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diff --git a/34074.txt b/34074.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..483467d --- /dev/null +++ b/34074.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14050 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 2, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 2 + Amiel to Atrauli + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34074] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they +are listed at the end of the text. + + * * * * * + + +Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron"; +[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above"; +[n.] "n with dot below"; [:a] "a with diaeresis"; and so forth. + +THE + +NEW . GRESHAM + +ENCYCLOPEDIA + +VOLUME . I . PART . 2 + +[Illustration] + +_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING +COMPANY . _Limited_ + +66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND +LONDON W.C.2. +1922 + + * * * * * + + + + + + + +LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS + + * * * * * + +VOLUME I PART 2 + + * * * * * + +PLATES + + Page + + ANATOMY (Human Skeleton and Muscles) 153 + + ARCHAEOLOGY (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages) 220 + + ARCHITECTURE 224 + + +MAPS IN COLOUR + + ASIA 274 + + * * * * * + + + + + + + +KEY TO PRONUNCIATION + + * * * * * + +The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking +the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of +transliteration, to which the following is the Key:-- + +VOWELS + +[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re. + +[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _a_me, Ger. B_a_hn = a of Indian names. + +[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn. + +a, as in f_a_t. + +[a:], as in f_a_ll. + +_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common +in Indian names. + +[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne. + +e, as in m_e_t. + +[.e], as in h_e_r. + +[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n. + +i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in +French and Italian words. + +_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eu_ne = Ger. long _oe_, as in S_oe_hne, +G_oe_the (Goethe). + +eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _oe_ short. + +[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n. + +o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium. + +[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_. + +[=u] as in t_u_be. + +u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a. + +[u:], as in b_u_ll. + +[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _u_ as in d_u_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in +gr_ue_n, B_ue_hne. + +[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger. +M_ue_ller. + +oi, as in _oi_l. + +ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s. + +CONSONANTS + +Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always +have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. +The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K +being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require +explanation are the following:-- + +ch is always as in ri_ch_. + +_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c. + +g is always hard, as in _g_o. + +_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other +similar gutturals. + +[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_. + +r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally +much more strongly trilled. + +s, always as in _s_o. + +th, as _th_ in _th_in. + +_th_, as _th_ in _th_is. + +w always consonantal, as in _w_e. + +x = ks, which are used instead. + +y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written +l[=e]ny). + +zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_. + + * * * * * + +AMIEL', Henri Frederic, French-Swiss philosophical writer and poet, born at +Geneva, 1821, died there 1881. Educated at Geneva, he resided a +considerable time abroad, especially in Germany, and was much influenced by +German thought and science. On his return he first held the chair of +aesthetics, and then that of philosophy. He published several volumes of +poetry as well as other works, but he is best known by his _Journal +Intime_, published after his death, and translated into English (1885), +with a critical study by Mrs. Humphry Ward. It shows great critical and +philosophical power, but is pessimistic. + +AMIENS ([.a]-m[=e]-a[n.]), a town of France, capital of the department of +Somme, on the railway from Boulogne to Paris. It has a citadel, wide and +regular streets, and several large open areas; a cathedral, one of the +largest and finest Gothic buildings in Europe, founded in 1220 by Bishop +Evrard, after designs made by the architect Robert de Luzarches. Having +water communication with the sea by the Somme, which is navigable for small +vessels, it has a large trade and numerous important manufactures, +especially cotton and woollen goods. It was taken by the Germans in 1870, +and again in 1914, by General von Kluck. Pop. (1911) 93,207.--The _Peace of +Amiens_, concluded between Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Batavian +Republic, 27th March, 1802, put an end for a time to the great war which +had lasted since 1793. + +AMIR. See _Emir_. + +AMIRANTE ISLANDS ([.a]-m[=e]-r[.a]n't[=a]), a group of eleven small islands +in the Indian Ocean, lying south-west of the Seychelles, and forming a +dependency of Mauritius. + +AMLWCH (am'loe_h_), a seaport in North Wales, Island of Anglesey. Pop. +(1921), 2694 (urb. dist.). + +AMMANA'TI, Bartolomeo, a sculptor and architect, born at Florence in 1511, +died 1592; executed the _Leda_ at Florence, a gigantic _Neptune_ for St. +Mark's Place at Venice, a colossal _Hercules_ at Padua, and after the +inundation in 1557, which destroyed all the bridges of the Arno, built the +celebrated Trinity Bridge at Florence, finished in 1570. He was an imitator +of Michael Angelo without his inspiration and genius. + +AMMERGAU ([.a]m'er-gou), a district in Upper Bavaria, having its centre in +the villages of Ober and Unter Ammergau. The former village is famous on +account of the Passion Play which is performed there, at intervals usually +of ten years. + +[Illustration: Ammeter.--Front removed to show details. + +A. Large magnet. B. Soft-iron keeper magnetized by magnet and acting as +resistance. D. Cylinder turning within B, and actuated by current entering +at C1, and flowing through spiral wire (not shown) at base of D, and +through coil on cylinder to terminal C2. E. Hair-spring regulating pointer. +F. Pointer stops.] + +AM'METER (short for ampere-meter), an instrument used for the measurement +of electric currents. For commercial use the scale is marked so as to read +amperes directly, but for experimental purposes it is usual to have a scale +with divisions numbered in tens, in which case the reading multiplied by a +suitable constant gives the value of the current in amperes. By employing +suitable shunts this admits of the one instrument being used for a number +of ranges. + +The types of ammeter and the principles upon which they work are as +follows: (_a_) _Soft-iron type_, the action of a magnetic field on a piece +of soft iron; (_b_) _moving-coil type_ and _dynamometer type_, the action +of a magnetic field on a current-carrying coil; (_c_) _hot-wire type_, the +expansion of a conductor due to the heating produced by the current; (_d_) +_induction type_, the action of a magnetic field on the eddy currents +produced in a metal disc. + +The "soft-iron" ammeter can be used for both direct and alternating +currents, is inexpensive, and is sufficiently accurate for commercial use. + +For direct-current measurements where a high degree of accuracy is of first +importance, a "moving-coil" ammeter is invariably used. + +In alternating-current circuits its place is taken by the dynamometer type, +which reads both direct and alternating currents. + +In cases where absence of inductance in the instrument is important, e.g. +in the measurements in wireless-telegraph and telephone circuits, the +"hot-wire" ammeter is used. It measures both direct and alternating +currents, and, when properly used, has a high degree of accuracy. + +The "induction" type cannot be used for direct currents, and has the +limitation that with alternating currents it will read correctly only at +the frequency for which it is calibrated. + +Almost invariably an ammeter gives its full-scale reading when a small +current, say of the order of one-tenth of an ampere, is passing through the +instrument itself. In order to read larger currents a device is employed +whereby a definite fraction of the current to be measured passes through +the instrument.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Fleming, _A Handbook for the +Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room_ (2 vols.); G. D. Aspinall Parr, +_Electrical Measuring Instruments_. + +AMMIA'NUS MARCELLI'NUS, a Roman historian, born at Antioch in Syria about +320, died about 390. He wrote in 31 books (of which the first 13 are lost) +a history of the Caesars, from Nerva to Valens, which was highly thought of +by Gibbon for its fidelity. His MS. was printed for the first time at Rome +in 1474. + +[Illustration: Ammon.] + +AM'MON (often called AMMON-RA, i.e. Ammon-Sun), an ancient Egyptian deity, +one of the chief gods of the country, identified by the Greeks with their +supreme god Zeus, while the Romans regarded him as the representative of +Jupiter; represented as a ram, as a human being with a ram's head, +ornamented with the solar disc, or simply with the horns of a ram. There +was a celebrated temple of Ammon in the Oasis of Siwah in the Libyan +desert. + +AMMON, Oasis of. See _Siwah_. + +AMMO'NIA, an alkaline substance, which differs from the other alkalies by +being gaseous, and is hence sometimes called the _volatile alkali_. It is a +colourless pungent gas, composed of nitrogen and hydrogen; formula, NH_3. +It was first prepared by Priestley, who termed it _alkaline air_. He +obtained it from sal-ammoniac by the action of lime, by which method it is +yet generally prepared. It is used for many purposes, both in medicine and +scientific chemistry; not, however, in the gaseous state, but frequently in +solution in water, under the names of _liquid ammonia_, _aqueous ammonia_, +or _spirits of hartshorn_. It is generally prepared from the ammoniacal +liquor obtained as a by-product on distilling coal. Combined with acids, +ammonia forms salts which are of immense value to agriculture. The +well-known odour of farmyard manure is very largely due to the formation of +ammonia during the rotting of the dung. Many animal substances, such as +bones, clippings and shavings of horn, hoof, &c., and certain vegetable +matters yield ammonia when heated. Sal-ammoniac is ammonium chloride. + +AMMONI'[)A]CUM, a gum-resinous exudation from an umbelliferous plant, the +_Dor[=e]ma ammoni[)a]cum_. It has a fetid smell, is inflammable, soluble in +water and spirit of wine; used as an antispasmodic, stimulant, and +expectorant in chronic catarrh, bronchitic affections, and asthma; also +used for plasters. + +AMMO'NIAPHONE, an instrument, consisting of a metallic tube containing some +substance saturated with ammonia, peroxide of hydrogen, and a few +flavouring compounds, fitted with a mouthpiece to breathe through, which is +said to render the voice strong, clear, rich, and ringing by the inhalation +of the ammoniacal vapour. It was invented by Dr. Carter Moffat, and was +suggested by the presence of ammonia in some quantity in the atmosphere of +Italy--the country of fine singers. + +[Illustration: Ammonites obtusus. Ammonites varians] + +AM'MONITES, a group of fossil cephalopods, now divided into a large number +of genera, ranging from the Coal Measures (Texas) to the uppermost +cretaceous strata. The ammonites differ from the nautili in having the tube +connecting the chambers placed on the outer margin of the coiled shell, +while the calcareous neck where it passes through the partitions is +directed forwards. The partitions are much folded, producing markings like +the fronds of ferns where they meet the inner wall of the shell. The name +arises from confusion with a coiled gastropod, which was held to resemble +the horns of the Egyptian deity Jupiter Ammon. + +AM'MONITES, a Semitic race frequently mentioned in Scripture, descended +from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (_Gen._ xix, 38), often spoken of in +conjunction with the Moabites. A predatory and Bedouin race, they inhabited +the desert country east of Gad, their chief city being Rabbath-Ammon +(Philadelphia). Wars between the Israelites and the Ammonites were +frequent; they were overcome by Jephthah, Saul, David, Uzziah, Jotham, &c. +They appear to have existed as a distinct people in the time of Justin +Martyr, but have subsequently become merged in the aggregate of nameless +Arab tribes. + +AMMO'NIUM, the name given to the hypothetical radicle (formula, NH_4) of +ammonium salts. It functionates as a metal, has not been isolated, but it +is believed to exist in an amalgam with mercury. + +AMMO'NIUS SAC'CAS, a Greek philosopher who lived about A.D. 175-240. +Originally a porter in Alexandria, he derived his epithet from the carrying +of _sacks_ of corn. The son of Christian parents, he abandoned their faith +for the polytheistic philosophy of Greece. His teaching was historically a +transition stage between Platonism and Neo-Platonism. Among his disciples +were Plotinus, Longinus, Origen, &c. The books often attributed to him are +by a Christian philosopher of the same name. + +AMMUNI'TION, another form of the word munition, with a more restricted +meaning. It is now taken to include cartridges of all sorts for guns, +howitzers, rifles, and all fire-arms. Ammunition comprises both cartridges +in which explosive and missiles are combined to form one compact article, +and also other forms of projectiles of which the explosive agent forms one +portion and the actual missile the other. Bombs, grenades, shells, powder, +and bullets are all included in the generic term ammunition. As a +qualifying word used adjectivally it is found in ammunition-wagon, +ammunition-carrier, ammunition-mules, ammunition-column, &c. In the British +service the Royal Army Ordnance Corps is entrusted with the provision of +supplies of ammunition generally, while the actual distribution in the +field is the duty of the ammunition-column, a Royal Artillery organization. + +AM'NESTY (Gr. _amnestia_, forgetfulness), the releasing of a number of +persons who have been guilty of political offences from the consequence of +these offences. The earliest recorded amnesty in history is that of +Thrasybulus at Athens, and the last act of amnesty passed in Britain was +that of 1747, after the second Jacobite rebellion. + +AM'NION, the innermost membrane surrounding the fetus of mammals, birds, +and reptiles.--In botany, a gelatinous fluid in which the embryo of a seed +is suspended, and by which it is supposed to be nourished. + +AMO'AFUL, village near Kumassi, West Africa, at which the Ashanti were +defeated by British troops under Wolseley, 31st Jan., 1874. + +[Illustration: Amoeba proteus.] + +AMOE'BA, a microscopic genus of rhizopodous Protozoa, of which _A. +diffl[)u]ens_, common in freshwater ponds and ditches, is the type. It +exists as a mass of protoplasm, and pushes its body out into finger-like +processes or pseudopodia, and by means of these moves about or grasps +particles of food. There is no distinct mouth, and food is engulfed within +any portion of the soft sarcode body. Reproduction takes place by fission, +or by a single pseudopodium detaching itself from the parent body and +developing into a separate amoeba. + +AMOEBE'AN POETRY, poetry in which persons are represented as speaking +alternately, as in some of Virgil's _Eclogues_. + +AMOL', a town of Northern Persia, 76 miles N.E. of Teheran. Extensive ruins +tell of former greatness, the most prominent being the mausoleum of Seyed +Quam-u-deen, who died in 1378. Pop. in winter estimated at about 40,000. + +AMO'MUM, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Zinziberaceae (ginger, &c.), +natives of warm climates, and remarkable for the pungency and aromatic +properties of their seeds. Some of the species yield Cardamoms, others +Grains of Paradise. + +AMONTILLA'DO, a dry kind of sherry wine of a light colour, highly esteemed. + +AMOOR. See _Amur_. + +A'MOR, the god of love among the Romans, equivalent to the Gr. _Er[=o]s_. + +AMOR'GO (ancient AMORGOS), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the +Eastern Cyclades, 22 miles long, 5 miles broad; area, 106 sq. miles; it has +a town of the same name, with a castle and a large harbour. Pop. 3561. + +AM'ORITES, a powerful Canaanitish tribe at the time of the occupation of +the country by the Israelites; occupied the whole of Gilead and Bashan, and +formed two powerful kingdoms--a northern, under Og, who is called King of +Bashan; and a southern, under Sihon, called King of the Amorites; first +attacked and overthrown by Joshua; subsequently subdued, and made tributary +or driven to mingle with the Philistines and other remnants of the +Canaanitish nations. + +AMORPHOUS ROCKS or MINERALS, those having no regular structure, or without +crystallization, even in the minutest particles. + +AMORPHOZO'A, a term applied to some of the lower groups of animals, as the +sponges and their allies, which have no regular symmetrical structure. + +AMORTIZA'TION, in law, the alienation of real property to corporations +(that is, in _mortmain_), prohibited by several English statutes. + +A'MOS, one of the minor prophets; flourished under the Kings Uzziah of +Judah and Jeroboam II of Israel (810 to 784 B.C. by the common chronology). +Though engaged in the occupations of a peasant he must have had a +considerable amount of culture, and his book of prophecies has high +literary merits. It contains denunciations of Israel and the surrounding +nations, with promises of the Messiah. + +AMOY', an important Chinese trading port, on a small island off the +south-east coast opposite Formosa; has a safe and commodious harbour, and +its merchants are among the wealthiest and most enterprising in China; one +of the five ports opened to foreign commerce by the treaty of Nanking in +1842. The privilege was confirmed and extended by the treaty of Tien-tsin +in 1858, and the port is now open to all countries. Pop. 114,000. + +AMPEL'IDAE. See _Chatterers_. + +AMPERE ([.a][n.]-p[=a]r), Andre-Marie, a celebrated French mathematician +and philosopher, founder of the science of electro-dynamics, born at Lyons +in 1775, died at Marseilles in 1836; professor of mathematical analysis at +the Polytechnic School, Paris, and of physics at the College of France. +What is known as _Ampere's Theory_ is that magnetism consists in the +existence of electric currents circulating round the particles of magnetic +bodies, being in different directions round different particles when the +bodies are unmagnetized, but all in the same direction when they are +magnetized. + +AMPERE, Jean-Jacques-Joseph-Antoine, historian and professor of French +literature in the College of France; the only son of Andre-Marie Ampere; +born at Lyons 1800, died 1864; chief works: _Histoire Litteraire de la +France avant le 12^{_e_} siecle_ (1839); _Introduction a l'Histoire de la +Litterature francaise au moyen age_ (1841); _Litterature, Voyages et +Poesies_ (1833); _La Grece, Rome et Dante, Etudes Litteraires d'apres +Nature; l'Histoire romaine a Rome_ (4 vols. 8vo, 1856-64); _Promenades en +Amerique_ (1855); _Cesar, Scenes historiques_ (1859), full of hostile +allusions to the French Empire. + +AMPERE (am'p[=a]r), in electricity, the unit employed in measuring the +strength or intensity of an electric current, being equivalent to the +current produced by the electro-motive force of one volt in a wire having +the resistance of one ohm. The name (cf. _Farad_, _Coulomb_, _Watt_, &c.) +is derived from that of the well-known physicist, Ampere. An _ampere-meter_ +or _ammeter_ is an instrument by which the strength of an electric current +is given in amperes. + +AMPHIB'IA, a class of vertebrate animals, which in their early life breathe +by gills or branchiae, and afterwards partly or entirely by lungs. The +Frog, breathing in its tadpole state by gills and afterwards throwing off +these organs and breathing entirely by lungs in its adult state, is an +example of the latter phase of amphibian existence. The Proteus of the +underground caves of Central Europe exemplifies forms in which the gills of +early life are retained throughout life, and in which lungs are developed +in addition to the gills. A second character of this group consists in the +presence of two occipital 'condyles', or processes by means of which the +skull articulates with the spine or vertebral column; Reptiles possessing +one condyle only. The class is divided into four orders: the Ophiomorpha +(or serpentiform), represented by the Blindworms, in which limbs are +wanting and the body is snake-like; the Urodela or 'Tailed' Amphibians, +including the Newts, Proteus, Siren, &c.; the Anoura, or Tailless Amphibia, +represented by the Frogs and Toads; and the Labyrinthodontia, which +includes the extinct forms known as Labyrinthodons. The term Amphibia was +originally employed by Linnaeus in his _Systema Naturae_, and adopted by +Cuvier in his _Tableau Elementaire_. See _Batrachia_. + +AMPHIBOL'OGY, in logic, an equivocal phrase or sentence, not from the +double sense of any of the words, but from its admitting a double +construction, as 'The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose'. + +AMPHIC'TYONIC LEAGUE (or COUNCIL), in ancient Greece, a confederation of +tribes for the protection of religious worship, but which also discussed +questions of international law, and matters affecting their political +union. The most important was that of the twelve northern tribes which met +alternately at Delphi and Thermopylae. The tribes sent two deputies each, +who assembled with great solemnity; composed the public dissensions, and +the quarrels of individual cities, by force or persuasion; punished civil +and criminal offences, and particularly transgressions of the law of +nations, and violations of the temple of Delphi. Its calling on the States +to punish the Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the Sacred Wars, +595-586, 448-447, 357-346 B.C. + +AMPHI'ON, in Greek mythology, son of Zeus and Anti[)o]p[=e], and husband of +Ni[)o]b[=e]. He had miraculous skill in music, being taught by Mercury, or, +according to others, by Apollo. In poetic legend he is said to have availed +himself of his skill when building the walls of Thebes--the stones moving +and arranging themselves in proper position at the sound of his lyre. See +_Zethus_. + +AMPHIOXUS. See _Lancelet_. + +[Illustration: Amphipoda + +1. Shore-jumper (_Orchestia littoralis_), 2. Portion showing the +respiratory organs _a a a_.] + +AMPHIP'ODA, an order of sessile-eyed malacostracan crustaceans, with feet +directed partly forward and partly backward. Many species are found in +springs and rivulets, others in salt water. The sand-hopper and +shore-jumper are examples. + +AMPHIP'ROSTYLE, in architecture, said of a structure having the form of an +ancient Greek or Roman oblong rectangular temple, with a prostyle or +portico on each of its ends or fronts, but with no columns on its sides or +flanks. + +AMPHISBAE'NA (Gr., from _amphis_, both ways, and _bainein_, to go), a genus +of serpentiform, limbless, lacertilian reptiles; body cylindrical, +destitute of scales, and divided into numerous annular segments; the tail +obtuse, and scarcely to be distinguished from the head, whence the belief +that it moved equally well with either end foremost. There are several +species, found in tropical America. They feed on ants and earthworms, and +were formerly, but erroneously, deemed poisonous. In Greek mythology the +amphisbaena was a serpent believed to possess two heads. + +AMPHIS'CII (Gr. _amphi_, on both sides, and _skia_, shadow), a term +sometimes applied to the inhabitants of the intertropical regions, whose +shadows at noon in one part of the year are cast to the north and in the +other to the south, according as the sun is in the southern or northern +signs. + +[Illustration: Amphitheatre at Pompeii] + +AMPHITHE'ATRE, an ancient Roman building of an oval form without a roof, +having a central area (the _arena_) encompassed with rows of seats, rising +higher as they receded from the centre, on which people used to sit to view +the combats of gladiators and of wild beasts, and other sports. The first +amphitheatre at Rome was that constructed by C. Scribonius Curio, 59 B.C. +The Colosseum at Rome is the largest of all the ancient amphitheatres, +being capable of containing 100,000 persons, 87,000 of whom occupied +numbered and reserved seats. That at Verona is one of the best examples +remaining. Its dimensions are 502 feet by 401, and it is 98 feet high. The +name means 'both-ways theatre', or 'theatre all round', the theatre forming +only a semicircular building. + +AMPHITRI'T[=E], in Greek mythology, daughter of Oce[)a]nus and Tethys, or +of Nereus and Doris, and wife of Poseidon (or Neptune), represented as +drawn in a chariot of shells by Tritons, with a trident in her hand. In the +Homeric poems she is the personification of the Sea, and her marriage to +Poseidon is alluded to in a number of scenes depicted on ancient monuments. +Such are a bas-relief in the glyptothek at Munich and a mosaic in the +museum at Naples. + +AMPHIT'RYON, in Greek legend, King of Thebes, son of Alcaeus, and husband +of Alcmena. Plautus, and after him Moliere, have made an amour of Jupiter +with Alcmena the subject of amusing comedies. + +AMPHIU'MA, a genus of amphibians which frequent the lakes and stagnant +waters of North America. The adults retain the clefts at which the gills of +the tadpole projected. + +[Illustration: Amphora +From a Roman specimen in the British Museum] + +AM'PH[)O]RA, a vessel used by the Greeks and Romans for holding liquids; +commonly tall and narrow, with two handles and a pointed end which fitted +into a stand or was stuck in the ground to enable it to stand upright; used +also as a cinerary urn, and as a liquid measure--Greek = 9 gallons; Roman = +6 gallons. + +AMPLEX'ICAUL, in botany, said of a leaf that embraces and nearly surrounds +the stem. + +AM'PLITUDE, in astronomy, the distance of any celestial body (when referred +by a secondary circle to the horizon) from the east or west points. + +AMPTHILL, a market-town of England, Bedfordshire, about 7 miles south-west +of Bedford. Pop. (1921), 2269. + +AMPUL'LA, the Latin name for a vessel bellying out like a jug, which +contained unguents for the bath; also a vessel for drinking at table. The +ampulla has also been employed for ceremonial purposes, such as holding the +oil or chrism used in various Church rites and for anointing monarchs at +their coronation. The ampulla of the English sovereigns now in use is an +eagle, weighing about 10 oz., of the purest chased gold, which passed +through various hands to the Black Prince. The ampulla of the French kings, +kept at Rheims in the tomb of St. Remy, was destroyed in 1793. + +AMPUTA'TION, in surgery, that operation by which a member is separated from +the body. + +AMRA'OTI, a town of British India in Berar; it is celebrated for its +cotton, and is a place of good trade. Pop. 35,000. The district has an area +of 4733 sq. miles. Pop. 876,000. + +AM'RITSIR, or AMRITSAR ('the pool of immortality'), a flourishing +commercial town of India, capital of a district of the same name, in the +Punjab, the centre of the Sikh religion since the end of the sixteenth +century. It has considerable manufactures of shawls and silks; and receives +its name from the sacred pond constructed by Ram Das, the apostle of the +Sikhs, in which the Sikhs and other Hindus immerse themselves that they may +be purified from all sin. Pop. 152,756.--The district of Amritsir has an +area of 1601 sq. miles. Pop. 900,000. + +AM'RU, originally an opponent, and subsequently a zealous supporter of +Mahomet, and one of the ablest of the Mahommedan warriors. He brought Egypt +under the power of the Caliph Omar in 638, and governed it wisely till his +death in 663. The burning of the famous Alexandrian Library has been +generally attributed to him, though only on the authority of a writer who +lived six centuries later. + +AM'STERDAM (that is, 'the dam of the Amstel'), one of the chief commercial +cities of Europe, capital of Holland (but not the residence of the +sovereign), situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Y or Ij, an +arm of the Zuider-Zee. On account of the lowness of the site of the city +the greater part of it is built on piles. It is divided by numerous canals +into about 90 islands, which are connected by nearly 300 bridges. Many of +the streets have a canal in the middle with broad brick-paved quays on +either side, planted with rows of trees; the houses are generally of brick, +many of them six or seven stories high, with pointed gables turned to the +streets. Among the public buildings are the old stadthouse, the work of +Jacob van Kempen, commenced in 1648 and finished in 1655, which is now a +royal palace, the interior being decorated by the Dutch painters and +sculptors of the seventeenth century with their masterpieces; the +justiciary hall, an imitation of a Greek temple; the town hall (fourteenth +century); the exchange, a handsome building, constructed in 1836 on the +site of the old bourse built in 1608; the Palace of National Industry; the +national museum; and the central railway station. The old church is a +structure of the fourteenth century with stained-glass windows painted by +Digman in the fifteenth century. The chief educational institutions of the +kingdom are here, including the city university, a free university, +gymnasiums and other secondary schools, the national picture gallery or +museum, containing many masterpieces of Dutch artists, &c. Among its +numerous industries may be mentioned as a speciality the cutting and +polishing of diamonds. It has also factories and workshops dealing with +wool, cotton, silk, tobacco, leather, machinery, and metal goods, glass, +liqueurs, cocoa, &c. The harbour, formed by the Y, lies along the whole of +the north side of the city, and is surrounded by various docks and basins. +The trade is very great, being much facilitated by the great ship-canal (15 +miles long, opened 1876, admitting the largest vessels) connecting the Y +directly with the North Sea at Y-Muiden, where the entrance is between two +long piers projecting into the sea. Another canal of much less importance, +the North Holland Canal (46 miles long, 20 feet deep), connects Amsterdam +with the Helder. Between the harbour and the Zuider Zee the Y is now +crossed by a great dam in which are locks to admit vessels and regulate the +amount of water in the North Sea Canal. The oversea trade of Amsterdam has +immensely increased since the opening of the great canal, and the foreign +trade of the kingdom practically centres in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. There +is also a large trade with the interior by railway, river, and canal. In +the beginning of the thirteenth century Amsterdam was but a fishing +village. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries it had attained some +importance, especially through the Baltic trade. The ruin of Antwerp +through the troubles with Spain was greatly to its advantage, and during +the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Amsterdam was one of the +wealthiest and most flourishing cities in the world. Its forced alliance +with France ruined its trade, but since 1813 its commerce has revived. +Amsterdam is the birthplace of Spinoza and of the painters van de Velde and +van der Neer. Pop. (1919), 647,120. + +AMSTERDAM, a town of New York State, United States, on the Mohawk River and +the Erie Canal, 33 miles N.W. of Albany; a busy manufacturing town. Pop. +(1920), 33,524. + +AMSTERDAM, New, a town in British Guiana, on the east side of the River +Berbice, near the sea, with some trade as a seaport. Pop. 8903. + +AMSTERDAM ISLAND, a small and almost inaccessible island in the Indian +Ocean, about halfway in a direct line between the Cape of Good Hope and +Tasmania. It is sparsely provided with vegetation, and inhabited only by +sea-birds, but it was taken possession of by France in 1893, along with the +neighbouring St. Paul. It was discovered by the Dutch in 1633. + +AMSTETTEN, a town in Lower Austria, on the Ybbs, and on the railway from +Vienna to Linz. In 1805 a victory was gained here by the French under Murat +over the Russians under Bagration. Pop. 3760. + +AMUCK', or AMUK, to run, a phrase applied to natives of the Eastern +Archipelago, who are occasionally seen to rush out in a frantic state of +temporary mental derangement, making indiscriminate and murderous assaults +on all that come in their way. + +AMU-DARYA. See _Oxus_. + +AMU-DARYA, district. See _Turkestan_. + +AM'ULET, a piece of stone, metal, &c., marked with certain figures or +characters, which people in some countries wear about them, superstitiously +deeming them a protection against diseases, enchantments, witchcraft, &c. +According to Pliny the elder, the _bulla_, or amulet, was first hung by +Tarquinius Priscus on the neck of his son. Articles that archaeologists +have decided to be amulets have been found dating from prehistoric times, +and they were commonly worn in ancient times by the Jews, Greeks, and +Romans, as they still are by Persians, Arabs, and many other peoples. See +_Charms_. + +AMUNDSEN, Captain Roald, Norwegian polar explorer, born at Borge, Norway, +16th July, 1872. He was first-lieutenant on the _Belgica_ during the +Belgian south polar expedition, 1897-9. He then planned an expedition to +the area of the north magnetic pole and a north-west passage by water. On +17th June, 1903, he embarked from Christiania on the small sailing vessel +the _Gjoea_, with a company of six men, and reached King William Land, +where the vessel remained for two years. Here he made his headquarters, and +by numerous excursions was able to prove that the north magnetic pole has +no stationary position, but is in continual movement. On 11th July, 1906, +his vessel reached the Behring Strait, and on 30th August entered the +Pacific. After his return Amundsen began his preparations for an Antarctic +expedition, and on 9th August, 1910, he sailed from Norway on Nansen's +ship, the _Fram_, and reached the South Pole on 7th March, 1912. He +published an account of his North-West Passage expedition, entitled +_Sydpolen. Den norske Sydpolsfaerd med_ Fram _1910-12_. An English +translation was published in 1913. Amundsen started on a North Polar +Expedition in 1918. + +AMUR', or AMOOR', one of the largest rivers of Eastern Asia, formed by the +junction of the Rivers Shilka and Argun; flows first in a south-eastern and +then in a north-eastern direction till it falls into an arm of the Sea of +Okhotsk, opposite the Island of Sakhalin, after a course of 1500 miles. It +forms, for a large portion of its course, part of the boundary-line between +the Russian and the Chinese dominions, and is navigable throughout for four +months in the year.--_Amoor Territory._ In 1858 Russia acquired from China +the territory on the left bank of the Upper and Middle Amoor, together with +that on both banks of the Lower Amoor. The western portion of the territory +was organized as a separate province, with the name of the Amoor (area, +154,795 sq. miles. Pop. 261,500). The eastern portion was joined to the +Maritime Province of Eastern Siberia. + +AM'URATH, or MURAD, the name of several Ottoman sultans. See _Ottoman +Empire_. + +AMYCLAE (a-m[=i]'kl[=e]), a town of ancient Greece, the chief seat of the +Achaeans in Laconia, a short distance from Sparta, by which it was +conquered about 800 B.C. + +AMYG'DALOID (Gr. _amygdal[=e]_, an almond), meaning 'almond-shaped', a term +used in anatomy and geology. + +AMYG'DALUS, the genus to which the almond belongs. + +AM'YL, in chemistry, a hypothetic radicle believed to exist in many +compounds, especially the fusel-oil series, and having the formula +C_5H_{11}.--_Amyl Nitrite_, or _Nitrite of Amyl_, an amber-coloured fluid, +smelling and tasting like essence of pears, which has been employed as an +anaesthetic and also in relieving cardiac distress, as in angina pectoris. + +AM'YLENE (C_5H_{10}), an ethereal liquid with an aromatic odour, prepared +from fusel-oil. It possesses anaesthetic properties, and has been tried as +a substitute for chloroform, but is very dangerous. + +AMYL'IC ALCOHOL, one of the products of the fermentation of grain, &c., +commonly known by the name of fusel-oil (q.v.). + +AMYOT (ae-mi-[=o]), Jacques, French writer and scholar, whose translations +from the Greek have themselves become classics, was born in 1513, and died +Bishop of Auxerre in 1593, having been for twelve years a professor of +classics at Bourges, and having enjoyed the patronage of Margaret of +Navarre and Henry II. His chief translations are those of Plutarch's +_Lives_ and his _Morals_, the _Aethiopica_ of Heliodorus, and the _Daphnis +and Chloe_ of Longus. Sir Thomas North's English translation of Plutarch +(1575), of which Shakespeare made much use, was derived from that of Amyot. + +AMYRIDA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees or +shrubs, the leaves, bark, and fruit of which abound in fragrant resinous +and balsamic juices. Myrrh, frankincense, and the gum-elemi of commerce are +among their products. Among the chief genera of the order are _Amyris_, +_Balsamodendron_, _Boswellia_, and _Canarium_. + +A'NA, the neuter plural termination of Latin adjectives in _-[=a]nus_, +often forming an affix with the names of eminent men to denote a collection +of their memorable sayings--thus _Scaligeriana_, _Johnsoniana_, the sayings +of Scaliger, of Johnson; or to denote a collection of anecdotes, or gossipy +matter, as in _boxiana_. Hence, as an independent noun, books recording +such sayings; the sayings themselves. + +ANABAP'TISTS (from the Gr. _anabaptizein_, to rebaptize), a name given to a +Christian sect by their adversaries, because, as they objected to infant +baptism, they rebaptized those who joined their body. Their doctrine is +based upon the words of Christ in _St. Mark_, xvi, 16. The founder of the +sect appears to have been Nicolas Storch, a disciple of Luther's, who seems +to have aimed also at the reorganization of society based on civil and +political equality. Gathering round him a number of fiery spirits, among +whom was Thomas Muenzer, he incited the peasantry of Suabia and Franconia +to insurrection--the doctrine of a community of goods being now added to +their creed. This insurrection was quelled in 1525, when Muenzer was put to +the torture and beheaded. After the death of Muenzer the sectaries +dispersed in all directions, spreading their doctrines wherever they went. +In 1534 the town of Muenster in Westphalia became their centre of action. +Under the leadership of Bockhold and Matthias their numbers increased +daily, and being joined by the restless spirits of the adjoining towns, +they soon made themselves masters of the town and expelled their +adversaries. Matthias became their prophet, but he fell in a sally against +the Bishop of Muenster, Count Waldeck, who had laid siege to the city. +Bockhold then became leader, assuming the name of John of Leyden, King of +the New Jerusalem, and Muenster became a theatre of all the excesses of +fanaticism, lust, and cruelty. The town was eventually taken (June, 1535), +and Bockhold and a great many of his partisans suffered death. This was the +last time that the movement assumed anything like political importance. In +the meantime some of the apostles, who were sent out by Bockhold to extend +the limits of his kingdom, had been successful in various places, and many +independent teachers, who preached the same doctrines, continued active in +the work of founding a new empire of pure Christians. It is true that they +rejected the practice of polygamy, community of goods, and intolerance +towards those of different opinions which had prevailed in Muenster; but +they enjoined upon their adherents the other doctrines of the early +Anabaptists, and certain heretical opinions in regard to the humanity of +Christ, occasioned by the controversies of that day about the sacrament. +The most celebrated of those Anabaptist prophets were Melchior Hoffmann, +the founder of the Hoffmannists or Millenarians; Galenus Abrahamssohn, from +whom the sect of the Galenists were called; and Simon Menno, founder of +various sects known as Mennonites. Menno's principles are contained in his +_Principles of the True Christian Faith_ (1556), a work which is held as +authoritative on points of doctrine and worship among the Baptist +communities at the present day. The application of the term Anabaptist to +the general body of Baptists throughout the world is unwarranted, because +these sects have nothing in common with the bodies which sprung up in +various countries of Europe during the Reformation, except the practice of +adult baptism. The Baptists themselves repudiate the name Anabaptist, as +they claim to baptize according to the original institution of the rite, +and never repeat baptism in the case of those who in their opinion have +been so baptized. It is under the designation of Mennonites that they exist +to-day, principally in Holland, Germany, and the United States. + +AN'ABAS. See _Climbing-perch_. + +ANAB'ASIS (Gr. _anabasis_, a march up country), the title of Xenophon's +celebrated account of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his +brother Artaxerxes, King of Persia. The title is also given to Arrian's +work which records the campaigns of Alexander the Great. + +AN'ABLEPS, a genus of fishes of the perch family, found in the rivers of +Guiana, consisting of but one species, remarkable for a peculiar structure +of the eyes, in which there is a division of the iris and cornea, by +transverse ligaments forming two pupils, and making the whole eye appear +double. The young are brought forth alive. + +ANABOLISM (Gr. _ana_, up, and _bole_, a throw), a biological term suggested +by Michael Foster, and used by Gaskell in 1886, and meaning the building-up +of organic life, or the process by which a substance is transformed into +another which is more complex. Anabolism is the constructive phase of +metabolism (q.v.). + +ANACANTHI'NI (Gr. neg. prefix _an_, and _akantha_, a spine), an order of +osseous fishes, including the cod, plaice, &c., with spineless fins, +cycloid or ctenoid scales, the ventral fins either absent or below the +pectorals, and ductless swim-bladder. + +ANACARDIA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees and +shrubs which secrete an acrid resinous juice, which is often used as a +varnish. Mastic, Japan lacquer, and Martaban varnish are some of their +products. The cashoo or cashew (genus Anacardium), the pistacia, sumach, +mango, &c., are members of the order. + +ANACH'ARIS, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Hydrocharidaceae, the species of +which grow in ponds and streams of fresh water; water-thyme or water-weed. +It appeared in Britain in the nineteenth century. _A. Alsinastrum_ has been +introduced from North America into European rivers, canals, and ponds, and +by its rapid growth in dense tangled masses tends to choke them so as +materially to impede navigation. The plants in our canals perfect no seed, +their spread being due to vegetative vigour only. + +ANACH'RONISM, an error of chronology by which things are represented as +coexisting which did not coexist; applied also to anything foreign to or +out of keeping with a specified time. Thus it is an anachronism when +Shakespeare, in _Troilus and Cressida_, makes Hector quote Aristotle. There +are anachronisms in the _Cid_ and the _Nibelungenlied_, and also in Dante's +_Inferno_, when the poet introduces pagan mythology into the Christian +hell. + +ANACOLU'THON, a want of grammatical and logical sequence in the structure +of a sentence. + +[Illustration: Anaconda (_Python tigris_)] + +ANACON'DA, the popular name of two of the largest species of the serpent +tribe, viz. a Ceylonese species of the genus