot; and towards the end
+of 1905, in connection with the Russian revolutionary movement, there were
+dreadful massacres of Jews in Odessa, Kishinev, and other towns, the
+authorities being similarly involved. In Roumania, until 1919, the position
+of the Jews resembled what it was elsewhere in mediaeval times, and was
+less favourable than it was even under the Turks. In Germany the movement
+has been worked chiefly by politicians for their own ends, though the
+racial and religious question has also had some influence; and among the
+ignorant the belief that the Jews murder Christian children for ritual
+purposes has been revived, as also in Austria and in Hungary. In these
+countries the movement has been partly political, partly social and
+economic, partly religious. In France anti-Semitism has been employed
+chiefly as a weapon by monarchists and clericals as against republicanism,
+and by the Socialists as against capitalism, racial antipathy having also
+its influence on the movements. It reached its height in 1895 at the time
+of the Dreyfus affair. In Britain, too, anti-Semitism has of late made
+itself felt.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Leroy-Beaulieu, _Israel among the Nations_;
+Bernard Lazare, _L'anti-semitisme, son histoire et ses causes_.
+
+ANTISEP'TIC (Gr. _anti_, against, and _s[=e]pein_, to rot), an agent which
+destroys the germs of putrefaction or suppuration is called an antiseptic.
+Many substances act thus, e.g. chlorine, iodine, hypochlorous acid,
+sulphurous acid, camphor, creosote, iodoform, nascent oxygen ('Sanitas'),
+corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde ('Formalin'), potassium permanganate
+('Condy's Fluid'), carbolic acid (Lysol, Izal, Cyllin); lately aniline dyes
+have become prominent: of these flavine has proved the most useful addition
+to surgery of recent years. It was much used in the European War
+(1914-8).--_Antiseptics_ are also used for purifying surgical instruments,
+&c., and commercially as disinfectants. When introduced by Lister into
+surgical practice they led to revolutionary advances in surgery. The
+tendency of late years has been to abandon antiseptic for aseptic (sterile)
+mode of technique, but during the war (1914-8) there was a general return
+to antiseptic methods in surgery.
+
+ANTISPASMOD'IC, a medicine for the cure of spasms and convulsions; such
+belong largely to the class of ethers, as sulphuric ether, chloric ether,
+nitric ether, &c.
+
+ANTISTHENES (an-tis'the-n[=e]z), a Greek philosopher and the founder of the
+school of Cynics, born at Athens about 444 B.C. He was first a disciple of
+Gorgias and then of Socrates, at whose death he was present. His philosophy
+was a one-sided development of the Socratic teaching. He held virtue to
+consist in complete self-denial and in disregard of riches, honour, or
+pleasure of every kind. He himself lived as a beggar. He died in Athens at
+an advanced age.
+
+ANTIS'TROPHE. See _Strophe_.
+
+ANTI-SUBMARINE. See _Submarine_.
+
+ANTI-TAURUS, a mountain range of Anatolia, Asia Minor, extending from the
+Cicilian Taurus towards the north-east, and connecting the Taurus mountain
+system with Mount Ararat, Mount Elbruz, and the Caucasus. See _Taurus_.
+
+ANTITH'ESIS (opposition), a figure of speech consisting in a contrast or
+opposition of words or sentiments; as, 'When our vices _leave us_, we
+flatter ourselves we _leave them_'; 'The prodigal _robs his heir_, the
+miser _robs himself_'.
+
+ANTITOXIN, the name given to a class of bodies of unknown nature having the
+capacity of neutralizing the poisonous substances (toxins) by which certain
+bacteria produce disease. If such a toxin be introduced every few days in
+increasing doses, into, e.g., the horse, and if, after some months of this
+treatment, the animal be bled, its serum contains the antitoxin to the
+toxins used. The use of the antitoxin to the toxin of diphtheria is most
+efficacious in curing that disease, and the treatment has caused a great
+fall in the death-rate. It ought to be applied as soon as possible after
+signs appear in the throat. An antitoxic treatment is also applicable in
+cases of tetanus (lock-jaw), a disease liable to follow any wound
+contaminated with dirt, especially with manured soil. Less success has been
+achieved when the disease is fully established, but if the antitoxin be
+injected immediately after the wound has been incurred, then the subsequent
+development of the disease is prevented. This preventive treatment has been
+attended with marked effect in the case of wounds received in war, which it
+is almost impossible to keep free from contamination. Antitoxins were
+extensively used during the European War. (1914-8). In bacterial diseases
+other than those mentioned, sera have been produced by injecting into large
+animals dead and living bacteria, e.g. the organisms of epidemic
+cerebro-spinal meningitis (spotted fever), pneumonia, blood-poisoning, &c.,
+and these sera probably depend for their action on the presence of bodies
+similar to antitoxins. See _Bacteria_, _Diphtheria_.
+
+ANTI-TRADE WINDS, a name given to any of the upper tropical winds which
+move northward or southward in the same manner as the trade-winds which
+blow beneath them in the opposite direction. These great aerial currents
+descend to the surface after they have passed the limits of the
+trade-winds, and form the south-west or west-south-west winds of the north
+temperate, and the north-west or west-north-west winds of the south
+temperate zones.
+
+ANTITRINITA'RIANS, all who do not receive the doctrine of the divine
+Trinity, or the existence of three persons in the Godhead; especially
+applied to those who oppose such a doctrine on philosophical grounds, as
+contrasted with Unitarians, who reject the doctrine as not warranted by
+Scripture.
+
+AN'TITYPE, that which is correlative to a type; by theological writers the
+term is employed to denote the reality of which a _type_ is the prophetic
+symbol.
+
+AN'TIUM, in ancient Italy, one of the most ancient and powerful cities of
+Latium, the chief city of the Volsci, and often at war with the Romans, by
+whom it was finally taken in 338 B.C. It was 38 miles distant from Rome, a
+flourishing seaport, and became a favourite residence of the wealthy
+Romans. It was destroyed by the Saracens, but vestiges of it remain at
+Porto d'Anzo, near which many valuable works of art have been found.
+
+ANTIVARI ([.a]n-t[=e]'v[.a]-r[=e]), a seaport town on the eastern shore of
+the Adriatic, ceded to Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). Antivari
+was opened as a free port on 23rd Oct., 1909. It was occupied by the
+Austrians in 1916, and by the Italians in Nov., 1918. Pop. 2500.
+
+ANTLERS, the horns of the deer tribe, or the snags or branches of the
+horns.
+
+ANT-LION, the larva of a Neuropterous insect (_Myrmel[)e]on
+formic[=a]rius_), which in its perfect state greatly resembles a
+dragon-fly; curious on account of its ingenious method of catching the
+insects--chiefly ants--on which it feeds. It digs a funnel-shaped hole in
+the driest and finest sand it can find, and when the pit is deep enough,
+and the sides are quite smooth and sloping, it buries itself at the bottom
+with only its formidable mandibles projecting, and waits till some luckless
+insect stumbles over the edge, when it is immediately seized, its juices
+sucked, and the dead body jerked out. It inhabits Southern Europe.
+
+ANTOFAGAS'TA, a Chilian seaport on the Bay of Morena, and a territory of
+the same name taken from Bolivia in the war of 1879-82, and definitely
+ceded to Chile in 1885. The territory has an area of 46,408 sq. miles; pop.
+(1919), 235,506. The port is connected by railway with the silver and other
+mines lying inland, and exports silver, copper, cubic nitre, &c., partly
+from Bolivia. Pop. (1919), 69,175.
+
+ANTOINETTE ([.a][n.]-tw[.a]-net), Marie. See _Marie Antoinette_.
+
+ANTOKOLSKI, Mark, Russian sculptor of Jewish extraction, born at Vilna in
+1843. He studied at the Petrograd Academy of Fine Arts, and his earliest
+success was a wooden statue _The Jewish Tailor_ (1864). In 1868 he received
+a grant for travelling, and whilst in Italy he finished his famous statue,
+_Ivan the Terrible_. He was made an academician, and in 1878 was awarded
+the first prize for sculpture at the Paris International Exhibition. In
+1888 he settled permanently in Paris, where he died in 1902. His works
+include: _Peter the Great_ (1872), _Christ before the People_ (1874), _The
+Death of Socrates_ (1876), _Spinoza_ (1882), _Yermak_ and _The Sleeping
+Beauty_ (1900).
+
+ANTOMMARCHI (-m[:a]r'k[=e]), Carlo Francesco, Italian physician, born in
+Corsica in 1780, died in Cuba 1838. He was professor of anatomy at Florence
+when he offered himself as physician to Napoleon at St. Helena. Napoleon at
+first received him with reserve, but soon admitted him to his confidence,
+and testified his satisfaction with him by leaving him a legacy of 100,000
+francs. On his return to Europe he published _Les Derniers Moments de
+Napoleon_ (2 vols., 8vo, 1823).
+
+ANTONELL'I, Giacomo, cardinal, born 1806, died 1876. He was educated at the
+Grand Seminary of Rome, where he attracted the attention of Pope Gregory
+XVI, who appointed him to several important offices. On the accession of
+Pius IX in 1846 Antonelli was raised to the dignity of cardinal-deacon; two
+years later he became president and Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in
+1850 was appointed Secretary of State. During the sitting of the
+Oecumenical Council (1869-70) he was a prominent champion of the papal
+interest. He strongly opposed the assumption of the united Italian crown by
+Victor Emanuel.
+
+ANTONELL'O (of Messina), an Italian painter who died at Venice, probably in
+1493, and is said to have introduced oil-painting into Italy, having been
+instructed in it by Jan Van Eyck. Three works by him are in the National
+Gallery, London.
+
+ANTONI'NUS, ITINERARY OF. See _Itinerary_.
+
+ANTONI'NUS, Marcus Aurelius. See _Aurelius_.
+
+ANTONI'NUS, WALL OF, a barrier erected by the Romans across the isthmus
+between the Forth and the Clyde, in the reign of Antoninus Pius. Its
+western extremity was at or near Dunglass Castle, its eastern at Carriden,
+and the whole length of it exceeded 27 miles. It was constructed A.D. 140
+by Lollius Urbicus, the imperial legate, and consisted of a ditch 40 feet
+wide and 20 feet deep, and a rampart of stone and earth on the south side
+24 feet thick and 20 feet in height. It was strengthened at either end and
+along its course by a series of forts and watch-towers. It may still be
+traced at various points, and is commonly known as _Graham's Dyke_.
+
+[Illustration: Coin of Antoninus Pius]
+
+ANTONI'NUS PIUS, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, Roman emperor, was born at
+Lavinium, near Rome, A.D. 86, died A.D. 161. In 120 A.D. he became consul,
+and he was one of the four persons of consular rank among whom Hadrian
+divided the supreme administration of Italy. He then went as proconsul to
+Asia, and after his return to Rome became more and more the object of
+Hadrian's confidence. In A.D. 138 he was selected by that emperor as his
+successor, and the same year he ascended the throne. He speedily put down
+the persecutions of the Christians, and carried on but a few wars. In
+Britain he extended the Roman dominion, and, by raising a new wall (see
+preceding article), put a stop to the invasions of the Picts and Scots. The
+senate gave him the surname _Pius_, that is, dutiful or showing filial
+affection, because to keep alive the memory of Hadrian he had built a
+temple in his honour. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius, his adopted son.
+
+ANTO'NIUS, Marcus (Mark Antony), Roman triumvir, born 83 B.C., was
+connected with the family of Caesar by his mother. Debauchery and
+prodigality marked his youth. To escape his creditors he went to Greece in
+58, and from thence followed the consul Gabinius on a campaign in Syria as
+commander of the cavalry. He served in Gaul under Caesar in 52 and 51. In
+50 he returned to Rome to support the interests of Caesar against the
+aristocratical party headed by Pompey, and was appointed tribune. When war
+broke out between Caesar and Pompey, Antony led reinforcements to Caesar in
+Greece, and in the battle of Pharsalia he commanded the left wing. He
+afterwards returned to Rome with the appointment of Master of the Horse and
+Governor of Italy (47). In 44 B.C. he became Caesar's colleague in the
+consulship. Soon after Caesar was assassinated, Antony, by the reading of
+Caesar's will, and by the oration which he delivered over his body, excited
+the people to anger and revenge, and the murderers were obliged to flee.
+After several quarrels and reconciliations with Octavianus, Caesar's heir
+(see _Augustus_), Antony departed to Cisalpine Gaul, which province had
+been conferred upon him against the will of the Senate. But Cicero
+thundered against him in his famous _Philippics_; the Senate declared him a
+public enemy, and entrusted the conduct of the war against him to
+Octavianus and the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. After a campaign of varied
+fortunes Antony fled with his troops over the Alps. Here he was joined by
+Lepidus, who commanded in Gaul, and through whose mediation Antony and
+Octavianus were again reconciled. It was agreed that the Roman world should
+be divided among the three conspirators, who were called _triumviri_.
+Antony was to take Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; and Octavianus, Africa and Sicily.
+They decided upon the proscription of their mutual enemies, each giving up
+his friends to the others, the most celebrated of the victims being Cicero
+the orator. Antony and Octavianus departed in 42 for Macedonia, where the
+united forces of their enemies, Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army,
+which was, however, speedily defeated at Philippi. Antony next visited
+Athens, and thence proceeded to Asia. In Cilicia he ordered Cleopatra,
+Queen of Egypt, to apologize for her insolent behaviour to the _triumviri_.
+She appeared in person, and her charms fettered him for ever. He followed
+her to Alexandria, where he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of
+the world, till he was aroused by a report that hostilities had commenced
+in Italy between his own relatives and Octavianus. A short war, followed,
+which was decided in favour of Octavianus before the arrival of Antony in
+Italy. A reconciliation was effected, which was sealed by the marriage of
+Antony with Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. A new division of the Roman
+dominions was now made (in 40), by which Antony obtained the East,
+Octavianus the West. After his return to Asia Antony gave himself up
+entirely to Cleopatra, assuming the style of an Eastern despot, and so
+alienating many of his adherents and embittering public opinion against him
+at Rome. At length war was declared at Rome against the Queen of Egypt, and
+Antony was deprived of his consulship and government. Each party assembled
+its forces, and Antony lost, in the naval battle at Actium, 31 B.C., the
+dominion of the world. He followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, and on the
+arrival of Octavianus his fleet and cavalry deserted, and his infantry was
+defeated. Deceived by a false report of her death which Cleopatra had
+disseminated, he fell upon his own sword (30 B.C.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mommsen,
+_Roman History_; Plutarch, _Lives_ (translated by Langhorne); De Quincey,
+_Essay on the Caesars_.
+
+ANTONOMA'SIA, in rhetoric, the use of the name of some office, dignity,
+profession, science, or trade instead of the true name of the person, as
+when _his majesty_ is used for a king, _his lordship_ for a nobleman; or
+when, instead of Aristotle, we say, _the philosopher_; or, conversely, the
+use of a proper noun instead of a common noun; as, a _Solomon_ for a wise
+man.
+
+ANTONY, Mark. See _Antonius_ (_Marcus_).
+
+ANTONY, ST. See _Anthony_.
+
+AN'TRIM, a county of Ireland, province of Ulster, in the north-east of the
+island; area, 702,654 acres, of which about a third are arable. The eastern
+and northern districts are comparatively mountainous, with tracts of heath
+and bog, but no part rises to a great height. The principal rivers are the
+Lagan and the Bann, which separate Antrim from Down and Londonderry
+respectively. The general soil of the plains and valleys is strong loam.
+Flax, oats, and potatoes are the principal agricultural produce. Cattle,
+sheep, swine, and goats are extensively reared. There are salt-mines and
+beds of iron-ore, which is worked and exported. A range of basaltic strata
+stretches along the northern coast, of which the celebrated Giant's
+Causeway is the most remarkable portion, the vast aggregates of natural
+rock pillars there being very striking. The interior also contains some
+scenes of picturesque beauty, particularly the fertile valley of the Lagan,
+between Belfast and Lisburn. Much of the scenery of the county, however, is
+dreary and monotonous. Lough Neagh, the largest lake of the United Kingdom,
+is principally in Antrim. Its waters are carried to the sea by the Bann,
+which is of no use for navigation, being obstructed by weirs and rocks. The
+spinning of linen and cotton yarn, and the weaving of linen and cotton, are
+the staple manufactures, but the cotton manufacture is small compared with
+that of linen. The principal towns are Belfast, Lisburn, Ballymena, Larne,
+and Carrickfergus. In 1898 Belfast, the former capital, was constituted
+into a county borough. About fifty per cent of the inhabitants are
+Presbyterians, being the descendants of Scottish immigrants of the
+seventeenth century. The county sends four members to Parliament; Belfast
+returns nine. Pop. (excluding Belfast) 193,864 (1911).--The town of Antrim,
+at the north end of Lough Neagh, is a small place with a pop. of 1826.
+
+ANT-THRUSH, a name given to certain passerine or perching birds having
+resemblances to the thrushes and supposed to feed largely on ants. They all
+have longish legs, short wings, and a short tail. The true ant-thrushes of
+the Old World belong to the genus Pitta. They chiefly inhabit southern and
+south-eastern Asia and the Eastern Archipelago, but are also found in
+Africa and Australia, and are birds of brilliant plumage, exhibiting black,
+white, scarlet, blue, and green in vivid contrast, there being generally no
+blending of colours by means of intermediate hues. These birds are not now
+regarded as allied to the thrushes, nor are they allied to the ant-birds,
+or ant-thrushes of the New World, which live among close foliage and
+bushes. Some of these are called ant-shrikes and ant-wrens. They belong to
+several genera.
+
+ANT'WERP (Du. and Ger. _Antwerpen_, Fr. _Anvers_), the chief port of
+Belgium, and one of the first on the Continent, the capital of a province
+of the same name, on the Scheldt, about 50 miles from the open sea. It lies
+in a fertile plain at an abrupt turn of the river, which is here from 160
+to 280 yards wide, and has a depth varying from 25 to 50 feet. It is
+strongly fortified, being completely surrounded on the land side by a
+semicircular inner line of fortifications, the defences being completed by
+an outer line of forts and outworks. Fine quays have been constructed along
+the river banks. The general appearance of the city is exceedingly
+picturesque, an effect produced by the numerous churches, convents, and
+magnificent public buildings, the stately antique houses that line its
+older thoroughfares, and the profusion of beautiful trees with which it is
+adorned. The older streets are tortuous and irregular, but those in the
+newer quarters are wide and regular. Some of the squares are very handsome.
+The cathedral, with a spire 400 feet high, one of the largest and most
+beautiful specimens of Gothic architecture in Belgium, contains Rubens'
+celebrated masterpieces, _The Descent from the Cross_, _The Elevation of
+the Cross_, and _The Assumption_. The other churches of note are St.
+James's, St. Andrew's, and St. Paul's, all enriched with paintings by
+Rubens, Vandyck, and other masters. Among the other buildings of note are
+the exchange, the town hall, the palace, the theatre, academy of the fine
+arts, picture and sculpture galleries, &c. The harbour accommodation is
+extensive and excellent, large new docks and quays having been recently
+built, and other works being under construction or contemplated. The
+shipping trade is now very large, Antwerp being a great centre of the
+world's commerce, and the goods being largely in transit. The entries of
+vessels in a year aggregate over 13,000,000 tons. Much of the trade is with
+Britain. There are numerous but not very important industries. Antwerp is
+mentioned as early as the eighth century, and in the eleventh and twelfth
+it had attained a high degree of prosperity. In the sixteenth century it is
+said to have had a pop. of 200,000, and it had then an extensive foreign
+trade. The wars between the Netherlands and Spain greatly injured its
+commerce, which was almost ruined by the closing of the navigation of the
+Scheldt in accordance with the peace of Westphalia (1648). It was only in
+the nineteenth century that its prosperity revived. In the European War
+(1914-8), the Germans, under General von Beseler, entered Antwerp on 7th
+Oct., 1914, and remained there until Nov., 1918. Pop. (1919), 322,857.--The
+province consists of a fertile plain 1093 sq. miles in area, and has a pop.
+of over 1,000,000.
+
+[Illustration: Anubis]
+
+ANU'BIS (_Anepo_ on the monuments), one of the deities of the ancient
+Egyptians, the son of Osiris by Isis. The Egyptian sculptures represent him
+with the head, or under the form, of a jackal, with long pointed ears. His
+office was to conduct the souls of the dead from this world to the next,
+and in the lower world he weighed the actions of the deceased previous to
+their admission to the presence of Osiris.
+
+ANUPSHAHR (_a_-noep'shaer), a town of Hindustan, United Provinces, on the
+Ganges, 75 miles S.E. of Delhi, a resort of Hindu pilgrims who bathe in the
+Ganges. Pop. 15,000.
+
+ANU'RA, or ANOU'RA (Gr. _an_, negative, _oura_, a tail), an ord. of
+Batrachians which lose the tail when they reach maturity, such as the frogs
+and toads.
+
+ANURADHAPURA. See _Anarajapura_.
+
+A'NUS, the opening at the lower or posterior extremity of the alimentary
+canal through which the excrement or waste products of digestion are
+expelled.
+
+AN'VIL, an instrument on which pieces of metal are laid for the purpose of
+being hammered. The common smith's anvil is generally made of seven pieces,
+namely, the core or body; the four corners for the purpose of enlarging its
+base; the projecting end, which contains a square hole for the reception of
+a set or chisel to cut off pieces of iron; and the beak or conical end,
+used for turning pieces of iron into a circular form, &c. These pieces are
+each separately welded to the core and hammered so as to form a regular
+surface with the whole. When the anvil has received its due form, it is
+faced with steel, and is then tempered in cold water. The smith's anvil is
+generally placed loose upon a wooden block. The anvil for heavy operations,
+such as the forging of ordnance and shafting, consists of a huge iron block
+deeply embedded, and resting on piles of masonry.
+
+ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' (jae[n.] b[.a]p-t[=e]st
+b[=o]r-g[=e]-nyoe[n.] dae[n.]-v[=e]l), a celebrated French geographer, born
+1697, died 1782; published a great number of maps and writings illustrative
+of ancient and modern geography.
+
+ANYNAKS, a negro tribe inhabiting the banks of the Upper Sobat (a tributary
+of the White Nile), between the Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia. They rebelled
+against British authority in 1912.
+
+ANZACS, a composite word used as the name of the British colonial troops in
+the Gallipoli undertaking. The men being from Australia and New Zealand,
+their organization was officially known as the Australian-New Zealand Army
+Corps. The full title, however, was much too cumbersome, and a clerk in one
+of the head-quarters offices at Zeitoun, where the troops were in training,
+hit upon the word _Anzacs_, formed from the initial letters of the long
+title. The Anzacs landed near Gaba Tepe, Gallipoli, on the morning of 25th
+April, 1915, and had their first encounter with the Germans on the Western
+Front on 6th May, 1916. In 1916 the word Anzac was officially adopted by
+the War Office.
+
+ANZIN ([.a][n.]-za[n.]), a town of France, department of Nord, about 1 mile
+north-west of Valenciennes, in the centre of an extensive coal-field, with
+blast-furnaces, forges, rolling-mills, foundries, &c. Pop. 14,325.
+
+AONIA, in ancient geography a name for part of Boeotia in Greece,
+containing Mount Helicon and the fountain Aganippe, both haunts of the
+muses.
+
+A'ORIST, the name given to one of the tenses of the verb in some languages
+(as the Greek), which expresses indefinite past time.
+
+AOR'TA, in anatomy, the great artery or trunk of the arterial system,
+proceeding from the left ventricle of the heart, and giving origin to all
+the arteries except the pulmonary. It first rises towards the top of the
+breast-bone, when it is called the _ascending aorta_; then makes a great
+curve, called the transverse or _great arch of the aorta_, whence it
+branches off to the head and upper extremities; thence proceeding towards
+the lower extremities, under the name of the _descending aorta_, it
+branches off to the trunk; and finally divides into the two iliacs, which
+supply the pelvis and lower extremities.
+
+AOSTA ([.a]-os't[.a]; ancient AUGUSTA PRAETORIA), a town of north Italy, 50
+miles N.N.W. of Turin, on the Dora-Baltea, with an ancient triumphal arch,
+remains of an amphitheatre, &c. Pop. 7000.
+
+AOUDAD (a-oe'dad), the _Ammotr[)a]gus tragel[)a]phus_, a quadruped allied
+to the sheep, most closely to the mouflon, from which, however, it may be
+easily distinguished by the heavy mane, commencing at the throat and
+falling as far as the knees. It is a native of North Africa, inhabiting the
+loftiest and most inaccessible rocks.
+
+APACHES ([.a]-pae'chez), a warlike race of North-American Indians,
+numbering between 5000 and 6000, and inhabiting Arizona, New Mexico, and
+Oklahoma. The final surrender of the tribe took place in 1886, but a few in
+Mexico still maintain their independence and hostility to the whites. The
+name _Apache_ was assumed by Parisian hooligans, notorious for their
+criminal outrages.
+
+AP'ANAGE, an allowance which the younger princes of a reigning house in
+some European countries receive from the revenues of the country, generally
+together with a grant of public domains, that they may be enabled to live
+in a manner becoming their rank.
+
+AP'ATITE, a translucent but seldom transparent mineral, which crystallizes
+in a regular six-sided prism, usually terminated by a truncated six-sided
+pyramid. It passes through various shades of colour, from white to yellow,
+green, blue, and occasionally red, scratches fluor-spar but is scratched by
+felspar, and has a specific gravity of about 3.5. It is a compound of
+calcium phosphate with calcium fluoride or chloride. It occurs principally
+in igneous rocks, particularly diorites. The very coarse-grained granites
+of Ontario contain apatite crystals of corresponding size, which have been
+picked out as a source of artificial phosphate manures. Apatite supplies to
+soils almost all the phosphorus available for plants in a state of nature.
+
+APE, a common name of a number of quadrumanous animals inhabiting the Old
+World (Asia and the Asiatic Islands, and Africa), and including a variety
+of species. The word _ape_ was formerly applied indiscriminately to all
+quadrumanous mammals; but it is now limited to the anthropoid or man-like
+monkeys. The family includes the chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-outang, &c.,
+and has been divided into three genera, Troglod[)y]tes, Simia, and
+Hylob[)a]tes. See _Chimpanzee_, _Gibbon_, _Gorilla_, _Monkey_, _Orang_, &c.
+
+APELDOORN (ae'pel-d[=o]rn), a town of Holland, province of Guelderland, 17
+miles north of Arnhem, with manufactures of paper. The royal palace Loo is
+here. Pop. 44,474.
+
+APELLES (a-pel'[=e]z), the most famous of the painters of ancient Greece
+and of antiquity, was born in the fourth century B.C., probably at
+Colophon. Ephorus of Ephesus was his first teacher, but attracted by the
+renown of the Sicyonian school he went and studied at Sicyon. In the time
+of Philip he went to Macedonia, and there a close friendship between him
+and Alexander the Great was established. The most admired of his pictures
+was that of Venus rising from the sea and wringing the water from her
+dripping locks. His portrait of Alexander with a thunderbolt in his hand
+was no less celebrated. He died about the end of the century. Among the
+anecdotes told of Apelles is the one which gave rise to the Latin proverb,
+'Ne sutor ultra crepidam'--'Let not the shoemaker go beyond the shoe'.
+Having heard a cobbler point out an error in the drawing of a shoe in one
+of his pictures he corrected it, whereupon the cobbler took upon him to
+criticize the leg, and received from the artist the famous reply.
+
+AP'ENNINES (Lat. _Mons Apenninus_), a prolongation of the Alps, forming the
+'backbone of Italy'. Beginning at Savona, on the Gulf of Genoa, the
+Apennines traverse the whole of the peninsula and also cross over into
+Sicily, the Strait of Messina being regarded merely as a gap in the chain.
+The average height of the mountains composing the range is about 4000 feet,
+and nowhere do they reach the limits of perpetual snow, though some summits
+exceed 9000 feet in height. Monte Corno, called also Gran Sasso d'Italia
+(Great Rock of Italy), which rises among the mountains of the Abruzzi, is
+the loftiest of the chain, rising to the height of 9541 feet, Monte Majella
+(9151) being next. Monte Gargano, which juts out into the Adriatic from the
+_ankle_ of Italy, is a mountainous mass upwards of 5000 feet high,
+completely separated from the main chain. On the Adriatic side the
+mountains descend more abruptly to the sea than on the western or
+Mediterranean side, and the streams are comparatively short and rapid. On
+the western side are the valleys of the Arno, Tiber, Garigliano, and
+Volturno, the largest rivers that rise in the Apennines, and the only ones
+of importance in the peninsular portion of Italy. They consist almost
+entirely of limestone rocks, and are exceedingly rich in the finest
+marbles. On the south slopes volcanic masses are not uncommon. Mount
+Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the continent of Europe, is an
+instance. The lower slopes are well clothed with vegetation, the summits
+are sterile and bare.
+
+APENRADE (ae'pen-rae-de), a seaport in Schleswig-Holstein, on a fiord of
+the Little Belt, beautifully situated, and carrying on a considerable
+fishing industry. Pop. 7800.
+
+APE'RIENT, a medicine which, in moderate doses, gently but completely opens
+the bowels: examples, castor-oil, Epsom salts, senna, &c.
+
+APET'ALOUS, a botanical term applied to flowers or flowering-plants which
+are destitute of petals or corolla.
+
+APHANIP'TERA, an order of wingless insects, composed of the different
+species of fleas. See _Flea_.
+
+APHA'SIA (Gr. _a_, not, and _phasis_, speaking), in pathology, a symptom of
+certain morbid conditions of the nervous system, in which the patient loses
+the power of expressing ideas by means of words, or loses the appropriate
+use of words, the vocal organs the while remaining intact and the
+intelligence sound. There is sometimes an entire loss of words as connected
+with ideas, and sometimes only the loss of a few. In one form of the
+disease, called _aphemia_, the patient can think and write, but cannot
+speak; in another, called _agraphia_, he can think and speak, but cannot
+express his ideas in writing. In a great majority of cases, where
+post-mortem examinations have been made, morbid changes have been found in
+the left frontal convolution of the brain.
+
+APHE'LION (Gr. _apo_, from, and _h[=e]lios_, the sun), that point of the
+orbit of the earth or any other planet which is remotest from the sun.
+
+APHE'MIA. See _Aphasia_.
+
+APHIDES (af'i-d[=e]z). See _Aphis_.
+
+[Illustration: Aphides
+
+Cabbage-leaf Plant-louse (_Aphis brassicae_)--1, 2. Male, natural size and
+magnified. 3, 4, Female, natural size and magnified.]
+
+APHIS, a genus of insects (called plant-lice) of the ord. Hemiptera, the
+type of the family Aph[)i]d[=e]s. The species are very numerous and
+destructive. The _A. rosae_ lives on the rose; the _A. fabae_ on the bean;
+the _A. hum[)u]li_ is injurious to the hop, the _A. granaria_ to cereals,
+and _A. lanig[)e]ra_ or woolly aphis equally so to apple trees. The aphides
+are furnished with an inflected beak, and feelers longer than the thorax.
+In the same species some individuals have four erect wings and others are
+entirely without wings. The feet are of the ambulatory kind, and the
+abdomen usually ends in two horn-like tubes, from which is ejected the
+substance called honey-dew, a favourite food of ants. (See _Ant_.) The
+aphides illustrate parthenogenesis; hermaphrodite forms produced from eggs
+produce viviparous wingless forms, which again produce others like
+themselves, and thus multiply during summer, one individual giving rise to
+millions. Winged sexual forms appear late in autumn, the females of which,
+being impregnated by the males, produce eggs.
+
+APHO'NIA (Gr. _a_, not, and _ph[=o]n[=e]_, voice), in pathology, the
+greater or less impairment, or the complete loss of the power of emitting
+vocal sound. The slighter and less permanent forms often arise from extreme
+nervousness, fright, and hysteria. Slight forms of structural aphonia are
+of a catarrhal nature, resulting from more or less congestion and
+tumefaction of the mucous and submucous tissues of the larynx and adjoining
+parts. Severer cases are frequently occasioned by serous infiltration into
+the submucous tissue, with or without inflammation of the mucous membrane
+of the larynx and of its vicinity. The voice may also be affected in
+different degrees by inflammatory affections of the fauces and tonsils; by
+tumours in these situations; by morbid growths pressing on or implicating
+the larynx or trachea; by aneurisms; and most frequently by chronic
+laryngitis and its consequences, especially thickening, ulceration, &c.
+
+APH'ORISM, a brief, sententious saying, in which a comprehensive meaning is
+involved, as 'Familiarity breeds contempt'; 'Necessity has no law'.
+
+APHRODITE (af-ro-di't[=e]), the goddess of love among the Greeks;
+counterpart of the Roman Venus. A festival called Aphrodisia was celebrated
+in her honour in various parts of Greece, but especially in Cyprus. See
+_Venus_.
+
+APHTHAE (af'th[=e]), a disease occurring especially in infants, but
+occasionally seen in old persons, and consisting of small white ulcers upon
+the tongue, gums, inside of the lips, and palate, resembling particles of
+curdled milk: commonly called _thrush_ or _milk-thrush_.
+
+A'PIA, the chief place and trading centre of the Samoa Islands, on the
+north side of the Island of Upolu. It has a wireless station.
+
+A'PIARY (Lat. _apis_, a bee), a place for keeping bees. The apiary should
+be well sheltered from strong winds, moisture, and the extremes of heat and
+cold. The hives should face the south or south-east, and should be placed
+on shelves 2 feet above the ground, and about the same distance from each
+other. There is no place for handling bees like the open air in suitable
+weather, and for this reason bee-houses, or bee-sheds, formerly in use, are
+not much in vogue now. As to the form of the hives and the materials of
+which they should be constructed there are great differences of opinion.
+The old dome-shaped straw _skep_ is still in general use among the
+cottagers of Great Britain. Its cheapness and simplicity of construction
+are in its favour, while it is excellent for warmth and ventilation; but it
+has the disadvantage that its interior is closed to inspection, and the
+honey can only be got out by stupefying the bees with the smoke of the
+common puff-ball or chloroform, or by fumigating with sulphur, which
+entails the destruction of the swarm. Wooden hives of square box-like form
+are now gaining general favour among bee-keepers. They usually consist of a
+large breeding chamber below and two sliding removable boxes called
+'supers' above for the abstraction of honey without disturbing the contents
+of the main chamber. It is of great importance that the apiary should be
+situated in the neighbourhood of good feeding grounds, such as gardens,
+clover-fields, or heath-covered hills. When their stores of honey are
+removed, the bees must be fed during the winter and part of spring with
+syrup or with a solution consisting of 2 lb. loaf-sugar to a pint of water.
+In the early spring slow and continuous feeding (a few ounces of syrup each
+day) will stimulate the queen to deposit her eggs, by which means the
+colony is rapidly strengthened and throws off early swarms. New swarms may
+make their appearance as early as May and as late as August, but swarming
+usually takes place in the intervening months. See _Bee-keeping_, _Hives_.
+
+APIC'IUS, Marcus Gabius, a Roman epicure in the time of Augustus and
+Tiberius, who, having exhausted his vast fortune on the gratification of
+his palate, and having _only_ about L80,000 left, poisoned himself that he
+might escape the misery of plain diet. The book of cookery published under
+the title of _Apicius_ was written by one Caelius, and belongs to a much
+later date.
+
+A'PION, a Greek grammarian, born in Egypt, lived in the reigns of Tiberius,
+Caligula, and Claudius, A.D. 15-54, and went to Rome to teach grammar and
+rhetoric. Among his works, one or two fragments only of which remain, was
+one directed against the Jews, which was replied to by Josephus.
+
+A'PIOS, a genus of leguminous climbing plants, producing edible tubers on
+underground shoots. An American species (_A. tuber[=o]sa_) has been used as
+a substitute for the potato, but its tubers, though numerous, are small.
+
+[Illustration: Apis]
+
+A'PIS, a bull to which divine honours were paid by the ancient Egyptians,
+who regarded him as a symbol of Osiris. At Memphis he had a splendid
+residence, containing extensive walks and courts for his entertainment, and
+he was waited upon by a large train of priests, who looked upon his every
+movement as oracular. He was not suffered to live beyond twenty-five years,
+being secretly killed by the priests and thrown into a sacred well. Another
+bull, characterized by certain marks, as a black colour, a triangle of
+white on the forehead, a white crescent-shaped spot on the right side, &c.,
+was selected in his place. His birthday was annually celebrated, and his
+death was a season of public mourning. See _Animal Worship_.
+
+A'PIS, a genus of insects. See _Bee_.
+
+A'PIUM, a genus of umbelliferous plants, including celery.
+
+APLACEN'TAL. See _Placenta_, _Marsupialia_, and _Echidna_.
+
+APLANAT'IC. See _Optics_, _Photography_.
+
+APLYSIA. See _Sea-hare_.
+
+APOC'ALYPSE (Gr. _apokalypsis_, a revelation), the name given to the last
+book of the New Testament, in the English version called _The Revelation of
+St. John the Divine_. Although a Christian work, the _Apocalypse_ belongs
+to a class of literature dealing with eschatological subjects and much in
+vogue among the Jews of the first century B.C. It is generally believed
+that the _Apocalypse_ was written by the apostle John in his old age (A.D.
+95-97) in the Isle of Patmos, whither he had been banished by the Roman
+Emperor Domitian. Anciently its genuineness was maintained by Justin
+Martyr, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and many others; while
+it was doubted by Dionysius of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom,
+and, nearer our own times, by Luther. The _Apocalypse_ has been explained
+differently by almost every writer who has ventured to interpret it, and
+has furnished all sorts of sects and fanatics with quotations to support
+their creeds or pretensions. The modern interpreters may be divided into
+three schools--namely, the _historical school_, who hold that the prophecy
+embraces the whole history of the Church and its foes from the time of its
+writing to the end of the world; the _Praeterists_, who hold that the whole
+or nearly the whole of the prophecy has been already fulfilled, and that it
+refers chiefly to the triumph of Christianity over Paganism and Judaism;
+and the _Futurists_, who throw the whole prophecy, except the first three
+chapters, forward upon a time not yet reached by the Church--a period of no
+very long duration, which is immediately to precede Christ's second coming.
+See _Bible_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. H. Charles, _Studies in the Apocalypse_;
+F. C. Burkitt, _Jewish and Christian Apocalypses_.
+
+APOCALYPTIC NUMBER, the mystic number 666 found in _Rev._ xiii, 18. As
+early as the second century ecclesiastical writers found that the name
+Antichrist was indicated by the Greek characters expressive of this number.
+By Irenaeus the word _Lateinos_ was found in the letters of the number, and
+the Roman Empire was therefore considered to be Antichrist. Protestants
+generally believe it has reference to the Papacy, and, on the other hand,
+Catholics connect it with Protestantism. It is, however, almost certain
+that the number refers to Nero, for by transliterating the Greek _Kaisar
+Neron_ into Hebrew, and adding together the sums denoted by the Hebrew
+letters, we obtain the number 666.
+
+APOCAR'POUS, in botany, a term applied to such fruits as are the produce of
+a single flower, and are formed of one carpel, or a number of carpels free
+and separate from each other.
+
+APOC'RYPHA (Gr., 'things concealed or spurious'), a term applied in the
+earliest churches to various sacred or professedly inspired writings,
+sometimes given to those whose authors were unknown, sometimes to those
+with a hidden meaning, and sometimes to those considered objectionable. The
+term is specially applied to the fourteen undermentioned books, which were
+written during the two centuries preceding the birth of Christ. They were
+written, not in Hebrew, but in Greek, and the Jews never allowed them a
+place in their sacred canon. They were incorporated into the Septuagint,
+and thence passed to the Vulgate. The Greek Church excluded them from the
+canon in 360 at the Council of Laodicea. The Latin Church treated them with
+more favour, but it was not until 1546 that they were formally admitted
+into the canon of the Church of Rome by a decree of the Council of Trent.
+The Anglican Church says they may be read for example of life and
+instruction of manners, but that the Church does not apply them to
+establish any doctrine. All other Protestant churches in Britain and
+America ignore them. The following fourteen books form the Apocrypha of the
+English Bible: The first and second _Books of Esdras_, _Tobit_, _Judith_,
+the rest of the _Book of Esther_, the _Wisdom of Solomon_, the _Wisdom of
+Jesus the son of Sirach_, or _Ecclesiasticus_, _Baruch the Prophet_, the
+_Song of the Three Children_, _Susanna and the Elders_, _Bel and the
+Dragon_, the _Prayer of Manasses_, and the first and second _Books of
+Maccabees_. Besides the Apocryphal books of the Old Testament there are
+many spurious books composed in the earlier ages of Christianity, and
+published under the names of Christ and his apostles, or of such immediate
+followers as from their character or means of intimate knowledge might give
+an apparent plausibility to such forgeries. These writings comprise: 1st,
+the _Apocryphal Gospels_, which treat of the history of Joseph and the
+Virgin before the birth of Christ, of the infancy of Jesus, and of the acts
+of Pilate; 2nd, the _Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles_; and 3rd, the
+_Apocryphal Apocalypses_, none of which have obtained canonical recognition
+by any of the churches.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wace, _The Apocrypha_; Porter, in
+Hastings' _Bible Dict._, i, pp. 111-23; W. D. F. Oesterley, _Book of the
+Apocrypha_; R. H. Charles, _Religious Development between the Old and the
+New Testaments_.
+
+APOCYNA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of dicotyledonous plants, having for its type the
+genus Apoc[)y]num or dog-bane. The species have opposite or sometimes
+whorled leaves without stipules; the corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, and
+with the stamens inserted upon it; fruit two-celled. The plants yield a
+milky juice, which is generally poisonous; several yield caoutchouc, and a
+few edible fruits. The bark of several species is a powerful febrifuge. To
+the order belongs the periwinkle (Vinca). See _Cow-tree_, _Periwinkle_,
+_Oleander_, _Tanghin_.
+
+AP'ODA. See _Proteolepadidae_.
+
+AP'ODAL FISHES, the name applied to such malacopterous fishes as want
+ventral fins. They constitute a small natural family, of which the common
+eel is an example.
+
+APO'DOESIS, in grammar, the latter member of a conditional sentence (or one
+beginning with _if_, _though_, &c.) dependent on the condition or
+_prot[)a]sis_; as, if it rain (_protasis_) I shall not go (_apodosis_).
+
+AP'OGEE (-j[=e]; Gr. _apo_, from, and _g[=e]_, the earth), that point in
+the orbit of the moon or a planet where it is at its greatest distance from
+the earth; also the greatest distance of the sun from the earth when the
+latter is in _aphelion_.
+
+APOL'DA, a town of Germany, in Saxe-Weimar, at which woollen goods are
+extensively manufactured. Pop. 22,610.
+
+APOLLINA'RIANS, a sect of Christians who maintained the doctrine that
+Christ had a human body and a human sensitive soul, but no human rational
+mind, the Divine Logos (the Word) taking the place of the mind, and that
+God was consequently united in him with the human body and the sensitive
+soul. Apollinaris, the author of this opinion, was, from A.D. 362 till at
+least A.D. 382, Bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, and a zealous opposer of the
+Arians. As a man and a scholar he was highly esteemed, and was among the
+most popular authors of his time. He formed a congregation of his adherents
+at Antioch, and made Vitalis their bishop. The _Apollinarians_, or
+_Vitalians_, as their followers were called, soon spread their settlements
+in Syria and the neighbouring countries, established several societies,
+with their own bishops, and one even in Constantinople; but many adherents
+drifted away to Monophysitism, and the sect soon became extinct.
+
+APOLLINA'RIS WATER, a natural aerated water, belonging to the class of
+acidulated soda waters, and derived from the Apollinarisbrunnen, a spring
+in the valley of the Ahr, near the Rhine, in Rhenish Prussia, forming a
+highly-esteemed beverage.
+
+[Illustration: Apollo Belvedere (Vatican, Rome)]
+
+APOL'LO, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (Latona), who, being persecuted by
+the jealousy of Hera (Juno), after tedious wanderings and nine days'
+labour, was delivered of him and his twin sister, Art[)e]mis (Diana), on
+the Island of Delos. Skilled in the use of the bow, he slew the serpent
+Python on the fifth day after his birth; afterwards, with his sister
+Art[)e]mis, he killed the children of Niob[=e]. He aided Zeus in the war
+with the Titans and the giants. He destroyed the Cyclopes, because they
+forged the thunderbolts with which Zeus killed his son and favourite
+Asklepios (Aesculapius). According to some traditions he invented the lyre,
+though this is generally ascribed to Hermes (Mercury). The brightest
+creation of polytheism, Apollo is also the most complex, and many aspects
+of the people's life were reflected in his cult. He was originally the
+sun-god; and though in Homer he appears distinct from Helios (the sun), yet
+his real nature is hinted at even here by the epithet Phoebus, that is, the
+radiant or beaming. In later times the view was almost universal that
+Apollo and Helios were identical. From being the god of light and purity in
+a physical sense, he gradually became the god of moral and spiritual light
+and purity, the source of all intellectual, social, and political progress.
+He thus came to be regarded as the god of song and prophecy, the god that
+wards off and heals bodily suffering and disease, the institutor and
+guardian of civil and political order, and the founder of cities. His
+worship was introduced at Rome at an early period, probably in the time of
+the Tarquins. Among the ancient statues of Apollo that have come down to
+us, the most remarkable is the one called _Apollo Belvedere_, from the
+Belvedere Gallery in the Vatican at Rome. This statue was discovered at
+Frascati in 1455, and purchased by Pope Julian II, the founder of the
+Vatican museum. It is a copy of a Greek statue of the third century B.C.,
+and dates probably from the reign of Nero.
+
+APOLLODO'RUS, a Greek writer who flourished 140 B.C. Among the numerous
+works he wrote on various subjects, the only one extant is his
+_Bibliothec[=e]_, which contains a concise account of the mythology of
+Greece down to the heroic age.
+
+APOLLO'NIUS OF PERGA, Greek mathematician, called the 'great geometer',
+flourished about 240 B.C., and was the author of many works, only one of
+which, a treatise on _Conic Sections_, partly in Greek and partly in an
+Arabic translation, is now extant.
+
+APOLLO'NIUS OF RHODES, a Greek rhetorician and poet, flourished about 230
+B.C. Of his various works we have only the _Argonautica_, an epic poem of
+considerable merit, though perhaps written with too much care and labour.
+It deals with the story of the Argonautic expedition.
+
+APOLLO'NIUS OF TY'ANA, in Cappadocia, a Pythagorean philosopher who was
+born in the beginning of the Christian era, early adopted the Pythagorean
+doctrines, abstaining from animal food and maintaining a rigid silence for
+five years. He travelled extensively in Asia, professed to be endowed with
+miraculous powers, such as prophecy and the raising of the dead, and was on
+this account set up by some as a rival to Christ. His ascetic life, wise
+discourses, and wonderful deeds obtained for him almost universal
+reverence, and temples, altars, and statues were erected to him. He died at
+Ephesus about the end of the first century. A narrative of his strange
+career, containing many fables, with, perhaps, a kernel of truth, was
+written by Philostratus about a century later.
+
+APOLLO'NIUS OF TYRE, the hero of a tale which had an immense popularity in
+the Middle Ages and which indirectly furnished the plot of Shakespeare's
+_Pericles, Prince of Tyre_. The story, originally in Greek, first appeared
+in the third century after Christ.
+
+APOLL'OS, a Jew of Alexandria, who learned the doctrines of Christianity at
+Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla, became a preacher of the gospel in
+Achaia and Corinth, and an assistant of Paul in his missionary work. Some
+have regarded him as the author of the _Epistle to the Hebrews_.
+
+APOLL'YON ('the Destroyer'), a name used in _Rev._ ix, 11 for the angel of
+the bottomless pit.
+
+APOLOGETICS (-jet'iks), this term, as used in Christian theology, does not
+carry with it the idea of excuse or regretful acknowledgment, but signifies
+a defensive or vindicatory statement, which accords with its meaning in the
+original Greek. In the conventional division of systematic theology
+apologetics comes first in order, and is followed by the disciplines of
+dogmatics and ethics, which expound Christian belief and Christian duty
+respectively. There is a tendency, however, in the more recent treatment of
+systematic theology, to include the defence or vindication of the various
+Christian doctrines within the dogmatic scheme, leaving to apologetics--in
+so far as it may be regarded as a separate discipline from dogmatics--the
+discussion of such general themes as religion and revelation, authority and
+inspiration, and the essence and truth of Christianity. Such discussions
+belong essentially to what is now often called philosophy of religion. The
+preference of the term philosophy of religion to that of apologetics is
+indicative at once of the wider theological outlook of our time and of the
+conciliatory, adaptable, and more sympathetic spirit in which the Christian
+apologist approaches the new thought and culture.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. B.
+Bruce, _Apologetics_; R. Mackintosh, _First Primer of Apologetics_; J. R.
+Illingworth, _Reason and Revelation_; A. E. Garvie, _A Handbook of
+Christian Apologetics_.
+
+APOLOGUE (ap'o-log), a story or relation of fictitious events intended to
+convey some useful truths. It differs from a parable in that the latter is
+drawn from events that take place among mankind, whereas the apologue may
+be founded on supposed actions of brutes or inanimate things. Aesop's
+fables are good examples of apologues.
+
+APOL'OGY, a term at one time applied to a defence of one who is accused, or
+of certain doctrines called in question. Of this nature is the _Apology of
+Socrates_ written by Plato; also a work with the same title sometimes
+attributed to Xenophon. The name passed over to Christian authors, who gave
+the name of apologies to the writings which were designed to defend
+Christianity against the attacks and accusations of its enemies,
+particularly the pagan philosophers, and to justify its professors before
+the emperors. Of this sort were those by Justin Martyr, Athenagoras,
+Tertullian, Tatian, and others.
+
+APONEURO'SIS, in anatomy, a name of certain greyish-white shining
+membranes, composed of interlacing fibres, sometimes continuous with the
+muscular fibre, and differing from tendons merely in having a flat form.
+They serve several purposes, sometimes attaching the muscles to the bones,
+sometimes surrounding the muscle and preventing its displacement, &c. See
+_Anatomy_.
+
+APOPHTHEGM (ap'o-them), a short pithy sentence or maxim. Julius Caesar
+wrote a collection of them, and we have a collection by Francis Bacon.
+
+APOPH'YLLITE, a species of mineral of a foliated structure and pearly
+lustre, called also fish-eye stone. It belongs to the Zeolite family, and
+is a hydrated silicate of lime and potash, containing also fluorine.
+
+AP'OPLEXY, sudden abolition of consciousness, followed after recovery of
+consciousness by persistent disturbance of sensation or voluntary motion,
+from suspension of the functions of the cerebrum, resulting from blocking
+or rupture of the blood-vessels of the brain. In a complete apoplexy the
+person falls suddenly, is unable to move his limbs or to speak, gives no
+proof of seeing, hearing, or feeling, and the breathing is stertorous or
+snoring, like that of a person in deep sleep. The premonitory symptoms of
+this dangerous disease are drowsiness, giddiness, dulness of hearing,
+frequent yawning, disordered vision, noise in the ears, vertigo, &c. It is
+most frequent between the ages of fifty and seventy. A large head, short
+neck, full chest, sanguine and plethoric constitution, and corpulency are
+generally considered signs of predisposition to it; but the state of the
+heart's action, with a plethoric condition of the vascular system, has a
+more marked influence. Out of sixty-three cases carefully investigated only
+ten were fat and plethoric, twenty-three being thin, and the rest of
+ordinary habit. The common predisposing causes are disease or senile
+changes in the blood-vessels and affections of the valves of the heart; but
+other factors may possibly play some part either as exciting or
+predisposing causes, such as long and intense thought, continued anxiety,
+habitual indulgence of the temper and passions, sedentary and luxurious
+living, sexual indulgence, intoxication, &c. More or less complete recovery
+from a first and second attack is common, but a third is almost invariably
+fatal.--Cf. Grasset, _Traite du systeme nerveux_.
+
+APOSIOPE'SIS, in rhetoric, a sudden break or stop in speaking or writing,
+usually for mere effect or a pretence of unwillingness to say anything on a
+subject; as, 'his character is such--but it is better I should not speak of
+_that_', or Virgil's "Quos ego--sed motos praestat componere fluctus"
+(_Aen._ I, 135).
+
+APOS'TASY (Gr. _apostasis_, a standing away from), a renunciation of
+opinions or practices and the adoption of contrary ones, usually applied to
+renunciation of religious opinions. It is always an expression of reproach.
+What one party calls _apostasy_ is termed by the other _conversion_.
+Catholics, also, call those persons _apostates_ who forsake a religious
+order or renounce their religious vows without a lawful dispensation.
+
+A POSTERIO'RI. See _A priori_.
+
+APOS'TLES (literally, persons sent out, from the Gr. _apostellein_, to send
+out), the twelve men whom Jesus selected to attend him during his ministry,
+and to promulgate his religion. Their names were as follows: Simon Peter,
+and Andrew his brother; James, and John his brother, sons of Zebedee;
+Philip; Bartholomew; Thomas; Matthew; James, the son of Alpheus; Lebbaeus
+his brother, called _Judas_ or _Jude_; Simon, the Canaanite; and Judas
+Iscariot. To these were subsequently added Matthias (chosen by lot in place
+of Judas Iscariot) and Paul. The Bible gives the name of apostle to
+Barnabas also, who accompanied Paul on his missions (_Acts_, xiv, 14). In a
+wider sense those preachers who first taught Christianity in heathen
+countries are sometimes termed apostles; for example, St. Denis, the
+apostle of the Gauls; St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany; St. Augustine,
+the apostle of England; Francis Xavier, the apostle of the Indies; Adalbert
+of Prague, apostle of Prussia Proper. During the life of the Saviour the
+apostles more than once showed a misunderstanding of the object of His
+mission, and during His sufferings evinced little courage and firmness of
+friendship for their great and benevolent Teacher. After His death they
+received the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, that they might be enabled
+to fulfil the important duties for which they had been chosen. According to
+one interpretation of _Matthew_, xvi, 18, Christ seems to appoint St. Peter
+the first of the apostles; and the Pope claims supreme authority from the
+power which Christ thus gave to St. Peter, of whom all the Popes, according
+to the Catholic dogma, are successors in an uninterrupted line.
+
+APOSTLES' CREED, a well-known formula or declaration of Christian belief,
+formerly believed to be the work of the apostles themselves, but it can
+only be traced to the fourth century. See _Creed_.
+
+APOSTOL'IC, or APOSTOL'ICAL, pertaining or relating to the
+apostles.--_Apostolic Church_, the Church in the time of the apostles,
+constituted according to their design. The name is also given to the four
+churches of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, and is claimed by the
+Roman Catholic Church, and occasionally by the Episcopalians.--_Apostolic
+Constitutions_ and _Canons_, a collection of regulations attributed to the
+apostles, but generally supposed to be spurious. They appeared in the
+fourth century, are divided into eight books, and consist of rules and
+precepts relating to the duty of Christians, and particularly to the
+ceremonies and discipline of the Church.--_Apostolic fathers_, the
+Christian writers who during any part of their lives were contemporary with
+the apostles. There are five--Clement, Barnabas, Hermas, Ignatius,
+Polycarp.--_Apostolic king_, a title granted by the Pope to the kings of
+Hungary, first conferred on St. Stephen, the founder of the royal line of
+Hungary, on account of what he accomplished in the spread of
+Christianity.--_Apostolic see_, the see of the Popes or Bishops of Rome: so
+called because the Popes profess themselves the successors of St. Peter,
+its founder.--_Apostolic succession_, the uninterrupted succession of
+bishops, and, through them, of priests and deacons (these three orders of
+ministers being called the _apostolical orders_), in the Church by regular
+ordination from the first apostles down to the present day. All Episcopal
+churches hold theoretically, and the Roman Catholic Church and many members
+of the English Church strictly, that such succession is essential to the
+officiating priest, in order that grace may be communicated through his
+administrations.
+
+APOSTOL'ICS, APOSTOLICI, or APOSTOLIC BRETHREN, the name given to certain
+sects who professed to imitate the manners and practice of the apostles.
+The last and most important of these sects was founded about 1260 by
+Gerhard Segarelli of Parma. They went barefooted, begging, preaching, and
+singing throughout Italy, Switzerland, and France; announced the coming of
+the kingdom of heaven and of purer times; denounced the papacy, and its
+corrupt and worldly church; and inculcated the complete renunciation of all
+worldly ties, of property, settled abode, marriage, &c. This society was
+formally abolished, 1286, by Honorius IV. In 1300 Segarelli was burned as a
+heretic, but another chief apostle appeared--Dolcino, a learned man of
+Milan. In self-defence they stationed themselves in fortified places whence
+they might resist attacks. After having devastated a large tract of country
+belonging to Milan they were subdued, A.D. 1307, by the troops of Bishop
+Raynerius, in their fortress Zebello, in Vercelli, and almost all
+destroyed. Dolcino was burned. The survivors afterwards appeared in
+Lombardy and in the south of France as late as 1368.
+
+APO'STR[)O]PH[=E] (Gr., 'a turning away from'), a rhetorical figure by
+which the orator changes the course of his speech, and makes a short
+impassioned address to one absent as if he were present, or to things
+without life and sense as if they had life and sense. The same term is also
+applied to a comma when used to contract a word, or to mark the possessive
+case, as in 'John's book'.
+
+APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT, the weight used in dispensing drugs, in which the
+pound (lb.) is divided into 12 ounces ([ounce]), the ounce into 8 drachms
+([drachm]), the drachm into 3 scruples ([scruple]), and the scruple into 20
+grains (grs.), the grain being equivalent to that in avoirdupois weight.
+
+APOTH'ECARY, in a general sense, one who keeps a shop or laboratory for
+preparing, compounding, and vending medicines, and for the making up of
+medical prescriptions. In England the term was long applied (as to some
+little extent still) to a regularly licensed class of medical
+practitioners, being such persons as were members of, or licensed by, the
+_Apothecaries' Company_ in London. The apothecaries of London were at one
+time ranked with the grocers, with whom they were incorporated by James I
+in 1606. In 1617, however, the apothecaries received a new charter as a
+distinct company. They were not yet regarded as having the right to
+prescribe, but only to dispense, medicines; but in 1703 the House of Lords
+conferred that right on them, and they afterwards became a well-established
+branch of the medical profession. In 1815 an Act was passed providing that
+no person should practise as an apothecary in any part of England or Wales
+unless after serving an apprenticeship of five years with a member of the
+society, and receiving a certificate from the society's examiners. As in
+country places every practitioner must be to some extent an apothecary,
+this Act gave the society an undue influence over the medical profession.
+Dissatisfaction therefore long prevailed, but nothing of importance was
+done till the Medical Act of 1858, which brought the desired reform. The
+Apothecaries' Society, governed by a master, two wardens, and twenty-two
+assistants, has prescribed a course of medical instruction and practice
+which candidates for the licence of the society must pass through. Since
+1874 apprenticeship has not been necessary.
+
+APOTHE'CIUM, in botany, the receptacle of lichens, consisting of the
+spore-cases or asci, and of the paraphyses or barren threads.
+
+APOTHEO'SIS (deification), a solemnity among the ancients by which a mortal
+was raised to the rank of the gods. The custom of placing mortals, who had
+rendered their countrymen important services, among the gods was very
+ancient among the Greeks. The Romans, for several centuries, deified none
+but Romulus, and first imitated the Greeks in the fashion of frequent
+apotheosis after the time of Caesar. From this period apotheosis was
+regulated by the decrees of the senate, and accompanied with great
+solemnities. Almost all the Roman emperors were deified.
+
+APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS (ap-pa-l[=a]'chi-an), also called ALLEGHANIES, a vast
+mountain range in N. America extending for 1300 miles from Cape Gaspe on
+the Gulf of St. Lawrence, s.w. to Alabama. The system has been divided into
+three great sections: the _northern_ (including the Adirondacks, the Green
+Mountains, the White Mountains, &c.), from Cape Gaspe to New York; the
+_central_ (including a large portion of the Blue Ridge, the Alleghanies
+proper, and numerous lesser ranges), from New York to the valley of the New
+River; and the _southern_ (including the continuation of the Blue Ridge,
+the Black Mountains, the Smoky Mountains, &c.), from the New River
+southwards. The chain consists of several ranges generally parallel to each
+other, the altitude of the individual mountains increasing on approaching
+the south. The highest peaks rise over 6600 feet (not one at all
+approaching the snow-level), but the mean height is about 2500 feet. Lake
+Champlain is the only lake of great importance in the system, but numerous
+rivers of considerable size take their rise here. Magnetite, hematite, and
+other iron ores occur in great abundance, and the coal-measures are among
+the most extensive in the world. Gold, silver, lead, and copper are also
+found in small quantities, while marble, limestone, fire-clay, gypsum, and
+salt abound. The forests covering many of the ranges yield large quantities
+of valuable timber, such as sugar-maple, white birch, beech, ash, oak,
+cherry tree, white poplar, white and yellow pine, &c., while they form the
+haunts of large numbers of bears, panthers, wild cats, and wolves.
+
+APPALACHICOLA (-chi-c[=o]'la), a river of the United States, formed by the
+Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers, which unite near the northern border of
+Florida; length, about 100 miles; it flows into the Gulf of Mexico, and is
+navigable.
+
+APPAM, the name of a British merchant ship of the Elder-Dempster line
+captured by the German raiding cruiser _Moewe_ (Sea-gull) on 16th Jan.,
+1916. A German prize crew succeeded in bringing the _Appam_ westward, and
+was able to pass the British cordon off Chesapeake Bay and to reach
+Norfolk, Virginia. The vessel was carrying, among others, an ex-governor of
+Sierra Leone and some military officers from the west coast of Africa, but
+the passengers were at once released and allowed to return to England.
+
+APPANAGE. See _Apanage_.
+
+APPA'RENT, among mathematicians and astronomers, applied to things as they
+appear to the eye, in distinction to what they really are. Thus they speak
+of apparent motion, magnitude, distance, height, &c. The _apparent
+magnitude_ of a heavenly body is the angle subtended at the spectator's eye
+by the diameter of that body, and this, of course, depends on the distance
+as well as the real magnitude of the body; _apparent motion_ is the motion
+a body seems to have in consequence of our own motion, as the motion of the
+sun from east to west, &c.
+
+APPARI'TION, according to a belief held by some, a disembodied spirit
+manifesting itself to mortal sight; according to the common theory an
+illusion involuntarily generated, by means of which figures or forms, not
+present to the actual sense, are nevertheless depicted with a vividness and
+intensity sufficient to create a temporary belief in their reality. Such
+illusions are now generally held to result from an over-excited brain, a
+strong imagination, or some bodily malady. In perfect health the mind not
+only possesses a control over its powers, but the impressions of the
+external objects alone occupy its attention, and the play of imagination is
+consequently checked, except in sleep, when its operations are relatively
+more feeble and faint. But in an unhealthy state of the mind, when its
+attention is partly withdrawn from the contemplation of external objects,
+the impressions of its own creation, or rather reproduction, will either
+overpower or combine themselves with the impressions of external objects,
+and thus generate illusions which in the one case appear alone, while in
+the other they are seen projected among those external objects to which the
+eyeball is directed. This theory explains satisfactorily a large majority
+of the stories of apparitions; still there are some which it seems
+insufficient to account for.--See _Crystal Gazing_, _Hypnotism_,
+_Spiritualism_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Podmore, _Modern Spiritualism_; F. W. H.
+Myers, _Human Personality, and its survival of bodily Death_.
+
+APPEAL', in legal phraseology, the removal of a cause from an inferior
+tribunal to a superior, in order that the latter may revise, and if it seem
+needful reverse or amend, the decision of the former. The supreme court of
+appeal for Great Britain is the House of Lords. Certain defects in
+connection with the settlement of appeals by this body were remedied by the
+Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876, while a new court of appeal was
+established as a division of the Supreme Court of Judicature. In Ireland
+there is also a Court of Appeal similar to that in England; while in
+Scotland the highest court is the Court of Session. From the decisions of
+the Indian and all colonial courts, and the courts of the Isle of Man and
+the Channel Islands, appeal may be made to the Privy Council. Appeals from
+the decisions of justices of a borough or county may be made to the
+quarter-sessions of either respectively, in cases of summary jurisdiction,
+or upon a point of law to divisional courts of the High Court of Justice,
+which was established at the same time as the Court of Appeal; from
+quarter-sessions, county and other inferior courts, to the High Court. In
+Scotland the Court of Session reviews the decisions of the county courts,
+there being an appeal from its decisions to the House of Lords.--In France
+the court of final appeal in all cases is the _cour de cassation_.--In the
+United States the system of appeals differs in different States.
+
+APPEARANCE IN LAW is the first formal act incumbent on a defendant who
+intends to resist the claim in the writ or action served upon him. It
+consists usually in lodging in court a written notice stating simply that
+the defendant intends to dispute the claim. Failure to enter appearance
+within the prescribed time entails decree passing against the defendant in
+absence, but procedure exists in all courts for enabling such decrees to be
+recalled within a limited period. Appearance should be entered under
+protest if it is desired to dispute the jurisdiction of the court or the
+regularity of the writ.
+
+APPENDICITIS, a disease which has become well known in recent times through
+the more accurate methods of diagnosis and the increased safety of surgical
+operation. It is caused by inflammation of the vermiform appendix, a
+narrow, hollow, worm-like body from 2 to 4 inches long, opening at one end
+into the large intestine and forming a cul-de-sac at the other. In
+appendicitis the inflammation begins in the appendix and frequently spreads
+to the neighbouring parts, causing inflammation of the caecum, a condition
+known as perityphlitis. The most frequent cause of appendicitis is a hard
+piece of insufficiently-digested food becoming lodged in the appendix.
+Occasionally orange pips, grape stones, &c., are the cause, though not so
+often as is popularly supposed.
+
+The symptoms are: abdominal pain (especially low down at the right side),
+fever, nausea, vomiting, constipation; these varying according to the
+intensity of the attack. Three types are recognized:
+
+1. A mild type, when the symptoms subside in a few days and the patient
+soon _appears_ to be in normal health.
+
+2. A severe type, in which, if left alone, the appendix bursts into the
+abdominal cavity and death from general peritonitis results.