Python (_P. tigris_), said to +have been met with 33 feet long; and _Eunectes mur[=i]nus_, a native of +tropical America, allied to the boa-constrictor, and the largest of the +serpent tribe, attaining the length of 40 feet. They frequent swamps and +rivers, are without poison fangs, and kill their victims by constriction. + +ANACONDA, a town of the United States, Montana, with the largest +copper-smelting works in the world. Pop. (1920), 11,668. + +ANAC'REON, an amatory lyric Greek poet of the sixth century B.C., native of +Teos, in Ionia. Only a few fragments of his works have come down to us; the +collection of odes that usually passes under the name of Anacreon is mostly +the production of a later time, the poetry of the real Anacreon being much +less frivolous. + +ANADYOM'[)E]N[=E] (Gr., 'she who comes forth'), a name given to +Aphrodit[=e] (Venus) when she was represented as rising from the sea, as in +the celebrated painting by Apelles, painted for the temple of Aesculapius +at Cos, and afterwards in the temple of Julius Caesar at Rome. + +ANADYR ([.a]-nae'd[=e]r), the most easterly of the larger rivers of Siberia +and of all Asia; rises in the Stanovoi Mountains, and falls into the Gulf +of Anadyr; length, 600 miles. + +ANAE'MIA (Gr., 'want of blood'), a medical term applied to an unhealthy +condition of the body, in which there is a diminution of the red corpuscles +which the blood should contain. The principal symptoms are paleness and +general want of colour in the skin, languor, emaciation, want of appetite, +fainting, palpitation, &c. + +ANAESTHE'SIA, or ANAESTHE'SIS, a state of insensibility to pain, produced +by inhaling chloroform, or by the application of other anaesthetic agents. + +ANAESTHET'ICS are medical agents chiefly used in surgical operations for +the abolition of pain. They are divided into (1) _general anaesthetics_, +those in which complete unconsciousness is produced; (2) _local +anaesthetics_, those which act upon the nerves of a limited area alone. + +The earliest record of attempts to produce anaesthesia is to be found in +the thirteenth century. Since then many agents have been tried. The first +scientific effort was in 1800, when Sir Humphry Davy experimented with +nitrous oxide, but without practical result. In 1844 Wells, an American +dentist, used nitrous oxide, also without result. In 1846 Morton, another +American dentist, used ether, and from that time it was increasingly used +in America. In the same year the first operation under ether was performed +in University College Hospital, London. In 1847 Sir James Simpson +(Edinburgh) introduced chloroform. Through his influence it was soon +largely used throughout England and Scotland, and continued to be the chief +anaesthetic till about the end of the nineteenth century, when ether again +became popular in England. To-day, in England, as always in the United +States, ether is the most widely-used anaesthetic. Much controversy exists +regarding the respective merits of ether and chloroform. The general +opinion is, that ether is on the whole safer, but more liable, in the +British climate, to be followed by bronchitis; while there are various +conditions when chloroform is still preferable. They are frequently +combined in use. _Nitrous-oxide gas_ (laughing gas) is much used in +dentistry. Lately, nitrous oxide has been used with ether; while ether and +oxygen together were much used with the British Expeditionary Force in +France during the European War (1914-8). The administration of all +anaesthetics is helped when the patient is given a hypodermic injection of +morphia shortly before. _Twilight sleep_, increasingly used in childbirth, +is the production of a partial anaesthesia by the administration of +scopolamin morphine. _Local anaesthetics_ are much used in minor surgery, +and with proper technique act effectively. Cocaine was the first of these, +and is still widely used. Of later developments, eucaine and novocaine are +best known. Spinal anaesthesia is the injection of stovaine or similar +substance into the spinal cord, producing anaesthesia of a large part of +the body, varying according to the site of the injection. + +ANAGAL'LIS, a genus of the nat. ord. Primulaceae, to which belongs the +Pimpernel, the 'poor man's weather-glass'. See _Pimpernel_. + +ANAGNI ([.a]-naen'y[=e]), a town of Italy, province of Rome; the seat of a +bishopric erected in 487. Pop. 10,400. + +AN'AGRAM, the transposition of the letters of a word or words so as to form +a new word or phrase, a connection in meaning being frequently preserved; +thus, _evil_, _vile_; _Horatio Nelson_, _Honor est a Nilo_ (honour is from +the Nile). The seventeenth century was the golden age of the anagram, but +it was employed by the Hebrews and the Greeks. + +ANAHUAC ([.a]-n[.a]-w[.a]k'; Mex., 'near the water'), an old Mexican name +applied to the plateau of the city of Mexico, from the lakes situated +there, generally elevated from 6000 to 9000 feet above the sea. + +AN'AKIM, the posterity of Anak, the son of Arba, noted in sacred history +for their fierceness and loftiness of stature. Their stronghold was +Kirjath-arba or Hebron, which was taken and destroyed by Caleb and the +tribe of Judah. + +ANAKOLU'THON. See _Anacoluthon_. + +ANALEP'TIC, a restorative or invigorating medicine or diet. + +AN'ALOGUE, in comparative anatomy an organ in one species or group having +the same function as an organ of different structure in another species or +group, as the wing of a bird and that of an insect, both serving for +flight. Organs in different animals having a similar anatomical structure, +development, and relative position, independent of function or form, such +as the arm of a man and the wing of a bird, are termed _homologues_. + +ANAL'OGY is the mode of reasoning from resemblance to resemblance. When we +find on attentive examination resemblances in objects apparently diverse, +and in which at first no such resemblances were discovered, a presumption +arises that other resemblances may be found by further examination in these +or other objects likewise apparently diverse. It is on the belief in a +unity in nature that all inferences from analogy rest. The general +inference from analogy is always perfectly valid. Wherever there is +resemblance, similarity or identity of cause somewhere may be justly +inferred; but to infer the particular cause without particular proof is +always to reason falsely. Analogy is of great use and constant application +in science, in philosophy, and in the common business of life. + +ANAL'YSIS, the resolution of an object, whether of the senses or the +intellect, into its component elements. The word was introduced by Boyle in +the seventeenth century. In philosophy it is the mode of resolving a +compound idea into its simple parts, in order to consider them more +distinctly, and arrive at a more precise knowledge of the whole. It is +opposed to _synthesis_, by which we combine and class our perceptions, and +contrive expressions for our thoughts, so as to represent their several +divisions, classes, and relations. + +Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the widest sense, the expression and +development of the functions of quantities by calculation; in a narrower +sense the resolving of problems by algebraic equations. The analysis of the +ancients was exhibited only in geometry, and made use only of geometrical +assistance, whereby it is distinguished from the analysis of the moderns, +which extends to all measurable objects, and expresses in equations the +mutual dependence of magnitudes. Analysis is divided into lower and higher, +the lower comprising, besides arithmetic and algebra, the doctrines of +functions, of series, combinations, logarithms, and curves, the higher +comprising the differential and integral calculus, and the calculus of +variations. + +In chemistry, analysis is the process of decomposing a compound substance +with a view to determine either (_a_) what elements it contains +(_qualitative analysis_), or (_b_) how much of each element is present +(_quantitative analysis_). Thus by the first process we learn that water is +a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and by the second that it consists of +one part of hydrogen by weight to eight parts of oxygen. As a means of +testing soils and feeding-stuffs, analysis has given important results; it +has enabled Liebig to solve the problem of plant-nutrition. + +ANAM. See _Annam_. + +ANAMOR'PHOSIS, a term denoting a drawing executed in such a manner as to +present a distorted image of the object represented, but which, when viewed +from a certain point, or reflected by a curved mirror or through a +polyhedron, shows the object in its true proportions. + +AN'[)A]NAS. See _Pine-apple_. + +ANAPA', a seaport of Russia in province Kuban, on the Black Sea, 50 miles +south-east of Kertsh, constructed by the Turks in 1781, and formerly +fortified. Pop. about 7000. + +AN'APAEST, in prosody, a foot consisting of two short and one long +syllable, or two unaccented and one accented syllable, e.g. + + ) ) ___ ) ) __ ) ) __ ) ) __ + The As-syr-ian came down like the wolf on the fold. + --(Byron's _The Destruction of Sennacherib_.) + +AN'APLASTY, a surgical operation to repair superficial lesions, or make up +for lost parts, by the employment of adjacent healthy structure or tissue. +Artificial noses, &c., are thus made. + +ANARAJAPOO'RA, or ANURADHAPURA, a ruined city, the ancient capital of +Ceylon, built about 540 B.C., and said to have covered an area of 300 sq. +miles, doubtless a great exaggeration. There are still several dagobas in +tolerable preservation, but the great object of interest is the sacred +Bo-tree planted over 2000 years, and probably the oldest historical tree in +the world, but shattered by a storm in 1887. + +AN'ARCHISTS, a revolutionary sect or body setting forth as the social ideal +the extreme form of individual freedom, holding that all government is +injurious and immoral, and that the destruction of every social form now +existing must be the first step to the creation of a new social system. +According to Herbert Spencer, anarchism is the doctrine of _laisser faire_. +Anarchists usually look upon Diderot as one of their pioneers, and quote +his lines: "La nature n'a fait ni serviteurs ni maitres. Je ne veux ni +donner ni recevoir de lois." Historically, however, it is Proudhon who may +be considered as the father of anarchism. The recognition of the anarchists +as an independent sect may be dated from the secession of Bakunin and his +followers from the Social Democrats at the congress of the Hague in 1872, +since which they have maintained an active propaganda. Their principal +journals have been _La Revolte_ (Paris), the _Freiheit_ (New York), +_Liberty_ (Boston), and the _Anarchist_ (London). Among modern philosophers +of anarchism are Elisee Reclus and Prince Kropotkin. + +ANARTHROP'ODA, one of the two great divisions (the Arthropoda being the +other) of the Annulosa, or ringed animals, in which there are no +articulated appendages. It includes the leeches, earth-worms, tube-worms, +&c. + +A'NAS, a genus of web-footed birds, containing the true ducks. + +ANASARCA. See _Dropsy_. + +ANASTA'SIUS I, Emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, A.D. 491, at the age of +sixty. He was a member of the imperial life-guard, and owed his elevation +to Ariadne, widow of Zeno, whom he married forty days after the death of +her husband. He distinguished himself by suppressing the combats between +men and wild beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale of offices, building +the fortifications of Constantinople, &c. His support of the heretical +Eutychians led to a dangerous rebellion. He died A.D. 518. + +ANASTAT'ICA, a genus of cruciferous plants, including the Rose of Jericho +(_A. hierochuntica_). See _Rose of Jericho_. + +ANASTATIC PRINTING, a process by which the perfect facsimile of a page of +type or an engraving, old or new, can be reproduced and printed in the +manner of a lithograph. The print or page to be transferred is dipped in +diluted nitric acid, and, while moist with dilute acid, it is laid face +downwards on a polished zinc plate and passed through a roller-press. The +zinc is immediately corroded by the acid contained in the paper, excepting +on those parts occupied by the ink of the type or engraving. The ink, while +rejecting the acid, is loosened by it, and deposits a thin film on the +zinc, thus protecting it from the action of the acid. The result is that +those parts are left slightly raised in relief and greasy. The plate is +then treated as in ordinary lithographic printing (q.v.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: +F. H. Collins, _Authors' and Printers' Dictionary_; C. T. Jacobi, +_Printing_; J. Southward, _Modern Printing_. + +ANASTOMO'SIS, in animals and plants, the inosculation of vessels, or the +opening of one vessel into another, as an artery into another artery, or a +vein into a vein. By means of anastomosis, if the course of a fluid is +arrested in one vessel it can proceed along others. It is by anastomosis +that circulation is re-established in amputated limbs, and in aneurism when +the vessel is tied. + +ANATH'EMA, originally a gift hung up in a temple (Gr., _anatith[=e]mi_, to +lay up), and dedicated to some god, a votive offering; but it gradually +came to be used for _expulsion_, _curse_. The Roman Catholic Church +pronounces the sentence of anathema against heretics, schismatics, and all +who wilfully pursue a course of conduct condemned by the Church. The +subject of the anathema is declared an outcast from the Church, all the +faithful are forbidden to associate with him, and the utter destruction of +his body and soul is foretold. + +ANAT'IDAE, a family of swimming birds, including the Ducks, Swans, Geese, +&c. + +ANATO'LIA (from Gr. _anatol[=e]_, the sunrise, the Orient), the modern name +of Asia Minor (q.v.). + +ANATOLIAN RAILWAY. See _Bagdad Railway, Turkey_. + +ANATOMY + +[Illustration] + +ANAT'OMY, in the literal sense, means simply a cutting up, but is now +generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating +the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view +to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science +which treats of the internal structure of organized bodies. By means of the +dissection of the human body the surgeon and physician acquire the +knowledge of the geography of the territory in which all their professional +operations are carried on. _Comparative anatomy_ is the science which +compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of +man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes. The anatomy of an +animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the +succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult +form (_developmental_ or _embryotical anatomy_); with reference to the +general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (_general +anatomy_, _histology_); with reference to the changes in structure of +organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (_morbid_ +or _pathological anatomy_); or with reference to the function, use, or +purpose performed by the organs or parts (_teleological_ or _physiological +anatomy_). According to the parts of the body described, the different +divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, _osteology_, the +description of the bones; _myology_, of the muscles; _arthrology_, of the +ligaments and sinews; _splanchnology_, of the viscera or internal organs, +in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver, +spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, &c. _Angiology_ describes the vessels +through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the +blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic +vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are +distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and +carrying them back into the blood. _Neurology_ describes the system of the +nerves and of the brain; _dermatology_ treats of the skin.--Among +anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and +preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be +preserved (1) by macerating the body so as to obtain the bones of the +skeleton; or (2) by treating the body or some part of it with alcohol, +formalin, or other preservative, which renders its tissues imperishable. + +Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned +Hippocrates the younger (460-377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), +Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria (about 300 B.C.), Celsus (53 +B.C.-A.D. 37), and Galen of Pergamus (A.D. 130-200), the most celebrated of +all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time till the revival +of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its +progress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed +dissection, and published a _System of Anatomy_ which was a textbook in the +schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of +Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and +many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth +century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered +the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the +circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the +Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned anatomists of later times we can only +mention Malpighi, Boerhaave, William and John Hunter, the younger Meckel, +Bichat, Rosenmueller, Quain, Sir A. Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Joh. +Mueller, Gegenbaur, Owen, and Huxley. + +Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for +enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for +dissection. An Act of some years previously had, it is true, empowered a +criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly-qualified persons +the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was +far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high +prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice +of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the +notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a +statute was passed in 1832, which was intended to make provision for the +wants of surgeons, students, or other duly-qualified persons, by +permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of +persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, &c. The Act also +appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and +required persons practising the operations to obtain a licence. Relatives +may effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though +the deceased had expressed a desire for it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. J. +Cunningham, _Textbook of Anatomy_; J. Quain, _Elements of Anatomy_; A. M. +Buchanan, _Manual of Anatomy_; A. Thomson, _Anatomy for Art Students_. + +ANAXAG'ORAS, an ancient Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, born at +Clazomenae, in Ionia, probably about 500 B.C. When only about twenty years +of age he settled at Athens, and soon gained a high reputation, and +gathered round him a circle of renowned pupils, including Pericles, +Euripides, Socrates, &c. At the age of fifty he was publicly charged with +impiety and condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual +banishment. He thereupon went to Lampsacus, where he died about 428. +Anaxagoras belonged to the atomic school of Ionic philosophers. He held +that there was an infinite number of different kinds of elementary atoms, +and that these, in themselves motionless and originally existing in a state +of chaos, were put in motion by an eternal, immaterial, spiritual, +elementary being, _Nous_ (Intelligence), from which motion the world was +produced. His conception of _Nous_ as the first cause of movement marks a +great advance in the history of philosophical thought, for he thus placed +spirit above matter. The stars were, according to him, of earthy materials; +the sun a glowing mass, about as large as the Peloponnesus; the earth was +flat; the moon a dark, inhabitable body, receiving its light from the sun; +the comets wandering stars. + +ANAXIMAN'DER, an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, was born at Miletus in +611 B.C., and died 547. The fundamental principle of his philosophy is that +the source of all things is an undefined substance infinite in quantity. +The firmament is composed of heat and cold, the stars of air and fire. The +sun occupies the highest place in the heavens, has a circumference +twenty-eight times larger than the earth, and resembles a cylinder, from +which streams of fire issue. The moon is likewise a cylinder, nineteen +times larger than the earth. The earth has the shape of a cylinder, and is +placed in the midst of the universe, where it remains suspended. His +philosophy is thus a step in advance of the theories of Thales, the +conception of the Infinite, however vague, being superior to the idea of +water constituting the first principle of all things. Anaximander occupied +himself a great deal with mathematics and geography. To him is credited the +invention of geographical maps and the first application of the _gnomon_ or +style fixed on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices and equinoxes. + +ANAXIMENES (an-aks-im'e-n[=e]z) OF MILETUS, an ancient Greek (Ionic) +philosopher, according to whom air was the first principle of all things. +Finite things were formed from the infinite air by compression and +rarefaction produced by eternally existent motion; and heat and cold +resulted from varying degrees of density of the primal element. He +flourished about 550 B.C. + +ANBURY (an'be-ri) (called also CLUB-ROOT and FINGERS AND TOES), a disease +in turnips, in which knobs or excrescences are formed on the root, which is +then useless for feeding purposes. Some authorities distinguish anbury +proper from 'fingers and toes' in turnips, setting it down as a distinct +disease due to a fungus, while in the other case the roots simply assume a +bad habit of growth through some unknown influence. + +ANCACHS ([.a]n-k[.a]ch'), a department of Peru, between the Andes and the +Pacific; area, 16,562 sq. miles. Capital Hararaz. Pop. 500,000. + +ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, an ancient and widespread practice, displayed in its most +characteristic form in modern China and ancient Rome, which apparently was +based upon the belief that dead parents or ancestors, represented by images +or 'ancestral tablets', could be revived by appropriate ceremonies, such as +burning incense or offering libations, and give the benefit of their wisdom +to their descendants who performed the vitalizing ritual and asked for +their advice upon, or their sanction for, actions affecting the welfare of +the family. The earliest deity was a dead king (Osiris), whose advice was +sought by his son and successor. Hence in primitive religions, in which an +endless variety of modifications of these more ancient beliefs has arisen, +ancestor-worship may take the form of pious devotion to an actual ancestor +or to a supernatural deity. As many of the most ancient gods were +identified with animals, the dead ancestor, or his soul, is believed by +many peoples to become incarnate in the appropriate animal, which is +accorded the special veneration of a god or supernatural adviser, and set +apart as sacred. Ancestor-worship still survives in a great variety of +forms among various peoples.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive +Culture_; F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_; D. G. +Brinton, _Religions of Primitive Peoples_. + +ANCHISES (an-k[=i]'s[=e]z), the father of the Trojan hero Aeneas, who +carried him off on his shoulders at the burning of Troy and made him the +companion of his voyage to Italy. This voyage, which is not mentioned in +the Homeric legend, is described by Virgil in his _Aeneid_. He died at +Drepanum, in Sicily. + +[Illustration: Modern Stockless Anchor (Hall's Patent)] + +AN'CHOR, an implement for holding a ship or other vessel at rest in the +water. In ancient times large stones or crooked pieces of wood heavily +weighted with metal were used for this purpose. The anchor now used is of +iron, formed with a strong _shank_, at one extremity of which is the +_crown_, from which branch out two _arms_, terminating in broad _palms_ or +_flukes_, the sharp extremity of which is the _peak_ or _bill_; at the +other end of the shank is the _stock_ (fixed at right angles to the plane +of the arms), behind which is the _ring_, to which a cable can be attached. +The principal use of the stock is to cause the arms to fall so as one of +the flukes shall enter the ground. Many anchors are made nowadays without a +stock. The anchors of the largest size carried by men-of-war are the _best_ +and _small bowers_, the _sheet_, and the _spare_, to which are added the +_stream_ and the _kedge_, which are used for anchoring in a stream or other +sheltered place and for warping the vessel from one place to another. Many +improvements and novelties in the shape and construction of anchors have +been introduced within recent times. The principal names connected with +those alterations are those of Lieutenant Rodgers, who introduced the +_hollow-shanked anchor_ with the view of increasing the strength without +adding to the weight; Porter, who made the arms and flukes movable by +pivoting them to the stock instead of fixing them immovably, causing the +anchor to take a readier and firmer hold, and avoiding the chance of the +cable becoming foul; Trotman, who further improved on Porter's invention; +and M. Martin, whose anchor is of very peculiar form, and is constructed so +as to be self-canting, the arms revolving through an angle of 30deg either +way, and the sharp points of the flukes being always ready to enter the +ground. + +[Illustration: Type of Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, &c.] + +AN'CHORITES, or AN'CHORETS (Gr. _anachor[=e]tai_, persons who have +withdrawn themselves from the world), in the early Church a class of +religious persons who generally passed their lives in cells, from which +they never removed. Their habitations were, in many instances, entirely +separated from the abodes of other men, sometimes in the depth of +wildernesses, in pits or caverns; at other times several of these +individuals fixed their habitations in the vicinity of each other, but they +always lived personally separate. The continual prevalence of fierce wars, +civil commotions, and persecutions at the beginning of the Christian era +must have made retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of +quiet and contemplative minds. This spirit, however, soon led to fanatical +excesses; many anchorites went without proper clothing, wore heavy chains, +and we find at the close of the fourth century Simeon Stylites passing +thirty years on the top of a column without ever descending from it, and +finally dying there. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity became blended +with the Grecian philosophy and strongly tinged with the peculiar notions +of the East, the anchorites were most numerous; in Europe there were +comparatively few, and on the development and establishment of the monastic +system they completely disappeared. See _Asceticism_. + +ANCHOVY (an-ch[=o]'vi), a small fish of the Herring family, all the +species, with exception of the common anchovy (_Engraulis +encrasich[)o]lus_) and _E. meletta_ (both Mediterranean species), +inhabitants of the tropical seas of India and America. The common anchovy, +so esteemed for its rich and peculiar flavour, is not much larger than the +middle finger. It is caught in vast numbers in the Mediterranean, and +frequently on the coasts of France, Holland, and the south of England, and +pickled for exportation. A favourite sauce is made by pounding the pickled +fish in water, simmering for a short time, adding a little cayenne pepper, +and straining the whole through a hair-sieve. + +ANCHO'VY-PEAR (_Grias caulifl[=o]ra_), a tree of the nat. ord. Myrtaceae, a +native of Jamaica, growing to the height of 50 feet, with large leaves and +large white flowers, and bearing a fruit somewhat bigger than a hen's egg, +which is pickled and eaten like the mango, and strongly resembles it in +taste. + +ANCHU'SA. See _Alkanet_. + +ANCHYLO'SIS. See _Ankylosis_. + +ANCIENT LIGHTS, in English law, windows or other openings which have been +in existence for at least twenty years, and during that time have enjoyed +the access of light without interruption, go that a right is established +against the obstruction of the light by a neighbouring proprietor. + +ANCILLON ([.a][n.]-s[=e]-y[=o][n.]), Jean Pierre Frederic, an author and +statesman of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1767 (where his father +was pastor of the French reformed church); died there in 1837. He became +professor of history in the military academy at Berlin, and in 1806 he was +charged with the education of the crown-prince. He successively occupied +several important offices of state, being at last appointed Minister of +Foreign Affairs. He wrote on philosophy, history, and politics, partly in +French, partly in German. + +ANCKARSTROEM. See _Ankarstroem_. + +ANCO'NA, a seaport of Italy, capital of the province of the same name, on +the Adriatic, 130 miles N.E. of Rome, with harbour works begun by Trajan, +who built the ancient mole or quay. A triumphal arch of white marble, +erected in honour of Trajan, stands on the mole. Ancona is a station of the +Italian fleet, and the commerce is increasing. The town is indifferently +built, but has some remarkable edifices, among others, the cathedral. There +is a colossal statue of Count Cavour. Ancona is said to have been founded +about four centuries B.C., by Syracusan refugees. It fell into the hands of +the Romans in the first half of the third century B.C., and became a Roman +colony. Pop. 68,430. The province has an area of 748 sq. miles. Pop. +333,381. + +ANCONA FOWL. See _Poultry_. + +ANCRE (ae[n.]-kr), Concino Concini, Marshal and Marquis d', was a native of +Florence, and on the marriage of Marie de' Medici to Henri IV, in 1600, +came in her suite to France, where he obtained rapid promotion, more +especially after the assassination of the king (1610). He became +successively Governor of Normandy, Marshal of France, and last of all, +Prime Minister. Being thoroughly detested by all classes, at last a +conspiracy was formed against him, and he was shot dead on the bridge of +the Louvre in 1617. + +ANCRE, BATTLE OF. This battle was the final one in the British offensive in +France in 1916. It began on 13th Nov. after a two day's preliminary +bombardment of the German salient, on both sides of the River Ancre, from +Beaumont-Hamel to St. Pierre Divion. One area of extraordinary strength was +the Y ravine which stretches from Beaumont-Hamel plateau towards the river. +The assaults on both banks of the river were vigorous and determined. A +fierce struggle was waged in the Y ravine, which Scottish troops ultimately +cleared with the bayonet. Beaumont-Hamel having fallen, the British line +was extended well beyond it. Further gains were made on the following day. +The prisoners captured numbered 7200. This brilliant action paved the way +for further successes in the spring. + +AN'CUS MAR'CIUS, according to the traditionary history of Rome the fourth +king of that city, who succeeded Tullus Hostilius, 638, and died 614 B.C. +He was the son of Numa's daughter, and sought to imitate his grandfather by +reviving the neglected observances of religion. He is said to have built +the wooden bridge across the Tiber known as the Sublician, constructed the +harbour of Ostia, and built the first Roman prison. + +ANCY'RA. See _Angora_. + +ANDALU'SIA (Sp. _Andalucia_), a large and fertile district in the south of +Spain, bounded N. by Estremadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia, S. by the +Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Portugal and the Atlantic; area, about 33,777 +sq. miles, comprising the modern provinces of Seville, Huelva, Cadiz, Jaen, +Cordova, Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. It is traversed throughout its whole +extent by ranges of mountains, the loftiest being the Sierra Nevada, many +summits of which are covered with perpetual snow (Mulahacen is 11,678 +feet). Minerals abound, and several mines have been opened by English +companies, especially in the province of Huelva, where the Tharsis and Rio +Tinto copper-mines are situated. The principal river is the Guadalquivir. +The vine, myrtle, olive, palm, banana, carob, &c., grow abundantly in the +valley of the Guadalquivir. Wheat, maize, barley, and many varieties of +fruit grow almost spontaneously; besides which, honey, silk, and cochineal +form important articles of culture. The horses and mules are the best in +the Peninsula; the bulls are sought for bull-fighting over all Spain; sheep +are reared in vast numbers. Agriculture is in a backward state, and the +manufactures are by no means extensive. The Andalusians are descended in +part from the Moors, of whom they still preserve decided characteristics. +Andalusia is still famous for its bull-fighters. Pop. 3,828,916. + +ANDALUSIAN FOWL. See _Poultry_. + +AN'DAMANS, a chain of islands on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, the +principal being the North, Middle, South, and Little Andamans. Middle +Andaman is about 60 miles long, and 15 or 16 miles broad; North and South +Andaman are each about 50 miles long. The Andamanese, about 1315 in number +(1911), are mostly in a state of nature, living almost naked in the rudest +habitations. They are small (generally much less than 5 feet), well-formed, +and active, skilful archers and canoeists, and excellent swimmers and +divers. These islands have been used since 1858 as a penal settlement by +the Indian Government, the settlement being at Port Blair, on South +Andaman. Here rice, coffee, pineapples, nutmegs, &c., are grown, while the +jungle has been cleared off the neighbouring hills. The natives in the +vicinity of the settlement have become to some extent civilized. The +climate is humid, but the settlement is healthy. Pop. 18,000. + +ANDANTE ([.a]n-d[.a]n't[=a]; It., 'at a walking pace'), in music, denotes a +movement somewhat slow, graceful, distinct, and soothing. The word is also +applied substantively to that part of a sonata or symphony having a +movement of this character. In Handel's music one often meets the +expression _andante allegro_, which is equivalent to _andante con moto_. + +ANDELYS, LES (l[=a]z [:a][n.]d-l[=e]z), two towns in France called +respectively Grand and Petit Andely, distant half a mile from each other, +in the department of Eure, on the right bank of the Seine, 19 miles S.E. of +Rouen. Grand Andely dates from the sixth century, its church, built in the +thirteenth century, is one of the finest in the department. Petit Andely +owes its origin to Richard Coeur de Lion, who, in 1195, built here the +Chateau Gaillard, in its time one of the strongest fortresses in France, +but now wholly a ruin. Pop. 5530. + +ANDENNE', a town of Belgium, province of Namur, on the right bank of the +Meuse and 10 miles east of Namur; manufactures delftware, porcelain, +tobacco-pipes, paper, &c. Pop. 7803. + +ANDERNACH ([.a]n'der-n[.a]_ch_), a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the left +bank of the Rhine, 10 miles N.W. of Coblentz, partly surrounded with walls. +Pop. 9800. + +AN'DERSEN, Hans Christian, a Danish novelist, poet, and writer of fairy +tales, was born of poor parents at Odense, 2nd April, 1805. He learned to +read and write in a charity school, from which he was taken when only nine +years old, and was put to work in a manufactory in order that his earnings +might assist his widowed mother. In his leisure time he eagerly read +national ballads, poetry, and plays, and wrote several tragedies full of +sound and fury. In 1819 he went to Copenhagen, but failed in getting any of +his plays accepted, and in securing an appointment at the theatre, having +to content himself for some time with unsteady employment as a joiner. His +abilities at last brought him under the notice of Councillor Collin, a man +of considerable influence, who procured for him free entrance into a +Government school at Slagelse. From this school he was transferred to the +university, and soon became favourably known by his poetic works. Through +the influence of Oehlenschlaeger and Ingermann he received a royal grant to +enable him to travel, and in 1833 he visited Italy, his impressions of +which he published in _The Improvvisatore_ (1835)--a work which rendered +his fame European. The scene of his following novel, _O. T._, was laid in +Denmark, and in _Only a Fiddler_ he described his own early struggles. In +1835 appeared the first volume of his _Fairy Tales_, of which successive +volumes continued to be published year by year at Christmas, and which have +been the most popular and widespread of his works. Among his other works +are _Picture-books without Pictures_--conversations of the author with the +moon, who came to visit the poet in his garret; _A Poet's Bazaar_--the +result of a voyage in 1840 to the East; and a number of dramas. In 1845 he +received an annuity from the Government. He visited England in 1848, and +acquired such a command of the language that his next work, _The Two +Baronesses_, was written in English. In 1855 he published an autobiography, +under the title _My Life's Romance_, an English translation of which, +published in 1871, contained additional chapters by the author, bringing +the narrative to 1867. Among his later works we may mention, _To Be or Not +To Be_ (1857); _Tales from Jutland_ (1859); _The Ice Maiden_ (1863). He +died 4th Aug, 1875, having had the pleasure of seeing many of his works +translated into most of the European languages. + +ANDERSON, a town of the United States, Indiana, on the west branch of White +River, 32 miles north-east of Indianapolis, with various manufacturing +works. Pop. 23,856. + +ANDERSON, Elizabeth Garrett, M.D., born in 1836, maiden name Garrett, +married Mr. J. S. Anderson of the Orient Line of steamers. She studied +medicine, but met with many obstacles, the study of medicine by women being +then discouraged on all hands; at last she was licensed to practise by the +Apothecaries' Society in 1865, and afterwards passed examinations at the +University of Paris and obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine. From +1866 to 1890 she was senior physician to the New Hospital for Women; from +1876 to 1898 lecturer on medicine in the London School of Medicine for +Women. She did much to aid in opening the medical profession to women. In +1908 she was elected Mayor of Aldeburgh, being the first woman to hold the +position of mayor in England. She died on 17th Dec., 1917. Her daughter +Louisa Garrett Anderson, born in 1873, went to France in 1914 as Joint +Organiser of and Chief Surgeon to the Women's Hospital Corps, Voluntary +Unit. + +ANDERSON, James, a Scottish writer on political and rural economy, born at +Hermiston in 1739, died in 1808. In 1790 he started the _Bee_, which ran to +eighteen volumes, and contains many useful papers on agricultural, +economical, and other topics. Some of his other publications, _Recreations +in Agriculture_, _Natural History_, &c., contain anticipations of theories +afterwards propounded by Malthus and Ricardo. + +ANDERSON, John, F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy in the University +of Glasgow, born 1726, died 1796. By his will he directed that the whole of +his effects should be devoted to the establishment of an educational +institution in Glasgow, to be denominated _Anderson's University_, for the +use of the unacademical classes. According to the design of the founder, +there were to be four colleges--for arts, medicine, law, and +theology--besides an initiatory school. As the funds, however, were totally +inadequate to the plan, it was at first commenced with only a single course +of lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry. The institution gradually +enlarged its sphere of instruction, coming nearer and nearer to the +original design of its founder, the medical school in particular possessing +a high reputation. In 1886 it was incorporated with other institutions to +form the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College (now Glasgow Royal +Technical College), Anderson's College medical school, however, retaining a +distinct position. + +ANDERSON, Joseph, Scottish antiquary, born in 1832, became a school +teacher, was for some years newspaper editor, and in 1870 was appointed +keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. His chief works +embody the lectures delivered by him as Rhind lecturer in archaeology to +the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland: _Scotland in Early Christian +Times_, _Scotland in Pagan Times_, and the _Early Christian Monuments of +Scotland_. He also edited _The Orkneyinga Saga_, _The Oliphants in +Scotland_, and Drummond's _Ancient Scottish Weapons_. He died in 1916. + +ANDERSON, Robert, M.D., Scottish biographical writer, born 1750, died 1830. +He furnished biographical and critical notices for _A Complete Edition of +the Poets of Great Britain_ (1792-5), and was for a time editor of the +_Edinburgh Magazine_. + +ANDERSSON, Carl Jan, an African traveller, born in Sweden in 1827, died in +the land of the Ovampos, in Western Africa, in July, 1867. He published +_Lake Ngami, or Discoveries in South Africa_ (London, 2 vols., 1856), and +_The Okavango River_ (London, 1861). The observations of his last voyage +were published in 1875 in _Notes of Travel in South Africa_. + +ANDES (an'd[=e]z), or, as they are called in Spanish South America, +CORDILLERAS (ridges) DE LOS ANDES, or simply CORDILLERAS, a range of +mountains stretching along the whole of the west coast of South America, +from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama and the Caribbean Sea. In absolute +length (4500 miles) no single chain of mountains approaches the Andes, and +only a certain number of the higher peaks of the Himalayan chain rise +higher above the sea-level; which peak is the highest of all is not yet +settled. Several main sections of this huge chain are distinguishable. The +Southern Andes present a lofty main chain, with a minor chain running +parallel to it on the east, reaching from Tierra del Fuego and the Straits +of Magellan, northward to about lat. 28deg S., and rising in Aconcagua to a +height of 23,080 feet. North of this is the double chain of the Central +Andes, enclosing the wide and lofty plateaus of Bolivia and Peru, which lie +at an elevation of more than 12,000 feet above the sea. The mountain system +is here at its broadest, being about 500 miles across. Here are also +several very lofty peaks, as Illampu or Sorata (21,484 feet), Sahama +(21,054 feet), Illimani (21,024 feet). Farther north the outer and inner +ranges draw closer together, and in Ecuador there is but a single system of +elevated masses, generally described as forming two parallel chains. In +this section are crowded together a number of lofty peaks, most of them +volcanoes, either extinct or active. Of the latter class are Pichincha +(15,918 feet), with a crater 2500 feet deep; Tunguragua (16,685 feet); +Sangay (17,460 feet); and Cotopaxi (19,550 feet). The loftiest summit here +appears to be Chimborazo (20,581 feet); others are Antisana (19,260 feet) +and Cayambe (19,200 feet). Northward of this section the Andes break into +three distinct ranges, the east-most running north-eastward into Venezuela, +the westmost running north-westward to the Isthmus of Panama. In the +central range is the volcano of Tolima (17,660 feet). The western slope of +the Andes is generally exceedingly steep, the eastern much less so, the +mountains sinking gradually to the plains. The whole range gives evidence +of volcanic action, but it consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks. +Thus mountains may be found rising to the height of over 20,000 feet, and +fossiliferous to their summits (as Illimani and Sorata or Illampu). There +are about thirty volcanoes in a state of activity. The loftiest of these +burning mountains seems to be Gualateiri, in Peru (21,960 feet). The +heights of the others