+
+3. Another type, in which the inflammation in the appendix leads to the
+formation of a localized abscess, sometimes of great size.
+
+The treatment for the severe and for the abscess-forming types is
+essentially immediate operation; while for the mild type operation may
+either be performed at once or after the attack has passed off. Anyone who
+has had one attack of appendicitis is liable to have it repeated in a much
+severer form, hence the advisability of having the appendix removed after
+the first attack, however slight. During an attack, prior to surgical
+interference, complete rest in bed is essential. Abdominal pain should be
+treated with frequent hot fomentations, and the diet should be reduced to
+small quantities of fluid.
+
+APPENZELL ([.a]p'pen-tsel), a Swiss canton, wholly enclosed by the canton
+of St. Gall; area, 162 sq. miles. It is divided into two independent
+portions or half-cantons, Outer-Rhoden, which is Protestant, and
+Inner-Rhoden, which is Catholic. It is an elevated district, traversed by
+branches of the Alps; Mount Saentis in the centre being 8250 feet high. It
+is watered by the Sitter and by several smaller affluents of the Rhine.
+Glaciers occupy the higher valleys. Flax, hemp, grain, fruit, &c., are
+produced, but the wealth of Inner-Rhoden lies in its herds and flocks--that
+of Outer-Rhoden in its manufactures of embroidered muslins, gauzes,
+cambrics, and other cotton stuffs; also of silk goods and paper. The town
+of Appenzell (Ger. _Abtenzelle_, abbot's cell) is the capital of
+Inner-Rhoden, on the Sitter, with about 4300 inhabitants. Trogen is the
+capital of Outer-Rhoden, Herisau the largest town (pop. 11,000). Pop.
+Outer-Rhoden, 60,000; Inner-Rhoden, 15,000.
+
+APPERCEPTION. See _Metaphysics_.
+
+AP'PETITE, in its widest sense, means the natural desire for gratification,
+either of the body or the mind; but is generally applied to the recurrent
+and intermittent desire for food. A healthy appetite is favoured by work,
+exercise, plain living, and cheerfulness; absence of this feeling, or
+defective appetite (_anorexia_), indicates diseased action of the stomach,
+or of the nervous system or circulation, or it may result from vicious
+habits. Depraved appetite (_pica_), or a desire for unnatural food, as
+chalk, ashes, dirt, soap, &c., depends often in the case of children on
+vicious tastes or habits; in grown-up persons it may be symptomatic of
+dyspepsia, pregnancy or chlorosis. Insatiable or canine appetite or
+voracity (_bulimia_) when it occurs in childhood is generally symptomatic
+of worms; in adults common causes are pregnancy, vicious habits, and
+indigestion caused by stomach complaints or gluttony, when the gnawing
+pains of disease are mistaken for hunger.
+
+AP'PIAN, a Roman historian of the second century after Christ, a native of
+Alexandria, was governor and manager of the imperial revenues under
+Hadrian, Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, in Rome. He compiled in Greek a Roman
+history, from the earliest times to those of Augustus, in twenty-four
+books, of which only eleven have come down to us. Appian's style is not
+attractive, but he gives us much valuable information.
+
+APPIA'NI, Andrea, a painter, born at Milan in 1754, died in 1817. As a
+fresco-painter he excelled every contemporary painter in Italy. He
+displayed his skill particularly in the cupola of Santa Maria di S. Celso
+at Milan, and in the paintings representing the legend of Cupid and Psyche
+prepared for the walls and ceiling of the villa of the Archduke Ferdinand
+at Monza (1795). Napoleon appointed him royal court painter, and portraits
+of almost the whole of the imperial family were painted by him.
+
+APPIAN WAY, called _Regina Viarum_, the Queen of Roads: the oldest and most
+renowned Roman road, was constructed during the censorship of Appius
+Claudius Caecus (313-310 B.C.). It was built with large square stones on a
+raised platform, and was made direct from the gates of Rome to Capua, in
+Campania. It was afterwards extended through Samnium and Apulia to
+Brundusium, the modern Brindisi. It was partially restored by Pius VI, and
+between 1850 and 1853 it was excavated by order of Pius IX as far as the
+eleventh milestone from Rome.
+
+APPIUS CLAUDIUS, surnamed _Caecus_, or the blind, a Roman patrician,
+elected censor 312 B.C., which office he held four years. While in this
+position he made every effort to weaken the power of the Plebs, and
+constructed the road and aqueduct named after him. He was subsequently
+twice consul, and once dictator. In his old age he became blind, but in 280
+B.C. he made a famous speech in which he induced the senate to reject the
+terms of peace fixed by Pyrrhus. He is the earliest Roman writer of prose
+and verse whose name we know.
+
+APPIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSUS, one of the Roman _decemvirs_, appointed 451 B.C.
+to draw up a new code of laws. He and his colleagues plotted to retain
+their power permanently, and at the expiry of their year of office refused
+to give up their authority. The people were incensed against them, and the
+following circumstances led to their overthrow. Appius Claudius had
+conceived an evil passion for Virginia, the daughter of Lucius Virginius,
+then absent with the army in the war with the Aequi and Sabines. At the
+instigation of Appius, Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, claimed
+Virginia as the daughter of one of his own female slaves, and the
+_decemvir_, acting as judge, decided that in the meantime she should remain
+in the custody of the claimant. Virginius, hastily summoned from the army,
+appeared with his daughter next day in the forum, and appealed to the
+people; but Appius Claudius again adjudged her to Marcus Claudius. Unable
+to rescue his daughter, the unhappy father stabbed her to the heart. The
+_decemvirs_ were deposed by the indignant people 449 B.C., and Appius
+Claudius died in prison or was strangled.
+
+APPLE (_Pyrus Malus_), the fruit of a well-known tree of the nat. ord.
+Rosaceae, or the tree itself. The apple belongs to the temperate regions of
+the globe, over which it is almost universally spread and cultivated. The
+tree attains a moderate height, with spreading branches; the leaf is ovate;
+and the flowers are produced from the wood of the former year; but more
+generally from very short shoots or spurs from wood of two years' growth.
+The original of all the varieties of the cultivated apple is the wild crab,
+which has a small and extremely sour fruit, and is a native of most of the
+countries of Europe. Apples have been used as food and cultivated for
+upwards of 4000 years, and were probably introduced into Britain by the
+Romans. The greater number of the varieties now grown have, however, been
+cultivated only within the last century or so. To the facility of
+multiplying varieties by grafting is to be ascribed the amazing extension
+of the sorts of apples, the number of varieties known being over 2000. Many
+of the more marked varieties are known by general names, as pippins,
+codlins, rennets, &c. The oldest apple in cultivation is a variety called
+'the lady', which originated in Britain early in the seventeenth century.
+Apples for the table are characterized by a firm juicy pulp, a sweetish
+acid flavour, regular form, and beautiful colouring; those for cooking by
+the property of forming by the aid of heat into a pulpy mass of equal
+consistency, as also by their large size and keeping properties; apples for
+cider must have a considerable degree of astringency, with richness of
+juice. The propagation of apple trees is accomplished by seeds, cuttings,
+suckers, layers, budding, or grafting, the last being almost the universal
+practice. The tree thrives best in an open situation where it will receive
+the maximum amount of sunshine and protection from cold winds. The
+protection is particularly necessary in districts where cold winds and
+frosts prevail during the flowering season. The wood of the apple tree or
+the common crab is hard, close-grained, and often richly coloured, and is
+suitable for turning and cabinet work. The fermented juice (_verjuice_) of
+the crab is employed in cookery and medicine. Apples are largely imported
+into Great Britain from the Continent and the United States and Canada. The
+designation apple, with various modifying words, is applied to a number of
+fruits having nothing in common with the apple proper, as alligator-apple,
+love-apple, &c.--Cf. A. E. Wilkinson, _The Apple_.
+
+AP'PLEBY, county town of Westmorland, England, on the Eden, 28 miles S.S.E.
+of Carlisle. Disfranchised in 1832, it gave its name to a parliamentary
+division of the county until 1918. It has an old castle, the keep of which,
+called Caesar's Tower, is still fairly well preserved. Pop. (1921), 1786.
+
+APPLE OF DISCORD, according to the story in Greek mythology, the golden
+apple thrown into an assembly of the gods by the goddess of discord (Eris)
+bearing the inscription 'for the fairest'. Aphrod[=i]t[=e] (Venus), Hera
+(Juno), and Ath[=e]n[=e] (Minerva) became competitors for it, and its
+adjudication to the first by Paris so inflamed the jealousy and hatred of
+Hera to all of the Trojan race (to which Paris belonged) that she did not
+cease her machinations till Troy was destroyed.
+
+APPLE OF SODOM, a fruit described by old writers as externally of fair
+appearance, but turning to ashes when plucked; probably the fruit of
+_Sol[=a]num sodom[=e]um_.
+
+AP'PLETON, a city of Wisconsin, United States, 100 miles N.W. of Milwaukee
+by rail. It has many flour, paper, saw, and woollen mills, and other
+manufactories, and is the seat of a collegiate institute and of the
+Lawrence University. Pop. (1920), 19,561.
+
+APPLIQUE, in needlework or metal-work, a design or feature having the
+appearance of being independently made and attached to the surface of the
+object it adorns. When the ornament is sunk into the body of the object it
+is called _inlay_.
+
+APPOGGIATURA ([.a]p-poj-[.a]-toe'r[.a]), in music, a small additional note
+of embellishment preceding the note to which it is attached, and taking
+away from the principal note a portion of its time.
+
+APPOINT'MENT, a term in English law signifying the exercise of some power,
+reserved in a conveyance or settlement, of burdening, selling, or otherwise
+disposing of the lands or property conveyed. Such a reserved power is
+termed a _power of appointment_.
+
+APPOMATT'OX COURT-HOUSE, a village in Virginia, United States, 20 miles E.
+of Lynchburg. Here, on 9th April, 1865, General Lee surrendered to General
+Grant, and thus virtually concluded the American Civil War.
+
+APPONYI, Albert, Count, Hungarian statesman, born in 1846. Leader of the
+Conservative National party, he joined the Liberal party in 1899, and in
+1901 was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies. He was Minister of
+Education in 1906 and 1917, and again in 1918. In 1920 he was at the head
+of the delegation which came to Paris to settle the peace-terms with
+Hungary.
+
+APPOSI'TION, in grammar, the relation in which one or more nouns or
+substantive phrases or clauses stand to a noun or pronoun, which they
+explain or characterize without being predicated of it, and with which they
+agree in case; as Cicero, the _orator_, lived in the first century before
+Christ; the opinion, _that a severe winter is generally followed by a good
+summer_, is a vulgar error.
+
+APPRAI'SER, a person employed to value property, and duly licensed to do so
+by licence taken out every year. The valuation must be duly set down in
+writing, and there is a certain fixed scale of charges for the appraiser's
+services.
+
+APPREHEN'SION, the seizing of a person as a criminal whether taken in the
+act or on suspicion, and with or without a warrant, a warrant being
+necessary when the person apprehending is not present at the commission of
+the offence. See _Arrest_.
+
+APPREN'TICE, one bound by indenture to serve some particular individual or
+company of individuals for a specified time, in order to be instructed in
+some art, science, or trade. In England a person under the age of
+twenty-one cannot bind himself apprentice, and accordingly the usual way is
+for a relation or friend to become a contracting party to the indenture,
+and engage for the faithful performance of the agreement. An infant cannot
+be bound apprentice by his friends without his own expressed consent. In
+Scotland a boy under fourteen or a girl under twelve years of age cannot
+become a party to an indenture without the concurrence of a parent or
+guardian; above that age they may enter into an indenture of themselves,
+and thereby become personally bound. An indenture is determinable by the
+consent of the parties to it, and also by the death, bankruptcy, or
+retirement from business of the master. _Parish apprentices_ are bound out
+by the guardians of the poor to suitable persons, and in this case the
+consent of the apprentice is not necessary. The system of apprenticing by
+indenture is now much less common than formerly.--Cf. R. A. Bray, _Boy
+Labour and Apprenticeship_.
+
+APPROACH'ES, in field-engineering, an old-fashioned name for what are now
+called 'communication trenches'.
+
+APPROPRIA'TION. See _Impropriation_.
+
+APPRO'VER (ap-proe'v[.e]r), in English law, any accomplice in a crime who
+is allowed by the judges of jail-delivery to become king's evidence, that
+is, to be examined in evidence against his accomplices, it being understood
+that the approver will himself be pardoned upon making a full and open
+confession.
+
+APPROXIMA'TION, a term used in mathematics to signify a continual approach
+to a quantity required, when no process is known for arriving at it
+exactly. Although, by such an approximation, the exact value of a quantity
+cannot be discovered, yet, in practice, it may be found sufficiently
+correct; thus the diagonal of a square, whose sides are represented by
+unity, is [sqrt]2, the exact value of which quantity cannot be obtained;
+but its approximate value may be substituted in the nicest calculations.
+
+APPULEIUS. See _Apuleius_.
+
+AP'RICOT (_Prunus Armeni[)a]ca_), a fruit of the plum genus which was
+introduced into Europe from Asia more than three centuries before Christ,
+and into England from Italy in 1524. It is a native of Armenia and other
+parts of Asia and also of Africa. The apricot is a low tree, of rather
+crooked growth, with somewhat heart-shaped leaves and sessile flowers. The
+fruit is sweet, more or less juicy, of a yellowish colour, about the size
+of a peach, and resembling it in delicacy of flavour. Some of the best
+varieties are 'Frogmore Early', 'Moorpark', 'Royal', &c. The wood is
+coarsely grained and soft. Apricot trees are chiefly raised against walls,
+and are propagated by budding and grafting.
+
+APRIES ([=a]'pri-[=e]z), Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, the eighth king of
+the twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He succeeded his father Psammetichus in
+590 or 589 B.C. The Jews under Zedekiah revolted against their Babylonian
+oppressors and allied themselves with Apries, who was, however, unable to
+raise the siege of Jerusalem, which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. A still
+more unfortunate expedition against Cyrene brought about revolt in his
+army, in endeavouring to suppress which Apries was defeated and slain about
+570 B.C.
+
+A'PRIL (Lat. _Apr[=i]lis_, from _aperire_, to open, because the buds open
+at this time), the fourth month of the year. The strange custom of making
+fools on 1st April by sending people upon errands which end in
+disappointment, and raise a laugh at the expense of the person sent,
+prevails throughout Europe. It has been connected with the miracle plays of
+the Middle Ages, in which the Saviour was represented as having been sent,
+at this period of the year, from Annas to Caiaphas and from Pilate to
+Herod. This explanation, however, is perhaps itself a piece of April
+fooling. In France the party fooled is called _un poisson d'avril_, 'an
+April fish'; in Scotland, a 'gowk', or cuckoo.
+
+A PRIO'RI ('from what goes before'), a phrase applied to a mode of
+reasoning by which we proceed from general principles or notions to
+particular cases, as opposed to _a posteriori_ ('from what comes after')
+reasoning, by which we proceed from knowledge previously acquired.
+Mathematical proofs are of the _a priori_ kind; the conclusions of
+experimental science are _a posteriori_. It is also a term applied to
+knowledge independent of all experience.
+
+[Illustration: Apse--Church of Sta Maria in Trastevere, Rome]
+
+APSE, a portion of any building forming a termination or projection
+semicircular or polygonal in plan, and having a roof forming externally a
+semi-dome or semi-cone, or having ridges corresponding to the angles of the
+polygon; especially such a semicircular or polygonal recess projecting from
+the east end of the choir or chancel of a church, in which the altar is
+placed. The apse was developed from the somewhat similar part of the Roman
+basilicae, in which the magistrate (_praetor_) sat.
+
+AP'SHERON, a peninsula on the western shore of the Caspian Sea formed by
+the eastern extremity of the Caucasus Mountains. It extends for about 40
+miles, and terminates in Cape Apsheron. It yields immense quantities of
+petroleum. See _Baku_.
+
+[Illustration: _aa_, Apsides]
+
+APSIS, pl. AP'SIDES or APSI'DES, in astronomy, one of the two points of the
+orbit of a heavenly body situated at the extremities of the major axis of
+the ellipse formed by the orbit, one of the points being that at which the
+body is at its greatest and the other that at which it is at its least
+distance from its primary. In regard to the earth and the other planets,
+these two points are called the aphelion and perihelion; and in regard to
+the moon they are called the apogee and perigee. The line of the apsides
+has a slow forward angular motion in the plane of the planet's orbit, being
+retrograde only in the case of Venus. This in the earth's orbit produces
+the anomalistic year. See _Anomaly_.
+
+APT (aet; ancient APTA JULIA), a town of Southern France, department
+Vaucluse, 32 miles east by south of Avignon, with an ancient Gothic
+cathedral. Pop. 6336.
+
+AP'TERA (Gr. _apteros_, wingless), wingless insects, such as lice and
+certain others, popularly called _Spring-tails_, and composed of two
+groups, Collembola and Thysanura.
+
+[Illustration: Apteryx (_Apteryx Mantelli_)]
+
+AP'TERYX, a nearly extinct genus of cursorial birds, distinguished from the
+ostriches by having three toes with a rudimentary hallux, which forms a
+spur. They are natives of the South Island of New Zealand; are totally
+wingless and tailless, with feathers resembling hairs; about the size of a
+small goose; with long curved beak something like that of a curlew. They
+are entirely nocturnal, feeding on insects, worms, and seeds.--_A.
+austr[=a]lis_, called _Kiwi-kiwi_ from its cry, is the best-known species.
+
+APULEIUS, or APPULEIUS (ap-[=u]-l[=e]'us), author of the celebrated
+satirical romance in Latin called the _Golden Ass_, born at Madaura, in
+Numidia, about A.D. 125; the time of his death is unknown. He studied at
+Carthage, then at Athens, where he became warmly attached to the Platonic
+philosophy, and finally at Rome. Returning to Carthage he married a rich
+widow, whose relatives accused him of gaining her consent by magic, and the
+speech by which he successfully defended himself is still extant. Besides
+his _Golden Ass_ (which is also known as the _Metamorphoses_, and which was
+translated into English by W. Adlington in 1566), with its fine episode of
+Cupid and Psyche, he was also the author of many works on philosophy and
+rhetoric, some of which are still extant.
+
+APU'LIA, a department or division in the south-east of Italy, on the
+Adriatic, composed of the provinces of Foggia, Bari, and Lecce; area, 7376
+sq. miles. Pop. 2,237,791.
+
+APURE ([.a]-poe'r[=a]), a navigable river of Venezuela, formed by the
+junction of several streams which rise in the Andes of Colombia; it falls
+into the Orinoco.--_Apure_, one of the States of Venezuela, has a pop. of
+30,008.
+
+APURIMAC ([.a]-poe-r[=e]-m[.a]k'), a river of South America, which rises in
+the Andes of Peru, and, being augmented by the Vilcamayu and other streams,
+forms the Ucayale, one of the principal head-waters of the Amazon.--The
+department of Apurimac in Peru has an area of 8187 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+177,887.
+
+AQ'UA (Lat. for water), a word much used in pharmacy and old
+chemistry.--_Aqua fortis_ (= strong water), a weak and impure nitric acid.
+It has the power of eating into steel and copper, and hence is used by
+engravers, etchers, &c.--_Aqua marina_, a fine variety of beryl. See
+_Aquamarine_.--_Aqua regia_, or _aqua regalis_ (= royal water), a mixture
+of nitric and hydrochloric acids, with the power of dissolving gold and
+other precious metals.--_Aqua Tofana_, a poisonous fluid made about the
+middle of the seventeenth century by an Italian woman Tofana or Toffania,
+who is said to have procured the death of no fewer than 600 individuals by
+means of it. It consisted chiefly, it is supposed, of a solution of
+crystallized arsenic.--_Aqua vitae_ (= water of life), or simply _aqua_, a
+name familiarly applied to the _whisky_ of Scotland, corresponding in
+meaning with the _usquebaugh_ of Ireland, the _eau de vie_ (brandy) of the
+French.
+
+AQ'UAMARINE, a name given to some of the finest varieties of beryl of a
+sea-green or blue colour. Varieties of topaz are also so called.
+
+AQUA'RIUM, a vessel or series of vessels constructed wholly or partly of
+glass and containing salt or fresh water in which are kept living specimens
+of marine or fresh-water animals along with aquatic plants. In principle
+the aquarium is based on the interdependence of animal and vegetable life;
+animals consuming oxygen and exhaling carbonic acid, plants reversing the
+process by absorbing carbonic acid and giving out oxygen. The aquarium must
+consequently be stocked both with plants and animals, and for the welfare
+of both something like a proper proportion should exist between them. The
+simplest form of aquarium is that of a glass vase; but aquaria on a larger
+scale consist of a tank or a number of tanks with plate-glass sides and
+stone floors, and contain sand and gravel, rocks, sea-weeds, &c. By
+improved arrangements light is admitted from above, passing through the
+water in the tanks and illuminating their contents, while the spectator is
+in comparative darkness. The most important aquarium is at the zoological
+station at Naples. There is also one, on a smaller scale, at Plymouth,
+maintained by the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.
+Aquaria on a large scale have been constructed in connection with public
+parks or gardens, and the name is also given to places of public
+entertainment in which large aquaria are exhibited.--Cf. G. C. Bateman,
+_Fresh-water Aquaria_; M. J. Newbigin, _The Aquarium_.
+
+AQUARIUS (Lat., the Water-bearer), a sign of the zodiac which the sun
+enters about the 21st of Jan.: it now enters the formerly coincident
+constellation Aquarius about a month later.
+
+AQUATINT, a method of etching on copper by which a beautiful effect is
+produced, resembling a fine drawing in sepia or Indian ink. The special
+character of the effect is the result of sprinkling finely-powdered resin
+or mastic over the plate, and causing this to adhere by heat, the design
+being previously etched, or being now traced out. The nitric acid (aqua
+fortis) acts only in the interstices between the particles of resin or
+mastic, thus giving a slightly granular appearance.
+
+AQUA TOFA'NA. See _Aqua_.
+
+AQUA VITAE. See _Aqua_.
+
+AQ'UEDUCT (Lat. _aqua_, water, _duco_, to lead), an artificial channel or
+conduit for the conveyance of water from one place to another: more
+particularly applied to structures for conveying water from distant sources
+for the supply of large cities. Aqueducts were extensively used by the
+Romans, and many of them still remain in different places on the Continent
+of Europe, some being still in use. The Pont du Gard in the south of
+France, 14 miles from Nimes, is still nearly perfect, and is a grand
+monument of the Roman occupation of this country. The ancient aqueducts
+were constructed of stone or brick, sometimes tunnelled through hills, and
+carried over valleys and rivers on arches. The Pont du Gard spans the River
+Gard, and was built to convey to Nimes the water of springs rising in the
+neighbourhood of the modern Uzes. It is built of great blocks of stone; its
+height is 160 feet; length of the highest arcade, 882 feet. The aqueduct at
+Segovia, originally built by the Romans, has in some parts two tiers of
+arcades 100 feet high, is 2921 feet in length, and is one of the most
+admired works of antiquity. One of the most remarkable aqueducts of modern
+times is that constructed by Louis XIV for conveying the waters of the Eure
+to Versailles. The extensive application of metal pipes has rendered the
+construction of aqueducts of the old type less necessary; but what may be
+called aqueduct bridges are still frequently constructed in connection with
+canals and also with water-works for the supply of towns. Where canals
+exist canal aqueducts are common, since the water in any section of a canal
+must be kept on a perfect level.
+
+[Illustration: Aqueduct at Segovia]
+
+Many large towns now derive a supply of water from sources at a great
+distance, and in bringing the water to the place where it is required much
+tunnelling is often necessary as well as digging and excavating in the
+open. A tunnel furnishing a water channel may be driven through miles of
+rock strata of various kinds, and in many places it may have to be lined
+with concrete or cement wholly or partially, brick-work also being much
+employed. Instead of tunnelling, the channel may be formed on the plan of
+'cut and cover', being first cut in the ground and then covered over,
+leaving the surface much in the same state as before. And, of course, iron
+piping is often used in connection with such tunnels, the water being
+conveyed so far in an aqueduct of one kind, and so far in one of another
+kind, according as is deemed most suitable. In the Thirlmere aqueduct,
+which brings water to Manchester, there are 45 miles of cast-iron pipes, 37
+miles of cut-and-cover work, and 14 miles of tunnels proper. Pipes are
+naturally laid where valleys occur, and the water simply enters the pipes
+at one end and flows out at the other by the influence of gravity, there
+being a suitable chamber constructed at either end of the pipe line where
+there is a junction with a section of tunnel. Aqueduct bridges were first
+introduced into England in the eighteenth century, the first being the
+aqueduct at Barton Bridge conveying the Bridgewater Canal across the
+Irwell. In such bridges the water-channel may be made of cast iron. There
+are great aqueduct bridges on some of the Indian canals, such as the Nadrai
+bridge on the Lower Ganges Canal. In America water is often carried long
+distances in _flumes_ or open wooden channels, supported, where necessary,
+on trestles. Great wooden pipes are also common there, built of large
+staves and hooped round with iron or steel. These often rest on the surface
+of the ground without any covering.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Herschel,
+_Frontinus_; Wegmann, _Water-supply of City of New York_; J. F. Bateman,
+_The Manchester Waterworks_; J. M. Gale, _The Glasgow Waterworks_; A.
+Prescott Folwell, _Water Supply Engineering_.
+
+AQ'UEOUS HUMOUR, the limpid watery fluid which fills the space between the
+cornea and the crystalline lens in the eye.
+
+AQUEOUS ROCKS, composed of matter deposited by water from suspension or
+solution. Called also _sedimentary rocks_. See _Geology_.
+
+AQUIFOLIA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants; the holly tribe. The species consist
+of trees and shrubs, and the order includes the common holly (_Ilex
+Aquifolium_) and the _I. paraguayensis_, or Paraguayan tea tree.
+
+AQUILA ([.a]k'w[=e]-l[.a]), a town in Italy, capital of the province of
+Aquila, 55 miles north-east of Rome, the seat of a bishop, an attractive
+and interesting town with spacious streets and handsome palaces. In 1703
+and 1706 it suffered severely from earthquakes. Pop. 22,050.--The province
+has an area of 2493 sq. miles. Pop. 422,634.
+
+AQ'UILA, a companion of St. Paul (_Acts_, xviii, 2, 3). Expelled from Rome,
+he and his wife, Priscilla, settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed with
+them. They were converted to Christianity by the Apostle.
+
+AQ'UILA, a native of Pontus, flourished about A.D. 130. He became a Jewish
+proselyte, and made a close and accurate translation of the Hebrew
+Scriptures into Greek, extant only in fragments.
+
+AQ'UILA, name of a constellation in the northern hemisphere. See
+_Constellations_.
+
+AQUILA'RIA. See _Aloes-wood_.
+
+AQUILE'GIA. See _Columbine_.
+
+AQUILEIA (ak-wi-l[=e]'ya), an ancient city near the head of the Adriatic
+Sea, in Upper Italy, built by the Romans in 182 or 181 B.C. Commanding the
+N.E. entrance into Italy, it became important as a commercial centre and a
+military post, and was frequently the base of imperial campaigns. In 425 it
+was destroyed by Attila. The modern Aquileia or Aglar is a small place of
+some 1700 inhabitants, consisting chiefly of fishermen.
+
+AQUINAS (a-kw[=i]'nas; i.e. of Aquino), St. Thomas, a celebrated scholastic
+divine, born in 1225 or 1227, most probably at the castle of Rocco Secca,
+near Aquino. His father was Count of Aquino, in the kingdom of Naples. He
+was educated at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Casino, and at the
+University of Naples, where he studied for six years. About the age of
+seventeen he entered a convent of Dominicans, much against the wishes of
+his family. He attended the lectures of Albertus Magnus at Cologne, in
+whose company he visited Paris in 1245 or 1246. Here he became involved in
+the dispute between the university and the Begging Friars as to the liberty
+of teaching, advocating the rights claimed by the latter with great energy.
+In 1257 he received the degree of doctor from the Sorbonne, and began to
+lecture on theology, rapidly acquiring the highest reputation. In 1263 he
+is found at the Chapter of the Dominicans in London. In 1268 he was in
+Italy, lecturing in Rome, Bologna, and elsewhere. In 1271 he was again in
+Paris lecturing to the students; in 1272 he was professor at Naples. In
+1263 he had been offered the archbishopric of Naples by Clement IV, but
+refused the offer. He died, in 1274, on his way to Lyons to attend a
+general council for the purpose of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches. He
+was called, after the fashion of the times, the _angelic doctor_, and was
+canonized by John XXII. The most important of his numerous works, which are
+all written in Latin, are the _Summa Theologica_, which, although only
+professing to treat of theology, is in reality a complete and systematic
+summary of the knowledge of the time, and the _Summa Philosophica_. The
+work of St. Thomas consisted in an effort to harmonize the new scientific
+teachings of the age--derived from Arabian and Byzantine sources--with the
+doctrine of the Church, and to refute heresy. His disciples were known as
+_Thomists_. See _Thomism_.--Cf. P. Conway, _St. Thomas Aquinas_; and
+article in _Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics_.
+
+AQUITA'NIA, later AQUITAINE, a Roman province in Gaul, which comprehended
+the countries on the coast from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and from the
+sea to Toulouse. It was brought into connection with England by the
+marriage of Henry II with Eleanor, daughter of the last Duke of Aquitaine.
+The title to the province was for long disputed by England and France, but
+it was finally secured by the latter (1453).
+
+ARABAH', a deep rocky valley or depression in north-western Arabia, between
+the Dead Sea and Gulf of Akabah, a sort of continuation of the Jordan
+valley.
+
+ARABESQUE (ar'a-besk), a species of ornamentation for enriching flat
+surfaces, often consisting of fanciful figures, human or animal, combined
+with floral forms. There may be said to be three periods and distinctive
+varieties of arabesque--(_a_) the Roman or Graeco-Roman, introduced into
+Rome from the East when pure art was declining; (_b_) the Arabesque of the
+Moors as seen in the Alhambra, introduced by them into Europe in the Middle
+Ages; (_c_) Modern Arabesque, which took its rise in Italy in the
+Renaissance period of art. The arabesques of the Moors, who are prohibited
+by their religion from representing animal forms, consist essentially of
+complicated ornamental designs based on the suggestion of plant-growth,
+combined with extremely complex geometrical forms.
+
+ARABGIR ([.a]-r[.a]b-g[=e]r'), or ARABKIR', a town in Asia, 147 miles
+W.S.W. of Erzerum, noted for its manufacture of silk and cotton goods. Pop.
+between 20,000 and 30,000.
+
+ARA'BIA, a vast peninsula in the S.W. of Asia, bounded on the N. by the
+great Syro-Babylonian plain, N.E. by the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman,
+S. or S.E. by the Indian Ocean, and S.W. by the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez.
+Its length from N.W. to S.E. is about 1800 miles, its mean breadth about
+600 miles, its area approximately 1,200,000 sq. miles, its population
+probably less than 5,000,000. Roughly described, it exhibits a central
+table-land surrounded by a series of deserts, with numerous scattered
+oases, while around this is a line of mountains parallel to and approaching
+the coasts, and with a narrow rim of low grounds (_teh[=a]ma_) between them
+and the sea. In its general features Arabia resembles the Sahara, of which
+it may be considered a continuation. Like the Sahara, it has its wastes of
+loose sand, its stretches of bare rocks and stones, its mountains devoid of
+vegetation, its oases with their wells and streams, their palm-groves and
+cultivated fields--islands of green amidst the surrounding desolation.
+Rivers proper there are none. By the ancients the whole peninsula was
+broadly divided into three great sections--Arabia Petraea (containing the
+city Petra), Deserta (desert), and Felix (happy). The first and last of
+these answer roughly to the modern divisions of the region of Sinai in the
+N.W. and Yemen in the S.W., while the name _Deserta_ was vaguely given to
+the rest of the country. (See _Explorations, Modern_.) The principal
+divisions at the present are Madian in the north-west; south of this,
+Hejaz, Assir, and Yemen, all on the Red Sea, the last named occupying the
+south-western part of the peninsula, and comprising a _teh[=a]ma_ or
+maritime lowland on the shores of the Red Sea, with an elevated inland
+district of considerable breadth; Hadramaut on the south coast; Oman
+occupying the south-east angle; El-Hasa and Koveit on the Persian Gulf;
+El-Hamad (Desert of Syria), Nefud, and Jebel Shammar in the north; Nejd,
+the Central Highlands, which occupies a great part of the interior of the
+country, while south of it is the great unexplored Dahkna or sandy desert.
+Between 1902-5 a joint commission of British and Turkish officers laid down
+a boundary line defining the limits between Turkish territory and that of
+the independent Arab tribes in political relations with Great Britain.
+Nearly the whole of Southern Arabia came within the sphere of British
+influence. Madian belongs to Egypt; the Hejaz, Yemen, Bahr-el-Hasa, Koveit,
+&c., were more or less under the suzerainty of Turkey until 1914. The rest
+of the country is ruled by independent chiefs--sheikhs, emirs, and
+imams--while the title of sultan has been assumed by the chief of the
+Wahabis in Nejd, the sovereign of Oman (who has a subsidy from the Indian
+Government), and some petty princes in the south of the peninsula. On 9th
+June, 1916, the Grand Shereef of Mecca declared himself independent of the
+Turkish Government, and an Arab revolt spread rapidly. The Grand Shereef
+Hussein then announced to the Moslem world that the Shereefate of Mecca was
+henceforth independent, and on 4th Nov., 1916, he had himself formally
+proclaimed King, or Sultan, of Arabia. The status of the whole of Arabia
+was determined by the Peace Conference. (See _Hejaz_, _Mesopotamia_,
+_Syria_, _Sykes-Picot Treaty_.) The chief towns are Mecca, the birthplace
+of Mahomet; Medina, the place to which he fled from Mecca (A.D. 622), and
+where he is buried; Hodeida, a seaport exporting Mocha coffee; Aden, on the
+S.W. coast, belonging to Britain; Sana, the capital of Yemen; and Muscat,
+the capital of Oman. The chief towns of the interior are Hail, the
+residence of the Emir of Jebel Shammar; Oneizah, under the same ruler; and
+Rijadh, capital of Nejd and Hasa. The most flourishing portions of Arabia
+are in Oman, Hadramaut, and Nejd. In the two former are localities with
+numerous towns and villages and settled industrious populations like that
+of India or Europe.
+
+The climate of Arabia in general is marked by extreme heat and dryness.
+Aridity and barrenness characterize both high and low grounds, and the
+date-palm is often the only representative of vegetable existence. There
+are districts which in the course of the year are hardly refreshed by a
+single shower of rain. Forests there are few or none. Grassy pastures have
+their place supplied by steppe-like tracts, which are covered for a short
+season with aromatic herbs, serving as food for cattle. The date-palm
+furnishes the staple article of food; the cereals are wheat, barley, maize,
+and millet; various sorts of fruit flourish; coffee and many aromatic
+plants and substances, such as gum-arabic, benzoin, mastic, balsam, aloes,
+myrrh, frankincense, &c., are produced. There are also cultivated in
+different parts of the peninsula, according to the soil and climate, beans,
+rice, lentils, tobacco, melons, saffron, colocynth, poppies, olives, &c.
+Sheep, goats, oxen, the horse, the camel, ass, and mule supply man's
+domestic and personal wants. Among wild animals are gazelles, ostriches,
+the lion, panther, hyena, jackal, &c. Among mineral products are saltpetre,
+mineral pitch, petroleum, salt, sulphur, and several precious stones, as
+the carnelian, agate, and onyx. The people of Arabia, according to their
+own traditions, are derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs and the
+naturalized Arabs or Mustarab. They are leading either a settled
+agricultural life or a nomadic existence. In Southern Arabia the Jews form
+a large element in the towns' population. Commerce is largely in the hands
+of foreigners, among whom the Jews and Banians (Indian merchants) are the
+most numerous.
+
+The history of Arabia previous to Mahomet is obscure. The earliest
+inhabitants are believed to have been of the Semitic race. Jews in great
+numbers migrated into Arabia after the destruction of Jerusalem, and,
+making numerous proselytes, indirectly favoured the introduction of the
+doctrines of Mahomet. With his advent the Arabians revolted and united for
+the purpose of extending the new creed; and under the caliphs--the
+successors of Mahomet--they attained great power, and founded large and
+powerful kingdoms in three continents. (See _Caliphs_.) On the fall of the
+caliphate of Bagdad in 1258 the decline set in, and on the expulsion of the
+Moors from Spain the foreign rule of the Arabs came to an end. In the
+sixteenth century Turkey subdued Hejaz and Yemen, and received the nominal
+submission of the tribes inhabiting the rest of Arabia. The allegiance of
+Hejaz was renounced early in the European War; but Yemen achieved its
+independence in the seventeenth century, and maintained it till 1871, when
+the territory again fell into the hands of the Turks. In 1839 Aden was
+occupied by the British. Oman early became virtually independent of the
+caliphs, and grew into a well-organized kingdom. In 1507 its capital,
+Maskat or Muscat, was occupied by the Portuguese, who were not driven out
+till 1659. The Wahabis appeared towards the end of the eighteenth century,
+and took an important part in the political affairs of Arabia, but their
+progress was interrupted by Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, and they suffered
+a complete defeat by Ibrahim Pasha. He extended his power over most of the
+country, but the events of 1840 in Syria compelled him to renounce all
+claims to Arabia. The Hejaz thus again became subject to Turkish sway, and
+until 1914 Turkey continually extended its rule not only over Yemen, but
+also over the district of El-Hasa on the Persian Gulf.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir
+R. F. Burton, _Pilgrimage to Medina and Mecca_; E. Reclus, _Les Arabes_;
+C. M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_, and _Wanderings in Arabia_; G. W. Bury,
+_Arabia Infelix_; S. M. Zwemer, _Arabia, the Cradle of Islam._
+
+_Arabian Language and Literature._--The Arabic language belongs to the
+Semitic dialects, among which it is distinguished for its richness,
+softness, and high degree of development. By the spread of Islam it became
+the sole written language and the prevailing speech in all South-Western
+Asia and Eastern and Northern Africa, and for a time in Southern Spain, in
+Malta, and in Sicily; and it is still used as a learned and sacred language
+wherever Islam is spread. Almost a third part of the Persian vocabulary
+consists of Arabic words, and there is the same proportion of Arabic in
+Turkish. The Arabic language is written in an alphabet of its own, which
+has also been adopted in writing Persian, Hindustani, Turkish, &c. As in
+all Semitic languages (except the Ethiopic), it is read from right to left.
+The vowels are usually omitted in Arabic manuscripts, only the consonants
+being written.
+
+Poetry among the Arabs had a very early development, and before the time of
+Mahomet poetical contests were held and prizes awarded for the best pieces.
+The collection called the _Moallakat_ contains seven pre-Mahommedan poems
+by seven authors. Many other poems belonging to the time before Mahomet,
+some of equal age with those of the _Moallakat_, are also preserved in
+collections. Mahomet gave a new direction to Arab literature. The rules of
+faith and life which he laid down were collected by Abu-Bekr, first caliph
+after his death, and published by Othman, the third caliph, and constitute
+the _Koran_--the Mahommedan Bible. The progress of the Arabs in literature,
+the arts and sciences, may be said to have begun with the government of the
+caliphs of the family of the Abbassides, A.D. 749, at Bagdad, several of
+whom, as Harun al Rashid and Al Mamun, were munificent patrons of learning:
+and their example was followed by the Ommiades in Spain. In Spain were
+established numerous academies and schools, which were visited by students
+from other European countries; and important works were written on
+geography, history, philosophy, medicine, physics, mathematics, arithmetic,
+geometry, and astronomy. Most of the geography in the Middle Ages is the
+work of the Arabs, and their historians since the eighth century have been
+very numerous. The philosophy of the Arabs was of Greek origin, and derived
+principally from that of Aristotle. Numerous translations of the scientific
+works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers were made, principally by
+Christian scholars who resided as physicians at the Courts of the caliphs.
+These were diligently studied in Bagdad, Damascus, and Cordova, and, being
+translated into Latin, became known in the west of Europe. Of their
+philosophical authors the most celebrated are Alfarabi (tenth century), Ibn
+Sina or Avicenna (died A.D. 1037), Alghazzali (died 1111), Ibn Roshd or
+Averroes (twelfth century), called by pre-eminence The Commentator, &c. In
+medicine they excelled all other nations in the Middle Ages, and they are
+commonly regarded as the earliest experimenters in chemistry. Their
+mathematics and astronomy were based on the works of Greek writers, but the
+former they enriched, simplified, and extended. It was by them that algebra
+was introduced to the Western peoples, and the Arabic numerals were
+similarly introduced. Astronomy they especially cultivated, for which
+famous schools and observatories were erected at Bagdad and Cordova. The
+_Almagest_ of Ptolemy in an Arabic translation was early a textbook among
+them. Alongside of science poetry continued to be cultivated, but after the
+ninth or tenth centuries it grew more and more artificial. Among poets were
+Abu Nowas, Asmai, Abu Temmam, Motenabbi, Abul-Ala, Busiri, Tograi, and
+Hariri. Tales and romances in prose and verse were written. The tales of
+fairies, genii, enchanters, and sorcerers in particular passed from the
+Arabians to the Western nations, as in _The Thousand and One Nights._ Some
+of the books most widely read in the Middle Ages, such as _The Seven Wise
+Masters,_ the _Fables of Pilpay_ (or Bidpai), and the _Romance of Antar_
+found their way into Europe through the instrumentality of the Arabs. At
+the present day Arabic literature is almost confined to the production of
+commentaries and scholia, discussions on points of dogma and jurisprudence,
+and grammatical works on the classical language. There are a few newspapers
+published in Arabic.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Huart, _History of Arabic
+Literature;_ R. A. Nicholson, _Literary History of the Arabs._
+
+ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE. See _Moorish Architecture_, _Saracenic Architecture_.
+
+ARABIAN GULF. See _Red Sea_.
+
+ARABIAN NIGHTS, or THE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS, (Ar. Alf Layla wa-Layla), a
+celebrated collection of Eastern tales, based upon an old work, called
+_Hazar Afsana_, long current in the East, and supposed to have been derived
+by the Arabians from India, through the medium of Persia. They were first
+introduced into Europe in the beginning of the eighteenth century by means
+of the French translation of Antoine Galland. Of some of them no original
+MS. is known to exist; they were taken down by Galland from the oral
+communication of a Syrian friend. The story which connects the tales of
+_The Thousand and One Nights_ is as follows: The Sultan Shahriyar,
+exasperated by the faithlessness of his bride, made a law that every one of
+his future wives should be put to death the morning after marriage. At
+length one of them, Sheherazade, the generous daughter of the grand-vizier,
+succeeded in abolishing the cruel custom. By the charm of her stories the
+fair narrator induced the sultan to defer her execution every day till the
+dawn of another, by breaking off in the middle of an interesting tale which
+she had begun to relate. In the form we possess them these tales belong to
+a comparatively late period, though the exact date of their composition is
+not known. Lane, who published a translation of a number of the tales, with
+valuable notes, is of opinion that they took their present form some time
+between 1475 and 1525. Sir Richard Burton's complete English translation
+was issued in 16 vols. (1885-8).
+
+ARABIAN SEA, the part of the Indian Ocean between Arabia and India.
+
+ARABIC FIGURES, the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0; of Indian
+origin, introduced into Europe by the Moors. They did not come into general
+use till after the invention of printing.
+
+ARA'BI PASHA, Egyptian soldier and revolutionary leader, born 1839. In
+Sept., 1881, he headed a military revolt, and was for a time virtually
+dictator of Egypt. Britain interfered, and after a short campaign,
+beginning with the bombardment of Alexandria and ending with the defeat of
+Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir, he surrendered, and was banished to Ceylon, being
+pardoned in 1900. He died in obscurity in Cairo in 1911.
+
+ARABLE LAND, land which is fit for ploughing, and capable of being
+cultivated, as distinguished from grass-land, wood-land, common pasture,
+mountains, forests, morasses, and waste. In Government returns the term is
+applied to land that is actually under regular cultivation. The land
+capable of being cultivated amounts in England and Wales to about 25 per
+cent, and in Ireland to about 13 per cent. In the course of the last thirty
+or forty years there has, however, been a considerable diminution in the
+area of land actually cultivated, as a result of large foreign imports of
+grain and other agricultural products.
+
+ARABS. The Arabs, as a race, are of middle stature, of a powerful though
+slender build, and have a skin of a more or less brownish colour; in towns
+and the uplands often almost white. Their features are well cut, the nose
+straight, the forehead high. They are naturally active, intelligent, and
+courteous; and their character is marked by temperance, bravery, and
+hospitality. The first religion of the Arabs, the worship of the stars, was
+supplanted by the doctrines of Mahommedanism, which succeeded rapidly in
+establishing itself throughout Arabia. Besides the two principal sects of
+Islam, the Sunnites and the Shiites, there also exists, in considerable
+numbers, a third Mahommedan sect, the Wahabis, which arose in the latter
+half of the eighteenth century, and for a time possessed great political
+importance in the peninsula. The mode of life of the Arabs is either
+nomadic or settled. The nomadic tribes are termed Bedouins (or Bedawins),
+and among them are considered to be the Arabs of the purest blood.
+
+ARACACHA, or ARRACACHA (ar-a-kae'cha), a genus of umbelliferous plants of
+Southern and Central America. The root of _A. esculenta_ is divided into
+several lobes, each of which is about the size of a large carrot. These are
+boiled like potatoes and largely eaten in South America.
+
+ARACAN (ar-a-kan'), the most northern division of Lower Burmah, on the Bay
+of Bengal; chief town and seaport Akyab. It was ceded to the English in
+1826, as a result of the first Burmese war.
+
+ARACARI ([.a]-r[.a]-sae'r[=e]), native name of a genus of brilliant birds
+(Pteroglossus) closely allied to the toucans, but generally smaller;
+natives of the warm parts of South America.
+
+ARACATI ([.a]-r[.a]-k[.a]-t[=e]'), a Brazilian river-port, State of Ceara,
+on the River Jaguaribe, about 10 miles from its mouth. Exports hides and
+cotton. Pop. about 10,000.
+
+ARA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of monocotyledonous plants, mostly tropical, having
+the genus Arum as the type. Most of the species have tuberous roots
+abounding in starch, which forms a wholesome food after the acrid juice has
+been washed out. See _Arum_, _Caladium_, _Dumb-cane_.
+
+ARACHIS (ar'a-kis), a genus of leguminous plants much cultivated in warm
+climates, and esteemed a valuable article of food. The most remarkable
+feature of the genus is that when the flower falls the stalk supporting the
+small undeveloped fruit lengthens, and bending towards the ground pushes
+the fruit into the ground, when it begins to enlarge and ripen. The pod of
+_A. hypogoea_ (popularly called ground, earth, or pea nut) is of a
+pale-yellow colour, and contains two seeds the size of a hazel-nut, in
+flavour sweet as almonds, and yielding when pressed an excellent oil.
+
+ARACHNIDA (a-rak'ni-da; Gr. _arachn[=e]_, a spider), a class of Arthropoda
+or higher Annulose animals including the Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, Ticks,
+&c. They have the body divided into a number of segments or _somites_, some
+of which have always articulated appendages (limbs, &c.). There is often a
+pair of nervous ganglia in each somite, although in some forms (as spiders)
+the nervous system becomes modified and concentrated. They are oviparous
+and somewhat resemble insects, but they have a united head and thorax, and
+do not undergo a metamorphosis similar to insects. They respire by
+tracheae, by pulmonary sacs, or by the skin.
+
+AR'ACK, or AR'RACK, a spirituous liquor manufactured in the East Indies
+from a great variety of substances. It is often distilled from fermented
+rice, or it may be distilled from the juice of the coco-nut and other
+palms. Pure arack is clear and transparent, of a yellowish or straw colour,
+and with a peculiar but agreeable taste and smell; it contains at least 52
+to 54 per cent of alcohol.
+
+ARAD (o'rod), a town of the former kingdom of Hungary, on the Maros, 30
+miles north of Temeswar, divided by the river into O (Old) Arad and Uj
+(New) Arad, connected by a bridge; it has a fortress, and is an important
+railway centre, with a large trade and manufactures. The town is now within
+the confines of Roumania, Uj Arad being called Arodul Neo. Population of
+Old and New Arad together, 63,166.
+
+AR'ADUS (now RUAD), an inlet about a mile in circumference lying 2 miles
+off the Syrian coast, 35 miles N. of Tripolis; the site of the Phoenician
+stronghold Arvad, a city second only to Tyre and Sidon; now occupied by
+about 3000 people, mainly fishermen.
+
+ARAFAT', or JEBEL ER RAHMEH ('Mountain of Mercy'), a hill in Arabia, about
+200 feet high, with stone steps reaching to the summit, 15 miles south-east
+of Mecca; one of the principal objects of pilgrimage among Mahommedans, who
+say that it was the place where Adam first received his wife Eve after they
+had been expelled from Paradise and separated from each other 120 years. A
+sermon delivered on the mount constitutes one great ceremony of the _Hajj_;
+or pilgrimage to Mecca, and entitles the hearer to the name and privileges
+of a _Hajji_ or pilgrim.
+
+AR'AGO, Dominique Francois, a French physicist, born in 1786, died at Paris
+in 1853. After studying in the Polytechnic School at Paris, he was
+appointed a secretary of the Bureau des Longitudes. In 1806 he was
+associated with Biot in completing in Spain the measurements of Delambre
+and Mechain to obtain an arc of the meridian. Before he got back to France
+he had been shipwrecked and narrowly escaped being enslaved at Algiers. In
+1809 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences and appointed a professor at
+the Polytechnic School. He distinguished himself by his researches in the
+polarization of light, galvanism, magnetism, astronomy, &c. His discovery
+of the magnetic properties of substances devoid of iron, made known to the
+Academy of Sciences in 1824, procured him the Copley medal of the Royal
+Society of London in 1825. A further consideration of the same subject led
+to the equally remarkable discovery of the production of magnetism by
+electricity. He took part in the revolution of 1848, and held the office of
+Minister of War and Marine in the provisional Government. At the _coup
+d'etat_ of Dec., 1852, he refused to take the oath to the Government of
+Louis Napoleon, but the oath was not pressed. His works, which were
+posthumously collected and published, consist, besides his _Astronomie
+Populaire_, chiefly of contributions to learned societies, and biographical
+notices (_eloges_) of deceased members of the Academy of Sciences.
+
+ARAGO, Emmanuel, son of Dominique Francois, French advocate and politician,
+was born at Paris in 1812; called to the bar 1837; took part in the
+revolution of 1848; renounced politics after the _coup d'etat_ of Dec.,
+1852, but continued to practise at the bar. After the fall of the Empire he
+again took a prominent part in public affairs, and held several important
+offices. He is author of a volume of poems and many theatrical pieces. He
+died in 1896.
+
+ARAGO, Etienne, brother of Dominique Arago, born 1802, died 1892. He
+founded the journals _La Reforme_ and _Le Figaro_; was director of the
+Theatre du Vaudeville, 1829; took part in the revolution of 1848; was
+condemned to transportation, 1849; fled from France, but returned in 1859;
+was mayor of Paris during the Franco-Prussian war, and appointed archivist
+to the Ecole des Beaux Arts, 1878. He was author of upwards of 100 dramas,
+_La Vie de Moliere,_ _Les Bleus et les Blancs_, and other works.
+
+ARAGON', KINGDOM OF, a former province or kingdom of Spain, now divided
+into three provinces of Teruel, Huesca, and Saragossa; bounded on the N. by
+the Pyrenees, N.W. by Navarre, W. by Castile, S. by Valencia, and E. by
+Catalonia; length about 190 miles, average breadth 90 miles; area, 18,298
+sq. miles. It was governed by its own monarchs until the union with Castile
+on the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1469).
+
+ARAGO'NA, a town in Sicily, 8 miles N.N.E. of Girgenti. Pop. 16,000. In the
+neighbourhood is the mud volcano of Macculuba.
+
+ARAGONITE, a mineral formed of calcium carbonate crystallized in the
+rhombic system; specific gravity 2.94 (compare _Calcite_). Aragonite passes
+into calcite in the course of geological time, but is important as the
+mineral precipitated to form the oolitic limestones of warm seas, and from
+being the material of most molluscan shells. It was first found in Aragon.
+
+ARAGUAYA ([.a]-r[.a]-gw[=i]'[.a]), a Brazilian river, principal affluent of
+the Tocantins; rises about the 18th degree of S. lat.; in its course
+northwards forms the boundary between the two States of Matto Grosso and
+Goyaz, and falls into the Tocantins near lat. 6deg S.; length, about 1300
+miles, of which over 1000 are navigable.
+
+A'RAL, a salt-water lake in Asia, in Russian territory, about 150 miles W.
+of the Caspian Sea, between 43deg 42' and 46deg 44' N. lat., and 58deg 18'
+and 61deg 46' E. long.; length 270 miles, breadth 165; area, 26,650 sq.
+miles (or not much smaller than Scotland). It stands 240 feet above the
+level of the Caspian, and 160 feet above the Mediterranean. It receives the
+Amu Darya or Oxus and the Syr Darya or Jaxartes, and contains a multitude
+of sturgeon and other fish. It is encircled by desert sandy tracts, and its
+shores are without harbours. It has no outlet. The Aral contains a large
+number of small islands; steamers have been placed on it by the Russians.
+
+ARA'LIA, a genus of plants with small flowers arranged in umbels and
+succulent berries, the type of the nat. ord. Araliaceae, which is nearly
+related to the Umbelliferae, but the species are of a more shrubby habit.
+They are natives chiefly of tropical or sub-tropical countries, and in
+Britain are represented by the ivy; ginseng belongs to the order. From the
+pith of _A. papyrif[)e]ra_ is obtained the Chinese rice-paper.
+
+A'RAM, Eugene, a self-taught scholar whose unhappy fate has been made the
+subject of a ballad by Hood and a romance by Lord Lytton, was born in
+Yorkshire, 1704, executed for murder, 1759. In 1734 he set up a school at
+Knaresborough. About 1745 a shoemaker of that place, named Daniel Clarke,
+was suddenly missing under suspicious circumstances; and no light was
+thrown on the matter till full thirteen years afterwards, when an
+expression dropped by one Richard Houseman, respecting the discovery of a
+skeleton supposed to be Clarke's, caused him to be taken into custody. From
+his confession an order was issued for the apprehension of Aram, who had
+long quitted Yorkshire, and was at the time acting as usher at the
+grammar-school at Lynn. He was brought to trial on 3rd Aug., 1759, at York,
+where, notwithstanding an able and eloquent defence which he made before
+the court, he was convicted of the murder of Clarke, and sentenced to
+death. He was among the first to recognize the affinity of the Celtic to
+the other European languages, and under favourable circumstances might have
+done some valuable work in philological science.--Cf. W. Bristow, _The
+Genuine Account of the Life and Trial of Eugene Aram_.
+
+ARAMAE'AN, or ARAMAIC. See _Semitic Languages_, _Syriac_.
+
+AR'AN, an island lying off the W. coast of Donegal, Ireland, has an area of
+4335 acres, a lighthouse, and a pop. of 1308, chiefly engaged in
+fishing.--Also called _North Island of Aran_, or _Arranmore_.
+
+ARANE'IDAE, the spider family.
+
+ARAN ISLANDS, or SOUTH ISLANDS OF ARAN, three islands at the mouth of
+Galway Bay, off the W. coast of Ireland. The largest, Aranmore or
+Inishmore, comprises 7635 acres, and has a pop. of 2592; the next,
+Inishmaan, 2252 acres, pop. 473; and the least, Inishere, 1400 acres, pop.
+456. They are remarkable for a number of architectural remains of a very
+early date. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture and fishing.
+
+ARANJUEZ ([.a]-r[.a]n-_h_[u:]-eth'), a small town and palace in Spain, 30
+miles from Madrid, with splendid gardens laid out by Philip II. The Court
+used to reside here from Easter till the close of June, when the number of
+people increased from 4000 to 20,000. It has a wireless station. Pop.
+12,000.
+
+ARANY (o-ron'y), Janos, Hungarian poet, born 1817, died 1882. He was for
+some time a strolling player, but became professor of Latin at the Normal
+School of Szalonta, professor of Hungarian literature at Nagy Koeroes, and
+secretary of the Hungarian Academy. Author of _The Lost Constitution_,
+_Katalin_, and a series of three connected narrative poems on the fortunes
+of Toldi.
+
+ARAP'AHOES, a tribe of American Indians located near the head-waters of the
+Arkansas and Platte Rivers. They number in all about 2000.
+
+ARAPAIMA (a-ra-p[=i]'ma), a genus of South American fresh-water fishes,
+ord. Physostomi, family Osteoglossidae, one species of which (_A. gigas_)
+grows to the length of 15 or 16 feet, and forms a valuable article of food
+in Brazil and Guiana. It is covered with large bony scales, and has a bare
+and bony head.
+
+AR'ARAT, a celebrated mountain in Armenia, an isolated volcanic mass
+showing two separate cones known as the Great and Little Ararat, resting on
+a common base and separated by a deep intervening depression. The
+elevations are: Great Ararat, 16,916 feet; Little Ararat, 12,840 feet; the
+connecting ridge, 8780 feet. Vegetation extends to 14,200 feet, which marks
+the snow-line. According to the Bible Mount Ararat was the resting-place of
+the Ark when the waters of the Flood abated.
+
+ARARO'BA, or ARRAROBA, the powdered bark of _And[=i]ra arar[=o]ba_. See
+_Andira_.
+
+A'RAS (the ancient ARAXES), a river of Asia Minor, rising S. of Erzerum at
+the foot of the Bingol-dagh; it flows for some miles through South
+Caucasia, turning eastwards to the Erivan plain N. of Ararat. It then
+sweeps in a semi-circle mostly between Caucasia and Persia round to its
+confluence with the Kur, 60 miles from its mouth in the Caspian; length,
+500 miles.
+
+ARA'TUS, a Greek poet, born at Soli in Cilicia; lived about 270 B.C.; was a
+favourite of Ptolemy Philadelphus. His poem _Phaenomena_ is a version of a
+prose work on astronomy by Eudoxus; one verse of it is quoted by St. Paul
+in his address to the Athenians (_Acts_, xvii, 28).
+
+ARA'TUS OF SICYON, a statesman of ancient Greece, born 272 B.C. In 251 B.C.
+he overthrew the tyrant of Sicyon and joined that city to the Achaean
+League, which he greatly extended. He accepted the aid of Antigonus Doson,
+King of Macedon, against the Spartans, and became in time little more than
+the adviser of the Macedonian king, who had now made the League dependent
+on himself. He is said to have been poisoned by Philip V of Macedon, 213
+B.C.
+
+ARAUCA'NIANS, a South American native race in the southern part of Chile,
+occupying a territory stretching from about 37deg to 40deg of S. lat. They
+are warlike and more civilized than many of the native races of S. America,
+and maintained almost unceasing war with the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773,
+when their independence was recognized by Spain, though their territory was
+much curtailed. Their early contests with the Spaniards were celebrated in
+Ercilla's Spanish poem _Araucana_. With the Republic of Chile they were
+long at feud, and in 1861 had at their head a French adventurer named
+Antoine de Tounens, who claimed the title of king. In 1882 they submitted
+to Chile. The Chilian province of Arauco receives its name from them.
+
+[Illustration: Chile pine (_Araucaria imbric[=a]ta_)]
+
+ARAUCA'RIA, a genus of trees of the coniferous or pine order, indigenous to
+Australasia and South America. The species are large evergreen trees with
+pretty large, stiff, flattened, and generally imbricated leaves,
+verticillate spreading branches, and bearing large cones, each scale having
+a single large seed. The species _A. imbric[=a]ta_ (the Chile pine or
+monkey-puzzle), with hard, sharp, pointed leaves, was introduced into
+Britain in 1796. It is a native of the mountains of Southern Chile, where
+it forms vast forests and yields a hard durable wood. Its seeds are eaten
+when roasted. The Moreton Bay pine of New South Wales (_A. Cunninghamii_)
+supplies a valuable timber used in house and boat building, in making
+furniture, and in other carpenter work. A species, _A. excelsa_, or Norfolk
+Island pine, abounds in several of the South Sea Islands, where it attains
+a height of 220 feet with a circumference of 30 feet, and is described as
+one of the most beautiful of trees. Its foliage is light and graceful, and
+quite unlike that of _A. imbricata_, having nothing of its stiff formality.
+Its timber is of some value, being white, tough, and close-grained.
+
+ARAU'CO, a province of Chile, named from the Araucanian Indians; area, 2189
+sq. miles; pop. 73,260; capital, Lebu.
+
+ARAVAL'LI HILLS, a range of Indian mountains running N.E. and S.W. across
+the Rajputana country, which they separate into two natural
+divisions--desert plains on the N.W. and fertile lands on the S.E.; highest
+point, Mount Abu (5653 feet).
+
+ARAXES. See _Aras_.
+
+AR'B[)A]CES, one of the generals of Sardanapaelus, King of Assyria. He
+revolted and defeated his master, and became the founder of the Median
+Empire in 846 B.C.
+
+AR'BALIST. See _Cross-bow_.
+
+ARBE'LA (now ERBIL), a place in the vilayet of Bagdad, giving name to the
+decisive battle fought by Alexander the Great against Darius, at Gaugamela,
+about 50 miles distant from it, 1st Oct., 331 B.C.
+
+ARBITRAGE ([.a]r'bi-tr[.a]zh), or ARBITRATION OF EXCHANGES, an operation or
+calculation by which the currency of one country is converted into that of
+another through the medium of intervening currencies, for the purpose of
+ascertaining whether direct or indirect drafts and remittances are
+preferable.--_Arbitrageur_ ([.a]r'bi-tr[.a]-zheur) is one who makes
+calculations of currency exchanges. See _Stock Exchange_.
+
+ARBITRA'TION, the hearing and determination of a cause between parties in
+controversy, by a person or persons chosen by the parties. This may be done
+by one person, but it is common to choose more than one. Frequently two are
+nominated, one by each party, with a third, the _umpire_ (or, in Scotland,
+sometimes the _oversman_), who is called on to decide in case of the
+primary arbitrators differing. In such a case the umpire may be agreed upon
+either by the parties themselves, or by the arbitrators when they have
+received authority from the parties to the dispute to settle this point.
+The determination of arbitrators is called an _award_. By the law of
+England the authority of an arbitrator cannot be revoked by any of the
+parties without the leave of the court or of a judge.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Russell, _Arbitration_; Redman, _Arbitration_; Scots Law, see Bell, _On
+Arbitration_; American Law, see Morse, _Law of Arbitration_; R. G. Morris,
+_International Arbitration_.
+
+AR'BLAST. See _Cross-bow_.
+
+ARBO'GA, an old Swedish city, province of Westmannland; once an important
+commercial town, now only of historical interest from having been at one
+time a residence of the family of Vasa, the scene of Church assemblies and
+national diets, and for the antiquities in its neighbourhood. Pop. 5050.
+
+ARBOIS ([.a]r-bwae), a town of France, department of Jura; famous for its
+wines. Pop. 5000.
+
+ARBOR DAY, a day officially set apart in the United States for the annual
+planting of trees by the people, and especially by school-children. The
+custom was instituted in 1872.
+
+ARBORE'TUM (Lat. _arbor_, a tree), a place in which a collection of
+different trees and shrubs is cultivated for scientific or educational
+purposes. The largest arboretum in Britain, perhaps the finest in the whole
+world, is that of the Royal Gardens, at Kew, inaugurated in 1762, to which
+180 acres are now devoted. Next in celebrity are the arboreta at Edinburgh
+(Inverleith) and at Dublin (Glasnevin), the Botanical Gardens at Oxford,
+and the Botanic Gardens at Glasgow. Other arboreta are that of the Jardin
+des Plantes, Paris, and the Arnold Arboretum, at Jamaica Plain, Boston. The
+term arboretum has also been applied in a restricted sense, as in the
+_Arboretum Fruticetum Britannicum_, the monumental work by J. C. Loudon.
+
+AR'BORICULTURE includes the culture of trees and shrubs, as well as all
+that pertains to the preparation of the soil, the sowing of the seeds, and
+the treatment of the plants in their young state, the preparation of the
+land previous to their final transplantation, their just adaptation to soil
+and situation, their relative growth and progress to maturity, their
+management during growth, and the proper season and period for felling
+them.
+
+ARBOR VITAE (literally, 'tree of life'), the name of several coniferous
+trees of the genus Thuja, allied to the cypress, with flattened branchlets,
+and small imbricated or scale-like leaves. The name is derived from
+valuable medicinal properties having formerly been ascribed to the aromatic
+resin they mostly yield. Those generally cultivated in Britain are: the
+common Arbor Vitae (_Thuja occident[=a]lis_), a native of North America,
+where it grows to a height of 40 or 50 feet, introduced into Britain about
+1566; the giant Arbor Vitae or Red Cedar (_Thuja gigantea_), introduced in
+1854; and the Chinese Arbor Vitae (_Thuja orient[=a]lis_).
+
+ARBROATH (ar-br[=o]th'), or ABERBROTHOCK, a royal municipal and police
+burgh and seaport in the county of Forfar, Scotland, at the mouth of the
+small River Brothock. Its ancient abbey, founded by William the Lion in
+1178, and dedicated to Saints Mary and Thomas a Becket, is now a
+picturesque ruin. There are numerous flax and hemp spinning-mills and
+factories, and much canvas and linen is made; also tanning, shoemaking, and
+fishing, and a small shipping trade, but the harbour is bad. Pop. 19,499.
+It unites with Montrose, Forfar, Brechin, and Inverbervie (the Montrose
+burghs) in sending a member to Parliament.
+
+ARBUTH'NOT, John, an eminent physician and distinguished wit, born at
+Arbuthnot, Kincardineshire, Scotland, 1667, died 1735. He received the
+degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of St. Andrews, and went to
+London, where he soon distinguished himself by his writings and by his
+skill in his profession. In 1704 he was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society,
+and soon after he was appointed physician extraordinary, and then physician
+in ordinary to Queen Anne. About this time he became intimate with Swift,
+Pope, Gay, and other wits of the day. His writings, other than professional
+or scientific, include his contributions (in conjunction with Swift and
+Pope) to the _Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus_, _History of John Bull_, _Art
+of Political Lying_, &c. He was conspicuous not only for learning and wit,
+but also for worth and humanity.