vary from 13,000 to 20,000 feet. All the districts of +the Andes system have suffered severely from earthquakes, towns having been +either destroyed or greatly injured by these visitations. Peaks crowned +with perpetual snow are seen all along the range, and glaciers are also met +with, more especially from Aconcagua southwards. The passes are generally +at a great height, the most important being from 10,000 to 15,000 feet. +Railways have been constructed to cross the chain at a similar elevation. +The Andes are extremely rich in the precious metals, gold, silver, copper, +platinum, mercury, and tin all being wrought; lead and iron are also found. +The llama and kindred species--the guanaco, vicuna, and alpaca--are +characteristic of the Andes. Among birds, the condor is the most +remarkable. The vegetation necessarily varies much according to elevation, +latitude, rainfall, &c., but generally is rich and varied. Except in the +south and north little rain falls on the western side of the range, and in +the centre there is a considerable desert area. On the east side the +rainfall is heavy in the equatorial regions, but in the south is very +scanty or altogether deficient. From the Andes rise two of the largest +water systems of the world--the Amazon and its affluents, and the La Plata +and its affluents. Besides which, in the north, from its slopes flow the +Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some tributaries to the Orinoco. The +mountain chain pressing so close upon the Pacific Ocean, no streams of +importance flow from its western slopes. The number of lakes is not great; +the largest and most important is that of Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau. +In the Andes are towns at a greater elevation than anywhere else in the +world, the highest being the silver-mining town of Cerro de Pasco (14,270 +feet), the next being Potosi. + +AN'DESIN, a kind of felspar containing both soda and lime, and named from +being first obtained in the Andes. + +AN'DESITE, a name given to a crystalline volcanic rock or group of rocks of +very wide occurrence, consisting mostly of felspar mixed with other +ingredients, especially hornblende and augite, often also hypersthene and +mica, the four chief varieties being named accordingly. Andesite is often +porphyritic in character, with large crystals of felspar scattered through +it. These rocks are commonly eruptive products of volcanoes of the tertiary +or more recent periods, and the name was given by C. L. von Buch on account +of their prevalence in the lavas of volcanoes of the Andes. The Ochils and +other hills of middle Scotland largely consist of andesite. + +ANDIJAN', a town of Russian Turkestan, Ferghana, south of the Syr-Darya, a +terminus of the Transcaspian Railway, 73 miles north-east of Khokand. Pop. +82,235. + +ANDI'RA, a genus of leguminous American trees, with fleshy plum-like +fruits. The wood is suitable for building purposes. The bark of _A. +inermis_, or cabbage tree, is narcotic, and is used as an anthelminthic +under the name of _worm-bark_ or _cabbage bark_. The powdered bark of _A. +arar[=o]ba_ is used as a remedy in certain skin diseases, as herpes. + +ANDIRON (and'[=i]-[.e]rn), a horizontal iron bar raised on short legs, with +an upright standard at one end, used to support pieces of wood when burning +in an open hearth, one andiron being placed on either side of the hearth. + +ANDKHOO, or ANDKHOUI ([.a]nd-_h_[:o]', [.a]nd-_h_oe'i), a town of +Afghanistan, about 200 miles south of Bokhara, on the commercial route to +Herat. Pop. estimated at 15,000. + +ANDOCIDES (an-dos'i-d[=e]z), an Athenian orator, born about 440 B.C., died +about 393 B.C. He took an active part in public affairs, and was four times +exiled; the first time along with Alcibiades, for profaning the Eleusinian +mysteries. Several of his orations are extant, one called _On the +Mysteries_ being the best. + +ANDOR'RA, or ANDORRE', a small nominally independent State in the Pyrenees, +south of the French department of Ariege, with an area of about 191 sq. +miles. It has been a separate State for six hundred years, is governed by +its own civil and criminal codes, and has its own courts of justice, the +laws being administered by two judges, one of whom is chosen by France, the +other by the Bishop of Urgel, in Spain. The little State pays an annual due +of 960 francs to France, and 460 pesetas to the Bishop of Urgel. The chief +industry is the rearing of sheep and cattle. The commerce is largely in +importing contraband goods into Spain. The inhabitants, who speak the +Catalan dialect of Spanish, are simple in their manners, their wealth +consisting mainly of cattle and sheep. The village of Old Andorra is the +capital. Pop. 5231. + +AN'DOVER, a town in England, in Hants, 12 miles north by west of +Winchester, with a fine church, and a trade in corn, malt, &c. Interesting +Roman remains have been found in the vicinity. Pop. (1921), 8569. + +AN'DOVER, a town in Massachusetts, 25 miles N.N.W. of Boston, chiefly +remarkable for its literary institutions--Phillip's Academy, founded in +1778; the Andover Theological Seminary, founded in 1807; and Abbot Academy, +a girls' school, founded in 1829. Pop. 7300. + +ANDRASSY ([.a]n-drae'sh[=e]), Count Julius, Hungarian statesman, born 1823, +died in 1890. He took part in the revolution of 1848, was condemned to +death, but escaped and went into exile. He was appointed Premier when +self-government was restored to Hungary in 1867; became imperial Minister +for Foreign Affairs in 1871, but retired from public life in 1879. + +ANDRASSY, Julius, Hungarian statesman, son of the preceding. He was born in +1860, and entered the Reichstag in 1884. He became Minister of the Interior +in 1906, and retained that office until 1909. In 1912 he represented +Austria at the conference on the Balkan question. In 1918 he was appointed +Minister for Foreign Affairs, but soon resigned. + +ANDRE (an'dr[=a]), Major John, adjutant-general in the British army during +the American revolutionary war. Employed to negotiate the defection of the +American general Arnold, and the delivery of the works at West Point, he +was apprehended in disguise, 23rd Sept., 1780, within the American lines; +declared a spy from the enemy, and hanged 2nd Oct., 1780. His remains were +brought to England in 1821 and interred in Westminster Abbey, where a +monument has been erected to his memory. + +ANDREA DEL SARTO. See _Sarto_. + +ANDREAE ([.a]n'dre-[=a]), Johann Valentin, German author, born 1586, died +1654. He was the author of numerous tracts, several of them of an amusing +and satirical character. He was long believed to be the founder of the +celebrated Rosicrucian order, an opinion that received a certain support +from some of his works, but in all probability the real intention of the +writer was to ridicule the folly of contemporary alchemists. + +AN'DREASBERG, ST., a mining town of the Harz Mountains, in Prussia, 57 +miles S.S.E. of Hanover. Pop. about 4000. + +ANDREEV, Leonid Nicolaievitsh, Russian author, born in 1871, died in 1919. +He studied law at the Universities of Moscow and Petrograd, but finding his +practice unremunerative he became a police-court reporter for a daily +paper. At the age of twenty-three he attempted suicide, driven to it by his +miserable circumstances and struggle for existence. His first story, _About +a Poor Student_, based upon his own experiences, attracted but little +attention, and his literary career really began when Gorky discovered his +talent. He was one of the most prolific Russian writers, the short story +being his speciality. He was a mystic and a fatalist, like so many of his +compatriots. His works include: _The Red Laugh_ (1905); _The Seven who were +Hanged_ (1909); _Judas Iscariot and the Others_ (1910); _A Dilemma_ (1910); +_Silence and Other Stories_, &c. His works have been translated into many +European languages. + +ANDREW, ST., brother of St. Peter, and the first disciple whom Christ +chose. He is said to have preached in Scythia, in Thrace and Asia Minor, +and in Achaia (Greece), and according to tradition he was crucified by +order of the Roman governor Aegeas at Patrae, now Patras, in Achaia, on a +cross of the form X (decussate cross), now known as a St. Andrew's cross. +The Russians revere him as the apostle who brought the gospel to them; the +Scots, as the patron saint of their country. The day dedicated to him is +30th Nov. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted by Peter the Great +in 1698. For the Scottish Knights of St. Andrew or the Thistle, see +_Thistle_. + +AN'DREWES, Lancelot, an eminent and learned bishop of the English Church, +born in London in 1555, died at Winchester 1626; was high in favour both +with Queen Elizabeth and James I. In 1605 he became Bishop of Chichester; +in 1609 was translated to Ely, and appointed one of the king's +privy-councillors; and in 1618 he was translated to Winchester. He was one +of those engaged in preparing the authorized version of the Scriptures. He +left sermons, lectures, and other writings. + +AN'DREWS, ST., an ancient city and parliamentary burgh in Fifeshire, +Scotland, 31 miles north-east from Edinburgh; was erected into a royal +burgh by David I in 1140, and after having been an episcopal, became an +archiepiscopal see in 1472, and was for long the ecclesiastical capital of +Scotland. The cathedral, now in ruins, was begun about 1160, and took 157 +years to finish. The old castle, founded about 1200, and rebuilt in the +fourteenth century, is also an almost shapeless ruin. In it James III was +born and Cardinal Beaton assassinated, and in front of it George Wishart +was burned. There are several other interesting ruins. The trade and +manufactures are of no importance, but the town is in favour as a +watering-place. Golf is much played here. Pop. 7597.--The _University of +St. Andrews_, the oldest of the Scottish universities, founded in 1411, +consists of the united colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard and the +college of St. Mary, both at St. Andrews, and embraces also University +College, Dundee. In 1579 the colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard were +restricted to the teaching of arts and medicine, and that of St. Mary to +theology. In 1747 the two former colleges were united by Act of Parliament. +University College, Dundee, was founded in 1880. The united college of St. +Salvator and St. Leonard has a principal (who is also principal of the +university) and twelve professors, and the college of St. Mary has a +principal and four professors. Degrees, open to women as well as men, are +conferred in arts, divinity, science, medicine, and law; and the university +also confers the diploma and title of L.L.A. (Lady Literate in Arts). The +number of students is 420. In connection with the university is a library, +founded in 1612 and containing about 150,000 printed volumes and 150 MSS. +The university unites with the other three Scottish universities in +returning three members to Parliament. Madras College or Academy, founded +by Dr. Bell of Madras, the principal secondary school of the place, +provides accommodation for upwards of 1500 scholars. + +AN'DREWS, Thomas, chemist, was born at Belfast in 1813; studied chemistry +at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson, and for a short time in Paris; then +medicine at Belfast, Dublin, and Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.D. at +the last place. After practising and teaching chemistry for ten years in +Belfast, he became vice-president of the Northern College there, which in +1849 was converted into Queen's College, and Andrews now became professor +of chemistry in the college, a post which he held till 1879. He died in +1885, having received various academic distinctions in the course of his +life. His name is associated with valuable researches on the heat of +chemical combustion, and on the nature of ozone, but especially with the +discovery of the existence of a critical temperature for every gas, above +which it cannot be liquefied by any pressure, however great. He wrote many +scientific papers, which have been published in a collective form by P. G. +Tait and A. Crum Brown. + +AN'DRIA, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, with a fine cathedral, +founded in 1046; the Church of Sant' Agostino, with a beautiful Pointed +Gothic portal; a college; manufactures of majolica, and a good trade. Pop. +53,274. + +ANDROCLUS, or ANDROCLES, a Roman slave who once pulled a thorn out of a +lion's paw and dressed the wound. Androclus was afterwards condemned to be +thrown to the lions in the Circus Maximus, and encountered the same lion +that he had helped; the beast, instead of attacking him, fawned on him and +caressed him. The story is told by Aulus Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, v, 14. + +ANDROE'CIUM, in botany, the male system of a flower; the aggregate of the +stamens. + +ANDROMACHE (an-drom'a-k[=e]), in Greek legend, wife of Hector, and one of +the most attractive women of Homer's _Iliad_. The passage describing her +parting with Hector, when he was setting out to battle, is well known and +much admired (_Iliad_, vi, 369-502). Euripides and Racine have made her the +chief character of tragedies. + +ANDROM'[)E]DA, in Greek mythology, daughter of the Ethiopian king Cepheus +and of Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia having boasted that her daughter surpassed +the Nereids, if not H[=e]ra (Juno) herself, in beauty, the offended +goddesses prevailed on their father, Poseid[=o]n (Neptune), to afflict the +country with a horrid sea-monster, which threatened universal destruction. +To appease the offended god, Andromeda was chained to a rock, but was +rescued by Perseus; and after death was changed into a constellation. The +legend forms the subject of tragedies by Euripides and Sophocles, and Ovid +introduced it into his _Metamorphoses_. + +ANDROM'EDA. See _Ericaceae_. + +ANDRONI'CUS, the name of four emperors of Constantinople.--ANDRONICUS I, +Comnenus, born 1110, murdered 1185.--ANDRONICUS II, Palaeologus, born 1258, +died 1332. His reign is celebrated for the invasion of the +Turks.--ANDRONICUS III, Palaeologus the Younger, born 1296, died +1341.--ANDRONICUS IV, Palaeologus, reigned in the absence of John IV. In +1373 he gave way to his brother Manuel, and died a monk. + +ANDRONI'CUS, Livius, the most ancient of the Latin dramatic poets; +flourished about 240 B.C.; by origin a Greek, and long a slave. A few +fragments of his works have come down to us. + +ANDRONI'CUS of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher who lived at Rome in the +time of Cicero. He arranged Aristotle's works in much the same form as they +retain in present editions. + +ANDRONI'CUS CYRRHESTES (sir-es't[=e]z), a Greek architect about 100 B.C., +who constructed at Athens the Tower of the Winds, an octagonal building, +still standing. On the top was a Triton, which indicated the direction of +the wind. Each of the sides had a sort of dial, and the building formerly +contained a clepsydra or water-clock. + +ANDROPO'GON, a large genus of grasses, mostly natives of warm countries. +_A. Schoenanthus_ is the sweet-scented lemon-grass of conservatories. +Others also are fragrant. + +AN'DROS (now ANDRO), one of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, the +most northerly of the Cyclades; about 25 miles long and 6 or 7 broad; area, +100 sq. miles. A considerable trade is done in silk, wine, olives, figs, +oranges, and lemons. Andro or Castro, the capital, has a good port. Pop. +18,809. + +ANDROS ISLANDS, a group of isles belonging to the Bahamas, lying south-west +of New Providence, not far from the east entrance to the Gulf of Florida. +The passages through them are dangerous. Pop. 7545. + +ANDRUSSOVO, a Russian village in the government of Smolensk. A treaty was +signed here between Poland and Russia (1667). + +ANDUJAR ([.a]n-_d_oe-_h_aer'), a town in Spain, in Andalusia, 50 miles +E.N.E. of Cordova, on the Guadalquivir, which is here crossed by a fine +bridge; manufactures a peculiar kind of porous earthen water-bottles and +jugs (_alcarazas_). Pop. 16,500. + +AN'ECDOTE, originally some particular about a subject not noticed in +previous works on that subject; now any particular or detached incident or +fact of an interesting nature; a single passage of private life. + +ANEGA'DA, a British West Indian island, the most northern of the Virgin +group, 10 miles long by 4-1/2 broad; contains numerous salt ponds, from +which quantities of salt are obtained. Pop. 200. + +ANELECTRIC, a body not easily electrified. + +ANELECTRODE, the positive pole of a galvanic battery. + +[Illustration: Beckley's Improved Robinson Cup Anemometer] + +ANEMOM'ETER (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind, _metron_, measure), an instrument for +measuring the force and velocity of the wind. This force is usually +measured by the pressure of the wind upon a square plate attached to one +end of a spiral spring (with its axis horizontal), which yields more or +less according to the force of the wind, and transmits its motion to a +pencil which leaves a trace upon paper moved by clockwork. Various +instruments have been devised for this purpose, but the one most commonly +adopted by meteorological stations is after the type invented by Dr. +Robinson of Armagh. It consists of four hemispherical cups A attached to +the ends of equal horizontal arms, forming a horizontal cross which turns +freely about a vertical axis B. By means of an endless screw carried by the +axis a train of wheelwork is set in motion; and the indication is given by +a hand which moves round a dial; or in some instruments by several hands +moving round different dials like those of a gas-meter. It is found that +the centre of each cup moves with a velocity which is almost exactly +one-third of that of the wind. There are various other forms of the +instrument, one of which is portable, and is especially intended for +measuring the velocity of currents of air passing through mines, and the +ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public buildings. The direction +of the wind as indicated by a vane can also be made to leave a continuous +record by various contrivances; one of the most common being a pinion +carried by the shaft of a vane, and driving a rack which carries a pencil. + +ANEM'[)O]N[=E] (Gr. _an[)e]mos_, wind), wind-flower, a genus of plants +belonging to the Buttercup family (Ranunculaceae), containing about ninety +species, found in temperate regions, three of them occurring in Britain: +the white-flowered (_A. nemor[=o]sa_), the only one truly native; the +blue-flowered (_A. apenn[=i]na_); and the yellow-flowered (_A. +ranunculoides_), a common European species naturalized in some parts of +Britain. Several species are cultivated as florists' flowers. + +ANEMOPH'ILOUS, said of flowers that are fertilized by the wind conveying +the pollen. + +ANEM'OSCOPE, any contrivance indicating the direction of the wind; +generally applied to a vane which turns a spindle descending through the +roof to a chamber where, by means of a compass-card and index, the +direction of the wind is shown. + +ANEROID BAROMETER. See _Barometer_. + +ANE'THUM, a genus of plants; dill. + +ANEU'RIN, a poet and prince of the Cambrian Britons who flourished in the +seventh century, author of an epic poem, the _Gododin_, relating the defeat +of the Britons of Strathclyde by the Saxons at the battle of Cattraeth. See +_Celtic Literature_. + +AN'EURISM, or ANEURYSM (Gr. _aneurysma_, a widening), the dilatation or +expansion of some part of an artery. Aneurisms arise partly from the too +violent motion of the blood, and partly from degenerative changes occurring +in the coats of the artery, diminishing their elasticity. They are +therefore more frequent in the great branches; in particular, in the +vicinity of the heart, in the arch of the aorta, and in the extremities, +where the arteries are exposed to frequent injuries by stretching, violent +bodily exertions, thrusts, falls, and contusions. An internal aneurism may +burst and cause death. + +ANGARA', a Siberian river which flows into Lake Baikal at its N. extremity, +and leaves it near the S.W. end, joining the Yenisei as the Lower Angara or +Upper Tunguska. + +ANGEL (Gr. _angelos_, a messenger), one of those spiritual intelligences +who are regarded as dwelling in Heaven and employed as the ministers or +agents of God. To these the name of good angels is sometimes given, to +distinguish them from bad angels, who were originally created to occupy the +same blissful abode, but lost it by rebellion. The Old Testament represents +them as messengers of the Divine will, and Christ spoke of them more than +once (_St. Matt._ xviii, 10; _St. Luke_, xv, 10). Generally, however, +Scripture speaks of angels with great reserve, Michael and Gabriel alone +being mentioned by name in the canonical books, while Raphael is mentioned +in the Apocrypha. The angels are represented in Scripture as in the most +elevated state of intelligence, purity, and bliss, ever doing the will of +God so perfectly that we can seek for nothing higher or better than to aim +at being like them. There are indications of a diversity of rank and power +among them, and something like angelic orders--Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, +Uriel, &c., seraphim and cherubim. They are represented as frequently +taking part in communications made from heaven to earth, as directly and +actively ministering to the good of believers, and shielding or delivering +them from evils incident to their earthly lot. That every person has a good +and a bad angel attendant on him was an early belief, and is held to some +extent yet. Roman Catholics, since St. Ambrosius, who died in 397, show a +certain veneration or worship to angels, and beg their prayers and their +kind offices. The New Testament, however, formally forbidding such +veneration (_Col._ ii, 18, &c.), Protestants consider this unlawful. + +[Illustration: Angel of Queen Elizabeth] + +ANGEL, a gold coin introduced into England in the reign of Edward IV, and +coined down to the Commonwealth, so named from having the representation of +the archangel Michael piercing a dragon upon it. It had different values in +different reigns, varying from 6s. 8d. to 10s. + +ANGEL-FISH, a fish, _Squat[=i]na ang[)e]lus_, nearly allied to the sharks, +very ugly and voracious, preying on other fish. It is from 6 to 8 feet +long, and takes its name from its pectoral fins, which are very large, +extending horizontally like wings when spread. This fish connects the rays +with the sharks, but it differs from both in having its mouth placed at the +extremity of the head. It is common on the south coasts of Britain, and is +also called _Monk-fish_ and _Fiddle-fish_. + +ANGEL'ICA, a genus of umbelliferous plants, one of which, _A. sylvestris_, +a tall plant bearing large umbels of white flowers tinged with pink, is +common in wet places in Britain, and was formerly believed to possess +_angelic_ properties as an antidote to poison, a specific against +witchcraft, &c. The name is also given to an allied plant, the +_Archangelica officin[=a]lis_, found on the banks of rivers and ditches in +the north of Europe, once generally cultivated as an esculent, and still +valued for its medicinal properties. It has a large fleshy aromatic root, +and a strong-furrowed branched stem as high as a man. It is cultivated for +its agreeable aromatic odour and carminative properties. Its blanched +stems, candied with sugar, form a very agreeable sweetmeat, possessing +tonic and stomachic qualities. + +ANGELICO ([.a]n-jel'i-k[=o]), FRA, the common appellation of _Fra Giovanni +da Fiesole_, one of the most celebrated of the early Italian painters. Born +1387, he entered the Dominican order in 1407, and was employed by Cosmo de' +Medici in painting the monastery of St. Mark and the church of St. +Annunziata with frescoes. These pictures gained him so much celebrity that +Pope Nicholas V invited him to Rome to ornament his private chapel in the +Vatican, and offered him the archbishopric of Florence, which Angelico +declined. He died at, Rome 1455. He has been called the 'painter of +seraphic dreams'. His works were considered unrivalled in finish and in +sweetness and harmony of colour, and were made the models for religious +painters of his own and succeeding generations. + +ANGELN ([.a]ng'eln), a district in Schleswig of about 300 sq. miles, +bounded N. by the Bay of Flensburg, S. by the Schlei, E. by the Baltic, the +only continental territory which has retained the name of the Angles. + +ANGELO ([.a]n'je-l[=o]), Michael. See _Buonarotti_. + +AN'GELUS, in the Roman Catholic Church, a short form of prayer in honour of +the incarnation, consisting mainly of versicles and responses, the angelic +salutation three times repeated, and a collect, so named from the word with +which it commences, '_Angelus_ Domini' (Angel of the Lord). Hence, also, +the bell tolled in the morning, at noon, and in the evening to indicate the +time when the angelus is to be recited. The prayer is attributed to St. +Bonaventura, and in Germany and Italy it is called 'Ave Maria'. + +ANGERMANN (ong'er-m[.a]n), a Swedish river which falls into the Gulf of +Bothnia, noted for its fine scenery. It is navigable for nearly 70 miles +for vessels of 600 tons. + +ANGERMUENDE ([.a]ng'er-muen-de), a town in Prussia, on Lake Muende, 42 +miles north-east of Berlin. Pop. 8200. + +ANGERS ([.a][n.]-zh[=a]), a town and river-port of France, capital of the +department of Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of the province of Anjou, on the +banks of the Maine, 5-1/2 miles from the Loire, 150 miles south-west of +Paris. It has an old castle, built by Louis IX, once a place of great +strength, now used as a prison, barrack, and powder-magazine; a fine +cathedral of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with very fine old +painted windows; is the seat of a bishop, and has a school of arts and +manufactures; a public library, an art-gallery, a large modern hospital, +the remains of a hospital founded by Henry II of England in 1155; courts of +law, theatre, &c. It manufactures sail-cloth, hosiery, leather, and +chemicals; foundries, &c. In the neighbourhood are immense slate-quarries. +Pop. 83,786. + +ANGEVINS (an'je-vins), natives of Anjou, often applied to the race of +English sovereigns called Plantagenets (q.v.). Anjou became connected with +England by the marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, with Geoffrey V, +Count of Anjou. The Angevin kings of England were Henry II, Richard I, +John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and Richard II. + +ANGILBERT, ST., the most celebrated poet of his age, secretary and friend +of Charlemagne, whose daughter, Bertha, he married. In the latter part of +his life he retired to a monastery, of which he became abbot. Died 814. + +ANGINA PECTORIS (an'ji-na pek'to-ris), or HEART-SPASM, a disease +characterized by an extremely acute constriction, felt generally in the +lower part of the sternum, and extending along the whole side of the chest +and into the corresponding arm, a sense of suffocation, faintness, and +apprehension of approaching death: seldom experienced by any but those with +organic heart-disease. The disease rarely occurs before middle age, and is +more frequent in men than in women. Those liable to attack must lead a +quiet, temperate life, avoiding all scenes which would unduly rouse their +emotions. The first attack is occasionally fatal, but usually death occurs +as the result of repeated seizures. The paroxysm may be relieved by +opiates, or the inhalation, under due precaution, of anaesthetic vapours. + +ANGIOSPERM (an'ji-o-sp[.e]rm), a term for any plant which has its seeds +enclosed in a seed-vessel. Exogens are divided into those whose seeds are +enclosed in a seed-vessel, and those with seeds produced and ripened +without the production of a seed-vessel. The former are _angiosperms_, and +constitute the principal part of the species; the latter are _gymnosperms_, +and chiefly consist of the Coniferae and Cycadaceae. + +[Illustration] + +ANGLE, the point where two lines meet, or the meeting of two lines in a +point. A _plane rectilineal angle_ is formed by two straight lines which +meet one another, but are not in the same straight line; it may be +considered the degree of opening or divergence of the two straight lines +which thus meet one another. A _right angle_ is an angle formed by a +straight line falling on another perpendicularly, or an angle which is +measured by an arc of 90 degrees. When a straight line, as A B (fig. 1), +standing on another straight line C D, makes the two angles A B C and A B D +equal to one another, each of these angles is called a _right angle_. An +_acute angle_ is that which is less than a right angle, as E B C. An +_obtuse angle_ is that which is greater than a right angle, as E B D. Acute +and obtuse angles are both called _oblique_, in opposition to right angles. +_Exterior_ or _external angles_, the angles of any rectilineal figure +without it, made by producing the sides; thus, if the sides A B, B C, C A +of the triangle A B C (fig. 2) be produced to the points F D E, the angles +C B F, A C D, B A E are called _exterior_ or _external angles_. A _solid +angle_ is that which is made by more than two plane angles meeting in one +point and not lying in the same plane, as the angle of a cube. A _spherical +angle_ is an angle on the surface of a sphere, contained between the arcs +of two great circles which intersect each other. + +ANGLER (_Lophius piscatorius_), also from its habits and appearance called +FISHING-FROG and SEA-DEVIL, a remarkable fish often found on the British +coasts. It is from 3 to 5 feet long; the head is very wide, depressed, with +protuberances, and bearing long separate movable tendrils; the mouth is +capacious, and armed with formidable teeth. Its voracity is extreme, and it +is said to lie concealed in the mud, and attract the smaller fishes within +its reach by gently waving the filamentous appendages on its head. + +ANGLES, a Low German tribe who in the earliest historical period had their +seats in the district about Angeln, in the duchy of Schleswig, and who in +the fifth century and subsequently crossed over to Britain along with bands +of Saxons and Jutes (and probably Frisians also), and colonized a great +part of what from them has received the name of England, as well as a +portion of the Lowlands of Scotland. The Angles formed the largest body +among the Germanic settlers in Britain, and founded the three kingdoms of +East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. + +ANGLESEY (ang'gl-s[=e]), or ANGLESEA ('the Angles' Island'), an island and +county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea, separated from the mainland by the +Menai Strait; 20 miles long and 17 miles broad; area, 176,630 acres. The +surface is comparatively flat, and the climate is milder than that of the +adjoining coast. The chief agricultural products are oats and barley, +wheat, rye, potatoes, and turnips. Numbers of cattle and sheep are raised. +Anglesey yields a little copper, lead, silver, ochre, &c. The Menai Strait +is crossed by a magnificent suspension-bridge, 580 feet between the piers +and 100 feet above high-water mark, and also by the great Britannia Tubular +Railway Bridge. The chief market-towns are Beaumaris, Holyhead, Llangefni, +and Amlweh. The county returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921), +51,695. + +ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, Marquess of, English soldier and statesman, +was the eldest son of Henry, first Earl of Uxbridge, and was born in 1768. +He was educated at Oxford, and in 1790 entered Parliament as member for the +Carnarvon boroughs. In 1793 he entered the army, and in 1794 he took part +in the campaign in Flanders under the Duke of York. In 1808 he was sent +into Spain with two brigades of cavalry to join Sir John Moore, and in the +retreat to Coruna commanded the rear-guard. In 1812 he became, by his +father's death, Earl of Uxbridge. On Napoleon's escape from Elba he was +appointed commander of the British cavalry, and at the battle of Waterloo, +by the charge of the heavy brigade, overthrew the Imperial Guard. For his +services he was created Marquess of Anglesey. In 1828 he became +Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland and made himself extremely popular, but was +recalled in consequence of favouring Catholic Emancipation. He was again +Lord-Lieutenant in 1830, but lost his popularity by his opposition to +O'Connell and his instrumentality in the passing of the Irish Coercion +Acts; and he quitted office in 1833. From 1846-52 he was Master-General of +the Ordnance. He died in 1854. + +ANGLICANISM, the term is capable of a wider use, but is usually employed as +descriptive of the type of doctrine formulated by the Church of England in +the period of the Protestant Reformation. The two most notable formularies +of that period are the Confession of Faith, known as the Thirty-nine +Articles, which assumed its present shape in 1571, and the Liturgy, known +as the Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1559 in what was substantially its +present shape. By the Clerical Subscription Act of 1865 assent is required +to both Prayer Book and Articles. The Articles are not and never were +binding upon laymen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mgr. Moyes, _Aspects of Anglicanism_; +F. Y. Kinsman, _Principles of Anglicanism_. + +ANGLING, the art of catching fish with a hook or _angle_ (A. Sax. _angel_) +baited with worms, small fish, flies, &c. We find occasional allusions to +this pursuit among the Greek and Latin classical writers; it is mentioned +several times in the Old Testament, and it was practised by the ancient +Egyptians. The first reference to angling in England is a passage in a +tract, entitled _Piers Fulham_, supposed to have been written about the +year 1420. The oldest work on the subject in English is the _Treatyse of +Fysshinge with an Angle_, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with a +treatise on hunting and hawking, the whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana +Berners or Barnes, prioress of a nunnery near St. Albans. Walton's +inimitable discourse on angling was first printed in 1653. The chief +appliances required by an angler are a rod, line, hooks, and baits. Rods +are made of various materials, and of various sizes. The cane rods are +lightest, and where fishing-tackle is sold they most commonly have the +preference; but in country places the rod is often of the angler's own +manufacture. Rods are commonly made in separate joints, so as to be easily +taken to pieces and put up again. They are made to taper from the butt end +to the top, and are usually possessed of a considerable amount of +elasticity. In length they may vary from 10 feet to more than double that +length, with a corresponding difference in strength--a rod for salmon being +necessarily much stronger than one suited for ordinary burn trout. The +_reel_, an apparatus for winding up the line, is attached to the rod near +the lower end, where the hand grasps it while fishing. The best are usually +made of brass, are of simple construction, and so made as to wind or unwind +freely and rapidly. That part of the line which passes along the rod and is +wound on the reel is called the _reel line_, and may vary from 20 to 100 +yards in length, according to the size of the water and the habits of the +fish angled for; it is usually made of twisted horse-hair and silk, or of +oiled silk alone. The casting line, which is attached to this, is made of +the same materials, but lighter and finer. To the end of this is tied a +piece of fine gut, on which the hook, or hooks, are fixed. The casting or +gut lines should decrease in thickness from the reel line to the hooks. The +hook, of finely-tempered steel, should readily bend without breaking, and +yet retain a sharp point. It should be long in the shank and deep in the +bend; the point straight and true to the level of the shank; and the barb +long. Their sizes and sorts must of course entirely depend on the kind of +fish that is angled for. Floats formed of cork, goose and swan quills, &c., +are often used to buoy up the hook so that it may float clear of the +bottom. For heavy fish or strong streams a cork float is used; in slow +water and for lighter fish quill floats. _Baits_ may consist of a great +variety of materials, natural or artificial. The principal natural baits +are worms: common garden worms, brandlings, and red worms, maggots, or +gentles (the larvae of blow-flies such as are found on putrid meat), +insects, small fish (as minnows), salmon roe, &c. The artificial flies so +much used in angling for trout and salmon are composed of hairs, furs, and +wools of every variety, mingled with pieces of feathers, and secured +together by plaited wire, or gold and silver thread, marking-silk, wax, &c. +The wings may be made of the feathers of domestic fowls, or any others of a +showy colour. Some angling authorities recommend that the artificial flies +should be made to resemble as closely as possible the insects on which the +fish is wont to feed, but experience has shown that the most capricious and +unnatural combinations of feather, fur, &c., have been often successful +where the most realistic imitations have failed. Artificial minnows, or +other small fish, are also used by way of bait, and are so contrived as to +spin rapidly when drawn through the water in order to attract the notice of +the fish angled for. Angling, especially with the fly, demands a great deal +of skill and practice, the casting of the line properly being the initial +difficulty. Nowhere is the art pursued with greater success and enthusiasm +than in Britain and the United States.