+
+AR'BUTUS, a genus of plants belonging to the Ericaceae, or heath order, and
+comprising a number of small trees and shrubs, natives chiefly of Europe
+and N. America. _Arb[)u]tus Un[)e]do_ abounds near the lakes of Killarney,
+where its fine foliage adds charms to the scenery. The bright red or yellow
+berries, somewhat like the strawberry, have an unpleasant taste and
+narcotic properties. The Corsicans make wine from them. The trailing
+arbutus or may-flower of N. America, a plant with fragrant and beautiful
+blossoms, is _Epigaea repens_, of the same nat. ord.
+
+ARC, a portion of a curved line, especially of a circle. It is by means of
+circular arcs that all angles are measured.--_Electric_ or _Voltaic arc_,
+the luminous arc of intense brightness and excessively high temperature
+which is formed by an electric current in crossing over the interval of
+space between the carbon points of an electric lamp. See _Arc-light_.
+
+ARC, Jeanne d'. See _Joan of Arc_.
+
+AR'CA, a genus of bivalve molluscs, family Arcadae, whose shells are known
+as _ark-shells_.
+
+ARCACHON ([.a]r-k[.a]-sh[=o][n.]), a town of S.W. France, department
+Gironde, on the almost landlocked basin of Arcachon, a much-frequented
+bathing-place, with great oyster-breeding establishments. It is connected
+by railway with Bordeaux. Pop. 10,266.
+
+ARCADE, a series of arches supported on piers or pillars, used generally as
+a screen and support of a roof, or of the wall of a building, and having
+beneath the covered part an ambulatory as round a cloister, or a footpath
+with shops or dwellings, as frequently seen in old Italian towns. Sometimes
+a porch or other prominent part of an important building is treated with
+arcades. At the present day Bologna, Padua, and Berne have fine examples of
+mediaeval arcaded streets, and among more modern work various streets in
+Turin, and the Rue de Rivoli, Paris, are lined with arcades, with shops
+underneath. In mediaeval architecture the term arcade is also applied to a
+series of arches supported on pillars forming an ornamental dressing or
+enrichment of a wall, a mode of treatment of very frequent occurrence in
+the towers, apses, and other parts of churches. In modern use the name
+arcade is often applied to a passage or narrow street containing shops
+arched over and covered with glass, as for example the Burlington Arcade,
+London, the Royal Arcade at Newcastle, and the Galleria Vittorio Emmanuele
+in Milan.
+
+ARCA'DIA, the central and most mountainous portion of the Peloponnesus
+(Morea), the inhabitants of which in ancient times were celebrated for
+simplicity of character and manners. Their occupation was almost entirely
+pastoral, and thus the country came to be regarded as typical of rural
+simplicity and happiness. At the present day Arcadia forms a nomarchy of
+the kingdom of Greece. Area, 2028 sq. miles. Pop. 162,324.
+
+ARCA'DIUS, born in 377, died 408; son of the Emperor Theodosius, on whose
+death in 395 the empire was divided, he obtaining the East, and his brother
+Honorius the West. He proved a feeble and pusillanimous prince.
+
+ARCANUM, THE GREAT (meaning secret), a term applied in the Middle Ages to
+the highest problems of alchemy and the discovery of the supposed great
+secrets of nature, such as the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life.
+See _Alchemy_.
+
+ARCATURE, in architecture, a small arcade built into a wall or applied
+against it, decorative rather than structural. Arcatures occur in
+Anglo-Norman churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
+
+ARCESILAUS ([.a]r-ses-i-l[=a]'us), a Greek philosopher, the founder of the
+second or middle academy, was born about 315 B.C., died 239 B.C. He left no
+writings, and of his opinions so little is known that it has been doubted
+whether he was a strict Platonist or a sceptic.
+
+[Illustration: Parts of an Arch
+
+_a._ Abutments. _i._ Impost. _p._ Piers. _v._ Voussoirs or arch-stones.
+_k._ Keystone. s. Springers. _In._ Intrados. _Ex._ Extrados. ]
+
+[Illustration: Lancet. Horse-shoe.]
+
+[Illustration: Segmental. Semicircular.]
+
+[Illustration: Ogee. Equilateral.]
+
+ARCH, a structure composed of separate pieces, such as stones or bricks,
+having the shape of truncated wedges, arranged on a curved line, so as to
+retain their position by mutual pressure. The separate stones which compose
+the arch are called _voussoirs_ or _arch-stones_; the extreme or lowest
+voussoirs are termed _springers_, and the uppermost or central one is
+called the _keystone_. The under or concave side of the voussoirs is called
+the _intrados_, and the upper or convex side the _extrados_ of the arch.
+The supports which afford resting and resisting points to the arch are
+called _piers_ and _abutments_. The upper part of the pier or abutment,
+where the arch rests--technically where it _springs from_--is the _impost_.
+The _span_ of an arch is in circular arches the length of its chord, and
+generally the width between the points of its opposite imposts whence it
+springs. The _rise_ of an arch is the height of the highest point of its
+intrados above the line of the imposts; this point is sometimes called the
+_under side of the crown_, the highest point of the extrados being the
+_crown_. Arches are designated in various ways, as from their shape
+(circular, elliptic, &c.), or from the resemblance of the whole contour of
+the curve to some familiar object (lancet arch, horse-shoe arch), or from
+the method used in describing the curve, as equilateral, three-centred,
+four-centred, ogee, and the like; or from the style of architecture to
+which they belong, as Roman, pointed, and Saracenic arches.--_Triumphal
+arch_, originally a simple decorated arch under which a victorious Roman
+general and army passed in triumph. At a later period the triumphal arch
+was a richly-sculptured, massive, and permanent structure, having an
+archway passing through it, with generally a smaller arch on either side.
+The name is sometimes given to an arch, generally of wood decorated with
+flowers or evergreens, erected on occasion of some public rejoicing, &c.
+
+ARCHAEAN (aer-k[=e]'an) ROCKS (Gr. _archaios_, ancient), the oldest rocks
+of the earth's crust, mostly crystalline in character, and embracing
+granites, gneisses, mica-schists, &c., all devoid of fossil remains. These
+rocks underlie a group of stratified and igneous masses that are usually
+distinguished from them as Huronian; the first beds with a well-marked
+fauna (lowest Cambrian) lie above the Huronian, and the Huronian and the
+Archaean groups are often conveniently classed together as pre-Cambrian,
+and are separated from the stratified and fossiliferous formations, which
+indeed have chiefly taken origin from them. The core of the Malvern range,
+and the rocks of N.W. Sutherland, are examples of Archaean masses in Great
+Britain.
+
+ARCHAEOL'OGY (Gr. _archaios_, ancient, and _logos_, a discourse), the study
+of antiquity, or the science which takes cognizance of the history of
+nations and peoples as evinced by the remains, architectural, implemental,
+or otherwise, which belong to the earlier epoch of their existence. In a
+more extended sense the term embraces every branch of knowledge which bears
+on the origin, religion, laws, languages, science, arts, and literature of
+ancient peoples. It is to a great extent synonymous with _prehistoric
+annals_, as a large if not the principal part of its field of study extends
+over those periods in the history of the human race in regard to which we
+possess almost no information derivable from written records. Archaeology
+divides the primeval period of the human race, more especially as exhibited
+by remains found in Europe, into the _stone_, the _bronze_, and the _iron_
+ages, these names being given in accordance with the materials employed for
+weapons, implements, &c., during the particular period. The _stone_ age has
+been subdivided into the _palaeolithic_ and _neolithic_, the former being
+that older period, in which the stone implements were not polished as they
+are in the latter and more recent period. The _bronze_ age, which admits of
+a similar subdivision, is that in which implements were of copper or
+bronze. In this age the dead were burned and their ashes deposited in urns
+or stone chests, covered with conical mounds of earth or cairns of stones.
+Gold and amber ornaments appear in this age. The _iron_ age is that in
+which implements, &c., of iron begin to appear, although stone and bronze
+implements are found along with them. The word _age_ in this sense (as
+explained under _Age_) simply denotes the stage at which a people has
+arrived. The phrase stone age, therefore, merely marks the period before
+the use of bronze, the bronze age that before the employment of iron, among
+any specific people. See _Excavations_; _Crete_; _Egypt_; &c--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Sir J. Evans, _Stone Implements of Great Britain_; Boyd-Dawkins, _Early Man
+in Britain_; J. Geikie, _Prehistoric Europe_; R. Munro, _Lake Dwellings of
+Europe_; Sir W. Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_; H. R. Hall, _Aegean
+Archaeology_; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Methods and Aims in Archaeology_;
+A. P. F. Michaelis, _A Century of Archaeological Discoveries_.
+
+[Illustration: Archaeopteryx macrura, a fossil lizard-tailed bird]
+
+ARCHAEOPTERYX (aer-k[=e]-op'te-riks), a fossil bird from the oolitic
+limestone of Solenhofen, of the size of a rook, and differing from all
+known birds in having two free claws representing the thumb and forefinger
+projecting from the wing, and about twenty tail vertebrae free and
+prolonged as in mammals.
+
+ARCHANGEL (aerk'[=a]n-jel; Gr. prefix, _arch-_, denoting chief), an angel
+of superior or of the highest rank. The only archangel mentioned by name in
+Scripture is Michael in the _Epistle of Jude_.
+
+ARCHANGEL (aerk-[=a]n'jel), a seaport, capital of the Russian government of
+same name, on the right bank of the Northern Dvina, about 20 miles above
+its mouth in the White Sea. Below the town the river divides into several
+branches and forms a number of islands, on one of which, called Sollenbole,
+is the harbour. The houses are mostly of wood; the place has some
+manufactures and an important trade, exporting linseed, flax, tow, tallow,
+train-oil, mats, timber, pitch and tar, &c. The port is closed for six
+months by ice. Archangel, founded in 1584, was long the only port which
+Russia possessed. Pop. 43,388.--The province, which before the Russian
+revolution extended from the Ural Mountains to Finland, had an area of
+326,063 sq. miles. Pop. 483,500.--For the Archangel Expedition of 1918, see
+_Murmansk_, _Russia_.
+
+ARCHANGEL'ICA. See _Angelica_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ARCHAEOLOGY: ANTIQUITIES OF THE STONE, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES
+
+[Illustration: OLDER STONE AGE: 1, Flint Pick. 2, Carved Mammoth Tusk. 3,
+Double Scraper. 4, Barbed Harpoon Heads. LATER STONE AGE: 5, Pick of Deer
+Antler. 6, Flint and Pyrites. 7, Stone Celt in Haft. 8, Arrowhead. 9, Bowl.
+BRONZE AGE: 10, Celt. 11, Drinking-cup. 12, Ornamental Pin. 13, Spear-head.
+14, Bronze Tweezers. 15, 16, Gold Bracelets. 17, Engraved Pin. 18, Short
+Sword. 19, Spectacle Brooch. 20, Razor. EARLY IRON AGE: 21, Bronze Brooch.
+22, Bone Hand-comb for weaving. 23, Bronze Mirror. 24, Bronze Jug. 25,
+Bronze Spoon. 26, Iron Currency Bars. 27, Bronze Brooch.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+ARCHBISHOP (aerch-), a chief bishop, or bishop over other bishops; a
+metropolitan prelate. The establishment of this dignity is to be traced up
+to an early period of Christianity, when the bishops and inferior clergy
+met in the capitals to deliberate on spiritual affairs, and the bishop of
+the city where the meeting was held presided. In England there are two
+archbishops--those of Canterbury and York; the former styled _Primate of
+all England_, the latter _Primate of England_. The Archbishop of Canterbury
+is the first peer of the realm, having precedence before all great officers
+of the Crown and all dukes not of royal birth. He crowns the sovereign, and
+when he is invested with his archbishopric he is said to be enthroned. He
+can grant special licences to marry at any time or place, and can confer
+degrees otherwise to be obtained only from the universities. He is
+addressed by the titles of _your grace_ and _most reverend father in God_,
+and writes himself _by divine providence_, while the Archbishop of York and
+the bishops only write _by divine permission_. The first Archbishop of
+Canterbury was Augustine, appointed A.D. 598 by Ethelbert. Next in dignity
+is the Archbishop of York, between whom and the Archbishop of Canterbury
+the Lord High-Chancellor of England has his place in precedency. The first
+Archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed in 622. The incomes of the sees
+are L15,000 and L10,000 respectively. An Archbishop of Wales was first
+appointed in 1920. Scotland had two archbishops--St. Andrews and Glasgow.
+Ireland had four, but the Episcopal Church has but two--Armagh and Dublin,
+the former being _Primate of all Ireland_, the latter _Primate of Ireland_.
+There are four Roman Catholic archbishops in England and
+Wales--Westminster, Cardiff, Birmingham, and Liverpool; two in
+Scotland--St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and Glasgow; four in Ireland--Armagh,
+Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam.
+
+ARCHDEACON (aerch-), in England, an ecclesiastical dignitary next in rank
+below a bishop, having a certain jurisdiction over a part of the diocese.
+From two to four archdeacons are appointed by the bishops, under whom they
+perform their duties, and they hold courts which decide cases subject to an
+appeal to the bishop.
+
+ARCHDUKE, a title peculiar to the royal family of Austria--the Habsburgs,
+who ruled until 1918.
+
+ARCHELAUS ([.a]r-k[=e]-l[=a]'us), the name of several personages in ancient
+history, one of whom was the son of Herod the Great. He received from
+Augustus the sovereignty of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. The people, tired
+of his tyrannical and bloody reign, accused him before Augustus, who
+banished him to Gaul.
+
+ARCHER, William, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at Perth,
+Scotland, in 1856. Educated at Edinburgh University, he went to London
+after some experience of journalism at Edinburgh, and after a visit to
+Australia was called to the bar, and was dramatic critic for _The World_
+from 1884 to 1905. Subsequently he has been dramatic critic for _The
+Tribune_ and _The Nation_. He has done much to introduce Ibsen to the
+English public, by translating his dramas and otherwise, and has written
+_English Dramatists of To-day_; _A Life of Macready_; _About the Theatre:
+Essays and Studies_; _Masks or Faces?: a Study on the Psychology of
+Acting_; _The Theatrical World_ (a collection of his dramatic criticisms)
+(5 vols.); _Study and Stage_; _America To-Day_ (the result of a visit in
+1900); _Poets of the Younger Generation_; _Real Conversations_ (the result
+of a series of interviews with persons of note); _Through Afro-America_
+(1910); _The Life, Trial, and Death of Francisco Ferrer_ (1911);
+_Play-Making_ (1912); _The Thirteen Days_ (1915); _India and the Future_
+(1917); _War is War_.
+
+ARCHER-FISH, a name given to the _Tox[)o]tes jacul[=a]tor_, a scaly-finned,
+acanthopterygian fish, about 6 inches long, inhabiting the seas around
+Java, which has the faculty of shooting drops of water to the distance of 3
+or 4 feet at insects, thereby causing them to fall into the water, when it
+seizes and devours them. The soft, and even the spiny portions of their
+dorsal fins are so covered with scales as to be scarcely distinguishable
+from the rest of the body.
+
+[Illustration: Assyrian Archer]
+
+ARCH'ERY, the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. The use of these
+weapons in war and the chase dates from the earliest antiquity. Ishmael, we
+learn from _Gen_. xxi, "became an archer". The Egyptians, Assyrians,
+Persians, Parthians, excelled in the use of the bow; and while the Greeks
+and Romans themselves made little use of it, they employed foreign archers
+as mercenaries. Coming to much more recent times, we find the Swiss famous
+as archers, but they generally used the arbalist or cross-bow, and were no
+match for their English rivals, who preferred the long-bow. (See _Bow_.)
+The English victories of Cressy, Poietiers, and Agincourt, gained against
+apparently overwhelming odds, may be ascribed to the bowmen. Archery
+disappeared gradually as firearms came into use, and as an instrument of
+war or the chase the bow is now confined to the most savage tribes of both
+hemispheres. But though the bow has been long abandoned among civilized
+nations as a military weapon, it is still cherished as an instrument of
+healthful recreation, encouraged by archery clubs or societies, which have
+been established in many parts of Britain. The oldest, and by far the most
+historically important of these societies, is the Royal Company of Archers,
+called also the King's Body-guard for Scotland, formed originally, it is
+said, by James I, but constituted in its present form by an Act of the
+Privy Council of Scotland, in 1676, and having its head-quarters in
+Edinburgh, counting among its members many of the nobility and gentry of
+the northern kingdom, and holding annual meetings, where prizes are
+competed for. In recent years a number of clubs have been formed in the
+United States. Archery has the merit of forming a sport open to women as
+well as men.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Garrard, _The Arte of Warre_; E. S.
+Morse, _Archery, Ancient and Modern_; H. A. Ford, _The Theory and Practice
+of Archery_.
+
+[Illustration: Egyptian Archer with arrow-heads and stone-tipped reed
+arrow]
+
+ARCHES, COURT OF, the chief and most ancient consistory court, belonging to
+the archbishopric of Canterbury, for the debating of spiritual causes. It
+is named from the church in London, St. Mary le Bow, or Bow Church (so
+called from a fine _arched_ crypt), where it was formerly held. The
+jurisdiction of this court extends over the province of Canterbury. The
+office of president or dean is now merged in that of the judge appointed by
+the Public Worship Regulation Act (1874). The court now sits in the library
+of Lambeth Palace.
+
+ARCHIL, or ORCHIL ([.a]r'kil, or'kil), a red, violet, or purple colouring
+matter obtained from various kinds of lichens, the most important of which
+are the _Roccella tinctoria_ and the _R. fuciformis_, natives of the rocks
+of the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, Mozambique and Zanzibar, South
+America, &c., and popularly called dyer's-moss. The dye is used for
+improving the tints of other dyes, as from its want of permanence it cannot
+be employed alone; but the aniline colours have largely superseded it.
+Cudbear and litmus are of similar origin.
+
+ARCHILOCHUS ([.a]r-kil'o-kus) OF PAROS, one of the earliest Ionian lyric
+poets, the first Greek poet who composed iambic verses according to fixed
+rules. He flourished about 700 B.C. His iambic poems were renowned for
+force of style, liveliness of metaphor, and a powerful but bitter spirit of
+satire. In other lyric poems of a graver character he was also considered
+as a model. All his works are lost but a few fragments.
+
+ARCHIMAN'DRITE, in the Greek Church, an abbot or abbot-general, who has the
+superintendence of many abbots and convents. The title dates from the
+fourth century.
+
+ARCHIME'DEAN SCREW, a machine for raising water, said to have been invented
+by Archimedes. It is formed by winding a tube spirally round a cylinder so
+as to have the form of a screw, or by hollowing out the cylinder itself
+into a double or triple-threaded screw and enclosing it in a water-tight
+case. When the screw is placed in an inclined position and the lower end
+immersed in water, by causing the screw to revolve, the water may be raised
+to a limited extent.
+
+ARCHIMEDES ([.a]r-ki-m[=e]'d[=e]z), a celebrated ancient Greek physicist
+and geometrician, born at Syracuse, in Sicily, about 287 B.C. He devoted
+himself entirely to science, and enriched mathematics with discoveries of
+the highest importance, upon which the moderns have founded their
+admeasurements of curvilinear surfaces and solids. Archimedes is the only
+one among the ancients who has left us anything satisfactory on the theory
+of mechanics and on hydrostatics. He first taught the hydrostatic principle
+to which his name is attached, "that a body immersed in a fluid loses as
+much in weight as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid", and
+determined by means of it that an artist had fraudulently added too much
+alloy to a crown which King Hiero had ordered to be made of pure gold. He
+discovered the solution of this problem while bathing; and it is said to
+have caused him so much joy that he hastened home from the bath undressed,
+and crying out, _Eur[=e]ka! Eur[=e]ka!_ 'I have found it, I have found it!'
+Practical mechanics also received a great deal of attention from
+Archimedes, who boasted that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point he could
+move the world. He is the inventor of the compound pulley, probably of the
+endless screw, the Archimedean screw, &c. During the siege of Syracuse by
+the Romans he is said to have constructed many wonderful machines with
+which he repelled their attacks, and he is stated to have set on fire their
+fleet by burning-glasses. At the moment when the Romans gained possession
+of the city by assault (212 B.C.), tradition relates that Archimedes was
+slain while sitting in the market-place contemplating some mathematical
+figures which he had drawn in the sand.
+
+ARCHIPEL'AGO, a term originally applied to the Aegean, the sea lying
+between Greece and Asia Minor, then to the numerous islands situated
+therein, and subsequently to any cluster of islands. In the Grecian
+Archipelago the islands nearest the European coast lie together almost in a
+circle, and for this reason are called the _Cyclades_ (Gr. _kyklos_, a
+circle); those nearest the Asiatic, being farther from one another, the
+_Sporades_ ('scattered'). (See these articles, and _Negropont_, _Scio_,
+_Samos_, _Rhodes_, _Cyprus_, &c.) The Malay, Indian, or Eastern
+Archipelago, on the east of Asia, includes Borneo, Sumatra, and other large
+islands.
+
+ARCHITEC'TURE, in a general sense, is the art of designing and constructing
+houses, bridges, and other buildings for the purposes of civil life; or, in
+a more limited but very common sense, that branch of the fine arts which
+has for its object the production of edifices not only convenient for their
+special purpose, but characterized by unity, beauty, and often
+grandeur.--The first habitations of man were such as nature afforded, or
+cost little labour to the occupant--caves, huts, and tents. But as soon as
+men rose in civilization and formed settled societies they began to build
+more commodious and comfortable habitations. They bestowed more care on the
+materials, preparing bricks of clay or earth, which they at first dried in
+the air, but afterwards baked by fire; and subsequently they smoothed
+stones and joined them at first without, and at a later period with, mortar
+or cement. After they had learned to build houses, they erected temples for
+their gods on a larger and more splendid scale than their own dwellings.
+The Egyptians are the most ancient nation known to us among whom
+architecture had attained the character of a fine art. Other ancient
+peoples among whom it had made great progress were the Babylonians, whose
+most celebrated buildings were temples, palaces, and hanging gardens; the
+Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, was rich in splendid buildings; the
+Phoenicians, whose cities, Sidon, Tyre, &c., were adorned with equal
+magnificence; and the Israelites, whose temple was a wonder of
+architecture. But comparatively few architectural monuments of these
+nations have remained till our day.
+
+This is not the case with the architecture of Egypt, however, of which we
+possess ample remains in the shape of pyramids, temples, sepulchres,
+obelisks, &c. Egyptian chronology is far from certain, but the greatest of
+the architectural monuments of the country, the pyramids of Ghizeh, are at
+least as old as 2800 or 2700 B.C. The Egyptian temples had walls of great
+thickness and sloping on the outside from bottom to top; the roofs were
+flat, and composed of blocks of stone reaching from one wall or column to
+another. The columns were numerous, close, and very thick, generally
+without bases, and exhibiting great variety in the designs of their
+capitals. The principle of the arch, though known, was not employed for
+architectural purposes. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes carved in stone,
+and on the walls sculptures in outline of deities and animals, with
+innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects which belong to this
+style.
+
+[Illustration: Egyptian--Restoration of Temple of Luxor]
+
+The earliest architectural remains of Greece are of unknown antiquity, and
+consist of massive walls built of huge blocks of stone. In historic times
+the Greeks developed an architecture of noble simplicity and dignity. The
+discoveries in Crete and Argolis have shown that Greek architecture owes
+much less than was supposed to Egyptian and Chaldaean architecture. It is
+considered to have attained its greatest perfection in the age of Pericles,
+or about 460-430 B.C. The great masters of this period were Phidias,
+Ictinus, Callicrates, &c. All the extant buildings are more or less in
+ruins. The style is characterized by beauty, harmony, and simplicity in the
+highest degree. Distinctive of it are what are called the _orders_ of
+architecture, by which term are understood certain modes of proportioning
+and decorating the column and its superimposed entablature. The Greeks had
+three orders, called respectively the _Doric_, _Ionic_, and _Corinthian_.
+(See articles under these names.) Greek buildings were abundantly adorned
+with sculptures, and painting was extensively used, the details of the
+structures being enriched by different colours or tints. Lowness of roofs
+and the absence of arches were distinctive features of Greek architecture,
+in which, as in that of Egypt, horizontality of line is another
+characteristic mark. The most remarkable public edifices of the Greeks were
+temples, of which the most famous is the Parthenon at Athens. Others exist
+in various parts of Greece as well as in Sicily, Southern Italy, Asia
+Minor, &c., where important Greek communities were early settled. Their
+theatres were semicircular on one side and square on the other, the
+semicircular part being usually excavated in the side of some convenient
+hill. This part, the auditorium, was filled with concentric seats, and
+might be capable of containing 20,000 spectators. A number exist in Greece,
+Sicily, and Asia Minor, and elsewhere. By the end of the Peloponnesian War
+(_c._ 400 B.C.) the best period of Greek architecture was over; a noble
+simplicity had given place to excess of ornament. After the death of
+Alexander the Great (323 B.C.) the decline was still more marked.
+
+[Illustration: Byzantine--Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople]
+
+Among the Romans there was no original development of architecture as among
+the Greeks, though they early took the foremost place in the construction
+of such works as aqueducts and sewers, the arch being in early and
+extensive use among this people. As a fine art, however, Roman architecture
+had its origin in copies of the Greek models, all the Grecian orders being
+introduced into Rome, and variously modified. Their number, moreover, was
+augmented by the addition of two new orders--the _Tuscan_ and the
+_Composite_. The Romans became acquainted with the architecture of the
+Greeks soon after 200 B.C., but it was not till about two centuries later
+that the architecture of Rome attained (under Augustus) its greatest
+perfection. Among the great works now erected were temples, aqueducts,
+amphitheatres, magnificent villas, triumphal arches, monumental pillars,
+&c. The _amphitheatre_ differed from the theatre in being a completely
+circular or rather elliptical building, filled on all sides with ascending
+seats for spectators and leaving only the central space, called the
+_arena_, for the combatants and public shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous
+structure of this kind. The _thermae_, or baths, were vast structures in
+which multitudes of people could bathe at once. Magnificent tombs were
+often built by the wealthy. Remains of private residences are numerous, and
+the excavations at Pompeii in particular have thrown great light on the
+internal arrangements of the Roman dwelling-house. Almost all the
+successors of Augustus embellished Rome more or less, erected splendid
+palaces and temples, and adorned, like Hadrian, even the conquered
+countries with them. But after the period of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Roman
+architecture is considered to have been on the decline. The refined and
+noble style of the Greeks was neglected, and there was an attempt to
+embellish the beautiful more and more. This decline was all the more rapid
+at a later time owing to the disturbed state of the Empire and the
+incursions of the barbarians.
+
+In Constantinople, after its virtual separation from the Western Empire,
+arose a style of art and architecture which was practised by the Greek
+Church during the whole of the Middle Ages. This is called the Byzantine
+style. The church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, built by Justinian
+(reigned 527-565), offers the most typical specimen of the style, of which
+the fundamental principle was an application of the Roman arch, the dome
+being the most striking feature of the building. In the most typical
+examples the dome or cupola rests on four pendentives.
+
+After the dismemberment of the Roman Empire the beautiful works of ancient
+architecture were almost entirely destroyed by the Goths, Vandals, and
+other barbarians in Italy, Greece, Asia, Spain, and Africa; or what was
+spared by them was ruined by the fanaticism of the Christians. A new style
+of architecture now arose, two forms of which, the Lombard and the Norman
+Romanesque, form important phases of art. The Lombard prevailed in North
+Italy and South Germany from the eighth or ninth to the thirteenth century
+(though the Lombard rule came to an end in 774); the Norman Romanesque
+flourished, especially in Normandy and England, from the eleventh to the
+middle of the thirteenth century. The semicircular arch is the most
+characteristic feature of this style. With the Lombard Romanesque were
+combined Byzantine features, and buildings in the pure Byzantine style were
+also erected in Italy, as the church of St. Mark at Venice.
+
+ARCHITECTURE
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The conquests of the Moors introduced a fresh style of architecture into
+Europe after the eighth century--the Moorish or Saracenic. This style
+accompanied the spread of Mahommedanism after its rise in Arabia in the
+seventh century. The edifices erected by the Moors and Saracens in Spain,
+Egypt, and Turkey are distinguished, among other things, by a peculiar form
+of the arch, which forms a curve constituting more than half a circle or
+ellipse. A peculiar flowery decoration, called _arabesque_, is a common
+ornament of this style, of which the building called the Alhambra (q.v.) is
+perhaps the chief glory.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Romanesque--Galilee Chapel, Durham Cathedral]
+
+The Germans were unacquainted with architecture until the time of
+Charlemagne. He introduced into Germany the Byzantine and Romanesque
+styles. Afterwards the Moorish or Arabian style had some influence upon
+that of the Western nations, and thus originated the mixed style which
+maintained itself till the middle of the thirteenth century. Then began the
+modern Gothic style, which grew up in France, England, and Germany. Its
+striking characteristics are its pointed arches, its pinnacles and spires,
+its large buttresses, clustered pillars, vaulted roofs, profusion of
+ornament, and, on the whole, its lofty, bold character. Its most
+distinctive feature, as compared with the Greek or the Egyptian style, is
+the predominance in it of perpendicular or rising lines, producing forms
+that convey the idea of soaring or mounting upwards. Its greatest
+capabilities have been best displayed in ecclesiastical edifices. The
+Gothic style is divided into four principal epochs: the Early Pointed, or
+general style of the thirteenth century; the Decorated, or style of the
+fourteenth century; the Perpendicular, practised during the fifteenth and
+early part of the sixteenth centuries; and the Tudor, or general style of
+the sixteenth century. This style lasted in England up to the seventeenth
+century, being gradually displaced by that branch of the Renaissance or
+modified revival of ancient Roman architecture which is known as the
+_Elizabethan style_, and which is perhaps more purely an English style than
+any other that can be named.
+
+The rise of the Renaissance style in Italy is the greatest event in the
+history of architecture after the introduction of the Gothic style. The
+Gothic style had been introduced into the country and extensively employed,
+but had never been thoroughly naturalized. The Renaissance is a revival of
+the classic style based on the study of the ancient models; and having
+practically commenced in Florence about the beginning of the fifteenth
+century, it soon spread with great rapidity over Italy and the greater part
+of Europe. The most illustrious architects of this early period of the
+style were Brunelleschi, who built at Florence the dome of the cathedral,
+the Pitti Palace, &c., besides many edifices at Milan, Pisa, Pesaro, and
+Mantua; Alberti, who wrote an important work on architecture, and erected
+many beautiful churches; Bramante, who began the building of St. Peter's,
+Rome, and Michael Angelo, who erected its magnificent dome. On St. Peter's
+were also employed Raphael, Peruzzi, and San Gallo. The noblest building in
+this style of architecture in Britain is St. Paul's, London, the work of
+Sir Christopher Wren.
+
+[Illustration: Italian Gothic--Doges' Palace, Venice]
+
+Since the Renaissance period there has been no architectural development
+requiring special note. In buildings erected at the present day some one of
+the various styles of architecture is employed according to taste. Modern
+dwelling-houses have necessarily a style of their own as far as stories and
+apartments and windows and chimneys can give them one. In general the
+Grecian style, as handed down by Rome and modified by the Italian
+architects of the Renaissance, from its right angles and straight
+entablatures, is more convenient, and fits better with the distribution of
+our common buildings, than the pointed and irregular Gothic. But the
+occasional introduction of the Gothic outline and the partial employment of
+its ornaments has undoubtedly an agreeable effect both in public and
+private edifices; and we are indebted to it, among other things, for the
+spire, a structure exclusively Gothic, which, though often misplaced, has
+become an object of general approbation and a pleasing landmark to cities
+and villages. The works most characteristic of the present day are the
+large bridges, viaducts, &c., in many of which iron is the sole or most
+characteristic portion of the material.
+
+[Illustration: Renaissance--St. Peter's, Rome]
+
+A few words may be added on the architecture of India and China. Although
+many widely-differing styles are to be found in India, the oldest and only
+true native style of Indian ecclesiastical architecture is the Buddhist,
+the earliest specimens dating from 250 B.C. Among the chief objects of
+Buddhist art are _stupas_ or _topes_, built in the form of large towers,
+and employed as _dagobas_ to contain relics of Buddha or of some noted
+saint. Other works of Buddhist art are temples or monasteries excavated
+from the solid rock, and supported by pillars of the natural rock left in
+their places. Buddhist architecture is found in Ceylon, Tibet, Java, &c.,
+as well as in India. The most remarkable Hindu or Brahmanical temples are
+in Southern India. They are pyramidal in form, rising in a series of
+stories. The Saracenic or Mohammedan architecture afterwards introduced
+into India is, of course, of foreign origin. The Chinese have made the
+_tent_ the elementary feature of their architecture; and of their style any
+one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are depicted upon
+common chinaware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper side, as if made
+of canvas instead of wood. (For further information see _Greek_, _Roman_,
+_Gothic_, _English_, _French_, _Russian Architecture_; and _Building_,
+_Fine Arts_, _Arch_, _Column_, _Aqueduct_, _Corinthian_, _Doric_, _Ionic_,
+_Theatre_, &c.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Ruskin, _Seven Lamps of Architecture_;
+E. A. Freeman, _History of Architecture_; Viollet-le-Duc, _How to build a
+House_; J. T. Micklethwaite, _Modern Parish Churches_; H. H. Statham,
+_Architecture for General Readers_ and _Critical History of Architecture_;
+J. Fergusson, _History of Architecture in all Countries_; F. M. Simpson, _A
+History of Architectural Development_; _Cyclopedia of Architecture_.
+
+ARCHITRAVE (aer'ki-traev), in architecture, the part of an entablature
+which rests immediately on the heads of the columns, being the lowest of
+its three principal divisions, the others being the _frieze_ and the
+_cornice_.
+
+ARCHIVES (aer'k[=i]vz). See _Records_.
+
+ARCHIVOLT (aer'ki-volt), in architecture, the ornamental band of mouldings
+on the face of an arch and following its contour.
+
+ARCHONS (aer'konz), the chief magistrates of ancient Athens, chosen to
+superintend civil and religious concerns. They were nine in number; the
+first was properly the _arch[=o]n_, or _arch[=o]n ep[=o]n[)y]mos_, by whose
+name the year was distinguished in the public records; the second was
+called _arch[=o]n basileus_, or king archon, who exercised the functions of
+high priest; the third, _polemarchos_, or general of the forces. The other
+six were called _thesmoth[)e]tai_, or legislators.
+
+ARCHYTAS ([.a]r-k[=i]'tas), an ancient Greek mathematician, statesman, and
+general, who flourished about 400 B.C., and belonged to Tarentum in
+Southern Italy. The invention of the analytic method in mathematics is
+ascribed to him, as well as the solution of many geometrical and mechanical
+problems. He constructed various machines and automata, among the most
+celebrated of which was his flying pigeon. He was a Pythagorean in
+philosophy, and Plato and Aristotle are said to have been both deeply
+indebted to him. Only inconsiderable fragments of his works are extant.
+
+ARCIS-SUR-AUBE ([.a]r-s[=e]-s[.u]r-[=o]b), a small town of France,
+department Aube, at which, in 1814, was fought a battle between Napoleon
+and the Allies, after which the latter marched to Paris. Pop. 3000.
+
+ARC-LIGHT, a certain kind of electric light in which the illuminating
+source is the current of electricity passing between two sticks of carbon
+kept a short distance apart, one of them being in connection with the
+positive, the other with the negative terminal of a battery or dynamo.
+
+ARCO, a town of Tyrol, near Lake Garda, a favourite winter resort of
+invalids. Pop. 3800.
+
+ARCOLE ([.a]r'ko-l[.a]), a village in North Italy, 15 miles S.E. of Verona,
+celebrated for the battles of 15th, 16th, and 17th Nov., 1796, fought
+between the French under Bonaparte and the Austrians, in which the latter
+were defeated with great slaughter.
+
+ARCOS' DE LA FRONTE'RA, a city of Spain, 30 miles E. by N. from Cadiz, on
+the Guadalete, here crossed by a stone bridge, on a sandstone rock 570 feet
+above the level of the river. On the highest part of the rock stands the
+castle of the dukes of Arcos, partly in ruins. The principal manufactures
+are leather, hats, and cordage. Pop. 13,980.
+
+AR'COT, two districts and a town of India, within the Presidency of
+Madras.--_North Arcot_ is an inland district with an area of 7616 sq.
+miles. The country is partly flat and partly mountainous, where intersected
+by the Eastern Ghats. Pop. 2,200,000.--_South Arcot_ lies on the Bay of
+Bengal, and has two seaports, Cuddalor and Porto Novo. Area 5217 sq. miles.
+Pop. 2,170,000.--The town _Arcot_ is in North Arcot, on the Palar, about 70
+miles W. by S. of Madras. There is a military cantonment at 3 miles'
+distance. The town contains handsome mosques, a nabob's palace in ruins,
+and the remains of an extensive fort. Arcot played an important part in the
+wars which resulted in the ascendancy of the British in India. It was taken
+by Clive, 31st Aug., 1751, and heroically defended by him against an
+apparently overwhelming force under Raja Sahib. Pop. 11,475.
+
+ARCTIC ([.a]rk'tik), an epithet given to the north pole from the proximity
+of the constellation of the Bear, in Greek called _arktos_. The _Arctic
+Circle_ is an imaginary circle on the globe, parallel to the equator, and
+23deg 28' distant from the north pole. This and its opposite, the
+_Antarctic_, are called the two polar circles.
+
+ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See _North Polar Expeditions_.
+
+ARCTIC OCEAN, that part of the water surface of the earth which surrounds
+the north pole, and washes the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and
+America; its southern boundary roughly coinciding with the Arctic Circle
+(lat. 66deg 30' N.). It encloses many large islands, and contains large
+bays and gulfs which deeply indent the northern shores of the three
+continents. Its great characteristic is ice, which is perpetual nearly
+everywhere.
+
+ARCTIC REGIONS, the regions round the north pole, and extending from the
+pole on all sides to the Arctic Circle in lat. 66deg 30' N. The Arctic or
+North Polar Circle just touches the northern headlands of Iceland, cuts off
+the southern and narrowest portion of Greenland, crosses Fox's Strait north
+of Hudson's Bay, whence it goes over the American continent to Behring's
+Strait. Thence it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth of the Obi, then crossing
+Northern Russia, the White Sea, and the Scandinavian Peninsula, returns to
+Iceland. Though much skill and heroism have been displayed in the
+exploration of this portion of the earth, there is still an area round the
+pole estimated at 2,500,000 sq. miles, which is a blank to geographers.
+Many have adopted the belief in the existence of an open polar sea about
+the north pole. But this belief is not supported by any positive evidence.
+Valuable minerals, fossils, &c., have been discovered within the Arctic
+regions. In the archipelago north of the American continent excellent coal
+frequently occurs. The mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland. Fossil ivory
+is obtained in islands at the mouth of the Lena. In Scandinavia, parts of
+Siberia, and north-west America, the forest region extends within the
+Arctic Circle. The most characteristic of the natives of the Arctic regions
+are the Esquimaux. The most notable animals are the white-bear, the
+musk-ox, the reindeer, and the whalebone whale. Fur-bearing animals are
+numerous. The most intense cold ever registered in those regions was 74deg
+below zero F. The aurora borealis is a brilliant phenomenon of Arctic
+nights. See _North Polar Expeditions_.
+
+ARC'TIUM. See _Burdock_.
+
+ARC'TOMYS. See _Marmot_.
+
+ARCTU'RUS, or ALPHA BOOETIS, a fixed star of the first magnitude in the
+constellation of Booetes (the Ploughman), is one of the brightest stars in
+the northern heavens, yellow in colour. Its light is believed to be
+intrinsically at least 140 times as brilliant as the sun's, and to take
+over 40 years to reach us. It is notable as having a comparatively large
+proper motion.
+
+ARDAHAN', a small fortified town about 6400 feet above the sea, between
+Kars and Batum in Armenia. It was captured by the Russians in 1877, and
+ceded to them by the Berlin Treaty, 1878. It was handed over to Turkey by
+the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, but the Turkish troops evacuated it
+after the armistice in 1918.
+
+AR'DEA, the genus to which the heron belongs, type of the family
+Ard[=e]idae, which includes also cranes, storks, bitterns, &c.
+
+AR'DEBIL, or ARDABIL, a Persian town, province of Azerbaijan, near the
+Karasu, a tributary of the Aras, about 40 miles from the Caspian, in an
+elevated and healthy situation; it has mineral springs and a considerable
+trade. Pop. 16,000.
+
+ARDECHE ([.a]r-d[=a]sh), a department in the south of France (Languedoc),
+on the west side of the Rhone, taking its name from the River Ardeche,
+which rises within it, and falls into the Rhone after a course of 46 miles;
+area, 2144 sq. miles. It is generally of a mountainous character, and
+contains the culminating point of the Cevennes. Silk and wine are produced.
+Annonay is the principal town, but Privas is the capital. Pop. (1921),
+294,308.
+
+ARDEN, FOREST OF, a wood in Warwickshire. Shakespeare is supposed to have
+used it as a setting for _As You Like It_.
+
+ARDENNES ([.a]r-den'), an extensive tract of hilly land stretching over a
+large portion of the north-east of France and south-west of Belgium.
+Anciently the whole tract formed one immense forest (_Arduenna Silva_ of
+Caesar); but large portions are now occupied by cultivated fields and
+populous towns.
+
+ARDENNES ([.a]r-den'), a frontier department in the north-east of France;
+area, 2027 sq. miles, partly consisting of the Forest of Ardennes. There
+are extensive slate-quarries, numerous ironworks, and important
+manufactures of cloth, ironware, leather, glass, earthenware, &c. It was
+the scene of many battles during the European War (1914-8). Chief towns,
+Mezieres (the capital), Rocroi, and Sedan. Pop. 277,791.
+
+ARDNAMURCHAN (-mur'_h_an) POINT, the most westerly point of the Island of
+Great Britain, in Argyllshire, having a lighthouse, 180 feet above
+sea-level, visible 18 to 20 miles off.
+
+AR'DOCH, a parish in south Perthshire, celebrated for its Roman remains,
+one, a camp, being the most perfect existing in Scotland.
+
+ARDROSS'AN, a seaport of Scotland, in Ayrshire, on the Firth of Clyde. It
+has a large harbour and shipbuilding yards, and is a centre of steamship
+services with Arran, Ireland, and Douglas, I.O.M. Pop. (1921), 7214.
+
+ARDS'LEY, East and West, an urban district or town of England, W. Riding of
+Yorkshire, several miles north-west of Wakefield, with collieries,
+iron-mines, ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921), 7058.
+
+ARE (aer), the unit of the French land measure, equal to 100 sq. metres, or
+1076.44 English sq. feet. A _hectare_ is 100 ares, equal to 2.47 English
+acres. The tenth part of an are is called a _deciare_, and a hundredth part
+a _centiare_.
+
+A'REA, the superficial content of any figure or space, the quantity of
+surface it contains in terms of any unit. See _Mensuration_.
+
+ARE'CA, a genus of lofty palms with pinnated leaves, and a drupe-like fruit
+enclosed in a fibrous rind. _A. Cat[)e]chu_ of the Coromandel and Malabar
+coasts is the common areca palm which yields areca or betel-nuts, and also
+the astringent juice catechu. _A. olerac[)e]a_ is the cabbage tree or
+cabbage palm of the West Indies. With lime and the leaves of the
+betel-pepper, the areca-nuts when green form the celebrated masticatory of
+the East. They are an important article in Eastern trade.
+
+ARECIBO ([.a]-re-th[=e]'b[=o]), a seaport town on the north coast of the
+Island of Porto Rico. Pop. 9612.
+
+AREIOPAGUS. See _Areopagus_.
+
+ARE'NA, the enclosed space in the central part of the Roman amphitheatres,
+in which took place the combats of gladiators or wild beasts. It was
+usually covered with sand or saw-dust to prevent the gladiators from
+slipping, and to absorb the blood. See _Amphitheatre_.
+
+ARENACEOUS ROCKS include all sediments in which quartz sand is the most
+important constituent. Owing to its resistance to comminution and to
+chemical attack, quartz accumulates in sea-beaches while other mineral
+matter becomes removed. Hence sands gather near a shore and ultimately
+become consolidated by various natural cements into sandstones, those
+cemented by silica being styled quartzites. Sand-dunes in deserts or on
+coasts are unconsolidated arenaceous rock-masses.
+
+AR'ENDAL a seaport of Southern Norway, exporting timber, wood pulp, and
+iron, and owning numerous ships. It is a well-built place, having been
+rebuilt since the great fire of 1868. Wood pulp, paper, and cotton are
+manufactured. Pop. 11,000.
+
+ARENENBERG CASTLE (mediaeval, NARRENBERG), a castle and estate in the Swiss
+Canton Thurgau, the possession of Queen Hortense, who died there in 1837.
+In 1855 it became the property of the Empress Eugenie.
+
+ARENGA, a term sometimes used as the generic name of the areng or gomuti
+palm, which is then botanically designated _Arenga saccharifera_. See
+_Gomuti_.
+
+ARENIC'OLA. See _Lobworm_.
+
+ARE'OLAR TISSUE, an assemblage of fibres in bundles, pervading almost every
+part of the animal structure, and connected with each other so as to form
+innumerable small cavities, the whole serving as a means by which the
+various organs and parts of organs are connected together. It is called
+also _Cellular Tissue_ and _Connective Tissue_. The fibres are of two
+kinds--white fibrous tissue and yellow elastic fibrous tissue, and
+interspersed among the bundles or occupying the cellular cavities are cells
+and corpuscles of several kinds. It is a tissue found in large quantities
+under the skin, covering the muscles, the blood-vessels, and nerves, and in
+various parts forming a kind of protective covering for delicate and
+important organs. It is because of its general distribution, and because of
+its binding various structures together, that it is called
+_connective_.--In botany the term is sometimes applied to the
+_non_-vascular substance, composed entirely of untransformed cells, which
+forms the soft substance of plants.
+
+AREOM'ETER (from Gr. _araios_, thin, _metron_, a measure), an instrument
+for measuring the specific gravity of liquids; a _hydrometer_ (q.v.).
+
+AREOP'AGUS, the oldest of the Athenian courts of justice, an assembly
+having a position more august than an ordinary court, and in its best days
+exercising a general supervision over public morals. It obtained its name
+from its place of meeting, on the Hill of Ares (Mars), near the Acropolis
+or citadel of Athens. Another explanation connects the word with _Arae_
+(Curses), commonly known as _Semnae_ (Awful Goddesses), who were the
+guardians of the hill. It existed from very remote times, and the crimes
+tried before it were wilful murder, poisoning, robbery, and arson, while it
+had under its control also dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the
+State and in religion. Its meetings were held in the open air, and its
+members were selected from those who had held the office of archon. The
+tribunal eventually lost many of its powers, but it continued to exist in
+name at least as late as the time of Cicero or later, having had an
+existence of seven or eight hundred years.
+
+AREQUIPA ([.a]-r[=a]-k[=e]'p[.a]), a city of Peru, capital of a province of
+same name, situated in a fertile valley, 7850 feet above sea-level, at a
+distance of about 55 miles from the coast and on the railway which runs
+from its port Mollendo inland to Puno on Lake Titicaca. Behind the city
+rises the volcano of Arequipa, or Peak of Misti (20,328 feet). The climate
+is healthy but the locality is liable to earthquakes, one of which almost
+completely destroyed the town in 1868, after which it was rapidly rebuilt.
+A considerable trade is carried on through Mollendo, there being a large
+transit trade with the interior, and the town carries on various
+industries, manufacturing cotton and woollen goods, &c. It was founded in
+1540. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000.--The province has an area of 21,947 sq. miles,
+and a pop. of 229,007.
+
+ARES ([=a]'r[=e]z). See _Mars_.
+
+ARETHU'SA, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Nereus and Doris, a nymph
+changed by Art[)e]mis into a fountain in order to free her from the pursuit
+of the river-god Alpheus. This fountain was said to exist in the small
+Island of Ortygia, near Syracuse, and was fabled to have a subterranean
+connection with the River Alpheus in Greece.
+
+ARETINO (ae-r[=a]-t[=e]'noe), Guido. See _Guido_.
+
+ARETINO, Pietro, Italian poet, born at Arezzo 1492, died at Venice 1556,
+the natural son of a nobleman called Luigi Bacci. He early displayed a
+talent for satirical poetry, and when still a young man was banished from
+Arezzo on account of a sonnet against indulgences. He went to Perugia, and
+thence to Rome (1517), where he secured the papal patronage, but
+subsequently lost it through writing licentious sonnets. Through the
+influence of the Medici family he found an opportunity to insinuate himself
+into the favour of Francis I. In 1527 Aretino went to Venice, where he
+acquired powerful friends, among them the Bishop of Vicenza. By his
+devotional writings he regained the favour of the Roman Court. He called
+himself 'the divine', and 'the scourge of princes', but he was also their
+abject flatterer, and that solely to obtain money. The obscenity of some of
+his writings was such that his name has become proverbial for
+licentiousness. Among them are five comedies and a tragedy.
+
+AREZZO ([.a]-ret's[=o]; ancient ARRETIUM), a city of Central Italy, capital
+of a province of the same name in Tuscany, near the confluence of the
+Chiana with the Arno. It has a noble cathedral, containing some fine
+pictures and monuments; remains of an ancient amphitheatre, &c. It was one
+of the twelve chief Etruscan towns, and in later times fought long against
+the Florentines, to whom it had finally to succumb. It is the birthplace of
+Maecenas, Petrarch, Pietro Aretino, Redi, and Vasari. Pop. 50,093.--The
+province of Arezzo contains 1274 sq. miles, and 292,763 inhabitants (1915).
+
+AR'GAL, ARGOL, or TARTAR, a hard crust formed on the sides of vessels in
+which wine has been kept, red or white according to the colour of the wine.
+It is an impure bitartrate of potassium.
+
+[Illustration: Argali (_Ovis ammon_)]
+
+AR'GALI, a species of wild sheep (_Capr[)o]vis Arg[)a]li_ or _Ovis ammon_)
+found on the mountains of Siberia, Central Asia, and Kamtchatka. It is 4
+feet high at the shoulders, and proportionately stout in its build, with
+horns nearly 4 feet in length measured along the curve, and at their base
+about 19 inches in circumference. It lives in small herds. This true argali
+must not be confounded with the North-African wild sheep, called the
+bearded argali and known as the arni, the Algerian moufflon, and the
+Barbary sheep.
+
+AR'GALL, Sir Samuel (1572-1639), one of the early English adventurers to
+Virginia. He planned and executed the abduction of Pocahontas, the daughter
+of the Indian chief Powhattan, in order to secure the ransom of English
+prisoners. He was deputy-governor of Virginia (1617-9), and was accused of
+many acts of rapacity and tyranny. In 1620 he served in an expedition
+against Algiers, and was knighted by James I.
+
+AR'GAND LAMP, a lamp named after its inventor, Aime _Argand_, a Swiss
+chemist and physician (born 1755, died 1803), the distinctive feature of
+which is a burner forming a ring or hollow cylinder covered by a chimney,
+so that the flame receives a current of air both on the inside and on the
+outside.
+
+ARGAUM ([.a]r-g[.a]'[u:]m), a village of India, in Berar, celebrated for
+the victory of General Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) over the Mahrattas
+under Scindia and the Rajah of Berar, 29th Nov., 1803.
+
+AR'GELANDER, Friedrich Wilhelm August, German astronomer, born in 1799. He
+added to the knowledge of the progressive motion of the solar system in
+space, and published a catalogue of 560 stars having 'proper motion'. His
+works include: _Atlas des noerdlichen gestirnten Himmels_ (1857), _Neue
+Uranometrie_ (1843), &c. He died in 1875.
+
+ARGEMONE ([.a]r-jem'o-n[=e]), a small genus of ornamental American plants
+of the poppy order. From the seeds of _A. mexic[=a]na_ is obtained an oil
+very useful to painters. The handsomest species is _A. grandifl[=o]ra_,
+which has large flowers of a pure white colour.
+
+ARGENSOLA ([.a]r-_h_en-s[=o]'l[.a]), Lupercio and Bartolome Leonardo de,
+brothers, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, the former in 1565, died in 1613;
+the latter born in 1566, died in 1631. Lupercio produced tragedies and
+lyric poems; Bartolome a number of poems and a historical work, _The
+Conquest of the Moluccas_. Their writings are singularly alike in
+character, and are reckoned among the Spanish classics. The tragedies are
+of the heavy Senecan type, but the satirical writings of both brothers are
+full of pungent wit of a pleasing kind.
+
+ARGENSON ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-s[=o][n.]), Marc Pierre de Voyer, Comte d',
+celebrated French statesman, born in 1696, died 1764. After holding a
+number of subordinate offices he became minister for foreign affairs, and
+succeeded in bringing about the Congress of Breda, which was the prelude to
+that of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was present at the battle of Fontenoy, and was
+exiled to his estate for some years through the machinations of Madame
+Pompadour. His _Considerations sur le Gouvernement de la France_ was a very
+advanced study on the possibility of combining with a monarchic form of
+government democratic principles and local self-government. _Les Essais, ou
+Loisirs d'un Ministre d'Etat_, published in 1785, is a collection of
+characters and anecdotes in the style of Montaigne.
+
+AR'GENT, in coats of arms, the heraldic term expressing silver: represented
+in engraving by a plain white surface.
+
+ARGENTAN ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-tae[n.]), a French town, department of Orne
+(Normandy), with an old castle and some manufactures. Pop. 6300.
+
+ARGENTEUIL ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-teu-y[.e]), a town in France, department
+Seine-et-Oise, 7 miles below Paris; it has an active trade in wine, fruit,
+and vegetables. Pop. 24,282.
+
+ARGENTIE'RA, or KIM[=O]LI (ancient, CIM[=O]LUS), an island in the Grecian
+Archipelago, one of the Cyclades, about 18 miles in circumference, rocky
+and sterile. It produces a detergent chalk called _Cimolian earth_ (q.v.),
+used in washing and bleaching. Pop. 1337.
+
+AR'GENTINE, a silvery-white slaty variety of calc-spar, containing a little
+silica with laminae usually undulated. It is found in primitive rocks and
+frequently in metallic veins.--Argentine is also the name of a small
+British fish (_Scop[)e]lus bore[=a]lis_) less than 2 inches long and of a
+silvery colour.
+
+AR'GENTINE REPUBLIC, formerly called the United Provinces of LA PLATA, a
+vast country of South America, the extreme length of which is 2300 miles,
+and the average breadth a little over 500 miles, the total area 1,153,119
+sq. miles. It consists of fourteen provinces, ten territories, and one
+federal district. It is bounded on the N. by Bolivia; on the E. by
+Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; on the S. by the Antarctic
+Ocean; and on the W. by the Andes. It comprises four great natural
+divisions: (1) the Andine region, containing the provinces of Mendoza, San
+Juan, Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy; (2) the Pampas,
+containing the provinces of Santiago, Santa Fe, Cordova, San Luis, and
+Buenos Ayres, with the territories Formosa, Pampa, and Chaco; (3) the
+Argentine 'mesopotamia', between the Rivers Parana and Uruguay, containing
+the provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and the territory Misiones; (4)
+Patagonia, including the eastern half of Tierra del Fuego. With the
+exception of the N.W., where lateral branches of the Andes run into the
+plain for 150 or 200 miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which is hilly,
+the characteristic feature of the country is the great monotonous and level
+plains called 'pampas'. In the north these plains are partly
+forest-covered, but all the central and southern parts present vast
+treeless tracts, which afford pasture to immense herds of horses, oxen, and
+sheep, and are varied in some places by brackish swamps, in others by salt
+steppes. The great water-course of the country is the Parana, having a
+length of fully 2000 miles from its source in the mountains of Goyaz,
+Brazil, to its junction with the Uruguay, where begins the estuary of La
+Plata. The Parana is formed by the union of the Upper Parana and Paraguay
+Rivers, near the N.E. corner of the State. Important tributaries are the
+Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado. The Parana, Paraguay, and Uruguay
+are valuable for internal navigation. Many of the streams which tend
+eastward terminate in marshes and salt lakes, some of which are rather
+extensive. Not connected with the La Plata system are the Colorado and the
+Rio Negro, the latter formerly the southern boundary of the State,
+separating it from Patagonia. The source of the Negro is Lake Nahuel Huapi,
+in Patagonia (area, 1200 sq. miles), in the midst of magnificent scenery.
+The level portions of the country are mostly of tertiary formation, and the
+river and coast regions consist mainly of alluvial soil of great fertility.
+In the pampas clay have been found the fossil remains of extinct mammalia,
+some of them of colossal size.
+
+European grains and fruits, including the vine, have been successfully
+introduced, and large areas are now under wheat, maize, flax, and other
+crops, another source of wealth consisting in the countless herds of cattle
+and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the pampas, and which
+multiply there very rapidly. Gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and
+iron, besides marble, jasper, precious stones, and bitumen, are found in
+the mountainous districts of the N.W., while petroleum wells have been
+discovered on the Rio Vermejo; but the development of this mineral wealth
+has hitherto been greatly retarded by the want of proper means of
+transport. As a whole there are not extensive forests in the State except
+in the region of the Gran Chaco (which extends also into Bolivia), where
+there is known to be 60,000 sq. miles of timber. Thousands of square miles
+are covered with thistles, which grow to a great height in their season.
+Cacti also forms great thickets. Peach and apple trees are abundant in some
+districts. The native fauna includes the puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the
+llama, the alpaca, the vicuna, armadillos, the rhea or nandu, a species of
+ostrich, &c. The climate is agreeable and healthy, 97deg being about the
+highest temperature experienced. The rainfall is very scanty in some
+districts, and is nowhere very large.
+
+As a whole this vast country is very thinly inhabited, some parts of it as
+yet being very little known. The native Indians were never very numerous,
+and have given little trouble to the European settlers. Tribes of them yet
+in the savage state still inhabit the less-known districts, and live by
+hunting and fishing. Some of the Gran Chaco tribes are said to be very
+fierce, and European travellers have been killed by them. The European
+element is strong in the republic, more than half the population being
+Europeans or of pure European descent. Large numbers of immigrants arrive
+from Southern Europe, the Italians having the preponderance among those of
+foreign birth. The typical inhabitants of the pampas are the _Gauchos_, a
+race of half-breed cattle-rearers and horse-breakers; they are almost
+continually on horseback, galloping over the plains, collecting their herds
+and droves, taming wild horses, or catching and slaughtering cattle. In
+such occupations they require a marvellous dexterity in the use of the
+lasso and bolas.
+
+The River La Plata was discovered in 1512 by the Spanish navigator Juan
+Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata territory had been brought into the
+possession of Spain by the end of the sixteenth century. In 1810 the
+territory cast off the Spanish rule, and in 1816 the independence of the
+United States of the Rio de la Plata was formerly declared, but it was long
+before a settled government was established. The present constitution dates
+from 1853, being modified in 1866 and 1898. The executive power is vested
+in a president--elected by the representatives of the fourteen provinces
+for a term of six years. A national congress of two chambers--a Senate and
+a House of Deputies--wields the legislative authority, and the republic is
+making rapid advances in social and political life. The national revenue
+for 1918 amounted to about L32,860,306, while the expenditure amounted to
+L34,407,074; the public debt was, at the end of 1916, about L120,000,000.
+There are about 22,000 miles of railway opened. The external commerce is
+important, the chief exports being beef and mutton, wheat, maize, and
+linseed, wool, skins and hides, tallow. The imports are chiefly
+manufactured goods. The trade is largely with Britain and France, and is
+increasing rapidly, the exports having advanced from L9,000,000 in 1876 and
+L73,200,000 in 1908 to L201,360,000 in 1920. The imports in 1920 were
+L170,820,000. The chief denomination of money is the dollar or _peso_,
+value (in gold) 4s. Buenos Ayres (or Aires) is the capital. Other towns are
+Rosario, Cordova, La Plata, Tucuman, Mendoza, and Santa-Fe. The population
+of the republic, which is rapidly increasing by immigration, was, in 1905,
+5,678,197, and 8,284,266 in 1918; of the capital, 1,637,155
+(1918).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854 to
+1904_; W. H. Hudson, _The Naturalist in La Plata_; Keane and Markham,
+_Central and South America_ (in Stanford's _Compendium of Geography and
+Travel_); Martinez and Lewandowski, _Argentine in the Twentieth Century_;
+Sir John Foster Fraser, _The Amazing Argentine_; H. Stephens, _Illustrated
+Descriptive Argentina_; _The Argentine Year Book_.
+
+AR'GENTITE, sulphide of silver, a blackish or lead-grey mineral, a valuable
+ore of silver found in the crystalline rocks of many countries.
+
+ARGENTOMETER. See _Hydrometer_.
+
+ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS are rocks in which clay prevails (including shales and
+slates).
+
+ARGIVES ([.a]r'j[=i]vz), or ARGIVI, the inhabitants of Argos; used by Homer
+and other ancient authors as a generic appellation for all the Greeks.
+
+AR'GO. See _Argonauts_.
+
+ARGOL. See _Argal_.
+
+ARGOLIS. See _Argos_.
+
+ARGON, a gas which is fairly widely distributed in the free state and is a
+constant constituent of the atmosphere, of which it forms about 1 per cent
+by volume. It was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay in 1894.
+During their determinations of the density of nitrogen they noticed that
+the density of nitrogen derived from the air differed from the density of
+nitrogen derived from ammonia and other compounds of nitrogen, and after a
+series of very careful experiments they succeeded in isolating a new gas,
+which they named Argon. The gas occurs in sea and river water, in plants,
+in the blood of animals, and the gases issuing from volcanoes and mineral
+springs. It is always in the free state and never in combination, and is
+associated with nitrogen. It is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, and
+may be liquefied and solidified. It is heavier than air, and is chemically
+a very inert substance. It is usually referred to as one of the _rare_
+gases of the atmosphere. Argon is manufactured in fairly large quantity
+from air, making use of the inertness of the substance compared to oxygen
+and nitrogen, the chief constituents of the air. Several methods are in
+use, e.g. nitrogen may be removed by passing it repeatedly over red-hot
+magnesium; thus the nitrogen is absorbed and the argon left. When oxygen
+and nitrogen of air are absorbed by a mixture of 90 per cent calcium
+carbide and 10 per cent calcium chloride previously heated to redness _in
+vacuo_, a gas becoming richer and richer in argon is obtained. Another
+method of preparing argon is by fractionation of liquid air. It is used for
+filling electric bulbs.
+
+[Illustration: Argonaut--Female]
+
+AR'GONAUT, a molluscous animal of the genus Argonauta, belonging to the
+dibranchiate or two-gilled cuttle-fishes, distinguished by the females
+possessing a single-chambered external shell, not organically connected
+with the body of the animal. The males have no shell and are of much
+smaller size than the females. The shell is fragile, translucent, and
+boat-like in shape; it serves as the receptacle of the ova or eggs of the
+female, which sits in it with the respiratory tube or 'funnel' turned
+towards the carina or 'keel'. This famed mollusc swims only by ejecting
+water from its funnel, and it can crawl in a reversed position, carrying
+its shell over its back like a snail. The account of its floating on the
+surface of the sea, with its sail-shaped arms extended to catch the breeze,
+and with the six other arms as oars, is a mere fable. The argonaut, or
+_paper-nautilus_, must be carefully distinguished from the
+_pearly-nautilus_ or nautilus proper (_Nautilus Pompilius_).
+
+ARGONAUTS, in the legendary history of Greece, those heroes who performed a
+hazardous voyage to Colchis, a far-distant country at the eastern extremity
+of the Euxine (Black Sea), with Jason in the ship _Argo_, for the purpose
+of securing a golden fleece, which was preserved suspended upon a tree, and
+under the guardianship of a sleepless dragon. By the aid of Medea, daughter
+of the King of Colchis, Jason was enabled to seize the fleece, and, after
+many strange adventures, to reach his home at Iolcos in Thessaly. Among the
+Argonauts were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus and
+Theseus.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. R. Hope Moncrieff, _Classic Myth and Legend_;
+Kingsley, _The Heroes_; N. Hawthorne, _The Wonder-book_.
+
+ARGO-NAVIS, the southern constellation of the Ship, is almost entirely
+invisible in Britain. It contains Canopus, next to Sirius the brightest
+fixed star. In the great nebula in Argo is situated the remarkable star Eta
+Argus. It is variable, generally faint, but in 1837 it became temporarily
+one of the brightest stars in the sky.
+
+ARGONNE, a district of France, between the Rivers Meuse, Marne, and Aisne,
+celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez against the Prussians in 1792, and
+for the military movements and actions which took place therein previous to
+the battle of Sedan, in 1870.
+
+ARGONNE, BATTLE OF. When, in the autumn of 1914, the Allies retreated
+towards the Marne, the German Crown Prince's army endeavoured to invest
+Verdun. His right wing advanced through the thick and extensive forest of
+Argonne, but took precipitate flight after the battle of the Marne before
+the army of General Sarrail. In the summer of 1915 the Crown Prince
+endeavoured to hack his way through the French Argonne lines, using much
+heavy artillery, poison-gas, liquid-fire, and tear-shells. A final effort
+to break through was made in September, between Le Four de Paris and
+Vienne-le-Chateau, but, after gaining a footing in the first line of French
+trenches, the Germans were hurled back by a dashing counter-attack. The
+great salient from the Argonne to St. Mihiel was the salvation of Verdun.
+
+AR'GOS, a town of Greece, in the north-east of the Peloponnesus, between
+the Gulfs of Aegina and Nauplia or Argos. This town and the surrounding
+territory of Argolis were famous from the legendary period of Greek history
+onwards. Here, besides Argos, was Mycenae, where Agamemnon ruled. Modern
+Argos is a straggling place of 10,000 inhabitants, with some ancient
+remains. The territory Argolis forms a nomarchy of Greece. Pop., Argolis
+and Corinthia, 153,172. The capital is Nauplia.
+
+ARGOS'TOLI, a city of the Ionian Islands, capital of Cephalonia, and the
+residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. 14,000.
+
+AR'GOSY, a poetical name for a large merchant-vessel; derived from
+_Ragusa_, a port which was formerly more celebrated than now, and whose
+vessels did a considerable trade with England. It is popularly but
+erroneously connected with the ship _Argo_ in which Jason sailed. See
+_Argonauts_.
+
+ARGOT (Fr.; [.a]r-g[=o]), the jargon, slang, or peculiar phraseology of a
+class or profession; originally the conventional slang of thieves and
+vagabonds, invented for the purpose of disguise and concealment. Some of
+Francois Villon's poems are written in argot.--Cf. W. von Knoblauch,
+_Dictionary of Argot_.
+
+ARGUIM, or ARGUIN ([.a]r-gwim', [.a]r-gwin'), a small island on the west
+coast of Africa, not far from Cape Blanco, formerly a centre of trade. Its
+possession was violently disputed between the Portuguese, Dutch, English,
+and French.
+
+AR'GUMENT, a term sometimes used as synonymous with the _subject_ of a
+discourse, but more frequently appropriated to any kind of method employed
+for the purpose of confuting or at least silencing an opponent. Logicians
+have reduced arguments to a number of distinct heads, such as the
+_argumentum ad judicium_, which founds on solid proofs and addresses to the
+judgment; the _argumentum ad verecundiam_, which appeals to the modesty or
+bashfulness of an opponent by reminding him of the great names or
+authorities by whom the view disputed by him is supported; the _argumentum
+ad ignorantiam_, the employment of some logical fallacy towards persons
+likely to be deceived by it; and the _argumentum ad hominem_, an argument
+which presses a man with consequences drawn from his own principles and
+concessions, or his own conduct. See _Fallacy_, _Logic_.
+
+ARGUMENT OF THE PEOPLE, the document set forth by the Council of the Army
+on 15th Jan., 1649, fifteen days before the execution of King Charles I.
+See _Levellers_.
+
+AR'GUS, in Greek mythology, a fabulous being, said to have had a hundred
+eyes, placed by Juno to guard Io. Hence 'argus-eyed', applied to one who is
+exceedingly watchful.
+
+[Illustration: Argus-pheasant (_Argus gigant[=e]us_)]
+
+ARGUS-PHEASANT (_Argus gigant[=e]us_), a large, beautiful, and very
+singular species of pheasant, found native in the south-east of Asia, more
+especially in Sumatra and some of the other islands. The males measure from
+5 to 6 feet from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail, which
+has two greatly-elongated central feathers. The plumage is exceedingly
+beautiful, the secondary quills of the wings, which are longer than the
+primary feathers, being each adorned with a series of ocellated or eye-like
+spots (whence the name--see _Argus_) of brilliant metallic hues. The
+general body plumage is brown.
+
+ARGYLL, or ARGYLE ([.a]r-g[=i]l'), an extensive county in the south-west of
+the Highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland and partly of
+islands belonging to the Hebrides group, the chief of which are Islay,
+Mull, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Luing, Lismore, and Colonsay, with Iona and
+Staffa. On the land side the mainland is bounded north by Inverness; east
+by Perth and Dumbarton; elsewhere surrounded by the Firth of Clyde and its
+connections and the sea; area, 3255 sq. miles (or over 2,000,000 acres), of
+which the islands comprise about 1000 sq. miles. It is greatly indented by
+arms of the sea, which penetrate far inland, the most important of these
+being Loch Sunart, Loch Linnhe (the extremities of which are Loch Eil and
+Loch Leven), Loch Etive, Loch Fyne, Loch Tarbert, Loch Riddon, Loch
+Striven, and Loch Long. The mainland is divided into six districts of
+Northern Argyle, Lorn, Argyle, Cowal, Knapdale, and Kintyre; the two first
+being subdivided into the sub-districts of Lochiel, Ardgour, Sunart,
+Ardnamurchan, Morven, and Appin. The county is exceedingly mountainous, the
+chief summits being Bidean-nam-Bian (3766 feet), Ben Laoigh (3708 feet),
+Ben Cruachan (3611 feet), Benmore, in Mull (3185 feet), the Paps of Jura
+(2565 feet), and Ben Arthur or the Cobbler (2891 feet). There are several
+lakes, the principal of which is Loch Awe. Cattle and sheep are reared in
+numbers, and fishing is largely carried on, as is also the making of
+whisky. There is but little arable land. The chief minerals are slate,
+marble, limestone, and granite. County town, Inveraray; others,
+Campbeltown, Oban, and Dunoon. Pop. (1921), 76,856.
+
+ARGYLL, CAMPBELLS OF, a historic Scottish family, raised to the peerage in
+the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more eminent
+members are: Archibald, 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of Flodden,
+1513.--Archibald, 5th Earl, attached himself to the party of Mary of Guise,
+and was the means of averting a collision between the Reformers and the
+French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency after Mary's abdication,
+but afterwards commanded her troops at the battle of Langside; died
+1575.--Archibald, 8th Earl and 1st Marquess, born 1598: a zealous partisan
+of the Covenanters; created a marquess by Charles I. It was by his
+persuasion that Charles II visited Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in
+1651. At the Restoration he was committed to the Tower, and afterwards sent
+to Scotland, where he was tried for high treason, and beheaded in
+1661.--Archibald, 9th Earl, son of the preceding, served the king with
+great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and was excluded from the general
+pardon by Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he
+refused to take the required oath except with a reservation. For this he
+was tried and sentenced to death. He managed to escape to Holland, from
+whence he returned with a view of aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan,
+however, failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was
+beheaded in 1685.--Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding,
+died 1703; took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-9, which placed
+William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important
+appointments and the title of duke.--John, 2nd Duke and Duke of Greenwich,
+son of the above, born 1678, died 1743; served under Marlborough at the
+battles of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges
+of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in his own country for
+his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had the military command in
+Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar's
+army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and forced the Pretender to quit the
+kingdom. He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his political career was
+full of intrigue. He is the Duke of Argyll in Scott's _Heart of
+Midlothian_.--George Douglas Campbell, K.G., K.T., &c., 8th Duke (of United
+Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early took a part in politics,
+especially in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In
+1852 he became Lord Privy Seal under Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord
+Palmerston in 1859; Postmaster-General in 1860; Secretary for India from
+1868 to 1874; again Lord Privy Seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to
+agree with his colleagues on their Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wrote
+_The Reign of Law_, _Scotland as it Was and as it Is_, &c.--John Douglas
+Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of, son of the 8th Duke and a daughter of the
+2nd Duke of Sutherland, was born in 1845, and succeeded his father in 1900.
+He completed his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, sat in Parliament
+as member for Argyllshire, 1868-78, was Governor-General of Canada from
+1878 to 1883, and again sat in Parliament as member for South Manchester
+from 1895 to 1900, as a Liberal-Unionist. He married the Princess Louise of
+Great Britain, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871. He died in 1914.
+His works include: _The United States after the War_, _Imperial
+Federation_, _Canadian Pictures_, _Memories of Canada and Scotland_, _Life
+of Lord Palmerston_, _Tales and Poems_, _The Psalms in English Verse_,
+_Life and Times of Queen Victoria_, _Yesterday and To-day in Canada_, &c.
+
+ARGYLL AND SUTHERLAND HIGHLANDERS (Princess Louise's), raised by the 5th
+Duke of Argyll (1794), received their present title in 1872. The regiment
+served under Sir David Baird in Cape Colony, and at Balaklava made itself
+immortal as Sir Colin Campbell's 'thin red line'. It was further
+distinguished in the European War at Gheluvelt, Le Cateau, and the second
+battle of Ypres.
+
+ARGYRO-CASTRO ([.a]r'gi-r[=o]-), a town in Albania, 40 miles north-west of
+Janina; built on three ridges intersected by deep ravines, across which are
+several bridges. It was occupied by the Greeks in 1916. Pop. about 10,000.
+
+ARGYROPU'LOS, Johannes, one of the principal revivers of Greek learning in
+the fifteenth century. Born in Constantinople 1415, died at Rome 1486.
+
+ARIA, in music. See _Air_.
+
+ARIADNE (a-ri-ad'ne), in Greek mythology, a daughter of Minos, King of
+Crete. She gave Theseus a clue of thread to conduct him out of the
+labyrinth after his defeat of the Minotaur. Theseus abandoned her on the
+Isle of Naxos, where she was found by Dionysus, who married her.
+
+ARIA'NA, the ancient name of a large district in Asia, forming a portion of
+the Persian Empire; bounded on the north by the provinces of Bactriana,
+Margiana, and Hyrcania; east by the Indus; south by the Indian Ocean and
+the Persian Gulf; west by Media.
+
+ARIANO (ae-r[=e]-ae'n[=o]), a town in South Italy, province of Avellino, 44
+miles north-east of Naples, the seat of a bishop, with a handsome
+cathedral. Pop. 17,650.
+
+AR'IANS, the adherents of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius, who, about A.D.
+318, promulgated the doctrine that Christ was a created being inferior to
+God the Father in nature and dignity, though the first and noblest of all
+created beings; and also that the Holy Spirit is not God, but created by
+the power of the Son. Arianism has been defined as an attempt to determine
+the relations of the Persons of the Trinity on a basis of distinction and
+subordination. It does not seem to have sprung from any strong ethical
+impulse; its philosophy was pagan, and the object of the leaders political
+rather than religious. The doctrines were condemned by the Council of
+Nicaea in 325. Arius died in 336, and after his death his party gained
+considerable accessions, including several emperors, and for a time held a
+strong position. Since the middle of the seventh century, however, the
+Arians have nowhere constituted a distinct sect, although similar opinions
+have been advanced by various theologians in modern times. The Arian
+controversy was revived in England during the eighteenth century by William
+Whiston and Dr. Samuel Clarke.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. M. Gwatkin, _Studies of
+Arianism_; J. H. Newman, _Arians of the Fourth Century_; J. H. Colligan,
+_Arian Movement in England_.
+
+ARICA ([.a]-r[=e]'k[.a]), a seaport of Chile, 30 miles S. of Tacna;
+previous to 1880 it belonged to Peru. It has suffered frequently from
+earthquakes, being in 1868 almost entirely destroyed, part of it being also
+submerged by an earthquake wave. Pop. about 4000. It has a wireless
+station.
+
+ARICA. See _Tacna-Arica Dispute_.
+
+ARICHAT (-shat'), a seaport town and fishing station of Nova Scotia, on a
+small bay, south coast of Madame Island. Pop. about 2500.
+
+ARIEGE ([.a]-r[=e]-[=a]zh), a mountainous department of France, on the
+northern slopes of the Pyrenees, comprising the ancient countship of Foix
+and parts of Languedoc and Gascony. The principal rivers are the Ariege,
+Arize, and Salat, tributaries of the Garonne. Sheep and cattle are reared;
+the arable land is small in quantity. Chief town, Foix. Area, 1892 sq.
+miles. Pop. (1921), 172,851.
+
+A'RIEL, a symbolic name for Jerusalem in the Old Testament; in the
+demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's
+_Tempest_, Ariel was the "tricksy spirit" whom Prospero had in his service.
+
+ARIES ([=a]'ri-[=e]z; Lat.), the Ram, a northern constellation. It is the
+first of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which the sun enters at the vernal
+equinox, about the 21st of March. The "First Point in Aries" is where the
+equator cuts the ecliptic in the ascending node, from which point the right
+ascensions of heavenly bodies are reckoned on the equator, and their
+longitudes upon the ecliptic. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes the
+sign Aries no longer corresponds with the constellation Aries, which it did
+2000 years ago.
+
+[Illustration: Aril, Fruit of Nutmeg]
+
+AR'IL, or ARIL'LUS, in some plants, as in the nutmeg, an extra covering of
+the seed, outside of the true seed-coats, proceeding from the placenta,
+partially investing the seed, and falling off spontaneously. It is either
+succulent or cartilaginous, coloured, elastic, rough, or knotted. In the
+nutmeg it is known as _mace_.
+
+ARIMAS'PIANS, in ancient Greek traditions, a people who lived in the
+extreme north-east of the ancient world. They were said to be one-eyed and
+to carry on a perpetual war with the gold-guarding griffins, whose gold
+they endeavoured to steal. Cf. Milton, _Paradise Lost_, II, 943.
+
+ARIMATHAE'A, a town of Palestine, identified with the modern _Ramleh_, 22
+miles W.N.W. of Jerusalem.
+
+ARI'ON, an ancient Greek poet and musician, born at Methymna, in Lesbos,
+flourished about 625 B.C. He lived at the Court of Periander of Corinth,
+and afterwards visited Sicily and Italy. Returning from Tarentum to Corinth
+with rich treasures, the avaricious sailors resolved to murder him. Apollo,
+however, having informed him in a dream of the impending danger, Arion in
+vain endeavoured to soften the hearts of the crew by the power of music. He
+then threw himself into the sea, when one of a shoal of dolphins, which had
+been attracted by his music, received him on his back and bore him to land.
+The sailors, having returned to Corinth, were confronted by Arion and
+convicted of their crime. The lyre of Arion, and the dolphin which rescued
+him, became constellations in the heavens. A fragment of a hymn to
+Poseidon, ascribed to Arion, is extant.
+
+ARIOS'TO, LUDOVI'CO, one of the most celebrated poets of Italy, was born at
+Reggio, in Lombardy, 8th Sept., 1474, of a noble family; died 6th June,
+1533. His lyric poems in the Italian and Latin languages, distinguished for
+ease and elegance of style, introduced him to the notice of the Cardinal
+Ippolito d'Este, son of Duke Ercole I of Ferrara. In 1503 Ippolito employed
+him in his service and used his counsel in the most important affairs. In
+this service he began and finished, in ten or eleven years, his immortal
+poem, the _Orlando Furioso_, which was published in 1515, and immediately
+became highly popular. He afterwards entered the service of Alfonso I, Duke
+of Ferrara, the cardinal's brother, a lover of the arts, who put much
+confidence in him. After quelling disturbances that had broken out in the
+wild and mountainous Garfagnana, he returned to Ferrara, where he employed
+himself in the composition of his comedies, and in putting the last touches
+to his _Orlando_. The _Orlando Furioso_ is a continuation of the _Orlando
+Innamorato_ of Bojardo, details the chivalrous adventures of the paladins
+of the age of Charlemagne, and extends to forty-six cantos. The best
+English translation is that of Rose (1823). Cf. E. Gardner, _Ariosto: the
+Prince of Court Poets_; J. S. Nicholson, _Life and Genius of Ariosto_.
+
+ARISH. See _El Arish_.
+
+ARISTAEUS, in Greek mythology, son of Apollo and Cyrene, the introducer of
+bee-keeping. Cf. Virgil, _Georgics_, IV, 315-558.
+
+ARISTARCHUS (a-ris-taer'kus), an ancient Greek grammarian, born at
+Samothrace 220 B.C., died at Cyprus 143 B.C. He edited Homer's poems with
+the greatest acuteness and ability, endeavouring to restore the text to its
+genuine state, and to clear it of all interpolations and corruptions; hence
+the phrase, Aristarchian criticism. His edition of Homer furnished the
+basis of all subsequent ones.
+
+ARISTARCHUS, an ancient Greek astronomer belonging to Samos, flourished
+about 155 B.C., and first asserted the revolution of the earth about the
+sun; also regarded as the inventor of the sun-dial.
+
+ARIS'TEAS, a personage of ancient Greek legend, represented to have lived
+over many centuries, disappearing and reappearing by turns.
+
+ARISTIDES (a-ris-t[=i]'d[=e]z), a statesman of ancient Greece, for his
+strict integrity surnamed the _Just_. He was one of the ten generals of the
+Athenians when they fought with the Persians at Marathon, 490 B.C. Next
+year he was eponymous archon, and in this office enjoyed such popularity
+that he excited the jealousy of Themistocles, who succeeded in procuring
+his banishment by ostracism (about 483). Three years after, when Xerxes
+invaded Greece with a large army, the Athenians hastened to recall him, and
+Themistocles now admitted him to his confidence and councils. In the battle
+of Plataea (479) he commanded the Athenians, and had a great share in
+gaining the victory. To defray the expenses of the Persian war he persuaded
+the Greeks to impose a tax, which should be paid into the hands of an
+officer appointed by the States collectively, and deposited at Delos. The
+confidence which was felt in his integrity appeared in their entrusting him
+with the office of apportioning the contribution. He died at an advanced
+age about 468 B.C., so poor that he was buried at the public expense.
+
+ARISTIP'PUS (c. 425-366 B.C.), a disciple of Socrates, and founder of a
+philosophical school among the Greeks, which was called the _Cyrenaic_,
+from his native city Cyr[=e]n[=e], in Africa; flourished 380 B.C. His moral
+philosophy differed widely from that of Socrates, and was a science of
+refined voluptuousness. His fundamental principles were--that all human
+sensations may be reduced to two, pleasure and pain. Pleasure is a gentle,
+and pain a violent emotion. All living beings seek the former and avoid the
+latter. Happiness is nothing but a continued pleasure, composed of separate
+gratifications; and as it is the object of all human exertions, we should
+abstain from no kind of pleasure. Still we should always be governed by
+taste and reason in our enjoyments. His doctrines were taught only by his
+daughter Ar[)e]t[=e], and by his grandson Aristippus the younger, by whom
+they were systematized. Other Cyrenaics compounded them into a particular
+doctrine of pleasure, and are hence called _Hedonici_. His writings are
+lost.
+
+ARISTOC'RACY (Gr. _aristos_, best, _kratos_, rule), a form of government by
+which the wealthy and noble, or any small privileged class, rules over the
+rest of the citizens. The term has now become almost entirely social in
+meaning, and is mostly applied to the nobility or chief persons in a State.
+
+ARISTOGEITON (-g[=i]'ton), a citizen of Athens, whose name is rendered
+famous by a conspiracy (514 B.C.) formed in conjunction with his friend
+Harmodius against the tyrants Hippias and Hipparchus, the sons of
+Pisistratus. Both Aristogeiton and Harmodius lost their lives through their
+attempts to free the country, and were reckoned martyrs of liberty.
+
+ARISTOLOCHIA (-l[=o]'ki-a), a genus of plants, the type of the ord.
+Aristolochiaceae, which consists of dicotyledonous monochlamydeous plants,
+with an inferior 3-6-celled fruit, found for the most part in the hotter
+parts of the world, and in many cases used medicinally on account of their
+tonic and stimulating properties. The genus has emmenagogic qualities,
+especially the European species _A. rotunda_, _A. longa_, and _A.
+Clemat[=i]tis_. _A. bracte[=a]ta_ is used in India as an anthelminthic; _A.
+odoratissima_, a West Indian species, is a valuable bitter and
+alexipharmic. _A. serpentaria_ is the Virginian snake-root, popularly
+regarded as a remedy for snake bites.
+
+ARISTOPHANES (-tof'a-n[=e]z), the greatest comic poet of ancient Greece,
+born at Athens probably about the year 455 B.C., died 375 B.C. Little is
+known of his life. He appeared as a poet in 427 B.C., and having indulged
+in some sarcasms on the powerful demagogue Cleon, was ineffectually accused
+by the latter of having unlawfully assumed the title of an Athenian
+citizen. He afterwards revenged himself on Cleon in his comedy of the
+_Knights_, in which he himself acted the part of Cleon, because no actor
+had the courage to do it. Of fifty-four (or forty-four) comedies attributed
+to him, eleven only remain; believed to be the flower of the ancient
+comedy, and distinguished by wit, humour, and poetry, as also by grossness.
+In them there is constant reference to the manners, actions, and public
+characters of the day, the freedom of the old Greek comedy allowing an
+unbounded degree of personal and political satire. The names of his extant
+plays are _Acharnians_, _Knights_, _Clouds_, _Wasps_, _Peace_, _Birds_,
+_Lysistrata_, _Thesmophoriazusae_, _Frogs_, _Ecclesiasuzae_, and
+_Plutus_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. B. Rogers, _Complete Works of Aristophanes,
+with verse translation_ (by far the best translation); Hookham-Frere,
+_Translation_ (five plays only); Couat, _Aristophane et l'ancienne comedie
+attique_.
+
+AR'ISTOTLE (Gr. _Aristot'eles_), a distinguished philosopher and naturalist
+of ancient Greece, the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy, was
+born in 384 B.C. at Stagira, in Macedonia; died at Chalcis, 322 B.C. His
+father, Nicomachus, was physician to Amyntas II, King of Macedonia, and
+claimed to be descended from Aesculapius. Aristotle had lost his parents
+before he came, at about the age of seventeen, to Athens to study in the
+school of Plato. With that philosopher he remained for twenty years, became
+pre-eminent among his pupils, and was known as the 'Intellect of the
+School'. Upon the death of Plato, 348 B.C., he took up his residence at
+Atarneus, in Mysia, on the invitation of his former pupil Hermeias, the
+ruler of that city, on whose assassination by the Persians, 343 B.C., he
+fled to Mitylene with his wife Pythias, a near relative of Hermeias. During
+his residence at Mitylene he received an invitation from Philip of Macedon
+to superintend the education of his son Alexander, then in his fourteenth
+year. This relationship between the great philosopher and the future
+conqueror continued for five or six years, during which the prince was
+instructed in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, logic, ethics, and politics, and
+in those branches of physics which had even then made some considerable
+progress. On Alexander succeeding to the throne Aristotle continued to live
+with him as his friend and councillor till he set out on his Asiatic
+campaign (334 B.C.). He returned to Athens and established his school in
+the Lyceum, a gymnasium attached to the temple of Apollo Lyceius, which was
+assigned to him by the State. He delivered his lectures in the wooded walks
+of the Lyceum while walking up and down with his pupils. From the action
+itself, or more probably from the name of the walks (_peripatoi_), his
+school was called Peripatetic. Pupils gathered to him from all parts of
+Greece, and his school became by far the most popular in Athens. The
+statement that he had two circles of pupils, the _exoteric_ and the
+_esoteric_ has given rise to much controversy. By some it has been held
+that Aristotle published during his lifetime popular discourses with a view
+to make way for his doctrines in Athenian society, then impregnated with
+Platonic theories, and that these are called exoteric in contradistinction
+to those in which are embodied his matured opinions. It was during the time
+of his teaching at Athens that Aristotle is believed to have composed the
+great bulk of his works. But it is not possible to speak with any certainty
+about the chronology of his writings, as the references may be additions of
+editors. On the death of Alexander a revolution occurred in Athens hostile
+to the Macedonian interests with which Aristotle was identified. He
+therefore retired to Chalcis, where he soon after died. Sir Charles
+Walston, in 1891, opened a tomb near Eretria which he supposed to be that
+of Aristotle. According to Strabo he bequeathed all his works to
+Theophrastus, who, with other disciples of Aristotle, amended and continued
+them. They afterwards passed through various hands, till, about 50 B.C.,
+Andronicus of Rhodes put the various fragments together and classified them
+according to a systematic arrangement. Many of the books bearing his name
+are spurious, others are of doubtful genuineness. The whole are generally
+divided into logical, theoretical, and practical. The logical works are
+comprehended under the title _Organon_ (Instrument). The theoretical are
+divided into physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The physical works
+(including those on natural history) are on the _General Principles of
+Physical Science_, _The Heavens_, _Generation and Destruction_,
+_Meteorology_, _Natural History of Animals_, _On the Parts of Animals_, _On
+the Generation of Animals_, _On the Locomotion of Animals_, _On the Soul_,
+_On Memory_, _Sleep and Waking_, _Dreams_, _Divination_. In mathematics
+there are two treatises, _On Indivisible Lines_ and _Mechanical Problems_.
+_The Metaphysics_ consist of fourteen books; the title (_Ta meta ta
+Physika_, 'the things following the Physics',) is the invention of an
+editor. The practical works embrace ethics, politics, economics, and
+treatises on art, and comprise the _Nicomachaean Ethics_ (so called because
+dedicated to his son, Nicomachus), _The Politics_, _Oeconomics_, _Poetry_,
+and _Rhetoric_. Among the lost works are the dialogues and others termed
+exoteric. A treatise _On the Constitution of Athens_ was discovered in
+1891. His style is devoid of grace and elegance. His works were first
+printed in a Latin translation, with the commentaries of Averroes, at
+Venice in 1489; the first Greek edition was that of Aldus Manutius (5
+vols., 1495-8). See _Peripatetic Philosophy_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Blakesley,
+_Life of Aristotle_; S. H. Butcher, _Poetics_ (with translation and
+excursus); R. Shute, _History of the Aristotelian Writings_; J. C. Wilson,
+_Aristotelian Studies_; E. Zeller, _Aristotle and the Earlier
+Peripatetics_; E. Barker, _Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle_.
+
+ARISTOX'ENUS, an ancient Greek musician and philosopher of Tarentum, born
+about 324 B.C. He studied music under his father Mnesias, and philosophy
+under Aristotle, whose successor he aspired to be. He endeavoured to apply
+his musical knowledge to philosophy, and especially to the science of mind,
+but it only appears to have furnished him with far-fetched analogies and
+led him into a kind of materialism. We have a work on the _Elements of
+Harmony_ by him.
+
+ARITH'METIC (Gr. _arithmos_, number) is primarily the science of numbers.
+As opposed to algebra it is the practical part of the science. Although the
+processes of arithmetical operations are often highly complicated, they all
+resolve themselves into the repetition of four primary
+operations--addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Of these
+the two latter are only complex forms of the two former, and subtraction
+again is merely a reversal of the process of addition. Little or nothing is
+known as to the origin and invention of arithmetic. Some elementary
+conception of it is in all probability coeval with the first dawn of human
+intelligence. In consequence of their rude methods of numeration, the
+science made but small advance among the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and
+Romans, and it was not until the introduction of the decimal scale of
+notation and the Arabic, or rather Indian, numerals into Europe that any
+great progress can be traced. In this scale of notation every number is
+expressed by means of the ten digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, by
+giving each digit a local as well as its proper or natural value. The value
+of every digit increases in a tenfold proportion from the right towards the
+left; the distance of any figure from the right indicating the power of 10,
+and the digit itself the number of those powers intended to be expressed:
+thus 3464 = 3000 + 400 + 60 + 4 = 3 x 10^3 + 4 x 10^2 + 6 x 10 + 4. The
+earliest arithmetical signs appear to have been hieroglyphical, but the
+Egyptian hieroglyphics were too diffuse to be of any arithmetical value.
+The units were successive strokes to the number required, the ten an open
+circle, the hundred a curled palm-leaf, the thousand a lotus flower, ten
+thousand a bent finger. The letters of the alphabet afforded a convenient
+mode of representing figures, and were used accordingly by the Chaldeans,
+Hebrews, and Greeks. The first nine letters of the Hebrew alphabet
+represented the units, the second nine tens, the remaining four together
+with five repeated with additional marks, hundreds; the same succession of
+letters with added points was repeated for thousands, tens of thousands,
+and hundreds of thousands. The Greeks followed the same system up to tens
+of thousands. They wrote the different classes of numbers in succession as
+we do, and they transferred operations performed on units to numbers in
+higher places; but the use of different signs for the different ranks
+clearly shows a want of full perception of the value of place as such. They
+adopted the letter M as a sign for 10,000 and by combining this mark with
+their other numerals they could note numbers as high as 100,000,000. The
+Roman numerals, which are still used in marking dates or numbering
+chapters, were almost useless for purposes of computation. From one to four
+were represented by vertical strokes [I], [II], [III], [IIII], five by [V],
+ten by [X], fifty by [L], one hundred by [square C], afterwards [C], five
+hundred by [D], a thousand by [M]. These signs were derived from each other
+according to particular rules, thus [V] was the half of [X], [inverted V]
+being also used; [L] was likewise the half of [C]. [M] was artistically
+written [M] and [cIc*] and [Ic*], afterwards [D], became five hundred.
+[ccI] represented 5000, [ccIc*c*] 10,000, [Ic*c*c*] 50,000, [cccIc*c*c*]
+100,000. They were also compounded by addition and subtraction, thus [IV]
+stood for four, [VI] for six, [XXX] for thirty, [XL] for forty, [LX] for
+sixty. Arithmetic is divided into _abstract_ and _practical_: the former
+comprehends notation, numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication,
+division, measures and multiples, fractions, powers and roots; the latter
+treats of the combinations and practical applications of these and the
+so-called rules, such as reduction, compound addition, subtraction,
+multiplication, and division, proportion, interest, profit and loss, &c.
+Another division is _integral_ and _fractional_ arithmetic, the former
+treating of integers, or whole numbers, and the latter of fractions.
+Decimal fractions were invented in the sixteenth century, and logarithms,
+embodying the last great advance in the science, in the seventeenth
+century.
+
+ARITHMET'ICAL, pertaining to arithmetic or its operations.--_Arithmetical
+mean_, the middle term of three quantities in arithmetical progression, or
+half the sum of any two proposed numbers; thus 11 is the arithmetical mean
+to 8 and 14.--_Arithmetical progression_, a series of numbers increasing or
+decreasing by a common difference, as 1, 3, 5, 7, &c.--_Arithmetical
+signs_, certain symbols used in arithmetic, and indicating processes or
+facts. The common signs used in arithmetic are the following: [plus sign]
+signifying that the numbers between which it is placed are to be added;
+[minus sign] - that the second is to be subtracted from the first; [times
+sign] that the one is to be multiplied by the other; [divide sign] that the
+former is to be divided by the latter; [equals sign] signifies that the one
+number is equal to the other; [proportional signs - colons] are the signs
+placed between the members of a proportional series, as 4 : 6 :: 8 : 12. A
+small figure placed on the right hand of another at the top signifies the
+corresponding power of the number beside which it is placed, as 5^2, 4^3,
+meaning the square of 5 and the cube of 4. [cube root] placed before or
+over a number signifies the square root of that number; with a figure it
+signifies the root of a higher power, as [cube root], which means cube
+root. A period placed to the left of a series of figures indicates that
+they are decimal fractions.
+
+A'RIUS, the originator of the Arian heresy. See _Arians_.
+
+ARIZO'NA, a former territory of the United States, admitted into the union
+as a sovereign State on 14th Feb., 1912, is bounded south by Mexico, west
+by California and Nevada (the River Colorado forming the greater part of
+the boundary), north by Utah, and east by New Mexico; area, 113,956 sq.
+miles. The surface is generally mountainous, but many fertile and
+well-watered valleys lie between the ridges. Part of the surface consists
+of deserts often entirely destitute of vegetation. The territory belongs to
+the basin of the Colorado, which passes through a portion of it, besides
+forming the boundary; while the Gila and Little Colorado, tributaries of
+the Colorado, traverse it from east to west. The canyons of the Colorado
+form a wonderful feature, the river flowing for hundreds of miles in a deep
+rocky channel with walls rising perpendicularly to the height of 1500 to
+6000 feet. In some parts timber is plentiful. The rainfall is small, and
+irrigation has been employed for agricultural purposes. Large tracts of
+elevated land have been found excellently adapted as pastures for sheep and
+cattle. The territory is rich in copper, gold, silver, lead, and other
+minerals, and mining is largely carried on, with much copper smelting and
+refining. The capital is Phoenix. Pop. 29,053. The Southern and the Santa
+Fe Pacific Railways traverse it. Pop. (1920), 333,903 (of which 171,468 are
+white), exclusive of Apaches and other Indians on reservations (area,
+29,017 sq. miles; pop. (1920), 42,400).
+
+ARJISH DAGH, the loftiest peak of the peninsula of Asia Minor, at the
+western extremity of the Anti-Taurus Range, 13,150 feet; an extinct
+volcano; on the N. and N.E. slopes are extensive glaciers.
+
+ARK, the name applied in our translation of the Bible to the boat or
+floating house in which Noah resided during the flood or deluge; to the
+floating vessel of bulrushes in which the infant Moses was laid; and to the
+chest in which the tables of the law were preserved--the _ark of the
+covenant_. This last was made of shittim-wood, overlaid within and without
+with gold, about 3 3/4 feet long by 2 1/4 feet high and broad, and over it
+were placed the golden covering or mercy-seat and the two cherubim. It was
+placed in the sanctuary of the temple of Solomon; before his time it was
+kept in the tabernacle, and was moved about as circumstances dictated. At
+the captivity it appears to have been either lost or destroyed.
+
+ARKANSAS (ar'kan-s[a:] or ar-kan'sas), one of the United States of America,
+bounded north by Missouri; east by the Mississippi, which separates it from
+the States of Mississippi and Tennessee; south by Louisiana and Texas; and
+west by the Indian Territory and Texas; area, 53,335 sq. miles. The surface
+in the east is low, flat, and swampy, densely wooded, and subject to
+frequent inundations from the numerous streams which water it. Towards the
+centre it becomes more diversified, presenting many undulating slopes and
+hills of moderate elevation. In the west it rises still higher, being
+traversed by a range of hills called the Ozark, which attains a height of
+2000 feet, some peaks rising to 3000. In various parts the prairies are of
+great extent; the forests also are extensive, principally of oak, hickory,
+ash, cotton, linden, maple, locust, and pine. Coal and other minerals are
+worked. The principal rivers, all tributaries of the Mississippi, are the
+Arkansas, the Red River, the St. Francis, and the Washita. Near the centre
+of the State are warm springs, much resorted to for chronic rheumatic and
+paralytic affections. The climate is subject to great extremes of heat and
+cold, and in the lower districts is unhealthy to new settlers. The staple
+products are cotton and maize; fruit is tolerably abundant. Many districts
+are admirably adapted for grazing, and great numbers of excellent cattle
+are reared. Arkansas was colonized as early as 1685 by the French. As part
+of Louisiana it was purchased by the United States in 1803. It was made
+into a separate territory in 1819, and admitted into the Union in 1836. It
+was one of the seceding States. The capital is Little Rock. The enumerated
+population in 1920 was 1,750,995.
+
+ARKANSAS, a river of the United States, which gives its name to the above
+State, the largest affluent of the Mississippi after the Missouri. It rises
+in the Rocky Mountains, about lat. 39deg N., long. 107deg W., flows in a
+general south-easterly direction through Colorado, Kansas, the Indian
+Territory, and lastly through the State of Arkansas, and after a course of
+2170 miles enters the Mississippi. During greater part of the year it is
+navigable for steamboats for 800 miles.
+
+ARKITE. See _Explosives_.
+
+ARK'LOW, a town in Ireland, County Wicklow, on the right bank of the Avoca,
+which falls into the sea about 500 yards below the town; the scene of a
+severe fight during the rebellion of 1798. Fishing is the chief industry.
+Pop. 5042.
+
+[Illustration: Arkwright's Water Frame]
+
+ARK'WRIGHT, Sir Richard, famous for his inventions in cotton-spinning, was
+born at Preston, in Lancashire, in 1732, died 1792. The youngest of
+thirteen children, he was bred to the trade of a barber. When about
+thirty-five years of age he gave himself up exclusively to the subject of
+inventions for spinning cotton. The thread spun by Hargreaves' jenny could
+not be used except as weft, being destitute of the firmness or hardness
+required in the longitudinal threads or warp. But Arkwright supplied this
+deficiency by the invention of the _spinning-frame_, which spins a vast
+number of threads of any degree of fineness and hardness, leaving the
+operator merely to feed the machine with cotton and to join the threads
+when they happen to break. His invention introduced the system of spinning
+by rollers, the carding, or _roving_ as it is technically termed (that is,
+the soft, loose strip of cotton), passing through one pair of rollers, and
+being received by a second pair, which is made to revolve with (as the case
+may be) three, four, or five times the velocity of the first pair. By this
+contrivance the roving is drawn out into a thread of the desired degree of
+tenuity and hardness. His inventions being brought into a pretty advanced
+state, Arkwright removed to Nottingham in 1768 in order to avoid the
+attacks of the same lawless rabble that had driven Hargreaves out of
+Lancashire. Here his operations were at first greatly fettered by a want of
+capital; but two gentlemen of means having entered into partnership with
+him, the necessary funds were obtained, and Arkwright erected his first
+mill, which was driven by horses, at Nottingham, and took out a patent for
+spinning by rollers in 1769. As the mode of working the machinery by
+horse-power was found too expensive, he built a second factory on a much
+larger scale at Cromford, in Derbyshire, in 1771, the machinery of which
+was turned by a water-wheel. Having made several additional discoveries and
+improvements in the processes of carding, roving, and spinning, he took out
+a fresh patent for the whole in 1775, and thus completed a series of the
+most ingenious and complicated machinery. Notwithstanding a series of
+law-suits in defence of his patent rights, and the destruction of his
+property by mobs, he amassed a large fortune. He was knighted by George III
+in 1786.
+
+ARLBERG ([.a]rl'ber_h_), a branch of the Rhaetian Alps, in the west of
+Tyrol, between it and Vorarlberg, pierced by the fourth longest railway
+tunnel in the world. It is 6 1/2 miles long, and was finished in Nov.,
+1883, and connects the valley of the Inn with that of the Rhine, and the
+Austrian railway system with the Swiss railways.
+
+AR'LECDON, an urban district of England, in Cumberland, 4 miles east of
+Whitehaven, with coal and iron mines. Pop. (1921), 5152.
+
+ARLES ([.a]rl; ancient, AREL[=A]TE), a town of Southern France, department
+Bouches du Rhone, 17 miles south-east of Nismes. It was an important town
+at the time of Caesar's invasion, and under the later emperors it became
+one of the most flourishing towns on the farther side of the Alps. It still
+possesses numerous ancient remains, of which the most conspicuous are those
+of a Roman amphitheatre, which accommodated 24,000 spectators. It has a
+considerable trade, manufactures of silk, &c., and furnishes a market for
+the surrounding country. Pop. 16,746.
+
+AR'LINGTON, Henry Bennet, Earl of, member of the Cabal ministry, and one of
+the scheming creatures of Charles II, born 1618, died 1685. He is supposed
+to have lived and died a Roman Catholic.
+
+AR'LON, a Belgian town, capital province of Luxemburg, a thriving town,
+with manufactures of ironware, leather, tobacco, &c. Pop. 12,012.
+
+ARM, the upper limb in man, connected with the thorax or chest by means of
+the scapula or shoulder-blade, and the clavicle or collar-bone. It consists
+of three bones, the arm-bone (_hum[)e]rus_), and the two bones of the
+fore-arm (_radius_ and _ulna_), and it is connected with the bones of the
+hand by the _carpus_ or wrist. The head or upper end of the arm-bone fits
+into the hollow called the _glenoid cavity_ of the scapula, so as to form a
+joint of the ball-and-socket kind, allowing great freedom of movement to
+the limb. The lower end of the humerus is broadened out by a projection on
+both the outer and inner sides (the outer and inner _condyles_), and has a
+pulley-like surface for articulating with the fore-arm to form the
+elbow-joint. This joint somewhat resembles a hinge, allowing of movement
+only in one direction. The ulna is the inner of the two bones of the
+fore-arm. It is largest at the upper end, where it has two processes, the
+_coronoid_ and the _olecranon_, with a deep groove between to receive the
+humerus. The radius--the outer of the two bones--is small at the upper and
+expanded at the lower end, where it forms part of the wrist-joint. The
+muscles of the upper arm are either _flexors_ or _extensors_, the former
+serving to bend the arm, the latter to straighten it by means of the
+elbow-joint. The main flexor is the _biceps_, the large muscle which may be
+seen standing out in front of the arm when a weight is raised. The chief
+opposing muscle of the biceps is the _triceps_. The muscles of the fore-arm
+are, besides flexors and extensors, _pronators_ and _supinators_, the
+former turning the hand palm downwards, the latter turning it upwards. The
+same fundamental plan of structure exists in the limbs of all vertebrate
+animals.
+
+ARMA'DA, the Spanish name for any large naval force; usually applied to the
+Spanish fleet vaingloriously designated the _Invincible Armada_, intended
+to act against England A.D. 1588. It was under the command of the Duke of
+Medina-Sidonia, and consisted of 130 great war vessels, larger and stronger
+than any belonging to the English fleet, with 30 smaller ships of war, and
+carried 19,295 marines, 8460 sailors, 2088 slaves, and 2630 cannon. It had
+scarcely quitted Lisbon on 29th May, 1588, when it was scattered by a
+storm, and had to be refitted in Corunna. It was to co-operate with a land
+force collected in Flanders under the Prince of Parma, and to unite with
+this it proceeded through the English Channel towards Calais. In its
+progress it was attacked by the English fleet under Lord Howard, who, with
+his lieutenants, Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, endeavoured by dexterous
+seamanship and the discharge of well-directed volleys of shot to destroy or
+capture the vessels of the enemy. The great lumbering Spanish vessels
+suffered severely from their smaller opponents, which most of their shot
+missed. Arrived at length off Dunkirk, the armada was becalmed, thrown into
+confusion by fire-ships, and many of the Spanish vessels destroyed or
+taken. The Duke of Medina-Sidonia, owing to the severe losses, at last
+resolved to abandon the enterprise, and conceived the idea of reconveying
+his fleet to Spain by a voyage round the north of Great Britain; but storm
+after storm assailed his ships, scattering them in all directions, and
+sinking many. Some went down on the cliffs of Norway, others in the open
+sea, others on the Scottish coast, others on the coast of Ireland. In all,
+seventy-two large vessels and over 10,000 men were lost.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+J. A. Froude, _Spanish Story of the Armada_; Sir J. K. Laughton, _State
+Papers relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada_; J. R. Hale, _Story of
+the Great Armada_.
+
+ARMADALE, a town of Scotland, Linlithgowshire, in coal and iron district.
+Pop. 4739.
+
+[Illustration: Armadillos--Left, Hairy Armadillo. Right, Kappler's
+Armadillo]
+
+ARMADI'LLO (genus Das[)y]pus), an edentate mammal peculiar to South
+America, consisting of various species, belonging to a family intermediate
+between the sloths and ant-eaters. They are covered with a hard bony shell,
+divided into belts, composed of small separate plates like a coat of mail,
+flexible everywhere except on the forehead, shoulders, and haunches, where
+it is not movable. The belts are connected by a membrane which enables the
+animal to roll itself up like a hedgehog. These animals burrow in the
+earth, where they lie during the daytime, seldom going abroad except at
+night. They are of different sizes: the largest, _Dasypus gigas_, being 3
+feet in length without the tail, and the smallest only 10 inches. They
+subsist chiefly on fruits and roots, sometimes on insects and flesh. They
+are inoffensive, and their flesh is esteemed good food.--There is a genus
+of isopodous Crustacea called Armadillo, consisting of animals allied to
+the wood-lice, capable of rolling themselves into a ball.
+
+ARMAGEDDON (-ged'don), the great battlefield of the Old Testament, where
+the chief conflicts took place between the Israelites and their
+enemies--the table-land of Esdraelon in Galilee and Samaria, in the centre
+of which stood the town of Megiddo, on the site of the modern Lejjun: used
+figuratively in the _Apocalypse_ to signify the place of 'the battle of the
+great day of God'. It may, however, be _har migdo_, his fruitful mountain,
+'the mountain land of Israel'. The phrase 'an Armageddon' expresses any
+great slaughter or final conflict, and has been frequently applied to the
+Great War of 1914-8. During this war severe fighting took place in Sept.,
+1918, on the field of Armageddon, the entrance to the passes of Megiddo.
+The battle ended in an overwhelming victory for General Allenby's armies.
+See _Megiddo_.
+
+ARMAGH ([.a]r-mae'), a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster;
+surrounded by Monaghan, Tyrone, Lough Neagh, Down, and Louth; area, 328,086
+acres, of which about a half is under tillage. The north-west of the county
+is undulating and fertile. The northern part, bordering on Lough Neagh,
+consists principally of extensive bogs. On the southern border is a range
+of barren hills. The chief rivers are the Blackwater, which separates it
+from Tyrone; the Upper Bann, which discharges itself into Lough Neagh; and
+the Callan, which falls into the Blackwater. There are several small lakes.
+The manufacture of linen is carried on very extensively. Armagh, Lurgan,
+and Portadown are the chief towns. The county sends three members to
+Parliament. Pop. 120,291.--The county town, _Armagh_, is situated partly on
+a hill, about half a mile from the Callan. It has a Protestant cathedral
+crowning the hill, a Gothic building dating from the eighth century,
+repaired and beautified recently; a new Roman Catholic cathedral in the
+pointed Gothic style, and various public buildings. It is the see of an
+archbishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, who is primate of all
+Ireland, and is a place of great antiquity. Pop. 7356.
+
+ARMAGNAC ([.a]r-m[.a]-ny[.a]k), an ancient territory of France, in the
+province of Gascony, some of the counts of which hold prominent places in
+the history of France. Bernard VII, son of John II, surnamed the Hunchback,
+succeeded his brother, John III, in 1391, and was called to Court by
+Isabella of Bavaria, with the view of heading the Orleans in opposition to
+the Burgundian faction, where he no sooner gained the ascendancy than he
+compelled the queen to appoint him Constable of France. He showed himself a
+merciless tyrant, and became so generally execrated that the Duke of
+Burgundy, to whom Isabella had turned for help, found little difficulty in
+gaining admission into Paris, and even seizing the person of Armagnac, who
+was cast into prison in 1418, when the exasperated populace burst in and
+killed him and his followers. John V, grandson of the above, who succeeded
+in 1450, made himself notorious for his crimes. He was assassinated in his
+castle of Lectoure in 1473 by an agent of Louis XI, against whom he was
+holding out.
+
+AR'MATURE, a term applied to the piece of soft iron which is placed across
+the poles of permanent or electro-magnets for the purpose of receiving and
+concentrating the attractive force. In the case of permanent magnets it is
+also important for preserving their magnetism when not in use, and hence it
+is sometimes termed the _keeper_. It produces this effect in virtue of the
+well-known law of induction, by which the armature, when placed near or
+across the poles of the magnet, is itself converted into a temporary magnet
+with reversed poles, and these, reacting upon the permanent magnet, keep
+its particles in a state of constant magnetic tension, or, in other words,
+in that constrained position which is supposed to constitute magnetism. A
+horse-shoe magnet should therefore never be laid aside without its
+armature; and in the case of straight bar-magnets two should be placed
+parallel to each other, with their poles reversed, and a keeper or armature
+across them at both ends. The term is also applied to the core and coil of
+the electro-magnet, which revolves before the poles of the permanent magnet
+in the magneto-electric machine.
+
+ARME BLANCHE, a term applied to the rapier and duelling-foil, and
+frequently also to all weapons other than fire-arms. The phrase is
+particularly applied to the sabres and lances carried by cavalry, but also
+to the bayonet.
+
+ARME'NIA, a mountainous country of Western Asia, of great historical
+interest as the original seat of one of the oldest civilized peoples in the
+world. The name Armenia occurs in the _Vulgate_, but the Hebrew name is
+Ararat. It has an area of about 120,000 sq. miles, and is intersected by
+the Euphrates, which divides it into the ancient divisions, Armenia Major
+and Armenia Minor. The country is an elevated plateau, enclosed on several
+sides by the ranges of Taurus and Anti-Taurus, and partly occupied by other
+mountains, the loftiest of which is Ararat. Several important rivers take
+their rise in Armenia, namely, the Kur or Cyrus, and its tributary the Aras
+or Araxes, flowing east to the Caspian Sea; the Halys or Kizil-Irmak,
+flowing north to the Black Sea; and the Tigris and Euphrates, which flow
+into the Persian Gulf. The chief lakes are Van and Urumiyah. The climate is
+rather severe. The soil is on the whole productive, though in many places
+it would be quite barren were it not for the great care taken to irrigate
+it. Wheat, barley, tobacco, hemp, grapes, and cotton are raised; and in
+some of the valleys apricots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts are grown.
+The inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine Armenian stock, a branch of the
+Aryan or Indo-European race; but besides them, in consequence of the
+repeated subjugation of the country, various other races have obtained a
+footing. The total number of Armenians is estimated at 2,900,000, of whom
+one-half are in Armenia. The remainder, like the Jews, are scattered over
+various countries, and are generally engaged in commercial pursuits. They
+everywhere retain, however, their distinct nationality.
+
+Little is known of the early history of Armenia, but it was a separate
+State as early as the eighth century B.C., when it became subject to
+Assyria, as it also did subsequently to the Medes and the Persians. It was
+conquered by Alexander the Great in 325 B.C., but regained its independence
+about 190 B.C. Its king, Tigranes, son-in-law of the celebrated
+Mithrid[=a]tes, was defeated by the Romans under Lucullus and Pompey
+between 69-66 B.C., but was left on the throne. Since then its fortunes
+have been various under the Romans, Parthians, Byzantine emperors,
+Persians, Saracens, and Turks. Until quite recently Armenia had no
+political existence, having been partitioned between Turkey, Persia, and
+Russia, the last acquiring considerable portions in 1829 and 1878. The hope
+of the Armenians to see their country formed into an autonomous province
+administered by Christians was frustrated by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.
+The advanced party amongst the Armenians, therefore, determined to obtain
+their object by the production of disturbances and the spread of a
+revolutionary movement. The Porte retaliated by wholesale massacres of the
+Armenians in 1896, 1904, and 1908. The Armenian revolutionary and national
+parties in the meantime continued their activity and propaganda. Armenia
+proclaimed its independence in Aug., 1918. In Jan., 1920, the Supreme
+Council of the Allied Governments recognized the Armenian Republic of
+Erivan. A mandate for Armenia was also offered to the United States of
+America, but it was refused by the American Senate in May, 1920. On 18th
+March, 1922, Soviet Russia concluded a treaty with Turkey, giving to the
+latter most of Armenia. Batum was attached to Georgia. See _Erivan_,
+_Russia_, _Turkey_.
+
+The Armenians received Christianity at an early date, most probably at the
+beginning of the third century, although native historians maintain that
+several of the apostles preached in Armenia. The real apostle of Armenia
+was Gregory the Illuminator, in the third century. During the Monophysitic
+disputes they held with those who rejected the twofold nature of Christ,
+and being dissatisfied with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451)
+they separated from the Greek Church in 536. The Popes had at different
+times attempted to gain them over to the Roman Catholic faith, but have not
+been able to unite them permanently and generally with the Roman Church.
+There are, however, small numbers here and there of United Armenians, who
+acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, agree in their doctrines
+with the Catholics, but retain their peculiar ceremonies and discipline.
+But the far greater part are yet Monophysites, and have remained faithful
+to their old religion and worship. Their doctrine differs from the orthodox
+chiefly in their admitting only one nature in Christ, and believing the
+Holy Spirit to proceed from the Father alone. Their sacraments are seven in
+number. They adore saints and their images, but do not believe in
+purgatory. Their hierarchy differs little from that of the Greeks. The
+_Catholicus_, or head of the Church, has his seat at Etchmiadzin, a
+monastery near Erivan, the capital of former Russian Armenia, on Mount
+Ararat.
+
+The Armenian language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, and
+is most closely connected with the Iranic group. The Old Armenian or Haikan
+language, which is still the literary and ecclesiastical language, is
+distinguished from the New Armenian, the ordinary spoken language, which
+contains a large intermixture of Persian and Turkish elements. The most
+flourishing period of Armenian literature extended from the fourth to the
+fourteenth century. It then declined, but a revival began in the
+seventeenth century, and at the present day wherever any extensive
+community of Armenians has settled they have set up a printing-press. The
+Armenian Bible, translated from a Syriac version, and revised by means of
+the Septuagint, by Isaac the Great and St. Mesrop, early in the fifth
+century, is a model of the classic style.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. N. and H.
+Buxton, _Travel and Politics in Armenia_; N. T. Gregor, _History of
+Armenia_; W. L. Williams, _Armenia, Past and Present_.
+
+ARMENTIERES ([.a]r-m[.a][n.]-ty[=a]r), a town in France, department Nord,
+10 miles W.N.W. of Lille, on the Lys. The town had extensive manufactures
+of linen and cotton goods and an extensive trade. The Germans captured
+Armentieres by massed assault early in April, 1918, after methodically
+shelling the town for about two years and destroying almost every building
+in it. The enemy's offensive was intended to achieve greater results.
+Indeed, its object was to break through to the Channel ports. It began on
+9th April, after artillery preparation, from La Bassee to Armentieres.
+When, however, the battle of Armentieres died down, the enemy plan to break
+through to the coast had been definitely and finally frustrated. German
+losses were extremely heavy, their attacks having been made with massed
+troops. (See _Ypres_.) Pop. 28,086.
+
+ARM'FELT, Gustav Moritz, Count of, Swedish soldier, born 1757, died 1814.
+Though he had been highly favoured and loaded with honours by Gustavus III,
+he incurred the enmity of the Duke of Sudermania, guardian of the young
+king, Gustavus IV, and was deprived of all his titles and possessions. He
+was restored to his fortune and honours in 1799, when Gustavus IV attained
+his majority, and held several high military posts. Ultimately, however, he
+entered the Russian service, was made count, chancellor of the University
+of Abo, president of the department for the affairs of Finland, member of
+the Russian Senate, and served in the campaign against Napoleon in 1812.
+
+ARMIDA ([.a]r-m[=e]'d[.a]), a beautiful enchantress in Tasso's _Jerusalem
+Delivered_, who succeeds in bringing the hero Rinaldo, with whom she had
+fallen violently in love, to her enchanted gardens. Here he completely
+forgets the high task to which he had devoted himself, until messengers
+from the Christian host having arrived at the island, Rinaldo escapes with
+them by means of a powerful talisman. In the sequel Armida becomes a
+Christian.
+
+AR'MILLARY SPHERE (Lat. _armilla_, a hoop), an astronomical instrument
+consisting of an arrangement of rings, all circles of one sphere, intended
+to represent the principal circles of the celestial globe, the rings
+standing for the meridian of the station, the ecliptic, the tropics, the
+arctic and antarctic circles, &c., in their relative positions. Its main
+use is to give a representation of the apparent motions of the celestial
+bodies.
+
+ARMIN'IANS, a sect or party of Christians, so called from Jacobus
+_Arminius_ or Harmensen. (See _Arminius_.) They were called also
+_Remonstrants_, from their having presented a _remonstrance_ to the
+States-general in 1610. The Arminian doctrines are: (1) Conditional
+election and reprobation, in opposition to absolute predestination. (2)
+Universal redemption, or that the atonement was made by Christ for all
+mankind, though none but believers can be partakers of the benefit. (3)
+That man, in order to exercise true faith, must be regenerated and renewed
+by the operation of the Holy Spirit, which is the gift of God; but that
+this grace is not irresistible and may be lost, so that men may relapse
+from a state of grace and die in their sins. Arminianism being a revolt
+against certain aspects of Calvinism, especially the absolutism of the
+eternal decrees, its doctrines were vehemently attacked by the Calvinists
+of Holland, and were condemned by the Synod of Dort in 1619. The Arminians,
+in consequence, were treated with great severity; many of them fled to, and
+spread in, other countries, and though there is no longer any particular
+sect to which the name is exclusively applied, many bodies are classed as
+Arminians, as being opposed to the Calvinists on the question of
+predestination.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Regenboog, _Historie der Remonstranten_;
+Caspar Brandt, _Life of Arminius_ (English translation by J. Guthrie);
+W. B. Pope, _Compendium of Christian Theology_ (3 vols.).
+
+ARMIN'IUS, an ancient German hero celebrated by his fellow-countrymen as
+their deliverer from the Roman yoke, born about 18-16 B.C., assassinated
+A.D. 19. Having been sent as a hostage to Rome, he served in the Roman
+army, and was raised to the rank of _eques_. Returning home, he found the
+Roman governor, Quintilius Varus, making efforts to Romanize the German
+tribes near the Rhine. Placing himself at the head of the discontented
+tribes he completely annihilated the army of Varus, consisting of three
+legions, in a three days' battle fought in the Teutoburg Forest. For some
+time he baffled the Roman general Germanicus, and after many years'
+resistance to the vast power of the Empire he drew upon himself the hatred
+of his countrymen by aiming at the regal authority, and was assassinated. A
+national monument to his memory was inaugurated on the Grotenburg, near
+Detmold, in 1875.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: see Tacitus, _Annals_ (translated by
+Murphy); O. Kemmer, _Arminius_; F. W. Fischer, _Armin und die Roemer_.
+
+ARMINIUS, Jacobus (properly Jakob Harmensen), founder of the sect of
+Arminians or Remonstrants, born in South Holland in 1560, died 1609. He
+studied at Utrecht, in the University of Leyden, and at Geneva, where his
+chief preceptor in theology was Theodore Beza (1582). On his return to
+Holland he was appointed minister of one of the churches in Amsterdam, and
+chosen to undertake the refutation of a work which strongly controverted
+Beza's doctrine of predestination; but he happened to be convinced by the
+work which he had undertaken to refute. Elected in 1603 professor of
+divinity at Leyden, he openly declared his opinions, and was involved in
+harassing controversies, especially with his fellow professor Gomarus.
+These contests, with the continual attacks on his reputation, at length
+impaired his health and brought on a complicated disease, of which he died.
+See _Arminians_.
+
+AR'MITAGE, Edward, English historical painter, born 1817, died 1896. He
+studied under Delaroche at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, was one of the
+ablest pupils of that painter, and in 1842 exhibited at the Salon (in the
+Louvre) a picture of _Prometheus Bound_. At the exhibition of cartoons for
+historical pictures in Westminster Hall (1843) he obtained a premium of
+L300 for his design of _Caesar's First Invasion of Britain_. Other similar
+premiums were gained by his _Spirit of Religion_ (1845), and _Battle of
+Meeanee_ (1847--L500). He now went to study at Rome, and exhibited at the
+Academy in 1848 his _Henry VIII and Katherine Parr_, and his _Trafalgar_
+(_Death of Nelson_). He had pictures in most of the subsequent Academy
+exhibitions up nearly to the time of his death. In 1867 he was elected an
+associate, and in 1872 a full academician. He did much for the restoration
+of fresco painting in England. A large number of his pictures were biblical
+in subject, such as _Ahab and Jezebel_, _Esther's Banquet_, _The Remorse of
+Judas_, _Joseph and Mary_, _Herod's Birthday Feast_, &c. As professor of
+painting to the Royal Academy he delivered lectures on painting, which were
+published in 1883. In 1898 appeared a volume of his _Pictures and
+Drawings_.
+
+ARMOR'ICA (from two Celtic words signifying 'upon the sea'), a name
+anciently applied to all north-western Gaul, afterwards limited to what is
+now Brittany. Hence _Armoric_ is one name for Breton or the language of the
+inhabitants of Brittany, a Celtic dialect closely allied to Welsh.
+
+ARMOUR. See _Arms_.
+
+ARMOURED CAR, a self-propelled car completely protected by bullet-proof
+armour-plating. Such a car is a stage in the development of mechanical
+warfare, i.e. warfare by means of a self-propelled, armed, and manned
+machine. The idea is a very ancient one, some form of protected vehicle
+having been in use among the Chinese in almost prehistoric times. The
+modern armoured car is constructed on a strongly-engined chassis, and is
+provided with a bullet-proof armour-plating both for engine and crew. This
+armour is continued low down over the wheels. The armament of such a car
+consists of two heavy machine-guns, firing through slits in the
+armour-plating of the body of the car.
+
+ARMOUR-PLATES, iron or steel plates with which the sides of vessels of war
+are covered with the view of rendering them shot-proof. See _Iron-clad
+Vessels_.
+
+ARMS, COAT OF, or ARMORIAL BEARINGS, a collective name for the devices
+borne on shields, on banners, &c., as marks of dignity and distinction,
+and, in the case of family and feudal arms, descending from father to son.
+They were first employed by the Crusaders, and became hereditary in
+families at the close of the twelfth century. They took their rise from the
+knights painting their banners or shields each with a figure or figures
+proper to himself, to enable him to be distinguished in battle when clad in
+armour. See _Heraldry_.
+
+ARMS, COLLEGE OF. See _Herald_.
+
+[Illustration: Armour, from the effigy of Sir Richard Peyton, in Tong
+Church, Shropshire]
+
+ARMS and ARMOUR. The former term is applied to weapons of offence, the
+latter to the various articles of defensive covering used in war and
+military exercises, especially before the introduction of gunpowder.
+Weapons of offence are divisible into two distinct sections--firearms, and
+arms used without gunpowder or other explosive substance. The first arms of
+offence would probably be wooden clubs, then would follow wooden weapons
+made more deadly by means of stone or bone, stone axes, slings, bows and
+arrows with heads of flint or bone, and afterwards various weapons of
+bronze. Subsequently a variety of arms of iron and steel was introduced,
+which comprised the sword, javelin, pike, spear or lance, dagger, axe,
+mace, chariot scythe, &c.; with a rude artillery consisting of catapults,
+ballistae, and battering-rams. From the descriptions of Homer we know that
+almost all the Grecian armour, defensive and offensive, in his time was of
+bronze; though iron was sometimes used. The lance, spear, and javelin were
+the principal weapons of this age among the Greeks. The bow is not often
+mentioned. Among ancient nations the Egyptians seem to have been most
+accustomed to the use of the bow, which was the principal weapon of the
+Egyptian infantry. Peculiar to the Egyptians was a defensive weapon
+intended to catch and break the sword of the enemy. With the Assyrians the
+bow was a favourite weapon; but with them lances, spears, and javelins were
+in more common use than with the Egyptians. Most of the large engines of
+war--chariots with scythes projecting at each side from the axle,
+catapults, and ballistae--seem to have been of Assyrian origin. During the
+historical age of Greece the characteristic weapon was a heavy spear from
+21 to 24 feet in length. The sword used by the Greeks was short, and was
+worn on the right side. The Roman sword was from 22 to 24 inches in length,
+straight, two-edged, and obtusely pointed, and as by the Greeks was worn on
+the right side. It was used principally as a stabbing weapon. It was
+originally of bronze. The most characteristic weapon of the Roman legionary
+soldier, however, was the _pilum_, which was a kind of pike or javelin,
+some 6 feet or more in length. The pilum was sometimes used at close
+quarters, but more commonly it was thrown. The favourite weapons of the
+ancient Germanic races were the battle-axe, the lance or dart, and the
+sword. The weapons of the Anglo-Saxons were spears, axes, swords, knives,
+and maces or clubs. The Normans had similar weapons, and were well
+furnished with archers and cavalry. The cross-bow was a comparatively late
+invention introduced by the Normans. Gunpowder was not used in Europe to
+discharge projectiles till the beginning of the fourteenth century. Cannon
+are first mentioned in England in 1338, and there seems to be no doubt that
+they were used by the English at the siege of Cambrai in 1339. The
+projectiles first used for cannon were of stone. Hand fire-arms date from
+the fifteenth century. At first they required two men to serve them, and it
+was necessary to rest the muzzle on a stand in aiming and firing. The first
+improvement was the invention of the match-lock, about 1476; this was
+followed by the wheel-lock, and about the middle of the seventeenth century
+by the flint-lock, which was in universal use until it was superseded by
+the percussion-lock, the invention of a Scottish clergyman early in the
+nineteenth century. The needle-gun dates from 1838. The only important
+weapon not a fire-arm that has been invented since the introduction of
+gunpowder is the bayonet, which is believed to have been invented about
+1650. See _Cannon_, _Musket_, _Rifle_, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Greek Armour]
+
+[Illustration: Roman Armour--Soldiers wearing Cuirass]
+
+[Illustration: Chain Armour]
+
+[Illustration: Horse-armour of Maximilian I of Germany _a_, Chamfron. _b_,
+Manefaire. _c_, Poitrinal, poitrel, or breastplate. _d_, Croupiere or
+buttock-piece.]
+
+[Illustration: Allecret (Light Plate) Armour, A.D. 1540]
+
+Some kind of defensive covering was probably of almost as early invention
+as weapons of offence. The principal pieces of defensive armour used by the
+ancients were shields, helmets, cuirasses, and greaves. In the earliest
+ages of Greece the shield is described as of immense size, but in the time
+of the Peloponnesian War (about 420 B.C.) it was much smaller. The Romans
+had two sorts of shields: the _scutum_, a large oblong rectangular
+highly-convex shield, carried by the legionaries; and the _parma_, a small
+round or oval flat shield, carried by the light-armed troops and the
+cavalry. In the declining days of Rome the shields became larger and more
+varied in form. The helmet was a characteristic piece of armour among the
+Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. Like all other body armour it was
+usually made of bronze. The helmet of the historical age of Greece was
+distinguished by its lofty crest. The Roman helmet in the time of the early
+emperors fitted close to the head, and had a neck-guard and hinged
+cheek-pieces fastened under the chin, and a small bar across the face for a
+visor. Both Greeks and Romans wore cuirasses, at one time of bronze, but
+afterwards of flexible materials. Greaves for the legs were worn by both,
+but among the Romans usually on one leg. The ancient Germans had large
+shields of plaited osier covered with leather; afterwards their shields
+were small, bound with iron, and studded with bosses. The Anglo-Saxons had
+round or oval shields of wood, covered with leather, and having a boss in
+the centre; and they had also corselets, or coats of mail, strengthened
+with iron rings. The Normans were well protected by mail; their shields
+were somewhat triangular in shape, their helmets conical. In Europe
+generally metal armour was used from the tenth to the eighteenth century,
+and at first consisted of a tunic made of iron rings firmly sewn flat upon
+strong cloth or leather. The rings were afterwards interlinked one with
+another so as to form a garment of themselves, called _chain-mail_. Another
+variety of this flexible armour was known as _banded-mail_. This consisted
+of rings sewn upon a fabric foundation, the whole being covered with
+leather. In addition to this, 'scale armour', which had been in use from
+the very earliest periods of history, was still in common fashion in the
+thirteenth century. By degrees the suit of mail was reinforced by the
+addition of pieces of plate on the breast, knees, elbows, and arms, and by
+the end of the fourteenth century the full suit of plate had been evolved,
+the mail being only worn as a skirt round the waist or as a coif attached
+to the helmet. The golden age of plate armour is the middle of the
+fifteenth century, when the design was light and graceful, and at the same
+time fully protective. In the sixteenth century, when 'shock tactics' of
+cavalry were the order of the day, the 'war harness' became heavier. This
+was particularly noticeable in the armour for the joust or tournament, in
+which sport the aim of the contestants was to score points and not to
+inflict injury. Many of these jousting armours weigh over 80 lb. The
+weapons in use through the whole of the plate-armour period were the lance,
+the sword, the axe or war-hammer, the long-bow, and the cross-bow. The
+introduction of fire-arms in the fourteenth century was one of the causes
+which led to the increase of weight in armour, for the armourer was
+continually improving and strengthening his products to make them proof
+against musket and pistol, and he generally succeeded, but by doing so
+increased the weight till it became insupportable. In the seventeenth
+century leg armour was abandoned, and by the end of the civil war the
+popular defence was the steel cap and breastplate. In the eighteenth
+century armour entirely disappeared, except for ceremonial, and was thought
+to be entirely obsolete till it was revived in the recent war in the form
+of the steel shrapnel-helmet, which was favoured by all the Allies and also
+by the enemy. The German troops occasionally used heavy body armour.