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Fishing_ (vol. i), +_Salmon and Trout_ (vol. ii), _Pike and Coarse Fish_ (Badminton Library); +H. G. Hutchinson, _Fishing_ (2 vols., Country Life series); Viscount Grey, +_Fly Fishing_; Gathorne-Hardy, _The Salmon_; Marquess of Granby, _The +Trout_; H. T. Sheringham, _Elements of Angling_; W. M. Gallichan, _The +Complete Fisherman_. + +ANGLO-CATHOLIC, a term sometimes used to designate those churches which +hold the principles of the English Reformation, the Anglican or Established +Church of England and the allied churches. The term is also applied to that +party in the English Church which favours doctrines and religious forms +closely approaching those of the Roman Catholic Church, objects to be +called Protestant, and corresponds closely with the _Ritualistic_ section +of the Church. + +ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. See _Sudan_. + +[Illustration: Saxon Architecture. Doorway, Earl's Barton, Northampton] + +ANGLO-SAXONS, the name commonly given to the nation or people formed by the +amalgamation of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain in +the fifth and sixth centuries after Christ, the Anglo-Saxons being simply +the English people of the earlier period of English history. The tribes who +were thus the ancestors of the bulk of the English-speaking nationalities +came from North Germany, where they inhabited the parts about the mouths of +the Elbe and Weser, and the first body of them who gained a footing in +Britain are said to have landed in 449, and to have been led by Hengist and +Horsa. From the preponderance of the Angles the whole country came to be +called _Engla-land_, that is, the land of the Angles or English. + +Many scholars object to the term 'Anglo-Saxon' as being inaccurate and open +to misinterpretation. Correctly used, Anglo-Saxon means _English-Saxon_, as +distinguished from the Old-Saxon of the Continent; incorrectly used, as it +has been too frequently, it is taken as = Angle + Saxon, a union of Angle +and Saxon. Camden (1551-1623) is responsible for the widespread use of the +term; ignorance is responsible for the misuse. Many scholars prefer to +apply the term 'Old English' to the language and people of England before +A.D. 1100, partly because this term is more accurate and partly because its +use helps to emphasize the essential continuity of the language. + +The whole Anglo-Saxon community was frequently spoken of as consisting of +the _eorls_ and the _ceorls_, or the nobles and common freemen. The former +were the men of property and position, the latter were the small +landholders, handicraftsmen, &c., who generally placed themselves under the +protection of some nobleman, who was hence termed their _hlaford_ or lord. +Besides these there was the class of the serfs or slaves (_theowas_), who +might be either born slaves or freemen who had forfeited their liberty by +their crimes, or whom poverty or the fortune of war had brought into this +position. They served as agricultural labourers on their masters' estates, +and were mere chattels, as absolutely the property of their master as his +cattle. + +The king (_cyning_, _cyng_) was at the head of the State; he was the +highest of the nobles and the chief magistrate. He was not looked upon as +ruling by any Divine Right, but by the will of the people, as represented +by the _witan_ (wise men) or great council of the nation. The new king was +not always the direct and nearest heir of the late king, but one of the +royal family whose abilities and character recommended him for the office. +He had the right of maintaining a standing army of household troops, the +duty of calling together the _witan_, and of laying before them public +measures, with certain distinctions of dress, dwelling, &c., all his +privileges being possessed and exercised by the advice and consent of the +_witena-gemot_ or parliament (literally, 'meeting of the wise'). Next in +rank and dignity to the king were the _ealdormen_, who were the chief witan +or counsellors, and without whose assent laws could not be made, altered, +or abrogated. They were at the head of the administration of justice in the +shires, possessing both judicial and executive authority, and had as their +officers the _scir-gerefan_ or sheriffs. The ealdormen led the _fyrd_ or +armed force of the county, and the ealdorman, as such, held possession of +certain lands attached to the office, and was entitled to a share of fines +and other moneys levied for the king's use and passing through his hands. +The whole executive government may be considered as a great aristocratical +association, of which the ealdormen were the members, and the king little +more than the president. The ealdorman and the king were both surrounded by +a number of followers called _thegnas_ or thanes, who were bound by close +ties to their superior. The king's thanes were the higher in rank; they +possessed a certain quantity of land, smaller in amount than that of an +ealdorman, and they filled offices connected with the personal service of +the king or with the administration of justice. The _scir-gerefa_ +(shire-reeve or sheriff) was also an important functionary. He presided at +the county court along with the ealdorman and bishop, or alone in their +absence; and he had to carry out the decisions of the court, levy fines, +collect taxes, &c. The shires were divided into hundreds and tithings, the +latter consisting of ten heads of families, who were jointly responsible to +the State for the good conduct of any member of their body. For the trial +and settlement of minor causes there was a hundred court held once a month. +The place of the modern Parliament was held by the _witena-gemot_. Its +members, who were not elected, comprised the aethelings or princes of the +blood royal, the bishops and abbots, the ealdormen, the thanes, the +sheriffs, &c. + +One of the peculiar features of Anglo-Saxon society was the _wergyld_, +which was established for the settling of feuds. A sum, paid either in kind +or in money, was placed upon the life of every freeman, according to his +rank in the State, his birth, or his office. A corresponding sum was +settled for every wound that could be inflicted upon his person; for nearly +every injury that could be done to his civil rights, his honour, or his +domestic peace, &c. From the operation of this principle no one from king +to peasant was exempt. + +[Illustration: Ploughing +From an Anglo-Saxon Calendar in the British Museum.] + +Agriculture, including especially the raising of cattle, sheep, and swine, +was the chief occupation of the Anglo-Saxons. Gardens and orchards are +frequently mentioned, and vineyards were common in the southern counties. +The forests were extensive, and valuable both from the mast they produced +for the swine, and from the beasts of the chase which they harboured. +Hunting was a favourite recreation among the higher ranks, both lay and +clerical. Fishing was largely carried on, herrings and salmon being the +principal fish caught; and the Anglo-Saxon whaling vessels used to go as +far as Iceland. The manufactures were naturally of small moment. Iron was +made to some extent, and some cloth, and saltworks were numerous. In +embroidery and working of gold the English were famous over Europe. There +was a considerable trade at London, which was frequented by Normans, +French, Flemings, and the merchants of the Hanse towns. Our Anglo-Saxon +forefathers were notorious for their excess in eating and drinking, and in +this respect formed a strong contrast to their Norman conquerors. Ale, +mead, and cider were the common beverages, wine being limited to the higher +classes. Pork and eels were favourite articles of food. The houses were +rude structures, but were often richly furnished and hung with fine +tapestry. The dress of the people was loose and flowing, composed chiefly +of linen, and often adorned with embroidery. The men wore their hair long +and flowing over their shoulders. Christianity was introduced among the +Anglo-Saxons in the end of the sixth century by St. Augustine, who was sent +by Pope Gregory the Great, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. +Kent, then under King Ethelred, was the first place where it took root, and +thence it soon spread over the rest of the country. The Anglo-Saxon Church +long remained independent of Rome, notwithstanding the continual efforts of +the Popes to bring it under their power. It was not till the tenth century +that this result was brought about by Dunstan. Many Anglo-Saxon +ecclesiastics were distinguished for learning and ability, but the +Venerable Bede holds the first place. + +_Anglo-Saxon Language._--The Anglo-Saxon language, which is simply the +earliest form of English, claims kinship with Dutch, Icelandic, Danish, +Swedish, and German, especially with the Low German dialects (spoken in +North Germany). It was called by those who spoke it _Englisc_ (English). +The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature show different dialects, of +which the northern and the southern were the principal. The former was the +first to be cultivated as a literary language, but afterwards it was +supplanted in this respect by the southern or that of Wessex. It is in the +latter that the principal Anglo-Saxon works are written. The Anglo-Saxon +alphabet was substantially the same as that which we still use, except that +some of the letters were different in form, while it had two characters +either of which represented the sounds of _th_ in _thy_ and in _thing_. +Nouns and adjectives are declined much as in German or in Latin. The +pronouns of the first and second person had a dual number, 'we two' or 'us +two' and 'you two', besides the plural for more than two. The infinitive of +the verb is in _-an_, the participle in _-ende_, and there is a gerund +somewhat similar in its usage to the Latin gerund. The verb had four +moods--indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, but only two +tenses, the present (often used as a future) and the past. Other tenses and +the passive voice were formed by auxiliary verbs. Anglo-Saxon words +terminated in a vowel much more frequently than the modern English, and +altogether the language is so different that it has to be learned quite +like a foreign tongue. Yet, notwithstanding the large number of words of +Latin or French origin that our language now contains, and the changes it +has undergone, its framework, so to speak, is still Anglo-Saxon. Many +chapters of the New Testament do not contain more than 4 per cent of +non-Teutonic words, and as a whole it averages perhaps 6 or 7. + +The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in +prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period, +one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to +England. The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is the ancient epic of +_Beowulf_, extending to more than 6000 lines. Beowulf is a Scandinavian +prince, who slays a monster named Grendel, after encountering supernatural +perils, and is at last slain in a contest with a frightful dragon. Its +scene appears to be laid entirely in Scandinavia. Its date is uncertain; +parts of it may have been brought over at the emigration from Germany, +though in its present form it is much later than this. The poetical remains +include a number of religious poems, or poems on sacred themes; +ecclesiastical narratives, as lives of saints and versified chronicles; +psalms and hymns; secular lyrics; allegories, gnomic poems, riddles, &c. +The religious class of poems was the largest, and of these Caedmon's +(flourished about 660) are the most remarkable. His poems consist of +paraphrases of considerable portions of the Bible history, and treat of the +creation, the temptation, the fall, the exodus of the Israelites, the story +of Daniel, the incarnation, and the harrowing of hell, or release of the +ransomed souls by Christ. Other most interesting poems are those ascribed +to Cynewulf, the _Christ_, _Elene_, and _Juliana_, the subjects +respectively being Christ, the finding of the cross by the Empress Helena, +and the life of Juliana. Rhyme was not used in Anglo-Saxon poetry, +alliteration being employed instead, as in the older northern poetry +generally. The style of the poetry is highly elliptical, and it is full of +harsh inversions and obscure metaphors. + +[Illustration: Anglo-Saxon Brooch + +Ornament on front (left) is formed by means of plates of thin gold and +wire, with bosses of ivory and red glass.] + +The Anglo-Saxon prose remains consist of translations of portions of the +Bible, homilies, philosophical writings, history, biography, laws, leases, +charters, popular treatises on science and medicine, grammars, &c. Many of +these were translations from the Latin. The Anglo-Saxon versions of the +Gospels, next to the Moeso-Gothic, are the earliest scriptural translations +in any modern language. The Psalms are said to have been translated by +Bishop Aldhelm (died 709), and also under Alfred's direction; and the +_Gospel of St. John_ by Bede; but it is not known who were the authors of +the extant versions. A translation of the first seven books of the Bible is +believed to have been the work of Aelfric, who was Abbot of Ensham and +lived about the beginning of the eleventh century. We have also eighty +homilies from his pen, several theological treatises, a Latin grammar, &c. +King Alfred was a diligent author, besides being a translator of Latin +works. We have under his name translations of Boethius' _De Consolatione +Philosophiae_, the _Universal History_ of Orosius, Bede's _Ecclesiastical +History_, the _Pastoral Care_ of Gregory the Great, &c. The most valuable +to us of the Anglo-Saxon prose writings is the _Saxon Chronicle_, as it is +called, a collection of annals recording important events in the history of +the country, and compiled in different religious houses. Of this +_Chronicle_ there are seven MSS. in existence, and the latest text comes +down to 1154. A considerable body of laws remains, as well as a large +number of charters. The whole of the literature has never yet been printed. +For Anglo-Saxon history, see _England_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: (History) H. M. +Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge); (Language) Sweet, +_Anglo-Saxon Primer_ and _Reader_; (Literature) B. ten Brink, _Geschichte +der Englischen Litteratur_; Stopford A. Brooke, _English Literature, from +the beginning to the Norman Conquest_; Henry Morley, _English Writers_ +(vols. i and ii). + +ANGLO-SAXON LAW. Series of laws written in the vernacular, and unique among +Teutonic peoples, were issued from the seventh century onwards by +Aethelberht, Hlothhere, Eadric, and Withraed, Kings of Kent, by Ine, King +of Wessex, by Alfred, Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmund, Edgar, +Aethelred, and Canute, in addition to a number of important by-laws and +regulations of various kinds, which bear no king's name. We hear, also, of +laws issued by other kings which have been lost, and there must have been a +considerable body of traditional law which was never committed to writing. +What laws are extant, show us a society mainly agricultural, divided by +birth into a noble, a free peasant, and a servile class. There was also a +dependent class in Kent, intermediate between the freeman and the slave. +The strongest social ties were those of the kindred, and the relationship +between lord and man. + +The laws were issued by the king and his councillors. Cases were decided by +the production of oaths which varied in value according to the rank of the +swearer, or by the several forms of the ordeal. No distinction was made +between civil and criminal law, and even homicide could be atoned for by +payment of a sum varying according to the social status of the dead man. +The object of the laws was to restrict private vengeance, to prevent and +punish theft (primarily of cattle), to stop dishonest trading, to secure +the persons and residences of the people, to enforce the mutual obligations +of relatives, and masters and men, to provide adequate defence for the +kingdom by means of garrisoned boroughs and a well-armed mounted infantry, +to protect the helpless, and to safeguard the rights of the Church and its +servants. + +The early laws present considerable difficulty owing to their antiquity. +The laws of Aethelberht are the earliest records in the English language, +though, like many of the other laws, they are only preserved in a MS. of +the twelfth century. The standard edition is Liebermann's _Gesetze der +Angelsachsen_ (Halle, A. S. Max Niemeyer).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pollock and +Maitland, _History of English Law_; H. M. Chadwick, _Studies in Anglo-Saxon +Institutions_. + +ANGO'LA, a Portuguese territory in Western Africa, south of the Congo, +extending from the sea to Rhodesia, and from about lat. 6deg S. to lat. +17deg S. (area, 484,800 sq. miles; pop. 4,119,000). It is a country of +varied features, and its resources, as yet hardly known, are probably very +great. The province is rich in malachite, copper, iron, petroleum, and +salt; rubber supplies are becoming exhausted. The Coanza (Kwanza) is the +largest river. The capital is the seaport of Loanda; other ports are +Benguella (or Benguela) and Mossamedes. Three railways now run inland from +these places. It exports coffee, hides, gum, rubber, wax, &c. + +ANGOLA PEA (_Caj[=a]nus indicus_). See _Pigeon Pea_. + +ANGO'NILAND, a district of South Africa, lying to the west of the southern +half of Lake Nyassa, and partly in British Central Africa, partly in +Rhodesia. It is a plateau with an average height of 4000 feet, the name +being derived from the Angoni, a race of mixed Zulu blood, who used to make +murderous raids on their neighbours, and have given much trouble to the +missionaries and others. + +ANGO'RA (ancient, ANCY'RA), a town in Asia Minor, 215 miles E.S.E. of +Constantinople, with considerable remains of Byzantine architecture, and +relics of earlier times, both Greek and Roman, such as the remnants of the +Monumentum Ancyranum, raised in honour of the Emperor Augustus, and giving +us much valuable information about his public life and work. All the +animals of this region are long haired, especially the goats (see _Goat_), +sheep, and cats. This hair forms an important export as well as the fabric +called camlet here manufactured from it; other exports being goats' skins, +dye-stuffs, gums, honey and wax, &c. A railway connects it with Skutari. +Pop. 32,000. In 1920 Kemal Pasha set up a National Government at Angora, +and refused to recognize the Treaty of Sevres. A treaty concluded with +France was ratified by the Angora Government on 23rd Oct., 1921. + +ANGOSTU'RA, or CIUDAD BOLIVAR, a city of Venezuela, capital of the province +of Bolivar, on the Orinoco, about 240 miles from the sea, with governor's +residence, a college, a handsome cathedral, and a considerable trade, +steamers and sailing-vessels ascending to the town. Exports: gold, cotton, +indigo, tobacco, coffee, cattle, &c.; imports: manufactured goods, wines, +flour, &c. Pop. 17,535. + +ANGOSTURA BARK, the aromatic bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly from +_Galip[=e]a officin[=a]lis_, a tree of 10 to 20 feet high, growing in the +northern regions of South America; nat. ord. Rutaceae. The bark is valuable +as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also used for a kind of bitters. From this +bark being adulterated, indeed sometimes entirely replaced, by the +poisonous bark of _Strychnos Nux-Vomica_, its use as a medicine has been +almost given up. + +ANGOULEME ([.a][n.]-goe-l[=a]m), an ancient town of Western France, capital +of department Charente, on the Charente, 60 miles N.N.E. of Bordeaux, on +the summit of a rocky hill. It has a fine old cathedral, built in the +twelfth century and restored in 1875, a beautiful modern town hall, built +in 1858, a lyceum, public library, natural history museum, &c. There are +manufactures of paper, woollens, and linens; distilleries, sugar-works, +tanneries, &c. Calvin lived here for three years (1527-30). Pop. 38,211. + +ANGRA DO HEROISMO, the chief seaport of Terceira, one of the Azores, with +the only convenient harbour in the whole group. It has a cathedral, a +military college and arsenal, &c., and is the residence of the +Governor-General of the Azores, and of the foreign consuls. Pop. 10,057. + +ANGRA PEQUENA ([.a]n'gr[.a] pe-k[=a]'n[.a]; Port. 'little bay'), a bay on +the coast of former German S.W. Africa, where the Bremen commercial firm +Luederitz in 1883 acquired a strip of territory and established a trading +station. In 1884, notwithstanding some weak protests of the British, +Germany took under her protection the whole coast territory from the Orange +River to 26deg S. lat., and soon after extended the protectorate to the +Portuguese frontier, but not including the British settlement of Walvis +Bay. Angra Pequena, called by the Germans Luederitzbucht, was captured by +the South African forces in Sept., 1915. See _South-West Africa_. + +ANGRI ([.a]n'gr[=e]), a town of Southern Italy, 12 miles N.W. of Salerno, +in the centre of a region which produces grapes, cotton, and tobacco in +great quantities. In the vicinity of Angri, Teias, King of the Ostrogoths, +was defeated by Narses. Pop. 11,574. + +ANGUILLA (an-gwil'la). See _Eel_. + +ANGUILLA (ang-gil'a), or SNAKE ISLAND, one of the British West India +Islands, 60 miles N.E. of St. Kitts; about 20 miles long, with a breadth +varying from 3 to 1 1/4 miles; area, 35 sq. miles. A little sugar, cotton, +tobacco, and maize is grown. There is a saline lake in the centre, which +yields salt. Pop. 4075, of whom 100 are white. + +ANGUIS (ang'gwis). See _Blind-worm_. + +ANGUS (ang'gus), a name of Forfarshire. + +AN'HALT, formerly a duchy of North Germany, lying partly in the plains of +the Middle Elbe, and partly in the valleys and uplands of the Lower Harz, +and almost entirely surrounded by Prussia; area, 888 sq. miles. All sorts +of grain, wheat especially, are grown in abundance; also flax, rape, +potatoes, tobacco, hops, and fruit. Excellent cattle are bred. The +inhabitants are principally occupied in agriculture, though there are some +iron-works and manufactures of woollens, linens, beet-sugar, tobacco, &c. +The dukes of Anhalt traced their origin to Bernard (1170-1212), son of +Albert the Bear. In time the family split up into numerous branches, and +the territory was afterwards held by three dukes (Anhalt-Koethen, +Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau). In 1863 the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau +became sole heir to the three duchies. The united principality, +incorporated in the German Empire, had one vote in the Bundesrath and two +in the Reichstag. The executive power, previous to the changes resulting +from the European War, was vested in the duke, and the legislative in a +Diet of thirty-six members. The reigning duke in 1918 was Eduard, who +succeeded his brother on 21st April, 1918. With the outbreak of the +revolution in Germany in 1918 Anhalt became a republic, but its status in +the German Republic still remains to be determined. Pop. (1919), 331,258, +almost all Protestants. The chief towns are Dessau, Bernburg, Koethen, and +Zerbst. + +AN'HOLT, an island belonging to Denmark, in the Cattegat, midway between +Jutland and Sweden, 7 miles long, 4 1/2 broad, largely covered with +drift-sand, and surrounded by dangerous banks and reefs. Pop. 300. + +ANHY'DRIDE, a chemical term synonymous with acidic oxide (see _Chemistry_) +and applied to those oxides which unite with water to form acids. They were +formerly called _anhydrous acids_. + +ANHY'DRITE, anhydrous sulphate of calcium, a mineral presenting several +varieties of structure and colour. The _vulpinite_ of Italy possesses a +granular structure, resembling a coarse-grained marble, and is used in +sculpture. Its colour is greyish-white, intermingled with blue. + +ANI (ae'n[=e]), a ruined city in Armenia, formerly the residence of the +Armenian dynasty of the Bagratidae, having in the eleventh century a +population of 100,000 and 1000 churches. In the thirteenth century it was +taken by the Tartars, and was destroyed by an earthquake in 1319. + +ANICHE ([.a]-n[=e]sh), a town or village in the French department Nord, +arrondissement Douai, with coal-mines, glass-works, chemical-works, &c. +Pop. 6927. + +ANIENE ([.a]-n[=e]-[=a]'n[=a]). See _Anio_. + +AN'ILINE, C_6H_5NH_2, is an extremely important substance as it forms the +starting-point in the preparation of a large number of substances. It was +first prepared by Unverdorben, in 1826, by distillation of indigo. Aniline +is present in small quantity in coal-tar, and is prepared commercially from +benzene by transforming it by means of nitric acid into nitro-benzene and +reducing this with scrap-iron and hydrochloric acid. The substance can also +be prepared by reducing nitro-benzene electrolytically. It is a liquid of +peculiar odour, boiling at 182deg C., colourless when quite pure, but +rapidly darkening in colour on standing, so that commercial aniline is +usually dark-brown. It is a basic substance, and forms crystalline salts +with acids. The salts, like aniline itself, become coloured on exposure to +air. Aniline contains the characteristic chemical group NH_2, the amino +group, and substances containing this group react with nitrous acid at 0deg +C., forming diazonium compounds; these combine readily with phenols, +naphthols, and other amino compounds to form azo compounds, highly-coloured +compounds many of which are dyes. Many dyes are prepared from aniline, e.g. +rosaniline, magenta, methylene blue, aniline blue, &c., also some +explosives, e.g. tetranitraniline, which is a powerful explosive prepared +by nitrating aniline and the substance tetranitromethylaniline, "tetryl", +used in detonators. Several medicinal substances are also prepared from +aniline, for instance, antifebrin and atoxyl. + +AN'ILISM, aniline poisoning, a name given to the aggregate of symptoms +which often show themselves in those employed in aniline works, resulting +from the inhalation of aniline vapours. It may be either acute or chronic. +In a slight attack of the former kind, the lips, cheeks, and ears become of +a bluish colour, and the person's walk may be unsteady; in severe cases +there is loss of consciousness. Chronic anilism is accompanied by +derangement of the digestive organs and of the nervous system, headaches, +eruptions on the skin, muscular weakness, &c. + +ANIMAL, an organized and sentient living being. Life in the earlier periods +of natural history was attributed almost exclusively to animals. With the +progress of science, however, it was extended to plants. In the case of the +higher animals and plants there is no difficulty in assigning the +individual to one of the two great kingdoms of organic nature, but in their +lowest manifestations the vegetable and animal kingdoms are brought into +such immediate contact that it becomes almost impossible to assign them +precise limits, and to say with certainty where the one begins and the +other ends. From _form_ no absolute distinction can be fixed between +animals and plants. Many animals, such as the sea-shrubs, sea-mats, &c., so +resemble plants in external appearance that they were, and even yet +popularly are, looked upon as such. With regard to _internal structure_ no +line of demarcation can be laid down, all plants and animals being, in this +respect, fundamentally similar; that is, alike composed of molecular, +cellular, and fibrous tissues. Neither are the chemical characters of +animal and vegetable substances more distinct. Animals contain in their +tissues and fluids a larger proportion of nitrogen than plants, whilst +plants are richer in carbonaceous compounds than the former. In some +animals, moreover, substances almost exclusively confined to plants are +found. Thus the outer wall of the Sea-squirts contains _cellulose_, a +substance largely found in plant-tissues; whilst _chlorophyll_, the +colouring-matter of plants, occurs in Hydra and many other lower animals. +_Power of motion_, again, though broadly distinctive of animals, cannot be +said to be absolutely characteristic of them. Thus many animals, as +oysters, sponges, corals, &c., in their mature condition are rooted or +fixed, while the embryos of many plants, together with numerous +fully-developed forms, are endowed with locomotive power by means of +vibratile, hair-like processes called cilia. The distinctive points between +animals and plants which are most to be relied on are those derived from +the _nature and mode of assimilation of the food_. Plants feed on +_inorganic matters_, consisting of water, ammonia, carbonic acid, and +mineral matters. They can only take in food which is presented to them in a +_liquid_ or _gaseous_ state. The exceptions to these rules are found +chiefly in the case of plants which live _parasitically_ on other plants or +animals, in which cases the plant may be said to feed on organic matters, +represented by the juices of their hosts. Animals, on the contrary, require +_organized_ matters for food. They feed either upon plants or upon other +animals. But even carnivorous animals can be shown to be dependent upon +plants for subsistence; since the animals upon which Carnivora prey are in +their turn supported by plants. Animals, further, can subsist on _solid_ +food in addition to liquids and gases; but many animals (such as the +Tapeworms) live by the mere imbibition of fluids which are absorbed by +their tissues, such forms possessing no distinct digestive system. Animals +require a due supply of _oxygen gas_ for their sustenance, this gas being +used in respiration. Plants, on the contrary, require _carbonic acid_. The +animal exhales or gives out carbonic acid as the part result of its +tissue-waste, whilst the plant, taking in this gas, is enabled to decompose +it into its constituent carbon and oxygen. The plant retains the former for +the uses of its economy, and liberates the oxygen, which is thus restored +to the atmosphere for the use of the animal. Animals receive their food +into the interior of their bodies, and assimilation takes place in their +internal surfaces. Plants, on the other hand, receive their food into their +external surfaces, and assimilation is effected in the external parts, as +is exemplified in the leaf-surfaces under the influence of sunlight. Cf. +T. J. Parker and W. A. Haswell, _Text-Book of Zoology_; _Cambridge Natural +History_. + +ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. See _Chemistry_. + +ANIMALCULE (an-i-mal'k[=u]l), a general name given to many forms of animal +life from their minute size. The larger examples are just visible to the +naked eye, but most of them are strictly microscopic. Some are pigmented, +but the majority are colourless. The term is not applicable to a particular +zoological type, but it is customary to confine it to the 'Protozoa', +'Rotifera', or 'Wheel Animalcules'. + +ANIMAL HEAT. All animals possess a certain amount of heat or temperature +which is necessary for the performance of vital action. The only classes of +animals in which a constantly-elevated temperature is kept up are birds and +mammals. The bodily heat of the former varies from 39.4deg to 43.9deg C., +and of the latter from 35.5deg to 40.5deg C. The mean or average heat of +the human body is about 99deg F., and it never falls much below this in +health. Below birds, animals are named 'cold-blooded', this term meaning in +its strictly-physiological sense that their temperature is usually that of +the medium in which they live, and that it varies with that of the +surrounding medium. The temperature of 'warm-blooded' animals is remarkably +constant, although there are individual variations. In man this variation +is slight, amounting only to fractions of a degree. The cause of the +evolution of heat in the animal body is referred to the union (by a process +resembling ordinary combustion) of the carbon and hydrogen of the system +with the oxygen taken in from the air in the process of respiration. + +ANIMAL MAGNETISM. See _Hypnotism_, _Mesmer_. + +ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO, an offence against which societies have been formed +and laws passed in England and other countries. According to English law, +if any person shall cruelly beat, ill-treat, overdrive, abuse, or torture +any domestic animal, he shall forfeit a sum not exceeding L5 for every such +offence. Bull-baiting, cock-fighting, and the like are also prohibited. +Provision is also made for the punishment of persons unlawfully and +maliciously killing, maiming, or wounding cattle, dogs, birds, beasts, and +other animals. + +ANIMAL WORSHIP, a practice found to prevail, or to have prevailed, in the +most widely-distant parts of the world, both the Old and the New, but +nowhere to such an amazing extent as in ancient Egypt, notwithstanding its +high civilization. Nearly all the more important animals found in the +country were regarded as sacred in some part of Egypt, and the degree of +reverence paid to them was such that throughout Egypt the killing of a hawk +or an ibis, whether voluntary or not, was punished with death. The worship, +however, was not, except in a few instances, paid to them as actual +deities. The animals were merely regarded as sacred to the deities, and the +worship paid to them was symbolical. + +AN'IMA MUN'DI. See _Pantheism_. + +ANIME (an'i-me), a resin obtained from the trunk of an American tree +(_Hymenaea Courbaril_). It is of a transparent amber colour, has a light, +agreeable smell, and is soluble in alcohol. It strongly resembles copal, +and, like it, is used in making varnishes. See _Copal_. + +AN'IMISM, the system of medicine propounded by Stahl, and based on the idea +that the soul (_anima_) is the seat of life. In modern usage the term is +applied to express the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual +beings, and especially to the tendency, common among savage races, to +attribute souls or spirits to inanimate things, and to explain phenomena +not due to obvious natural causes by attributing them to spiritual agency. +Amongst the beliefs of animism is that of a human apparitional soul, +bearing the form and appearance of the body, and living after death a sort +of semi-human life.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_; +Andrew Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_. + +ANIO (now ANI[=E]NE or TEVER[=O]NE), a river in Italy, a tributary of the +Tiber, which it enters from the east a short distance above Rome, renowned +for the natural beauties of the valley through which it flows, and for the +remains of ancient buildings there situated, as the villas of Maecenas and +the Emperor Hadrian. + +ANISE (an'is; _Pimpinella An[=i]sum_), an annual plant of the nat. ord. +Umbelliferae, a native of Eastern Asia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean +coasts, and cultivated in Spain, France, Italy, Malta, &c., whence the +fruit, popularly called _aniseed_, is imported. This fruit is ovate, with +ten narrow ribs, between which are oil-vessels. It has an aromatic smell, +and is largely employed to flavour liqueurs (aniseed or anisette), +sweetmeats, &c. _Star-anise_ is the fruit of an evergreen Asiatic tree +(_Illicium anis[=a]tum_), nat. ord. Magnoliaceae, and is brought chiefly +from China. Its flavour is similar to that of anise, and it is used for the +same purposes. An essential oil is obtained from both kinds of anise, and +is used for scenting soaps and in the preparation of cordials. + +ANJOU ([.a][n.]-zhoe), an ancient province of France, now forming the +department of Maine-et-Loire, and parts of the departments of +Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, and Sarthe; area, about 3000 sq. miles. In 1060 +the province passed into the hands of the House of Gatinais, of which +sprang Count Godfrey V, who, in 1127, married Matilda, daughter of Henry I +of England, and so became the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings. Anjou +remained in the possession of the English kings up to 1204, when John lost +it to the French king Philip Augustus. In 1226 Louis VIII bestowed this +province on his brother Charles; but in 1328 it was reunited to the French +Crown. John I raised it to the rank of a duchy, and gave it to his son +Louis. Henceforth it remained separate from the French Crown till 1480, +when it fell to Louis XI. + +ANKARSTROEM ([.a]n'k[.a]r-streum), Jan Jakob, the murderer of Gustavus III +of Sweden, was born about 1762, and was at first a page in the Swedish +Court, afterwards an officer in the royal bodyguard. He was a strenuous +opponent of the sovereign's measures to restrict the privileges of the +nobility, and joined Counts Horn and Ribbing in a plot to assassinate +Gustavus. The assassination took place on 15th March, 1792. Ankarstroem was +tried, tortured, and executed in April, dying boasting of his deed. + +ANKER, an obsolete measure used in Britain for spirits, beer, &c., +containing 8-1/2 imperial gallons. A measure of similar capacity was used +in Germany and elsewhere in Europe. + +AN'KLAM, a town in Prussia, province of Pomerania, 47 miles north-west of +Stettin, on the River Peene, which is here navigable. Shipbuilding, woollen +and cotton manufactures, soap-boiling, tanning, &c., are carried on. Pop. +15,280. + +ANKO'BAR, or ANKO'BER, a town in Abyssinia, former capital of Shoa, on a +steep conical hill 8200 feet high. Pop. 2000. + +ANKYLO'SIS, or ANCHYLO'SIS, stiffness of the joints caused by a more or +less complete coalescence of the bones through ossification, often the +result of inflammation or injury. False ankylosis is stiffness of a joint +when the disease is not in the joint itself, but in the tendinous and +muscular parts by which it is surrounded. + +ANKYLOSTOMI'ASIS, a 'worm disease' to which miners are subject in some +localities, is caused by vast numbers of small parasitic worms +(_Ankylostoma_ or _Anchylostoma duodenale_) in the duodenum or upper +portions of the intestinal canal. Deriving their sustenance from the +system, these worms produce anaemia or bloodlessness (that is, deficiency +of the red corpuscles of the blood), the sufferers being pallid, feeble, +short-breathed, liable to faint, and unequal to any laborious work, and +death may result if a cure is not effected. Fortunately the disease is not +difficult to cure if the remedies are applied--remedies such as will expel +the worms from the intestine. The disease is said to be common in tropical +and sub-tropical countries all over the world. In Europe it was perhaps +first observed in 1879 in the case of workmen engaged in excavating the St. +Gothard tunnel. Since 1896 it has been well known in some of the German +mines; and in 1903 it was detected among the miners engaged in the Dolcoath +mine in Cornwall. The eggs of the worms are carried from the body with the +faeces; under favourable circumstances they develop into larvae, which may +gain entrance again into the human body by the mouth (perhaps in +drinking-water), to attain full development in the intestine. Careful +sanitary arrangements are a preventive of the disease, which is also known +as 'miner's worm', 'miner's anaemia', &c. + +ANN, or ANNAT, in Scottish law, the half-year's stipend of a living, after +the death of the clergyman, payable to his family or next of kin. The right +to the ann is not vested in the clergyman himself, but in his +representatives; and, accordingly, it can neither be disposed of by him nor +attached for his debts. + +ANNA, an Anglo-Indian money of account, the sixteenth part of a rupee, and +of the value of one penny; it is divided into four pice. + +AN'NABERG, a town in Saxony, 47 miles south-west of Dresden. Mining (for +silver, cobalt, iron, &c.) is carried on, and there are manufactures of +lace, ribbons, fringes, buttons, &c. Pop. 17,025. + +ANNA COMNE'NA, daughter of Alexius I, Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. She was +born 1083, and died 1148. After her father's death she endeavoured to +secure the succession for her husband, Nicephorus Briennius, but was +baffled by his want of energy and ambition. She wrote (in Greek) a life of +her father Alexius (_The Alexiad_, a work in fifteen books). She is a +character in Sir Walter Scott's _Count Robert of Paris_. + +ANNA IVANOV'NA, Empress of Russia, born in 1693, the daughter of Ivan, the +elder half-brother of Peter the Great. She was married in 1710 to the Duke +of Courland, in the following year was left a widow, and in 1730 ascended +the throne of the tsars on the condition proposed by the senate, that she +would limit the absolute power of the tsars, and do nothing without the +advice of the council composed of the leading members of the Russian +aristocracy. But no sooner had she ascended the throne than she declared +her promise null, and proclaimed herself autocrat of all the Russias. She +chose as her favourite Ernest John von Biren or Biron, who was soon +all-powerful in Russia, and ruled with great severity. Several of the +leading nobles were executed, and many thousand men exiled to Siberia. In +1737 Anna forced the Courlanders to choose Biren as their duke, and +nominated him at her death regent of the empire during the minority of +Prince Ivan (of Brunswick). Anna died in 1740. See _Biren_. + +AN'NALS, a history of events in chronological order, each event being +recorded under the year in which it occurred. The name is derived from the +first annual records of the Romans, which were called _ann[=a]les +pontificum_ or _ann[=a]les max[)i]mi_, drawn up by the _pontifex maximus_ +(chief pontiff). The practice of keeping such annals was afterwards adopted +also by various private individuals, as by Fabius Pictor, Calpurnius Piso, +and others. The name hence came to be applied in later times to historical +works in which the matter was treated with special reference to +chronological arrangement, as to the _Annals_ of Tacitus. + +ANNAM', a country of Asia occupying the east side of the South-eastern or +Indo-Chinese Peninsula, along the China Sea. It comprises Tonquin in the +north, Annam (in a narrower sense), and Cochin-China farther south; with +the inland territory of the Laos tribes: together, area, 170,000 sq. miles; +pop. 15,000,000, 9,000,000 being in Tonquin. In the narrow sense Annam now +denotes the country between Tonquin and French Cochin-China, under the +nominal rule of a native king (the present ruler, Khai-Dinh, succeeded to +the throne in 1916). Annam has an area of 52,100 sq. miles. Pop. (1919), +5,952,000, including 2117 Europeans. The coast is considerably indented, +especially at the mouths of the rivers, where it affords many commodious +harbours. Tonquin is mountainous on the north, but in the east is nearly +level, terminating towards the sea in an alluvial plain yielding good crops +of rice, cotton, fruits, ginger, and spices, and a great variety of varnish +trees, palms, &c. The principal river is the Song-ka, which has numerous +tributaries, many of them being joined together by canals, both for +irrigation and commerce. Tonquin is rich in gold, silver, copper, and iron. +Annam (in the narrow sense) is, generally speaking, unproductive, but +contains many fertile spots, in which grain, leguminous plants, sugar-cane, +cinnamon, &c., are produced in great abundance. Agriculture is the chief +occupation, but many of the inhabitants are engaged in the spinning and +weaving of cotton and silk into coarse fabrics, the preparation of varnish, +iron-smelting, and the construction of ships or junks. The inhabitants are +said to be the ugliest of the Mongoloid races of the peninsula, being under +the middle size and less robust than the surrounding peoples. Their +language is monosyllabic, and is connected with the Chinese. The religion +of the majority is Buddhism, but the educated classes hold the doctrines of +Confucius. The principal towns are Hanoi, the capital of Tonquin, and Hue, +the capital of the kingdom and formerly of the whole empire. Annam was +conquered by the Chinese in 214 B.C., but in A.D. 1428 it completely won +its independence. The French began to interfere actively in its affairs in +1847 on the plea of protecting the native Christians. By the treaties of +1862 and 1867 they obtained the southern and most productive part of +Cochin-China, subsequently known as French Cochin-China; and in 1874 they +obtained large powers over Tonquin, notwithstanding the protests of the +Chinese. Finally, in 1883, Tonquin was ceded to France, and next year Annam +was declared a French protectorate. After a short period of hostilities +with China the latter recognized the French claims, and Tonquin is now a +French colony, while the kingdom of Annam is, since 1886, entirely under +French direction. Cf. F. R. Eberhardt, _Guide de l' Annam_. + +ANNAMABOE (-b[=o]'), a seaport in Western Africa, on the Gold Coast, 10 +miles east of Cape Coast Castle, with some trade in gold-dust, ivory, +palm-oil, &c. Pop. about 5000. + +AN'NAN, a royal and police burgh in Scotland, on the Annan, a little above +its entrance into the Solway Firth, one of the Dumfries district of burghs. +Pop. 3928.--The River _Annan_ is a stream 40 miles long running through the +central division of Dumfriesshire, to which it gives the name of +_Annandale_. + +ANNAP'OLIS, the capital of Maryland, United States, on the Severn, near its +mouth in Chesapeake Bay. It contains a college (St. John's), a state-house, +and the United States Naval Academy. Pop. (1920), 11,214. + +ANNAP'OLIS, a small town in Nova Scotia, on an inlet of the Bay of Fundy, +with an important traffic by railway and steamboat. It is one of the oldest +European settlements in America, dating from 1604. + +ANN ARBOR, a town of Michigan, United States, on the Huron River, about 40 +miles west of Detroit; the seat of the State university. It has +flour-mills, and it manufactures woollens, iron, and agricultural +implements. Pop. 19,516. + +ANNATES (an'n[=a]ts), a year's income claimed for many centuries by the +Pope on the death of any bishop, abbot, or parish priest, to be paid by his +successor. In England they were at first paid to the Archbishop of +Canterbury, but were afterwards appropriated by the Popes. In 1532 the +Parliament gave them to the Crown; but in 1703 Queen Anne restored them to +the Church by applying them to the augmentation of poor livings. See _Queen +Anne's Bounty_. + +[Illustration: Annatto (_Bixa Orell[=a]na_)] + +ANNAT'TO, or ANNATO, an orange-red colouring matter, obtained from the pulp +surrounding the seeds of _Bixa Orell[=a]na_, a shrub native to tropical +America, and cultivated in Guiana, St. Domingo, and the East Indies. It is +sometimes used as a dye for silk and cotton goods, though it does not +produce a very durable colour, but it is much used in medicine for tinging +plasters and ointments, and to a considerable extent by farmers for giving +a rich colour to milk, butter, and cheese. The colour given by annatto +approaches very nearly the natural colouring matter of milk fat. It is +guaranteed to preserve the same colour throughout the year, and is +considered to be a legitimate colouring matter. + +ANNE, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland was born at Twickenham, near +London, 6th Feb., 1664. She was the second daughter of James II, then Duke +of York, and Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. With her +father's permission she was educated according to the principles of the +English Church. In 1683 she was married to Prince George, brother of King +Christian V of Denmark. On the arrival of the Prince of Orange in 1688, +Anne wished to remain with her father; but she was prevailed upon by Lord +Churchill (afterwards Duke of Marlborough) and his wife to join the +triumphant party. After the death of William III in 1702 she ascended the +English throne. Her character was essentially weak, and she was governed +first by Marlborough and his wife, and afterwards by Mrs. Masham. Most of +the principal events of her reign are connected with the war of the Spanish +Succession. The only important acquisition that England made by it was +Gibraltar, which was captured in 1704. Another very important event of this +reign was the union of England and Scotland under the name of Great +Britain, which was accomplished in 1707. Anne seems to have long cherished +the wish of securing the succession to her brother James, but this was +frustrated by the internal dissensions of the cabinet. Grieved at the +disappointment of her secret wishes, she fell into a state of weakness and +lethargy, and died, 20th July, 1714. The reign of Anne was distinguished +not only by the brilliant successes of the British arms, but also on +account of the number of admirable and excellent writers who flourished at +this time, among whom were Pope, Swift, and Addison. Anne bore her husband +many children, all of whom died in infancy, except one son, the Duke of +Gloucester, who died at the age of twelve. + +ANNE (of Austria), daughter of Philip III of Spain, was born at Madrid in +1602, and in 1615 was married to Louis XIII of France. Richelieu, fearing +the influence of her foreign connections, did everything he could to humble +her. In 1643 her husband died, and she was left regent, but placed under +the control of a council. But the Parliament overthrew this arrangement, +and entrusted her with full sovereign rights during the minority of her son +Louis XIV. Having brought upon herself the hatred of the nobles by her +boundless confidence in Cardinal Mazarin, she was forced to flee from Paris +during the wars of the Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposition, and +was able in 1661 to transmit to her son unimpaired the royal authority. She +spent the remainder of her life in retirement, and died 20th Jan., 1666. + +ANNEALING (an-[=e]l'ing), a process to which many articles of metal and +glass are subjected after making, in order to render them more tenacious +and which consists in heating them and allowing them to cool slowly. When +the metals are worked by the hammer, or rolled into plates, or drawn into +wire, they acquire a certain amount of brittleness, which destroys their +usefulness, and has to be remedied by annealing. The tempering of steel is +one kind of annealing. Annealing is particularly employed in glass-houses, +and consists in putting the glass vessels, as soon as they are formed and +while they are yet hot, into a furnace or oven, in which they are suffered +to cool gradually. The toughness is greatly increased by cooling the +articles in oil. + +ANNECY ([.a]n-s[=e]), an ancient town in France, department of +Haute-Savoie, situated on the Lake of Annecy, 21 miles s. of Geneva; +contains a cathedral and a ruinous old castle once the residence of the +counts of Genevois; manufactures of cotton, leather, paper, and hardware. +Pop. 15,622.