+Daggers and clubs, weapons likewise thought to be obsolete, were frequently
+used by all combatants, especially on raids.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Hutton, _The
+Sword of the Centuries_; H. S. Cowper, _The Art of Attack_; C. ffoulkes,
+_Armour and Weapons_; C. H. Ashdown, _British and Foreign Arms and Armour_;
+C. Hall, _Modern Weapons of War by Land_.
+
+ARMSTRONG, John, Scottish poet and physician, born about 1709, died 1779.
+After studying medicine in Edinburgh he settled in London. In 1744 he
+published his chief work, the _Art of Preserving Health_, a didactic poem.
+This work raised his reputation to a height which his subsequent efforts
+scarcely sustained. In 1746 he became physician to a hospital for soldiers,
+and in 1760 he was appointed physician to the forces which went to Germany.
+After his return to London he published a collection of his _Miscellanies_,
+which contained, however, nothing valuable. He afterwards visited France
+and Italy, and published an account of his tour under the name of Lancelot
+Temple. His last production was a volume of _Medical Essays_.
+
+ARMSTRONG, William George, Lord, engineer and mechanical inventor, born at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, 10th Nov., 1810. He was trained as a solicitor, and
+practised as such for some time. Among his early inventions were the
+hydro-electric machine, a powerful apparatus for producing frictional
+electricity, and the hydraulic crane. In 1847 the Elswick works, near
+Newcastle, were established for the manufacture of his cranes and other
+heavy iron machinery, and these works are now among the most extensive of
+their kind. Here the first rifled ordnance gun which bears his name was
+made in 1854. His improvements in the manufacture of guns and shells led to
+his being appointed engineer of rifled ordnance under Government, and he
+was knighted in 1858. This appointment came to an end in 1863, since which
+time his ordnance has taken a prominent place in the armaments of different
+countries. He was made a peer, as Baron Armstrong, in 1887. He died 27th
+Dec., 1900.
+
+ARMSTRONG GUN, a kind of cannon, so called from its inventor. It has an
+inner tube or core of steel, rifled with numerous shallow grooves, the tube
+being surrounded by a jacket of spirally-coiled bars of wrought iron, so
+disposed as to bring the metal into the most favourable position for the
+strain to which it is to be exposed. His first guns were small, but larger
+ones were soon made, and afterwards those of the very highest calibre. The
+breech-loading principle was also adopted in them, and special provision to
+effect this satisfactorily was invented by him. The improved shells
+introduced by him were of the elongated and pointed type now so well known,
+the charge being inserted in a special chamber behind the bore.
+
+ARMY, a collection of bodies of men armed, disciplined, and organized for
+war. The essence of a modern army is that it shall be composed of organized
+units each under its own commander, grouped in formations of
+ever-increasing size, and owing allegiance through these commanders to one
+supreme head. Discipline and organization are essential, or such a force
+becomes merely a collection of armed men.
+
+In the early days of our history every able-bodied man was, to a greater or
+lesser extent, a possible fighting man, and all had arms of one kind or
+another. Consequently, when an army was required, landowners and county
+authorities were ordered to provide the troops necessary. Every free
+landowner between the ages of sixteen and sixty was liable to service,
+which was limited to two months in a year. This was the Saxon 'fyrd'
+system. Later it was improved on by the institution of 'Thane's Service',
+which made it incumbent on the more considerable landowners to appear fully
+armed and mounted, and to serve for the whole campaign. The horse, however,
+was only used as a means of locomotion: for fighting purposes their riders
+dismounted, as did the dragoons of the seventeenth century and the mounted
+infantry of still more modern times. The fyrd was an unorganized and
+undisciplined force and entirely ephemeral in its nature, so that we find
+the Danish kings of England casting about for some more permanent force,
+which came into existence under the title of the 'House Carles', or Royal
+Guard. With the Norman Conquest the fyrd was largely supplanted by the
+feudal system of knight's service, according to which the country was
+divided into knight's fees, each of which had to provide its quotum of men.
+The gradual appearance of the custom of avoiding service by payments of
+money--in time regulated under the name of scutage--led to the employment
+of paid mercenaries, who for some two centuries were almost invariably
+foreigners. In the twelfth century it was found that sufficient troops
+could not be provided under these two systems, so the fyrd was
+re-established as a National Militia by the Assize of Arms, and in the next
+century further steps were taken to protect it under the Statute of
+Winchester. In the fourteenth century the archer, with his longbow, became
+a very important part of the fighting forces of England, and an army of
+those days consisted of the heavily-armed and armoured knights and
+men-at-arms for shock action, and the unarmoured archers for 'volley
+action', to use a later term. With the gradual disappearance of the foreign
+mercenaries, it became the custom for the king to issue indents to certain
+influential subjects for the raising of paid troops. From this custom arose
+the free companies, which, in time, became nothing more or less than
+commercial undertakings. The indents were accepted, and the men enlisted
+primarily for what could be got out of the business of fighting, either in
+the shape of ransom or the sack of towns. Some attempt was also made at
+tactical organization, and an army of the period was divided into vanguard,
+battle, and rearguard. Artillery also was beginning to be developed in
+Germany for siege purposes. The sixteenth century saw the first formation
+of companies into regiments, though as yet of no fixed strength. Arms were
+also modernized, and by the end of the century muskets, 18-feet pikes, and
+swords, were the arms of infantry instead of the varied assortment of
+halberds, pikes, muskets, harquebuses, and longbows common at the
+beginning. Elizabeth introduced the press-gang as an aid to recruiting, and
+abolished the white coat of the soldier in favour of a long red or blue
+cassock. In the next century Cromwell's new model army became the first
+standing army of England, and, though it was disbanded by Act of Parliament
+at the Restoration, one of its regiments--Monk's--remained, and is now the
+Coldstream Guards. After this regiments were raised from time to time on
+one pretext or another, and the nucleus of a standing army became a _fait
+accompli_, though it was for a long time considered more as an appanage of
+the king than as a national institution. With the standing army came the
+first beginnings of civilian control, a Secretary-at-War being appointed in
+1660. He had, however, no responsibility, and was subordinate to the
+commander-in-chief, and it was not till 1710 that he assumed his present
+responsibility to Parliament. During the eighteenth century the strength of
+the army rose or fell according to the state of the military barometer and
+the success or otherwise of the various recruiting expedients, among which
+was the first attempt at a short-service system in 1703. In 1871-2 the old
+numbering in regiments was abolished and a territorial designation
+substituted. According to this scheme, the first twenty-five regiments, all
+of which had already two battalions, were grouped together, the rest being
+joined arbitrarily to form new regiments under county designations. With
+these regiments were affiliated the militia and volunteer battalions, which
+have now been amalgamated into the Special Reserve and the Territorial
+Force.
+
+For the requirements of the war of 1914-8 the Empire, as a whole, including
+India, raised and maintained a total of 8,654,467 men, of which the
+contribution of the United Kingdom was over 6,000,000. Casualties for the
+whole Empire were 3,060,616, of which the United Kingdom has for her share
+nearly 2,500,000, including 666,083 killed, 1,644,786 wounded, and 140,312
+missing.
+
+During 1918 the combatant strength of all arms of the British army in
+France fluctuated between 1,293,000 in March and 1,164,790 in November,
+while the rifle or infantry strength was from 616,000 to 416,748 during the
+same periods. From the date of the armistice to 31st Dec., 1919, the
+following number of demobilizations and discharges were effected:--
+
+Demobilized.--Officers, 144,144; other ranks, 3,332,882.
+
+Discharged as medically unfit.--Officers, 23,476; other ranks, 207,500.
+
+Discharged from reserves.--Other ranks, 143,603.
+
+The modern British army is governed by the Army Council (instituted 1904),
+presided over by the Secretary of State for War. This Council, which
+consists of five military and five civilian members, including the
+president, works through the War Office, of which the principal departments
+are in charge of one or other of the members of the Council. On the
+military side these departments are those of the Chief of the Imperial
+General Staff, the Adjutant-General to the Forces, the
+Quartermaster-General to the Forces, and the Master-General of the
+Ordnance. For administrative and training purposes the United Kingdom is
+divided into seven Commands and the London District. When necessary,
+Commands are further subdivided into Districts. The army, generally
+speaking, consists of (1) the Regular Army, (2) the Territorial Force, and
+(3) the Reserves. The service battalions, which formed such a large and
+important part of the army in the war, do not, properly speaking, form part
+of the permanent military forces, though the organization of the army as a
+whole is such that it is capable of expansion to any extent by the process
+of raising new battalions and affiliating them to existing regular or
+territorial units. The regular army comprises the Household Cavalry,
+Cavalry of the Line, the Royal Regiment of Artillery, the Corps of Royal
+Engineers, the Brigade of Guards, and Infantry of the Line. In addition
+there are administrative troops and services such as the Royal Army Service
+Corps, the Royal Army Medical Corps, with its allied service Queen
+Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service, the Royal Army Ordnance
+Corps, and others. Other corps brought into existence during the war, such
+as the Tank and Machine-gun Corps, have at present no permanent status. In
+the future, however, machine-gun companies will form an integral portion of
+each battalion of the regular army.
+
+Under the conditions of the war the old national method of voluntary
+recruitment was found to be insufficient, and recourse was had to the
+principle of universal military service. Under the Military Service Acts
+the age limit was gradually raised till it finally included all men up to
+the age of fifty. Exceptions were made in the case of munition-workers, or
+those employed on work of national importance. Since the signature of the
+Treaty of Peace the army so raised was gradually demobilized till, by 31st
+March, 1920, it had decreased to 400,000, including 100,000 Indians paid by
+the Imperial Government. Concurrently with demobilization, voluntary
+enlistment was reintroduced, and the post-war army is once more a voluntary
+one, in which men serve under very much improved conditions as to pay and
+prospects. The period of service under this system is twelve years, of
+which seven normally are with the colours and five in the reserve: in
+certain cases modifications of these periods are allowed, and, in addition,
+a soldier may be allowed to extend his colour service to the full twelve
+years, or, in exceptional cases, to complete twenty-one years for pension.
+Discharge or transfer to the reserve is ordinarily granted on completion of
+the agreed period of service. Pay of all ranks was very materially improved
+in 1919. Whereas formerly a private soldier on enlistment received 1s. a
+day, he now receives 2s. 9d., and after two years' service 3s. 6d. To this
+last amount is added, under very reasonable conditions, a further daily sum
+of 6d. proficiency pay. A sergeant now gets 7s. a day instead of from 2s.
+4d. to 3s. 4d., and a regimental sergeant-major 14s. instead of 5s. or 6s.
+Add to these rates of pay free rations, free housing, free medical
+attendance, and, in the future, doubtless free education, and it must be
+admitted that the present-day soldier is not badly paid. The rate of pay is
+a flat rate for all arms, special allowances being given where necessary.
+
+The Household Cavalry comprises the 1st and 2nd Life Guards and the Horse
+Guards (Blues). In peace-time they serve only in London and Windsor. They
+alone retain the old cavalry rank of corporal of horse instead of sergeant.
+Cavalry of the line consists of dragoon guards, dragoons, hussars, and
+lancers. The dragoon guards are numbered separately from 1 to 7, while
+dragoons, hussars, and lancers run consecutively from 1 to 21. A regiment
+of cavalry is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of 25 officers
+and 497 other ranks. Each regiment is organized in three squadrons
+commanded by majors, while a squadron is divided into four troops, each
+under a subaltern officer, troops being further subdivided into sections
+under non-commissioned officers. Cavalry regiments, except hussars, carry
+guidons or standards for ceremonial purposes. These differ from the colours
+of infantry in that they are not consecrated and are carried by
+non-commissioned officers instead of by officers. Hussars carry no
+standards. There are six cavalry depots for recruiting and
+preliminary-training purposes, i.e. for lancers at Woolwich, hussars at
+Scarborough, Bristol, and Dublin, and dragoons at Newport (Mon.) and
+Dunbar. The Cavalry Special Reserve consists of the Irish Horse and King
+Edward's Horse, and during the war reserve cavalry regiments were
+maintained.
+
+The Royal Regiment of Artillery comprises batteries of horse artillery
+designated by letters of the alphabet, and batteries of field, siege,
+heavy, and mountain by numbers. A battery, with some exceptions in the case
+of the heaviest type, consists of six guns or howitzers, horse artillery
+having 13-pounder guns, and field artillery 18-pounder guns or 4.5-inch
+howitzers. Horse artillery is intended to act with cavalry, and is
+therefore provided with a rather lighter gun. It can go anywhere that
+cavalry can go, and all the gun detachments are mounted. Field artillery
+works with infantry, and the gun detachments either walk or are carried on
+the limbers, only the officers, certain non-commissioned officers, and
+specialists such as scouts, range-finders, and trumpeters being mounted.
+
+A battery is commanded by a major, with a captain as second-in-command, and
+is organized in three sections of two guns each under a subaltern. These
+sections are again subdivided into subsections of one gun each under a
+sergeant. Each gun is drawn by six horses, the driver of the leading pair
+being responsible for direction and pace. A corporal in the Royal Artillery
+is known as a bombardier, and the rank and file as gunners or drivers,
+according to their special duties, though drivers are also trained to some
+extent as gunners.
+
+Heavy and siege artillery have come into their own in the late war, and
+consist roughly of all armament heavier than that of field artillery.
+Sixty-pounders and 4.7-inch howitzers form heavy batteries, while guns of 6
+inch and upwards drawn by mechanical transport or mounted on railway trucks
+are known as siege batteries. Mountain artillery, of which most of the
+batteries are in India, is armed with 2.95-inch screw guns capable of being
+dismantled and carried piecemeal on mules. Another form is found on the
+west coast of Africa, where carriers take the place of mules. These guns
+are brought into action very quickly, but their shell-power is small.
+
+The corps of Royal Engineers is responsible for the construction and
+maintenance of barracks, fortifications, and other military works, and for
+the personnel required for search-lights and electrical communications of
+the coast and anti-aircraft defences. With few exceptions the personnel of
+the corps is recruited entirely from skilled tradesmen and artisans. For
+service in the field, Royal Engineer units known as field squadrons and
+field companies accompany the fighting troops, and carry a certain amount
+of bridging material and tools. More highly specialized units carry out
+such services as mining, heavy bridging, railway, survey, and sound-ranging
+work. An important feature of Royal Engineer work in war is the supply of
+materials and stores, for which purpose an elaborate organization is
+provided in addition to the units already noted.
+
+The Brigade of Guards--the infantry of the household troops--comprises the
+five regiments of foot-guards. These are the Grenadier, the Coldstream, the
+Scots, the Irish, and the Welsh Guards of from one to three battalions
+each. Being household troops these regiments are subject to certain special
+regulations and have certain privileges. As a general rule they serve only
+in London, Windsor, or Aldershot, and only leave England for active
+service, though individual battalions have served in the past both in Cairo
+and Gibraltar.
+
+The infantry, of which there are sixty-eight regiments of from two to four
+battalions each, provides the bulk of the army. Infantry is formed into
+regiments for recruiting and territorial distribution purposes, but the
+battalion is the actual unit both for fighting and administration. In many
+cases the Army List gives the name of an officer holding the appointment of
+colonel of the regiment: this is in all cases a purely honorary appointment
+and entails no duties or responsibilities. An infantry battalion is
+commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of 32 officers and 1000
+other ranks. Both in peace and war a battalion is divided into
+head-quarters and four companies, each of the latter having six officers,
+including the company commander, who is a major or senior captain.
+Subalterns command platoons. For recruiting purposes for infantry of the
+line the country is divided into Regimental Districts, in which are located
+the depots of the regiment concerned: these depots are commanded by a
+senior officer of one of the battalions of the regiment with the necessary
+staff for training purposes. Recruits are usually first trained at the
+depot and later transferred to the battalion requiring them. The Regimental
+Districts are again combined into larger districts in which are situated
+the Record Offices dealing with the regiments of the district. The
+denomination of the district dealing with any particular regiment is shown
+in the Army List in brackets. The principles of interior organization are
+the same throughout the army, and as they can be best illustrated with the
+example of an infantry battalion a short description of this organization
+follows. Owing to the continual growth of military science, the improvement
+in arms and means of destruction generally, and the confusion and noise
+inseparable from a modern battle, the size of the personally-controlled
+unit has gradually decreased till, in the present day, in the British army,
+it is accepted as an axiom that no larger number of men than six can be
+conveniently controlled in battle by one man. In former days companies,
+battalions, and even larger formations were both controlled and received
+their executive orders direct from their commanders--and to such an extent
+was this carried that Fortescue, in his _History of the British Army_,
+notes that Marlborough was in the habit of putting his whole army through
+the platoon exercise by means of flags and bugle-calls. This, of course,
+was not actually in face of the enemy, but the principle is the same. The
+stress of modern war now makes individual control of large bodies
+impossible, and the British army is therefore organized both for peace and
+war in a series of units of ever-increasing size, each under its own
+commander, who is responsible to his immediate superior for the well-being,
+training, and leading of his command. Taking the infantry organization as
+an example, we find that in the lowest stage, that of the 'section', the
+command is both personal and direct, in that the corporal controls and
+commands the six men composing his fighting unit personally and directly by
+word of mouth. In peace-time, and for administrative and training purposes,
+the section may reach to ten men, who live, work, and play together. In the
+next stage--that of the 'platoon', consisting of four sections--we find the
+control is rather less personal and direct, in that the platoon commander,
+a subaltern, controls his command largely through his subordinates, the
+section commanders. A further stage is that of the 'company', which
+consists of four platoons and company head-quarters. A company is commanded
+by a major or senior captain, has a captain as second-in-command, and a
+company sergeant-major and quartermaster-sergeant to assist in running it.
+Here again the control is less direct though still personal. The next stage
+is the amalgamation of companies into a battalion, consisting of a
+head-quarters and four companies. Battalion head-quarters consist of a
+lieutenant-colonel commanding, a major second-in-command, an adjutant, and
+a quartermaster. Certain other officers, when required, and the regimental
+sergeant-major and quartermaster-sergeant, and various other ranks make up
+the total of some 130. The commanding officer of a battalion is directly
+responsible for the well-being of his command, for its training,
+discipline, equipment, and general efficiency. In carrying on his duties he
+works through his company commanders, and with the assistance of the
+regimental staff mentioned above, so that we have a direct chain of command
+and responsibility from the corporal commanding a section of six to ten men
+through platoons and companies to the lieutenant-colonel commanding a
+battalion of some thousand men. A detail of armament made possible by the
+enormous increase of machine-guns necessitated during the war is
+interesting. Thirty-two Lewis-guns are now provided for each infantry
+battalion, and are distributed to alternate sections in a platoon. Thus in
+each platoon two sections are known as rifle sections and two as Lewis-gun
+sections, and these arms are normally used by the respective sections; but
+men of all sections are trained in the use of both rifle and Lewis-gun.
+
+When we come to formations larger than a battalion, we find the system of
+control and command becoming less and less personal and direct, as in all
+such formations the commander works to a less or greater extent through his
+staff. Roughly speaking, the staff is of two divisions, the one consisting
+of the general staff branch and the other of the branch of the adjutant and
+quartermaster-general. Again speaking very generally, the general staff is
+charged with duties bearing directly on military operations, while officers
+of the adjutant and quartermaster-general's branch deal more with
+administrative questions. Officers of the general staff are known as
+general staff officers, while those of the other branch are called, for
+example, assistant or deputy-assistant adjutant or quartermaster-general,
+according to their several duties.
+
+The formation in which distinct and separate units are first collected
+under one superior commander is known as a brigade. This, according to
+present establishment, consists of three battalions and a trench-mortar
+battery, the whole under a general officer called a brigadier-general,
+assisted by a staff of two officers--a brigade-major and a staff-captain.
+Since March, 1920, however, the title of brigadier-general has been altered
+to 'colonel-commandant'. The strength of a brigade is something over 3000
+of all ranks. In a division, which is the next highest formation, and which
+is commanded by a major-general with a staff of three general staff
+officers and three officers belonging to the A.G. and Q.M.G. branch, we
+find the first appearance of a mixed force. It is not a force of 'all
+arms', as cavalry is not included, but, in addition to infantry (three
+brigades), it has a considerable strength in artillery, besides engineers
+and the necessary administrative troops. Two or more divisions, together
+with a cavalry regiment and certain other troops, form an 'army corps', and
+two or more corps go to make up an 'army'. These are not at present
+peace-time formations of the British army.
+
+Of the administrative troops and services already mentioned, the Royal Army
+Service Corps provides for the material wants of the army both in the way
+of food and transport. It is organized in companies designated by numerals.
+
+The Royal Army Medical Corps provides the personnel and organization for
+the medical and sanitary services of the army. In peace-time this service
+is organized on a garrison basis, hospitals being established where
+required for the use of all troops in that particular garrison. For war
+purposes medical officers are still attached to regiments, and in addition
+the corps provides the personnel and organization necessary for field
+ambulances, casualty clearing-stations, hospital trains and ships, and
+various classes of fixed hospitals. The corps is organized in numbered
+companies, and the rank and file are trained in first aid and ambulance
+duties generally. It is administered by a director-general of Army Medical
+Services with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is an officer of the
+adjutant-general's department.
+
+The other departments and administrative services of the army consist of
+the Royal Army Ordnance Corps, dealing generally with munitions of war; the
+Army Pay Department; the Royal Army Chaplains' Department; and the Royal
+Army Veterinary Corps, of which the functions are sufficiently designated
+by their title. In addition, there are manufacturing establishments at
+Woolwich Arsenal and elsewhere.
+
+The Army Reserve consists of men who have completed their term of colour
+service, or service with a unit, and have thus passed into civil life,
+though still remaining liable for a period of years to be recalled to the
+colours if mobilization is ordered.
+
+The Special Reserve was formed under the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act
+of 1907 out of the old militia. It consists generally of one battalion to
+each regiment of infantry, and is numbered consecutively with regular
+battalions of the regiment. It will, in the future, probably be again known
+as the Militia.
+
+The Royal Marines--artillery and infantry, or the 'blue' and the 'red'
+marines, Kipling's "soldier and sailor too"--are not part of the army
+proper, as they are administered entirely by the Admiralty. They are,
+however, amenable to the Army Act when serving ashore. The term of service
+is for twelve years, which may be extended to make up twenty-one. Men may
+be transferred to or from the army at their own request.
+
+The Territorial Force, or, as it is to be called in future, the Territorial
+Army, is raised entirely on a county or territorial basis. It was
+originally created by the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act of 1907 out of
+a nucleus of the old yeomanry and volunteers. It is raised and administered
+by County Associations in each county and principal city. These
+associations consist of a president, chairman, military representative, and
+co-opted members. The administration of the Territorial Army is carried out
+by the County Associations in accordance with schemes provided by the Army
+Council, while all questions of training are reserved to the War Office.
+The Territorial Army consists of all arms, including machine-gun corps and
+the necessary administrative services: its full war establishment is fixed
+at approximately 345,000 of all ranks, though, for the present, only some
+60 per cent of them are to be enlisted. The rejuvenated Territorial Army is
+to be in all respects a true second line of imperial defence,
+self-contained and self-supporting, while the regular army and its special
+reserve of militia battalions form the first line. Defence entails a
+certain amount of offence to bring it to a successful issue: it has
+therefore been decided that the new Territorial Army will not be relegated
+merely to the duty of guarding the country from invasion, but will, in a
+national emergency, be entitled to take its place under its own
+organization in the fighting line in any part of the world where its
+services may be required. This will entail enlistment for general service,
+but the interest of the force and of individuals composing it are
+safeguarded by the proviso that before the Territorial Army can be ordered
+out of the country an Act authorizing the movement be passed by Parliament.
+It is further provided that the Territorial Army will on no account be
+called on to supply drafts for regular regiments, and that in case fresh
+regiments have to be raised on the lines of the New Army, the machinery of
+the Territorial Army will be used to organize them. Enlistment will be for
+three or four years, according to whether a man has served during the
+European War (1914-8) or not; age limits are normally between 18 and 38.
+The army is to be organized in one cavalry (yeomanry) division of 12
+regiments, and 14 infantry divisions each under a selected general officer,
+either regular or territorial. Pay and allowances during training periods
+will be as in the regular army, and in addition certain bounties will be
+obtainable. Training periods will be fifteen days in camp annually, besides
+a minimum number of drills and a musketry course. On completion of colour
+service a man will pass to the Territorial Reserve.
+
+The New Army, consisting of the 'service battalions' of existing regiments,
+is a product of the war. When, on the outbreak of war, many new regiments
+were rapidly raised, they were affiliated to regular regiments with
+consecutive numbers after the territorial battalions, and this organization
+was continued and extended to cope with the personnel obtained under the
+Military Service Acts.
+
+Educational establishments connected with the army include the Staff
+College, the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, and the Royal Military
+Academy at Woolwich. At the Staff College officers obtain a course of
+instruction and study to fit them for service on the staff of the army. At
+Sandhurst, where the course of instruction is two years, some 700 gentlemen
+cadets are trained for commissions in the guards, cavalry, and infantry of
+the line, and the Indian army. At Woolwich gentlemen cadets desirous of
+entering the Royal Artillery or the Royal Engineers receive their training.
+In addition to these there are schools of gunnery and engineering, the
+Small Arms School at Hythe, the School of Physical Training at Aldershot,
+and many others: while, for sons and orphans of soldiers, there are the
+Duke of York's Royal Military School and the Royal Hibernian School. The
+Royal Hospital, Chelsea, and the Royal Hospital, Kilmainham, Dublin, are
+institutions for the care of old and distressed soldiers. In every garrison
+there are garrison schools for soldiers under fully qualified army
+schoolmasters, while in the future there is likely to be a very great
+increase in educational facilities of all kinds for the rank and file of
+the army. The training of the British army for war now embraces a variety
+of subjects, and at the Royal Military College and Academy the gentlemen
+cadets are not only taught the principles and practice of their future
+profession, but are also instructed in the methods of imparting their
+knowledge to others. For example, the course of training at the Royal
+Military College embraces drill and weapon training--under which head is
+included musketry (both theory and practice) and bayonet work--physical
+training, and riding. As part of the physical-training course they receive
+instruction as to the best methods of organizing regimental
+assaults-at-arms and sports. Among the more academic subjects are military
+history and tactics, field sketching and topography, field engineering,
+military law and administration, and elementary hygiene. A great deal of
+practical work is done, and the course of two years is designed to fit a
+young officer, on joining his regiment, to undertake the entire charge and
+training of his troop or platoon. At the Royal Military Academy extra
+subjects, such as artillery work and more advanced engineering, are also
+taught.
+
+As to the soldier's training generally, drill is insisted on as an aid to
+discipline, which it undoubtedly is, and exact performance of the various
+movements ordered is expected. In other branches of training more
+individuality is allowed, and the days when the bayonet-exercise was
+performed by a battalion to the music of the regimental band having passed,
+considerable latitude as to positions and execution is permitted in this
+particular branch, attention being principally concentrated on inculcating
+the 'offensive spirit'. The modern soldier also learns how to use a
+Lewis-gun, to throw or fire a grenade, what to do in case of a gas attack,
+the rudiments of field engineering, and how to keep himself healthy.
+
+In addition to the more generally-known units of the army there are certain
+corps which, though raised in the colonies, still form part of the army,
+and which are administered by the imperial authorities. Under this head are
+the Royal Malta Artillery (local service); the West India Regiment (two
+battalions) and the West African Regiment, both for general service and
+both administered by the War Office. Among other colonial corps maintained
+by the imperial Government, though not forming part of the regular army,
+are the West African Frontier Force (Nigeria) and the King's African Rifles
+(East Africa). Both these are administered by the Colonial Office.
+
+_Dominions._--The military forces of the self-governing dominions are
+raised and organized under the laws of such dominions.
+
+Those of the Commonwealth of Australia are organized on a system of
+compulsory military training for all males between the ages of twelve and
+twenty-six. In the earlier stages boys are trained in cadet corps, from
+which they pass to the Citizen Army, and from there, having attained the
+age of twenty-six, to recognized rifle clubs. The annual period of training
+in the Citizen Army is sixteen days. When the scheme is in full working
+order this force will consist of twenty-three 4-battalion brigades of
+infantry, twenty-three regiments of light horse, fifty-six 4-gun batteries,
+and the necessary complement of engineers and administrative troops. During
+the war this organization was in abeyance, and regiments were raised as
+required for overseas service, and, though proposals for conscription were
+negatived, the commonwealth still managed to send some 330,000 men to the
+various theatres of war out of 417,000 raised. The casualties, killed,
+wounded, and missing, were 210,724.
+
+The Commonwealth also maintains a small permanent force of trained
+professional soldiers.
+
+The New Zealand forces are also organized on the principle of universal
+training for all males. The details differ somewhat from those in favour in
+Australia, but the principle is the same, i.e. that every male should be
+trained for home defence. Boys of from twelve to eighteen years of age are
+trained in cadet corps, from which they pass to regiments of the
+Territorial Force, and from twenty-five to thirty belong to the reserve.
+Cadets do annually a specified number of drills, while the territorial
+training extends to seven clear days, a musketry course, and certain drills
+every year. For the purposes of the war, conscription was introduced in
+1916, and 220,000 men were raised between 1914 and 1918, out of which the
+casualties were nearly 57,000.
+
+Canada, unlike Australia and New Zealand, has no system of graduated
+military training. The military forces of the dominion are organized as a
+militia under a Minister of Militia and Defence working with a Council.
+This militia is recruited by voluntary enlistment, and, on the outbreak of
+war, consisted of a permanent force of 3000 and some 60,000 men who had
+received militia training. This made possible the rapid dispatch to France
+of a division which, by 1916, had increased to a corps of four divisions
+and a cavalry brigade. Like the Mother Country and New Zealand, Canada
+introduced conscription in 1917, and during the war raised nearly 641,000
+men and suffered 206,149 casualties, of which 56,110 were killed, 149,733
+wounded, and 306 missing.
+
+The Union of South Africa divides its military forces into the permanent
+force and the citizen force. There is also a coast-defence force. The
+permanent force consists of the five regiments of the South African Mounted
+Rifles. South Africa's greatest military effort during the war was directed
+towards German South-West and East Africa, but some 27,000 men were
+enlisted for and sent to Europe out of a total number of 136,000 raised.
+This total does not include coloured troops. The casualties were 18,000.
+
+In other self-governing portions of the Empire troops were raised as
+required, and in the West and East African colonies the existing formations
+of native troops were considerably increased for service in suitable
+portions of the various theatres of war. The official statement of troops
+raised shows under the heading of 'other colonies' 134,837, including
+coloured troops from South Africa and the West Indies. The casualties among
+them amounted to 7519.
+
+_The Army in India._--The military forces in India consist of those units
+of British cavalry, artillery, and infantry temporarily serving in the
+country, and the Indian army proper, consisting of regiments recruited from
+among the native inhabitants and normally serving there. Enlistment is
+voluntary and for general service, one of the promises made by a man on
+enrolment being "to go wherever ordered by land and sea and not to allow
+caste usages to interfere with his duties as a soldier". The Indian army,
+as a disciplined and organized force, dates from the years between 1748 and
+1758. In 1748 Major Stringer Lawrence arrived in Madras with a commission
+from the Company as commander-in-chief. His first act was to form the
+existing European independent companies into regiments; his second to raise
+certain native independent companies. In 1758 he formed these companies in
+their turn into battalions, which he designated 'coast sepoys', and which
+still exist under their present names of the 61st Pioneers and following
+numbers. His system was extended to the other presidencies, and at the
+period of the mutiny, in 1857, the native army in India consisted of some
+230,000 regular troops, besides irregulars. When the post-mutiny
+reconstruction took place, the army was reorganized on an irregular basis
+instead of as regular regiments on the British model. According to this new
+system, the number of British officers in a regiment was considerably
+reduced; native officers were given command of troops and companies, while
+the British officer's command became the squadron, or wing. Native
+artillery, with the exception of certain mountain batteries, was abolished,
+and cavalry was reconstituted on the Silladar system, whereby, in
+consideration of a larger monthly pay than was given to the infantry sepoy,
+the trooper, or sowar, provided his own horse and sword. The system thus
+introduced virtually remains to the present day, though it has been
+modified and improved to suit later conditions. The infantry officer's
+command has decreased from the wing of four companies to the double company
+of two, and it is now known as a company and is organized in four platoons
+on the British service model, platoons being commanded by Indian officers.
+Of late years the number of British officers with an Indian regiment has
+been increased to twelve, and at the present time a committee is sitting in
+India to deliberate on the future construction of the army. It is therefore
+impossible to give details of its future strength. This, just before the
+war, was some 160,000, organized in 38 regiments of cavalry, the corps of
+guides, 3 regiments of sappers and miners, 118 regiments of infantry of 1
+battalion each, and 10 regiments of Gurkhas of 2 battalions each. There
+were also 13 mountain batteries. The 'Imperial Service Troops', of which
+many contingents took part in the war, are raised, paid, and maintained by
+princes and chiefs as a contribution to the defence of the country, while
+their training is supervised by British inspecting officers. The 'Indian
+Defence Force', which has lately replaced the volunteers, and in which
+service is compulsory for Europeans, is available for home defence only.
+During the war India, by voluntary enlistment, provided 1,401,350 men. Of
+these many new regiments were formed, and second, third, and fourth
+battalions added to existing regiments. Casualties were very nearly
+114,000, including some 48,000 killed. Native Indian officers of cavalry
+are known as ressaldars, ressaiders, and jemadars, while those of the
+infantry are called subadars and jemadars. In each regiment the senior
+Indian officer is called ressaldar or subadar-major.
+
+The army in India, by which is meant all military forces in India, is
+administered by a commander-in-chief, who is a member of council. The
+head-quarter staff includes a military secretary, the chief of the general
+staff, an adjutant and a quartermaster-general, director-general of
+ordnance and military works, and a director of medical
+services.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hon. J. W. Fortescue, _History of the British
+Army_; C. W. C. Oman, _A History of the Art of War: Middle Ages_; C. H.
+Firth, _Cromwell's Army_; C. Walton, _History of the British Standing Army,
+1660-1700_; War Office, _Army Book for the British Empire_; F. N. Maude,
+_Evolution of Modern Strategy_; G. F. R. Henderson, _The Science of War_;
+C. Romagny, _Histoire generale de l'armee nationale_; Heimann, _L'Armee
+allemande_.
+
+ARMY ACT. See _Military Law_.
+
+[Illustration: Army Worm]
+
+ARMY WORM, the very destructive larva of the moth _Helioph[)i]la_ or
+_Leucania unipuncta_, so called from its habit of marching in compact
+bodies of enormous number, devouring almost every green thing it meets. It
+is about 1-1/2 inches long, greenish in colour, with black stripes, and is
+found in various parts of the world, but is particularly destructive in
+North America. The larva of _Sci[)a]ra militaris_, a European two-winged
+fly, is also called army worm.
+
+ARNAT'TO, or ANNOTTA. See _Annatto_.
+
+ARNAULD ([.a]r-n[=o]), the name of a French family, several members of
+which greatly distinguished themselves.--Antoine, an eminent French
+advocate, was born 1560, died 1619. Distinguished as a zealous defender of
+the cause of Henry IV, and for his powerful and successful defence of the
+University of Paris against the Jesuits in 1594. His family formed the
+nucleus of the sect of the Jansenists (see _Jansenius_) in France.--His son
+Antoine, called the _Great Arnauld_, was born 6th Feb., 1612, at Paris,
+died 9th Aug., 1694, at Brussels. He devoted himself to theology, and was
+received in 1641 among the doctors of the Sorbonne. He engaged in all the
+quarrels of the French Jansenists with the Jesuits, the clergy, and the
+Government, was the chief Jansenist writer, and was considered their head.
+Excluded from the Sorbonne, he retired to Port Royal, where he wrote, in
+conjunction with his friend Nicole, a celebrated system of logic (hence
+called the _Port Royal Logic_). On account of persecution he fled, in 1679,
+to the Netherlands. His works, which are mainly controversies with the
+Jesuits or the Calvinists, are very voluminous.--His brother Robert, born
+1588, died 1674, retired to Port Royal, where he wrote a translation of
+Josephus, and other works.--Robert's daughter Angelique, born 1624, died
+1684, was eminent in the religious world, and was subjected to persecution
+on account of her unflinching adherence to Jansenism.
+
+AR'NAUTS. See _Albania_.
+
+ARNDT ([.a]rnt), Ernst Moritz, German patriot and poet, was born 1769, died
+1860. He was appointed professor of history at Greifswald in 1806, and
+stirred up the national feeling against Napoleon in his work _Geist der
+Zeit_ (_Spirit of the Time)_. In 1812-3 he zealously promoted the war of
+independence by a number of pamphlets, poems, and spirited songs, among
+which it is sufficient to refer to his _Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland?_,
+_Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess_, and _Was blasen die Trompeten?
+Husaren, heraus!_, which were caught up and sung from one end of Germany to
+the other. In 1817 he married a sister of the theologian Schleiermacher,
+and settled at Bonn in order to undertake the duties of professor of
+history. He was, however, suspended till 1840 on account of his liberal
+opinions, when he was restored to his chair on the accession of Frederick
+William IV.
+
+ARNDT, Johann, celebrated German mystic theologian, born 1555, died 1621.
+His principal work, _Wahres Christenthum_ (True Christianity), is still
+popular in Germany, and has been translated into almost all European
+languages. Another of his publications is _Paradiesgaertlein_, translated
+into English (The Garden of Paradise).
+
+ARNE ([.a]rn), Thomas Augustine, English composer, born at London 1710,
+died 1778. His first opera, _Fair Rosamond_, was performed in 1733 at
+Lincoln's-Inn Fields, and was received with great applause. Then followed a
+version of Fielding's _Tom Thumb_, altered into _The Opera of Operas_, a
+musical burlesque. His style in the _Comus_ (1738) is still more original
+and cultivated. To him we owe the national air _Rule, Britannia_,
+originally given in a popular piece called the _Masque of Alfred_. After
+having composed two oratorios and several operas he received the degree of
+Doctor of Music at Oxford. He composed, also, music for several of the
+songs in Shakespeare's dramas, and various pieces of instrumental music.
+
+ARNEE', one of the numerous Indian varieties of the buffalo _(Bub[)a]lus
+arni)_, remarkable as being the largest animal of the ox kind known. It
+measures about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and from 9 to 10 1/2 feet long
+from the muzzle to the root of the tail. It is found chiefly in the forests
+at the base of the Himalayas.
+
+ARN'HEM, or ARNHEIM, a town in Holland, province of Gelderland, 18 miles
+south-west of Zutphen, on the right bank of the Rhine. Pleasantly situated,
+it is a favourite residential resort, and it contains many interesting
+public buildings; manufactures cabinet wares, mirrors, carriages,
+mathematical instruments, &c.; has paper-mills, and its trade is important.
+In 1795 it was stormed by the French, who were driven from it by the
+Prussians in 1813. Pop. 70,664 (1917).
+
+ARNHEM LAND, a portion of the northern territory of S. Australia, lying
+west of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and forming a sort of peninsula.
+
+AR'NI, a town of Madras, on the Cheyair River, 16 miles south of Arcot;
+formerly a large military station; stormed by Clive in 1751, and scene of
+defeat of Hyder Ali by Sir Eyre Coote in 1782. Pop. 5050.
+
+AR'NICA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositae, containing eighteen
+species, one of which is found in Central Europe, _A. mont[=a]na_
+(leopard's bane or mountain tobacco), but is not a native of Britain. It
+has a perennial root, a stem about 2 feet high, bearing on the summit
+flowers of a dark golden yellow. In every part of the plant there is an
+acrid resin and a volatile oil, and in the flowers an acrid bitter
+principle called _arnicin_. The root contains also a considerable quantity
+of tannin. A tincture of it is employed as an external application to
+wounds and bruises. It was introduced into English gardens about the middle
+of the eighteenth century.
+
+AR'NIM, Elisabeth von, a German writer, also known as Bettina, wife of
+Louis Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet Clemens Brentano; born at
+Frankfort in 1785, died at Berlin 1859. Even in her childhood she
+manifested an inclination towards eccentricities and poetical peculiarities
+of many kinds. She entered into correspondence with Goethe, for whom she
+entertained a violent passion, although he was then in his sixtieth year.
+In 1835 she published Goethe's _Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde_ (Goethe's
+Correspondence with a Child), containing, among others, the letters that
+she alleged to have passed between her and Goethe. Her later writings dealt
+with subjects like the emancipation of the Jews, and the abolition of
+capital punishment. Her husband, Ludwig Achim von Arnim, born at Berlin in
+1781, died 1831, distinguished himself as a writer of novels. In concert
+with her brother, Clemens Brentano, he published a collection of popular
+German songs and ballads entitled _Des Knaben Wunderhorn_.--Her daughter,
+Gisela von Arnim, is known in literature by her _Dramatische Werke_ (3
+vols., 1857-63).
+
+AR'NO (ancient ARNUS), a river of Italy which rises in the Etruscan
+Apennines, makes a sweep to the south and then flows westwards, divides
+Florence into two parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4 miles below it, into the
+Tuscan Sea, after a course of 130 miles.
+
+ARNO'BIUS, an early Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca
+Veneria, in Numidia, and in 303 became a Christian; he died about 326. He
+wrote seven books of _Disputationes adversus Gentes_ (or _Adversus
+Nationes_), in which he refuted the objections of the heathens against
+Christianity. This work betrays a defective knowledge of Christianity, but
+is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology.
+
+ARNOLD, an urban district or town of England, Nottinghamshire, 3 miles
+north-east of Nottingham, with lace and hosiery manufactures, &c. It has a
+church built in the twelfth century, and a tower dating from the fifteenth
+century and restored in 1868 and 1877. Pop. 11,800.
+
+AR'NOLD, Benedict, a general in the American army during the War of
+Independence, born in 1741. He rendered his name infamous by his attempt to
+betray the strong fortress of West Point, with all the arms and immense
+stores which were there deposited, into the hands of the British. The
+project failed through the capture of Major Andre, when Arnold made his
+escape to the British lines. He received a commission as brigadier-general
+in the British army, and took part in several marauding expeditions. He
+subsequently settled in the West Indies, and ultimately came to London,
+where he died in 1801.
+
+AR'NOLD, Sir Edwin, K.C.I.E., poet, Sanskrit scholar, and journalist, born
+1832. Educated at Oxford, where he took the Newdigate prize for a poem
+entitled the _Feast of Belshazzar_ in 1852, he was successively second
+master in King Edward VI's College at Birmingham, and principal of the
+Sanskrit College at Poonah in Bombay. In 1861 he joined the editorial staff
+of the _Daily Telegraph_, with which he was henceforth connected. He died
+in 1904. He was author of _Poems, Narrative and Lyrical_; translations from
+the Greek and Sanskrit; _The Light of Asia_, a poem on the life and
+teaching of Buddha; _The Light of the World_; _Pearls of the Faith_; _Lotus
+and Jewel_, &c.
+
+AR'NOLD, Matthew, English critic, essayist, and poet, was born at Laleham,
+near Staines, 1822, being a son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He was educated at
+Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford, and became a Fellow of Oriel College. He was
+private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, 1847-51; appointed inspector of
+schools, 1851; professor of poetry at Oxford, 1858; published _A Strayed
+Reveller and other poems_, 1848; _Empedocles on Etna_, 1853; _Merope_,
+1858; _Essays in Criticism_, 1865; _On the Study of Celtic Literature_,
+1867; _Schools and Universities on the Continent_, 1868; _St. Paul and
+Protestantism_, 1870; _Literature and Dogma_, 1873; _Last Essays on Church
+and Religion_, 1877; _God and the Bible_, 1878; _Discourses on America_,
+1885, &c. He received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh, and that of
+D.C.L. from Oxford, and lectured in Britain and in America. He died in
+1888. A complete edition of his works in 15 vols. appeared in
+1905.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. W. Paul, _Matthew Arnold_ (English Men of Letters
+Series); G. Saintsbury, _Matthew Arnold_ (Modern English Writers Series);
+G. W. E. Russell, _Matthew Arnold_ (Literary Lives Series); F. Bickley,
+_Matthew Arnold and his Poetry_.
+
+AR'NOLD, Thomas, headmaster of Rugby School, and professor of modern
+history in the University of Oxford, born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight,
+in 1795, died 1842. He entered Oxford in his sixteenth year, and in 1815 he
+was elected Fellow of Oriel College, and both in that year and 1817 he
+obtained the chancellor's prize for Latin and English essays. After taking
+deacon's orders he settled at Laleham, near Staines, where he employed
+himself in preparing young men for the universities. In 1828 he was
+appointed headmaster of Rugby School, and devoted himself to his new duties
+with the greatest ardour. While giving due prominence to the classics, he
+deprived them of their exclusiveness by introducing various other branches
+into his course, and he was particularly careful that the education which
+he furnished should be in the highest sense moral and Christian. His
+success was remarkable. Not only did Rugby School become crowded beyond any
+former precedent, but the superiority of Dr. Arnold's system became so
+generally recognized that it may be justly said to have done much for the
+general improvement of the public schools of England. In 1841 he was
+appointed professor of modern history at Oxford, and delivered his
+introductory course of lectures with great success. His chief works are his
+edition of Thucydides, his _History of Rome_ (unhappily left unfinished),
+and his _Sermons_. There is an admirable memoir of him by A. P. Stanley,
+Dean of Westminster (London, 2 vols., 1845).--Cf Lytton Strachey, _Eminent
+Victorians_.
+
+AR'NOLD OF BRESCIA, an Italian religious and political reformer and martyr
+of the twelfth century. He was one of the disciples of Abelard, and
+attracted a considerable following by preaching against the corruption of
+the clergy. Excommunicated by Innocent II, he withdrew to Zuerich, but soon
+reappeared in Rome, where he was taken and burned (1155).
+
+ARNOLD-FORSTER, Hugh Oakeley, grandson of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, and adopted
+son of the late W. E. Forster, M.P., whose wife was his aunt, was born in
+1855, died in 1909. He was educated at Rugby and University College,
+Oxford. He sat as member of Parliament for West Belfast from 1892, for
+Croydon from 1906, as a Liberal Unionist, was Parliamentary Secretary to
+the Admiralty from 1900 to 1903, then Secretary of State for War, a
+position which he held till Dec., 1905, having put forward sweeping
+proposals for the improvement of our army. He wrote on various subjects,
+especially books for popular instruction, including _How to Solve the Irish
+Land Question_, _The Citizen Reader_, _This World of Ours_, _Things New and
+Old_, _In a Conning Tower_, _A History of England_, _English Socialism of
+To-day_, _Military Needs and Military Policy_, &c.
+
+AR'NON, a river in Palestine, the boundary between the country of the
+Moabites and that of the Amorites, afterwards of the Israelites, a
+tributary of the Dead Sea. It is now called Wady-el-Mojib.
+
+AR'NOT, or AR'NUT, a name of the agreeably flavoured farinaceous tubers of
+the earth-nut or pig-nut (_Bunium flexu[=o]sum_ and _B. Bulbocast[)a]num_).
+See _Earth-nut_.
+
+AR'NOTT, Dr. Neil, an eminent physician and physicist, was born at
+Arbroath, 1788, died 1874. Having graduated as M.A. at Aberdeen, he then
+studied medicine, and was appointed a surgeon in the East India Company's
+naval service. In 1811 he commenced practice in London. In 1837 he was
+appointed extraordinary physician to the queen. In 1827 he published
+_Elements of Physics_, and in 1838 a treatise on _Warming and Ventilation_,
+&c. He is widely known as the inventor of a stove which is regarded as one
+of the most economical arrangements for burning fuel, a ventilating
+chimney-valve, and his water-bed for the protection of the sick against
+bed-sores. In 1869 he gave L1000 to each of the four Scottish universities
+and L2000 to London University for the promotion of the study of physics.
+He was a strong advocate of a scientific as opposed to a purely classical
+education.
+
+ARNPRIOR, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 35 miles west of Ottawa, on
+the right bank of the River Ottawa, where it is joined by the Madawaska,
+and with important railway connections. Pop. 4405.
+
+ARNSBERG ([.a]rnz'ber_h_), a town in Prussia, province Westphalia, capital
+of the district of same name, on the Ruhr. Pop. 10,256.--The district of
+Arnsberg has an area of 2972 sq. miles, and a population of 2,400,000.
+
+ARNSTADT ([.a]rn'st[.a]t), a town of Germany, in Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,
+11 miles south by west of Erfurt, upon the Gera, which divides it into two
+parts. It has manufactures in leather, &c., and a good trade in grain and
+timber. Pop. 17,907.
+
+ARNSWALDE ([.a]rnz'v[.a]l-de), a town of Prussia, province Brandenburg, 39
+miles south-east of Stettin. Pop. 8730.
+
+AR'NULF, great-grandson of Charlemagne, elected King of Germany in A.D.
+887; invaded Italy, captured Rome, and was crowned emperor by the Pope
+(896); died A.D. 898.
+
+AROI'DEAE. See _Araceae_.
+
+AR'OLSEN, a German town, capital of Waldeck. Pop. 2793.
+
+AROMAT'ICS, drugs, or other substances which yield a fragrant smell, and
+often a warm pungent taste, as calamus (_Ac[=o]rus Cal[)a]mus_), ginger,
+cinnamon, cassia, lavender, rosemary, laurel, nutmegs, cardamoms, pepper,
+pimento, cloves, vanilla, saffron. Some of them are used medicinally as
+tonics, stimulants, &c.
+
+AROMATIC VINEGAR, a very volatile and powerful perfume made by adding the
+essential oils of lavender, cloves, &c., and often camphor, to
+crystallizable acetic acid. It is a powerful excitant in fainting, languor,
+and headache.
+
+ARO'NA, an ancient Italian town near the south extremity of Lago Maggiore.
+Pop. 4474. In the vicinity is the colossal statue of San Carlo Borromeo, 70
+feet in height, exclusive of pedestal 42 feet high.
+
+AROOS'TOOK, a river of the north-eastern United States and New Brunswick, a
+tributary of the St. John, length 120 miles.
+
+AROU'RA, or ARU'RA, an ancient Egyptian measure of surface, according to
+Herodotus the square of 100 cubits, containing, 21,904 sq. feet.
+
+ARPAD, founder of the Magyar monarchy, born about 870, died 907. See
+_Hungary_.
+
+ARPEGGIO ([.a]r-pej'[=o]), the distinct sound of the notes of an
+instrumental chord; the striking the notes of a chord in rapid succession,
+as in the manner of touching the harp instead of playing them
+simultaneously.
+
+ARPENT ([.a]r-pae[n.]), formerly a French measure of land, equal to
+five-sixths of an English acre; but it varied in different parts of France;
+the Parisian arpent contained 32,400 sq. feet, the common arpent 40,000 sq.
+feet.
+
+ARPINO ([.a]r-p[=e]'n[=o]; ancient ARPINUM), a town of Southern Italy,
+province of Caserta, celebrated as the birthplace of Gaius Marius and
+Cicero. It manufactures woollens, linen, paper, &c. Pop. 10,309.
+
+ARQUA ([.a]r'kw[.a]), a village of Northern Italy, about 13 miles
+south-west of Padua, where the poet Petrarch died, 18th July, 1374. A
+monument has been erected over his grave. Pop. 1700.
+
+AR'QUEBUS, a hand-gun; a species of fire-arm of the sixteenth century,
+resembling a musket. It was fired from a forked rest, and sometimes cocked
+by a wheel, and carried a ball that weighed nearly 2 ounces. A larger kind
+used in fortresses carried a heavier shot.
+
+ARRACA'CHA. See _Aracacha_.
+
+ARRACAN'. See _Aracan_.
+
+AR'RACK. See _Arack_.
+
+AR'RAGON. See _Aragon_.
+
+AR'RAH, a town of British India, in Shahabad district, Bengal, rendered
+famous during the mutiny of 1857 by the heroic resistance of a body of
+twenty civilians and fifty Sikhs, cooped up within a detached house, to a
+force of 3000 sepoys, who were ultimately routed and overthrown by the
+arrival of a small European reinforcement. Pop. 46,170.
+
+ARRAIGNMENT (ar-r[=a]n'-), the act of calling or setting a prisoner at the
+bar of a court to plead guilty or not guilty to the matter charged in an
+indictment or information. In Scots law the term is _calling the
+diet_.--The _Clerk of Arraigns_ is an officer attached to assize courts and
+to the Old Bailey, who assists in the arraignment of prisoners, and puts
+formal questions to the jury.
+
+AR'RAN, an island of Scotland, in the Firth of Clyde, part of Bute county;
+length, north to south, 20 miles; breadth, about 10 miles; area, 165 sq.
+miles, or 105,814 acres, of which about 15,000 are under cultivation. It is
+of a wild and romantic appearance, particularly the northern half, where
+the island attains its loftiest summit in Goatfell, 2866 feet high. The
+coast presents several indentations, of which that of Lamlash, forming a
+capacious bay, completely sheltered by Holy Island, is one of the best
+natural harbours in the west of Scotland. On the small island of Pladda,
+about a mile from the south shore, a lighthouse has been erected. The
+geology of Arran has attracted much attention, as furnishing within a
+comparatively narrow space distinct sections of the great geological
+formations; while the botany possesses almost equal interest, both in the
+variety and the rarity of many of its plants. Among objects of interest are
+relics of Danish forts, standing stones, cairns, &c. Lamlash and Brodick
+are villages. The island is a favourite resort of summer visitors, and is
+reached by steamer from Ardrossan. Pop. 8294.
+
+ARRAN, EARLS OF. See _Hamilton, Family of_.
+
+ARRANGEMENT, in music, the adaptation of a composition to voices or
+instruments for which it was not originally written; also, a piece so
+adapted.
+
+AR'RAN ISLANDS. See _Aran_.
+
+ARRARO'BA. See _Araroba_.
+
+ARRAS ([.a]-rae), a town of France, capital of the department
+Pas-de-Calais, well built, with several handsome squares and a citadel,
+cathedral, public library, botanic garden, museum, and numerous flourishing
+industries. In the Middle Ages it was famous for the manufacture of
+tapestry, to which the English applied the name of the town itself
+(arrazo). The battle of Arras was fought and Vimy Ridge taken by the Allies
+on 9th April, 1917. Pop. 24,200.
+
+ARREST' is the apprehending or restraining of one's person, which, in civil
+cases, can take place legally only by process in execution of the command
+of some court or officers of justice; but in criminal cases any man may
+arrest without warrant or precept, and every person is liable to arrest
+without distinction, but no man is to be arrested unless charged with such
+a crime as will at least justify holding him to bail when taken. _Magna
+Charta_ and the _Habeas Corpus Act_ are the two great statutes for securing
+the liberty of the subject against unlawful arrests and suits.
+
+ARREST'MENT, in Scots law, a process by which a creditor may attach money
+or movable property which a third party holds for behoof of his debtor. In
+1870 an Act was passed for Scotland which provides that only that part of
+the weekly wages of labourers, and of workpeople generally, which is in
+excess of 20_s_. is liable to arrestment for debt.
+
+ARREST OF JUDGMENT, in law, the staying or stopping of a judgment after
+verdict, for causes assigned. Courts have power to arrest judgment for
+intrinsic causes appearing upon the face of the record; as when the
+declaration varies from the original writ; when the verdict differs
+materially from the pleadings; or when the case laid in the declaration is
+not sufficient in point of law to found an action upon.
+
+ARRE'TIUM. See _Arezzo_.
+
+ARRHENATH'ERUM, a genus of oat-like grasses, of which _A. elatius_,
+sometimes called French rye-grass, is a valuable fodder plant.
+
+ARRHENIUS, Svante August, famous Swedish physicist and chemist, born 19th
+Feb., 1859, at Wyk, near Upsala. He was educated at the Universities of
+Upsala (1876-81) and Stockholm (1881-4), spent two years in travelling, and
+after doing much original research was appointed professor of physics at
+the University of Stockholm. To him is due the establishment of the theory
+of electrolytic dissociation, supplying a reasonable explanation of many
+chemical phenomena otherwise insoluble. He subsequently extended the
+application of the electrolytic theory to the phenomena of atmospheric
+electricity. His dissertation _Sur la conductibilite galvanique des
+electrolytes_ appeared in 1884. Among his other works is _Worlds in the
+Making_ (English translation, 1908).
+
+AR'RIA, the heroic wife of a Roman named Caec[=i]na Paetus. Paetus was
+condemned to death in A.D. 42 for his share in a conspiracy against the
+emperor Claudius, and was encouraged to suicide by his wife, who stabbed
+herself and then handed the dagger to her husband with the words, 'It does
+not hurt, Paetus!'
+
+AR'RIAN, or FLAVIUS ARRIANUS, a Greek historian, native of Nicomedia,
+flourished in the second century, under the emperor Hadrian and the
+Antonines. He was first a priest of Ceres; but at Rome he became a disciple
+of Epictetus, was honoured with the citizenship of Rome, and was advanced
+to the senatorial and even consular dignities. His extant works are: _The
+Expedition of Alexander_, in seven books; a book _On the Affairs of India_;
+an _Epistle to Hadrian_; a _Treatise on Tactics_; a _Periplus of the Euxine
+Sea_; a _Periplus of the Red Sea_; and his _Enchiridion_, a moral treatise,
+containing the discourses of Epictetus.
+
+AR'RIS, in architecture, the line in which the two straight or curved
+surfaces of a body, forming an exterior angle, meet each other.
+
+ARRO'BA (Spanish), a weight formerly used in Spain, and still used in the
+greater part of Central and South America. In the States of Spanish origin
+its weight is generally equal to 25.35 lb. avoirdupois; in Brazil it equals
+32.38 lb.--Also a measure for wine, spirits, and oil, ranging from 2-3/4
+gallons to about 10 gallons.
+
+ARROEE, Danish island. See _Aeroee_.
+
+ARRONDISSEMENT. See _France_.
+
+ARROW. See _Archery, Bow_.
+
+ARROWHEAD (Sagittaria), a genus of aquatic plants found in all parts of the
+world within the torrid and temperate zones, nat. ord. Alismaceae,
+distinguished by possessing barren and fertile flowers, with a three-leaved
+calyx and three coloured petals. The common arrowhead (_S. sagittifolia_),
+the only native species in Britain, is known by its arrow-shaped leaves
+with lanceolate straight lobes.
+
+ARROWHEADED CHARACTERS. See _Cuneiform Writing_.
+
+ARROW LAKE, an expansion of the Columbia River, in British Columbia,
+Canada; about 95 miles long from N. to S.; often regarded as forming two
+lakes--Upper and Lower Arrow Lake.
+
+ARROWROCK DAM. See _Dams_ and _Reservoirs_.
+
+[Illustration: Arrow-root (_Maranta arundin[=a]c[)e]a_)]
+
+ARROW-ROOT, a starch largely used for food and for other purposes.
+Arrow-root proper is obtained from the rhizomes or rootstocks of several
+species of plants of the genus Maranta (nat. ord. Marantaceae), and perhaps
+owes its name to the scales which cover the rhizome, which have some
+resemblance to the point of an arrow. Some, however, suppose that the name
+is due to the fact of the fresh roots being used as an application against
+wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows, and others say that _arrow_ is a
+corruption of _ara_, the Indian name of the plant. The species from which
+arrow-root is most commonly obtained is _M. arundin[=a]c[)e]a_, hence
+called the _arrow-root plant_. Brazilian arrow-root, or tapioca meal, is
+got from the large fleshy root of _Manihot utilissima_, after the poisonous
+juice has been got rid of; East Indian arrow-root, from the large
+rootstocks of _Curc[)u]ma angustifolia_; Chinese arrow-root, from the
+creeping rhizomes of _Nelumbium speci[=o]sum_; English arrow-root, from the
+potato; Portland arrow-root, from the corms of _Arum macul[=a]tum_; and
+Oswego arrow-root, from Indian corn. Analyses made in 1902 and 1906 show
+that the idea generally held of the nourishing qualities of arrow-root is a
+delusion, and that the proteids, which are true muscle-builders, are
+present in an extremely small extent. Arrow-root, however, mixed with eggs,
+milk, and flavourings, is largely used in the dietary of invalids.
+
+ARROWSMITH, Aaron, a distinguished English chartographer, born 1750, died
+1823; he raised the execution of maps to a perfection it had never before
+attained.--His nephew, John, born 1790, died 1873, was no less
+distinguished in the same field; his _London Atlas of Universal Geography_
+may be specially mentioned.
+
+ARROYO ([.a]r-r[=o]'yo), the name of two towns of Spain, in Estremadura,
+the one, called Arroyo del Puerco (pop. 5727), about 10 miles west of
+Caceres; the other, called Arroyo Molinos de Montanches, about 27 miles
+south-east of Caceres, memorable from the victory gained by Lord Hill over
+a French force under General Gerard, 28th Oct., 1811.
+
+AR'RU (or AROO) ISLANDS, a group belonging to the Dutch, south of western
+New Guinea, and extending from north to south about 127 miles. They are
+composed of coralline limestone, nowhere exceeding 200 feet above the sea,
+and are well wooded and tolerably fertile. The natives belong to the Papuan
+race, and some of them are Christians. The chief exports are trepang,
+tortoise-shell, pearls, mother-of-pearl, and edible birds'-nests. Pop. of
+group about 20,000.
+
+ARSA'CES, the founder of a dynasty of Parthian kings (256 B.C.), who,
+taking their name from him, are called Arsacidae. There were thirty-one in
+all. See _Parthia_.
+
+AR'SAMAS, a manufacturing town in the Russian government of Nijni-Novgorod,
+on the Tesha, 250 miles east of Moscow, with a cathedral and large convent.
+Pop. 12,000.
+
+AR'SENAL, a royal or public magazine or place appointed for the making,
+repairing, keeping, and issuing of military stores. An arsenal of the first
+class should include factories for guns and gun-carriages, small-arms,
+small-arms ammunition, harness, saddlery, tents, and powder; a laboratory
+and large store-houses. In arsenals of the second class workshops take the
+place of the factories. The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, which manufactures
+warlike implements and stores for the army and navy, was formed about 1720,
+and comprises factories, laboratories, &c., for the manufacture and final
+fitting up of almost every kind of arms and ammunition. Great quantities of
+military and naval stores are kept at the dockyards of Chatham, Portsmouth,
+Plymouth, and Pembroke. In France there are various arsenals or depots of
+war-material, which is manufactured at Mezieres, Toulouse, Besancon, &c.;
+the great naval arsenals are Brest and Toulon. Until 1919 the chief German
+arsenals were at Spandau, Strassburg, and Dantzig. The chief Austrian
+arsenal was the immense establishment at Vienna, which included
+gun-factory, laboratory, small-arms and carriage factories, &c. Russia had
+her principal arsenal at Petrograd, with supplementary factories of arms
+and ammunition at Briansk, Kiev, and elsewhere. In Italy Turin is the
+centre of the military factories. There are a number of arsenals in the
+United States, but individually they are of little importance.
+
+AR'SENIC (symbol AS, atomic weight 75), a common element usually found
+combined with metals as arsenides, the commonest of which is arsenical
+pyrites, FeAsS. It has a steel colour and high metallic lustre, and
+tarnishes on exposure to the air, first changing to yellow, and finally to
+black. In hardness it equals copper; it is extremely brittle, and very
+volatile, beginning to sublime before it melts. It burns with a blue flame,
+and emits a smell of garlic. Its specific gravity is 5.76. It forms
+compounds with most of the metals. Combined with sulphur it forms orpiment
+and realgar, which are the yellow and red sulphides of arsenic. Orpiment is
+the true _arsenicum_ of the ancients. With oxygen arsenic forms two
+compounds, the more important of which is arsenious oxides or arsenic
+trioxide (As_4O_6), which is the _white arsenic_, or simply _arsenic_ of
+the shops. It is usually seen in white, glassy, translucent masses, and is
+obtained by sublimation from several ores containing arsenic in combination
+with metals, particularly from arsenical pyrites. Of all substances arsenic
+is that which has most frequently occasioned death by poisoning, both by
+accident and design. The best remedies against the effects of arsenic on
+the stomach are ferric hydroxide or magnesic hydroxide, or a mixture of
+both, with copious draughts of bland liquids of a mucilaginous consistence,
+which serve to procure its complete ejection from the stomach. Oils and
+fats generally, milk, albumen, wheat-flour, oatmeal, sugar or syrup, have
+all proved useful in counteracting its effect. Like many other virulent
+poisons it is a safe and useful medicine, especially in skin diseases, when
+judiciously employed. It is used as a flux for glass, and also for forming
+pigments. The arsenite of copper (Scheele's green) and a double arsenite
+and acetate of copper (emerald green) were formerly largely used to colour
+paper-hangings for rooms; but as poisonous gases are liable to be given
+off, the practice has been to a great extent abandoned. Arsenic compounds
+have been used for colouring confectionery, and other articles, bright
+green, but their chief industrial use is in the preparation of
+insecticides. Arsenic is found in crude oil of vitriol, and occasionally in
+products such as grape-sugar, beer, &c., in the manufacture of which oil of
+vitriol is employed. Plants die when placed in a solution of arsenic, but
+corn is often steeped in such a solution, previous to planting, for
+preventing smut, and the growth of the future plant is not injured thereby.
+
+ARSHIN ([.a]r-sh[=e]n'), a Russian measure of length equal to 28 inches.
+
+ARSIN'OE, a city of ancient Egypt on Lake Moeris, said to have been founded
+about 2300 B. C., but renamed after Arsinoe, wife and sister of Ptolemy II
+of Egypt, and called also _Crocodilopolis_, from the sacred crocodiles kept
+at it.
+
+AR'SIS, a term applied in prosody to that syllable in a measure where the
+emphasis is put; in elocution, the elevation of the voice, in distinction
+from _thesis_, or its depression. _Arsis_ and _thesis_, in music, are the
+strong position and weak position of the bar, indicated by the down-beat
+and up-beat in marking time.
+
+AR'SON, in English law, the malicious burning of a dwelling-house or
+outhouse of another man, which by the common law is felony, and which, if
+any person is therein, is capital. Also, the wilful setting fire to any
+church, chapel, warehouse, mill, barn, agricultural produce, ship,
+coal-mine, and the like. In Scotland it is called _wilful fire-raising_,
+and in both England and Scotland it is a considerable aggravation of the
+crime if the burning is to defraud insurers.
+
+ART, in its most extended sense, as distinguished from nature on the one
+hand and from science on the other, has been defined as every regulated
+operation or dexterity by which organized beings pursue ends which they
+know beforehand, together with the rules and the result of every such
+operation or dexterity. Science consists in _knowing_, art in _doing_. In
+this wide sense it embraces what are usually called the useful arts. In a
+narrower and purely aesthetic sense it designates what are more
+specifically termed the fine arts, as architecture, sculpture, painting,
+music, and poetry. The useful arts have their origin in positive practical
+needs, and restrict themselves to satisfying them. The fine arts minister
+to the sentiment of taste through the medium of the beautiful in form,
+colour, rhythm, or harmony. See _Fine Arts_, _Painting_, _Sculpture_,
+&c.--In the Middle Ages it was common to give certain branches of study the
+name of arts.--Cf. A. C. R. Carter, _History of Art_, _The Year's Art_.
+
+ART COLLECTIONS. See _Collections, Artistic_.
+
+ART, Teaching of. With the advent of the present industrial age the
+teaching of art has undergone a profound change. The fine and the
+industrial arts have been equally affected. In mediaeval times, and in the
+earlier classic ages, the system of apprenticeship prevailed, and all
+teaching of the arts and of the artistic crafts was given by masters of the
+various arts or trades to the apprentices who worked under their guidance
+as assistants. Standards of excellence were maintained by trade guilds, who
+enforced rules as to workmanship as well as rules for the economic
+conditions of each trade or craft. The painter of pictures, or of mural
+decorations, was trained in the same way as any other craftsman, working as
+an apprentice under a master.
+
+When, in the last century, machinery driven by steam-power took the place
+of hand labour in industry, the small independent workshops gradually
+disappeared, as the industrial centres increased in those localities where
+coal or raw material was most easily obtained; and, as the processes of
+each trade or craft became more and more subdivided and specialized, the
+old system of apprenticeship, which had become unnecessary, broke down. The
+teaching and tradition of the small independent craft workshops had no
+counterpart in the new centralized industrial systems. Even the painters of
+pictures needed no longer to prepare their own materials, for special
+industries arose, and mechanical processes were developed, for the work
+which formerly had been done in the artists' workshops by apprentices. The
+fine arts in this way suffered the loss of their old systems of teaching
+and instruction.
+
+To meet the need for a revival of art teaching in the crafts and other
+industries, there arose a movement towards the centralization of teaching
+in schools of art during the latter half of the nineteenth century.
+Following the impulse given to that movement by the great exhibition in
+1850, the British Government founded the schools of science and art in
+London and in most of the important provincial towns. Earlier in the
+century bodies of artists had founded national academies for the teaching
+of art; and the teaching of drawing was gradually adopted as a part of
+ordinary school education. Step by step training in schools of art or
+technical schools took the place of the teaching formerly given during
+apprenticeship in every craft workshop. The ancient guilds were replaced by
+the new trades unions, but these took no part in the maintenance of
+artistic standards nor of quality in workmanship.
+
+At the present time the teaching of art begins with the early school
+lessons in drawing, and is carried on in special technical classes or
+schools of art, where teachers of the 'fine arts' and of the artistic
+crafts give instruction to students preparing for professional work. In a
+few of the artistic trades the system of apprenticeship still survives, but
+the teaching given by that means is usually supplemented by attendance at a
+school of art or technical school. Under the Education Act of 1918
+attendance at technical classes in the daytime became compulsory for
+apprentices in all industrial trades.
+
+The subject of art teaching was formerly disregarded by the universities,
+but has become definitely within their province since the founding of the
+Slade professorships at Oxford, Cambridge, and London Universities, and of
+the professorship of fine art at the University of Edinburgh.
+
+The chief schools of art in Great Britain are the schools of the Royal
+Academy in London, the Slade School at University College, London, and the
+Royal College of Art at South Kensington, also the Central School of Arts
+and Crafts, and the other large metropolitan schools of the London County
+Council.
+
+In most of the English provincial towns are municipal or other schools of
+art under the control of the Board of Education.
+
+In Scotland the chief schools are the four central institutions--the
+Edinburgh College of Art, and the schools of art of Glasgow, Aberdeen, and
+Dundee. In each of these a diploma is given on the satisfactory completion
+of a prescribed course of study.
+
+In Ireland the chief schools are those of the Royal Hibernian Academy in
+Dublin, and the provincial schools of art under the Department of
+Agriculture and Technology.
+
+On the Continent the chief centre of artistic training has for many years
+been in Paris. Advanced students from most European and American art
+schools spend some of the later period of their study in the schools of
+Paris, in painting, in sculpture, or in architecture. There is, naturally,
+a valuable incentive and stimulation due to this gathering together of
+advanced students from all countries, as well as to the high academic
+tradition and sense of style of the French.
+
+The 'atelier' system, which is followed in the French schools, is simple
+and personal. The expenses of an 'atelier', or studio, are borne by a group
+of students by the consent and under the guidance of an artist of
+reputation, who visits the 'atelier' at stated intervals, but is not
+concerned in its administration. In this way the relations between the
+professor and his pupils are extremely direct and personal. Most of the
+distinguished artists of Paris are attached to some 'atelier' to which
+chosen pupils are admitted.
+
+There are also in Paris excellent schools for training in the applied arts,
+schools for furniture-making, printing, jewellery, and other artistic
+trades. These are on private foundations, but also receive State aid.
+
+The teaching of art that is given at the present day as a part of ordinary
+general education attempts little more than a training in the elements of
+drawing, with some practice in the use of colour. The purpose of the
+drawing lesson is the attainment of skill in the representation of objects
+rather than the training of the aesthetic sense, or of artistic judgment or
+taste.
+
+In the schools of art opportunities are provided for training in drawing
+and painting, sculpture, and architecture, and in the general principles of
+design in these arts, and in many of the artistic crafts and industrial
+processes. In some localities, where particular industries or artistic
+trades are concentrated, special schools for artistic and technical
+training are provided. The present tendency is towards the development of
+special schools for particular artistic trades or professions.
+
+A complete system of training in any art must of necessity include: (1)
+actual technical practice; (2) teaching of the canons of workmanship of the
+art; (3) acquaintance with its historical development, especially with the
+notable examples and the highest achievements of past masters in the art.
+
+ARTA (ancient AMBRACIA), a gulf, town, and river of north-western Greece.
+The town was transferred by Turkey to Greece in 1881 (pop. 8000). It stands
+on the River Arta, which for a considerable distance above its mouth formed
+a part of the boundary between Greece and Turkey.--The province of Arta has
+an area of 395 sq. miles, and a pop. of 52,400.
+
+ARTAXERX'ES (Old Pers. _Artakhsathra_, 'the mighty'), the name of several
+Persian kings:--1. ARTAXERXES, surnamed Longim[)a]nus, succeeded his father
+Xerxes I, 465 B.C. He subdued the rebellious Egyptians, terminated the war
+with Athens, governed his subjects in peace, and died 425 B.C.--2.
+ARTAXERXES, surnamed Mnemon, succeeded his father Darius II in the year 405
+B.C. After having vanquished his brother Cyrus he made war on the Spartans,
+who had assisted his enemy, and forced them to abandon the Greek cities and
+islands of Asia to the Persians. On his death, 359 B.C., his son Ochus
+ascended the throne under the name of--3. ARTAXERXES OCHUS (359 to 339
+B.C.). After having overcome the Phoenicians and Egyptians, and displayed
+great cruelty in both countries, he was poisoned by his general Bagoas.
+
+ARTE'DI, Peter, a Swedish naturalist, born 1705, drowned at Amsterdam 1735.
+He studied at Upsala, turned his attention to medicine and natural history,
+and was a friend of Linnaeus. His _Bibliotheca Ichthyologica_ and
+_Philosophia Ichthyologica_, together with a life of the author, were
+published at Leyden in 1738.
+
+ARTEL, a name for co-operative associations in Russia. These associations
+were known in ancient Russia as _drushina_ or _wataga_. The artels
+originally consisted of bodies of men associating for the purpose of
+jointly undertaking a piece of work and dividing the profits. Artels were
+formed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries for the co-operation of
+their members in hunting and fishing. Inspired and stimulated by the
+Schulze-Delitzsch associations established in Germany, the Russian artels
+have extended their activity to various branches of industrial life. There
+are now consum artels, credit artels, and insurance artels, but the most
+important are the artisan and industrial artels. Some of the artels,
+however, are little more than trade guilds with mutual responsibility.
+
+AR'T[)E]MIS, an ancient Greek divinity, identified with the Roman Diana.
+She was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto or Latona, and was the twin
+sister of Apollo, born in the Island of Delos. She is variously represented
+as a huntress, with bow and arrows; as a goddess of the nymphs, in a
+chariot drawn by four stags; and as the moon-goddess, with the crescent of
+the moon above her forehead. She was a maiden divinity, never conquered by
+love, except when Endymion made her feel its power. She demanded the
+strictest chastity from her worshippers, and she is represented as having
+changed Actaeon into a stag, and caused him to be torn in pieces by his own
+dogs, because he had secretly watched her as she was bathing. The Artemisia
+was a festival celebrated in her honour at Delphi. The famous temple of
+Artemis at Ephesus was considered one of the wonders of the world, but the
+goddess worshipped there was very different from the huntress goddess of
+Greece, being of Eastern origin, and regarded as the symbol of fruitful
+nature.
+
+ARTEMI'SIA, Queen of Caria, in Asia Minor, about 352-350 B.C., sister and
+wife of Maus[=o]lus, to whom she erected in her capital, Halicarnassus, a
+monument, called the Mausol[=e]um, which was reckoned among the seven
+wonders of the world.
+
+ARTEMI'SIA, a genus of plants of numerous species, nat. ord. Compositae,
+comprising mugwort, southernwood, and wormwood. Certain alpine species are
+the flavouring ingredient in absinthe. See _Wormwood_.
+
+ARTEMI'SIUM, a promontory in Euboea, an island of the Aegean, near which
+several naval battles between the Greeks and Persians were fought, 480 B.C.
+
+AR'TEMUS WARD. See _Browne, Charles Farrar_.
+
+AR'TERIES, the system of cylindrical vessels or tubes, membranous, elastic,
+and pulsatile, which convey the blood from the heart to all parts of the
+body, by ramifications which, as they proceed, diminish in size and
+increase in number, and terminate in minute capillaries uniting the ends of
+the arteries with the beginnings of the veins. There are two principal
+arteries or arterial trunks: the _aorta_, which rises from the left
+ventricle of the heart and ramifies through the whole body, sending off
+great branches to the head, neck, and upper limbs, and downwards to the
+lower limbs, &c.; and the _pulmonary artery_, which conveys venous blood
+from the right ventricle to the lungs, to be purified in the process of
+respiration.
+
+ARTERIOT'OMY, the opening or cutting of an artery for the purpose of
+blood-letting, as, for instance, to relieve pressure of the brain in
+apoplexy.
+
+[Illustration: Artesian Well. A. A. Outcrops of pervious stratum (C) acting
+as collecting areas. B and D. Impervious stratum.]
+
+ARTE'SIAN WELLS, so called from the French province of Artois, where they
+appear to have been first used on an extensive scale, are perpendicular
+borings into the ground through which water rises to the surface of the
+soil, producing a constant flow or stream, the ultimate sources of supply
+being higher than the mouth of the boring, and the water thus rising by the
+well-known law. They are generally sunk in valley plains and districts
+where the lower pervious strata are bent into basin-shaped curves. The rain
+falling on the outcrops of these saturates the whole porous bed, so that
+when the bore reaches it the water by hydraulic pressure rushes up towards
+the level of the highest portion of the strata. The supply is sometimes so
+abundant as to be used extensively as a moving power, and in arid regions
+for fertilizing the ground, to which purpose artesian springs have been
+applied from a very remote period. Thus many artesian wells have been sunk
+in the Algerian Sahara, which have proved an immense boon to the district.
+The water of most of these is potable, but a few are a little saline,
+though not to such an extent as to influence vegetation. The hollows in
+which London and Paris lie are both perforated in many places by borings of
+this nature. At London they were first sunk only to the sand, but
+afterwards into the chalk. One of the most celebrated artesian wells is
+that of Grenelle, near Paris, 1798 feet deep, completed in 1841, after
+eight years' work. Artesian wells are now common in many countries, and
+have been sunk to the depth of a mile or more. As the temperature of water
+from great depths is invariably higher than that at the surface, artesian
+wells have been made to supply warm water for heating manufactories,
+greenhouses, hospitals, fish-ponds, &c. They have also been made in the
+United States and Australia for the purpose of irrigation. Petroleum wells
+are generally of the same technical description. Artesian wells are now
+made with larger diameters than formerly, and altogether their construction
+has been rendered much more easy in modern times. See _Boring_.
+
+ARTEVELD, or ARTEVELDE ([.a]r'te-velt, [.a]r'te-vel-de), the name of two
+men distinguished in the history of the Low Countries.--1. Jacob van, a
+brewer of Ghent, born about 1300, was selected by his fellow-townsmen to
+lead them in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. In 1338 he
+was appointed captain of the forces of Ghent, and for several years
+exercised a sort of sovereign power. A proposal to make the Black Prince,
+son of Edward III of England, Governor of Flanders led to an insurrection
+in which Arteveld lost his life (1345).--2. Philip, son of the former, at
+the head of the forces of Ghent gained a great victory over the Count of
+Flanders, Louis II, and for a time assumed the state of a sovereign prince.
+His reign proved short-lived. The Count of Flanders returned with a large
+French force, fully disciplined and skilfully commanded. Arteveld was rash
+enough to meet them in the open field at Roosebeke, between Courtrai and
+Ghent, in 1382, and fell with 25,000 Flemings.
+
+ARTHRI'TIS (Gr. _arthron_, a joint), any inflammatory distemper that
+affects the joints, particularly chronic rheumatism or gout.
+
+ARTHRO'DIA, a species of articulation, in which the head of one bone is
+received into a shallow socket in another; a ball-and-socket joint.
+
+ARTHROP'ODA, one of the two primary divisions (Anarthropoda being the
+other) into which modern naturalists have divided the sub-kingdom Annulosa,
+having the body composed of a series of segments, some always being
+provided with articulated appendages. The division comprises Crustaceans,
+Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Insects.
+
+ARTHROZO'A, a name sometimes given to all articulated animals, including
+the arthropoda and worms.
+
+ARTHUR, Chester Alan, twenty-first President of the United States, born
+1830, died 1886, was the son of Scottish parents, his father being pastor
+of Baptist churches in Vermont and New York. He chose law as a profession,
+and practised in New York. As a politician he became a leader in the
+Republican party. During the civil war he was energetic as
+quarter-master-general of New York in getting troops raised and equipped.
+He was afterwards collector of customs for the port of New York. In 1880 he
+was elected Vice-President, succeeding as President on the death of
+Garfield in 1881.
+
+AR'THUR, KING, an ancient British hero of the sixth century, son of Uther
+Pendragon and the Princess Igerna, wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall. He
+married Guinevere, or Ginevra; established the famous order of the Round
+Table; and reigned, surrounded by a splendid Court, twelve years in peace.
+After this, as the poets relate, he conquered Denmark, Norway, and France,
+slew the giants of Spain, and went to Rome. From thence he is said to have
+hastened home on account of the faithlessness of his wife, and Modred, his
+nephew, who had stirred up his subjects to rebellion. He subdued the
+rebels, but died in consequence of his wounds, on the Island of Avalon. The
+story of Arthur is supposed to have some foundation in fact, and has ever
+been a favourite subject with our romanticists and our poets. It is
+generally believed that Arthur was one of the last great Celtic chiefs who
+led his countrymen from the west of England to resist the settlement of the
+Saxons in the country. But many authorities regard him as a leader of the
+Cymry of Cumbria and Strath-Clyde against the Saxon invaders of the east
+coast and the Picts and Scots north of the Forth and the Clyde. See
+_Grail_, _Merlin_, _Round Table_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Rhys, _Studies in the
+Arthurian Legend_; W. Lewis Jones, _King Arthur in History and Legend_.
+
+ARTHUR'S SEAT, a picturesque hill within the King's Park in the immediate
+vicinity of Edinburgh; has an altitude of 822 feet; descends rollingly to
+the N. and E. over a base each way of about five furlongs; presents an
+abrupt shoulder to the S., and breaks down precipitously to the W. It is
+composed of a diversity of eruptive rocks, with some interposed and
+up-tilted sedimentary ones; and derives its name somehow from the legendary
+King Arthur.
+
+AR'TIAD (Gr. _artios_, even-numbered), in chemistry, a name given to an
+element of even equivalency, as a dyad, tetrad, &c.: opposed to a perissad,
+an element of uneven equivalency, such as a monad, triad, &c.
+
+ARTICHOKE (_Cyn[)a]ra Scol[)y]mus_), sometimes called 'the Globe
+Artichoke', a well-known plant of the nat. ord. Compositae, somewhat
+resembling a thistle, with large divided prickly leaves. The erect
+flower-stem terminates in a large round head of numerous imbricated oval
+spiny scales which surround the flowers. The fleshy bases of the scales
+with the large receptacle are the parts that are eaten. Artichokes were
+introduced into England early in the sixteenth century. The Jerusalem
+artichoke (a corruption of the It. _girasole_, a sunflower), or _Helianthus
+tuber[=o]sus_, is a species of sunflower, whose roots are used like
+potatoes; it was introduced into England in the early part of the
+seventeenth century.
+
+ARTICLE, in grammar, a part of speech used before nouns to limit or define
+their application. In English _a_ or _an_ is usually called the indefinite
+article (the latter form being used before a vowel sound), and _the_, the
+definite article, but they are also described as adjectives. _An_ was
+originally the same as _one_, and _the_ as _that_. In Latin there were no
+articles, and Greek has only the definite article.
+
+ARTICLES, LORDS OF THE, in Scottish history, a committee chosen equally
+from each estate or division of Parliament to prepare the various measures,
+which, when completed, were laid before the Parliament for adoption or
+rejection. They were first appointed in 1369, and gradually became a
+recognized part of the Scottish legislative machinery. Abolished 1690.
+
+ARTICLES, THE SIX, in English ecclesiastical history, articles imposed by a
+statute (often called the Bloody Statute) passed in 1541, the thirty-third
+year of the reign of Henry VIII. They decreed the acknowledgment of
+transubstantiation, the sufficiency of communion in one kind, the
+obligation of vows of chastity, the propriety of private masses, celibacy
+of the clergy, and auricular confession. Acceptance of these doctrines was
+made obligatory on all persons under the severest penalties; the Act,
+however, was relaxed in 1544, and repealed in 1549.
+
+ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, of the Church of England, a statement of the
+particular points of doctrine, thirty-nine in number, maintained by the
+English Church; first promulgated by a convocation held in London in
+1562-3, and confirmed by royal authority; founded on and superseding an
+older code issued in the reign of Edward VI. The first five articles
+contain a profession of faith in the Trinity; the incarnation of Jesus
+Christ, His descent to hell, and His resurrection; the divinity of the Holy
+Ghost. The three following relate to the canon of the Scripture. The eighth
+article declares a belief in the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds.
+The ninth and following articles contain the doctrine of original sin, of
+justification by faith alone, of predestination, &c. The nineteenth,
+twentieth, and twenty-first declare the Church to be the assembly of the
+faithful; that it can decide nothing except by the Scriptures. The
+twenty-second rejects the doctrine of purgatory, indulgences, the adoration
+of images, and the invocation of saints. The twenty-third decides that only
+those lawfully called shall preach or administer the sacraments. The
+twenty-fourth requires the liturgy to be in English. The twenty-fifth and
+twenty-sixth declare the sacraments effectual signs of grace (though
+administered by evil men), by which God excites and confirms our faith.
+They are two: baptism and the Lord's supper. Baptism, according to the
+twenty-seventh article, is a sign of regeneration, the seal of our
+adoption, by which faith is confirmed and grace increased. In the Lord's
+supper, according to article twenty-eight, the bread is the communion of
+the body of Christ, the wine the communion of his blood, but only through
+faith (article twenty-ninth); and the communion must be administered in
+both kinds (article thirty). The twenty-eighth article condemns the
+doctrine of transubstantiation, and the elevation and adoration of the
+host; the thirty-first rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous;
+the thirty-second permits the marriage of the clergy; the thirty-third
+maintains the efficacy of excommunication. The remaining articles relate to
+the supremacy of the king, the condemnation of Anabaptists, &c. They were
+ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. All candidates for ordination must
+subscribe these articles, but they are not binding upon laymen, except
+judges and certain university officials. This formulary is now accepted by
+the Episcopalian Churches of Scotland, Ireland, and America.
+
+ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION are the rules framed by a company for the
+administration of its affairs. Public companies usually have separate
+articles of their own, but this is not essential. When a registered company
+has no articles, its business procedure is regulated by the statutory form,
+found in Schedule 1 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act, 1908, and known
+as Table A. When separate articles are used they must be printed, signed,
+stamped, and filed along with the memorandum of association. Unlike the
+memorandum, the articles may be altered at any time, by special resolution,
+provided the alteration is within the powers given by the memorandum. Thus,
+where preferred shares are created by the memorandum, their privileges are
+more secure than if merely issued under the articles. The articles are
+intended merely for internal administration, and, while binding in
+questions between the company and its members as such, they do not affect
+third parties, unless the company has acted _ultra vires_ and this was
+discoverable from the articles, which the public can inspect at a nominal
+fee.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir F. B. Palmer, _Company Law_; A. Coles, _Guide for
+the Company Secretary_; A. F. Topham, _Principles of Company Law_.
+
+ARTICLES OF WAR. See _Military Law_.
+
+ARTICULA'TA, the third great section of the animal kingdom according to the
+arrangement of Cuvier, applied to invertebrates such as insects and worms,
+in which the body displays a jointed structure. The name is now obsolete.
+See _Arthropoda_.
+
+ARTICULA'TION, in anatomy a joint; the joining or juncture of the bones.
+This is of three kinds: (1) _Diarthr[=o]sis_, or a movable connection, such
+as the ball-and-socket joint; (2) _Synarthr[=o]sis_, immovable connection,
+as by suture, or junction by serrated margins; (3) _Symphysis_, or union by
+means of another substance, by a cartilage, tendon, or ligament.
+
+ARTIFICIAL LIMBS. Artificial limbs of a primitive kind have been in use
+from very early times; but, as the material of which they were made was
+perishable, few specimens have been preserved. In the museum of the Royal
+College of Surgeons in London there is a good specimen of a Roman
+artificial leg which is believed to date back to the third century B.C.
+This leg is made of wood, covered with thin bronze; it has an iron
+sole-plate, and was fastened on by means of a waist-belt.
+
+In Irish legend we are told of Nuada, who led the tribe of the Dananns back
+to Ireland, having an artificial hand made of silver; from this he received
+the name of Argetlam or Silver-handed. In mediaeval times Goetz von
+Berlichingen, who lost his right hand at the siege of Landshut (1505), had
+a hand made of iron to supply its place.
+
+Great improvements have been made in the manufacture of artificial limbs
+during the last fifty years. After the Franco-Prussian war the French
+Government adopted an artificial arm and hand known as the 'Beaufort' and
+issued it to the soldiers who required it. This hand had a movable thumb
+controlled by a cord passing up the arm and fastened to a loop band over
+the opposite shoulder. An Englishman named Heather Bigg invented a hand
+with a movable thumb which was worked by a piston and controlled by a
+rubber ball fastened under the arm-pit. These designs have been improved
+upon from time to time, and an artificial hand can now be made which is
+capable of opening and closing at will, and of lifting and holding light
+articles.
+
+Artificial legs vary in design, from the simple pin leg to ingenious
+contrivances such as the 'Anglesey' leg, which is made of seasoned willow
+wood with steel ankles and knee-joints. This 'Anglesey' leg is the standard
+best-quality limb in Great Britain. The German artificial-limb makers use
+leather instead of wood. These leather legs fit comfortably, but are too
+heavy, as they have to be supported by steel bands.
+
+ARTILLERY, all ordnance such as guns and howitzers as opposed to small arms
+and machine-guns. The term is also used for the troops who serve these
+arms.
+
+Generally speaking, artillery is divided into field, heavy, and siege
+artillery. For details of organization see _Army_. The earliest form of
+artillery was a metal tube which was placed in a convenient position on the
+ground. The charge of gunpowder was ignited by placing a match to a hole
+bored at the closed end, and the resulting explosion forced the
+projectile--a stone--more or less in the required direction. Later on this
+primitive weapon was provided with wheels. In another form one man fired it
+while a second man supported it on his shoulder. In the later Middle Ages
+guns of various calibres were known by the names of birds of prey or
+reptiles; among such were falcons and falconets, culverins and
+demi-culverins. The fourteenth century saw the development of artillery for
+siege purposes--chiefly by the Germans--and in the next century it began to
+be employed in open warfare; while in 1537 the present Honourable Artillery
+Company was formed in London to encourage the use of all 'weapons of
+volley'. These weapons of volley were not even confined to fire-arms, but
+included bows and cross-bows. The earliest English troops raised as
+artillery personel were called the Regiment of Firelocks. Of late years
+artillery science has made almost inconceivable progress, thanks to which,
+_inter alia_, it is no longer necessary for the target to be visible from
+the gun-position. This fact, combined with the use of smokeless powder,
+makes the locating of hostile batteries exceedingly difficult. All field
+artillery, by which is meant guns and howitzers, which accompany mobile
+troops are designed on the quick-firing principle, by which the inevitable
+recoil at the moment of firing is absorbed by an arrangement known as the
+recoil-carriage, thus preventing any movement of the gun-carriage proper,
+and avoiding unnecessary labour for the gun-detachments, while at the same
+time allowing the men composing it to remain under cover of the shield with
+which the guns are provided. With the quick-firing gun, propellent and
+projectile are combined in one cartridge similar to that in use with small
+arms; with the howitzer they are separated. This difference is due to the
+fact that whereas guns are designed for a flat trajectory with a deep zone
+of fire-effect, howitzers are intended for high-angle fire with an almost
+vertical fall of shrapnel-bullets. This effect is produced by varying the
+charge for different ranges. A field battery consists of 6 guns or
+howitzers and 12 ammunition-wagons. Both guns and wagons are of the
+limbered type, i.e. in two detachable parts, and the weight behind the team
+of an English gun is approximately 2 tons.
+
+As to tactical principles, it is recognized that the function of artillery
+is to assist the other arms, that it cannot by itself win a battle, and
+that its true _metier_ is to prepare the way for and assist the infantry.
+During 1914-18 some 700,000 officers and men served with the Royal
+Regiment.
+
+ARTILLERY COMPANY, THE HONOURABLE, the oldest existing body of volunteers
+in Great Britain, instituted in 1537, revived in 1610. It comprises six
+companies of infantry, besides artillery, and furnishes a guard of honour
+to the sovereign when visiting the city of London. Previous to 1842 the
+Company elected their own officers, but since that date they have been
+appointed by the Crown.
+
+ARTILLERY SCHOOLS, institutions established for the purpose of giving a
+special training to the officers, and in some cases the men, belonging to
+the artillery service. In Great Britain the artillery schools are at
+Woolwich and Shoeburyness. The Department of Artillery studies at Woolwich
+give artillery officers the means of continuing their studies after they
+have completed the usual course at the Royal Military College, and of
+qualifying for appointments requiring exceptional scientific attainments.
+The School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness gives instruction in gunnery to
+officers and men, and conducts all experiments connected with artillery and
+stores. The sands at the mouth of the Thames afford ample opportunity for
+artillery practice and firing at long ranges. The Royal Artillery
+Institution at Woolwich contains a museum, lecture-room, and
+printing-press, from which professional and scientific papers are
+periodically issued.
+
+ARTIODAC'TYLA (Gr. _artios_, even numbered, _dakt[)y]los_, a finger or
+toe), a section of the Ungulata or hoofed mammals, comprising all those in
+which the number of the toes is even (two or four), including the
+ruminants, such as the ox, sheep, deer, &c., and also a number of
+non-ruminating animals, as the hippopotamus and the pig.
+
+ARTISANS' AND LABOURERS' DWELLINGS ACT, an English Act of Parliament passed
+in 1868 to empower town councils and other local authorities to demolish or
+improve dwellings unfit for human habitation, and to build and maintain
+better dwellings in lieu thereof. Other Acts for the same object were
+passed in 1875, 1879, and 1882. See _Housing_.
+
+ARTOCARPA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants, the bread-fruit order, by some
+botanists ranked as a sub-order of the Urticaceae or nettles. They are
+trees or shrubs, with a milky juice, which in some species hardens into
+caoutchouc, and in the cow-tree (_Bros[)i]mum Galactodendron_) is a milk as
+good as that obtained from the cow. Many of the plants produce an edible
+fruit, of which the best known is the bread-fruit (Artocarpus).
+
+ARTOIS ([.a]r-twae), a former province of France, anciently one of the
+seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, now almost completely included in
+the department of Pas-de-Calais.
+
+ARTOIS, THE BATTLE OF. See _European War_.
+
+ARTS, the name given to certain branches of study in the Middle Ages,
+originally called the 'liberal arts' to distinguish them from the 'servile
+arts' or mechanical occupations. These arts were usually given as grammar,
+dialectics, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Hence
+originated the terms 'art classes', 'degrees in arts', 'Master of Arts',
+&c., still in common use in universities, the faculty of arts being
+distinguished from those of divinity, law, medicine, or science. See
+_University_.
+
+ARTSYBASHEV, Mikhail, Russian author, born in 1878. After a number of short
+stories he wrote, at the age of twenty-five, a novel entitled _Sanin_,
+published in 1907, which placed him at once among the most famous
+contemporary Russian authors. Whatever opinion literary critics may hold of
+this novel, his wonderful realism, simplicity of style, and psychological
+analysis cannot be disputed.
+
+ART UNIONS, associations for encouraging art, an object which they mainly
+pursue by disposing of pictures, sculptures, &c., by lottery among
+subscribers. They seem to have originated in France during the time of
+Napoleon I. They soon afterwards took root in Germany, where they have been
+very successful. The first art union established in Britain was that at
+Edinburgh in 1834. Art unions were legalized by the Art Unions Act, 1846
+See _Lottery_.
+
+ARTVIN, a town in the Republic of Georgia, in the Caucasus, about 35 miles
+inland from Batum. Pop. 6720.
+
+ARUBA ([.a]-roe'b[.a]), an island off the north coast of Venezuela,
+belonging to Holland (a dependency of Curacoa), about 30 miles long and 7
+broad; surface generally rock, quartz being abundant, and containing
+considerable quantities of gold; a phosphate which is exported for manure
+is also abundant. The climate is healthy. Pop. 9481 (1916).
+
+ARU ISLANDS. See _Arru Islands_.
+
+[Illustration: Cuckoo Pint or Wake Robin (_Arum macul[=a]tum_).
+
+1, Spadix. 2, Stamen. 3, Female flower. 4, Fruit.]
+
+A'RUM, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Araceae. _A. macul[=a]tum_ (the common
+wake-robin, lords-and-ladies, or cuckoo pint) is abundant in woods and
+hedges in England and Ireland, but is rare in Scotland. It has acrid
+properties, but its corm yields a starch which is known by the name of
+Portland sago or arrowroot. At one time this was prepared to a considerable
+extent in Portland Island. All the species of this genus develop much heat
+during flowering.
+
+AR'UNDEL, a town in Sussex, England, on the River Arun, 4 miles from its
+mouth, the river being navigable to the town for vessels of 250 tons. The
+castle of Arundel, the chief residence of the dukes of Norfolk, stands on a
+knoll on the north-east side of the town. Pop. (1921), 2741.
+
+AR'UNDEL, Thomas, third son of Richard FitzAlan, Earl of Arundel, born
+1352, died 1413. He was Chancellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury.
+He concerted with Bolingbroke to deliver the nation from the oppression of
+Richard II, and was a bitter persecutor of the Lollards and followers of
+Wycliffe.
+
+ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, a series of ancient sculptured marbles discovered by
+William Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece at the expense of and for
+Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who lived in the time of James I and
+Charles I, and was a liberal patron of scholarship and art. After the
+Restoration they were presented by the grandson of the collector to the
+University of Oxford. Among them is the _Parian Chronicle_, a chronological
+account of the principal events in Grecian, and particularly in Athenian,
+history, during a period of 1186 years, from the reign of Cecrops (1450
+B.C.) to the archonship of Diognetus (264 B.C.).
+
+ARUN'DO. See _Phragmites_.
+
+ARUSPICES (a-rus'pi-s[=e]z), or HARUSPICES, a class of priests in ancient
+Rome, of Etrurian origin, whose business was to inspect the entrails of
+victims killed in sacrifice, and by them to foretell future events.
+
+ARUWIMI, a large river of equatorial Africa, a tributary of the Congo, on
+the north bank.
+
+ARVAL BROTHERS (_Fratres Arv[=a]les_), a college or company of twelve
+members elected for life from the highest ranks in ancient Rome, so called
+from offering annually public sacrifices for the fertility of the fields
+(Lat. _arvum_, a field).
+
+ARVE ([.a]rv), a river rising in the Savoyan Alps, passes through the
+valley of Chamonix, and falls into the Rhone near Geneva, after a course of
+about 50 miles.
+
+ARVIC'OLA, a genus of rodent animals, sub-ord. Muridae or Mice. There are
+three British species. _A. amphibia_ is the water-vole (or water-rat), and
+_A. agrestis_ is the field-vole or short-tailed field-mouse. They are
+prolific animals, having three or four litters in the year, each consisting
+of from four to ten young.
+
+A'RYAN, or INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. See _Indo-European Family_.
+
+AS, a Roman weight of 12 ounces, answering to the libra or pound, and equal
+to 237.5 grains avoirdupois, or 327.1873 grammes French measure. In the
+most ancient times of Rome the copper or bronze coin which was called _as_
+actually weighed an _as_, or a pound, but in 264 B.C. it was reduced to 2
+ounces, in 217 to 1 ounce, and in 191 to 1/2 ounce.
+
+[Illustration: As (half real size)--Specimen in British Museum]
+
+A'SA, great grandson of Solomon and third King of Judah; he ascended the
+throne at an early age, and distinguished himself by his zeal in rooting
+out idolatry with its attendant immoralities. He died after a prosperous
+reign of forty-one years.
+
+ASAFE'TIDA, or ASAFOETIDA, a fetid inspissated sap from Central Asia, the
+solidified juice of the _Narthex Asafetida_, a large umbelliferous plant.
+It is used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic, and in cases of flatulency, in
+hysteric paroxysms, and other nervous affections. Notwithstanding its very
+disagreeable odour it is used as a seasoning in the East, and sometimes in
+Europe. An inferior sort is the product of certain species of Ferula.
+
+ASAGRAE'A. See _Sabadilla_.
+
+ASA'MA, an active volcano of Japan, about 50 miles north-west of Tokio,
+8260 feet high.
+
+A'SAPH, a Levite and psalmist appointed by David as leading chorister in
+the divine services. His office became hereditary in his family, or he
+founded a school of poets and musicians, which were called, after him, "the
+sons of Asaph". See _Psalms_.
+
+ASAPH, ST., a small cathedral city and bishop's see in Wales, 15 miles
+north-west of Flint; founded about 550 by St. Kentigern or St. Mungo,
+bishop of Glasgow, and named after his disciple St. Asaph, from whom both
+the diocese and town took their name. The cathedral was built about the
+close of the fifteenth century; it consists of a choir, a nave, two aisles,
+and a transept. Pop. 1833.
+
+ASARABAC'CA, a small hardy European plant, nat. ord. Aristolochiaceae
+(_As[)a]rum europoeum_). Its leaves are acrid, bitter, and nauseous, and
+its root is extremely acrid. Both the leaves and root were formerly used as
+an emetic. It entered into the composition of medicated snuffs recommended
+in cases of headache.
+
+AS'ARUM. See _Asarabacca_.
+
+ASBEN, AIR, or AHIR, a kingdom of Africa, in the Sahara. It consists of a
+succession of mountain groups and valleys, with a generally western slope,
+and attains in its highest summits a height of over 5000 feet. The valleys
+are very fertile, and often of picturesque appearance. The inhabitants are
+Tuaregs or Berbers, with an admixture of negro blood. They live partly in
+villages, partly as nomads. The country is nominally ruled over by a
+sultan, who resides in the capital, Agades. Pop. about 60,000.
+
+ASBES'TOS, or ASBESTUS, a remarkable and highly-useful mineral, a fibrous
+variety of several members of the hornblende family, composed of separable
+filaments, with a silky lustre. The fibres are sometimes delicate,
+flexible, and elastic; at other times stiff and brittle. It is
+incombustible, and anciently was wrought into a soft, flexible cloth, which
+was used as a shroud for dead bodies. In modern times it has been
+manufactured into incombustible cloth, gloves, felt, paper, &c.; is
+employed in gas-stoves; is much used as a covering to steam boilers and
+pipes; is mixed with metallic pigments, and used as a paint on wooden
+structures, roofs, partitions, &c., to render them fire-proof, and is
+employed in various other ways, the manufacture having recently greatly
+developed. Some varieties are compact, and take a fine polish, others are
+loose, like flax or silky wool. _Ligniform asbestos_, or _mountain-wood_,
+is a variety presenting an irregular filamentous structure, like wood.
+_Rock-cork_, _mountain-leather_, _fossil-paper_, and _fossil-flax_ are
+varieties. Asbestos is found in many parts of the world, but is chiefly
+supplied by Italy, Canada, and Australia. Mineralogically it is distinct
+from chrysotile, which is used for similar purposes.
+
+ASBJOERNSEN ([.a]s'byeurn-sen), Peter Kristen, born 1812, died 1885, a
+distinguished Norwegian naturalist and collector of the popular tales and
+legends, fairy stories, &c., of his native country.
+
+ASBURY PARK, a small town on the coast of New Jersey, United States, a
+great summer resort. Its population increases during the summer months from
+10,000 to 100,000.
+
+AS'CALON, or ASH'KELON, a ruined town of Palestine, on the sea-coast, 40
+miles W.S.W. of Jerusalem. It was occupied by the Crusaders under Richard I
+after a great battle with Saladin (1192) and by General Allenby's troops in
+Nov., 1917.
+
+ASCA'NIUS, the son of Aeneas and Creusa, and the companion of his father's
+wanderings from Troy to Italy.
+
+AS'CARIS. See _Nematoda_.
+
+ASCEN'SION (discovered on Ascension Day), an island of volcanic origin
+belonging to Britain, near the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean, about
+lat. 7deg 55' S.; long. 14deg 25' W.; 700 miles north-west of St. Helena;
+area, about 34 sq. miles. Pop. 196 (1914). It is retained by Britain as a
+naval sanatorium, coaling and victualling station, and store depot. It has
+a steam factory, naval and victualling yards, hospitals, and a coal depot.
+It is celebrated for its turtle, which are the finest in the world. Wild
+goats are plentiful, and oxen, sheep, pheasants, guinea-fowl, and rabbits
+have been introduced, and thrive well. The village of Georgetown, the seat
+of government, stands on the west side of the island, which is governed
+under the admiralty by a naval officer.
+
+ASCENSION, RIGHT, of a star or other heavenly body, in astronomy, the arc
+of the equator intercepted between the first point of Aries and that point
+of the equator which comes to the meridian at the same instant with the
+star.
+
+ASCENSION DAY, the day on which the ascension of the Saviour is
+commemorated, often called _Holy Thursday_: a movable feast, always falling
+on the Thursday but one before Whitsuntide.
+
+ASCET'ICISM and ASCET'ICS (from the Gr. _ask[=e]sis_, meaning practice,
+bodily exercise, or athletic training). The early Christians, who devoted
+themselves to severe exercises of piety and strove to distinguish
+themselves from the world by abstinence from sensual enjoyments and by
+voluntary penances, adopted the name to signify the practice of spiritual
+things. Ascetics and asceticism have played an important part in the
+Christian Church, but the principle of striving after a higher and more
+spiritual life by subduing the animal appetites and passions has no
+necessary connection with Christianity. Thus there were ascetics among the
+Jews previous to Christ, and asceticism was inculcated by the Stoics, while
+in its most extreme form it may still be seen among the Brahmans and
+Buddhists. Monasticism was but one phase of asceticism. It must also be
+borne in mind that in the history of asceticism, pagan, Christian, Jewish,
+and Mohammedan, we are often dealing not only with religious but distinctly
+abnormal temperaments. See _Monasticism_.
+
+ASCH ([.a]sh), a town of Czecho-Slovakia, in the extreme north-western
+corner of former Bohemia, with manufactures of cotton, woollen, and silk
+goods, bleachfields, dyeworks, &c. Pop. 21,583.
+
+ASCHAFFENBURG ([.a]-sh[.a]f'en-boer_h_), a town of Bavaria, on the Main and
+Aschaff, 26 miles E.S.E. of Frankfort. The chief edifice is the castle of
+Johannisberg, built between 1605 and 1614, and for centuries the summer
+residence of the Elector. There are manufactures of coloured paper,
+tobacco, liqueurs, &c. Pop. 29,891.
+
+ASCHAM (as'kam), Roger, a learned Englishman, born in 1515 of a respectable
+family in Yorkshire, died 1568. He was entered at St. John's College,
+Cambridge, 1530, and was elected fellow in 1534 and tutor in 1537. He was
+Latin secretary to Edward VI and also to Mary. He was tutor to Princess
+Elizabeth during her girlhood, and he became her secretary after she
+ascended the throne. In 1544 he wrote his _Toxophilus, or Schole of
+Shooting_, in praise of his favourite amusement and exercise--archery.
+Between 1563 and 1568 he wrote his _Scholemaster_, a treatise on the best
+method of teaching children Latin. Some of his writings, including many
+letters, were in Latin. He wrote the best English style of his time. His
+life was written by Dr. Johnson to accompany an edition of his works
+published in 1769.
+
+ASCHERSLEBEN ([.a]sh'[.e]rz-l[=a]-ben), a town of Prussian Saxony, in the
+district of Magdeburg, near the junction of the Eine with the Wipper.
+Industries: woollens, machinery and metal goods, sugar, paper, &c. Pop.
+28,968.
+
+ASCID'IA (Gr. _askos_, a wine-skin), the name given to the 'Sea-squirts' or
+main section of the Tunicata, a class of animals of low grade, resembling a
+double-necked bottle, of a leathery or gristly nature, found at low-water
+mark on the sea-beach, and dredged from deep water attached to stones,
+shells, and fixed objects. One of the prominent openings admits the food
+and the water required in respiration, the other is the excretory aperture.
+A single _ganglion_ represents the nervous system, placed between the two
+apertures. Male and female reproductive organs exist in each ascidian. They
+pass through peculiar phases of development, the young ascidian appearing
+like a tadpole-body. They may be _single_ or _simple_, _social_ or
+_compound_. In _social ascidians_ the peduncles of a number of individuals
+are united into a common tubular stem, with a partial common circulation of
+blood. In these animals evolutionists see a link between the Mollusca and
+the Vertebrata.
+
+[Illustration: Ascidians
+
+1, Perophora: _a_, mouth; _b_, vent; _c_, intestinal canal; _d_, stomach;
+_e_, common tubular stem. 2, Ascidia echinata. 3, Ascidia virginea. 4,
+Cynthia quadrangularis. 5, Botryllus violaceus.]
+
+ASCLEPLIADA'CEAE, an order of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, the distinguishing
+characteristic of which is that the anthers adhere to the five stigmatic
+processes, the whole sexual apparatus forming a single mass. The
+pollination arrangements are peculiar, recalling those of orchids. The
+members of this order are shrubs, or sometimes herbaceous plants,
+occasionally climbing, almost always with a milky juice. Many of them are
+employed as purgatives, diaphoretics, tonics, and febrifuges, and others as
+articles of food. Asclepias is the typical genus. See _Asclepias_,
+_Calotropis_, _Stapelia_, _Stephanotis_.
+
+ASCLE'PIADES (-d[=e]z), the name of a number of ancient Greek
+writers--poets, grammarians, &c--of whom little is known, and also of
+several ancient physicians, the most celebrated of whom was _Asclepiades_,
+of Bithynia, who acquired considerable repute at Rome about the beginning
+of the first century B.C.
+
+ASCLE'PIAS, or SWALLOW-WORT, a genus of plants, the type and the largest
+genus of the nat. ord. Asclepiadaceae. Most of the species are North
+American herbs, having opposite, alternate, or verticillate leaves. Many of
+them possess powerful medicinal qualities. _A. decumbens_ is diaphoretic
+and sudorific, and has the singular property of exciting general
+perspiration without increasing in any sensible degree the heat of the
+body; _A. curassavica_ is emetic, and its roots are frequently sent to
+England as ipecacuanha; the roots of _A. tuber[=o]sa_ are famed for
+diaphoretic properties. Many other species are also used as medicines, and
+several are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers.
+
+ASCLEPIOS. See _Aesculapius_.
+
+AS'COLI, or ASCOLI PICENO (ancient, ASC[)U]LUM), a province in Central
+Italy.--The capital of the province, also called _Ascoli Piceno_, episcopal
+see of the Marches (the ancient Asc[)u]lum), is situated 90 miles
+north-east of Rome and contains, among several handsome new buildings, the
+remains of temples, an ancient theatre, &c. It has also many fine
+pre-Renaissance buildings, such as the Gothic Church S. Francesco and the
+Palazzo del Commune. At Castel Trosino, near Ascoli, a necropolis of the
+seventh century was discovered in 1895. Population of the town, 28,882; of
+the province, 261,835 (1915).
+
+AS'COLI SATRIANO (ancient, ASC[)U]LUM AP[)U]LUM), a town of S. Italy,
+province Foggia. Pop. 9700.
+
+ASCOMYCE'TES (-t[=e]z), one of the main subdivisions of the Eumycetes or
+Higher Fungi, distinguished by their principal spores being produced in
+organs called _asci_. Typically, an _ascus_ is a cylindrical or club-shaped
+structure containing at maturity eight _ascospores_, which are usually
+liberated explosively and thereafter dispersed by the wind. As a rule
+numerous asci are massed together in a layer or _ascus-hymenium_, which is
+variously disposed on a more or less massive fruit-body, according to the
+form and structure of which the group is further subdivided into a number
+of sections and families, the chief being Erysiphales, Plectascineae,
+Pyrenomycetes, Discomycetes (q.v.).
+
+ASCO'NIUS (Quintus A. Pedianus), a Roman writer of the first century A.D.,
+who wrote a life of Sallust, a reply to the detractors of Virgil, and
+commentaries on Cicero's orations, some of which are extant.
+
+AS'COT, an English race-course adjacent to the S.W. extremity of the great
+park of Windsor. The races, which take place in the second week in June,
+constitute, for value of stakes and quality of horses, the best meeting of
+the year, as it is the most fashionable.
+
+AS'GARD (literally, gods' yard, or the abode of the gods), in Scandinavian
+mythology the home of the gods or _Aesir_, rising, like the Greek Olympus,
+from _midgard_, or the middle world, that is, the earth. It was here that
+Odin and the rest of the gods, the twelve Aesir, dwelt--the gods in the
+mansion called Gladsheim, the goddesses dwelling in Vingulf. Walhalla, in
+which heroes slain in battle dwelt, was also here. Below the boughs of the
+ash tree Yggdrasill the gods assembled every day in council.
+
+ASGILL (as'gil), John, an eccentric English writer, a lawyer by profession,
+born 1659, died 1738. In 1699 he published a pamphlet to prove that
+Christians were not necessarily liable to death, death being the penalty
+imposed for Adam's sin and Christ having satisfied the law. Having crossed
+over to Ireland, he was beginning to get into a good practice, and was
+elected to the Irish House of Commons, when his pamphlet was ordered to be
+burned by the public hangman, and he himself was expelled the House. His
+whole subsequent life was passed in pecuniary and other troubles, mostly in
+the Fleet or within the rules of the King's Bench.
+
+ASH (_Frax[)i]nus_), a genus of deciduous trees belonging to the nat. ord.
+Oleaceae, having imperfect flowers and a seed-vessel prolonged into a thin
+wing at the apex (called a _samara_). There are a good many species,
+chiefly indigenous to North America. The common ash (_F. excelsior_), the
+only species indigenous to Central and Northern Europe, has a smooth bark,
+and grows tall and rather slender. The branches are flattened; the leaves
+have five pairs of pinnae, terminated by an odd one, dark-green in colour;
+lanceolate, with serrated edges. The flowers are produced in loose spikes
+from the sides of the branches, and are succeeded by flat seeds which ripen
+in autumn. It is one of the most useful of British trees on account of the
+excellence of its hard tough wood and the rapidity of its growth, but often
+suffers greatly from a canker caused by the fungus _Nectria ditissima_.
+There are many varieties of it, as the weeping-ash, the curled-leaved ash,
+the entire-leaved ash, &c. The flowering or manna ash (_F. Ornus_), by some
+placed in a distinct genus (Ornus), is a native of the south of Europe and
+Palestine. It yields the substance called manna, which is obtained by
+making incisions in the bark, when the juice exudes and hardens. Among
+American species are the white ash (_F. americana_), with lighter bark and
+leaves; the red or black ash (_F. pubescens_), with a brown bark; the black
+ash (_F. sambucifolia_), the blue ash, the green ash, &c. They are all
+valuable trees. The mountain-ash or rowan belongs to a different order.
+
+[Illustration: Common Ash (_Frax[)i]nus excelsior_)
+
+1, Hermaphrodite flower. 2, Anthers of male flower.]
+
+ASH, or ASHES, the incombustible residue of organic bodies (animal or
+vegetable) remaining after combustion; in common usage, any incombustible
+residue of bodies used as fuel; as a commercial term, the word generally
+means the ashes of vegetable substances, from which are extracted the
+alkaline matters called potash, pearl-ash, kelp, barilla, &c.
+
+ASHAN'GO, a region in the interior of Southern Africa between lat. 1deg and
+2deg S., and between the Ogowe and the Lower Congo, a mountainous country
+in the French territory. The inhabitants belong to the Bantu stock, and
+among them are a dwarfish people, the Obongo, said to be about 4-1/2 feet
+high at most.
+
+ASHANTI', a British territory in West Africa belonging to the Gold Coast
+Colony, of which it forms a large inland portion, under a chief
+commissioner; area about 20,000 sq. miles. It is in great part hilly,
+well-watered, and covered with dense tropical vegetation, and rich forests
+with excellent timber trees. The country round the towns, however, is
+carefully cultivated. The crops are chiefly rice, maize, millet,
+sugar-cane, cocoa, and yams, the last forming the staple vegetable food of
+the natives. Rubber is also a product. The domestic animals are cows,
+horses of small size, goats, and a species of hairy sheep. The wild animals
+include the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, lion, hippopotamus, &c. Birds
+are numerous, and crocodiles and other reptiles abound. Gold is abundant,
+and mining concessions are now successfully worked. The Ashantis make
+excellent cotton and silk cloths, articles in gold and other metals,
+earthenware, leather, &c. Ashanti used to form a kingdom ruled
+despotically, human sacrifices being very common. It is now under British
+administration, and attention is given to education, sanitation,
+agriculture, means of communication, &c. There are Government schools at
+Coomassie and Sunyani and a number of missionary schools. The chief town is
+Coomassie (or Kumassi), now reached by a railway from the coast (length 168
+miles); its population is 24,000. The British first came in contact with
+the Ashantis in 1807, and hostilities continued off and on till 1826, when
+they were driven from the sea-coast. Immediately after the transfer of the
+Dutch settlements on the Gold Coast to Britain in 1872--when the entire
+coast remained in British hands--the Ashantis reclaimed the sovereignty of
+the tribes round the settlement of Elmina. This brought on a war, leading
+to a British expedition in 1874, in which Coomassie was captured. In 1896
+the country became a British protectorate. In 1901 a rebellion had to be
+put down, and next year Ashanti was fully annexed. Pop. 287,814
+(1911).--Cf. R. A. Freeman, _Travels and Life in Ashantee and Jaman_.
+
+ASH'BOURNE, a town of England, in Derbyshire, 12 miles N.W. of Derby, with
+manufactures of cottons and lace. Pop. 4039.
+
+ASH'BURTON, a town in Devonshire, England, 16 miles S.W. of Exeter, a
+parliamentary borough till 1868, and till 1918 giving name to a
+parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), 2362.
+
+ASH'BURTON, Alexander Baring, Lord, a British statesman and financier, born
+1774, died 1848. A younger son of Sir Francis Baring, he was bred to
+commercial pursuits, which for some years kept him in the United States and
+Canada, and in 1810 he became head of the great firm of Baring Brothers &
+Co. He sat in Parliament from 1806 to 1835, when he was raised to the
+peerage, after being a member of Peel's Government (1834-5).
+
+ASH'BURTON TREATY, a treaty concluded at Washington, 1842, by Alexander
+Baring, Lord Ashburton, and the President of the United States; it defined
+the boundaries between the States and Canada, &c.
+
+ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH (ash'bi-del-a-zoech'), a town in Leicestershire, England,
+on the borders of Derbyshire, with manufactures of hosiery, leather, &c.
+Pop. (1921), 4983.
+
+ASH'DOD, a place on the coast of Palestine, formerly one of the chief
+cities of the Philistines, now an insignificant village.
+
+A'SHER, one of Jacob's sons, and founder of the tribe called after him, who
+occupied a fertile territory in Palestine along the coast between Carmel
+and Lebanon.
+
+ASHE'RA, an ancient Semitic goddess whose symbol was the phallus. In the
+Revised Version of the Old Testament this word is used to translate what in
+the Authorized Version is translated "grove", as connected with the
+idolatrous practices into which the Jews were prone to fall.
+
+ASH'FORD, a thriving town of England, in Kent, situated near the confluence
+of the upper branches of the River Stour, with large locomotive and
+railway-carriage works. It gives name to a parliamentary division of the
+county. Pop. (1921), 14,355.
+
+ASHINGTON, an urban district or town of England, Northumberland, north-east
+of Morpeth, and about 2 miles from the sea, in a district of collieries.
+Pop. (1921), 29,406.
+
+ASHI'RA, a native race or people of Western Equatorial Africa, to the south
+of the Ogowe River, in the French Congo Territory.
+
+ASH'LAND, a city of the United States, in Wisconsin. Pop. (1920),
+11,334.--Also a city of Kentucky. Pop. (1920), 14,729.
+
+ASH'LAR, masonry consisting of stones squared and smoothed in front and
+built in regular courses.
+
+ASHLEY, LORD. See _Shaftesbury, First Earl of_.
+
+ASHMEAD-BARTLETT, Sir Ellis, English politician, born in 1849. He entered
+Parliament in 1880, and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from 1885 to 1892.
+He served in the Graeco-Turkish and South African wars, and was knighted in
+1892. He died in 1902.
+
+ASH'MOLE, Elias, English antiquary, born 1617, died 1692. He became a
+chancery solicitor in London, but afterwards studied at Oxford, taking up
+mathematics, physics, chemistry, and particularly astrology. He published
+_Theatrum Chymicum_ in 1652. On the Restoration he received the post of
+Windsor Herald, and other appointments both honourable and lucrative. In
+1672 appeared his _History of the Order of the Garter_. He presented to the
+University of Oxford his collection of rarities, to which he afterwards
+added his books and MSS., thereby commencing the Ashmolean Museum.
+
+ASH'TAROTH. See _Astarte_.
+
+ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD, a town of Lancashire, England, 4 miles from Wigan,
+with collieries, cotton-mills, &c. Pop. (1921), 22,489.
+
+ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Lancashire,
+England, 6 miles east of Manchester, on the north bank of the River Tame, a
+well-built place, with handsome streets and public buildings. The chief
+employment is the cotton manufacture, but there are also collieries and
+ironworks, which employ a great many persons. Pop. 51,080; (municipal
+borough) (1921), 43,333.
+
+ASHTON-UPON-MERSEY, a town or urban district of England, Cheshire, on the
+south side of the Mersey, several miles south-west of Manchester. Pop.
+(1921), 7780.
+
+ASHURA'DA, a small island in the S.E. corner of the Caspian, formed by
+Russia into a trading station.
+
+ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, so called from a custom in the
+Western Church of sprinkling ashes that day on the heads of penitents, then
+admitted to penance. The period at which the fast of Ash-Wednesday was
+instituted is uncertain; but it probably dates from the eighth century at
+least. In the Roman Catholic Church the ashes are now strewn on the heads
+of all the clergy and people present. In the Anglican Church Ash-Wednesday
+is regarded as an important fast day.
+
+ASIA, the largest of the great divisions of the earth; length, from the
+extreme south-western point of Arabia, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, to
+the extreme north-eastern point of Siberia--East Cape, or Cape Vostochni,
+in Behring's Strait--6900 miles; breadth, from Cape Chelyuskin, in Northern
+Siberia, to Cape Romania, the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula,
+5300 miles; area estimated at 17,250,000 sq. miles, about a third of all
+the land of the earth's surface. On three sides, N., E., and S., the ocean
+forms its natural boundary, while in the W. the frontier is marked mainly
+by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, the Black
+Sea, the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal, and the Red Sea. There is no proper
+separation between Asia and Europe, the latter being really a great
+peninsula of the former. Asia, though not so irregular in shape as Europe,
+is broken in the S. by three great peninsulas, Arabia, Hindustan, and
+Farther India, while the east coast presents peninsular projections and
+islands, forming a series of sheltered seas and bays, the principal
+peninsulas being Kamtshatka and Corea. The principal islands are those
+forming the Malay or Asiatic Archipelago, which stretch round in a wide
+curve on the S.E. of the continent. Besides the larger islands--Sumatra,
+Java, Borneo, Celebes, Mindanao, and Luzon (in the Philippine group)--there
+are countless smaller islands grouped round these. Other islands are
+Ceylon, in the S. of India; the Japanese Islands and Sakhalin on the E. of
+the continent; Formosa, S.E. of China; Cyprus, S. of Asia Minor; and New
+Siberia and Wrangell, in the Arctic Ocean.
+
+The mountain systems of Asia are of great extent, and their culminating
+points are the highest in the world. The greatest of all is the Himalaya
+system, which lies mainly between long. 70deg and 100deg E. and lat. 28deg
+and 37deg N. It extends, roughly speaking, from north-west to south-east,
+its total length being about 1500 miles, forming the northern barrier of
+Hindustan. The loftiest summits are Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high,
+Godwin-Austen, 28,265, and Kanchinjinga, 28,156. The principal passes,
+which rise to the height of 18,000 to 20,000 feet, are the highest in the
+world. A second great mountain system of Central Asia, connected with the
+north-western extremity of the Himalaya system by the elevated region of
+Pamir (about long. 70deg-75deg E., lat. 37deg-40deg N.), is the Thian-Shan
+system, which runs north-eastward for a distance of 1200 miles. In this
+direction the Altai, Sayan, and other ranges continue the line of
+elevations to the north-eastern coast. A north-western continuation of the
+Himalaya is the Hindu Kush, and farther westward a connection may be traced
+between the Himalaya mass and the Elburz range (18,460) feet, south of the
+Caspian, and thence to the mountains of Kurdistan, Armenia, and Asia Minor.
+
+There are vast plateaux and elevated valley regions connected with the
+great central mountain systems, but large portions of the continent are low
+and flat. Tibet forms the most elevated table-land in Asia, its mean height
+being estimated at 15,000 feet. On its south is the Himalayan range, while
+the Kuen-Lun range forms its northern barrier. Another great but much lower
+plateau is that which comprises Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Persia, and
+which to the north-west joins into the plateau of Asia Minor. The principal
+plain of Asia is that of Siberia, which extends along the north of the
+continent and forms an immense alluvial tract sloping to the Arctic Ocean.
+Vast swamps or peat-mosses called _tundras_ cover large portions of this
+region. South-west of Siberia, and stretching eastward from the Caspian, is
+a low-lying tract consisting to a great extent of steppes and deserts, and
+including in its area the Sea of Aral. In the east of China there is an
+alluvial plain of some 200,000 sq. miles in extent; in Hindustan are plains
+extending for 2000 miles along the south slope of the Himalaya; and between
+Arabia and Persia, watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, is the plain of
+Mesopotamia or Assyria, one of the richest in the world. Of the deserts of
+Asia the largest is that of Gobi (long. 90deg-120deg E., lat. 40deg-48deg
+N.), large portions of which are covered with nothing but sand or display a
+surface of bare rock. An almost continuous desert region may also be traced
+from the desert of North Africa through Arabia (which is largely occupied
+by bare deserts), Persia, and Baluchistan to the Indus.
+
+POLITICAL MAP OF ASIA
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Some of the largest rivers of Asia flow northward to the Arctic Ocean--the
+Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena. The Hoang-Ho and Yang-tse, and the Amoor,
+are the chief of those which flow into the Pacific. The Ganges,
+Brahmaputra, Irawadi, and Indus flow into the Indian Ocean. The Persian
+Gulf receives the united waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris. There are
+several systems of inland drainage, large rivers falling into lakes which
+have no outlet.
+
+The largest lake of Asia (partly also European) is the Caspian Sea, which
+receives the Kur from the Caucasus (with its tributary the Aras from
+Armenia), and the Sefid Rud and other streams from Persia (besides the
+Volga from European Russia, and the Ural, which is partly European, partly
+Asiatic). The Caspian lies in the centre of a great depression, being 83
+feet below the level of the Sea of Azov. East from the Caspian is the Sea
+of Aral, which, like the Caspian, has no outlet, and is fed by the Rivers
+Amu-Darya (Oxus) and Syr-Darya. Still farther east, to the north of the
+Thian-Shan Mountains, and fed by the Ili and other streams, is Lake
+Balkhash, also without an outlet and very salt. Other lakes having no
+communication with the ocean are Lob Nor, in the desert of Gobi, receiving
+the River Tarim, and the Dead Sea, far below the level of the
+Mediterranean, and fed by the Jordan. The chief fresh-water lake is Lake
+Baikal, in the south of Siberia, between long. 104deg and 110deg E., a
+mountain lake from which the Yenisei draws a portion of its waters.
+
+Geologically speaking, large areas of Asia are of comparatively recent
+date, the lowlands of Siberia, for instance, being submerged during the
+tertiary period, if not more recently. Many geologists believe that
+subsequently to the glacial period there was a great sea in Western Asia,
+of which the Caspian and Aral Seas are the remains. The desiccation of
+Central Asia is still going on, as is also probably the upheaval of a great
+part of the continent. The great mountain chains and elevated plateaux are
+of ancient origin, however, and in them granite and other crystalline rocks
+are largely represented. Active volcanoes are only met with in the extreme
+east (Kamtchatka) and in the Eastern Archipelago. From the remotest times
+Asia has been celebrated for its mineral wealth. In the Altai and Ural
+Mountains gold, iron, lead, and platinum are found; in India and other
+parts rubies, diamonds, and other gems are, or have been, procured; salt in
+Central Asia; coal in China, India, Central Asia, &c.; petroleum in the
+districts about the Caspian and in Burmah; bitumen in Syria; while silver,
+copper, sulphur, &c., are found in various parts.
+
+Every variety of climate may be experienced in Asia, but as a whole it is
+marked by extremes of heat and cold and by great dryness, this in
+particular being the case with vast regions in the centre of the continent
+and distant from the sea. The great lowland region of Siberia has a short
+but very hot summer, and a long but intensely cold winter, the rivers and
+their estuaries being fast bound with ice, and at a certain depth the soil
+is hard frozen all the year round. The northern part of China to the east
+of Central Asia has a temperate climate with a warm summer, and in the
+extreme north a severe winter. The districts lying to the south of the
+central region, comprising the Indian and Indo-Chinese Peninsulas, Southern
+China, and the adjacent islands, present the characteristic climate and
+vegetation of the southern temperate and tropical regions modified by the
+effects of altitude. Some localities in Southern Asia have the heaviest
+rainfall anywhere known. As the equator is approached the extremes of
+temperature diminish till at the southern extremity of the continent they
+are such as may be experienced in any tropical country. Among climatic
+features are the monsoons of the Indian Ocean and the eastern seas, and the
+cyclones or typhoons, which are often very destructive.
+
+The plants and animals of Northern and Western Asia generally resemble
+those of similar latitudes in Europe (which is really a prolongation of the
+Asiatic continent), differing more in species than in genera. The principal
+mountain trees are the pine, larch, and birch; the willow, alder, and
+poplar are found in lower grounds. In the central region European species
+reach as far as the Western and Central Himalaya, but are rare in the
+Eastern. They are here met by Chinese and Japanese forms. The lower slopes
+of the Himalaya are clothed almost exclusively with tropical forms. Higher
+up, between 4000 and 10,000 feet, are found all the types of trees and
+plants that belong to the temperate zone, there being extensive forests of
+conifers. Here is the native home of the deodar cedar. The south-eastern
+region, including India, the Eastern Peninsula, and China, with the
+islands, contains a vast variety of plants useful to man and having here
+their original habitat, such as the sugar-cane, rice, cotton, and indigo,
+pepper, cinnamon, cassia, clove, nutmeg, and cardamoms, banana, coco-nut,
+areca, and sago palms; the mango and many other fruits, with plants
+producing a vast number of drugs, caoutchouc, and gutta-percha. The forests
+of India and the Malay Peninsula contain oak, teak, sal, and other timber
+woods, besides bamboos, palms, sandal-wood, &c. The palmyra palm is
+characteristic of Southern India; while the talipot palm flourishes on the
+western coast of Hindustan, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula. The cultivated
+plants of India and China include wheat, barley, rice, maize, millet,
+sugar-cane, tea, coffee, indigo, cotton, jute, opium, tobacco, &c. In North
+China and the Japanese Islands large numbers of deciduous trees occur, such
+as oaks, maples, limes, walnuts, poplars, and willows, the genera being
+European but the individual species Asiatic. Among cultivated plants are
+wheat, and in favourable situations rice, cotton, the vine, &c. Coffee,
+rice, sugar, &c., are extensively grown in some of the islands of the
+Asiatic Archipelago. In Arabia and the warmer valleys of Persia,
+Afghanistan, and Baluchistan aromatic shrubs are abundant. Over large parts
+of these regions the date palm flourishes and affords a valuable article of
+food. Gum-producing acacias are, with the date palm, the commonest trees in
+Arabia. African forms are found extending from the Sahara along the desert
+region of Asia.