--The lake is about 9 miles long and 2 broad. + +[Illustration: Lobworm (one of the Annelida)] + +ANNEL'IDA, or ANNULATA, an extensive division or class of Annulosa or +articulate animals, so called because their bodies are formed of a great +number of small rings, the outward signs of internal segmentation. The +earth-worm, the lobworm, the nereis, and the leech belong to this division. +They have red, rarely yellow or green, blood circulating in a double system +of contractile vessels, a double ganglionated nervous cord, and respire by +external branchiae, internal vesicles, or by the skin. Their organs of +motion consist of bristles or _setae_, which are usually attached to the +lateral surfaces of each segment, the bristles being borne on 'foot +processes' or _parapodia_. The number of body segments varies. As many as +400 may be found in some sea-worms. A complete digestive system is +developed, consisting of a mouth--armed with horny jaws and a protrusible +proboscis--gizzard, stomach, and intestine. See _Earth-worm_, _Leech_, &c. + +ANNEXATION, a term applied to the acquisition by a State of territory +previously belonging to another Power, or independent. It is applicable not +only to the extension of a State's sovereignty over adjoining territory, +but also to an acquisition of a remote territory. The inhabitants of the +annexed territory are absolved from their allegiance to their former +sovereign. Such annexations in modern history were those of Alsace-Lorraine +by Germany in 1871, of California by the United States, of Bosnia and +Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, and of the Boer Republics by Great Britain. + +ANNFIELD PLAIN, a straggling colliery town (urban district) of England, +Durham, about 7 miles south-west of Gateshead. Pop. (1921), 16,524. + +ANNOBON', or ANNOBOM, a beautiful Spanish island of Western Africa, south +of the Bight of Biafra, about 4 miles long by 2 miles broad, and rising +abruptly to the height of 3000 feet, richly covered with vegetation. Pop. +2000. + +ANNONAY ([.a]n-o-n[=a]), a town in southern France, department of Ardeche, +37 miles S.S.W. of Lyons, in a picturesque situation. It is the most +important town of Ardeche, manufacturing paper and glove leather to a large +extent, also cloth, felt, silk stuffs, gloves, hosiery, chemical manures, +glue, gelatine, brushes, chocolate, and candles. There is an obelisk in +memory of Joseph Montgolfier of balloon fame. Pop. 16,660. + +AN'NUAL, in botany, a plant that springs from seed, grows up, produces +seed, and then dies, all within a single year or season. Among annual +grasses may be noted all our cereals, barley, wheat, rye, and oats. + +AN'NUAL, in literature, the name given to a class of publications which at +one time enjoyed an immense yearly circulation, and were distinguished by +great magnificence both of binding and illustration, which rendered them +much sought after as Christmas and New Year presents. Their contents were +chiefly prose tales and ballads, lyrics, and other poetry. The earliest was +the _Forget-me-not_, started in 1822, and followed next year by the +_Friendship's Offering_. The _Literary Souvenir_ was commenced in 1824, and +the _Keepsake_ in 1827. Among the names of the editors occur those of +Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. S. C. Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessington, +Mary Howitt, &c. The popularity of the annuals reached its zenith about +1829, when no less than seventeen made their appearance; in 1856 the +_Keepsake_, the last of the series, ceased to exist. + +ANNUAL REGISTER, an English publication commenced in 1758 by Dodsley, the +publisher, and since continued in yearly volumes down to the present day. +There was also an _Edinburgh Annual Register_, the historical part of which +was for several years contributed by Sir Walter Scott and afterwards by +Robert Southey. It commenced in 1808 and came to a close in 1827. + +ANNU'ITY, a periodical payment, made annually, or at more frequent +intervals, and continuing either a certain number of years, or for an +uncertain period, to be determined by a particular event, as the death of +the recipient or annuitant, or that of the party liable to pay the annuity; +or the annuity may be perpetual. An annuity is usually raised by the +present payment of a certain sum as a consideration whereby the party +making the payment, or some other person named by him, becomes entitled to +an annuity, and the rules and principles by which this present value is to +be computed have been the subjects of careful investigation. The present +value of a perpetual annuity is evidently a sum of money that will yield an +interest equal to the annuity, and payable at the same periods; and an +annuity of this description, payable quarterly, will evidently be of +greater value than one of the same amount payable annually, since the +annuitant has the additional advantage of the interest on three of the +quarterly payments until the expiration of the year. In other words, it +requires a greater present capital to be put at interest to yield a given +sum per annum, payable quarterly, than to yield the same annual sum payable +at the end of each year. The present value of an annuity for a limited +period is a sum which, if put at interest, will at the end of that period +give an amount equal to the sum of all the payments of the annuity and +interest; and, accordingly, if it be proposed to invest a certain sum of +money in the purchase of an annuity for a given number of years, the +comparative value of the two may be precisely estimated, the rate of +interest being given. But annuities for uncertain periods, and particularly +life annuities, are more frequent, and the value of the annuity is computed +according to the probable duration of the life by which it is limited. Such +annuities are often created by contract, whereby the Government or a +private annuity office agrees, for a certain sum advanced by the purchaser, +to pay a certain sum in yearly, quarterly, or other periodical payments to +the person advancing the money, or to some other named by him, during the +life of the annuitant. Or the annuity may be granted to the annuitant +during the life of some other person, or during two or more joint lives, or +during the life of the longest liver or survivor among a number of persons +named. If a person having a certain capital, and intending to spend this +capital and the income of it during his own life, could know precisely how +long he should live, he might lend his capital at a certain rate during his +life, and by taking every year, besides the interest, a certain amount of +the capital, he might secure the same annual amount for his support during +his life in such manner that he should have the same sum to spend every +year, and consume precisely his whole capital during his life. But since he +does not know how long he is to live, he agrees with the Government or an +annuity office to take the risk of the duration of his life, and they agree +to pay him a certain annuity for life in exchange for the capital which he +proposes to invest in this way. The probable duration of his life therefore +becomes a subject of computation; and for the purpose of making this +calculation tables of longevity are made by noting the proportion of deaths +at certain ages in the same country or district. Founding on a comparison +of many such tables, the British Government has empowered the +Postmaster-General to grant annuities at the following rates, which are +probably more closely adjusted to their actual value than those of +insurance companies and other dealers in annuities: To secure an immediate +annuity of L100, the cost is, for males of 20 years, L2279, 3s. 4d.; for +females of same age, L2482, 10s.; for males of 30 years, L2045, 8s. 4d., +for females, L2258, _6s._ 8d.; for males of 40 years, L1789, 6s. 8d.; for +females, L1990; for males of 60, L1148, 6s. 8d.; females, L1275, 8s. 4d.; +and so on. _Deferred_ annuities, that is, such as have their first payments +postponed for a greater or less number of years, are also granted. We give +the rates for an annuity of L100 deferred 20 years: Males aged 20, L848, +6s. 8d.; females, L1014, 13s. 4d.; males aged 35, L557, 1s. 8d.; females, +L697, 1s. 8d.; and so on. If a person on whose life the deferred annuity is +to depend should die before payment commences, the purchase-money may be +returned to his or her representatives, provided that an agreement to that +effect had been made in the first instance, but in this case the +purchase-money is necessarily higher. See _Insurance_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: +Baily, _Life Annuities and Assurances_; J. Henry, _Government Life Annuity +Commutation Tables_. + +ANNULOI'DA, one of Professor Huxley's eight primary groups, a division +(sub-kingdom) of animals, including the Rotifera, Scolecida (tape-worms, +&c.), all which are more or less ring-like in appearance, and the +Echinodermata, whose embryos show traces of annulation. + +ANNULO'SA, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals regarded by some as +synonymous with the Arthropoda or Articulata; according to other +systematists, including both the Articulata and Annulata or worms. + +ANNUNCIATION, the declaration of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary +informing her that she was to become the mother of our +Lord.--_Annunciation_ or _Lady Day_ is a feast of the Church in honour of +the annunciation, celebrated on the 25th of March.--The Italian order of +_Knights of the Annunciation_ was instituted by Amadeus VI, Duke of Savoy, +in 1360. The king is always grand-master. The knights must be of high rank, +and must already be members of the order of St. Mauritius and St. Lazarus. +The decoration of the order consists of a golden shield suspended from a +chain or collar of roses and knots, the letters F. E. R. T. being inscribed +on the roses, and standing for _Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit_ (its bravery +held Rhodes).--There are two orders of _nuns of the Annunciation_, one +originally French, founded in 1501 by Joanna of Valois; the other Italian, +founded in 1604 by Maria Vittoria Fornari of Genoa. + +ANNUNZIO ([.a]n-n[u:]nt'sy[=o]), Gabriele d', Italian poet, novelist, and +dramatist, born at Pescara in 1863, his patronymic being Rapagnetta. He was +educated at Prato and in Rome, and early took to literature and journalism. +In 1898 he was elected a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, in +which he joined the Socialist party. He came before the public when a +schoolboy with a volume of verse called _Primo Vere_, to which +others--naturally much more mature--were subsequently added. Several of his +novels have been published in English, as: _The Child of Pleasure_, _The +Victim_, _The Triumph of Death_, _The Virgin of the Rocks_, _The Fire of +Life_. Some of these have been very successful, though disfigured to some +extent by coarse realism and voluptuousness. He began to write plays later +in life. Among them _Gioconda_, _The Dead City_, and _Francesca da Rimini_ +may be read in English versions, and _Gioconda_ and _Francesca_ have been +performed on the English stage. His more recent works include: _Le Martyr +de Saint Sebastien_ (1911), _Le Chevrefeuille_ (1914), _La Beffa di +Buccari_ (1918), _Notturno_ (1918). D'Annunzio is the most prominent +Italian writer of the present day, and in wealth of language and +distinction of style stands far ahead of all others. He served in the +European War from 1915-18, and was wounded. In Sept., 1919, he led a raid +and occupied the port of Fiume. See _European War_ and _Fiume_. + +AN'OA, an animal (_Anoa depressicornis_) closely allied to the buffalo, +about the size of an average sheep, very wild and fierce, inhabiting the +rocky and mountainous localities of the Island of Celebes. The horns are +straight, thick at the root, and set nearly in a line with the forehead. + +ANO'BIUM, a genus of coleopterous insects, the larvae of which often do +much damage by their boring into old wood. By means of their heads they +produce a loud, ticking sound in the wood, the so-called _death-watch_ +ticking. _A. stri[=a]tum_, a common species, when frightened, is much given +to feigning death. + +AN'ODE, (Gr. _ana_, up, _hodos_, way), the positive pole of the voltaic +current, being that part of the surface of a decomposing body which the +electric current enters: opposed to _cathode_ (Gr. _kata_, down, _hodos_, +way), the way by which it departs. + +AN'ODON, or ANODON'TA, a genus of lamellibranchiate bivalves, including the +fresh-water mussels, without or with very slight hinge-teeth. See _Mussel_. + +AN'ODYNE, a medicine, such as an opiate or narcotic, which allays pain. + +ANOINTING, rubbing the body or some part of it with oil, often perfumed. +From time immemorial the nations of the East have been in the habit of +anointing themselves for the sake of health and beauty. The Greeks and +Romans anointed themselves after the bath. Wrestlers anointed themselves in +order to render it more difficult for their antagonists to get hold of +them. In Egypt it was common to anoint the head of guests when they entered +the house where they were to be entertained. In the Mosaic law a sacred +character was attached to the anointing of the garments of the priests, and +things belonging to the ceremonial of worship. The Jewish priests and kings +were anointed when inducted into office, and were called the _anointed of +the Lord_, to show that their persons were sacred and their office from +God. In the Old Testament also the prophecies respecting the Redeemer style +him _Messias_, that is, the _Anointed_, which is also the meaning of his +Greek name Christ. The custom of anointing still exists in the Roman +Catholic Church in the ordination of priests and the confirmation of +believers and the sacrament of extreme unction. The ceremony is also +frequently a part of the coronation of kings. + +[Illustration: Anomalure (_Anomalurus Peli_)] + +ANOM'ALURE (_Anomal[=u]rus_), a genus of rodent animals inhabiting the west +coast of Africa, resembling the flying-squirrels, but having the under +surface of the tail furnished for some distance from the root with a series +of large horny scales, which, when pressed against the trunk of a tree, may +subserve the same purpose as those instruments with which a man climbs up a +telegraph pole to set the wires. + +ANOM'ALY, a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy, the angle which a +line drawn from a planet to the sun has passed through since the planet was +last at its perihelion or nearest distance to the sun. The _anomalistic +year_ is the interval between two successive times at which the earth is in +perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 minutes 48 seconds. In consequence of +the advance of the earth's perihelion among the stars in the same direction +as the earth's motion, and of the precession of the equinoxes, which +carries the equinoxes back in the opposite direction to the earth's motion, +the anomalistic year is about 4 minutes 40 seconds longer than the sidereal +year, and about 25 minutes longer than the tropical or common year. The +time of a complete revolution of the perihelion is computed at 108,000 +years. + +ANOMU'RA, a section of the crustaceans of the ord. Decapoda, with irregular +tails not formed to assist in swimming, including the hermit-crabs and +others. + +[Illustration: Anona or Sour-sop (_An[=o]na muric[=a]ta_)] + +ANO'NA, a genus of plants, the type of the nat. ord. Anonaceae. _A. +squam[=o]sa_ (sweet-sop) grows in the West Indian Islands, and yields an +edible fruit having a thick, sweet, luscious pulp. _A. muric[=a]ta_ +(sour-sop) is cultivated in the West and East Indies; it produces a large +pear-shaped fruit, of a greenish colour, containing an agreeable +slightly-acid pulp. The genus produces other edible fruits, as the common +custard-apple or bullock's heart, from _A. reticul[=a]ta_, and the +cherimoyer of Peru, from _A. Cherimolia_. + +ANONA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of trees and shrubs, having simple, alternate +leaves, destitute of stipules, by which character they are distinguished +from the Magnoliaceae, to which they are otherwise closely allied. They are +mostly tropical plants of the Old and the New World, and are generally +aromatic. See _Anona_. + +ANOPLOTHE'RIUM, an extinct genus of the Ungulata or Hoofed Quadrupeds, +forming the type of a distinct family, which were in many respects +intermediate between the swine and the true ruminants. These animals were +pig-like in form, but possessed long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with two +rudimentary toes. Some of them were as small as a guinea-pig, others as +large as an ass. Six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars +existed in each jaw, the series being continuous, no interval existing in +the jaw. _A. comm[=u]ne_, from the Eocene rocks, is a familiar species. + +ANOPLU'RA, an order of apterous insects, of which the type is the genus +Pedic[)u]lus or louse, + +ANOPSHEHR. See _Anupshahr_. + +ANOREXIA. See _Appetite_. + +ANOS'MIA, a disease consisting in a diminution or destruction of the power +of smelling, sometimes constitutional, but most frequently caused by strong +and repeated stimulants, as snuff, applied to the olfactory nerves. + +ANOURA. See _Anura_. + +ANQUETIL-DUPERRON ([.a]nk-t[=e]l-d[.u]-p[=a]-ro[n.]), Abraham Hyacinthe, a +French orientalist, born 1731, died 1805. He studied theology for some +time, but soon devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian. +His zeal for the Oriental languages induced him to set out for India, where +he prevailed on some of the Parsee priests to instruct him in the Zend and +Pehlevi and to give him some of the Zoroastrian books. In 1762 he returned +to France with a valuable collection of MSS. In 1771 he published his +_Zend-Avesta_, a translation of the _Vendidad_, and other sacred books, +which aroused much interest. Among his other works are _L'Inde en rapport +avec l'Europe_ (1790), and a selection from the _Vedas_. His knowledge of +the Oriental languages was by no means exact. + +ANSBACH. See _Anspach_. + +AN'SELM, St., a celebrated Christian philosopher and theologian, born at +Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033, died at Canterbury 1109. At the age of +twenty-seven (1060) he became a monk at Bec, in Normandy, whither he had +been attracted by the celebrity of Lanfranc. Three years later he was +elected prior, and in 1078 he was chosen abbot, which he remained for +fifteen years. During this period of his life he wrote his first +philosophical and religious works: the dialogues on _Truth_ and +_Free-will_, and the treatises _Monologion_ and _Proslogion_; and at the +same time his influence made itself so felt among the monks under his +charge that Bec became the chief seat of learning in Europe. In 1093 Anselm +was offered by William Rufus the archbishopric of Canterbury, and accepted +it, though with great reluctance, and with the condition that all the lands +belonging to the see should be restored. William II soon quarrelled with +the archbishop, who would show no subservience to him, and would persist in +acknowledging Pope Urban II in opposition to the antipope Clement. William +ultimately had to give way. He acknowledged Urban as Pope, and conferred +the pallium upon Anselm. The king became his bitter enemy, however, and so +great were Anselm's difficulties that in 1097 he set out for Rome to +consult with the Pope. Urban received him with great distinction, but did +not venture really to take the side of the prelate against the king, though +William had refused to receive Anselm again as archbishop, and had seized +on the revenues of the see of Canterbury, which he retained till his death +in 1100. Anselm accordingly remained abroad, where he wrote most of his +celebrated treatise on the atonement, entitled _Cur Deus Homo_ (_Why God +was made Man_). When William was succeeded by Henry I Anselm was recalled; +but Henry insisted that he should submit to be reinvested in his see by +himself, although the Popes claimed the right of investing for themselves +alone. Much negotiation followed, and Henry did not surrender his claims +till 1107, when Anselm's long struggle on behalf of the rights of the +Church came to an end. Anselm was a great scholar, a deep and original +thinker, and a man of the utmost saintliness and piety. Anselm's great +achievement in philosophy was his ontological argument for the existence of +God; and his importance in the ecclesiastical history of England cannot be +exaggerated. The chief of his writings are the _Monologion_, the +_Proslogion_, and the _Cur Deus Homo_. The first is an attempt to prove +inductively the existence of God by pure reason without the aid of +Scripture or authority; the second is an attempt to prove the same by the +deductive method; the _Cur Deus Homo_ is intended to prove the necessity of +the incarnation. Among his numerous other writings are more than 400 +letters. His life was written by his domestic chaplain and companion, +Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, and is edited by M. Rule for the 'Rolls +Series'. See _Scholasticism_. Cf. Pere Ragey, _Histoire de Saint Anselme_; +J. M. Rigg, _Anselm of Canterbury_. + +ANS'GAR, or ANSHAR, called the _Apostle of the North_, born in 801 in +Picardy, died in 864 or 865. He took the monastic vows while still in his +boyhood, and in the midst of many difficulties laboured as a missionary in +Denmark and Sweden. He died with the reputation of having made, if not the +first, the most successful attempts to propagate Christianity in the North. + +AN'SON, George, Lord, celebrated English navigator, born 1697, died 1762. +He entered the navy at an early age and became a commander in 1722, and +captain in 1724. He was for a long time on the South Carolina station. In +1740 he was made commander of a fleet sent to the South Sea, directed +against the trade and colonies of Spain. The expedition consisted of five +men-of-war and three smaller vessels, which carried 1400 men. After much +suffering and many stirring adventures he reached the coast of Peru, made +several prizes, and captured and burned the city of Paita. His squadron was +now reduced to one ship, the _Centurion_, but with it he took the Spanish +treasure galleon from Acapulco, and arrived in England in 1744 with +treasure to the amount of L500,000, having circumnavigated the globe. His +adventures and discoveries are described in the well-known _Anson's +Voyage_, compiled from materials furnished by Anson. A few days after his +return he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and not long after +rear-admiral of the white. His victory over the French admiral Jonquiere, +near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised him to the peerage, with the title of +Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton. Four years afterwards he was made First Lord +of the Admiralty. In 1758 he commanded the fleet before Brest, protected +the landing of the British at St. Malo, Cherbourg, &c., and received the +repulsed troops into his vessels. Finally, in 1761, he was appointed to +convey the queen of George III to England. + +ANSO'NIA, a town of the United States, Conn., on the Nangatuck, with +manufactures of brass and copper, and especially clocks. Pop. 17,643. + +ANSPACH ([.a]n'sp[.a]_h_), or ANSBACH, a town in Bavaria, at the junction +of the Holzbach with the Lower Rezat, 24 miles south-west of Nuernberg. +Anspach gave its name to an ancient principality or margravate, which had a +territory of about 1300 sq. miles, with 300,000 inhabitants. in the end of +the eighteenth century. The last margrave sold his possessions in 1791 to +Prussia. It was occupied by the French in 1806, and transferred by Napoleon +to Bavaria. The town has manufactures of trimmings, buttons, straw-wares, +&c. Pop. 19,995. + +AN'STED, David Thomas, an English geologist, born 1814, died 1880. He was +professor of geology at King's College, London, and assistant-secretary to +the Geological Society, whose quarterly journal he edited for many years. + +AN'STER, John, LL.D., professor of civil law in the University of Dublin, +born in County Cork, 1793, died 1867. He published a volume of poems, but +is chiefly known by his fine translation of Goethe's _Faust_, Part I, 1835; +Part II, 1864. + +AN'STEY, Christopher, an English poet, born 1724, died 1805. He was author +of _The New Bath Guide_, a humorous and satirical production describing +fashionable life at Bath in the form of a series of letters in different +varieties of metre, which had a great reputation in its day, but is now +almost forgotten. + +ANSTRUTHER (an'stru_th_-[.e]r; popularly an'st[.e]r), Easter and Wester, +two small royal and police burghs of Scotland, in Fifeshire, forming, with +the contiguous royal burgh of Cellardyke or Nether Kilrenny, one fishing +and seaport town. Total pop. (1921), 4641. + +[Illustration: The Wood-ant (_Formica rufa_) + +1. Egg. 2. Larva. 3. Cocoon of fine white silk. 4. Young ant, taken out of +cocoon. 5. Male ant. 6. Female ant. 7. Worker ant. (All magnified.)] + +ANT, the common name of hymenopterous (or membranous-winged) insects of +various genera, of the family Formic[)i]dae, of which there are numerous +species, at least 2000 being known. They are found in most temperate and +tropical regions. They are small but powerful insects, and have long been +noted for their remarkable intelligence and interesting habits. They are +social insects, living in communities regulated by definite laws, each +member of the society bearing a well-defined and separate part in the work +of the colony. Each community consists of males; of females much larger +than the males; and of barren females, otherwise called neuters, workers, +or nurses. The neuters are wingless, and the males and females only acquire +wings for their 'nuptial flight', after which the males perish, and the few +females which escape the pursuit of their numerous enemies divest +themselves of their wings, and either return to established nests, or +become the foundresses of new colonies. The neuters perform all the labours +of the ant-hill or abode of the community; they excavate the galleries, +procure food, and feed the larvae or young ants, which have not got organs +of motion. In fine weather they carefully convey them to the surface for +the benefit of the sun's heat, and as attentively carry them to a place of +safety either when bad weather is threatened or the ant-hill is disturbed. +In like manner they watch over the safety of the nymphs or pupae about to +acquire their perfect growth. Some communities possess a special type of +neuters, known as 'soldiers', from the duties that specially fall upon +them, and from their powerful biting jaws. There is a very considerable +variety in the materials, size, and form of ant-hills, or nests, according +to the peculiar nature or instinct of the species. Most of the British ants +form nests in woods, fields, or gardens, their abodes being generally in +the form of small mounds rising above the surface of the ground and +containing numerous galleries and apartments. Some excavate nests in old +tree-trunks. One little yellow ant (_Myrm[=i]ca domestica_) is common in +houses in Britain in some localities. Some ants live on animal food, very +quickly picking quite clean the skeleton of any dead animal they may light +on. Others live on saccharine matter, being very fond of the sweet +substance, called honey-dew, which exudes from the bodies of aphides, or +plant-lice. These they sometimes keep in their nests, and sometimes tend on +the plants where they feed; sometimes they even superintend their breeding. +By stroking the aphides with their antennae they cause them to emit the +sweet fluid, which the ants then greedily sip up. Various other insects are +looked after by ants in a similar manner, or are found in their nests. It +has been observed that some species, like the European Red Ant (_Form[=i]ca +sanguin[)e]a_), resort to violence to obtain working ants of other species +for their own use, plundering the nests of suitable kinds of their larvae +and pupae, which they carry off to their own nests to be carefully reared +and kept as slaves. In temperate countries male and female ants survive, at +most, till autumn, or to the commencement of cool weather, though a very +large proportion of them cease to exist long previous to that time. The +neuters pass the winter in a state of torpor, and of course require no +food. The only time when they require food is during the season of +activity, when they have a vast number of young to feed. Some ants of +Southern Europe feed on grain, and store it up in their nests for use when +required. Some species have stings as weapons, others only their powerful +mandibles, or an acrid and pungent fluid (formic acid) which they can emit. +The name ant is also given to the neuropterous insects otherwise called +Termites (q.v.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), _Ants, +Bees, and Wasps_; H. W. Bates, _A Naturalist on the Amazons_; _Cambridge +Natural History_. + +ANTAC'ID, an alkali, or any remedy for acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia +and diarrhoea are the diseases in which antacids are chiefly employed. The +principal antacids in use are magnesia, lime, and their carbonates, and the +carbonates of potash and soda. + +ANTAE'US, the giant son of Poseidon (Neptune) and G[=e] (the Earth), who +was invincible so long as he was in contact with the earth. Heracles +(Hercules) grasped him in his arms and stifled him suspended in the air, +thus preventing him from touching the earth. + +ANTAKIEH, or ANTAKIA. See _Antioch_. + +ANTAL'KALI, a substance which neutralizes an alkali, and is used +medicinally to counteract an alkaline tendency in the system. All true +acids have this power. + +ANTANANARIVO (an-tan-an-a-r[=e]'v[=o]), the capital of Madagascar, situated +in the central province of Imerina, on rocky eminences rising from a plain. +Until 1869 all buildings within the city were of wood or rush, but since +the introduction of brick and stone, the whole city has been rebuilt. It +contains two former royal palaces, immense timber structures; a Protestant +and a Roman Catholic cathedral, mission churches, schools, &c. Antananarivo +is the residence of the French governor of Madagascar, and there is a +strong French garrison. It has manufactures of metal work, cutlery, silk, +&c. Pop. (exclusive of the troops) 63,115. + +AN'TAR, an Arabian warrior and poet of the sixth century, author of one of +the seven Moallakas (poems) hung up in the Kaaba at Mecca; hero of a +romance analogous in Arabic literature to the Arthurian legend of the +English. The romance of _Antar_ is composed in rhythmic prose interspersed +with fragments of verse, many of which are attributed to Antar himself, and +has been generally ascribed to Asmai (born A.D. 740, died about A.D. 830), +preceptor to Harun-al-Rashid. It has been published in 32 vols. at Cairo +(1889). + +ANTARCTIC (ant-aerk'tik), a term signifying the opposite of _Arctic_, and +therefore relating to the southern pole or to the regions near it. The +_Antarctic Circle_, which of course corresponds to the _Arctic Circle_, is +a circle parallel to the equator and distant from the south pole 23deg 28', +marking the area within which the sun does not set when on the tropic of +Capricorn. The Antarctic Circle has been arbitrarily fixed on as the limits +of the Antarctic Ocean, it being the average limit of the pack-ice; but the +name is often extended to embrace a much wider area. The lands within or +near the Antarctic Circle are but imperfectly known, and a very large area +around the south pole is altogether unknown. The work of exploration has +been hitherto baffled at various points by what seems an unsurmountable +ice-barrier, which in some places is connected with masses of land and may +as a whole belong to a great Antarctic continent. Among land-masses that +have long been known to exist in the Antarctic Ocean, though our knowledge +of them is very imperfect, are those to which have been attached the names +Graham Land, Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, Enderby Land, South Shetland +Islands, &c. The Antarctic regions are even colder and more inhospitable +than the Arctic, and partly on account of their remoteness from the +maritime nations there have been far fewer efforts at their exploration, +the south pole being far less a goal of discovery than the north. See +_South Polar Expeditions_. + +[Illustration: Ant-eater (_Myrmecoph[)a]ga jub[=a]ta_)] + +ANT-EATER, a name given to mammals of various genera that prey chiefly on +ants, but usually confined to the genus Myrmecoph[)a]ga, ord. Edentata. In +this genus the head is remarkably elongated, the jaws destitute of teeth, +and the mouth furnished with a long, extensile tongue covered with +glutinous saliva, by the aid of which the animals secure their insect prey. +The eyes are particularly small, the ears short and round, and the legs, +especially the fore-legs, very strong, and furnished with long, compressed, +acute nails, admirably adapted for breaking into the ant-hills. The most +remarkable species is the _Myrmecoph[)a]ga jub[=a]ta_, or ant-bear, a +native of the warmer parts of South America. It is from 4 to 5 feet in +length from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the black bushy tail, +which is about 2 feet long. The body is covered with long hair, +particularly along the neck and back. It is a harmless and solitary animal, +and spends most of its time in sleep. Some are adapted for climbing trees +in quest of the insects on which they feed, having prehensile tails. All +are natives of South America. The name ant-eater is also given to the +pangolins and to the aardvark. The echidna of Australia is sometimes called +_porcupine ant-eater_. + +ANTECE'DENT, in grammar, the noun to which a relative or other pronoun +refers; as, Solomon was the _prince who_ built the temple, where the word +_prince_ is the antecedent of _who_.--In logic, that member of a +hypothetical or conditional proposition which contains the condition, and +which is introduced by _if_ or some equivalent word or words; as, if the +sun is fixed, the earth must move. Here the first and conditional +proposition is the _antecedent_, the second the _consequent_. + +ANTEDILU'VIAN, before the flood or deluge of Noah's time; relating to what +happened before the deluge. In geology the term has been applied to +organisms, traces of which are found in a fossil state in formations +preceding the Diluvial (Glacial epoch), particularly to extinct animals +such as the palaeotherium, the mastodon, &c. + +AN'TELOPE, the name given to the members of a large family of Ruminant +Ungulata or Hoofed Mammalia, closely resembling the Deer in general +appearance, but essentially different in nature from the latter animals. +They are included with the Sheep and Oxen in the family of the Cavicornia +or 'Hollow-horned' Ruminants. Their horns, unlike those of the Deer, are +not deciduous, but are permanent; are never branched, but are often twisted +spirally, and may be borne by both sexes. They are found in greatest number +and variety in Africa. Well-known species are the chamois (European), the +gazelle, the addax, the eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the springbok, the +sasin or Indian antelope, and the prongbuck of America. + +[Illustration: Antennae + +1,1. Filiform Antennae of Cucujo Firefly of Brazil (_Pyroph[)o]rus +lumin[=o]sus_). 2. Denticulate Antenna; 3. Bipinnate; 4. Lamellicorn; 5. +Clavate; 6. Geniculate; 7. Antenna and Antennule of Crustacean.] + +ANTEN'NAE, the name given to the movable jointed organs of touch and +hearing attached to the heads of insects, myriapods, &c., and commonly +called horns or feelers. They present a very great variety of forms. + +ANTEQUERA ([.a]n-te-k[=a]'r[.a]), a city of Andalusia, in Spain, in the +province of Malaga, a place of some importance under the Romans, with a +ruined Moorish castle. It manufactures woollens, leather, soap, &c. Pop. +32,360. + +ANT'EROS, in Greek mythology, the god of mutual love. According to some, +however, Anteros is the enemy of love, or the god of antipathy; he was also +said to punish those who did not return the love of others. + +ANTHE'LION, pl. ANTHELIA, a luminous ring, or rings, seen by an observer, +especially in alpine and polar regions, around the shadow of his head +projected on a cloud or fog-bank, or on grass covered with dew, 50 or 60 +yards distant, and opposite the sun when rising or setting. It is due to +the diffraction of light. + +ANTHELMIN'THICS, or ANTHELMIN'TICS, a class of remedies used to destroy +worms when lodged in the alimentary canal; classed as vermicides or +vermifuges, according as the object is to kill the worms, or to expel them +by purgation. + +AN'THEM, originally a hymn sung in alternate parts; in modern usage, a +sacred tune or piece of music set to words taken from the Psalms or other +parts of the Scriptures, first introduced into church service in +Elizabeth's reign; a developed motet. The anthem may be for one, two, or +any number of voices, but seldom exceeds five parts, and may or may not +have an organ accompaniment written for it. + +[Illustration: Anthemion] + +ANTHE'MION, an ornament or ornamental series used in Greek and Roman +decoration, which is derived from floral forms, more especially the +honeysuckle. It was much used for the ornamentation of friezes and +interiors, for the decoration of fictile vases, the borders of dresses, &c. + +AN'THEMIS, a genus of composite plants, comprising the camomile or +chamomile. + +ANTHE'MIUS, a Greek mathematician and architect of Lydia; designed the +church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and is credited with the invention +of the dome; died A.D. 534. + +[Illustration: The Reproductive Organs of the Lily] + +AN'THER, the male organ of the flower; that part of the stamen which is +filled with pollen. + +ANTHESTE'RIA, an annual Greek festival held in honour of all the gods, but +especially in honour of Dionysus. It celebrated the beginning of spring, +and the season when the wine of the previous vintage was considered fit for +use. + +ANTHOCY'ANIN, the blue colour of flowers, a pigment obtained from those +petals of flowers which are blue, by digesting them in spirits of wine. + +ANTHOL'OGY (Gr. _anthos_, a flower, and _legein_, to gather), the name +given to several collections of short poems which have come down from +antiquity. The first to compile a Greek anthology was Meleager, a Syrian, +about 60 B.C. He entitled his collection, which contained selections from +forty-six poets besides many pieces of his own, the _Garland_; a +continuation of this work by Philip of Thessalonica in the age of Tiberius +was the first entitled _Anthology_. Later collections are that of +Constantine Cephalas, in the tenth century, who made much use of the +earlier ones, and that of Maximus Planudes, in the fourteenth century, a +monk of Constantinople, whose anthology is a tasteless series of extracts +from the _Anthology_ of Cephalas, with some additions. The treasures +contained in both, increased with fragments of the older poets, idylls of +the bucolic poets, the hymns of Callimachus, epigrams from monuments and +other works, have been published in modern times as the _Greek Anthology_. +There is no ancient Latin anthology, the oldest being that of Scaliger +(1573). + +AN'THON, Charles, LL.D., an American editor of classical school-books, and +of works intended to facilitate the study of Greek and Latin literature; +born 1797, died 1867. He was long a professor in Columbia College, New +York. + +AN'THONY, St. the founder of monastic institutions, born near Heraclea, in +Upper Egypt, A.D. 251. Giving up all his property he retired to the desert, +where he was followed by a number of disciples, who thus formed the first +community of monks. He died at the age of 105.