+
+Nearly all the mammals of Europe are found in Northern Asia, with numerous
+additions to the species. Central Asia is the native land of the horse, the
+ass, the ox, the sheep, and the goat. Both varieties of the camel, the
+single and the double humped, are Asiatic. To the inhabitants of Tibet and
+the higher plateaux of the Himalaya the yak is what the reindeer is to the
+tribes of the Siberian plain, almost their sole wealth and support. The
+elephant, of a different species from that of Africa, is a native of
+tropical Asia. The Asiatic lion, which inhabits Arabia and Persia, and
+still exists in the north-west of India, is smaller than the African
+species. Bears are found in all parts, the white bear in the far north, and
+other species in the more temperate and tropical parts. The tiger is the
+most characteristic of the larger Asiatic Carnivora. It is found in Armenia
+and throughout the entire continent, being absent, however, from the
+greater portion of Siberia and from the high table-land of Tibet; it is
+found also in Sumatra, Java, and Bali. In South-Eastern Asia and the
+islands we find the rhinoceros, buffalo, ox, deer, squirrels, porcupines,
+&c. In birds nearly every order is represented. Among the most interesting
+forms are the hornbills, the peacock, the Impey pheasant, the tragopan or
+horned pheasant, and other gallinaceous birds, the pheasant family being
+very characteristic of South-Eastern Asia. It was from Asia that the common
+domestic fowl was introduced into Europe. The tropical parts of Asia abound
+in monkeys, of which the species are numerous. Some are tailed, others,
+such as the orang, are tailless, but none have prehensile tails like the
+American monkeys. In the Malay Archipelago marsupial animals, so
+characteristic of Australia, first occur in the Moluccas and Celebes, while
+various mammals common in the western part of the Archipelago are absent. A
+similar transition towards the Australian type takes place in the species
+of birds. (See _Wallace's Line_.) Of marine mammals the dugong is peculiar
+to the Indian Ocean; in the Ganges is found a peculiar species of dolphin.
+At the head of the reptiles stands the Gangetic crocodile, frequenting the
+Ganges and other large rivers. Among the serpents are the cobra de capello,
+one of the most deadly snakes in existence; there are also large boas and
+pythons, besides sea and fresh-water snakes. The seas and rivers produce a
+great variety of fish. The Salmonidae are found in the rivers flowing into
+the Arctic Ocean. Two rather remarkable fishes are the climbing perch and
+the archer-fish. The well-known goldfish is a native of China.
+
+Asia is mainly peopled by races belonging to two great ethnographic types,
+the Caucasic or fair type, and the Mongolic or yellow. To the former belong
+the Aryan, or Indo-European, and the Semitic races, both of which mainly
+inhabit the south-west of the continent; to the latter belong the Malays
+and Indo-Chinese in the S.E., as well as the Mongolians proper (Chinese,
+&c.), occupying nearly all the rest of the continent. To these may be added
+certain races of doubtful affinities, as the Dravidians of Southern India,
+the Cingalese of Ceylon, the Ainos of Yesso, and some negro-like tribes
+called Negritos, which inhabit Malacca and the interior of several of the
+islands of the Eastern Archipelago. The total population is estimated at
+823,000,000, or more than half that of the whole world, of which
+330,000,000 inhabit Chinese territory, 302,000,000 British, and 25,000,000
+Russian. Portions of Asia are under the control of European Powers (Russia,
+Great Britain, Holland, France), of the United States of America, China,
+and Japan. The chief States are China, Japan, Corea, Siam, Afghanistan,
+Persia, and Arabia. The chief religions are the Brahmanism of India, the
+Buddhism of Burmah, China, &c., the creeds of Confucius and Lao-tse in
+China, and the various forms of Mahommedanism in Arabia, Persia, India, &c.
+More than a half of the whole population profess some form of Buddhism.
+Several native Christian sects are found in India, Armenia, Kurdistan, and
+Syria.
+
+Asia is generally regarded as the cradle of the human race. It possesses
+the oldest historical documents, and, next to the immediately contiguous
+kingdom of Egypt, the oldest historical monuments in the world. The Old
+Testament contains the oldest historical records which we have of any
+nation in the form of distinct narrative. The period at which Moses wrote
+was probably 1500 or 1600 years before the Christian era. His and the later
+Jewish writings confine themselves almost exclusively to the history of the
+Hebrews; but in Babylonia, as in Egypt, civilization had made great
+advances long before this time. The earliest seat of the Aryan race some
+assign to the banks of the Oxus. Hence, perhaps from the pressure of the
+Mongolian tribes to the north, they spread themselves to the south-east and
+south-west, finally occupying Northern India, Persia, and other parts of
+Western Asia, and spreading into Europe, perhaps about 2000-1500 B.C. In
+China authentic history extends back probably to about 1000 B.C., with a
+long preceding period of which the names of dynasties are preserved without
+chronological arrangement. The kingdoms of Assyria, Babylonia, Media, and
+Persia predominated by turns in South-Western Asia. In regard to the
+history of these monarchies, much light has been obtained from the
+decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions. The arms of the Pharaohs
+extended into Asia, but their conquests there were short-lived. From Cyrus
+(559 B.C.), who extended the empire of Persia from the Indus to the
+Mediterranean, while his son, Cambyses, added Egypt and Libya to it, to the
+conquest of Alexander (330 B.C.) Persia was the dominant Power in Western
+Asia. Alexander's great empire became broken up into separate kingdoms,
+which were finally absorbed in the Roman Empire, and this ultimately
+extended to the Tigris. Soon after the most civilized portions of the three
+continents had been reduced under one empire, the great event took place
+which forms the dividing-line of history, the birth of Christ and the
+spread of Christianity. In A.D. 226 a protracted struggle began between the
+newer Persian Empire and the Romans, which lasted till the advent of
+Mahomet, and the conquests of the Arabians. Persia was the first great
+conquest of Mahomet's followers. Syria and Egypt soon fell before their
+arms, and within forty years of the celebrated flight of Mahomet from Mecca
+(the _Hejra_), the sixth of the caliphs, or successors of the Prophet, was
+the most powerful sovereign of Asia. The Mongols next became the dominant
+race. In 999 Mahmud, whose father, born a Turkish slave, became Governor of
+Ghazni, conquered India, and established his rule. The dynasty of the
+Seljuk Tartars was established in Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium, and Kharism,
+and was distinguished for its struggles with the Crusaders. Othman, an emir
+of the Seljuk sultan of Iconium, established the Ottoman Empire in 1300.
+About 1220 Genghis Khan, an independent Mongol chief, made himself master
+of Central Asia, conquered Northern China, overran Turkestan, Afghanistan,
+and Persia; his successors took Bagdad and abolished the caliphate. In Asia
+Minor they overthrew the Seljuk dynasty. One of them, Timur or Tamerlane,
+carried fire and sword over Northern India and Western Asia, defeated and
+took prisoner Bajazet, the descendant of Othman (1402), and received
+tribute from the Greek emperor. The Ottoman Empire soon recovered from the
+blow inflicted by Timur, and Constantinople was taken and the Eastern
+Empire finally overthrown by the Sultan Mohammed II in 1453. China
+recovered its independence about 1368 and was again subjected by the Manchu
+Tartars (1618-45), soon after which it began to extend its empire over
+Central Asia. Siberia was conquered by the Cossacks on behalf of Russia
+(1580-4). The same country effected a settlement in the Caucasus about
+1786, and has since continued to make steady advances into Central Asia.
+The discovery by the Portuguese of the passage to India by the Cape of Good
+Hope led to their establishment on the coast of the peninsula (1498). They
+were speedily followed by the Spanish, Dutch, French, and British. The
+struggle between the two last Powers for the supremacy of India was
+completed by the destruction of the French settlements (1760-5). At present
+the forms of government in Asia range from the primitive rule of the nomad
+sheik to the constitutional monarchy of Japan.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sven Hedin,
+_Through Asia_; H. F. Blanford, _Elementary Geography of India, Burma, and
+Ceylon_; Max. Mueller, _The Sacred Books of the East_; A. Little, _The Far
+East_; R. Cobbold, _Innermost Asia_; Colonel A. Durand, _The Making of a
+Frontier_; J. G. C. Chamberlain, _Continents and their Peoples_; E.
+Huntington, _The Pulse of Asia_; E. C. Hannah, _Eastern Asia_.
+
+ASIA, CENTRAL, a designation loosely given to the regions in the centre of
+Asia east of the Caspian, also called Turkestan, and formerly Tartary. The
+eastern portion belongs to China, the western to Russia. Russian Central
+Asia comprises the Kirghiz Steppe (Uralsk, Turgai, Akmolinsk,
+Semipalatinsk, &c.), and what was the government-general of Turkestan till
+1918, besides the territory of the Turkomans, or Transcaspia and Merv. See
+_Turkestan, Republic of_.
+
+ASIA MINOR, the most westerly portion of Asia, being the peninsula lying
+west of the Upper Euphrates, and forming part of Asiatic Turkey. It forms
+an extensive plateau, with lofty mountains rising above it, the most
+extensive ranges being the Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which border it on the
+south and south-east, and rise to over 10,000 feet. There are numerous
+salt- and freshwater lakes. The chief rivers are the Kizil-Irmak (Halys),
+Sakaria (Sangarius), entering the Black Sea; and the Sarabat (Hermus) and
+Menderes (Maeander), entering the Aegean. The coast regions are generally
+fertile, and have a genial climate; the interior is largely arid and
+dreary. Valuable forests and fruit-trees abound. Smyrna is the chief town.
+_Anatolia_ is an equivalent name. See _European War_; _Turkey_.
+
+ASIAGO, a town in Italy in the province of Vicenza, capital of the Seven
+Communes (Sette Communi). In the great European War several battles were
+fought on the Asiago Plateau. The town was evacuated by the Italians on
+28th May, 1916, but retaken on 25th June, 1916. See _European War_.
+
+ASIATIC SOCIETIES, learned bodies instituted for the purpose of collecting
+information respecting the different countries of Asia, such as the Asiatic
+Society of Bengal, founded in 1784 by Sir William Jones; and the Royal
+Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, established by Colebrooke,
+and opened in 1823. There are similar societies on the European Continent
+and in America, such as the Societe Asiatique at Paris, founded in 1822;
+the Oriental Society of Germany (Deutsche Morgenlaendische Gesellschaft),
+founded in 1845; and the Oriental Society at Boston, founded in 1842.
+
+ASIPHONA'TA, or ASIPHON'IDA, an order of lamellibranchiate, bivalve
+molluscs, destitute of the siphon or tube through which, in the Siphonata,
+the water that enters the gills is passed outwards. It includes the
+oysters, the scallop-shells, the pearl-oyster, the mussels, and in general
+the most useful and valuable molluscs.
+
+ASIR. See _Hejaz_.
+
+ASKABAD', the administrative centre of the Russian province of Transcaspia,
+situated in the Akhal Tekke oasis, and occupied by Skobelev in Jan., 1881,
+after the sack of Geok Tepe. Its distance from Merv is 232 miles, from
+Herat 388 miles. Pop. 54,000.
+
+AS'KEW, Anne, a victim of religious persecution, born 1521, martyred 1546.
+She was a daughter of Sir William Askew of Lincolnshire, and was married to
+a wealthy neighbour named Kyme, who, irritated by her Protestantism, drove
+her from his house. In London, whither she went probably to procure a
+divorce, she spoke against the dogmas of the old faith, and, being tried,
+was condemned to death as a heretic. Being put to the rack to extort a
+confession concerning those with whom she corresponded, she continued firm,
+and was then taken to Smithfield, chained to a stake, and burned.
+
+ASKJA ([.a]sk'y[.a]), a volcano near the centre of Iceland, first brought
+into notice by an eruption in 1875. Its crater is 17 miles in
+circumference, surrounded by a mountain-ring from 500 to 1000 feet high,
+the height of the mountain itself being between 4000 and 5000 feet.
+
+AS'MANNSHAUSEN (-hou-zn), a Prussian village on the Rhine, in the district
+of Wiesbaden, celebrated for its wine. Many judges prefer the red wine of
+Asmannshausen to the best Burgundy, but it retains its merits for three or
+four years only.
+
+ASMO'DAI, or ASMO'DEUS, an evil spirit, who, as related in the book of
+Tobit, slew seven husbands of Sara, daughter of Raguel, but was driven away
+into the uttermost parts of Egypt by the young Tobias under the direction
+of the angel Raphael. Asmodai signifies a desolater, a destroying angel,
+identical with the demon A[=e]shma of the Zend-Avesta. He is represented in
+the Talmud as the prince of demons who drove King Solomon from his kingdom.
+
+ASMONAE'ANS, a family of high priests and princes who ruled over the Jews
+for about 130 years, from 153 B.C., when Jonathan, son of Mattathias, the
+great-grandson of Chasmon or Asmonaeus, was nominated to the
+high-priesthood.
+
+ASNIERES (aen-y[=a]r), a town on the Seine, a N.W. suburb of Paris, a
+favourite boating resort of the Parisians. Pop. 42,583.
+
+ASO'KA, an Indian sovereign who reigned from 264 to 228 B.C. over the whole
+of Northern India, grandson of Chandragupta or Sandracottus. He embraced
+Buddhism, and forced his subjects also to become converts. Many temples and
+_stupas_, or brick cupolas, still remaining are attributed to him.
+
+ASO'KA (_Jonesia as[=o]ca_), an Indian tree, nat. ord. Leguminosae, having
+a lovely flower, showing orange, scarlet, and bright-yellow tints; sacred
+to the god Siva, and often mentioned in Indian literature.
+
+ASO'PUS, the name of several rivers in Greece, of which the most celebrated
+is in Boeotia.
+
+[Illustration: Asp (_Naja haje_)]
+
+ASP, or ASPIC (_Naja_, or _Vip[)e]ra haje_), a species of viper found in
+Egypt, resembling the cobra de capello or spectacle-serpent of the East
+Indies, and having a very venomous bite. When approached or disturbed it
+elevates its head and body, swells out its neck, and appears to stand erect
+to attack the aggressor. Hence the ancient Egyptians believed that the asps
+were guardians of the spots they inhabited, and the figure of this reptile
+was adopted as an emblem of the protecting genius of the world. The
+balancing motions made by it in the endeavour to maintain the erect
+attitude have led to the employment of the asp as a dancing serpent by the
+African jugglers. The "deaf adder that stoppeth her ear" of _Psalm_ lviii,
+4, 5 is translated asp in the margin, and seems to have been this species.
+Cleopatra is said to have committed suicide by means of an asp's bite, but
+the incident is generally associated with the Cerastes or horned viper, not
+with the haje. The name asp is also given to a viper (_Vipera aspis_)
+common on the continent of Europe.
+
+ASPARAGINE, or AMINOSUCCINAMIC ACID, CH_2CONH_2, CH(NH_2)COOH, is a white
+crystalline substance of unpleasant acid taste found in the shoots of
+asparagus, in potato and dahlia tribes, and in many other plants, from
+which it may be extracted by means of water.
+
+ASPAR'AGUS (_Aspar[)a]gus officin[=a]lis_), a plant of the order Liliaceae,
+the young shoots of which, cut as they are emerging from the ground, are a
+favourite culinary vegetable. In Greece, and especially in the southern
+steppes of Russia and Poland, it is found in profusion; and its edible
+qualities were esteemed by the ancients. Pliny states that asparagus was in
+his time cultivated in gardens, particularly at Ravenna. The best asparagus
+is grown in gardens near the sea, and hundreds of acres are devoted to its
+cultivation in Holland and Belgium. It grows wild in Essex and
+Lincolnshire, but does not attain nearly to the size of the cultivated
+plant. It is usually raised from seed; and the plants should remain three
+years in the ground before they are cut; after which, for several years,
+they will continue to afford a regular annual supply. The beds are
+protected by straw or litter in winter. Its diuretic properties are
+ascribed to the presence of a crystalline substance found also in the
+potato, lettuce, &c.
+
+ASPA'SIA, a celebrated woman of ancient Greece, was born at Miletus, in
+Ionia, but passed a great part of her life at Athens, where her house was
+the general resort of the most distinguished men in Greece. She won the
+affection of Pericles, who united himself to Aspasia as closely as was
+permitted by the Athenian law, which declared marriage with a foreign woman
+illegal. Her power in the State has often been exaggerated, but it is
+beyond question that her genius left its mark upon the administration of
+Pericles. In 432-431 B.C. she was accused of impiety, and was only saved
+from condemnation by the eloquence and tears of Pericles. After his death
+(429 B.C.) Aspasia is said to have attached herself to a wealthy but
+obscure cattle-dealer of the name of Lysicles, whom she raised to a
+position of influence in Athens. Nothing more is known of her life. She had
+a son by Pericles, who was legitimated (430 B.C.) by a special decree of
+the people. There is a bust bearing her name in the Pio Clementino Museum
+in the Vatican.
+
+ASPATRIA, a town (urban district) of England, Cumberland, 8 miles
+north-east of Maryport, with an agricultural college. Pop. 3340.
+
+AS'PE, a town of Southern Spain, province of Alicante. Pop. (1921), 3525.
+
+AS'PECT, in astrology, denotes the situation of the planets with respect to
+each other. There are five different major aspects: the sextile, when the
+planets are 60deg distant; quartile, when they are 90deg distant; trine,
+when 120deg distant; opposition, when 180deg distant; and conjunction, when
+both are in the same longitude. The aspects were classed by astrologers as
+_benign_, _malignant_, or _indifferent_, according to their fancied
+influences upon human affairs.
+
+ASPECT OF LAND. See _Exposure_.
+
+AS'PEN, or trembling poplar (_P[=o]p[)u]lus trem[)u]la_), a species of
+poplar indigenous to Britain and to most mountainous regions throughout
+Europe and Asia. It is a beautiful tree of rapid growth and extremely
+hardy, with nearly circular toothed leaves, smooth on both sides, and
+attached to footstalks so long and slender as to be shaken by the slightest
+wind; wood light, porous, soft, and of a white colour, useful for various
+purposes.
+
+ASPER, or ASPRE, a small Turkish coin, of which there are 120 in the
+piastre, value 1/54d.
+
+ASPERGILL'US, the brush used in Roman Catholic churches for sprinkling holy
+water on the people. It is said to have been originally made of hyssop.
+
+AS'PERN and ESSLINGEN (or ESSLING) (es'ling-en), two villages east of
+Vienna, and on the opposite bank of the Danube; celebrated as the chief
+contested positions in the bloody but indecisive battle fought between the
+Archduke Charles and Napoleon I, 21st and 22nd May, 1809, when it was
+estimated that the Austrians lost a third of their army, and the French no
+less than half.
+
+ASPER'ULA, the woodruff genus of plants.
+
+ASPHALT, or ASPHAL'TUM, the most common variety of bitumen; also called
+mineral pitch. Asphalt is a compact, glossy, brittle, black or brown
+mineral, which breaks with a polished fracture, melts easily with a strong
+pitchy odour when heated, and when pure burns without leaving any ashes. It
+is found in the earth in many parts of Asia, Europe, and America, and in a
+soft or liquid state on the surface of the Dead Sea, which, from this
+circumstance, was called _Asphalt[=i]tes_. It is of organic origin, the
+asphalt of the great Pitch Lake of Trinidad being derived from bituminous
+shales, containing vegetable remains in the process of transformation.
+Asphalt is produced artificially in making coal-gas. During the process
+much tarry matter is evolved and collected in retorts. If this be
+distilled, naphtha and other volatile matters escape, and asphalt is left
+behind. It is sometimes called _Jew's Pitch_.
+
+ASPHALTE (or ASPHALT) ROCK, a limestone impregnated with bitumen, found in
+large quantities in various localities in Europe, as in the Val de Travers,
+Neufchatel, Switzerland; in the department of Ain in France; in Alsace,
+Hanover, Holstein, Sicily, &c. These rocks contain a variable quantity of
+bitumen (from 7 or 8 to 20 or 30 per cent) naturally diffused through them.
+The Val de Travers asphalt was discovered in 1710. In 1837 an English
+patent was taken out for its application to roads, pavements, terraces,
+areas, roofs, &c. Since then other asphalte-rocks, as well as artificial
+preparations made by mixing bitumen, gas-tar, pitch, or other materials
+with sand, chalk, &c., have been brought into competition with it.
+
+AS'PHODEL (_Asphod[)e]lus_), a genus of plants, ord. Liliaceae, consisting
+of perennials, with fasciculated fleshy roots, flowers arranged in racemes,
+six stamens inserted at the base of the perianth, a sessile almost
+spherical ovary with two cells, each containing two ovules; fruit a capsule
+with three cells, in each of which there are, as a rule, two seeds. Two
+species are cultivated in Britain as garden flowers, the yellow asphodel
+(_Asphodelus lut[)e]us_) and the white asphodel (_Asphodelus albus_). The
+English word 'daffodil' is a perversion of asphodel. The _Asphodelus
+ram[=o]sus_, which attains a height of 5 feet, is cultivated in Algeria and
+elsewhere, its tubercles yielding a very pure alcohol, and the residue,
+together with the stalks and leaves, being used in making pasteboard and
+paper. The asphodel was a favourite plant among the ancients, who were in
+the habit of planting it round their tombs. In Greek religion it is
+associated with Persephone, the dead, and the underworld.
+
+ASPHYX'IA, literally, the state of a living animal in which no pulsation
+can be perceived, but the term is more particularly applied to a suspension
+of the vital functions from causes hindering respiration. The normal
+accompaniments of death from asphyxia are dark fluid blood, a congested
+brain and exceedingly congested lungs, the general engorgement of the
+viscera, and an absence of blood from the left cavities of the heart while
+the right cavities and pulmonary artery are gorged. The restoration of
+asphyxiated persons has been successfully accomplished at long periods
+after apparent death. The attempt should be made to maintain the heat of
+the body and to secure the inflation of the lungs as in the case of the
+apparently drowned. See _Respiratory System_.
+
+ASPHYXIATING GAS. See _Poison Gas_.
+
+ASPIC, a dish consisting of a clear savoury meat jelly, containing fowl,
+game, fish, &c.
+
+ASPIDISTRA, a genus of plants of the lily family, comprising three or four
+species, natives of China and Japan, being plants with large smooth oblong
+lanceolate leaves, rising from an underground rhizome, and with campanulate
+flowers of a dull purplish or brownish colour. They are now very common in
+Britain, being especially cultivated as indoor plants.
+
+ASPID'IUM, a genus of ferns, nat. ord. Polypodiaceae, comprising the
+shield-fern and male-fern.
+
+AS'PINWALL. See _Colon_.
+
+AS'PIRATE, a name given to any sound like our _h_, to the letter _h_
+itself, or to any mark of aspiration, as the Greek rough breathing ([Greek:
+h]). Such characters or sounds as the Sanskrit _kh_, _gh_, _bh_, and the
+Greek _ch_, _th_, _ph_, are called _aspirates_.
+
+AS'PIRATOR, an instrument used to promote the flow of a gas from one vessel
+into another by means of a liquid. The simplest form of aspirator is a
+cylindrical vessel containing water, with a pipe at the upper end which
+communicates with the vessel containing the gas, and a pipe at the lower
+end also, with a stopcock and with its extremity bent up. By allowing a
+portion of the water to run off by the pipe at the lower part of the
+aspirator a measured quantity of air or other gas is sucked into the upper
+part.
+
+ASPLE'NIUM, a genus of ferns, of the nat. ord. Polypodiaceae. Nine species
+are found in Britain, among them the well-known Wall-rue.
+
+ASPROMON'TE, a mountain of Italy in the south-west of Calabria, where
+Garibaldi was wounded and taken prisoner with the greater part of his army,
+in Aug., 1862.
+
+ASPROPOT'AMO. See _Achelous_.
+
+ASPULL, a town (urban district) of England, Lancashire, 2 or 3 miles
+north-east of Wigan, with large collieries and other works. Pop. 7851.
+
+ASQUITH, Herbert Henry, prominent politician of the Liberal party, born in
+1852, educated at City of London School and Balliol College, Oxford, where
+he graduated with high distinction. Called to the Bar in 1876, he became
+Q.C. in 1890; in 1886 was elected member of Parliament for East Fife, and
+held his seat for this constituency uninterruptedly until Dec., 1918, when
+he was defeated. From 1892 to 1895 he was Home Secretary, being also made a
+Privy Councillor in the former year. Both in regard to the South African
+War and various other questions, when out of office, he spoke more in
+harmony with the views of Lord Rosebery than with those of Sir H.
+Campbell-Bannerman, but under the latter he accepted the post of Chancellor
+of the Exchequer in the ministry formed in Dec., 1905. On the retirement of
+Sir Henry in 1908 he succeeded him as Prime Minister. He at once hastened
+to draw up the Liberal reform programme, the list of measures including the
+Lloyd George Budget (1909), the Parliament Act (1911), the Insurance Act,
+and the Irish Home Rule Bill. In May, 1915, a cabinet crisis having
+resulted from disagreements, Asquith formed a Coalition Government, eight
+Unionists being admitted. Towards the end of 1916 there was a feeling in
+the country not only that the Coalition cabinet of twenty-three ministers
+was unwieldy, but that Mr. Asquith's Government was not sufficiently
+energetic and showed too much hesitation in dealing with the vital problems
+of the war. Mr. Asquith therefore resigned on 5th Dec., 1916, and Mr. Lloyd
+George formed a new ministry. Unseated in the General Election of 1918, Mr.
+Asquith accepted the invitation to stand for Paisley in 1920. He was
+returned by a majority of 2834.
+
+AS'RAEL, the Mahommedan angel of death, who takes the soul from the body.
+
+ASS (_Equus as[)i]nus_), a species of the horse genus, supposed by Darwin
+to have sprung from the wild variety (_Asinus toeni[)o]pus_) found in
+Abyssinia; by some writers to be a descendant of the _on[)a]ger_ or wild
+ass, inhabiting the mountainous deserts of Tartary, &c.; and by others to
+have descended from the kiang or djiggetai (_A. hemi[)o]nus_) of
+South-Western Asia. The ass was used in Egypt long before the horse, and it
+played an important part in Homeric Greece. According to Aristotle,
+however, it was unknown in his time in Pontus, Scythia, and in the land of
+the Celts. The ass seems to have been introduced into England in the days
+of Ethelred, but did not become common before the end of the seventeenth
+century. Both in colour and size the ass is exceedingly variable, ranging
+from dark grey and reddish brown to white, and from the size of a
+Newfoundland dog in North India to that of a good-sized horse. In the
+south-western countries of Asia and in Egypt, in some districts of Southern
+Europe, as in Spain, and in Kentucky and Peru, great attention has been
+paid to selection and interbreeding, with a result no less remarkable than
+in the case of the horse. Thus in Syria there appear to be four distinct
+breeds: a light and graceful animal used by ladies, an Arab breed reserved
+for the saddle, an ass of heavier build in use for ploughing and draft
+purposes, and the large Damascus breed. The efforts made to raise the
+deteriorated British breed have only been partially successful. The male
+ass is mature at two years of age, the female still earlier. The she-ass
+carries her young eleven months. The teeth of the young ass follow the same
+order of appearance and renewal as those of the horse. The life of the ass
+does not usually exceed thirty years. It is in general much healthier than
+the horse, and is maintained in this condition by a smaller quantity and
+coarser quality of food; it is superior to the horse in its ability to
+carry heavy burdens over the most precipitous roads, and is in no respect
+its inferior in intelligence, despite the reputation for stupidity which it
+has borne from very ancient times. The skin is used as parchment to cover
+drums, &c., and in the East is made into shagreen. The hybrid offspring of
+the horse and the female ass is the hinny, that of the ass and the mare is
+the mule; but the latter is by far the larger and more useful animal.
+Asses' milk, long celebrated for its sanative qualities, more closely
+resembles that of a woman than any other. It is very similar in taste, and
+throws up an equally fluid cream, which is not convertible into butter.
+
+ASSA. See _Piave, Battles of the_; _European War_.
+
+ASSAB', a bay of Africa on the south-west coast of the Red Sea, belonging
+to the Italian territory of Eritrea, which has been acquired since Italy
+established here a colony and free port in 1881.
+
+ASSAFOETIDA. See _Asafetida_.
+
+ASSAI-PALM (as-[=i]; _Euterpe olerac[)e]a_), a native of tropical S.
+America, only about 4 inches in diameter and 60 or 80 feet high, with a
+crown of leaves, beneath which a small fruit grows on branched horizontal
+spadices. The pulp of the fruit mixed with water is used as a beverage.
+
+ASSAL', a salt lake in North-Eastern Africa, in Adal.
+
+ASSAM', one of the fifteen provinces of British India, separated from
+Eastern Bengal and reconstituted in 1912; area, 53,015 sq. miles. It forms
+a series of fertile valleys watered by the Brahmaputra and its tributaries,
+the valley of the Brahmaputra, which is the main one, consisting of rich
+alluvial plains, either but little elevated above the river, or so low that
+large extents of them are flooded for three or four days once or twice in
+the year, while the course of the river often changes. The climate is
+marked by great humidity, and malarious diseases are common in the low
+grounds; otherwise it is not unhealthy. The whole province, except the
+cultivated area, may be designated as forest, the trees including teak,
+sal, sissoo, the date and sago palm, the areca palm (the betel-nut tree),
+the Indian fig tree, &c. The article of most commercial importance is tea,
+which was first exported in 1838, and the yield of which is now over
+100,000,000 pounds annually. Other crops raised are rice, Indian corn,
+pulse, oil-seeds, sugar-cane, hemp, jute, potatoes, &c. In the jungles and
+forests roam herds of elephants, the rhinoceros, tiger, buffalo, leopard,
+bear, wild hog, jackal, fox, goat, and various kinds of deer. Among
+serpents are the python and the cobra. Pheasants, partridges, snipe, wild
+peacock, and many kinds of water-fowl abound. Coal, petroleum, and
+limestone are found in abundance; iron is smelted to a small extent;
+gold-dust is met with; lime is exported to Bengal. There is no single
+Assamese nationality, and the Assamese language is merely a modern dialect
+of Bengali. Pop. 6,713,635, 3,637,828 of whom are Hindus, 1,886,528
+Mahommedans, 66,430 Christians, 10,506 Buddhists, the rest being chiefly
+hill tribes of aboriginal faiths. The labourers in the tea-gardens are
+mostly drawn from Bengal. In 1826 Assam became a possession of Britain,
+being taken from the Burmese, who had made themselves masters of it about
+the end of the eighteenth century. The largest town is Sylhet (pop.
+14,000).--Cf. E. A. Gait, _History of Assam_.
+
+AS'SAPAN (_Sciuropt[)e]rus volucella_), the flying-squirrel of N. America,
+a little animal with folds of skin along its sides which enable it to take
+leaps of 40 or 50 yards.
+
+ASSASS'INS (from _hashsh[=a]sh[=i]n_, drinkers of _hashish_), an Asiatic
+order or society having the practice of assassination as its most
+distinctive feature, founded by Hassan Ben Sabbah, the Himyarite, a _dai_
+or missionary of the heterodox Mahommedan sect the Ismailites. The society
+grew rapidly in numbers, and in 1090 the Persian fortress of Alamut fell
+into their hands. Other territories were added, and the order became a
+recognized military power. Its organization comprised seven ranks, at its
+head being the Sheikh-al-Jebala or 'Old man of the mountains'. Upon a
+select band fell the work of assassination, to which they were stimulated
+by the intoxicating influence of _hashish_. For nearly two centuries they
+maintained their power under nine sheikhs. Hassan, after a long and
+prosperous reign, died in 1124. Most of his successors died violent deaths
+at the hands of relatives or dependents. After proving themselves strong
+enough to withstand the powerful sultans Noureddin and Saladin, and making
+themselves feared by the Crusaders, the _Assassins_ were overcome by the
+Tartar leader Hulaku. The last chief, Rokneddin, was killed for an act of
+treachery subsequent to his capture, and his death was followed by a
+general massacre of the assassins, in which 12,000 perished. Dispersed
+bands led a roving life in the Syrian mountains, and it is alleged that in
+the Druses and other small existing tribes their descendants are still to
+be found. See _Crusades_; _Khoja_.
+
+ASSAULT', in law, an attempt or offer, with force and violence, to do a
+corporal hurt to another, as by striking at him with or without a weapon.
+If a person lift up or stretch forth his arm and offer to strike another,
+or menace anyone with any staff or weapon, it is an assault in law.
+Assault, therefore, does not necessarily imply a hitting or blow, because
+in trespass for assault and battery a man may be found guilty of the
+assault and acquitted of the battery. But every battery includes an
+assault.
+
+ASSAYE, or ASSYE (as-s[=i]'), a village in Southern India, in Hyderabad,
+where Wellington (then Major-General Wellesley) gained a famous victory in
+1803. With only 4500 troops at his disposal he completely routed the
+Mahratta force of 50,000 men and 100 guns. The victory, however, cost him
+more than a third of his men.
+
+ASSAYING, the estimation of the amount of pure metal present in an ore or
+an alloy. The term was originally applied to testing of gold and silver
+only. It is now usually applied to the determination of the quantity of
+valuable metal in an ore or alloy, and is also sometimes applied to the
+estimation of any element which may affect the value of the ore.
+
+Assaying, therefore, means the estimation of one or more metals in an ore
+or alloy. Before an assay can be made, an average sample of the material
+must be obtained. If an ore, pieces of material are taken from different
+parts of the vein or, if already mined, from different parts of the dump.
+The pieces are crushed up finely and divided into four equal parts. Two of
+these parts are then mixed and divided into four again, and so on until an
+average sample has been obtained. In the case of metals in ingots or bars,
+samples are obtained by drilling and chipping corners or edges. Coins,
+which are never homogeneous, may be rolled out into a thin sheet and cut
+into small pieces. A preliminary examination is made to determine the
+constituents. Finally an assay of the substance is made. The methods used
+are determined by the metals and the proportions of these present in the
+ore or alloy. Originally the term assaying was applied to dry methods, i.e.
+the substance was heated in a special crucible with a suitable flux, and a
+bead of metal was obtained which was weighed. An assay now may be carried
+out in various ways, for example, by fusing with a reducing agent and
+obtaining a bead of metal, or by dissolving the substance to be assayed in
+suitable solvent and precipitating the metal as an insoluble salt, or
+volumetric methods may be used. Dry assaying is still used for gold. The
+assay depends on first heating the gold ore or alloy with lead in a porous
+crucible, that is, _cupelling_ it. Lead oxidizes on heating in a furnace;
+part volatilizes, and part of the oxide is absorbed by the cupel and
+carries with it oxides of other metals with the exception of gold and
+silver. The proportion of lead must be regulated, depending on the metals
+alloyed with gold. A bead is obtained containing gold and silver. This is
+beaten out into a thin plate, and then rolled out until it is thin enough
+to be rolled up by hand. The gold alloy is rolled up in the fingers into a
+cornette and treated with nitric acid. This dissolves silver, leaving a
+brittle cornette of gold, which is thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed.
+All gold alloys and silver alloys must be assayed, and their fineness
+stamped on them. The Goldsmith's Company of London is the statutory
+assay-master of England.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. and J. J. Beringer, _A Text-book
+of Assaying_; E. A. Wraight, _Assaying in Theory and Practice_; J. Park, _A
+Text-book of Practical Assaying_.
+
+AS'SEGAI (from Ar. _as-zahayah_), a spear used as a weapon among the
+Kaffirs of S. Africa, made of hard wood tipped with iron, and used for
+throwing or thrusting.
+
+ASSEMBLY, GENERAL, the supreme ecclesiastical court of the Established
+Church of Scotland, consisting of delegates from every presbytery,
+university, and royal burgh in Scotland. It has the countenance of a
+representative of the king, styled the Lord High Commissioner, who is
+always a nobleman. It holds its meetings annually and (according to the
+present practice) in the month of May, usually sitting for ten or twelve
+days. In its judicial capacity as a court of review, and as the court of
+last resort, the General Assembly has a right to determine finally every
+question brought from the inferior courts, by reference, complaint, or
+appeal. It possesses, besides, a general superintendence of the discipline
+of the Church, of the management of the inferior courts, of the conduct of
+the clergy, and of the morals of the people. In its legislative capacity it
+has the power of enacting statutes with regard to every subject of
+ecclesiastical cognizance, which are binding on the Assembly itself, on the
+inferior courts, and on the individual members of the Church. But by an Act
+of Assembly in 1697, from its substance and design named the Barrier Act,
+every proposition for a new law must first be considered in the form of an
+overture; and though it should be approved of by the Assembly it cannot be
+enacted as a statute till it has been first transmitted to the several
+presbyteries of the Church for their consideration, and has received the
+sanction of at least a majority of the presbyteries. The United Free Church
+of Scotland has also a General Assembly similar in its constitution and
+functions to that of the Established Church, and the same is the case with
+the Presbyterian Churches of Ireland and America.
+
+ASSEMBLY, NATIONAL (France), a body set up in France on the eve of the
+Revolution. Upon the convocation of the States-General by Louis XVI the
+privileged nobles and clergy refused to deliberate in the same chamber with
+the commons or _tiers-etat_ (third estate). The latter, therefore, on the
+proposition of the Abbe Sieyes, constituted themselves an _assemblee
+nationale_, with legislative powers (17th June, 1789). They bound
+themselves by oath not to separate until they had furnished France with a
+constitution, and the Court was compelled to give its assent. In the 3250
+decrees passed by the Assembly were laid the foundations of a new epoch,
+and, having accomplished this task, it dissolved itself, 30th Sept., 1791.
+
+ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES. See _Westminster Assembly_.
+
+ASSEMBLY, THE RIGHT OF, is an essential principle of popular government, as
+understood by the British and American constitutions. The right of British
+citizens to assemble peaceably for any purpose which is not strictly
+prohibited by law is implied in the right of petition, as affirmed in the
+Bill of Rights (q.v.). Unlawful assembly, which is a criminal offence, is
+distinguished from the offence of riot. Whilst the latter is an actual
+attempt to carry an unlawful purpose into effect, the former is defined as
+"an assembly with intent to carry out a common purpose which may lead to a
+breach of the peace".
+
+AS'SEN, chief town of the province of Drenthe, Holland. Pop. 13,000.
+
+ASSENT', THE ROYAL, is the approbation given by the sovereign in Parliament
+to a Bill which has passed both Houses, after which it becomes a law. It
+may either be done in person, when the sovereign comes to the House of
+Peers and the assent (in Norman French) is declared by the Clerk of
+Parliament; or it may be done by letters-patent under the great seal,
+signed by the sovereign.
+
+AS'SER, JOHN, a learned British ecclesiastic, originally a monk of St.
+David's, distinguished as the instructor, companion, and biographer of
+Alfred the Great, who appointed him abbot of two or three different
+monasteries, and finally Bishop of Sherborne, where he died in 908 or 910.
+His life of Alfred, written in Latin in 893 (_Annales Rerum Gestarum
+Aelfredi Magni_), is of very great value, though its authenticity has been
+questioned. There are several English translations of it.
+
+ASSESSED TAXES, taxes charged upon persons by means of a schedule or paper
+sent to each, and strictly including such taxes as the income-tax, the
+house-tax, local rates, &c. In Britain the so-called assessed taxes include
+those upon servants, carriages, dogs, armorial bearings, &c., though these
+are really excise licence duties.
+
+ASSES'SOR, a person appointed to ascertain and fix the amount of taxes,
+rates, &c.; or a person who sits along with the judges in certain courts,
+and assists them with his professional knowledge.
+
+AS'SETS (Fr. _assez_, enough), property or goods available for the payment
+of a bankrupt or deceased person's obligations. Assets are personal or
+real, the former comprising all goods, chattels, &c., devolving upon the
+executor as saleable to discharge debts and legacies. In commerce and
+bankruptcy the term is often used as the antithesis of 'liabilities', to
+designate the stock in trade and entire property of an individual or an
+association.--_Intangible_ (or fictitious) assets are those not represented
+by any existing value, e.g. goodwill; _liquid_ assets are cash,
+investments, or other immediately available funds.
+
+ASSIDE'ANS, HASIDE'ANS, or HASIDIM ('the pious'), one of the two great
+sects into which, after the Babylonish captivity, the Jews were divided
+with regard to the observance of the law--the Hasidim accepting it in its
+later developments, the Zadikim professing adherence only to the law as
+given by Moses. See _Pharisees_, _Talmudists_, _Rabbinists_.
+
+ASSIEN'TO, the permission of the Spanish Government to a foreign nation to
+import negro slaves from Africa into the Spanish colonies in America, for a
+limited time, on payment of certain duties. It was accorded to the
+Netherlands about 1552, to the Genoese in 1580, and to the French Guinea
+Company (afterwards the Assiento Company) in 1702. In 1713 the celebrated
+_Assiento Treaty_ with Britain for thirty years was concluded at Utrecht.
+By this contract the British obtained the right to send yearly a ship of
+500 tons, with all sorts of merchandise, to the Spanish colonies. This led
+to frequent abuses and contraband trade; acts of violence followed, and in
+1739 a war broke out between the two Powers. At the peace of
+Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, four years more were granted to the British; but
+by the Treaty of Madrid, two years later, L100,000 sterling were promised
+for the relinquishment of the two remaining years, and the contract was
+annulled.
+
+ASSIGNATS ([.a]s-[=e]-ny[.a]), the name of the national paper currency in
+the time of the French Revolution. Assignats to the value of 400,000,000
+francs were first struck off by the Constituent Assembly, with the
+approbation of the king, 19th April, 1790, to be redeemed with the proceeds
+of the sale of the confiscated goods of the Church. On the 27th Aug. of the
+same year Mirabeau urged the issuing of 2,000,000,000 francs of new
+assignats, which caused a dispute in the Assembly. Vergasse and Dupont, who
+saw that the plan was an invention of Claviere for his own enrichment,
+particularly distinguished themselves as the opponents of the scheme.
+Mirabeau's exertions, however, were seconded by Pethion, and 800,000,000
+francs more were issued. They were increased by degrees to 45,578,000,000,
+and their value rapidly declined. In the winter of 1792-3 they lost 30 per
+cent, and, in spite of the law to compel their acceptance at their nominal
+value, they continued to fall, till in the spring of 1796 they had sunk to
+one three hundred and forty-fourth their nominal value. This depreciation
+was due partly to the want of confidence in the stability of the
+Government, partly to the fact that the coarsely-executed and
+easily-counterfeited assignats were forged in great numbers. They were
+withdrawn by the Directory from the currency, and at length redeemed by
+mandats at one-thirtieth of their nominal value.
+
+ASSIGNEE', a person appointed by another to transact some business, or
+exercise some particular privilege or power. Formerly the persons appointed
+under a commission of bankruptcy, to manage the estate of the bankrupt on
+behalf of the creditors, were so called, but now they are called
+_trustees_.
+
+ASSIGN'MENT is a transfer by deed of any property, or right, title, or
+interest in property, real or personal. Assignments are usually given for
+leases, mortgages, and funded property.
+
+ASSINIBOI'A, the smallest of the four districts into which that portion of
+the north-western territories of Canada now forming the provinces of
+Saskatchewan and Alberta was divided in 1882. It lay on the west of
+Manitoba, with Saskatchewan on the north and Alberta on the west, the
+United States on the south. The name is now given to an electoral district
+of the province of Saskatchewan. The region contains much good wheat land.
+Regina was the capital, as it now is of the new province.
+
+ASSINIBOINE, a river of Canada, which flows through Manitoba and joins the
+Red River at Winnipeg, about 40 miles above the entrance of the latter into
+Lake Winnipeg, after a somewhat circuitous course of about 500 miles from
+the west and north-west. Steamers ply on it for over 300 miles.
+
+ASSIOUT. See _Siout_.
+
+ASSISI ([.a]s-s[=e]'s[=e]), a small town in Italy, in the province of
+Umbria, 20 miles north of Spoleto, the see of a bishop, and famous as the
+birthplace of St. Francis d'Assisi. The splendid church built over the
+chapel where the saint received his first impulse to devotion is one of the
+finest remains of mediaeval Gothic architecture.
+
+ASSI'ZES, a term chiefly used in England to signify the sessions of the
+courts held at Westminster prior to Magna Charta, but thereafter appointed
+by successive enactments to be held annually in every county. Twelve
+judges, who are members of the highest courts in England, twice in every
+year perform a _circuit_ into all the counties into which the kingdom is
+divided (the counties being grouped into seven circuits), to hold these
+assizes, at which both civil and criminal cases are decided. Occasionally
+this circuit is performed a third time for the purpose of jail-delivery. In
+London and Middlesex, instead of circuits, courts of _nisi prius_ are held.
+At the assizes all the justices of the peace of the county are bound to
+attend. Special commissions of assize are granted for inquest into certain
+causes. In Scotland the term _assize_ is still applicable to the jury in
+criminal cases.
+
+Among the more important historic uses of the term _assize_ are its
+application to any sitting or deliberative council, and its transference
+thence to their ordinances, decrees, or assessments. In the latter sense we
+have the Assizes of Jerusalem, a code of feudal laws formulated in 1099
+under Godfrey of Bouillon; the Assizes of Clarendon (1166), of Northampton
+(1176), and of Woodstock (1184); also the _assisae venalium_ (1203), for
+regulating the prices of articles of common consumption; the Assize of Arms
+(1181), an ordinance for organizing the national militia, &c.
+
+ASSMANSHAUSEN. See _Asmannshausen_.
+
+ASSOCIATED COUNTIES, a term applied to Essex, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk,
+and Hertford, with, subsequently, Huntingdon and Lincoln. The association
+was formed in 1642 to raise an army for the Parliament and keep the war out
+of their own districts. The successive leaders were Lord Grey of Wark, the
+Earl of Manchester, and Cromwell.
+
+ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, a doctrine of both psychological and philosophical
+import. In psychology the term is used to comprise the conditions under
+which one idea is able to recall another to consciousness. It is,
+therefore, the doctrine which deals with the reproduction of past
+experience by a present object of consciousness. The phrase 'association of
+ideas' was first introduced by Locke, and dealt with by Berkeley and
+Hartley, who became the founder of the so-called _Associationist School_.
+
+ASS'ONANCE, in poetry, a term used when the terminating words of lines have
+the same vowel sound but make no proper rhyme. Such verses, having what we
+should consider false rhymes, are regularly employed in Spanish poetry; but
+cases are not wanting in leading British poets. Mrs. Browning not only used
+them frequently, but justified the use of them.
+
+ASSOUAN ([.a]s-s[=o]-[.a]n'), or ASWAN (_Sy[=e]n[=e]_), a town of Upper
+Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile, below the first cataract, opposite the
+Island of Elephantine. The granite quarries of the Pharaohs are here. Pop.
+15,000.
+
+ASSOUAN DAM, a great dam constructed across the Nile in Upper Egypt, near
+Assouan, at the foot of the first cataract. It is about a mile and a
+quarter long, and is provided with a large number of sluices in two tiers.
+It was originally built to a height of about 96 feet between 1898 and 1902,
+and raised to a height of 112 feet above bed-rock between 1907 and 1911. It
+is intended to regulate the supply of water for irrigation purposes to the
+country lower down, the water being stored up at the time when the river is
+high, and allowed to escape when it is required for the crops. When the
+reservoir is full it forms a lake about 130 miles long. The dam was planned
+by Sir William Willcocks, and the work carried out under Sir William
+Garstin and Sir Benjamin Baker, at a cost of L5,000,000 (Egyptian).
+
+ASSUMP'SIT, in English law, an action to recover compensation for the
+non-performance of a _parole_ promise; that is, a promise not contained in
+a deed under seal. Assumpsits are of two kinds, _express_ and _implied_.
+The former are where the contracts are actually made in word or writing;
+the latter are such as the law implies from the justice of the case; e.g.
+employment to do work implies a promise to pay.
+
+ASSUMPTION. See _Asuncion_.
+
+ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF, the ecclesiastical festival celebrating the
+miraculous ascent into Heaven of the Virgin Mary's body as well as her
+soul, kept on the 15th of August. The legend first appeared in the third or
+fourth century, and the festival was instituted some three centuries later.
+
+ASSURANCE. See _Insurance_.
+
+[Illustration: Assyrian bas-relief from the Palace of Nimrud showing
+Lion-hunting about 884 B.C.]
+
+ASSYR'IA (the ASSHUR of the Hebrews, ATHURA of the ancient Persians), an
+ancient monarchy in Asia, intersected by the upper course of the Tigris,
+and having the Armenian Mountains on the north and Babylonia on the south;
+area, about 50,000 sq. miles; surface partly mountainous, hilly, or
+undulating, partly a portion of the fertile Mesopotamian plain. The
+numerous remains of ancient habitations show how thickly this vast flat
+must have once been peopled; now, for the most part, it is a mere
+wilderness. Geographically and historically, however, Assyria and Babylonia
+are interdependent, and the Assyrians and Babylonians are ethnographically
+and linguistically the same race. Whereas, however, the classical authors
+speak of Assyria to the exclusion of Babylonia, the decipherment of the
+inscriptions has proved that Babylonia was the mother-country, and that
+Assyria, except during a period of eight centuries, was a dependency of the
+former. This discovery coincides with the contents of the tenth chapter of
+_Genesis_. See _Babylonia_.
+
+AST, Georg Anton Friedrich, German philosopher, 1776-1841. He wrote on
+aesthetics and the history of philosophy, but is best known as an editor of
+Plato, whose works he published with a Latin translation and commentary.
+
+AS'TACUS. See _Crayfish_.
+
+ASTAR'TE, a Syrian goddess, probably corresponding to the _Ashtaroth_ of
+the Hebrews, and representing the productive power of nature. She was a
+moon-goddess. Some regard her as corresponding to _Hera_ (_Juno_), and
+others identify her with _Aphrodit[=e]_.
+
+ASTATIC NEEDLE, a magnetic needle having another needle of the same
+intensity fixed parallel to it, the poles being reversed, so that the
+needles neutralize one another, and are unaffected by the earth's
+magnetism; used in the _astatic galvanometer_.
+
+AS'TER, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositae, comprehending several
+hundred species, scattered over Europe and Asia, but mostly natives of
+North America. Many are cultivated as ornamental plants. One, _A.
+Tripolium_, is native in Britain, and is found in salt marshes, having a
+pretty purple flower. Asters generally flower late in the season, and some
+are hence called Michaelmas or Christmas Daisies. The China Aster, not an
+aster proper (_Aster_ or _Callist[)e]phus chinensis_), is a very showy
+annual, of which there are many varieties.
+
+ASTERABAD'. See _Astrabad_.
+
+ASTE'RIA, a name applied to a variety of corundum, which displays an
+opalescent star of six rays of light when cut with certain precautions; and
+also to the _cat's-eye_, which consists of quartz, and is found especially
+in Ceylon.
+
+ASTER'IDAE. See _Asteroidea_.
+
+AS'TERISK, the figure of a star, thus *, used in printing and writing, as a
+reference to a passage or note in the margin, or to fill the space when a
+name, or the like, is omitted.
+
+ASTEROI'DEA, the ord. of the Echinodermata to which the star-fishes belong.
+See _Star-fishes_.
+
+AS'TEROIDS, PLANETOIDS, or MINOR PLANETS, a numerous group of very small
+planets revolving round the sun, in the great majority of cases at mean
+distances, intermediate between those of Mars and Jupiter, in orbits of
+large eccentricity at considerable inclination to the ecliptic. The
+diameter of the largest is not supposed to exceed 450 miles, while most of
+the others are very much smaller. Over one thousand are known, and new
+members are being constantly discovered. The first to be discovered was
+Ceres, on 1st Jan., 1801, and within seven years more Pallas, Juno, and
+Vesta were seen. The diminutive size of these four bodies, and resemblances
+in their orbits, gave rise to the opinion that they were but the fragments
+of a planet that had formerly existed and had been brought to an end by
+some catastrophe. For nearly forty years investigations were carried on,
+but no more planets were discovered till 8th Dec., 1845, when a fifth
+planet in the same region of the solar system was discovered. The rapid
+succession of discoveries that followed was for a time taken as a
+corroboration of the disruption theory, but the breadth of the zone
+occupied makes the hypothesis of a shattered planet more than doubtful. In
+recent years a few have been discovered which are at times considerably
+within the orbit of Mars, the nearest perihelia being less than 15 million
+miles beyond the earth's orbit. Another group, known as the 'Trojan
+Planets', has been found, whose mean distances are practically identical
+with that of Jupiter. The total mass of the asteroids cannot exceed
+one-fourth that of the earth, and is probably much less. See _Planets_.
+
+ASTEROL'EPIS, a genus of primitive ganoid fishes, found only in a fossil
+state in the Old Red Sandstone. They were about 1 foot long, and the head
+and body were enclosed in armour of strong bony plates.
+
+ASTHMA (ast'ma), difficulty of respiration, returning at intervals, with a
+sense of stricture across the chest and in the lungs, a wheezing, hard
+cough at first, but more free towards the close of each paroxysm, with a
+discharge of mucus, followed by a remission. Asthma is essentially a spasm
+of the muscular tissue which is contained in the smaller bronchial tubes.
+It generally attacks persons advanced in years, and seems, in some
+instances, to be hereditary. The exciting causes are various--accumulation
+of blood or viscid mucus in the lungs, noxious vapours, a cold and foggy
+atmosphere, or a close, hot air, flatulence, accumulated faeces, violent
+passions, organic diseases in the thoracic viscera, &c. In recent years a
+treatment first used by Dr. Alexander Francis has come into prominence. By
+far the most important part of the treatment consists in obviating or
+removing the several exciting causes. It seldom proves fatal except as
+inducing dropsy, consumption, &c.
+
+ASTI ([.a]s't[=e]), a town of Northern Italy, province of Alessandria, 28
+miles E.S.E. of Turin, the see of a bishop, with an old cathedral. In the
+Middle Ages it was one of the most powerful republics of Northern Italy. It
+was the birthplace of Alfieri, the poet, whose statue adorns the principal
+square. There is also an equestrian statue of King Humbert. The industries
+comprise silk, matches, gold, mosaic wares, &c. A favourite wine is
+produced in the neighbourhood. Asti, anciently _Asta_, was a place of some
+importance under the Roman emperors, and in the Middle Ages was an
+independent republic. Pop. 41,252.
+
+ASTIG'MATISM (Gr. _a_, not, _stigma_, spot, mark), a malformation or
+imperfection, congenital or accidental, of the globe of the eye, in
+consequence of which the individual does not see objects clear and
+distinct, but with a blurred outline. It is due to the cornea or
+transparent outer coat of the eye not being regularly spherical, but having
+different degrees of curvature in different directions. Usually the degree
+of convexity is not the same horizontally as it is vertically, so that the
+rays from an object, instead of converging into one focus, meet in more
+than one. If a person with this defect is looking at vertical lines crossed
+by horizontal ones he will see the one set more distinctly than the other,
+though a slight movement will enable him to see the other distinctly also,
+but not at the same time. Almost all eyes are more or less astigmatic, but
+persons only become aware of it when it is excessive. Special lenses are
+required to correct it--usually lenses plane in one direction and concave
+or convex in the other. Short sight or long sight is often associated with
+astigmatism, so that suitable spectacles cannot be very easily provided.
+
+ASTLE, Thomas, English antiquary, born 1735, died 1803. He was a trustee of
+the British Museum and keeper of the public records in the Tower. His chief
+work, _The Origin and Progress of Writing_, appeared in 1784, and the
+portion dealing with mediaeval handwriting is still of value. He formed a
+famous collection of MSS., the most valuable portion of which is now in the
+British Museum.
+
+ASTOM'ATA, one of the two groups into which the Protozoa are divided with
+regard to the presence or absence of a mouth, of which organ the Astomata
+are destitute. The group comprises two classes, Gregarinida and Rhizopoda.
+See _Stomatoda_.
+
+ASTON MANOR, formerly a municipal and parliamentary borough of
+Warwickshire, England, situated about 1-1/2 miles E.N.E. of Birmingham, and
+engaged in similar branches of industry. It was incorporated with
+Birmingham in 1911 and gives its name to one of its parliamentary
+divisions. Pop. 75,029.
+
+ASTOR, John Jacob, born near Heidelberg, Germany, 1703, died at New York,
+1848. In 1783 he emigrated to the United States, settled at New York, and
+became extensively engaged in the fur trade. In 1811 the settlement of
+Astoria, founded by him, near the mouth of the Columbia River, was formed
+to serve as a central depot for the fur trade between the lakes and the
+Pacific. He subsequently engaged in various speculations, and died worth
+L4,000,000, leaving L80,000 to found the Astor Library in New York. This
+institution is contained in a splendid building, enlarged in 1859 at the
+cost of his son, and comprises about 260,000 volumes. Since 1895 it has
+formed part of the New York public library.--His great-grandson, William
+Waldorf Astor, born in 1848, died in 1919, naturalized in England in 1899,
+was made a baron in 1916 and a viscount in 1917.
+
+ASTOR, LADY. Nancy Witcher, Viscountess Astor, married the second Viscount
+Astor in 1906. She is a daughter of the late Colonel Chiswell Dabney
+Langhorne, of Virginia, United States. In Nov., 1919, she was elected
+member of Parliament for the Sutton division of Plymouth, and was the first
+woman to take a seat in the House of Commons.
+
+ASTOR'GA, a city of Spain, province of Leon; the _Asturica Augusta_ of the
+Romans. It figured prominently during the Peninsular War; it was taken by
+the French after an obstinate defence, 1810, and retaken by the Spaniards,
+1812. Pop. 5682.
+
+ASTO'RIA, a town of Oregon, United States, on the Columbia River, with
+numerous salmon-canning establishments. Pop. 10,595. See _Astor_.
+
+ASTRABAD', a town of Persia, province of same name, about 24 miles E. of
+the Caspian. It was formerly the residence of the Kajar princes, the
+ancestors of the present Persian dynasty. It is very unhealthy, but is
+still the centre of a considerable trade. Pop. estimated at from 10,000 to
+30,000. The province of Astrabad has an area of 5800 sq. miles, and a pop.
+of 150,000.
+
+ASTRAE'A, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Zeus and Themis, the goddess
+of justice. During the golden age she dwelt on earth, but on that age
+passing away she withdrew from the society of men and was placed among the
+stars, where she forms the constellation Virgo. The name was given to one
+of the asteroids, discovered in 1845. It revolves round the sun in 1511.10
+solar days, and is about 2-1/2 times the distance of the earth from the
+sun.
+
+AS'TRAGAL, in architecture, a small semicircular moulding, with a fillet
+beneath it, which surrounds a column in the form of a ring, separating the
+shaft from the capital.
+
+ASTRAG'ALUS, a genus of papilionaceous plants, herbaceous or shrubby, and
+often spiny. _A. gummifer_ yields gum tragacanth.
+
+ASTRAG'ALUS, the upper bone of the foot supporting the tibia; the buckle,
+ankle, or sling bone. It is a strong irregularly-shaped bone, and is
+connected with the others by powerful ligaments.
+
+ASTRAKHAN ([.a]s-tr[.a]-_h_[.a]n'), a Russian city, capital of government
+of same name, on an elevated island in the Volga, about 30 miles above its
+mouth in the Caspian, communicating with the opposite banks of the river by
+numerous bridges. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop and has a large
+cathedral, as well as places of worship for Mahommedans, Armenians, &c. The
+manufactures are large and increasing, and the fisheries (sturgeon, &c.)
+very important. It is the chief port of the Caspian, and has regular steam
+communication with the principal towns on its shores. In 1919 the town was
+made a naval base by the Bolshevist Government of Moscow. Pop. 163,800,
+composed of various races.--The government (or province) has an area of
+91,042 sq. miles. It consists almost entirely of two vast steppes,
+separated from each other by the Volga, and forming for the most part arid
+sterile deserts. In 1918 the district of Astrakhan proclaimed its autonomy
+and independence of Moscow. Pop. 1,427,500.
+
+ASTRAKHAN, a name given to sheepskins with a curled woolly surface obtained
+from a variety of sheep found in Bukhara, Persia, and Syria; also a rough
+fabric with a pile in imitation of this.
+
+ASTRALITE. See _Explosives_.
+
+ASTRAL SPIRITS, spirits formerly believed to people the heavenly bodies or
+the aerial regions. In the Middle Ages they were variously conceived as
+fallen angels, souls of departed men, or spirits originating in fire, and
+belonging neither to heaven, earth, nor hell. Paracelsus regarded them as
+demoniacal in character.
+
+ASTRIN'GENT, a medicine which contracts the organic textures and canals of
+the body, thereby checking or diminishing excessive discharges. The chief
+astringents are the mineral acids, alum, lime-water, chalk, salts of
+copper, zinc, iron, lead, silver; and among vegetables catechu, kino,
+oak-bark, and galls.
+
+ASTROCA'RYUM, a genus of tropical American palms, species of which yield
+oil and valuable fibre. Tucum oil and tucum thread are obtained from _A.
+vulg[=a]re_.
+
+AS'TROLABE, an instrument formerly used for taking the altitude of the sun
+or stars, now superseded by the quadrant and sextant. The name was also
+formerly given to an armillary sphere.--Cf. Chaucer, _Treatise on the
+Astrolabe_.
+
+ASTROLABE BAY, an inlet on the N.E. coast of Australian New Guinea.
+
+ASTROL'OGY, literally, the science or doctrine of the stars. The name was
+formerly used as equivalent to astronomy, but is now restricted in meaning
+to the pseudo-science which pretends to enable men to judge of the effects
+and influences of the heavenly bodies on human and other mundane affairs,
+and to foretell future events by their situations and conjunctions. As
+usually practised, the whole heavens, visible and invisible, were divided
+by great circles into twelve equal parts, called _houses_. As the circles
+were supposed to remain immovable, every heavenly body passed through each
+of the twelve houses every twenty-four hours. The portion of the zodiac
+contained in each house was the part to which chief attention was paid, and
+the position of any planet was settled by its distance from the boundary
+circle of the house, measured on the ecliptic. The houses had different
+names and different powers, the first being called the house of life, the
+second the house of riches, the third of brethren, the sixth of marriage,
+the eighth of death, and so on. The part of the heavens about to rise was
+called the _ascendant_, the planet within the house of the ascendant being
+_lord of the ascendant_. The different _aspects_ of the planets were of
+great importance. To _cast a person's nativity_ (or _draw his horoscope_)
+was to find the position of the heavens at the instant of his birth, which
+being done, the astrologer, who knew the various powers and influences
+possessed by the sun, the moon, and the planets, could predict what the
+course and termination of that person's life would be. The temperament of
+the individual was ascribed to the planet under which he was born, as
+_saturnine_ from _Saturn_, _jovial_ from _Jupiter_, _mercurial_ from
+_Mercury_, _&c._, words which are now used with little thought of their
+original meaning. The virtues of herbs, gems, and medicines were supposed
+to be due to their ruling planets. The history of astrology, which was the
+foster-sister of astronomy, goes back to the early days of the human race.
+Egyptians and Hindus, as well as the nations on the Euphrates and Tigris,
+were zealous astrologers. The Christian Church strongly opposed the
+teachings of astrology, but its study spread among Jews and Arabs during
+the Middle Ages. Francis Bacon abused the astrologers of his day, and Swift
+wrote against them his famous _Prediction for the Year 1708, by Isaac
+Bickerstaff, Esq._--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. H. Bennet, _Astrology_; G. Wilde,
+_Chaldean Astrology Up-to-date_; A. Maury, _La Magie et l'astrologie a
+l'antiquite et au moyen age_; A. J. Pearce, _Textbook of Astrology_.
+
+ASTRON'OMY (from Gr. _astron_, a heavenly body, and _nemein_, to classify
+or arrange) is that science which investigates the motions, distances,
+magnitudes, and various phenomena of the heavenly bodies. The science may
+be divided into several branches. _Descriptive astronomy_ denotes merely a
+presentation of astronomical facts in a systematic but popular form;
+_practical astronomy_ treats of the instruments used in observing the
+celestial bodies, the methods of their employment, and the manner of
+deducing results from the observations; investigation of the causes of the
+motions of these bodies was formerly termed _physical astronomy_, but now
+generally _dynamical_ or _gravitational astronomy_; _physical astronomy_ or
+_astro-physics_ is the comparatively modern branch which deals with their
+physical conditions, radiation, temperature, and chemical constitution.
+Recent years have added two new fields of investigation which are full of
+promise for the advancement of astronomical science. The first of
+these--_celestial photography_--has furnished us with invaluable
+light-pictures of the sun, moon, and other bodies, and has recorded the
+existence of myriads of stars invisible even to the best telescopes; while
+the second, _spectrum analysis_, now employed by many scientists, reveals
+to us a knowledge of the physical constituents of the universe, telling us
+for instance that in the sun (or his atmosphere) there exist many of the
+elements familiar to us on the earth. It is also applied to the
+determination of the velocities with which stars are approaching, or
+receding from, our system; and to the measurement of movements taking place
+within the solar atmospheric envelopes. From analysis of some of the
+unresolved nebulae the inference is drawn that they are not star-swarms but
+simply incandescent gas; whence a second inference results favourable to
+the hypothesis of the gradual condensation of nebulae, and the successive
+evolutions of suns and systems.
+
+The most remote period to which we can go back in tracing the history of
+astronomy refers us to a time about 2500 B.C., when the Chinese are said to
+have recorded the simultaneous conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars,
+Mercury, and the moon. This remarkable phenomenon is found, by calculating
+backward, to have taken place 2460 B.C. Astronomy has also an undoubtedly
+high antiquity in India. The mean annual motion of Jupiter and Saturn was
+observed as early as 3062 years B.C.; tables of the sun, moon, and planets
+were formed, and eclipses calculated. In the time of Alexander the Great,
+the Chaldeans or Babylonians had carried on astronomical observations for
+1900 years. They regarded comets as bodies travelling in extended orbits,
+and predicted their return; and there is reason to believe that they had
+correct ideas regarding the solar system. The priests of Egypt gave
+astronomy a religious character; but their knowledge of the science is
+testified to only by their ancient zodiacs and the position of their
+pyramids with relation to the cardinal points. It was among the Greeks that
+astronomy took a more scientific form. Thales of Miletus (born 639 B.C.)
+predicted a solar eclipse, and his successors held opinions which are in
+many respects wonderfully in accordance with modern ideas. Pythagoras (500
+B.C.) and his followers formed theories of the planetary system. They
+taught the sphericity and revolution of the earth, but placed an imaginary
+'Central Fire', not the sun itself, at the centre of the system. Great
+progress was made in astronomy under the Ptolemies, and we find Timochares
+and Aristyllus employed about 300 B.C. in making useful planetary
+observations. But Aristarchus of Samos (born 267 B.C.) is said, on the
+authority of Archimedes, to have far surpassed them, by teaching the double
+motion of the earth around its axis and around the sun. A hundred years
+later Hipparchus determined more exactly the length of the solar year, and
+the eccentricity of the ecliptic, discovered the precession of the
+equinoxes, and even undertook a catalogue of the stars. It was in the
+second century after Christ that Claudius Ptolemy, a famous mathematician
+of Pelusium in Egypt, propounded the system that bears his name, viz., that
+the earth was the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and
+planets revolved around it in the following order: nearest to the earth was
+the sphere of the moon; then followed the spheres of Mercury, Venus, the
+Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; then came the sphere of the fixed stars;
+these were succeeded by two _crystalline_ spheres and an outer sphere named
+the _primum mobile_ or first movable, which last was again circumscribed by
+the _coelum empyreum_, of a cubic shape, wherein happy souls found their
+abode. The Arabs began to make scientific astronomical observations about
+the middle of the eighth century, and for 400 years they prosecuted the
+science with assiduity. Ibn-Yunis (A.D. 1000) made important observations
+of the perturbations and eccentricities of Jupiter and Saturn. In the
+sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus, born in 1473, introduced the system
+that bears his name, and which recognized the sun's central place in the
+solar system, and that all the other bodies, the earth included, revolve
+around it. This arrangement of the universe (see _Copernicus_) came at
+length to be generally received on account of the simplicity it substituted
+for the complexities and difficulties of the theory of Ptolemy. The
+observations and calculations of Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer, born in
+1546, continued over many years, were of the highest value, and secured for
+him the title of regenerator of practical astronomy. His assistant and
+pupil, Kepler, born in 1571, was enabled, principally from the data
+provided by his master's labours, to arrive at those laws which have made
+his name famous: 1. That the planets move, not in circular, but in
+elliptical orbits, of which the sun occupies a focus. 2. That the radius
+vector, or imaginary straight line joining the sun and any planet, moves
+over equal spaces in equal times. 3. That the squares of the times of the
+revolutions of the planets are as the cubes of their mean distances from
+the sun. Galileo, who died in 1642, advanced the science by his
+observations and by the new revelations he made through his telescopes,
+which established the truth of the Copernican theory. Newton, born in 1642,
+carried physical astronomy suddenly to comparative perfection. Accepting
+Kepler's laws as a statement of the facts of planetary motion, he deduced
+from them his theory of gravitation. The science was enriched towards the
+close of the eighteenth century by the discovery by Herschel of the planet
+Uranus and its satellites, the resolution of the Milky Way into myriads of
+stars, and the investigation of nebulae and of double and triple stars. The
+splendid analytical researches of Lalande, Lagrange, Delambre, and Laplace
+mark the same period. The nineteenth century opened with the discovery of
+the first four minor planets; and the existence of another planet
+(Neptune), more distant from the sun than Uranus, was, in 1845,
+independently predicted by Leverrier and Adams. Of late years the sun has
+attracted a number of observers, the spectroscope and photography having
+been especially fruitful in this field of investigation. By various methods
+the sun's mean distance has been ascertained within very small limits of
+error, and found to be nearly 93,000,000 miles. Many additions have been
+made to the known secondary planets or satellites, including some with
+retrograde motions. A vast number of asteroids has been discovered, and the
+width of the zone occupied by them found to be much more extensive. Much
+success has been achieved in ascertaining the parallax of fixed stars.
+
+The objects with which astronomy has chiefly to deal are the earth, the
+sun, the moon, the planets, the fixed stars, comets, nebulae, and meteors.
+The stellar universe is composed of an unknown host of stars, many millions
+in number. Those visible to the naked eye were in ancient times grouped
+into the constellations still recognized. The nebulae are cloud-like
+patches of light scattered all over the heavens. Some of them have been
+resolved into star-clusters, but many of them are masses of incandescent
+gas. Of the so-called fixed stars, many form binary or multiple systems,
+the members revolving in orbits under each other's attractions, while other
+more scattered groups are moving clusters, travelling in parallel paths
+through space like flocks of birds. Variable stars and extinct or dark
+stars are also known. The fixed stars preserve, at least to unaided vision,
+an unalterable relation to each other, because of their vast distance from
+the earth. Their apparent movement from east to west is the result of the
+earth's revolution on its axis in twenty-four hours from west to east. The
+planets have not only an apparent, but also a real and proper motion,
+since, like our earth, they revolve around the sun in their several orbits
+and periods. The nearest of these bodies to the sun is _Mercury_. _Venus_,
+the second planet from the sun, is to us the brightest and most beautiful
+of all the planets. The _Earth_ is the first planet accompanied by a
+satellite or moon. _Mars_, the next planet, has two satellites, discovered
+in 1877. Its surface has a variegated character, and the existence of land,
+water, snow, and ice has been inferred. The _Asteroids_, of which over 1000
+are known, form a broad zone of small bodies, at distances from a little
+beyond the earth's to that of Jupiter. _Jupiter_, the largest planet, has
+at least nine satellites, of which the two outermost have retrograde
+motion. Its surface is diversified by spots, markings, and bands parallel
+to its equator. _Saturn_, with its nine or more satellites and broad thin
+rings in its equatorial plane, is, perhaps, the most striking telescopic
+object in the heavens. _Ur[)a]nus_--discovered by Herschel in 1781--is
+accompanied by four satellites. _Neptune_, the farthest removed from the
+sun, has one satellite, the motion of which is retrograde. Besides the
+planets, quite a number of comets are known to be members of the solar
+system. The physical constitution of these bodies is still one of the
+enigmas of astronomy. The observation of meteors has recently attracted
+much attention. They are seen in largest numbers in the autumn months.
+Meteor streams are supposed to represent the results of the disintegration
+of comets. Among the more modern astronomers we may mention: Gustav
+Kirchhoff, G. B. Donati, Christian Doppler, H. C. Vogel, Sir William
+Huggins, Simon Newcomb, and Sir David Gill. See _Earth_, _Sun_, _Moon_,
+_Planet_, _Comet_, _Stars_, _Asteroids_, _Celestial Photography_,
+_Spectrography_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. N. Lockyer, _Dawn of Astronomy_;
+Sir G. C. Lewis, _Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients_; Sir.
+F. W. Dyson, _Astronomy_; Sir R. Ball, _Atlas, and Popular Guide to the
+Heavens_; G. P. Serviss, _Astronomy with an Opera-glass_; _The Pleasures of
+the Telescope_; A. M. Clerke, _History of Astronomy during the 19th
+Century_, H. Macpherson, _Romance of Modern Astronomy_; C. A. Young,
+_General Astronomy_; G. F. Chambers, _Handbook of Astronomy_ (3 vols.);
+E. W. Maunder, _Astronomy of the Bible_; A. C. D. Crommelin, _The Star
+World_; Agnes Giberne, _Sun, Moon, and Stars_ (popular).
+
+ASTROPALIA, an island in the Aegean Sea. It was occupied during the Balkan
+war of 1912 by the Italians under Admiral Presbitero and General d'Ameglio.
+
+ASTROPHYSICS. See _Spectroscopy_.
+
+ASTUR. See _Goshawk_.
+
+ASTU'RIA, or THE ASTURIAS, a Spanish principality, now forming the province
+of Oviedo, on the north coast of Spain; an alpine region, with steep and
+jagged mountain ridges, valuable minerals, luxuriant grazing lands, and
+fertile well-watered valleys. The heir apparent of Spain has borne since
+1388 the title of Prince of the Asturias. See _Spain_.
+
+ASTY'AGES (-j[=e]z), last king of the Medes, 593-558 B.C., deposed by
+Cyrus, an event which transferred the supremacy from the Medes to the
+Persians.
+
+ASUNCION ([.a]-s[u:]n-th[=e]-on'), or NUESTRA SENORA DE LA ASUNCION (Eng.
+_Assumption_), the chief city of Paraguay, on the River Paraguay,
+picturesquely situated and with good public buildings. It was founded in
+1537 on the feast of the Assumption. Its trade is mostly in the yerba tea,
+hides, tobacco, oranges, &c. It was taken and plundered by the Brazilians
+in 1869. A railway runs for a short distance into the interior. Pop.
+(1920), 99,836.
+
+[Illustration: Aswail (_Ursus labi[=a]tus_)]
+
+AS'WAIL, the native name for the sloth-bear (_Ursus labi[=a]tus_) of the
+mountains of India, an uncouth, unwieldy animal, with very long black hair,
+inoffensive when not attacked. Its usual diet consists of roots,
+bees'-nests, grubs, snails, ants, &c. Its flesh is in much favour as an
+article of food. When captured young it is easily tamed.
+
+ASY'LUM, a sanctuary or place of refuge, where criminals and debtors
+sheltered themselves from justice, and from which they could not be taken
+without sacrilege. Temples were anciently asylums, as were Christian
+churches in later times. (See _Sanctuary_.) The term is now usually applied
+to an institution for receiving, maintaining, and, so far as possible,
+ameliorating the condition of persons labouring under certain bodily
+defects or mental maladies; sometimes also a refuge for the unfortunate.
+
+ASYLUM, RIGHT OF. See _Extradition_.
+
+ASYMPTOTE (as'im-t[=o]t), in geometry, a line which is continually
+approaching a curve, but never meets it, however far either of them may be
+prolonged. This may be conceived as a tangent to a curve at an infinite
+distance. See _Conic Sections_.
+
+ASYN'DETON, a figure of speech by which connecting words are omitted; as 'I
+came, I saw, I conquered', or Cicero's 'Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit'.
+
+ATACAMA ([.a]-t[.a]-kae'm[.a]), a desert region on the west coast of S.
+America belonging to Chile, partly in the province of Atacama, partly in
+the territory of Antofagasta. It mainly consists of a plateau extending
+from Copiapo northward to the River Loa, and lies between the Andes and the
+sea. It forms the chief nitrate district of Chile, there being also rich
+silver-mines, while gold is also found, as well as argentiferous lead,
+copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron; with guano on the coast. The northern
+portion belonged to Bolivia until 1904. The Chilian province of Atacama has
+an area of 30,711 sq. miles, and a pop. of 63,893.
+
+ATACA'MITE, a combination of the hydroxide and chloride of copper,
+occurring abundantly in some parts of South America, as at Atacama, whence
+it has its name. It is worked as an ore in South America, and is exported
+to England.
+
+ATAHUAL'PA, the last of the Incas, succeeded his father in 1529 on the
+throne of Quito, whilst his brother Huascar obtained the kingdom of Peru.
+They soon made war against each other, when the latter was defeated, and
+his kingdom fell into the hands of Atahualpa. The Spaniards, taking
+advantage of these internal disturbances, with Pizarro at their head
+invaded Peru, and advanced to Atahualpa's camp. Here, while Pizarro's
+priest was telling the Inca how the Pope had given Peru to the Spaniards,
+fire was opened on the unsuspecting Peruvians, Atahualpa was captured, and,
+despite the payment of a vast ransom in gold, was executed (1533).
+
+ATALAN'TA, in Greek mythology, a famous huntress of Arcadia. She was to be
+obtained in marriage only by him who could outstrip her in a race, the
+consequence of failure being death. One of her suitors obtained from
+Aphrod[=i]t[=e] (Venus) three golden apples, which he threw behind him, one
+after another, as he ran. Atalanta stopped to pick them up, and was not
+unwillingly defeated. There was another Atalanta belonging to Boeotia, who
+cannot very well be distinguished, the same stories being told about both.
+
+ATAMAN. See _Hetman_.
+
+AT'AVISM (Lat. _at[)a]vus_, an ancestor), in biology, the tendency to
+reproduce the ancestral type in animals or plants which have become
+considerably modified by breeding or cultivation; the reversion of a
+descendant to some peculiarity of a more or less remote ancestor. See
+_Mendelism_, _Natural Selection_, _Evolution_, _Heredity_. The term
+_atavism_ is also frequently used in sociological literature, in the sense
+of reversion to more primitive types, as explanation of criminal instincts
+and pathological phenomena.
+
+ATAXY, or ATAXIA, in medicine, irregularity in the animal functions, or in
+the symptoms of a disease. See _Locomotor Ataxy_.
+
+ATBA'RA, the most northerly tributary of the Nile. It rises in the
+Abyssinian highlands, receives several large tributaries, and enters the
+Nile about 18deg N. The town of Atbara is situated about 380 miles S.E. of
+Wadi Halfa. The battle of Atbara, between the British under Earl Kitchener
+(then Sir Herbert), and the followers of the Mahdi, was fought on 8th
+April, 1898.
+
+ATCHAFALAY'A ('Lost Water'), a river of the United States, an outlet of the
+Red River which strikes off before the junction of that river with the
+Mississippi, flows southward, and enters the Gulf of Mexico by Atchafalaya
+Bay. Its length is about 225 miles.
+
+ATCHEEN'. See _Acheen_.
+
+ATCH'ISON, a city of Kansas, United States, on the Missouri, about 30 miles
+from Leavenworth, an important railway centre with an increasing trade.
+Pop. (1920), 12,630.
+
+A'T[=E], among the Greeks, the goddess of hate, injustice, crime, and
+retribution, daughter of Zeus according to Homer, but of [)E]ris (Strife)
+according to Hesiod.
+
+AT'ELES, a genus of American monkeys. See _Spider-monkey_.
+
+ATELIERS NATIONAUX ([.a]-tl-y[=a] n[.a]-syo-n[=o]), or national workshops,
+were established by the French Provisional Government in 1848. They
+interfered much with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw
+themselves on the Government for work. The breaking up of the system led to
+disorders, but it was abolished in July, 1848.
+
+ATELLA'NAE FAB'ULAE (called also OSCAN PLAYS), a kind of light interlude,
+in ancient Rome, performed not by the regular actors, but by freeborn young
+Romans; it originated from the ancient _Atella_, a city of the Oscans. They
+were the origin of the Italian _commedie dell'arte_. Cf. Munk, _De Fabulis
+Atellanis_.
+
+ATESH'GA (the place of fire), a sacred place of the Guebres or Persian
+fire-worshippers, on the Peninsula of Apsheron, on the W. coast of the
+Caspian, visited by large numbers of pilgrims, who bow before the sacred
+flames which issue from the bituminous soil.
+
+ATH (aet), a fortified town of Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, on the
+Dender; it carries on weaving, dyeing, and printing cottons. It was the
+scene of fighting in Nov., 1918. Pop. 11,108.
+
+ATHABAS'CA, a river and lake of Canada. The river rises on the eastern
+slopes of the Rocky Mountains not far from Mount Hooker, in the province of
+Alberta, flows N.E. and N., and falls into Lake Athabasca after a course of
+about 600 miles.--_Lake Athabasca_, or Lake of the Hills, is about 190
+miles S.S.E. of the Great Slave Lake, to which its waters are carried by
+means of the Slave River. It is about 200 miles in length from east to
+west, and 35 miles wide where widest, but narrows to a point at either
+extremity.--The former district of _Athabasca_, in 1905 divided between the
+two new provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, had British Columbia on the
+west, Keewatin on the east, Alberta and Saskatchewan districts on the
+south, the parallel of 60deg on the north, being crossed by the Athabasca
+and the Peace Rivers. Lake Athabasca is partly in Alberta, partly in
+Saskatchewan.
+
+ATHALI'AH, daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, and wife of Joram, King of
+Judah. After the death of her son Ahaziah, she opened her way to the throne
+by the murder of forty-two princes of the royal blood. She reigned six
+years; in the seventh the high-priest Jehoiada placed Joash, the young son
+of Ahaziah, who had been secretly preserved, on the throne of his father,
+and Athaliah was slain. Cf. 2 _Kings_, xi. The story of Athaliah supplied
+Racine with the plot of one of his most famous tragedies.
+
+ATHANA'SIAN CREED, a creed or exposition of Christian faith, supposed
+formerly to have been drawn up by St. Athanasius, though this opinion is
+now generally rejected, and the composition often ascribed to Hilary,
+Bishop of Arles (about 430). It is an explicit avowal of the doctrines of
+the Trinity (as opposed to Arianism, of which Athanasius was a great
+opponent) and of the incarnation, and contains what are known as the
+'damnatory clauses', in which it declares that damnation must be the lot of
+those who do not believe the true and catholic faith. It is contained in
+the _Book of Common Prayer_, to be read on certain
+occasions.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. J. A. Hort, _Two Dissertations_; G. D. W.
+Ommanney, _Critical Dissertation on the Athanasian Creed_; J. A. Robinson,
+_The Athanasian Creed_; E. C. S. Gibson, _The Three Creeds_; R. O. P.
+Taylor, _Athanasian Creed in the Twentieth Century_.
+
+ATHANA'SIUS, ST., Archbishop of Alexandria, a renowned father of the
+Church, born in that city about A.D. 296, died 373. While yet a young man
+he attended the Council at Nice (325), where he gained the highest esteem
+of the fathers by the talents which he displayed in the Arian controversy.
+He had a great share in the decrees passed here, and thereby drew on
+himself the hatred of the Arians. Shortly afterwards he was appointed
+Archbishop of Alexandria. The complaints and accusations of his enemies at
+length induced the Emperor Constantine to summon him in 334 before the
+Councils of Tyre and Jerusalem, when he was suspended, and afterwards
+banished to Treves. The death of Constantine put an end to this banishment,
+and Constantius recalled the holy patriarch. His return to Alexandria
+resembled a triumph. Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 342. Again
+in 355 he was sentenced to be banished, when he retired into those parts of
+the desert which were entirely uninhabited. He was followed by a faithful
+servant, who, at the risk of his life, supplied him with the means of
+subsistence. Here Athanasius composed many writings, full of eloquence, to
+strengthen the faith of the believers, or expose the falsehood of his
+enemies. When Julian the Apostate ascended the throne, toleration was
+proclaimed to all religions, and Athanasius returned to his former position
+at Alexandria. His next controversy was with the heathen subjects of
+Julian, who excited the emperor against him, and he was obliged to flee in
+order to save his life. The death of the emperor and the accession of
+Jovian (363) again brought him back; but Valens becoming emperor, and the
+Arians recovering the superiority, he was once more compelled to flee. He
+concealed himself in the tomb of his father, where he remained four months,
+until Valens allowed him to return. From this period he remained
+undisturbed in his office till he died. Of the forty-six years of his
+official life he spent twenty in banishment, and the greater part of the
+remainder in defending the Nicene Creed. Athanasius was not so much a
+speculative theologian as a great Christian pastor (cf. L. Duchesne,
+_Histoire ancienne. de l'Eglise_, 1907). His writings, which are in Greek,
+are on polemical, historical, and moral subjects. The polemical treat
+chiefly of the doctrines of the Trinity, the incarnation of Christ, and the
+divinity of the Holy Spirit. The historical ones are of the greatest
+importance for the history of the Church. See _Athanasian Creed_.
+
+A'THEISM (Gr. _a_, priv., and _Theos_, God), the disbelief of the existence
+of a God or supreme intelligent being; the doctrine opposed to _theism_ or
+_deism_. The term has been often loosely used as equivalent with
+_infidelity_ generally, with deism, with pantheism, and with the denial of
+immortality. The most famous exponents of atheism were La Mettrie, Holbach,
+Feuerbach, and Carl Vogt; whilst Comte and Haeckel have put forward systems
+of thought essentially atheistic.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Flint, _Anti-theistic
+Theories_; J. S. Blackie, _Natural History of Atheism_; F. A. Lange,
+_History of Materialism_.
+
+ATH'ELING, a title of honour among the Anglo-Saxons, meaning one who is of
+noble blood. The title was gradually confined to the princes of the blood
+royal, and in the ninth and tenth centuries was used exclusively for the
+sons or brothers of the reigning king.
+
+ATHELING, Edgar. See _Edgar Atheling_.
+
+ATH'ELNEY, formerly an island in the midst of fens and marshes, now drained
+and cultivated in Somersetshire, England, about 7 miles southeast of
+Bridgwater. Alfred the Great took refuge in it during a Danish invasion,
+and afterwards founded an abbey there.
+
+ATH'ELSTAN, King of England, born 895, died 941, succeeded his father,
+Edward the Elder, in 925. He was victorious in his wars with the Danes of
+Northumberland, and the Scots, by whom they were assisted. After a signal
+overthrow of his enemies at Brunanburgh he governed in peace and with great
+ability.
+
+ATH[=E]'NA, or ATH[=E]N[=E], a Greek goddess, identified by the Romans with
+Minerva, the representative of the intellectual powers; the daughter of
+Zeus (Jupiter) and M[=e]tis (that is, wisdom or cleverness). According to
+the legend, before her birth Zeus swallowed her mother, and Athena
+afterwards sprang from the head of Zeus with a mighty war shout and in
+complete armour. In her character of a wise and prudent warrior she was
+contrasted with the fierce Ares (Mars). In the wars of the giants she slew
+Pallas and Enceladus. In the wars of the mortals she aided and protected
+heroes. She is also represented as the patroness of the arts of peace. The
+sculptor, the architect, and the painter, as well as the philosopher, the
+orator, and the poet, considered her their tutelar deity. She is also
+represented among the healing gods. In all these representations she is the
+symbol of the thinking faculty, the goddess of wisdom, science, and art;
+the latter, however, only in so far as invention and thought are
+comprehended. In the images of the goddess a manly gravity and an air of
+reflection are united with female beauty in her features. As a warrior she
+is represented completely armed, her head covered with a gold helmet. As
+the goddess of peaceful art she appears in the dress of a Grecian matron.
+To her insignia belong the Aegis, the Gorgon's head, the round Argive
+buckler; and the owl, the cock, the serpent, an olive branch, and a lance
+were sacred to her. All Attica, but particularly Athens, was sacred to her,
+and she had numerous temples there. Her most brilliant festival at Athens
+was the Panathenaea.
+
+ATHENAE'UM, the temple of Athena or Minerva, at Athens, frequented by
+poets, learned men, and orators. The same name was given at Rome to the
+school which Hadrian established on the Capitoline Mount for the promotion
+of literary and scientific studies. In modern times the same name is given
+to literary clubs and establishments connected with the sciences. It is
+also the title of several literary periodicals.
+
+ATHENAE'US, a Greek rhetorician and grammarian, who lived at the end of the
+second and beginning of the third century after Christ, author of an
+encyclopaedic work, in the form of conversation, called _The Professors at
+the Dinner-table_ (_Deipnosophistae_), which is a rich but ill-arranged
+treasure of historical, antiquarian, philosophical, grammatical, &c.,
+knowledge.
+
+ATHENAG'ORAS, a Platonic philosopher of Athens, a convert to Christianity,
+who wrote a Greek _Apology for the Christians_, addressed to the Emperor
+Marcus Aurelius, in 177, one of the earliest that appeared.
+
+ATH'ENS (Gr. _Ath[=e]nai_, Lat. _Ath[=e]nae_), anciently the capital of
+Attica and centre of Greek culture, now the capital of the kingdom of
+Greece. It is situated in the central plain of Attica, about 4 miles from
+the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Aegina, an arm of the Aegean Sea running in
+between the mainland and the Peloponnesus. It is said to have been founded
+about 1550 B.C. by Cecrops, the mythical Pelasgian hero, and to have borne
+the name Cecropia until under Erechtheus it received the name of Athens in
+honour of Ath[=e]n[=e]. The Acropolis, an irregular oval crag 150 feet
+high, with a level summit 1000 feet long by 500 in breadth, was the
+original nucleus of the city, which, according to tradition, was extended
+by Theseus when Athens became the head of the confederate Attic States. The
+three chief eminences near the Acropolis--the Areopagus to the north-west,
+the Pnyx to the south-west, and the Museum to the south of the Pnyx--were
+thus included within the city boundary as the sites of its chief public
+buildings, the city itself, however, afterwards taking a northerly
+direction. On the east ran the Ilissus and on the west the Cephissus, while
+to the south-west lay three harbours--Phalerum, the oldest and nearest; the
+Piraeus, the most important; and Munychia, the Piraean Acropolis. At the
+height of its prosperity the city was connected with its harbours by three
+massive walls (the 'long walls'). The architectural development of Athens
+may be dated from the rule of the Pisistratids (560-510 B.C.), who are
+credited with the foundation of the huge temple of the Olympian Zeus,
+completed by Hadrian seven centuries later, the erection of the Pythium or
+temple of the Pythian Apollo, and of the Lyceum or temple of Apollo
+Lyceus--all near the Ilissus; and to whom were due the enclosure of the
+Academy, a gymnasium and gardens to the north of the city, and the building
+of the Agora with its Portico or Stoa, Bouleuterium or Senate-house,
+Tholus, and Prytaneum. With the foundation of Athenian democracy under
+Clisthenes, the Pnyx or place of public assembly, with its semicircular
+area and cyclopean wall, first became of importance, and a commencement was
+made of the Dionysiac theatre (theatre of Dionysus or Bacchus) on the south
+side of the Acropolis. After the destruction wrought by the Persians in 480
+B.C., Themistocles reconstructed the city upon practical lines and with a
+larger area, enclosing the city in new walls 7-1/2 miles in circumference,
+erecting the north wall of the Acropolis, and developing the maritime
+resources of the Piraeus; while Cimon added to the southern fortifications
+of the Acropolis, placed on it the temple of Wingless Victory, planted the
+Agora with trees, laid out the Academy, and built the Theseum on an
+eminence north of the Areopagus; his brother-in-law, Peisianax, erected the
+famous Stoa Poecil[=e], a hall with walls covered with paintings (whence
+the _Stoics_ got their name). Under Pericles the highest point of artistic
+development was reached. An Odeum was erected on the east of the Dionysiac
+theatre for the recitations of rhapsodists and musicians; and with the aid
+of the architects Ict[=i]nus, Callicrates, and Mnesicles, and of the
+sculptor Phidias, the Acropolis was perfected. Covering the whole of the
+western end rose the Propylaea, the splendid structure through which the
+Acropolis was entered, constructed of Pentelic marble and consisting of a
+central gateway portico with two wings in the form of Doric temples. Just
+outside the Propylaea was the small temple of Wingless Victory. A short
+distance within the entrance stood the bronze statue of Athena Promachus, a
+colossal work of Phidias, 66 feet high, showing the goddess in complete
+armour and leaning on a lance. Beyond it to the left was the Erechtheum,
+the shrine of Athena Polias, guardian of the city, containing a very
+ancient and sacred statue of Athena in olive-wood; while to the right, on
+the highest part of the Acropolis, was the marble Parthenon or temple of
+Athena, the crowning glory of the whole. This renowned structure, still
+glorious in its ruins, was built under the auspices of Pericles, Phidias
+being the sculptor and artistic adviser, and Ict[=i]nus and Callicrates the
+architects. It is in the Doric style, and among its numerous sculptures
+were fifty life-size statues, while in the interior was a chryselephantine
+(gold and ivory) figure of the goddess, 39 feet high. (See _Parthenon_.)
+Minor statues and shrines occupied the rest of the area of the Acropolis,
+which was for the time wholly appropriated to the worship of the guardian
+deities of the city. The Acropolis museum, a building of recent date,
+contains an interesting and valuable collection of works of art found here.
+In the interval between the close of the Peloponnesian War and the battle
+of Chaeronea few additions were made to the city. But the long walls and
+Piraeus, destroyed by Lysander, were restored by Conon, and under the
+orator Lycurgus the Dionysiac temple was completed, the Panathenaic stadium
+commenced, and the choragic monuments of Lysicrates and Thrasyllus erected.
+Later on Ptolemy Philadelphus gave Athens the Ptolemaeum near the Theseum,
+Attalus I the stoa north-east of the Agora, Eumenes II that near the great
+theatre, and Antiochus Epiphanes carried on the Olympieum. Under the Romans
+it continued a flourishing city, Hadrian in the second century adorning it
+with many new buildings, and constructing an aqueduct, finished by his son
+Antoninus Pius. At this time also a wealthy citizen, Herodes Atticus, did
+much to beautify the city, and in particular constructed an Odeum, the
+ruins of which are still conspicuous. Indeed Athens was at no time more
+splendid than under the Antonines, when Pausanias visited and described it.
+But after a time Christian zeal, the attacks of barbarians, and robberies
+of collectors made sad inroads among the monuments. About A.D. 420 paganism
+was totally annihilated at Athens, and when Justinian closed even the
+schools of the philosophers, the reverence for buildings associated with
+the names of the ancient deities and heroes was lost. The Parthenon was
+turned into a church of the Virgin Mary, and St. George stepped into the
+place of Theseus. Finally, in 1456, the place fell into the hands of the
+Turks. The Parthenon became a mosque, and in 1687 was greatly damaged by an
+explosion at the siege of Athens by the Venetians. Enough, however, remains
+of it and of the neighbouring structures to attest the splendour of the
+Acropolis; while of the other buildings of the city, the Theseum, or temple
+of Theseus, and the Horologium, or temple of the Winds, are admirably
+preserved, as are also structures belonging to the Pnyx, Panathenaic
+stadium (restored and again used for games), &c. The Theseum, indeed, is
+said to be the best preserved building of all ancient Greece, and is hardly
+less imposing than the Parthenon. Of more than a hundred columns that
+belonged to the Olympieum or temple of the Olympian Zeus, completed by
+Hadrian, only fifteen are still standing. Soon after the commencement of
+the war of liberation in 1821 the Turks surrendered Athens, but captured it
+again in 1826-7. The Great Powers now intervened to bring about the
+independence of Greece. The Turks evacuated Athens in 1833, and the troops
+of King Otho then entered the city. In 1835 it became the royal residence,
+and it soon began to make rapid progress, though its natural position is by
+no means advantageous. The modern city mostly lies north, north-east, and
+north-west of the Acropolis, and consists mainly of straight and well-built
+streets. Among the principal buildings are the royal palace, a stately
+building with a facade of Pentelic marble (completed 1843), the university,
+the academy of science, national museum of archaeology, public library,
+exhibition building, polytechnic institute, theatre, and observatory. There
+are two universities, the National University, opened in 1836, and the
+Capodistrian University with 3250 students. There are valuable museums, in
+particular the National Museum and that in the Polytechnic School, which
+contains the Schliemann collection, &c. These are constantly being added to
+by excavations. There are four foreign archaeological schools or
+institutes, the French, German, American, and British. The Zappeion or
+exhibition building is a handsome structure, erected at the expense of the
+brothers Zappas to exhibit Greek industries. Tramways have been made in the
+principal streets, and the city is connected by tramway and railway (6
+miles) with its port, the Piraeus. Athens has also railway connection with
+the north and west of the kingdom as well as with the Peloponnesus. The
+Piraeus is the chief Greek centre of trade and industry. Water is brought
+from Mount Pentelicus on the north-east, the aqueduct begun by Hadrian
+being utilized in supplying the city. Pop. 167,479, and including the
+Piraeus 241,058.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. A. Gardner, _Ancient Athens_; J. E.
+Harrison, _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_; W. Warde Fowler,
+_The City-State_, chapter vi; W. M. Leake, _Topography of Athens and the
+Demi_; C. H. Weller, _Athens and its Monuments_.
+
+ATHENS, the name of many places in the United States, the chief being in
+Georgia, and containing the Georgia University and the State college of
+agriculture. It carries on the cotton manufacture, has manufactures of
+agricultural implements, &c., and is a centre of trade. It was founded in
+1801. Pop. 14,913.
+
+ATH'ERINE (_Ather[=i]na_), the name of a genus of small fishes abundant in
+the Mediterranean and caught in British waters, especially on the coasts of
+the south of England, some of them being highly esteemed as food. They are
+also known as _Sand-smelts_. There are two British species.
+
+ATHERO'MA, in pathology, a term applied to a change that may take place in
+the inner coat of an artery, consisting in a kind of fatty degeneration,
+leading to an aneurism or bursting. Also an encysted tumour containing
+matter of a curdy appearance.
+
+ATH'ERSTONE, a town in Warwickshire, England, 8 miles S.E. of Tamworth, and
+equidistant (100 miles) from London, Liverpool, and Lincoln. It has
+manufactures of hats, and is the reputed birthplace of the poet Drayton.
+Pop. (1921), 20,849 (rural district).
+
+ATH'ERTON, town of England, Lancashire, 13 miles north-west of Manchester;
+cotton-factories, collieries, and ironworks give chief employment to the
+inhabitants. Pop. (1921), 19,863.
+
+ATHLETES (ath'l[=e]ts; Gr. _athl[=e]tai_, from _athlos_, a contest,
+_athlon_, a prize), originally, in ancient Greece, combatants who took part
+and contended for a prize (_athlon_) in the public games. The profession
+was an honourable one; tests of birth, position, and character were
+imposed, and crowns, statues, special privileges, and pensions were among
+the rewards of success. (See _Games_.) The word is used in a similar sense
+at the present day, but is more especially applied to persons who can
+exhibit feats of strength. Games and athletic competitions, if they do not
+hold such an honourable position to-day as they did in antiquity, are still
+practised with great enthusiasm and excite the keenest interest in their
+patrons.
+
+ATHLETIC SPORTS, a general name for certain physical exercises demanding a
+special natural ability, and embodying a variety of events which
+conventionally include not only running and jumping but such feats of
+strength as putting the weight and throwing the hammer. The selection of
+these events at any athletic meeting is a somewhat arbitrary one, and the
+inclusion of those which require strength and skill rather than speed and
+agility rests more on a traditional than a logical basis. A particular
+feature which distinguishes these exercises as athletic sports is the
+presence of the idea of competition; thus running and walking, as isolated
+exercises, can be called 'sports' only when men compete against one
+another, although the factor of competition may be only indirectly present,
+as when an athlete endeavours to beat a record.
+
+In this country athletic sports have long been a national characteristic,
+and records, more or less authentic, have been handed down for the last
+hundred years or more. Until comparatively recently, such sports have been
+the prerogative of the British Isles; but during the last thirty years the
+United States have adopted them with enormous enthusiasm and success, and
+more recently still the vogue has extended throughout the Continent, and
+good results have been obtained by representatives from France, Germany,
+Italy, Austria, Sweden, and Finland, as well as from all the Colonies. In
+this country no school, no matter how small or how humble its pretensions,
+fails to hold its athletic meeting annually. The same applies to all
+colleges of the leading universities, Oxford and Cambridge, the best
+representatives of which compete against one another, whilst the smaller
+universities hold similar competitions. In addition, a large number of
+clubs are in existence throughout the country for the promotion and
+encouragement of sports, the whole system of athletics being under the
+Amateur Athletic Association (founded in 1880), whose rules and regulations
+for the correct maintenance of athletics in the best interests of
+amateurism are regarded as a standard throughout the world. Under its
+auspices an annual meeting--the Amateur Championships--is held. This
+meeting is open to the whole world, and many of the championships have been
+held at one time or another by distinguished visitors from America, the
+Colonies, and the Continent. At the time of writing, the association is
+considering the project of holding two distinct annual meetings, one of
+which shall, as hitherto, be unrestricted, the other confined to residents
+in the British Isles. This, which is the most important meeting of the
+year, has taken place uninterruptedly since its origin in 1866 with the
+exception of the military interval, 1915-8, and has been successfully
+resumed in 1919. For the past fourteen or fifteen years the meeting has
+been held in London on the first Saturday in July, and this practice will
+probably be a permanent one, although hitherto the venue was, in rotation,
+London, the Midlands, and the North. The university and inter-university
+meetings are held before Easter, the former at the respective university
+towns, the latter at Queen's Club, London. Among other important
+representative contests may be mentioned the Public Schools' Championships
+(usually in April), the United Hospitals' Championships, the Irish, the
+Scottish, the Welsh, the Midland and the Northern Counties' Championships.
+During the war, athletics were practically restricted to the services, and
+the Army Athletic Championships, held in Aug., 1919, was a successful
+reunion of soldier athletes from the various theatres of war, and included,
+for the first time in history, coloured troops.
+
+The standard inter-university meeting comprises ten events, namely, flat
+races--100 yards, 1/4 mile, 1/2 mile, 1 mile, and 3 miles; 120-yards hurdle
+race; the high jump and long jump; putting the weight and throwing the
+hammer. These events appear in the programme of the Amateur Championship
+meeting, with the substitution of a 4-miles race for the 3 miles, and the
+addition of a 220-yards race, a 2-miles walking race, a 2-miles
+steeplechase (representing a miniature cross-country event), and the pole
+jump. A relay race, in which four representatives from each club run half a
+mile, a quarter of a mile, 220 yards, and 220 yards respectively, is also
+included as a standard event; whilst at the 1919 meeting a race of 440
+yards over hurdles appeared for the first time, and will probably occupy a
+permanent place in the programme. Two additional Amateur Championship
+events, 7-miles walk and 10-miles flat race, are usually held at a separate
+meeting in the spring.
+
+In addition to the preceding British meetings, a great International
+contest, the Olympic Games, is held every four years in a country selected
+by the Olympic committee. This meeting is truly international, the last
+before 1914 having taken place at Stockholm in 1912, when representatives
+from the most distant parts of the world competed with representatives from
+every country in Europe in a remarkably elaborate programme, which
+included, in addition to the preceding, such feats as throwing the javelin
+and the discus, and the classic 'Marathon race' over the traditional
+distance of 26-1/4 miles. The 1920 Olympic meeting was arranged to take
+place at Antwerp.
+
+Although many excellently arranged athletic sports are held successfully
+upon a grass course, at any important meeting the races are contested upon
+a properly-constructed cinder-path, a quarter or a third of a mile in
+length, and in shape an oval flattened on two sides so as to include as
+much straight as possible. The width of the running path is variable, but
+18 to 24 feet may be regarded as an average. The centre is of grass, and
+spaces are prepared for the hurdle race, for the jumps, and the other
+events which are described as the _field_, as opposed to _track_, events.
+
+Flat races are classified as 'sprint races', 'middle distance' and 'long
+distance' races, although the distinction between these is somewhat
+arbitrary. Whether or no a man is actually capable of running the whole
+distance in question at full speed, the term 'sprint' is applied to those
+distances in which an attempt is made to put forth a continuous maximum
+effort. The limit is, by general consent, fixed at 300 yards. At any good
+meeting the 100-yards race will be run in 10 seconds; at the very best
+meeting this time will be beaten; and many runners have been credited with
+9-4/5 seconds, a few, under exceptional conditions, with 9-3/5 seconds. The
+record for 220 yards is 21-1/5 seconds. Middle-distance running includes
+races from a quarter mile to a mile, and races are held at 440 yards, 600
+yards, 880 yards, 1000 yards, 1 mile, and very occasionally at 3/4 mile.
+With modern specialization, however, it is rare to find any one runner
+capable of supremacy at more than one of these distances. The 1/4 mile is
+the common ground for the sprinter and the middle-distance runner, and 48
+seconds has been beaten on several occasions, although it may be said that
+anything inside 50 seconds is a first-class performance. The record for 600
+yards is 1 minute 11 seconds. The 1/2-mile race has demonstrated latterly,
+perhaps, the greatest advance of all; and whilst anything under 2 minutes
+may still be regarded as a good performance, a championship event will most
+always be won in 3 or 4 seconds faster time; whilst at an Olympic meeting
+the wonderful record of 1 minute 52-1/2 seconds has been made. The mile,
+which was originally regarded as a long-distance event, is now legitimately
+considered as within the capacity of a middle-distance runner. At any
+first-class meeting 4 minutes 20 seconds will be accomplished, and any
+diminution of this time may be regarded as of superlative merit. The
+record, which has stood since 1886, is 4 minutes 12-3/4 seconds, although a
+recent performance in America, which is a tiny fraction of a second faster,
+has yet to be passed. Over 1 mile, long-distance running begins, and, as
+considerable staying-power is required, it is not unusual to find one man
+prove champion at 4 miles and 10 miles, and even the 1-mile race in the
+same year. No runner has yet achieved the capacity of running 12 miles
+within the hour, although two or three have been within a few hundred yards
+of this distance. About ten years ago the fashion became a craze of
+contesting 'Marathon races' in which all sorts of distances, quite
+independent of the classic 26-1/4 miles, were employed. At rare intervals
+very long-distance running, such as 50 miles, is indulged in. For any
+distance over 20 miles a special form of endurance is called for, rather
+than orthodox running in good style. As a competition 'walking' is an
+unsatisfactory exercise, because of the extreme difficulty in deciding when
+the athlete is still fulfilling the orthodox regulation as to what
+constitutes fair 'heel and toe', inasmuch as the style of a man who is
+ostensibly walking, yet actually progressing at a rate faster than 9 miles
+an hour (faster than the average untrained person can run), is exceedingly
+difficult to analyse. About fifteen years ago long-distance walking became
+exceedingly popular, and hundreds of competitors attempted the classic walk
+to Brighton and back.
+
+The usual hurdle race is over 120 yards, with ten flights of hurdles 10
+yards apart, so that a distance of 15 yards separates the start from the
+first flight, and the same distance the last flight from the finish. The
+hurdles are 3-1/2 feet high, with perfectly-level top rails. In correct
+'hurdling' the 'three-stride method' is essential, that is to say, three
+strides are taken on the flat between the hurdles, and the athlete rises 6
+feet from the obstacle, taking it in his stride, so that retardation of
+speed is reduced to a minimum. The skill and accuracy of an accomplished
+hurdler is remarkable, and the race is frequently run inside 16 seconds; a
+record of 15 seconds, and even a trifle less, has been accomplished.
+
+In this country, running long jump and high jump (and to a less extent the
+pole jump) alone are practised to any extent, although as occasional events
+the standing high and long jumps are contested, and, still less frequently,
+the old-fashioned hop, step, and jump. In the long jump the athlete employs
+all the impetus he can acquire by a sprint of about 30 yards. The ideal
+aimed at is to run at the fastest speed which is consistent with reaching
+the taking-off board with accuracy, and then to leap as high as possible. A
+fraction of an inch under 25 feet has been cleared on two occasions,
+although it may be said that anything over 24 feet is exceptional, and that
+any jumper capable of 23 feet consistently has a good chance to win an
+Amateur Championship. The high jump requires skill of a very peculiar
+character. Whilst the novice regards this feat as dependent on momentum,
+and takes a correspondingly long run to acquire speed, the crack performer
+employs his capacity of manipulating his body and limbs so as to cross the
+bar in a horizontal position. In this way the prodigious height of 6 feet 7
+inches has been cleared. In general it may be said that first-class jumping
+begins at 6 feet.
+
+Pole jumping, a particularly pretty event to watch, has never been
+practised to any great extent in this country, and, in fact, does not even
+appear to be so popular here as twenty years ago. The pole employed is of
+light but strong bamboo about 14 feet long, with a sharp ferrule at one
+end, which is stuck firmly into the ground. By the help of the pole, which
+is firmly grasped near the other end, the jumper elevates himself to the
+bar, over which he throws his legs and his body, finally relinquishing his
+hold of the pole, to fall on the opposite side. Recent years have witnessed
+the development of great skill in this event, particularly by the
+Americans, Canadians, and Swedes, and 13 feet has been cleared.
+
+The weight or shot is an iron ball weighing 16 lb., which must be put with
+one hand only from the shoulder within a circle of 7 feet diameter.
+Although great strength is essential, skill in utilizing the whole of the
+body plays a very important part. Over 50 feet has been put on several
+occasions.
+
+The 'hammer' is a ball of lead or iron attached by a wire to a handle. The
+total length must not exceed four feet; the weight of the whole must be at
+least 16 lb. The performer grasps the handle with one or both hands, and,
+standing within a 7-foot circle, swings the ball round and round to acquire
+impetus, which is then increased by rapid rotatory movements of his body.
+Once again skill and co-ordination must be wedded to strength. A crack
+performer has thrown over 175 feet.
+
+Throwing the javelin and discus are classical rather than popular events,
+and their cultivation is fashionable only when an Olympic contest is
+imminent. Among other 'strong-men' contests, which have long been favourite
+sports in Scotland, are tossing the _caber_ and putting the stone. The
+latter is usually a very heavy implement weighing about 56 lb.; the 'caber'
+is the trunk of a fir or other tree, freed from branches, which is held
+upright close to the chest by the smaller end, and thrown so as to alight
+on the heavier end.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Encyclopaedia of Sports and Games_;
+_Annual Sporting and Athletic Register_; F. A. M. Webster, _The Evolution
+of the Olympic Games, 1829_ B.C.-A.D. _1914_; G. Le Roy, _Athletisme_;
+E. W. Hjertberg, _Athletics in Theory and Practice_; P. Withington, _The
+Book of Athletics_.
+
+ATHLONE', a town of Ireland, divided by the Shannon into two parts, one in
+Westmeath, the other in Roscommon; about 76 miles west of Dublin. Its
+position has made it one of the chief military depots, and a centre of
+trade by river, canal, and railway. It manufactures woollen goods, linens,
+&c. Up to 1885 it sent one member to Parliament. Pop. 7500.
+
+ATH'OLL, or ATHOLE, a mountainous and romantic district in the north of
+Perthshire, Scotland, giving the title to a duke of the Murray family who
+owns a large area there.
+
+ATHOR, HATHOR, or HET-HER, an Egyptian goddess, identified with
+Aphrod[=i]t[=e] or Venus. Her symbol was the cow bearing on its head the
+solar disc and hawk-feather plumes. Her chief temple was at Denderah. From
+her the third month of the Egyptian year derived its name.
+
+A'THOS (now HAGION OROS or MONTE SANTO, that is, Holy Mountain), a mountain
+6700 feet high, terminating the most eastern of the three peninsulas of
+Macedonia that jut in parallel directions into the Archipelago. The name,
+however, is frequently applied to the whole peninsula, which is about 30
+miles long by 5 broad. It is covered with forests, and plantations of
+olive, vine, and other fruit-trees. Both the surface and coast-line are
+irregular. The Persian fleet under Mardonius was wrecked here in 493 B.C.,
+and to avoid a similar calamity Xerxes caused a canal, of which traces may
+yet be seen, to be cut through the isthmus that joins the peninsula to the
+mainland. On the peninsula there are situated about twenty monasteries and
+a multitude of hermitages, which contain from 6000 to 8000 monks and
+hermits of the order of St. Basil. The libraries of the monasteries are
+rich in literary treasures and manuscripts. Every nation belonging to the
+Greek Church has here one or more monasteries of its own, which are
+annually visited by pilgrims. After having passed in the fifteenth century
+from the sovereignty of the Greek Emperors of Byzantium to that of the
+Sultans, it fell again into the hands of the Greeks, who occupied it in
+Nov., 1912. Each of the twenty monasteries is a little republic in itself,
+and until 1912 they used to pay an annual tribute of nearly L4000 to the
+Turks, and were governed by a synod of twenty monastic deputies and four
+presidents meeting weekly. They are now ruled either by abbots chosen for
+life, or by a board of overseers elected for a certain number of years. The
+revenue of the community is derived from pilgrims, and from a considerable
+trade in amulets, rosaries, crucifixes, images, and wooden furniture.
+
+ATHY', a town in Ireland, county of Kildare, 37 miles south-west of Dublin,
+on the Barrow, which is here joined by the Grand Canal. Its chief trade is
+in corn. Pop. 3535.
+
+ATIT'LAN, a lake and mountain of Central America in Guatemala. The lake is
+about 24 miles long and 10 broad; the mountain is an active volcano 12,160
+feet high.
+
+ATLAN'TA, a city in the United States, capital of Georgia, on an elevated
+ridge, 7 miles south-east of the Chattahoochee River. It is an important
+railway centre; carries on a large trade in grain, paper, cotton, flour,
+and especially tobacco, and possesses flour-mills, paper-mills, ironworks,
+&c. Here are Atlanta University for negro men and women, a theological
+college, a medical college, &c. Atlanta suffered severely during the Civil
+War, and a battle was fought there on 22nd July, 1864. A fire which broke
+out on 21st May, 1917, caused damage estimated at more than L1,000,000.
+Pop. (1920), 200,600.
+
+ATLAN'TES, or TELAM[=O]NES, in architecture, male figures used in place of
+columns or pilasters for the support of an entablature or cornice. Female
+figures so employed are termed _caryatides_.
+
+ATLANTIC CITY, a fashionable watering-place of the United States, on the
+coast of New Jersey. It is an important air port, and has an aerodrome
+covering about 160 acres. Pop. 50,682.
+
+ATLANTIC OCEAN, the vast expanse of sea lying between the west coasts of
+Europe and Africa and the east coasts of North and South America, and
+extending from the Arctic to the Antarctic Ocean; greatest breadth, between
+the west coast of Northern Africa and the east coast of Florida, 4150
+miles; least breadth, between Norway and Greenland, 930 miles. The total
+area of the North Atlantic (including the inland seas) is 13,262,000 sq.
+miles; the area of the South Atlantic is 12,627,000 sq. miles. The
+principal inlets and bays are Baffin's and Hudson's Bays, the Gulf of
+Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, the North Sea, the Bay of Biscay, and the Gulf
+of Guinea. The principal islands north of the equator are Iceland, the
+Faroe and British Islands, the Azores, Canaries, and Cape Verde Islands,
+Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the West India Islands; and south of the
+equator, Ascension, St. Helena, and Tristan da Cunha.
+
+The great currents of the Atlantic are the Equatorial Current (divisible
+into the Main, Northern, and Southern Equatorial Currents), the Gulf
+Stream, the North African and Guinea Current, the Southern Connecting
+Current, the Southern Atlantic Current, the Cape Horn Current, Rennel's
+Current, and the Arctic Current. The current system is primarily set in
+motion by the trade-winds which drive the water of the intertropical region
+from Africa towards the American coasts. The Main Equatorial Current,
+passing across the Atlantic, is turned by the S. American coast, along
+which it runs at a rate of 30 to 50 miles a day, till, having received part
+of the North Equatorial Current, it enters the Gulf of Mexico. Issuing
+thence between Florida and Cuba under the name of the Gulf Stream, it flows
+with a gradually-expanding channel nearly parallel to the coast of the
+United States. It then turns north-eastward into the mid-Atlantic, the
+larger proportion of it passing southward to the east of the Azores to
+swell the North African and Guinea Current created by the northerly winds
+off the Portuguese coast. The Guinea Current, which takes a southerly
+course, is divided into two on arriving at the region of the north-east
+trades, part of it flowing east to the Bight of Biafra and joining the
+South African feeder of the Main Equatorial, but the larger portion being
+carried westward into the North Equatorial drift. Rennel's Current, which
+is possibly a continuation of the Gulf Stream, enters the Bay of Biscay
+from the west, curves round its coast, and then turns north-west towards
+Cape Clear. The Arctic Current runs along the east coast of Greenland
+(being here called the Greenland Current), doubles Cape Farewell, and flows
+up towards Davis' Strait; it then turns to the south along the coasts of
+Labrador and the United States, from which it separates the Gulf Stream by
+a cold band of water. Immense masses of ice are borne south by this current
+from the Polar seas. In the interior of the North Atlantic there is a large
+area comparatively free from currents, called the Sargasso Sea, from the
+large quantity of sea-weed (of the genus Sargassum) which drifts into it. A
+similar area exists in the South Atlantic. In the South Atlantic the
+portion of the Equatorial Current which strikes the American coast below
+Cape St. Roque flows southward at the rate of from 12 to 20 miles a day
+along the Brazil coast under the name of the Brazil Current. It then turns
+eastward and forms the South Connecting Current, which, on reaching the
+South African coast, turns northward into the Main and Southern Equatorial
+Currents. Besides the surface currents, an under current of cold water
+flows from the poles to the equator, and an upper current of warm water
+from the equator towards the poles.
+
+The greatest depth as yet discovered is north of Porto Rico, in the West
+Indies, namely 27,360 feet. Cross-sections of the North Atlantic between
+Europe and America show that its bed consists of two great valleys lying in
+a north-and-south direction, and separated by a ridge, on which there is an
+average depth of 1800 fathoms. The mean depth of the North Atlantic is 2047
+fathoms, that of the South Atlantic 2067 fathoms. A ridge, called the
+_Wyville-Thomson Ridge_, with a depth of little more than 200 fathoms above
+it, runs from near the Butt of Lewis to Iceland, cutting off the colder
+water of the Arctic Ocean from the warmer water of the Atlantic. The South
+Atlantic, of which the greatest depth yet found is over 3000 fathoms,
+resembles the North Atlantic in having an elevated plateau or ridge in the
+centre with a deep trough on either side. The saltness and specific gravity
+of the Atlantic gradually diminish from the tropics to the poles, and also
+from within a short distance of the tropics to the equator. In the
+neighbourhood of the British Isles the salt has been stated at one
+thirty-eighth of the weight of the water. The North Atlantic is the
+greatest highway of ocean traffic in the world. It is also a great area of
+submarine communication, by means of the telegraphic cables that are laid
+across its bed. See _Oceanography_.
+
+ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See _Telegraph_.
+
+ATLAN'TIDES (-d[=e]z), a name given to the Pleiades, which were fabled to
+be the seven daughters of Atlas or of his brother Hesperus.
+
+ATLAN'TIS, an island which, according to Plato, existed in the Atlantic
+over against the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), was the home
+of a great nation, and was finally swallowed up by the sea. The legend has
+been accepted by some as fundamentally true; but others have regarded it as
+the outgrowth of some early discovery of the New World.
+
+ATLAN'TOSAURUS, a gigantic fossil reptile, ord. Dinosauria, obtained in the
+upper Jurassic strata of the Rocky Mountains, attaining a length of 110
+feet or more.
+
+ATLAS, an extensive mountain system in North Africa, starting near Cape Nun
+on the Atlantic Ocean, traversing Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis, and
+terminating on the coast of the Mediterranean; divided generally into two
+parallel ranges, running W. to E., the Greater Atlas lying towards the
+Sahara and the Lesser Atlas towards the Mediterranean. The principal chain
+is about 1500 miles long, and the principal peaks rise above or approach
+the line of perpetual congelation, Miltsin in Morocco being 11,400 feet
+high, and Tizi Likumpt being 13,150. The highest elevation is perhaps Tizi
+Tamyurt, estimated at fully 15,000 feet. Silver, antimony, lead, copper,
+iron, &c., are among the minerals. The vegetation is chiefly European in
+character, except on the low grounds and next the desert.
+
+ATLAS, in Greek mythology, the name of a Titan whom Zeus condemned to bear
+the vault of heaven.--The same name is given to a collection of maps and
+charts, and was first used by Gerard Mercator in the sixteenth century, the
+figure of Atlas bearing the globe being given on the title-pages of such
+works.
+
+ATLAS, in anatomy, is the name of the first vertebra of the neck, which
+supports the head. It is connected with the occipital bone in such a way as
+to permit of the nodding movement of the head, and rests on the second
+vertebra or _axis_, their union allowing the head to turn from side to
+side.
+
+AT'LAS, a kind of silk or silk-satin fabric of Eastern manufacture.
+
+ATMIDOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the evaporation from water, ice,
+or snow. It somewhat resembles Nicholson's hydrometer, being constructed so
+as to float in water and having an upright graduated stem, on the top of
+which is a metal pan. Water, ice, or snow is put into the pan, so as to
+sink the zero of the stem to a level with the cover of the vessel, and as
+evaporation goes on the stem rises, showing the amount of evaporation in
+grains.
+
+ATMOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the amount of evaporation from a
+moist surface in a given time. It is often a thin hollow ball of porous
+earthenware in which is inserted a graduated glass tube. The cavity of the
+ball and tube being filled with water and the top of the tube closed, the
+instrument is exposed to the free action of the air; the relative rapidity
+with which the water transuding through the porous substance is evaporated
+is marked by the scale on the tube as the water sinks.
+
+AT'MOSPHERE, primarily the gaseous envelope which surrounds the earth; but
+the term is applied to that of any orb. Twilight effects show that the
+atmosphere is sufficiently dense up to a height of 40 miles to scatter or
+reflect to an appreciable degree the sun's rays, while the phenomena of
+meteors, which are rendered luminous through friction, show that it
+extends, though in extremely attenuated form, to 100 or even 200 or more
+miles. It exerts on every part of the earth's surface a pressure of about
+15 (14.73) lb. per sq. inch. The existence of this atmospheric pressure was
+first proved by Torricelli, who thus accounted for the rush of a liquid to
+fill a vacuum, and who, working out the idea, produced the first barometer.
+The average height of the mercurial column counterbalancing the atmospheric
+weight at the sea-level is a little less than 30 inches; but the pressure
+varies from hour to hour, and, roughly speaking, diminishes in geometrical
+progression with arithmetical increase in altitude. Of periodic variations
+there are two maxima of daily pressure, occurring when the temperature is
+about the mean of the day, and two minima, when it is at its highest and
+lowest respectively; but the problems of diurnal and seasonal oscillations
+have yet to be fully solved. The pressure upon the human body of average
+size is no less than 14 tons, but as it is exerted equally in all
+directions no inconvenience is caused by it. It is sometimes convenient to
+take the atmospheric pressure as a standard for measuring other fluid
+pressures; thus the steam pressure of 30 lb. per sq. inch on a boiler is
+spoken of as a pressure of two atmospheres.
+
+The atmosphere, first subjected to analysis by Priestley and Scheele in the
+latter part of the eighteenth century, consists practically of oxygen and
+nitrogen in the almost constant proportion of 20.81 volumes of oxygen to
+79.19 volumes of nitrogen, or, by weight, 23.01 parts of oxygen to 76.99 of
+nitrogen. The gases are associated together, not as a chemical compound,
+but as a mechanical mixture. Upon the oxygen present depends the power of
+the atmosphere to support combustion and respiration, the nitrogen acting
+as a diluent to prevent its too energetic action. It had long been known
+that atmospheric nitrogen appeared to have a very slightly greater density
+than nitrogen obtained from other sources. Lord Rayleigh and Sir William
+Ramsay found that the fact was due to a still more inert gas which forms
+nearly 1 per cent of the air, and which had not previously been separated
+from nitrogen. This has been named _argon_. Besides these gases, the
+atmosphere also contains aqueous vapour in variable quantity, ozone,
+carbonic acid gas, traces of ammonia, nitric acid, and, in towns,
+sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid gas. In addition to its gaseous
+constituents the atmosphere is charged with dust, bacteria, &c. For other
+gases which are present in traces, see _Neon_. See _Climate_;
+_Meteorology_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Flammarion, _L'Atmosphere_; Sir Napier
+Shaw, _The Weather Map_.
+
+ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE, name given by early inventors to engines in which the
+piston is restored to the bottom of its stroke by atmospheric pressure.
+
+ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY, so called in consequence of the motive power being
+derived from the pressure of the atmosphere, or from compressed air. The
+idea of thus obtaining motion was first suggested by the French engineer
+Papin, about 200 years ago. In 1810, and again in 1827, Medhurst published
+a scheme for 'propelling carriages through a close-fitting air-tight tunnel
+by forcing in air behind them'; and in 1825 a similar project was patented
+by Vallance of Brighton. About 1835 H. Pinkus, an American residing in
+England, patented a pneumatic railway. The carriages were to travel on an
+open line of rails, along which a cast-iron tube of between 3 and 4 feet
+diameter was to be laid, having a longitudinal slit from 1 to 2 inches wide
+and closed by a flexible valve along its upper side, through which a
+connection could be formed between the leading carriage and a piston
+working within the tube. This method was improved by Messrs. Clegg &
+Samuda, who in 1840 tried some experiments on a portion of the West London
+Railway with sufficient success to induce the Government to advance a loan
+to the Dublin and Kingstown Railway Company, for the construction of a
+pneumatic line from Kingstown to Dalkey. It was opened for passenger
+traffic at the end of 1843, and was worked for many months. The London and
+Croydon Company subsequently obtained powers for laying down an atmospheric
+railway by the side of their other line from London to Croydon, and in
+experimental trips in 1845 a speed of 30 miles an hour was obtained with
+sixteen carriages, and of 70 miles with six carriages. But during the
+intense heat of the summer of 1846 the iron tube frequently became so hot
+as to melt the composition which sealed the valve, and the line had to be
+worked by locomotives. The mechanical difficulty of commanding a sufficient
+amount of rarefaction led to the abandonment of the system for railway
+purposes. It has been revived, however, for the conveyance of letters and
+parcels in towns by means of tubes of moderate diameter laid beneath the
+streets. See _Pneumatic Dispatch_.
+
+[Illustration: Atoll]
+
+ATOLL', the Polynesian name for coral islands of the ringed type enclosing
+a lagoon in the centre. They are found chiefly in the Pacific in
+archipelagos, and occasionally are of large size. Suadiva Atoll is 44 miles
+by 34; Rimsky 54 by 20. See _Coral_.
+
+ATOMIC THEORY, a theory as to the existence and properties of atoms (see
+_Atoms_); especially, in chemistry, the theory accounting for the fact that
+in compound bodies the elements combine in certain constant proportions, by
+assuming that all bodies are composed of ultimate atoms, the weight of
+which is different in different kinds of matter. It is associated with the
+name of Dalton, who systematized and extended the imperfect results of his
+predecessors. On its practical side the atomic theory asserts three _Laws
+of Combining Proportions_: (1) The Law of Constant or Definite Proportions,
+teaching that in every chemical compound the nature and relative weights of
+the constituent elements are definite and invariable; thus water invariably
+consists of 8 parts by weight of oxygen to 1 part by weight of hydrogen;
+(2) The Law of Multiple Proportions, according to which the several
+proportions in which one element unites with a given weight of another
+invariably bear towards each other a simple relation; thus 1 part by weight
+of hydrogen unites with 8 parts by weight of oxygen to form water, and with
+16 (i.e. 8x2) parts of oxygen to form peroxide of hydrogen; (3) The Law of
+Combination in Reciprocal Proportions, that the proportions in which two
+elements combine with a third also represent the proportions in which, or
+in some simple multiple of which, they will themselves combine; thus in
+olefiant gas hydrogen is present with carbon in the proportion of 1 to 6,
+and in carbonic oxide, oxygen is present with carbon in the proportion of 8
+to 6, 1 to 8 being also the proportions in which hydrogen and oxygen
+combine with each other. The theory that these _proportional numbers_ are,
+in fact, nothing else but the relative weights of atoms so far accounts for
+the phenomena that the existence of these laws might have been predicted by
+the aid of the atomic hypothesis long before they were actually discovered
+by analysis. In themselves, however, the laws do not prove the theory of
+the existence of ultimate particles of matter of a certain relative weight;
+and although many chemists, even without expressly adopting the atomic
+theory itself, have followed Dalton in the use of the terms _atom_ and
+_atomic weight_, in preference to _proportion_, _combining weight_,
+_equivalent_, and the like, yet in using the word _atom_ it should be held
+in mind that it merely denotes the combining weights of the elements. These
+will remain the same whether the atomic hypothesis which suggested the
+employment of the term be true or false. Dalton supposed that the atoms are
+spherical, and invented certain symbols to represent the mode in which he
+conceived they might combine. The latest atomic hypothesis is one which
+assigns an electrical structure to the atom. See _Chemistry_;
+_Electricity_; _Matter_. Cf. H. E. Roscoe and A. Harden, _New View of
+Dalton's Atomic Theory_; Sir J. J. Thomson, _Atomic Theory_.
+
+ATOMIC WEIGHTS. See _Chemistry_; _Molecular Weights_.
+
+ATOMISTS. See _Atoms_.
+
+ATOMS, for many years regarded as the ultimate indivisible particles of the
+chemical elements. The idea originated with some of the ancient
+philosophers (the atomists), more especially Democritus (450 B.C.),
+Epicurus, and Lucretius (99-55 B.C.), and was developed into a definite
+theory by Dalton (1804). According to Dalton the atoms of any one element
+are alike in all their properties, but differ from the atoms of other
+elements, and when chemical combination occurs it takes place between the
+atoms of the combining elements (see _Chemistry_). Various views have been
+held with regard to the nature of atoms. Newton regarded them as hard,
+ponderable particles, perfectly unalterable, and concluded that the
+difference between substances was due to different kinds of atoms. Lord
+Kelvin propounded the view that the properties of atoms might be explained
+by those of vortices or vortex rings in a homogeneous frictionless fluid.
+As a result of the researches of British and French physicists on radium,
+the latest view is that matter and electricity are closely connected, that
+atoms are not indivisible, but complex aggregates containing positive and
+negative electrons, the differences between the atoms depending mainly on
+the numbers of these electrons and their velocity. See _Radium_.
+
+ATONEMENT, in Christian theology, the special work of Christ effected by
+His life, sufferings, and death. The first explicit exposition of the
+evangelical doctrine of the atonement is ascribed to Anselm, Archbishop of
+Canterbury, in 1093.
+
+ATRATO ([.a]-trae't[=o]), a river of S. America, in the north-west of
+Colombia, emptying itself by nine mouths into the Gulf of Darien; it is
+navigable by steamers of some size for 250 miles, and has long been the
+subject of schemes for establishing water-communication between the
+Atlantic and Pacific.
+
+ATRAULI, a town of India, United Provinces, Aligarh district, clean, well
+built, and with a good trade. Pop. 16,560.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Corrections made to printed original.
+
+Article Animalcule. "but most of them are strictly microscopic.":
+'miscroscopic' in original.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1
+Part 2, by Various
+
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