--_St. Anthony's Fire_, a +name given to erysipelas. + +AN'THRACENE (C_{14}H_{10}) occurs in coal-tar in small quantity, about +0.25-0.45 per cent. During the distillation of tar a high-boiling fraction, +boiling above 270deg C., is obtained; this is crude anthracene oil, a +greenish oily substance which, on further distillation, yields a +crystalline mass, 50 per cent anthracene. This is carefully purified by +distillation and chemical treatment to separate the anthracene from the +other substances occurring with it, and the product obtained is finally +purified by crystallization. When pure it forms colourless crystalline +scales melting at 216deg C., and having a violet fluorescence. It forms a +series of derivatives, the most important being anthraquinone and alizarine +and the numerous derivatives of these. Anthracene was originally a useless +product in coal-tar distillation, but it became valuable as soon as it was +discovered that alizarine--from which many dyes are manufactured directly +or indirectly--could be prepared from it. + +AN'THRACITE, glance or blind coal, a non-bituminous coal of a shining +lustre, approaching to metallic, and which burns without smoke, with a weak +or no flame, and with intense heat. It consists of, on an average, 90 per +cent carbon, 2 oxygen, 3 hydrogen, and 5 ashes. It has some of the +properties of coal or charcoal, and, like that substance, represents an +extreme alteration of vegetable substances by loss of gases, either during +conditions of decay or after entombment among stratified rocks. It is found +in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in large quantities in the United +States (Pennsylvania), and near Swansea (South Wales). See _Coal_. + +AN'THRAX, a fatal disease to which animals are subject, always associated +with the presence of an extremely minute micro-organism (_Bacillus +anthr[)a]cis_) in the blood. It attacks cattle more frequently than other +animals; sheep, horses, pigs, dogs, and fowls are liable to anthrax, but +not cats. The mode of infection in animals is chiefly by ingestion. It may +also be contracted through a wound or scratch in the skin, but this mode of +infection is commoner in human beings than in animals. It frequently +assumes an epizootic form, and extends over large districts, affecting all +classes of animals which are exposed to the exciting causes. It is also +called splenic fever, and is communicable to man, appearing as carbuncle, +malignant pustule, or wool-sorter's disease. + +ANTHROPOL'ATRY, the worship of man, a word always employed in reproach; +applied by the Apollinarians, who denied Christ's perfect humanity, towards +the orthodox Christians. + +ANTHRO'POLITE, a petrifaction of the human body or skeleton, or of parts of +the body, by the encrusting action of calcareous waters, and hence hardly +to be considered fossil or sub-fossil. + +ANTHROPOL'OGY, the science of man, including the study of man's place in +nature, that is, of the measurement of his agreement with and divergence +from other animals and the history of the emergence of human +characteristics; of the distinctive features and geographical distribution +of the races of mankind, their customs and beliefs; of the remains of +extinct types of the human family and the evidence relating to their modes +of life. It puts under contribution all sciences which have man for their +object, as anatomy, palaeontology, psychology, archaeology, history, and +comparative religion. All the races of mankind that are now living, much as +they differ in external appearance, such as colour of skin, character of +hair, form of skull, face, and body, and stature, belong to one species, +_Homo Sapiens_; but an earlier species of more brutal type, _H. +neanderthalensis_, now completely extinct, is known from fossil remains +found in Germany, Belgium, France, Gibraltar, and Croatia. Three more +ancient and primitive types, probably representing distinct genera of the +human family, have been discovered respectively at Piltdown, in Sussex +(Eoanthropus), at Mauer, near Heidelberg (Palaeanthropus), and in Java, the +Ape-man (Pithecanthropus). The Piltdown man may represent the very remote, +but direct, ancestor of modern man; but the Heidelberg man and the Ape-man +were probably divergent 'sports' whose descendants never became men of the +modern type. + +In structure the gorilla reveals a close kinship with the human family, and +was probably derived from a common ancestry which probably differentiated +into man's forerunner and the gorilla's in Miocene times. Of existing races +the aboriginal Australian is much the most primitive, and represents the +survival of the earliest type of _Homo Sapiens_ soon after this species +became differentiated from men of the Neanderthal species. The negro, whose +home is tropical Africa, is primitive in some respects, but in others is +highly specialized. He is distinguished by his black skin, flat nose, +prominent jaws and thick everted lips, and so-called 'woolly' or +'pepper-corn' hair. In stature he shows a wider range of variation than any +other race, including, as he does, the tallest and the shortest varieties +of mankind. The Bushman is a peculiarly distinct racial type now restricted +to the deserts of South Africa. Though his skin is yellowish rather than +black, he is akin to the negro. The Mongolian race probably assumed its +distinctive features, yellowish skin, coarse black hair, and characteristic +facial and bodily traits, in Eastern Asia; and the aboriginal population of +America was sprung mainly from the less-specialized branch of this race. +The so-called white races include three main stocks, a people of short +stature, olive complexion, and long heads, the Mediterranean race; a taller +people with fair hair and long heads, the Nordic race; and a short, +thick-set, black-haired, broad-headed Alpine race, which made its way from +Asia into Europe many centuries after the other two chief components of +Europe's population. For long ages in every part of the world intermixture +has been taking place in varying degrees between the different races of +mankind, so that to-day probably no pure race exists. See _Ethnography_, +_Ethnology_, _Man_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Anthropology_; D. G. +Brinton, _Races and Peoples_; W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_; E. +Carpenter, _Anthropology_; G. Elliott Smith, _The Migrations of Early +Culture_; H. G. F. Spurrell, _Modern Man and his Forerunners_; +_Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques_; _The Journal of the +Anthropological Institute of Great Britain_. + +ANTHROPOM'ETRY, the systematic examination of the height, weight, and other +physical characteristics of the human body. It was shown in the British +Association Report of 1888 that variations in stature, weight, and +complexion, existing in different districts of the British islands, are +chiefly due to difference of racial origin. + +The Scotch male adults stand first in height (68.71 inches), the Irish +second (67.90 inches), the English third (67.66 inches), and the Welsh last +(66.66 inches). In weight the Scotch take the first place (165.3 lb.), the +Welsh the second (158.3 lb.), the English the third (155.0 lb.), and the +Irish the last (154.1 lb.). The average height of adult females is 4.71 +inches less than the male average, and their average weight 32.2 lb. under +that of the males. The average height of the adult males of the principal +races or nationalities of the world may be given as under; but it is +acknowledged that more numerous measurements might alter some of the +figures considerably: Polynesians 69.33 inches, Patagonians 69 inches, +Negroes of the Congo 69 inches, Scotch 68.71 inches, Iroquois Indians 68.28 +inches, Irish 67.90 inches, United States (whites) 67.67 inches, English +67.66 inches, Norwegians 67.66 inches, Zulus 67.19 inches, Welsh 66.66 +inches, Danes 66.65 inches, Dutch 66.62 inches, American Negroes 66.62 +inches, Hungarians 66.58 inches, Germans 66.54 inches, Swiss 66.43 inches, +Belgians 66.38 inches, French 66.23 inches, Berbers 66.10 inches, Arabs +66.08 inches, Russians 66.04 inches, Italians 66 inches, Spaniards 65.66 +inches, Esquimaux 65.10 inches, Papuans 64.78 inches, Hindus 64.76 inches, +Chinese 64.17 inches, Poles 63.87 inches, Finns 63.60 inches, Japanese +63.11 inches, Peruvians 63 inches, Malays 62.34 inches, Lapps 59.2 inches, +Bosjesmans 52.78 inches. General average, 65.25 inches. + +ANTHROPOMOR'PHISM, the representation or conception of the Deity under a +human form, or with human attributes and affections. _Anthropomorphism_ is +based upon the natural inaptitude of the human mind for conceiving +spiritual things except through sensuous images, and in its consequent +tendency to accept such expressions as those of Scripture when it speaks of +the eye, the ear, and the hand of God, of his seeing and hearing, of his +remembering and forgetting, of his making man in his own image, &c., in a +too literal sense. In a general sense anthropomorphism is the assumption of +man that his own characteristics are present in beings or things widely +different from himself, more particularly in forces of nature and gods. The +term is, therefore, also applied to that doctrine which attributes to +animals mental faculties of the same nature as those of man, though much +lower in degree: strictly called _biological anthropomorphism_, to +distinguish it from anthropomorphism proper, or _theological +anthropomorphism_. Cf. E. Caird, _Evolution of Religion_; J. R. +Illingworth, _Personality, Human and Divine_. + +ANTHROPOPH'AGI, man-eaters, cannibals. Cannibalism was practised in very +ancient times; and though some peoples, as the New Zealanders and Fijians, +have given it up in recent times, it is still practised over a wide area in +Central Africa, where human flesh is a common article of food. +Superstitious ideas are often associated with cannibalism among those who +practise it. The Caribs were cannibals at the time of the Spanish conquest, +and the word 'cannibal' is derived from their name. See _Cannibalism_. + +ANTHUS. See _Pipit_. + +ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS are guns so mounted that they may be pointed upward to +fire directly against objects in the air. During the European War these +guns, fitted with special appliances and ammunition, were used for defence +against air-raids of the enemy, against Zeppelins and Gothas. The +anti-aircraft guns are of various types, ranging from light machine-guns up +to batteries of 3-inch and 6-inch guns. Some of them have brought down +enemy machines flying at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet. + +ANTIBES ([.a][n.]-t[=e]b) (ancient ANTIPOLIS), a fortified town and seaport +of France, department Alpes-Maritimes, on the Mediterranean, 11 miles +S.S.W. of Nice; founded about 340 B.C. Pop. 12,198. + +ANTI-BURGHER SYNOD, a section of the Scottish Secession Church, which held +its first meeting in Edinburgh in the house of Adam Gib on 10th April, +1747. It was formed in consequence of a breach resulting from a controversy +respecting the religious clause of the oath taken by burgesses in +Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Perth. Those in favour of the oath were designated +Burghers, whilst their opponents, who condemned the oath of the burgesses, +became known as Anti-burghers. The union of the burgher and anti-burgher +sections was brought about in 1820 through the exertions of John Jamieson, +minister at the Anti-burgher Church in Nicholson Street, Edinburgh. See +_United Free Church of Scotland_. + +AN'TICHLOR, the name given to any chemical substance, such as hyposulphite +of sodium, employed to remove the small quantity of chlorine which +obstinately adheres to the fibres of the cloth when goods are bleached by +means of chlorine. + +AN'TICHRIST, a word occurring in the first and second _Epistles of St. +John_, and nowhere else in Scripture, in passages having an evident +reference to a personage real or symbolical mentioned or alluded to in +various other passages both of the Old and New Testaments. The _idea +itself_, however, of Antichrist can be traced back to the second century +B.C., and appears first of all in the _Book of Daniel_. In every age the +Church has held through all its sects some definite expectation of a +formidable adversary of truth and righteousness prefigured under this name. +Thus Roman Catholics have found Antichrist in heresy, and Protestants in +Romanism. In one point the sects have generally been agreed, namely, in +regarding the various intimations on this subject in the Old and New +Testaments as a homogeneous declaration or warning, inspired by the spirit +of prophecy, of danger to the true religion from some disaffection and +revolt organized in the latter days by Satan. Most modern critics take a +different view of the matter. They do not regard the various Scriptural +writers who have dealt with this subject as having had any common +inspiration or design. They believe that each writer from his own point of +view, guided by mere human sagacity, gives expression in his predictions to +his own individual apprehensions, or narrates as prediction what he already +knows. Originally Antichrist is nothing else than the incarnate devil, and +the idea of the battle of God with a human opponent, endowed with devilish +wickedness, arose under the influence of historical conditions. It is the +near political horizon which suggests the danger, or contemporary history +the substance of the prophecy; thus the Antichrist of Daniel is Antiochus +Epiphanes, that of St. John Nero, that of St. Paul some adversary of +Christianity about to appear in the time of the Emperor +Claudius.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Baring-Gould, _Curious Myths of the Middle +Ages_; W. Bousset, _Antichrist_. + +ANTICLI'MAX, a sudden declension of a writer or speaker from lofty to mean +thoughts or language, as in the well-known lines, quoted in Pope's +_Martinus Scriblerus on the Art of Sinking in Poetry_ as from an anonymous +author: + + And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war, + Lieutenant-colonel to the Earl of Mar. + +Pope, Addison, and Fielding were masters in this art of sudden descent. + +[Illustration: _a_, _a._ Anticlinal line. _b._ Synclinal line] + +ANTICLI'NAL LINE OR AXIS, in geology, the ridge of a wave-like curve made +by a series of superimposed strata, the strata dipping from it on either +side as from the ridge of a house: a _synclinal line_ runs along the trough +of such a wave. + +ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an association formed in England in 1836 to procure +the repeal of the laws regulating or forbidding the importation of corn. +The object of the league was attained in 1846. + +ANTICOS'TI, an island of Canada, in the mouth of the St. Lawrence, 125 +miles long by 30 miles broad. The interior is mountainous and wooded, but +there is much good land, and it is well adapted for agriculture. + +ANTICY'CLONE, a phenomenon presenting some features opposite to those of a +cyclone. It consists of a region of high barometric pressure, the pressure +being greatest in the centre, with light winds flowing outwards from the +centre, and not inwards as in the cyclone, accompanied with great cold in +winter and with great heat in summer. + +ANTICYRA (an-tis'i-ra), the name of two towns of Greece, the one in +Thessaly, the other in Phocis, famous for hellebore, which in ancient times +was regarded as a specific against insanity and melancholy. Hence various +jocular allusions in ancient writers (_Naviga Anticyram_, sail to +Anticyra). + +AN'TIDOTE, a medicine to counteract the effects of poison. + +ANTIETAM (an-t[=e]'tam), a small stream in the United States which falls +into the Potomac about 50 miles N.W. of Washington; scene of an indecisive +battle between the Federal and Confederate armies, 17th Sept., 1862. + +ANTI-FEDERALISTS, the political party in the United States which after the +formation of the Federal constitution in 1787 opposed its ratification. +Whilst the Federalists were striving to turn the federation into a united +nation, and stood for a strong Government and centralizing tendencies, +their opponents, the Anti-Federalists, either more democratic, or +pretending that a strong Government meant a 'disguised' monarchic power, +endeavoured to preserve a loose disintegrated federation. The +Anti-Federalist party was gradually transformed into the +Democratic-Republican party, led by Jefferson. + +ANTIFRICTION METAL, a name given to various alloys of tin, zinc, copper, +antimony, lead, &c., which oppose little resistance to motion, with great +resistance to the effects of friction, so far as concerns the wearing away +of the surfaces of contact. Babbitt's metal (50 parts tin, 5 antimony, 1 +copper) is one of them. + +ANTIGONE (an-tig'o-n[=e]), in Greek mythology, the daughter of Oedipus and +Jocasta, celebrated for her devotion to her brother Polynices, for burying +whom against the decree of King Creon she suffered death. She is the +heroine of Sophocles' _Oedipus at Colonus_ and his _Antigone_; also of +Racine's tragedy _Les Freres Ennemis_. + +ANTIG'ONISH, a town in the E. of Nova Scotia, in county of the same name; +the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, with a cathedral, a college, and a +good harbour. Pop. 1787. + +ANTIG'ONUS, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, born about 382 B.C. +In the division of the empire, after the death of Alexander, Antigonus +obtained Greater Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia as his dominion. But he soon +managed to extend his power, being assisted by his warlike son, Demetrius +Poliorc[=e]t[=e]s. Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus, who had also been +generals of Alexander, alarmed by his ambition, united themselves against +him; and a long series of contests ensued in Syria, Phoenicia, Asia Minor, +and Greece, ending in 301 B.C. with the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in +which Antigonus was defeated and slain, his dominions being divided among +the conquerors. + +ANTIGONUS GON'ATAS, son of Demetrius Poliorc[=e]t[=e]s, and grandson of the +above, succeeded his father in the kingdom of Macedon and all his other +European dominions, but did not obtain actual possession of them for some +years. He died, after a reign of forty-four years, 239 B.C. + +ANTIGUA (an-t[=e]'gwa), one of the British West Indies, the most important +of the Leeward group; 28 miles long, 20 broad; area, 108 sq. miles. Its +shores are high and rocky, and much indented by creeks and inlets +furnishing several good harbours. The surface is diversified by hill and +dale, but nowhere rises to a greater height than 1500 feet. A considerable +portion of it is fertile, and the climate is healthy, but there is a +scarcity of water, there being no streams and few springs, droughts are not +infrequent, and hurricanes are apt to cause serious loss and damage. Chief +products are sugar, cotton, and pineapples. The island has fairly good +shipping connections with the United Kingdom, the United States, and +Canada. Antigua is governed as a crown colony, the Islands of Barbuda and +Redonda being attached to it. The capital, St. John, the residence of the +governor of the Leeward Islands, stands on the shore of a well-sheltered +harbour in the north-west part of the island. Falmouth (English Harbour) in +the south has also an excellent harbour with a dockyard. The island was +discovered by Columbus in 1493; the first settlement was made by the +English in 1632. Since then, except for a short period of occupation by the +French, it has been a British possession. Pop. 32,269 (1911). + +ANTI-JAC'OBIN, a famous magazine (1797-1818), the original object of which +was to satirize the Jacobin principles of the Fox section of Whigs; +principal contributors: Gifford, Canning, Frere, and Ellis. + +ANTI-LEBANON, the eastern of the two parallel ranges known as the Mountains +of Lebanon in Palestine. See _Lebanon_. + +ANTILEGOM'ENA (things spoken against or objected to), a term applied by +early Christian writers to the _Epistle to the Hebrews_, 2 _Peter_, +_James_, _Jude_, 2 and 3 _John_, and the _Apocalypse_, which, though read +in the churches, were not for some time received into the canon of +Scripture. + +ANTILLES (an-til'[=e]z), another name for the West Indian Islands +(excluding Bahamas). See _West Indies_. + +ANTILOCHUS (an-til'o-kus), in Greek legend, a son of Nestor, distinguished +among the younger heroes who took part in the Trojan War by beauty, +bravery, and swiftness of foot. He was slain by Memnon, but Achilles +avenged his death. + +ANTIMACASS'AR, a covering for chairs, sofas, couches, &c., made of open +cotton or worsted work, to preserve them from being soiled, as by the oil +applied to the hair. + +ANTIMACHUS (an-tim'a-kus), a Greek poet who lived about 400 B.C., and wrote +an epic called the _Thebais_ on the mythical history of Thebes, and a long +elegy called _Lyd[=e]_, inspired by a mistress or wife of that name. Both +works were full of mythological details. Only fragments of his writings +remain, and from these it can be gathered that his style was rather +laboured and artificial. Yet the Alexandrian grammarians ranked him next to +Homer. + +AN'TIMONY (chemical symbol, Sb, from Lat. _stibium_; sp. gr. 6.7, atomic +wt. 120.2), a brittle metal of a bluish-white or silver-white colour and a +crystalline or laminated structure. It melts at 630.6deg C., and burns with +a bluish-white flame. The mineral called stibnite or antimony-glance, is a +tri-sulphide (Sb_2S_3), and is the chief ore from which the metal is +obtained. It is found in many places, including France, Spain, Hungary, +Italy, Canada, Australia, and Borneo. The metal, or, as it was formerly +called, the _regulus of antimony_, does not rust or tarnish when exposed to +the air. When alloyed with other metals it hardens them, and is therefore +used in the manufacture of alloys, such as Britannia-metal, type-metal, and +pewter. In bells it renders the sound more clear; it renders tin more white +and sonorous as well as harder, and gives to printing types more firmness +and smoothness. The salts of antimony are very poisonous. The protoxide is +the active base of tartar emetic and James's powder, and is justly regarded +as a most valuable remedy in many diseases.--_Yellow antimony_ is a +preparation of antimony of a deep yellow colour, used in enamel and +porcelain painting. It is of various tints, and the brilliancy of the +brighter hues is not affected by foul air. + +ANTINO'MIANISM ('opposition to the law'), the name given by Luther to the +inference drawn by John Agricola (1492-1566), from the doctrine of +justification by faith, that the moral law is not binding on Christians as +a rule of life. The term antinomian has since been applied to all doctrines +and practices which seem to contemn or discountenance strict moral +obligations. The Lutherans and Calvinists have both been charged with +antinomianism, the former on account of their doctrine of justification by +faith, the latter both on this ground and that of the doctrine of +predestination. The charge is, of course, vigorously repelled by both. + +ANTIN'OMY, the opposition of one law or rule to another law or rule; in the +Kantian philosophy, that natural contradiction which results from the law +of reason, when, passing the limits of experience, we seek to conceive the +complex of external phenomena, or nature, as a world or cosmos. + +ANTINOUS (an-tin'o-us), a young Bithynian whom the extravagant love of +Hadrian has immortalized. He drowned himself in the Nile in A.D. 122. +Hadrian set no bounds to his grief for his loss. He gave his name to a +newly-discovered star, erected temples in his honour, called a city after +him, and caused him to be adored as a god throughout the empire. Statues, +busts, &c., of him are numerous. + +ANTIOCH (an'ti-ok), a town in Syria, famous in ancient times as the capital +of the Greek Kings of Syria, on the left bank of the Orontes, about 21 +miles from the sea, in a beautiful and fertile plain. It was founded by +Seleucus Nicator in 300 B.C., and named after his father Antiochus. In +Roman times it was the seat of the Syrian governors, and the centre of a +widely-extended commerce. It was called the 'Queen of the East' and 'The +Beautiful'. Antioch is frequently mentioned in the New Testament, and it +was here that the disciples of our Saviour were first called Christians +(_Acts_, xi, 26). In the first half of the seventh century it was taken by +the Saracens, and in 1098 by the Crusaders. They established the +principality of Antioch, of which the first ruler was Bohemond, and which +lasted till 1268, when it was taken by the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. In +1516 it passed into the hands of the Turks. The modern Antioch, or +_Antakieh_, has recently grown from a small place to a flourishing town. +Pop. estimated at 30,000.--There was another Antioch, in Pisidia, at which +St. Paul preached on his first missionary journey. + +[Illustration: Medal of Antiochus Epiphanes] + +ANTIOCHUS (an-t[=i]'o-kus), a name of several Graeco-Syrian kings of the +dynasty of the Seleuc[)i]dae.--ANTIOCHUS I, called _S[=o]t[=e]r_ +('saviour'), was the son of Seleucus, general of Alexander the Great, and +founder of the dynasty. He was born about 324 B.C., and succeeded his +father in 280 B.C. During the greater part of his reign he was engaged in a +protracted struggle with the Gauls who had crossed from Europe, and by whom +he was killed in battle, 261 B.C.--ANTIOCHUS II, surnamed _Theos_ (god), +succeeded his father, lost several provinces by revolt, and was murdered in +246 B.C. by Laodic[=e], his wife, whom he had put away to marry +Beren[=i]c[=e], daughter of Ptolemy.--ANTIOCHUS III, surnamed the _Great_, +grandson of the preceding, was born 242 B.C., succeeded in 223 B.C. The +early part of his reign embraced a series of wars against revolted +provinces and neighbouring kingdoms, his expeditions extending to India, +over Asia Minor, and afterwards into Europe, where he took possession of +the Thracian Chersonese. Here he encountered the Romans, who had conquered +Philip V of Macedon, and were prepared to resist his further progress. +Antiochus gained an important adviser in Hannibal, who had fled for refuge +to his Court; but he lost the opportunity of an invasion of Italy while the +Romans were engaged in war with the Gauls, of which the Carthaginian urged +him to avail himself. The Romans defeated him by sea and land, and he was +finally overthrown by Scipio at Mount Sip[)y]lus, in Asia Minor, 190 B.C., +and very severe terms were imposed upon him. He was killed while plundering +a temple in Elymais to procure money to pay the Romans.--ANTIOCHUS IV, +called _Epiph[)a]nes,_ youngest son of the above, is chiefly remarkable for +his attempt to extirpate the Jewish religion, and to establish in its place +the polytheism of the Greeks. This led to the insurrection of the +Maccabees, by which the Jews ultimately recovered their independence. He +died 164 B.C. + +ANTIOQUIA ([.a]n-t[=e]-[=o]-k[=e]'[.a]), a town of South America, in +Colombia, on the River Cauca; founded in 1542. Pop. 8730. It gives name to +a department of the republic; area, 22,752 sq. miles. Pop. 739,434. +Capital, Medellin. + +ANTIP'AROS (ancient, OLI[)A]ROS), one of the Cyclades Islands in the +Grecian Archipelago, containing a famous stalactitic grotto or cave. It +lies south-west of Paros, from which it is separated by a narrow strait, +and has an area of 10 sq. miles, and about 700 inhabitants. + +ANTIP'ATER, a general and friend of Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander +the Great. On the death of Alexander, in 323 B.C., the regency of Macedonia +was assigned to Antipater, who succeeded in establishing the Macedonian +rule in Greece on a firm footing. He died 317 B.C., at an advanced age. + +ANTIP'ATHY, a special dislike exhibited by individuals to particular +objects or persons, usually resulting from physical or nervous +organization. An antipathy is often an unaccountable repugnance to what +people in general regard with no particular dislike, as certain sounds, +smells, articles of food, &c., and it may be manifested by fainting or +extreme discomfort. + +ANTIPHLOGIS'TIC, a term applied to medicines or methods of treatment that +are intended to counteract inflammation, such as bloodletting, purgatives, +diaphoretics, &c. + +AN'TIPHON, a Greek orator, born near Athens; founder of political oratory +in Greece. His orations are the oldest extant, and he is said to have been +the first who wrote speeches for hire. He was put to death for taking part +in the revolution of 411 B.C., which established the oligarchic government +of the Four Hundred. Antiphon seems to have specialized in homicide cases; +his most celebrated speech is _On the Murder of Herodas_. Cf. Sir R. C. +Jebb, _Attic Orators_; J. F. Dobson, _The Greek Orators_. + +ANTIPHON, or ANTIPH'ONY ('alternate song'), in the Christian Church a verse +first sung by a single voice, and then repeated by the whole choir; or any +piece to be sung by alternate voices. + +ANTIPODES (an-tip'o-d[=e]z), the name given relatively to people or places +on opposite sides of the earth, so situated that a line drawn from one to +the other passes through the centre of the earth and forms a true diameter. +The longitudes of two such places differ by 180deg. The difference in their +time is about twelve hours, and their seasons are reversed. + +ANTIPODES ISLANDS, a group of small uninhabited islands in the South +Pacific Ocean, about 460 miles S.E. by E. of New Zealand; so called from +being nearly antipodal to Greenwich. Antipodes Island rises to 1300 feet, +and is largely covered with coarse grass; huts have been fitted up to +shelter castaways. + +AN'TIPOPE, the name applied to those who at different periods have produced +a schism in the Roman Catholic Church by opposing the authority of the +Pope, under the pretence that they were themselves Popes. The Roman Church +cannot admit that there ever existed two Popes; but the fact is, that in +several cases the competitors for the papal chair were equally Popes; that +is to say, the claims of all were equally good. Each was frequently +supported by whole nations, and the schism was nothing but the struggle of +political interests. Twenty-nine antipopes are enumerated in Church +history; the last of them is Felix V, 1439-49. + +ANTIPYRET'ICS, medicines given for the purpose of reducing fever by +lowering the patient's temperature, whether by causing perspiration or +otherwise. Quinine, antipyrin, phenacetin, are common antipyretics. An +aperient or purgative often serves the same purpose. + +ANTIPY'RIN, a drug obtained from coal-tar products, valuable in reducing +fever and in relieving pain, being much used in nervous headache and +neuralgia. + +AN'TIQUARIES, those devoted to the study of ancient times through their +relics, as old places of burial, remains of ancient habitations, early +monuments, implements or weapons, statues, coins, medals, paintings, +inscriptions, books, and manuscripts, with the view of arriving at a +knowledge of the relations, modes of living, habits, and general condition +of the people who created or employed them. Societies or associations of +antiquaries have been formed in all countries of European civilization. In +Britain the Society of Antiquaries of London was founded in 1572, revived +in 1717. and incorporated in 1751. The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland +was founded in 1780, incorporated in 1783, and has the management of a +large national antiquarian museum in Edinburgh. One of the best-known +antiquarian societies in Europe is the _Societe Royale des Antiquaires du +Nord_ at Copenhagen. + +ANTIQUES (an-t[=e]ks'), a term specifically applied to the remains of +ancient art, as statues, paintings, vases, cameos, and the like, and more +especially to the works of Grecian and Roman antiquity. + +ANTIRRHINUM (an-ti-r[=i]'num) (from _anti_, instead of, and _rhis_, snout), +a genus of annual or perennial plants of the nat. ord. Scrophulariaceae, +commonly known as _snapdragon_, on account of the peculiarity of the +blossoms, which, by pressing between the finger and thumb, may be made to +open and shut like a mouth. They all produce showy flowers, and are much +cultivated in gardens. Many varieties of some of them, such as the great or +common snapdragon (_Antirrhinum majus_), have been produced by gardeners. +The lesser snapdragon grows in sandy soil, and is found in cornfields in +the south of England and Ireland. + +ANTISANA ([.a]n-t[=e]-s[:a]'n[.a]), a volcano in the Andes of Ecuador, 35 +miles S.E. by E. of Quito. Whymper, who ascended it in 1880, makes its +height 19,260 feet. + +ANTIS'CIANS (Gr. _anti_, over against, _skia_, a shadow), those who live +under the same meridian, at the same distance N. and S. of the equator, and +whose shadows at noon consequently are thrown in contrary directions. + +ANTISCORBU'TICS, remedies against scurvy. Lemon-juice, ripe fruit, milk, +salts of potash, green vegetables, potatoes, fresh meat, and raw or +lightly-boiled eggs, are some of the principal foodstuffs containing +antiscorbutic vitamines. + +ANTI-SEM'ITISM, hostility to the Jews (Semites), actively exhibited in +severities and attacks of various kinds. The movement assumed vast +proportions about 1880 and manifested itself in various countries, +especially Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Roumania, and France. It may +be attributed to different motives in different countries, but on the whole +owed its origin not only to the fact of the Jews being a 'peculiar people' +by race and religion, but also to the comparatively high position won by +them in modern times in the financial and political worlds. The religious +element is quite prominent in the popular attacks on the Jew, although +modern anti-Semitism is essentially social and economic. In Western Russia +there was a great outburst against the Jews in 1881, in which men, women, +and children were slaughtered. The Government of the Tsar, by its +anti-Jewish policy, may be said to have sanctioned this murderous outbreak, +which was followed by harsh laws and actual persecutions, though afterwards +there was a mitigation of the severity shown towards the Jews. Yet in 1903 +the world was startled by a terrible massacre of Jews at Kishinev, in +Bessarabia, connived at by the authorities on the spot; and towards the end +of 1905, in connection with the Russian revolutionary movement, there were +dreadful massacres of Jews in Odessa, Kishinev, and other towns, the +authorities being similarly involved. In Roumania, until 1919, the position +of the Jews resembled what it was elsewhere in mediaeval times, and was +less favourable than it was even under the Turks. In Germany the movement +has been worked chiefly by politicians for their own ends, though the +racial and religious question has also had some influence; and among the +ignorant the belief that the Jews murder Christian children for ritual +purposes has been revived, as also in Austria and in Hungary. In these +countries the movement has been partly political, partly social and +economic, partly religious. In France anti-Semitism has been employed +chiefly as a weapon by monarchists and clericals as against republicanism, +and by the Socialists as against capitalism, racial antipathy having also +its influence on the movements. It reached its height in 1895 at the time +of the Dreyfus affair. In Britain, too, anti-Semitism has of late made +itself felt.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Leroy-Beaulieu, _Israel among the Nations_; +Bernard Lazare, _L'anti-semitisme, son histoire et ses causes_. + +ANTISEP'TIC (Gr. _anti_, against, and _s[=e]pein_, to rot), an agent which +destroys the germs of putrefaction or suppuration is called an antiseptic. +Many substances act thus, e.g. chlorine, iodine, hypochlorous acid, +sulphurous acid, camphor, creosote, iodoform, nascent oxygen ('Sanitas'), +corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde ('Formalin'), potassium permanganate +('Condy's Fluid'), carbolic acid (Lysol, Izal, Cyllin); lately aniline dyes +have become prominent: of these flavine has proved the most useful addition +to surgery of recent years. It was much used in the European War +(1914-8).--_Antiseptics_ are also used for purifying surgical instruments, +&c., and commercially as disinfectants. When introduced by Lister into +surgical practice they led to revolutionary advances in surgery. The +tendency of late years has been to abandon antiseptic for aseptic (sterile) +mode of technique, but during the war (1914-8) there was a general return +to antiseptic methods in surgery. + +ANTISPASMOD'IC, a medicine for the cure of spasms and convulsions; such +belong largely to the class of ethers, as sulphuric ether, chloric ether, +nitric ether, &c. + +ANTISTHENES (an-tis'the-n[=e]z), a Greek philosopher and the founder of the +school of Cynics, born at Athens about 444 B.C. He was first a disciple of +Gorgias and then of Socrates, at whose death he was present. His philosophy +was a one-sided development of the Socratic teaching. He held virtue to +consist in complete self-denial and in disregard of riches, honour, or +pleasure of every kind. He himself lived as a beggar. He died in Athens at +an advanced age. + +ANTIS'TROPHE. See _Strophe_. + +ANTI-SUBMARINE. See _Submarine_. + +ANTI-TAURUS, a mountain range of Anatolia, Asia Minor, extending from the +Cicilian Taurus towards the north-east, and connecting the Taurus mountain +system with Mount Ararat, Mount Elbruz, and the Caucasus. See _Taurus_. + +ANTITH'ESIS (opposition), a figure of speech consisting in a contrast or +opposition of words or sentiments; as, 'When our vices _leave us_, we +flatter ourselves we _leave them_'; 'The prodigal _robs his heir_, the +miser _robs himself_'. + +ANTITOXIN, the name given to a class of bodies of unknown nature having the +capacity of neutralizing the poisonous substances (toxins) by which certain +bacteria produce disease. If such a toxin be introduced every few days in +increasing doses, into, e.g., the horse, and if, after some months of this +treatment, the animal be bled, its serum contains the antitoxin to the +toxins used. The use of the antitoxin to the toxin of diphtheria is most +efficacious in curing that disease, and the treatment has caused a great +fall in the death-rate. It ought to be applied as soon as possible after +signs appear in the throat. An antitoxic treatment is also applicable in +cases of tetanus (lock-jaw), a disease liable to follow any wound +contaminated with dirt, especially with manured soil. Less success has been +achieved when the disease is fully established, but if the antitoxin be +injected immediately after the wound has been incurred, then the subsequent +development of the disease is prevented. This preventive treatment has been +attended with marked effect in the case of wounds received in war, which it +is almost impossible to keep free from contamination. Antitoxins were +extensively used during the European War. (1914-8). In bacterial diseases +other than those mentioned, sera have been produced by injecting into large +animals dead and living bacteria, e.g. the organisms of epidemic +cerebro-spinal meningitis (spotted fever), pneumonia, blood-poisoning, &c., +and these sera probably depend for their action on the presence of bodies +similar to antitoxins. See _Bacteria_, _Diphtheria_. + +ANTI-TRADE WINDS, a name given to any of the upper tropical winds which +move northward or southward in the same manner as the trade-winds which +blow beneath them in the opposite direction. These great aerial currents +descend to the surface after they have passed the limits of the +trade-winds, and form the south-west or west-south-west winds of the north +temperate, and the north-west or west-north-west winds of the south +temperate zones. + +ANTITRINITA'RIANS, all who do not receive the doctrine of the divine +Trinity, or the existence of three persons in the Godhead; especially +applied to those who oppose such a doctrine on philosophical grounds, as +contrasted with Unitarians, who reject the doctrine as not warranted by +Scripture. + +AN'TITYPE, that which is correlative to a type; by theological writers the +term is employed to denote the reality of which a _type_ is the prophetic +symbol. + +AN'TIUM, in ancient Italy, one of the most ancient and powerful cities of +Latium, the chief city of the Volsci, and often at war with the Romans, by +whom it was finally taken in 338 B.C. It was 38 miles distant from Rome, a +flourishing seaport, and became a favourite residence of the wealthy +Romans. It was destroyed by the Saracens, but vestiges of it remain at +Porto d'Anzo, near which many valuable works of art have been found. + +ANTIVARI ([.a]n-t[=e]'v[.a]-r[=e]), a seaport town on the eastern shore of +the Adriatic, ceded to Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). Antivari +was opened as a free port on 23rd Oct., 1909. It was occupied by the +Austrians in 1916, and by the Italians in Nov., 1918. Pop. 2500. + +ANTLERS, the horns of the deer tribe, or the snags or branches of the +horns. + +ANT-LION, the larva of a Neuropterous insect (_Myrmel[)e]on +formic[=a]rius_), which in its perfect state greatly resembles a +dragon-fly; curious on account of its ingenious method of catching the +insects--chiefly ants--on which it feeds. It digs a funnel-shaped hole in +the driest and finest sand it can find, and when the pit is deep enough, +and the sides are quite smooth and sloping, it buries itself at the bottom +with only its formidable mandibles projecting, and waits till some luckless +insect stumbles over the edge, when it is immediately seized, its juices +sucked, and the dead body jerked out. It inhabits Southern Europe. + +ANTOFAGAS'TA, a Chilian seaport on the Bay of Morena, and a territory of +the same name taken from Bolivia in the war of 1879-82, and definitely +ceded to Chile in 1885. The territory has an area of 46,408 sq. miles; pop. +(1919), 235,506. The port is connected by railway with the silver and other +mines lying inland, and exports silver, copper, cubic nitre, &c., partly +from Bolivia. Pop. (1919), 69,175. + +ANTOINETTE ([.a][n.]-tw[.a]-net), Marie. See _Marie Antoinette_. + +ANTOKOLSKI, Mark, Russian sculptor of Jewish extraction, born at Vilna in +1843. He studied at the Petrograd Academy of Fine Arts, and his earliest +success was a wooden statue _The Jewish Tailor_ (1864). In 1868 he received +a grant for travelling, and whilst in Italy he finished his famous statue, +_Ivan the Terrible_. He was made an academician, and in 1878 was awarded +the first prize for sculpture at the Paris International Exhibition. In +1888 he settled permanently in Paris, where he died in 1902. His works +include: _Peter the Great_ (1872), _Christ before the People_ (1874), _The +Death of Socrates_ (1876), _Spinoza_ (1882), _Yermak_ and _The Sleeping +Beauty_ (1900). + +ANTOMMARCHI (-m[:a]r'k[=e]), Carlo Francesco, Italian physician, born in +Corsica in 1780, died in Cuba 1838. He was professor of anatomy at Florence +when he offered himself as physician to Napoleon at St. Helena. Napoleon at +first received him with reserve, but soon admitted him to his confidence, +and testified his satisfaction with him by leaving him a legacy of 100,000 +francs. On his return to Europe he published _Les Derniers Moments de +Napoleon_ (2 vols., 8vo, 1823). + +ANTONELL'I, Giacomo, cardinal, born 1806, died 1876. He was educated at the +Grand Seminary of Rome, where he attracted the attention of Pope Gregory +XVI, who appointed him to several important offices. On the accession of +Pius IX in 1846 Antonelli was raised to the dignity of cardinal-deacon; two +years later he became president and Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in +1850 was appointed Secretary of State. During the sitting of the +Oecumenical Council (1869-70) he was a prominent champion of the papal +interest. He strongly opposed the assumption of the united Italian crown by +Victor Emanuel. + +ANTONELL'O (of Messina), an Italian painter who died at Venice, probably in +1493, and is said to have introduced oil-painting into Italy, having been +instructed in it by Jan Van Eyck. Three works by him are in the National +Gallery, London. + +ANTONI'NUS, ITINERARY OF. See _Itinerary_. + +ANTONI'NUS, Marcus Aurelius. See _Aurelius_. + +ANTONI'NUS, WALL OF, a barrier erected by the Romans across the isthmus +between the Forth and the Clyde, in the reign of Antoninus Pius. Its +western extremity was at or near Dunglass Castle, its eastern at Carriden, +and the whole length of it exceeded 27 miles. It was constructed A.D. 140 +by Lollius Urbicus, the imperial legate, and consisted of a ditch 40 feet +wide and 20 feet deep, and a rampart of stone and earth on the south side +24 feet thick and 20 feet in height. It was strengthened at either end and +along its course by a series of forts and watch-towers. It may still be +traced at various points, and is commonly known as _Graham's Dyke_. + +[Illustration: Coin of Antoninus Pius] + +ANTONI'NUS PIUS, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, Roman emperor, was born at +Lavinium, near Rome, A.D. 86, died A.D. 161. In 120 A.D. he became consul, +and he was one of the four persons of consular rank among whom Hadrian +divided the supreme administration of Italy. He then went as proconsul to +Asia, and after his return to Rome became more and more the object of +Hadrian's confidence. In A.D. 138 he was selected by that emperor as his +successor, and the same year he ascended the throne. He speedily put down +the persecutions of the Christians, and carried on but a few wars. In +Britain he extended the Roman dominion, and, by raising a new wall (see +preceding article), put a stop to the invasions of the Picts and Scots. The +senate gave him the surname _Pius_, that is, dutiful or showing filial +affection, because to keep alive the memory of Hadrian he had built a +temple in his honour. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius, his adopted son. + +ANTO'NIUS, Marcus (Mark Antony), Roman triumvir, born 83 B.C., was +connected with the family of Caesar by his mother. Debauchery and +prodigality marked his youth. To escape his creditors he went to Greece in +58, and from thence followed the consul Gabinius on a campaign in Syria as +commander of the cavalry. He served in Gaul under Caesar in 52 and 51. In +50 he returned to Rome to support the interests of Caesar against the +aristocratical party headed by Pompey, and was appointed tribune. When war +broke out between Caesar and Pompey, Antony led reinforcements to Caesar in +Greece, and in the battle of Pharsalia he commanded the left wing. He +afterwards returned to Rome with the appointment of Master of the Horse and +Governor of Italy (47). In 44 B.C. he became Caesar's colleague in the +consulship. Soon after Caesar was assassinated, Antony, by the reading of +Caesar's will, and by the oration which he delivered over his body, excited +the people to anger and revenge, and the murderers were obliged to flee. +After several quarrels and reconciliations with Octavianus, Caesar's heir +(see _Augustus_), Antony departed to Cisalpine Gaul, which province had +been conferred upon him against the will of the Senate. But Cicero +thundered against him in his famous _Philippics_; the Senate declared him a +public enemy, and entrusted the conduct of the war against him to +Octavianus and the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. After a campaign of varied +fortunes Antony fled with his troops over the Alps. Here he was joined by +Lepidus, who commanded in Gaul, and through whose mediation Antony and +Octavianus were again reconciled. It was agreed that the Roman world should +be divided among the three conspirators, who were called _triumviri_. +Antony was to take Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; and Octavianus, Africa and Sicily. +They decided upon the proscription of their mutual enemies, each giving up +his friends to the others, the most celebrated of the victims being Cicero +the orator. Antony and Octavianus departed in 42 for Macedonia, where the +united forces of their enemies, Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army, +which was, however, speedily defeated at Philippi. Antony next visited +Athens, and thence proceeded to Asia. In Cilicia he ordered Cleopatra, +Queen of Egypt, to apologize for her insolent behaviour to the _triumviri_. +She appeared in person, and her charms fettered him for ever. He followed +her to Alexandria, where he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of +the world, till he was aroused by a report that hostilities had commenced +in Italy between his own relatives and Octavianus. A short war, followed, +which was decided in favour of Octavianus before the arrival of Antony in +Italy. A reconciliation was effected, which was sealed by the marriage of +Antony with Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. A new division of the Roman +dominions was now made (in 40), by which Antony obtained the East, +Octavianus the West. After his return to Asia Antony gave himself up +entirely to Cleopatra, assuming the style of an Eastern despot, and so +alienating many of his adherents and embittering public opinion against him +at Rome. At length war was declared at Rome against the Queen of Egypt, and +Antony was deprived of his consulship and government. Each party assembled +its forces, and Antony lost, in the naval battle at Actium, 31 B.C., the +dominion of the world. He followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, and on the +arrival of Octavianus his fleet and cavalry deserted, and his infantry was +defeated. Deceived by a false report of her death which Cleopatra had +disseminated, he fell upon his own sword (30 B.C.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mommsen, +_Roman History_; Plutarch, _Lives_ (translated by Langhorne); De Quincey, +_Essay on the Caesars_. + +ANTONOMA'SIA, in rhetoric, the use of the name of some office, dignity, +profession, science, or trade instead of the true name of the person, as +when _his majesty_ is used for a king, _his lordship_ for a nobleman; or +when, instead of Aristotle, we say, _the philosopher_; or, conversely, the +use of a proper noun instead of a common noun; as, a _Solomon_ for a wise +man. + +ANTONY, Mark. See _Antonius_ (_Marcus_). + +ANTONY, ST. See _Anthony_. + +AN'TRIM, a county of Ireland, province of Ulster, in the north-east of the +island; area, 702,654 acres, of which about a third are arable. The eastern +and northern districts are comparatively mountainous, with tracts of heath +and bog, but no part rises to a great height. The principal rivers are the +Lagan and the Bann, which separate Antrim from Down and Londonderry +respectively. The general soil of the plains and valleys is strong loam. +Flax, oats, and potatoes are the principal agricultural produce. Cattle, +sheep, swine, and goats are extensively reared. There are salt-mines and +beds of iron-ore, which is worked and exported. A range of basaltic strata +stretches along the northern coast, of which the celebrated Giant's +Causeway is the most remarkable portion, the vast aggregates of natural +rock pillars there being very striking. The interior also contains some +scenes of picturesque beauty, particularly the fertile valley of the Lagan, +between Belfast and Lisburn. Much of the scenery of the county, however, is +dreary and monotonous. Lough Neagh, the largest lake of the United Kingdom, +is principally in Antrim. Its waters are carried to the sea by the Bann, +which is of no use for navigation, being obstructed by weirs and rocks. The +spinning of linen and cotton yarn, and the weaving of linen and cotton, are +the staple manufactures, but the cotton manufacture is small compared with +that of linen. The principal towns are Belfast, Lisburn, Ballymena, Larne, +and Carrickfergus. In 1898 Belfast, the former capital, was constituted +into a county borough. About fifty per cent of the inhabitants are +Presbyterians, being the descendants of Scottish immigrants of the +seventeenth century. The county sends four members to Parliament; Belfast +returns nine. Pop. (excluding Belfast) 193,864 (1911).--The town of Antrim, +at the north end of Lough Neagh, is a small place with a pop. of 1826. + +ANT-THRUSH, a name given to certain passerine or perching birds having +resemblances to the thrushes and supposed to feed largely on ants. They all +have longish legs, short wings, and a short tail. The true ant-thrushes of +the Old World belong to the genus Pitta. They chiefly inhabit southern and +south-eastern Asia and the Eastern Archipelago, but are also found in +Africa and Australia, and are birds of brilliant plumage, exhibiting black, +white, scarlet, blue, and green in vivid contrast, there being generally no +blending of colours by means of intermediate hues. These birds are not now +regarded as allied to the thrushes, nor are they allied to the ant-birds, +or ant-thrushes of the New World, which live among close foliage and +bushes. Some of these are called ant-shrikes and ant-wrens. They belong to +several genera. + +ANT'WERP (Du. and Ger. _Antwerpen_, Fr. _Anvers_), the chief port of +Belgium, and one of the first on the Continent, the capital of a province +of the same name, on the Scheldt, about 50 miles from the open sea. It lies +in a fertile plain at an abrupt turn of the river, which is here from 160 +to 280 yards wide, and has a depth varying from 25 to 50 feet. It is +strongly fortified, being completely surrounded on the land side by a +semicircular inner line of fortifications, the defences being completed by +an outer line of forts and outworks. Fine quays have been constructed along +the river banks. The general appearance of the city is exceedingly +picturesque, an effect produced by the numerous churches, convents, and +magnificent public buildings, the stately antique houses that line its +older thoroughfares, and the profusion of beautiful trees with which it is +adorned. The older streets are tortuous and irregular, but those in the +newer quarters are wide and regular. Some of the squares are very handsome. +The cathedral, with a spire 400 feet high, one of the largest and most +beautiful specimens of Gothic architecture in Belgium, contains Rubens' +celebrated masterpieces, _The Descent from the Cross_, _The Elevation of +the Cross_, and _The Assumption_. The other churches of note are St. +James's, St. Andrew's, and St. Paul's, all enriched with paintings by +Rubens, Vandyck, and other masters. Among the other buildings of note are +the exchange, the town hall, the palace, the theatre, academy of the fine +arts, picture and sculpture galleries, &c. The harbour accommodation is +extensive and excellent, large new docks and quays having been recently +built, and other works being under construction or contemplated. The +shipping trade is now very large, Antwerp being a great centre of the +world's commerce, and the goods being largely in transit. The entries of +vessels in a year aggregate over 13,000,000 tons. Much of the trade is with +Britain. There are numerous but not very important industries. Antwerp is +mentioned as early as the eighth century, and in the eleventh and twelfth +it had attained a high degree of prosperity. In the sixteenth century it is +said to have had a pop. of 200,000, and it had then an extensive foreign +trade. The wars between the Netherlands and Spain greatly injured its +commerce, which was almost ruined by the closing of the navigation of the +Scheldt in accordance with the peace of Westphalia (1648). It was only in +the nineteenth century that its prosperity revived. In the European War +(1914-8), the Germans, under General von Beseler, entered Antwerp on 7th +Oct., 1914, and remained there until Nov., 1918. Pop. (1919), 322,857.--The +province consists of a fertile plain 1093 sq. miles in area, and has a pop. +of over 1,000,000. + +[Illustration: Anubis] + +ANU'BIS (_Anepo_ on the monuments), one of the deities of the ancient +Egyptians, the son of Osiris by Isis. The Egyptian sculptures represent him +with the head, or under the form, of a jackal, with long pointed ears. His +office was to conduct the souls of the dead from this world to the next, +and in the lower world he weighed the actions of the deceased previous to +their admission to the presence of Osiris. + +ANUPSHAHR (_a_-noep'shaer), a town of Hindustan, United Provinces, on the +Ganges, 75 miles S.E. of Delhi, a resort of Hindu pilgrims who bathe in the +Ganges. Pop. 15,000. + +ANU'RA, or ANOU'RA (Gr. _an_, negative, _oura_, a tail), an ord. of +Batrachians which lose the tail when they reach maturity, such as the frogs +and toads. + +ANURADHAPURA. See _Anarajapura_. + +A'NUS, the opening at the lower or posterior extremity of the alimentary +canal through which the excrement or waste products of digestion are +expelled. + +AN'VIL, an instrument on which pieces of metal are laid for the purpose of +being hammered. The common smith's anvil is generally made of seven pieces, +namely, the core or body; the four corners for the purpose of enlarging its +base; the projecting end, which contains a square hole for the reception of +a set or chisel to cut off pieces of iron; and the beak or conical end, +used for turning pieces of iron into a circular form, &c. These pieces are +each separately welded to the core and hammered so as to form a regular +surface with the whole. When the anvil has received its due form, it is +faced with steel, and is then tempered in cold water. The smith's anvil is +generally placed loose upon a wooden block. The anvil for heavy operations, +such as the forging of ordnance and shafting, consists of a huge iron block +deeply embedded, and resting on piles of masonry. + +ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' (jae[n.] b[.a]p-t[=e]st +b[=o]r-g[=e]-nyoe[n.] dae[n.]-v[=e]l), a celebrated French geographer, born +1697, died 1782; published a great number of maps and writings illustrative +of ancient and modern geography. + +ANYNAKS, a negro tribe inhabiting the banks of the Upper Sobat (a tributary +of the White Nile), between the Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia. They rebelled +against British authority in 1912. + +ANZACS, a composite word used as the name of the British colonial troops in +the Gallipoli undertaking. The men being from Australia and New Zealand, +their organization was officially known as the Australian-New Zealand Army +Corps. The full title, however, was much too cumbersome, and a clerk in one +of the head-quarters offices at Zeitoun, where the troops were in training, +hit upon the word _Anzacs_, formed from the initial letters of the long +title. The Anzacs landed near Gaba Tepe, Gallipoli, on the morning of 25th +April, 1915, and had their first encounter with the Germans on the Western +Front on 6th May, 1916. In 1916 the word Anzac was officially adopted by +the War Office. + +ANZIN ([.a][n.]-za[n.]), a town of France, department of Nord, about 1 mile +north-west of Valenciennes, in the centre of an extensive coal-field, with +blast-furnaces, forges, rolling-mills, foundries, &c. Pop. 14,325. + +AONIA, in ancient geography a name for part of Boeotia in Greece, +containing Mount Helicon and the fountain Aganippe, both haunts of the +muses. + +A'ORIST, the name given to one of the tenses of the verb in some languages +(as the Greek), which expresses indefinite past time. + +AOR'TA, in anatomy, the great artery or trunk of the arterial system, +proceeding from the left ventricle of the heart, and giving origin to all +the arteries except the pulmonary. It first rises towards the top of the +breast-bone, when it is called the _ascending aorta_; then makes a great +curve, called the transverse or _great arch of the aorta_, whence it +branches off to the head and upper extremities; thence proceeding towards +the lower extremities, under the name of the _descending aorta_, it +branches off to the trunk; and finally divides into the two iliacs, which +supply the pelvis and lower extremities. + +AOSTA ([.a]-os't[.a]; ancient AUGUSTA PRAETORIA), a town of north Italy, 50 +miles N.N.W. of Turin, on the Dora-Baltea, with an ancient triumphal arch, +remains of an amphitheatre, &c. Pop. 7000. + +AOUDAD (a-oe'dad), the _Ammotr[)a]gus tragel[)a]phus_, a quadruped allied +to the sheep, most closely to the mouflon, from which, however, it may be +easily distinguished by the heavy mane, commencing at the throat and +falling as far as the knees. It is a native of North Africa, inhabiting the +loftiest and most inaccessible rocks. + +APACHES ([.a]-pae'chez), a warlike race of North-American Indians, +numbering between 5000 and 6000, and inhabiting Arizona, New Mexico, and +Oklahoma. The final surrender of the tribe took place in 1886, but a few in +Mexico still maintain their independence and hostility to the whites. The +name _Apache_ was assumed by Parisian hooligans, notorious for their +criminal outrages. + +AP'ANAGE, an allowance which the younger princes of a reigning house in +some European countries receive from the revenues of the country, generally +together with a grant of public domains, that they may be enabled to live +in a manner becoming their rank. + +AP'ATITE, a translucent but seldom transparent mineral, which crystallizes +in a regular six-sided prism, usually terminated by a truncated six-sided +pyramid. It passes through various shades of colour, from white to yellow, +green, blue, and occasionally red, scratches fluor-spar but is scratched by +felspar, and has a specific gravity of about 3.5. It is a compound of +calcium phosphate with calcium fluoride or chloride. It occurs principally +in igneous rocks, particularly diorites. The very coarse-grained granites +of Ontario contain apatite crystals of corresponding size, which have been +picked out as a source of artificial phosphate manures. Apatite supplies to +soils almost all the phosphorus available for plants in a state of nature. + +APE, a common name of a number of quadrumanous animals inhabiting the Old +World (Asia and the Asiatic Islands, and Africa), and including a variety +of species. The word _ape_ was formerly applied indiscriminately to all +quadrumanous mammals; but it is now limited to the anthropoid or man-like +monkeys. The family includes the chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-outang, &c., +and has been divided into three genera, Troglod[)y]tes, Simia, and +Hylob[)a]tes. See _Chimpanzee_, _Gibbon_, _Gorilla_, _Monkey_, _Orang_, &c. + +APELDOORN (ae'pel-d[=o]rn), a town of Holland, province of Guelderland, 17 +miles north of Arnhem, with manufactures of paper. The royal palace Loo is +here. Pop. 44,474. + +APELLES (a-pel'[=e]z), the most famous of the painters of ancient Greece +and of antiquity, was born in the fourth century B.C., probably at +Colophon. Ephorus of Ephesus was his first teacher, but attracted by the +renown of the Sicyonian school he went and studied at Sicyon. In the time +of Philip he went to Macedonia, and there a close friendship between him +and Alexander the Great was established. The most admired of his pictures +was that of Venus rising from the sea and wringing the water from her +dripping locks. His portrait of Alexander with a thunderbolt in his hand +was no less celebrated. He died about the end of the century. Among the +anecdotes told of Apelles is the one which gave rise to the Latin proverb, +'Ne sutor ultra crepidam'--'Let not the shoemaker go beyond the shoe'. +Having heard a cobbler point out an error in the drawing of a shoe in one +of his pictures he corrected it, whereupon the cobbler took upon him to +criticize the leg, and received from the artist the famous reply. + +AP'ENNINES (Lat. _Mons Apenninus_), a prolongation of the Alps, forming the +'backbone of Italy'. Beginning at Savona, on the Gulf of Genoa, the +Apennines traverse the whole of the peninsula and also cross over into +Sicily, the Strait of Messina being regarded merely as a gap in the chain. +The average height of the mountains composing the range is about 4000 feet, +and nowhere do they reach the limits of perpetual snow, though some summits +exceed 9000 feet in height. Monte Corno, called also Gran Sasso d'Italia +(Great Rock of Italy), which rises among the mountains of the Abruzzi, is +the loftiest of the chain, rising to the height of 9541 feet, Monte Majella +(9151) being next. Monte Gargano, which juts out into the Adriatic from the +_ankle_ of Italy, is a mountainous mass upwards of 5000 feet high, +completely separated from the main chain. On the Adriatic side the +mountains descend more abruptly to the sea than on the western or +Mediterranean side, and the streams are comparatively short and rapid. On +the western side are the valleys of the Arno, Tiber, Garigliano, and +Volturno, the largest rivers that rise in the Apennines, and the only ones +of importance in the peninsular portion of Italy. They consist almost +entirely of limestone rocks, and are exceedingly rich in the finest +marbles. On the south slopes volcanic masses are not uncommon. Mount +Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the continent of Europe, is an +instance. The lower slopes are well clothed with vegetation, the summits +are sterile and bare. + +APENRADE (ae'pen-rae-de), a seaport in Schleswig-Holstein, on a fiord of +the Little Belt, beautifully situated, and carrying on a considerable +fishing industry. Pop. 7800. + +APE'RIENT, a medicine which, in moderate doses, gently but completely opens +the bowels: examples, castor-oil, Epsom salts, senna, &c. + +APET'ALOUS, a botanical term applied to flowers or flowering-plants which +are destitute of petals or corolla. + +APHANIP'TERA, an order of wingless insects, composed of the different +species of fleas. See _Flea_. + +APHA'SIA (Gr. _a_, not, and _phasis_, speaking), in pathology, a symptom of +certain morbid conditions of the nervous system, in which the patient loses +the power of expressing ideas by means of words, or loses the appropriate +use of words, the vocal organs the while remaining intact and the +intelligence sound. There is sometimes an entire loss of words as connected +with ideas, and sometimes only the loss of a few. In one form of the +disease, called _aphemia_, the patient can think and write, but cannot +speak; in another, called _agraphia_, he can think and speak, but cannot +express his ideas in writing. In a great majority of cases, where +post-mortem examinations have been made, morbid changes have been found in +the left frontal convolution of the brain. + +APHE'LION (Gr. _apo_, from, and _h[=e]lios_, the sun), that point of the +orbit of the earth or any other planet which is remotest from the sun. + +APHE'MIA. See _Aphasia_. + +APHIDES (af'i-d[=e]z). See _Aphis_. + +[Illustration: Aphides + +Cabbage-leaf Plant-louse (_Aphis brassicae_)--1, 2. Male, natural size and +magnified. 3, 4, Female, natural size and magnified.] + +APHIS, a genus of insects (called plant-lice) of the ord. Hemiptera, the +type of the family Aph[)i]d[=e]s. The species are very numerous and +destructive. The _A. rosae_ lives on the rose; the _A. fabae_ on the bean; +the _A. hum[)u]li_ is injurious to the hop, the _A. granaria_ to cereals, +and _A. lanig[)e]ra_ or woolly aphis equally so to apple trees. The aphides +are furnished with an inflected beak, and feelers longer than the thorax. +In the same species some individuals have four erect wings and others are +entirely without wings. The feet are of the ambulatory kind, and the +abdomen usually ends in two horn-like tubes, from which is ejected the +substance called honey-dew, a favourite food of ants. (See _Ant_.) The +aphides illustrate parthenogenesis; hermaphrodite forms produced from eggs +produce viviparous wingless forms, which again produce others like +themselves, and thus multiply during summer, one individual giving rise to +millions. Winged sexual forms appear late in autumn, the females of which, +being impregnated by the males, produce eggs. + +APHO'NIA (Gr. _a_, not, and _ph[=o]n[=e]_, voice), in pathology, the +greater or less impairment, or the complete loss of the power of emitting +vocal sound. The slighter and less permanent forms often arise from extreme +nervousness, fright, and hysteria. Slight forms of structural aphonia are +of a catarrhal nature, resulting from more or less congestion and +tumefaction of the mucous and submucous tissues of the larynx and adjoining +parts. Severer cases are frequently occasioned by serous infiltration into +the submucous tissue, with or without inflammation of the mucous membrane +of the larynx and of its vicinity. The voice may also be affected in +different degrees by inflammatory affections of the fauces and tonsils; by +tumours in these situations; by morbid growths pressing on or implicating +the larynx or trachea; by aneurisms; and most frequently by chronic +laryngitis and its consequences, especially thickening, ulceration, &c. + +APH'ORISM, a brief, sententious saying, in which a comprehensive meaning is +involved, as 'Familiarity breeds contempt'; 'Necessity has no law'. + +APHRODITE (af-ro-di't[=e]), the goddess of love among the Greeks; +counterpart of the Roman Venus. A festival called Aphrodisia was celebrated +in her honour in various parts of Greece, but especially in Cyprus. See +_Venus_. + +APHTHAE (af'th[=e]), a disease occurring especially in infants, but +occasionally seen in old persons, and consisting of small white ulcers upon +the tongue, gums, inside of the lips, and palate, resembling particles of +curdled milk: commonly called _thrush_ or _milk-thrush_. + +A'PIA, the chief place and trading centre of the Samoa Islands, on the +north side of the Island of Upolu. It has a wireless station. + +A'PIARY (Lat. _apis_, a bee), a place for keeping bees. The apiary should +be well sheltered from strong winds, moisture, and the extremes of heat and +cold. The hives should face the south or south-east, and should be placed +on shelves 2 feet above the ground, and about the same distance from each +other. There is no place for handling bees like the open air in suitable +weather, and for this reason bee-houses, or bee-sheds, formerly in use, are +not much in vogue now. As to the form of the hives and the materials of +which they should be constructed there are great differences of opinion. +The old dome-shaped straw _skep_ is still in general use among the +cottagers of Great Britain. Its cheapness and simplicity of construction +are in its favour, while it is excellent for warmth and ventilation; but it +has the disadvantage that its interior is closed to inspection, and the +honey can only be got out by stupefying the bees with the smoke of the +common puff-ball or chloroform, or by fumigating with sulphur, which +entails the destruction of the swarm. Wooden hives of square box-like form +are now gaining general favour among bee-keepers. They usually consist of a +large breeding chamber below and two sliding removable boxes called +'supers' above for the abstraction of honey without disturbing the contents +of the main chamber. It is of great importance that the apiary should be +situated in the neighbourhood of good feeding grounds, such as gardens, +clover-fields, or heath-covered hills. When their stores of honey are +removed, the bees must be fed during the winter and part of spring with +syrup or with a solution consisting of 2 lb. loaf-sugar to a pint of water. +In the early spring slow and continuous feeding (a few ounces of syrup each +day) will stimulate the queen to deposit her eggs, by which means the +colony is rapidly strengthened and throws off early swarms. New swarms may +make their appearance as early as May and as late as August, but swarming +usually takes place in the intervening months. See _Bee-keeping_, _Hives_. + +APIC'IUS, Marcus Gabius, a Roman epicure in the time of Augustus and +Tiberius, who, having exhausted his vast fortune on the gratification of +his palate, and having _only_ about L80,000 left, poisoned himself that he +might escape the misery of plain diet. The book of cookery published under +the title of _Apicius_ was written by one Caelius, and belongs to a much +later date. + +A'PION, a Greek grammarian, born in Egypt, lived in the reigns of Tiberius, +Caligula, and Claudius, A.D. 15-54, and went to Rome to teach grammar and +rhetoric. Among his works, one or two fragments only of which remain, was +one directed against the Jews, which was replied to by Josephus. + +A'PIOS, a genus of leguminous climbing plants, producing edible tubers on +underground shoots. An American species (_A. tuber[=o]sa_) has been used as +a substitute for the potato, but its tubers, though numerous, are small. + +[Illustration: Apis] + +A'PIS, a bull to which divine honours were paid by the ancient Egyptians, +who regarded him as a symbol of Osiris. At Memphis he had a splendid +residence, containing extensive walks and courts for his entertainment, and +he was waited upon by a large train of priests, who looked upon his every +movement as oracular. He was not suffered to live beyond twenty-five years, +being secretly killed by the priests and thrown into a sacred well. Another +bull, characterized by certain marks, as a black colour, a triangle of +white on the forehead, a white crescent-shaped spot on the right side, &c., +was selected in his place. His birthday was annually celebrated, and his +death was a season of public mourning. See _Animal Worship_. + +A'PIS, a genus of insects. See _Bee_. + +A'PIUM, a genus of umbelliferous plants, including celery. + +APLACEN'TAL. See _Placenta_, _Marsupialia_, and _Echidna_. + +APLANAT'IC. See _Optics_, _Photography_. + +APLYSIA. See _Sea-hare_. + +APOC'ALYPSE (Gr. _apokalypsis_, a revelation), the name given to the last +book of the New Testament, in the English version called _The Revelation of +St. John the Divine_. Although a Christian work, the _Apocalypse_ belongs +to a class of literature dealing with eschatological subjects and much in +vogue among the Jews of the first century B.C. It is generally believed +that the _Apocalypse_ was written by the apostle John in his old age (A.D. +95-97) in the Isle of Patmos, whither he had been banished by the Roman +Emperor Domitian. Anciently its genuineness was maintained by Justin +Martyr, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and many others; while +it was doubted by Dionysius of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom, +and, nearer our own times, by Luther. The _Apocalypse_ has been explained +differently by almost every writer who has ventured to interpret it, and +has furnished all sorts of sects and fanatics with quotations to support +their creeds or pretensions. The modern interpreters may be divided into +three schools--namely, the _historical school_, who hold that the prophecy +embraces the whole history of the Church and its foes from the time of its +writing to the end of the world; the _Praeterists_, who hold that the whole +or nearly the whole of the prophecy has been already fulfilled, and that it +refers chiefly to the triumph of Christianity over Paganism and Judaism; +and the _Futurists_, who throw the whole prophecy, except the first three +chapters, forward upon a time not yet reached by the Church--a period of no +very long duration, which is immediately to precede Christ's second coming. +See _Bible_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. H. Charles, _Studies in the Apocalypse_; +F. C. Burkitt, _Jewish and Christian Apocalypses_. + +APOCALYPTIC NUMBER, the mystic number 666 found in _Rev._ xiii, 18. As +early as the second century ecclesiastical writers found that the name +Antichrist was indicated by the Greek characters expressive of this number. +By Irenaeus the word _Lateinos_ was found in the letters of the number, and +the Roman Empire was therefore considered to be Antichrist. Protestants +generally believe it has reference to the Papacy, and, on the other hand, +Catholics connect it with Protestantism. It is, however, almost certain +that the number refers to Nero, for by transliterating the Greek _Kaisar +Neron_ into Hebrew, and adding together the sums denoted by the Hebrew +letters, we obtain the number 666. + +APOCAR'POUS, in botany, a term applied to such fruits as are the produce of +a single flower, and are formed of one carpel, or a number of carpels free +and separate from each other. + +APOC'RYPHA (Gr., 'things concealed or spurious'), a term applied in the +earliest churches to various sacred or professedly inspired writings, +sometimes given to those whose authors were unknown, sometimes to those +with a hidden meaning, and sometimes to those considered objectionable. The +term is specially applied to the fourteen undermentioned books, which were +written during the two centuries preceding the birth of Christ. They were +written, not in Hebrew, but in Greek, and the Jews never allowed them a +place in their sacred canon. They were incorporated into the Septuagint, +and thence passed to the Vulgate. The Greek Church excluded them from the +canon in 360 at the Council of Laodicea. The Latin Church treated them with +more favour, but it was not until 1546 that they were formally admitted +into the canon of the Church of Rome by a decree of the Council of Trent. +The Anglican Church says they may be read for example of life and +instruction of manners, but that the Church does not apply them to +establish any doctrine. All other Protestant churches in Britain and +America ignore them. The following fourteen books form the Apocrypha of the +English Bible: The first and second _Books of Esdras_, _Tobit_, _Judith_, +the rest of the _Book of Esther_, the _Wisdom of Solomon_, the _Wisdom of +Jesus the son of Sirach_, or _Ecclesiasticus_, _Baruch the Prophet_, the +_Song of the Three Children_, _Susanna and the Elders_, _Bel and the +Dragon_, the _Prayer of Manasses_, and the first and second _Books of +Maccabees_. Besides the Apocryphal books of the Old Testament there are +many spurious books composed in the earlier ages of Christianity, and +published under the names of Christ and his apostles, or of such immediate +followers as from their character or means of intimate knowledge might give +an apparent plausibility to such forgeries. These writings comprise: 1st, +the _Apocryphal Gospels_, which treat of the history of Joseph and the +Virgin before the birth of Christ, of the infancy of Jesus, and of the acts +of Pilate; 2nd, the _Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles_; and 3rd, the +_Apocryphal Apocalypses_, none of which have obtained canonical recognition +by any of the churches.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wace, _The Apocrypha_; Porter, in +Hastings' _Bible Dict._, i, pp. 111-23; W. D. F. Oesterley, _Book of the +Apocrypha_; R. H. Charles, _Religious Development between the Old and the +New Testaments_. + +APOCYNA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of dicotyledonous plants, having for its type the +genus Apoc[)y]num or dog-bane. The species have opposite or sometimes +whorled leaves without stipules; the corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, and +with the stamens inserted upon it; fruit two-celled. The plants yield a +milky juice, which is generally poisonous; several yield caoutchouc, and a +few edible fruits. The bark of several species is a powerful febrifuge. To +the order belongs the periwinkle (Vinca). See _Cow-tree_, _Periwinkle_, +_Oleander_, _Tanghin_. + +AP'ODA. See _Proteolepadidae_. + +AP'ODAL FISHES, the name applied to such malacopterous fishes as want +ventral fins. They constitute a small natural family, of which the common +eel is an example. + +APO'DOESIS, in grammar, the latter member of a conditional sentence (or one +beginning with _if_, _though_, &c.) dependent on the condition or +_prot[)a]sis_; as, if it rain (_protasis_) I shall not go (_apodosis_). + +AP'OGEE (-j[=e]; Gr. _apo_, from, and _g[=e]_, the earth), that point in +the orbit of the moon or a planet where it is at its greatest distance from +the earth; also the greatest distance of the sun from the earth when the +latter is in _aphelion_. + +APOL'DA, a town of Germany, in Saxe-Weimar, at which woollen goods are +extensively manufactured. Pop. 22,610. + +APOLLINA'RIANS, a sect of Christians who maintained the doctrine that +Christ had a human body and a human sensitive soul, but no human rational +mind, the Divine Logos (the Word) taking the place of the mind, and that +God was consequently united in him with the human body and the sensitive +soul. Apollinaris, the author of this opinion, was, from A.D. 362 till at +least A.D. 382, Bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, and a zealous opposer of the +Arians. As a man and a scholar he was highly esteemed, and was among the +most popular authors of his time. He formed a congregation of his adherents +at Antioch, and made Vitalis their bishop. The _Apollinarians_, or +_Vitalians_, as their followers were called, soon spread their settlements +in Syria and the neighbouring countries, established several societies, +with their own bishops, and one even in Constantinople; but many adherents +drifted away to Monophysitism, and the sect soon became extinct. + +APOLLINA'RIS WATER, a natural aerated water, belonging to the class of +acidulated soda waters, and derived from the Apollinarisbrunnen, a spring +in the valley of the Ahr, near the Rhine, in Rhenish Prussia, forming a +highly-esteemed beverage. + +[Illustration: Apollo Belvedere (Vatican, Rome)] + +APOL'LO, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (Latona), who, being persecuted by +the jealousy of Hera (Juno), after tedious wanderings and nine days' +labour, was delivered of him and his twin sister, Art[)e]mis (Diana), on +the Island of Delos. Skilled in the use of the bow, he slew the serpent +Python on the fifth day after his birth; afterwards, with his sister +Art[)e]mis, he killed the children of Niob[=e]. He aided Zeus in the war +with the Titans and the giants. He destroyed the Cyclopes, because they +forged the thunderbolts with which Zeus killed his son and favourite +Asklepios (Aesculapius). According to some traditions he invented the lyre, +though this is generally ascribed to Hermes (Mercury). The brightest +creation of polytheism, Apollo is also the most complex, and many aspects +of the people's life were reflected in his cult. He was originally the +sun-god; and though in Homer he appears distinct from Helios (the sun), yet +his real nature is hinted at even here by the epithet Phoebus, that is, the +radiant or beaming. In later times the view was almost universal that +Apollo and Helios were identical. From being the god of light and purity in +a physical sense, he gradually became the god of moral and spiritual light +and purity, the source of all intellectual, social, and political progress. +He thus came to be regarded as the god of song and prophecy, the god that +wards off and heals bodily suffering and disease, the institutor and +guardian of civil and political order, and the founder of cities. His +worship was introduced at Rome at an early period, probably in the time of +the Tarquins. Among the ancient statues of Apollo that have come down to +us, the most remarkable is the one called _Apollo Belvedere_, from the +Belvedere Gallery in the Vatican at Rome. This statue was discovered at +Frascati in 1455, and purchased by Pope Julian II, the founder of the +Vatican museum. It is a copy of a Greek statue of the third century B.C., +and dates probably from the reign of Nero. + +APOLLODO'RUS, a Greek writer who flourished 140 B.C. Among the numerous +works he wrote on various subjects, the only one extant is his +_Bibliothec[=e]_, which contains a concise account of the mythology of +Greece down to the heroic age. + +APOLLO'NIUS OF PERGA, Greek mathematician, called the 'great geometer', +flourished about 240 B.C., and was the author of many works, only one of +which, a treatise on _Conic Sections_, partly in Greek and partly in an +Arabic translation, is now extant. + +APOLLO'NIUS OF RHODES, a Greek rhetorician and poet, flourished about 230 +B.C. Of his various works we have only the _Argonautica_, an epic poem of +considerable merit, though perhaps written with too much care and labour. +It deals with the story of the Argonautic expedition. + +APOLLO'NIUS OF TY'ANA, in Cappadocia, a Pythagorean philosopher who was +born in the beginning of the Christian era, early adopted the Pythagorean +doctrines, abstaining from animal food and maintaining a rigid silence for +five years. He travelled extensively in Asia, professed to be endowed with +miraculous powers, such as prophecy and the raising of the dead, and was on +this account set up by some as a rival to Christ. His ascetic life, wise +discourses, and wonderful deeds obtained for him almost universal +reverence, and temples, altars, and statues were erected to him. He died at +Ephesus about the end of the first century. A narrative of his strange +career, containing many fables, with, perhaps, a kernel of truth, was +written by Philostratus about a century later. + +APOLLO'NIUS OF TYRE, the hero of a tale which had an immense popularity in +the Middle Ages and which indirectly furnished the plot of Shakespeare's +_Pericles, Prince of Tyre_. The story, originally in Greek, first appeared +in the third century after Christ. + +APOLL'OS, a Jew of Alexandria, who learned the doctrines of Christianity at +Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla, became a preacher of the gospel in +Achaia and Corinth, and an assistant of Paul in his missionary work. Some +have regarded him as the author of the _Epistle to the Hebrews_. + +APOLL'YON ('the Destroyer'), a name used in _Rev._ ix, 11 for the angel of +the bottomless pit. + +APOLOGETICS (-jet'iks), this term, as used in Christian theology, does not +carry with it the idea of excuse or regretful acknowledgment, but signifies +a defensive or vindicatory statement, which accords with its meaning in the +original Greek. In the conventional division of systematic theology +apologetics comes first in order, and is followed by the disciplines of +dogmatics and ethics, which expound Christian belief and Christian duty +respectively. There is a tendency, however, in the more recent treatment of +systematic theology, to include the defence or vindication of the various +Christian doctrines within the dogmatic scheme, leaving to apologetics--in +so far as it may be regarded as a separate discipline from dogmatics--the +discussion of such general themes as religion and revelation, authority and +inspiration, and the essence and truth of Christianity. Such discussions +belong essentially to what is now often called philosophy of religion. The +preference of the term philosophy of religion to that of apologetics is +indicative at once of the wider theological outlook of our time and of the +conciliatory, adaptable, and more sympathetic spirit in which the Christian +apologist approaches the new thought and culture.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. B. +Bruce, _Apologetics_; R. Mackintosh, _First Primer of Apologetics_; J. R. +Illingworth, _Reason and Revelation_; A. E. Garvie, _A Handbook of +Christian Apologetics_. + +APOLOGUE (ap'o-log), a story or relation of fictitious events intended to +convey some useful truths. It differs from a parable in that the latter is +drawn from events that take place among mankind, whereas the apologue may +be founded on supposed actions of brutes or inanimate things. Aesop's +fables are good examples of apologues. + +APOL'OGY, a term at one time applied to a defence of one who is accused, or +of certain doctrines called in question. Of this nature is the _Apology of +Socrates_ written by Plato; also a work with the same title sometimes +attributed to Xenophon. The name passed over to Christian authors, who gave +the name of apologies to the writings which were designed to defend +Christianity against the attacks and accusations of its enemies, +particularly the pagan philosophers, and to justify its professors before +the emperors. Of this sort were those by Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, +Tertullian, Tatian, and others. + +APONEURO'SIS, in anatomy, a name of certain greyish-white shining +membranes, composed of interlacing fibres, sometimes continuous with the +muscular fibre, and differing from tendons merely in having a flat form. +They serve several purposes, sometimes attaching the muscles to the bones, +sometimes surrounding the muscle and preventing its displacement, &c. See +_Anatomy_. + +APOPHTHEGM (ap'o-them), a short pithy sentence or maxim. Julius Caesar +wrote a collection of them, and we have a collection by Francis Bacon. + +APOPH'YLLITE, a species of mineral of a foliated structure and pearly +lustre, called also fish-eye stone. It belongs to the Zeolite family, and +is a hydrated silicate of lime and potash, containing also fluorine. + +AP'OPLEXY, sudden abolition of consciousness, followed after recovery of +consciousness by persistent disturbance of sensation or voluntary motion, +from suspension of the functions of the cerebrum, resulting from blocking +or rupture of the blood-vessels of the brain. In a complete apoplexy the +person falls suddenly, is unable to move his limbs or to speak, gives no +proof of seeing, hearing, or feeling, and the breathing is stertorous or +snoring, like that of a person in deep sleep. The premonitory symptoms of +this dangerous disease are drowsiness, giddiness, dulness of hearing, +frequent yawning, disordered vision, noise in the ears, vertigo, &c. It is +most frequent between the ages of fifty and seventy. A large head, short +neck, full chest, sanguine and plethoric constitution, and corpulency are +generally considered signs of predisposition to it; but the state of the +heart's action, with a plethoric condition of the vascular system, has a +more marked influence. Out of sixty-three cases carefully investigated only +ten were fat and plethoric, twenty-three being thin, and the rest of +ordinary habit. The common predisposing causes are disease or senile +changes in the blood-vessels and affections of the valves of the heart; but +other factors may possibly play some part either as exciting or +predisposing causes, such as long and intense thought, continued anxiety, +habitual indulgence of the temper and passions, sedentary and luxurious +living, sexual indulgence, intoxication, &c. More or less complete recovery +from a first and second attack is common, but a third is almost invariably +fatal.--Cf. Grasset, _Traite du systeme nerveux_. + +APOSIOPE'SIS, in rhetoric, a sudden break or stop in speaking or writing, +usually for mere effect or a pretence of unwillingness to say anything on a +subject; as, 'his character is such--but it is better I should not speak of +_that_', or Virgil's "Quos ego--sed motos praestat componere fluctus" +(_Aen._ I, 135). + +APOS'TASY (Gr. _apostasis_, a standing away from), a renunciation of +opinions or practices and the adoption of contrary ones, usually applied to +renunciation of religious opinions. It is always an expression of reproach. +What one party calls _apostasy_ is termed by the other _conversion_. +Catholics, also, call those persons _apostates_ who forsake a religious +order or renounce their religious vows without a lawful dispensation. + +A POSTERIO'RI. See _A priori_. + +APOS'TLES (literally, persons sent out, from the Gr. _apostellein_, to send +out), the twelve men whom Jesus selected to attend him during his ministry, +and to promulgate his religion. Their names were as follows: Simon Peter, +and Andrew his brother; James, and John his brother, sons of Zebedee; +Philip; Bartholomew; Thomas; Matthew; James, the son of Alpheus; Lebbaeus +his brother, called _Judas_ or _Jude_; Simon, the Canaanite; and Judas +Iscariot. To these were subsequently added Matthias (chosen by lot in place +of Judas Iscariot) and Paul. The Bible gives the name of apostle to +Barnabas also, who accompanied Paul on his missions (_Acts_, xiv, 14). In a +wider sense those preachers who first taught Christianity in heathen +countries are sometimes termed apostles; for example, St. Denis, the +apostle of the Gauls; St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany; St. Augustine, +the apostle of England; Francis Xavier, the apostle of the Indies; Adalbert +of Prague, apostle of Prussia Proper. During the life of the Saviour the +apostles more than once showed a misunderstanding of the object of His +mission, and during His sufferings evinced little courage and firmness of +friendship for their great and benevolent Teacher. After His death they +received the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, that they might be enabled +to fulfil the important duties for which they had been chosen. According to +one interpretation of _Matthew_, xvi, 18, Christ seems to appoint St. Peter +the first of the apostles; and the Pope claims supreme authority from the +power which Christ thus gave to St. Peter, of whom all the Popes, according +to the Catholic dogma, are successors in an uninterrupted line. + +APOSTLES' CREED, a well-known formula or declaration of Christian belief, +formerly believed to be the work of the apostles themselves, but it can +only be traced to the fourth century. See _Creed_. + +APOSTOL'IC, or APOSTOL'ICAL, pertaining or relating to the +apostles.--_Apostolic Church_, the Church in the time of the apostles, +constituted according to their design. The name is also given to the four +churches of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, and is claimed by the +Roman Catholic Church, and occasionally by the Episcopalians.--_Apostolic +Constitutions_ and _Canons_, a collection of regulations attributed to the +apostles, but generally supposed to be spurious. They appeared in the +fourth century, are divided into eight books, and consist of rules and +precepts relating to the duty of Christians, and particularly to the +ceremonies and discipline of the Church.--_Apostolic fathers_, the +Christian writers who during any part of their lives were contemporary with +the apostles. There are five--Clement, Barnabas, Hermas, Ignatius, +Polycarp.--_Apostolic king_, a title granted by the Pope to the kings of +Hungary, first conferred on St. Stephen, the founder of the royal line of +Hungary, on account of what he accomplished in the spread of +Christianity.--_Apostolic see_, the see of the Popes or Bishops of Rome: so +called because the Popes profess themselves the successors of St. Peter, +its founder.--_Apostolic succession_, the uninterrupted succession of +bishops, and, through them, of priests and deacons (these three orders of +ministers being called the _apostolical orders_), in the Church by regular +ordination from the first apostles down to the present day. All Episcopal +churches hold theoretically, and the Roman Catholic Church and many members +of the English Church strictly, that such succession is essential to the +officiating priest, in order that grace may be communicated through his +administrations. + +APOSTOL'ICS, APOSTOLICI, or APOSTOLIC BRETHREN, the name given to certain +sects who professed to imitate the manners and practice of the apostles. +The last and most important of these sects was founded about 1260 by +Gerhard Segarelli of Parma. They went barefooted, begging, preaching, and +singing throughout Italy, Switzerland, and France; announced the coming of +the kingdom of heaven and of purer times; denounced the papacy, and its +corrupt and worldly church; and inculcated the complete renunciation of all +worldly ties, of property, settled abode, marriage, &c. This society was +formally abolished, 1286, by Honorius IV. In 1300 Segarelli was burned as a +heretic, but another chief apostle appeared--Dolcino, a learned man of +Milan. In self-defence they stationed themselves in fortified places whence +they might resist attacks. After having devastated a large tract of country +belonging to Milan they were subdued, A.D. 1307, by the troops of Bishop +Raynerius, in their fortress Zebello, in Vercelli, and almost all +destroyed. Dolcino was burned. The survivors afterwards appeared in +Lombardy and in the south of France as late as 1368. + +APO'STR[)O]PH[=E] (Gr., 'a turning away from'), a rhetorical figure by +which the orator changes the course of his speech, and makes a short +impassioned address to one absent as if he were present, or to things +without life and sense as if they had life and sense. The same term is also +applied to a comma when used to contract a word, or to mark the possessive +case, as in 'John's book'. + +APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT, the weight used in dispensing drugs, in which the +pound (lb.) is divided into 12 ounces ([ounce]), the ounce into 8 drachms +([drachm]), the drachm into 3 scruples ([scruple]), and the scruple into 20 +grains (grs.), the grain being equivalent to that in avoirdupois weight. + +APOTH'ECARY, in a general sense, one who keeps a shop or laboratory for +preparing, compounding, and vending medicines, and for the making up of +medical prescriptions. In England the term was long applied (as to some +little extent still) to a regularly licensed class of medical +practitioners, being such persons as were members of, or licensed by, the +_Apothecaries' Company_ in London. The apothecaries of London were at one +time ranked with the grocers, with whom they were incorporated by James I +in 1606. In 1617, however, the apothecaries received a new charter as a +distinct company. They were not yet regarded as having the right to +prescribe, but only to dispense, medicines; but in 1703 the House of Lords +conferred that right on them, and they afterwards became a well-established +branch of the medical profession. In 1815 an Act was passed providing that +no person should practise as an apothecary in any part of England or Wales +unless after serving an apprenticeship of five years with a member of the +society, and receiving a certificate from the society's examiners. As in +country places every practitioner must be to some extent an apothecary, +this Act gave the society an undue influence over the medical profession. +Dissatisfaction therefore long prevailed, but nothing of importance was +done till the Medical Act of 1858, which brought the desired reform. The +Apothecaries' Society, governed by a master, two wardens, and twenty-two +assistants, has prescribed a course of medical instruction and practice +which candidates for the licence of the society must pass through. Since +1874 apprenticeship has not been necessary. + +APOTHE'CIUM, in botany, the receptacle of lichens, consisting of the +spore-cases or asci, and of the paraphyses or barren threads. + +APOTHEO'SIS (deification), a solemnity among the ancients by which a mortal +was raised to the rank of the gods. The custom of placing mortals, who had +rendered their countrymen important services, among the gods was very +ancient among the Greeks. The Romans, for several centuries, deified none +but Romulus, and first imitated the Greeks in the fashion of frequent +apotheosis after the time of Caesar. From this period apotheosis was +regulated by the decrees of the senate, and accompanied with great +solemnities. Almost all the Roman emperors were deified. + +APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS (ap-pa-l[=a]'chi-an), also called ALLEGHANIES, a vast +mountain range in N. America extending for 1300 miles from Cape Gaspe on +the Gulf of St. Lawrence, s.w. to Alabama. The system has been divided into +three great sections: the _northern_ (including the Adirondacks, the Green +Mountains, the White Mountains, &c.), from Cape Gaspe to New York; the +_central_ (including a large portion of the Blue Ridge, the Alleghanies +proper, and numerous lesser ranges), from New York to the valley of the New +River; and the _southern_ (including the continuation of the Blue Ridge, +the Black Mountains, the Smoky Mountains, &c.), from the New River +southwards. The chain consists of several ranges generally parallel to each +other, the altitude of the individual mountains increasing on approaching +the south. The highest peaks rise over 6600 feet (not one at all +approaching the snow-level), but the mean height is about 2500 feet. Lake +Champlain is the only lake of great importance in the system, but numerous +rivers of considerable size take their rise here. Magnetite, hematite, and +other iron ores occur in great abundance, and the coal-measures are among +the most extensive in the world. Gold, silver, lead, and copper are also +found in small quantities, while marble, limestone, fire-clay, gypsum, and +salt abound. The forests covering many of the ranges yield large quantities +of valuable timber, such as sugar-maple, white birch, beech, ash, oak, +cherry tree, white poplar, white and yellow pine, &c., while they form the +haunts of large numbers of bears, panthers, wild cats, and wolves. + +APPALACHICOLA (-chi-c[=o]'la), a river of the United States, formed by the +Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers, which unite near the northern border of +Florida; length, about 100 miles; it flows into the Gulf of Mexico, and is +navigable. + +APPAM, the name of a British merchant ship of the Elder-Dempster line +captured by the German raiding cruiser _Moewe_ (Sea-gull) on 16th Jan., +1916. A German prize crew succeeded in bringing the _Appam_ westward, and +was able to pass the British cordon off Chesapeake Bay and to reach +Norfolk, Virginia. The vessel was carrying, among others, an ex-governor of +Sierra Leone and some military officers from the west coast of Africa, but +the passengers were at once released and allowed to return to England. + +APPANAGE. See _Apanage_. + +APPA'RENT, among mathematicians and astronomers, applied to things as they +appear to the eye, in distinction to what they really are. Thus they speak +of apparent motion, magnitude, distance, height, &c. The _apparent +magnitude_ of a heavenly body is the angle subtended at the spectator's eye +by the diameter of that body, and this, of course, depends on the distance +as well as the real magnitude of the body; _apparent motion_ is the motion +a body seems to have in consequence of our own motion, as the motion of the +sun from east to west, &c. + +APPARI'TION, according to a belief held by some, a disembodied spirit +manifesting itself to mortal sight; according to the common theory an +illusion involuntarily generated, by means of which figures or forms, not +present to the actual sense, are nevertheless depicted with a vividness and +intensity sufficient to create a temporary belief in their reality. Such +illusions are now generally held to result from an over-excited brain, a +strong imagination, or some bodily malady. In perfect health the mind not +only possesses a control over its powers, but the impressions of the +external objects alone occupy its attention, and the play of imagination is +consequently checked, except in sleep, when its operations are relatively +more feeble and faint. But in an unhealthy state of the mind, when its +attention is partly withdrawn from the contemplation of external objects, +the impressions of its own creation, or rather reproduction, will either +overpower or combine themselves with the impressions of external objects, +and thus generate illusions which in the one case appear alone, while in +the other they are seen projected among those external objects to which the +eyeball is directed. This theory explains satisfactorily a large majority +of the stories of apparitions; still there are some which it seems +insufficient to account for.--See _Crystal Gazing_, _Hypnotism_, +_Spiritualism_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Podmore, _Modern Spiritualism_; F. W. H. +Myers, _Human Personality, and its survival of bodily Death_. + +APPEAL', in legal phraseology, the removal of a cause from an inferior +tribunal to a superior, in order that the latter may revise, and if it seem +needful reverse or amend, the decision of the former. The supreme court of +appeal for Great Britain is the House of Lords. Certain defects in +connection with the settlement of appeals by this body were remedied by the +Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876, while a new court of appeal was +established as a division of the Supreme Court of Judicature. In Ireland +there is also a Court of Appeal similar to that in England; while in +Scotland the highest court is the Court of Session. From the decisions of +the Indian and all colonial courts, and the courts of the Isle of Man and +the Channel Islands, appeal may be made to the Privy Council. Appeals from +the decisions of justices of a borough or county may be made to the +quarter-sessions of either respectively, in cases of summary jurisdiction, +or upon a point of law to divisional courts of the High Court of Justice, +which was established at the same time as the Court of Appeal; from +quarter-sessions, county and other inferior courts, to the High Court. In +Scotland the Court of Session reviews the decisions of the county courts, +there being an appeal from its decisions to the House of Lords.--In France +the court of final appeal in all cases is the _cour de cassation_.--In the +United States the system of appeals differs in different States. + +APPEARANCE IN LAW is the first formal act incumbent on a defendant who +intends to resist the claim in the writ or action served upon him. It +consists usually in lodging in court a written notice stating simply that +the defendant intends to dispute the claim. Failure to enter appearance +within the prescribed time entails decree passing against the defendant in +absence, but procedure exists in all courts for enabling such decrees to be +recalled within a limited period. Appearance should be entered under +protest if it is desired to dispute the jurisdiction of the court or the +regularity of the writ. + +APPENDICITIS, a disease which has become well known in recent times through +the more accurate methods of diagnosis and the increased safety of surgical +operation. It is caused by inflammation of the vermiform appendix, a +narrow, hollow, worm-like body from 2 to 4 inches long, opening at one end +into the large intestine and forming a cul-de-sac at the other. In +appendicitis the inflammation begins in the appendix and frequently spreads +to the neighbouring parts, causing inflammation of the caecum, a condition +known as perityphlitis. The most frequent cause of appendicitis is a hard +piece of insufficiently-digested food becoming lodged in the appendix. +Occasionally orange pips, grape stones, &c., are the cause, though not so +often as is popularly supposed. + +The symptoms are: abdominal pain (especially low down at the right side), +fever, nausea, vomiting, constipation; these varying according to the +intensity of the attack. Three types are recognized: + +1. A mild type, when the symptoms subside in a few days and the patient +soon _appears_ to be in normal health. + +2. A severe type, in which, if left alone, the appendix bursts into the +abdominal cavity and death from general peritonitis results. + +3. Another type, in which the inflammation in the appendix leads to the +formation of a localized abscess, sometimes of great size. + +The treatment for the severe and for the abscess-forming types is +essentially immediate operation; while for the mild type operation may +either be performed at once or after the attack has passed off. Anyone who +has had one attack of appendicitis is liable to have it repeated in a much +severer form, hence the advisability of having the appendix removed after +the first attack, however slight. During an attack, prior to surgical +interference, complete rest in bed is essential. Abdominal pain should be +treated with frequent hot fomentations, and the diet should be reduced to +small quantities of fluid. + +APPENZELL ([.a]p'pen-tsel), a Swiss canton, wholly enclosed by the canton +of St. Gall; area, 162 sq. miles. It is divided into two independent +portions or half-cantons, Outer-Rhoden, which is Protestant, and +Inner-Rhoden, which is Catholic. It is an elevated district, traversed by +branches of the Alps; Mount Saentis in the centre being 8250 feet high. It +is watered by the Sitter and by several smaller affluents of the Rhine. +Glaciers occupy the higher valleys. Flax, hemp, grain, fruit, &c., are +produced, but the wealth of Inner-Rhoden lies in its herds and flocks--that +of Outer-Rhoden in its manufactures of embroidered muslins, gauzes, +cambrics, and other cotton stuffs; also of silk goods and paper. The town +of Appenzell (Ger. _Abtenzelle_, abbot's cell) is the capital of +Inner-Rhoden, on the Sitter, with about 4300 inhabitants. Trogen is the +capital of Outer-Rhoden, Herisau the largest town (pop. 11,000). Pop. +Outer-Rhoden, 60,000; Inner-Rhoden, 15,000. + +APPERCEPTION. See _Metaphysics_. + +AP'PETITE, in its widest sense, means the natural desire for gratification, +either of the body or the mind; but is generally applied to the recurrent +and intermittent desire for food. A healthy appetite is favoured by work, +exercise, plain living, and cheerfulness; absence of this feeling, or +defective appetite (_anorexia_), indicates diseased action of the stomach, +or of the nervous system or circulation, or it may result from vicious +habits. Depraved appetite (_pica_), or a desire for unnatural food, as +chalk, ashes, dirt, soap, &c., depends often in the case of children on +vicious tastes or habits; in grown-up persons it may be symptomatic of +dyspepsia, pregnancy or chlorosis. Insatiable or canine appetite or +voracity (_bulimia_) when it occurs in childhood is generally symptomatic +of worms; in adults common causes are pregnancy, vicious habits, and +indigestion caused by stomach complaints or gluttony, when the gnawing +pains of disease are mistaken for hunger. + +AP'PIAN, a Roman historian of the second century after Christ, a native of +Alexandria, was governor and manager of the imperial revenues under +Hadrian, Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, in Rome. He compiled in Greek a Roman +history, from the earliest times to those of Augustus, in twenty-four +books, of which only eleven have come down to us. Appian's style is not +attractive, but he gives us much valuable information. + +APPIA'NI, Andrea, a painter, born at Milan in 1754, died in 1817. As a +fresco-painter he excelled every contemporary painter in Italy. He +displayed his skill particularly in the cupola of Santa Maria di S. Celso +at Milan, and in the paintings representing the legend of Cupid and Psyche +prepared for the walls and ceiling of the villa of the Archduke Ferdinand +at Monza (1795). Napoleon appointed him royal court painter, and portraits +of almost the whole of the imperial family were painted by him. + +APPIAN WAY, called _Regina Viarum_, the Queen of Roads: the oldest and most +renowned Roman road, was constructed during the censorship of Appius +Claudius Caecus (313-310 B.C.). It was built with large square stones on a +raised platform, and was made direct from the gates of Rome to Capua, in +Campania. It was afterwards extended through Samnium and Apulia to +Brundusium, the modern Brindisi. It was partially restored by Pius VI, and +between 1850 and 1853 it was excavated by order of Pius IX as far as the +eleventh milestone from Rome. + +APPIUS CLAUDIUS, surnamed _Caecus_, or the blind, a Roman patrician, +elected censor 312 B.C., which office he held four years. While in this +position he made every effort to weaken the power of the Plebs, and +constructed the road and aqueduct named after him. He was subsequently +twice consul, and once dictator. In his old age he became blind, but in 280 +B.C. he made a famous speech in which he induced the senate to reject the +terms of peace fixed by Pyrrhus. He is the earliest Roman writer of prose +and verse whose name we know. + +APPIUS CLAUDIUS CRASSUS, one of the Roman _decemvirs_, appointed 451 B.C. +to draw up a new code of laws. He and his colleagues plotted to retain +their power permanently, and at the expiry of their year of office refused +to give up their authority. The people were incensed against them, and the +following circumstances led to their overthrow. Appius Claudius had +conceived an evil passion for Virginia, the daughter of Lucius Virginius, +then absent with the army in the war with the Aequi and Sabines. At the +instigation of Appius, Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, claimed +Virginia as the daughter of one of his own female slaves, and the +_decemvir_, acting as judge, decided that in the meantime she should remain +in the custody of the claimant. Virginius, hastily summoned from the army, +appeared with his daughter next day in the forum, and appealed to the +people; but Appius Claudius again adjudged her to Marcus Claudius. Unable +to rescue his daughter, the unhappy father stabbed her to the heart. The +_decemvirs_ were deposed by the indignant people 449 B.C., and Appius +Claudius died in prison or was strangled. + +APPLE (_Pyrus Malus_), the fruit of a well-known tree of the nat. ord. +Rosaceae, or the tree itself. The apple belongs to the temperate regions of +the globe, over which it is almost universally spread and cultivated. The +tree attains a moderate height, with spreading branches; the leaf is ovate; +and the flowers are produced from the wood of the former year; but more +generally from very short shoots or spurs from wood of two years' growth. +The original of all the varieties of the cultivated apple is the wild crab, +which has a small and extremely sour fruit, and is a native of most of the +countries of Europe. Apples have been used as food and cultivated for +upwards of 4000 years, and were probably introduced into Britain by the +Romans. The greater number of the varieties now grown have, however, been +cultivated only within the last century or so. To the facility of +multiplying varieties by grafting is to be ascribed the amazing extension +of the sorts of apples, the number of varieties known being over 2000. Many +of the more marked varieties are known by general names, as pippins, +codlins, rennets, &c. The oldest apple in cultivation is a variety called +'the lady', which originated in Britain early in the seventeenth century. +Apples for the table are characterized by a firm juicy pulp, a sweetish +acid flavour, regular form, and beautiful colouring; those for cooking by +the property of forming by the aid of heat into a pulpy mass of equal +consistency, as also by their large size and keeping properties; apples for +cider must have a considerable degree of astringency, with richness of +juice. The propagation of apple trees is accomplished by seeds, cuttings, +suckers, layers, budding, or grafting, the last being almost the universal +practice. The tree thrives best in an open situation where it will receive +the maximum amount of sunshine and protection from cold winds. The +protection is particularly necessary in districts where cold winds and +frosts prevail during the flowering season. The wood of the apple tree or +the common crab is hard, close-grained, and often richly coloured, and is +suitable for turning and cabinet work. The fermented juice (_verjuice_) of +the crab is employed in cookery and medicine. Apples are largely imported +into Great Britain from the Continent and the United States and Canada. The +designation apple, with various modifying words, is applied to a number of +fruits having nothing in common with the apple proper, as alligator-apple, +love-apple, &c.--Cf. A. E. Wilkinson, _The Apple_. + +AP'PLEBY, county town of Westmorland, England, on the Eden, 28 miles S.S.E. +of Carlisle. Disfranchised in 1832, it gave its name to a parliamentary +division of the county until 1918. It has an old castle, the keep of which, +called Caesar's Tower, is still fairly well preserved. Pop. (1921), 1786. + +APPLE OF DISCORD, according to the story in Greek mythology, the golden +apple thrown into an assembly of the gods by the goddess of discord (Eris) +bearing the inscription 'for the fairest'. Aphrod[=i]t[=e] (Venus), Hera +(Juno), and Ath[=e]n[=e] (Minerva) became competitors for it, and its +adjudication to the first by Paris so inflamed the jealousy and hatred of +Hera to all of the Trojan race (to which Paris belonged) that she did not +cease her machinations till Troy was destroyed. + +APPLE OF SODOM, a fruit described by old writers as externally of fair +appearance, but turning to ashes when plucked; probably the fruit of +_Sol[=a]num sodom[=e]um_. + +AP'PLETON, a city of Wisconsin, United States, 100 miles N.W. of Milwaukee +by rail. It has many flour, paper, saw, and woollen mills, and other +manufactories, and is the seat of a collegiate institute and of the +Lawrence University. Pop. (1920), 19,561. + +APPLIQUE, in needlework or metal-work, a design or feature having the +appearance of being independently made and attached to the surface of the +object it adorns. When the ornament is sunk into the body of the object it +is called _inlay_. + +APPOGGIATURA ([.a]p-poj-[.a]-toe'r[.a]), in music, a small additional note +of embellishment preceding the note to which it is attached, and taking +away from the principal note a portion of its time. + +APPOINT'MENT, a term in English law signifying the exercise of some power, +reserved in a conveyance or settlement, of burdening, selling, or otherwise +disposing of the lands or property conveyed. Such a reserved power is +termed a _power of appointment_. + +APPOMATT'OX COURT-HOUSE, a village in Virginia, United States, 20 miles E. +of Lynchburg. Here, on 9th April, 1865, General Lee surrendered to General +Grant, and thus virtually concluded the American Civil War. + +APPONYI, Albert, Count, Hungarian statesman, born in 1846. Leader of the +Conservative National party, he joined the Liberal party in 1899, and in +1901 was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies. He was Minister of +Education in 1906 and 1917, and again in 1918. In 1920 he was at the head +of the delegation which came to Paris to settle the peace-terms with +Hungary. + +APPOSI'TION, in grammar, the relation in which one or more nouns or +substantive phrases or clauses stand to a noun or pronoun, which they +explain or characterize without being predicated of it, and with which they +agree in case; as Cicero, the _orator_, lived in the first century before +Christ; the opinion, _that a severe winter is generally followed by a good +summer_, is a vulgar error. + +APPRAI'SER, a person employed to value property, and duly licensed to do so +by licence taken out every year. The valuation must be duly set down in +writing, and there is a certain fixed scale of charges for the appraiser's +services. + +APPREHEN'SION, the seizing of a person as a criminal whether taken in the +act or on suspicion, and with or without a warrant, a warrant being +necessary when the person apprehending is not present at the commission of +the offence. See _Arrest_. + +APPREN'TICE, one bound by indenture to serve some particular individual or +company of individuals for a specified time, in order to be instructed in +some art, science, or trade. In England a person under the age of +twenty-one cannot bind himself apprentice, and accordingly the usual way is +for a relation or friend to become a contracting party to the indenture, +and engage for the faithful performance of the agreement. An infant cannot +be bound apprentice by his friends without his own expressed consent. In +Scotland a boy under fourteen or a girl under twelve years of age cannot +become a party to an indenture without the concurrence of a parent or +guardian; above that age they may enter into an indenture of themselves, +and thereby become personally bound. An indenture is determinable by the +consent of the parties to it, and also by the death, bankruptcy, or +retirement from business of the master. _Parish apprentices_ are bound out +by the guardians of the poor to suitable persons, and in this case the +consent of the apprentice is not necessary. The system of apprenticing by +indenture is now much less common than formerly.--Cf. R. A. Bray, _Boy +Labour and Apprenticeship_. + +APPROACH'ES, in field-engineering, an old-fashioned name for what are now +called 'communication trenches'. + +APPROPRIA'TION. See _Impropriation_. + +APPRO'VER (ap-proe'v[.e]r), in English law, any accomplice in a crime who +is allowed by the judges of jail-delivery to become king's evidence, that +is, to be examined in evidence against his accomplices, it being understood +that the approver will himself be pardoned upon making a full and open +confession. + +APPROXIMA'TION, a term used in mathematics to signify a continual approach +to a quantity required, when no process is known for arriving at it +exactly. Although, by such an approximation, the exact value of a quantity +cannot be discovered, yet, in practice, it may be found sufficiently +correct; thus the diagonal of a square, whose sides are represented by +unity, is [sqrt]2, the exact value of which quantity cannot be obtained; +but its approximate value may be substituted in the nicest calculations. + +APPULEIUS. See _Apuleius_. + +AP'RICOT (_Prunus Armeni[)a]ca_), a fruit of the plum genus which was +introduced into Europe from Asia more than three centuries before Christ, +and into England from Italy in 1524. It is a native of Armenia and other +parts of Asia and also of Africa. The apricot is a low tree, of rather +crooked growth, with somewhat heart-shaped leaves and sessile flowers. The +fruit is sweet, more or less juicy, of a yellowish colour, about the size +of a peach, and resembling it in delicacy of flavour. Some of the best +varieties are 'Frogmore Early', 'Moorpark', 'Royal', &c. The wood is +coarsely grained and soft. Apricot trees are chiefly raised against walls, +and are propagated by budding and grafting. + +APRIES ([=a]'pri-[=e]z), Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, the eighth king of +the twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He succeeded his father Psammetichus in +590 or 589 B.C. The Jews under Zedekiah revolted against their Babylonian +oppressors and allied themselves with Apries, who was, however, unable to +raise the siege of Jerusalem, which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. A still +more unfortunate expedition against Cyrene brought about revolt in his +army, in endeavouring to suppress which Apries was defeated and slain about +570 B.C. + +A'PRIL (Lat. _Apr[=i]lis_, from _aperire_, to open, because the buds open +at this time), the fourth month of the year. The strange custom of making +fools on 1st April by sending people upon errands which end in +disappointment, and raise a laugh at the expense of the person sent, +prevails throughout Europe. It has been connected with the miracle plays of +the Middle Ages, in which the Saviour was represented as having been sent, +at this period of the year, from Annas to Caiaphas and from Pilate to +Herod. This explanation, however, is perhaps itself a piece of April +fooling. In France the party fooled is called _un poisson d'avril_, 'an +April fish'; in Scotland, a 'gowk', or cuckoo. + +A PRIO'RI ('from what goes before'), a phrase applied to a mode of +reasoning by which we proceed from general principles or notions to +particular cases, as opposed to _a posteriori_ ('from what comes after') +reasoning, by which we proceed from knowledge previously acquired. +Mathematical proofs are of the _a priori_ kind; the conclusions of +experimental science are _a posteriori_. It is also a term applied to +knowledge independent of all experience. + +[Illustration: Apse--Church of Sta Maria in Trastevere, Rome] + +APSE, a portion of any building forming a termination or projection +semicircular or polygonal in plan, and having a roof forming externally a +semi-dome or semi-cone, or having ridges corresponding to the angles of the +polygon; especially such a semicircular or polygonal recess projecting from +the east end of the choir or chancel of a church, in which the altar is +placed. The apse was developed from the somewhat similar part of the Roman +basilicae, in which the magistrate (_praetor_) sat. + +AP'SHERON, a peninsula on the western shore of the Caspian Sea formed by +the eastern extremity of the Caucasus Mountains. It extends for about 40 +miles, and terminates in Cape Apsheron. It yields immense quantities of +petroleum. See _Baku_. + +[Illustration: _aa_, Apsides] + +APSIS, pl. AP'SIDES or APSI'DES, in astronomy, one of the two points of the +orbit of a heavenly body situated at the extremities of the major axis of +the ellipse formed by the orbit, one of the points being that at which the +body is at its greatest and the other that at which it is at its least +distance from its primary. In regard to the earth and the other planets, +these two points are called the aphelion and perihelion; and in regard to +the moon they are called the apogee and perigee. The line of the apsides +has a slow forward angular motion in the plane of the planet's orbit, being +retrograde only in the case of Venus. This in the earth's orbit produces +the anomalistic year. See _Anomaly_. + +APT (aet; ancient APTA JULIA), a town of Southern France, department +Vaucluse, 32 miles east by south of Avignon, with an ancient Gothic +cathedral. Pop. 6336. + +AP'TERA (Gr. _apteros_, wingless), wingless insects, such as lice and +certain others, popularly called _Spring-tails_, and composed of two +groups, Collembola and Thysanura. + +[Illustration: Apteryx (_Apteryx Mantelli_)] + +AP'TERYX, a nearly extinct genus of cursorial birds, distinguished from the +ostriches by having three toes with a rudimentary hallux, which forms a +spur. They are natives of the South Island of New Zealand; are totally +wingless and tailless, with feathers resembling hairs; about the size of a +small goose; with long curved beak something like that of a curlew. They +are entirely nocturnal, feeding on insects, worms, and seeds.--_A. +austr[=a]lis_, called _Kiwi-kiwi_ from its cry, is the best-known species. + +APULEIUS, or APPULEIUS (ap-[=u]-l[=e]'us), author of the celebrated +satirical romance in Latin called the _Golden Ass_, born at Madaura, in +Numidia, about A.D. 125; the time of his death is unknown. He studied at +Carthage, then at Athens, where he became warmly attached to the Platonic +philosophy, and finally at Rome. Returning to Carthage he married a rich +widow, whose relatives accused him of gaining her consent by magic, and the +speech by which he successfully defended himself is still extant. Besides +his _Golden Ass_ (which is also known as the _Metamorphoses_, and which was +translated into English by W. Adlington in 1566), with its fine episode of +Cupid and Psyche, he was also the author of many works on philosophy and +rhetoric, some of which are still extant. + +APU'LIA, a department or division in the south-east of Italy, on the +Adriatic, composed of the provinces of Foggia, Bari, and Lecce; area, 7376 +sq. miles. Pop. 2,237,791. + +APURE ([.a]-poe'r[=a]), a navigable river of Venezuela, formed by the +junction of several streams which rise in the Andes of Colombia; it falls +into the Orinoco.--_Apure_, one of the States of Venezuela, has a pop. of +30,008. + +APURIMAC ([.a]-poe-r[=e]-m[.a]k'), a river of South America, which rises in +the Andes of Peru, and, being augmented by the Vilcamayu and other streams, +forms the Ucayale, one of the principal head-waters of the Amazon.--The +department of Apurimac in Peru has an area of 8187 sq. miles, and a pop. of +177,887. + +AQ'UA (Lat. for water), a word much used in pharmacy and old +chemistry.--_Aqua fortis_ (= strong water), a weak and impure nitric acid. +It has the power of eating into steel and copper, and hence is used by +engravers, etchers, &c.--_Aqua marina_, a fine variety of beryl. See +_Aquamarine_.--_Aqua regia_, or _aqua regalis_ (= royal water), a mixture +of nitric and hydrochloric acids, with the power of dissolving gold and +other precious metals.--_Aqua Tofana_, a poisonous fluid made about the +middle of the seventeenth century by an Italian woman Tofana or Toffania, +who is said to have procured the death of no fewer than 600 individuals by +means of it. It consisted chiefly, it is supposed, of a solution of +crystallized arsenic.--_Aqua vitae_ (= water of life), or simply _aqua_, a +name familiarly applied to the _whisky_ of Scotland, corresponding in +meaning with the _usquebaugh_ of Ireland, the _eau de vie_ (brandy) of the +French. + +AQ'UAMARINE, a name given to some of the finest varieties of beryl of a +sea-green or blue colour. Varieties of topaz are also so called. + +AQUA'RIUM, a vessel or series of vessels constructed wholly or partly of +glass and containing salt or fresh water in which are kept living specimens +of marine or fresh-water animals along with aquatic plants. In principle +the aquarium is based on the interdependence of animal and vegetable life; +animals consuming oxygen and exhaling carbonic acid, plants reversing the +process by absorbing carbonic acid and giving out oxygen. The aquarium must +consequently be stocked both with plants and animals, and for the welfare +of both something like a proper proportion should exist between them. The +simplest form of aquarium is that of a glass vase; but aquaria on a larger +scale consist of a tank or a number of tanks with plate-glass sides and +stone floors, and contain sand and gravel, rocks, sea-weeds, &c. By +improved arrangements light is admitted from above, passing through the +water in the tanks and illuminating their contents, while the spectator is +in comparative darkness. The most important aquarium is at the zoological +station at Naples. There is also one, on a smaller scale, at Plymouth, +maintained by the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. +Aquaria on a large scale have been constructed in connection with public +parks or gardens, and the name is also given to places of public +entertainment in which large aquaria are exhibited.--Cf. G. C. Bateman, +_Fresh-water Aquaria_; M. J. Newbigin, _The Aquarium_. + +AQUARIUS (Lat., the Water-bearer), a sign of the zodiac which the sun +enters about the 21st of Jan.: it now enters the formerly coincident +constellation Aquarius about a month later. + +AQUATINT, a method of etching on copper by which a beautiful effect is +produced, resembling a fine drawing in sepia or Indian ink. The special +character of the effect is the result of sprinkling finely-powdered resin +or mastic over the plate, and causing this to adhere by heat, the design +being previously etched, or being now traced out. The nitric acid (aqua +fortis) acts only in the interstices between the particles of resin or +mastic, thus giving a slightly granular appearance. + +AQUA TOFA'NA. See _Aqua_. + +AQUA VITAE. See _Aqua_. + +AQ'UEDUCT (Lat. _aqua_, water, _duco_, to lead), an artificial channel or +conduit for the conveyance of water from one place to another: more +particularly applied to structures for conveying water from distant sources +for the supply of large cities. Aqueducts were extensively used by the +Romans, and many of them still remain in different places on the Continent +of Europe, some being still in use. The Pont du Gard in the south of +France, 14 miles from Nimes, is still nearly perfect, and is a grand +monument of the Roman occupation of this country. The ancient aqueducts +were constructed of stone or brick, sometimes tunnelled through hills, and +carried over valleys and rivers on arches. The Pont du Gard spans the River +Gard, and was built to convey to Nimes the water of springs rising in the +neighbourhood of the modern Uzes. It is built of great blocks of stone; its +height is 160 feet; length of the highest arcade, 882 feet. The aqueduct at +Segovia, originally built by the Romans, has in some parts two tiers of +arcades 100 feet high, is 2921 feet in length, and is one of the most +admired works of antiquity. One of the most remarkable aqueducts of modern +times is that constructed by Louis XIV for conveying the waters of the Eure +to Versailles. The extensive application of metal pipes has rendered the +construction of aqueducts of the old type less necessary; but what may be +called aqueduct bridges are still frequently constructed in connection with +canals and also with water-works for the supply of towns. Where canals +exist canal aqueducts are common, since the water in any section of a canal +must be kept on a perfect level. + +[Illustration: Aqueduct at Segovia] + +Many large towns now derive a supply of water from sources at a great +distance, and in bringing the water to the place where it is required much +tunnelling is often necessary as well as digging and excavating in the +open. A tunnel furnishing a water channel may be driven through miles of +rock strata of various kinds, and in many places it may have to be lined +with concrete or cement wholly or partially, brick-work also being much +employed. Instead of tunnelling, the channel may be formed on the plan of +'cut and cover', being first cut in the ground and then covered over, +leaving the surface much in the same state as before. And, of course, iron +piping is often used in connection with such tunnels, the water being +conveyed so far in an aqueduct of one kind, and so far in one of another +kind, according as is deemed most suitable. In the Thirlmere aqueduct, +which brings water to Manchester, there are 45 miles of cast-iron pipes, 37 +miles of cut-and-cover work, and 14 miles of tunnels proper. Pipes are +naturally laid where valleys occur, and the water simply enters the pipes +at one end and flows out at the other by the influence of gravity, there +being a suitable chamber constructed at either end of the pipe line where +there is a junction with a section of tunnel. Aqueduct bridges were first +introduced into England in the eighteenth century, the first being the +aqueduct at Barton Bridge conveying the Bridgewater Canal across the +Irwell. In such bridges the water-channel may be made of cast iron. There +are great aqueduct bridges on some of the Indian canals, such as the Nadrai +bridge on the Lower Ganges Canal. In America water is often carried long +distances in _flumes_ or open wooden channels, supported, where necessary, +on trestles. Great wooden pipes are also common there, built of large +staves and hooped round with iron or steel. These often rest on the surface +of the ground without any covering.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Herschel, +_Frontinus_; Wegmann, _Water-supply of City of New York_; J. F. Bateman, +_The Manchester Waterworks_; J. M. Gale, _The Glasgow Waterworks_; A. +Prescott Folwell, _Water Supply Engineering_. + +AQ'UEOUS HUMOUR, the limpid watery fluid which fills the space between the +cornea and the crystalline lens in the eye. + +AQUEOUS ROCKS, composed of matter deposited by water from suspension or +solution. Called also _sedimentary rocks_. See _Geology_. + +AQUIFOLIA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants; the holly tribe. The species consist +of trees and shrubs, and the order includes the common holly (_Ilex +Aquifolium_) and the _I. paraguayensis_, or Paraguayan tea tree. + +AQUILA ([.a]k'w[=e]-l[.a]), a town in Italy, capital of the province of +Aquila, 55 miles north-east of Rome, the seat of a bishop, an attractive +and interesting town with spacious streets and handsome palaces. In 1703 +and 1706 it suffered severely from earthquakes. Pop. 22,050.--The province +has an area of 2493 sq. miles. Pop. 422,634. + +AQ'UILA, a companion of St. Paul (_Acts_, xviii, 2, 3). Expelled from Rome, +he and his wife, Priscilla, settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed with +them. They were converted to Christianity by the Apostle. + +AQ'UILA, a native of Pontus, flourished about A.D. 130. He became a Jewish +proselyte, and made a close and accurate translation of the Hebrew +Scriptures into Greek, extant only in fragments. + +AQ'UILA, name of a constellation in the northern hemisphere. See +_Constellations_. + +AQUILA'RIA. See _Aloes-wood_. + +AQUILE'GIA. See _Columbine_. + +AQUILEIA (ak-wi-l[=e]'ya), an ancient city near the head of the Adriatic +Sea, in Upper Italy, built by the Romans in 182 or 181 B.C. Commanding the +N.E. entrance into Italy, it became important as a commercial centre and a +military post, and was frequently the base of imperial campaigns. In 425 it +was destroyed by Attila. The modern Aquileia or Aglar is a small place of +some 1700 inhabitants, consisting chiefly of fishermen. + +AQUINAS (a-kw[=i]'nas; i.e. of Aquino), St. Thomas, a celebrated scholastic +divine, born in 1225 or 1227, most probably at the castle of Rocco Secca, +near Aquino. His father was Count of Aquino, in the kingdom of Naples. He +was educated at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Casino, and at the +University of Naples, where he studied for six years. About the age of +seventeen he entered a convent of Dominicans, much against the wishes of +his family. He attended the lectures of Albertus Magnus at Cologne, in +whose company he visited Paris in 1245 or 1246. Here he became involved in +the dispute between the university and the Begging Friars as to the liberty +of teaching, advocating the rights claimed by the latter with great energy. +In 1257 he received the degree of doctor from the Sorbonne, and began to +lecture on theology, rapidly acquiring the highest reputation. In 1263 he +is found at the Chapter of the Dominicans in London. In 1268 he was in +Italy, lecturing in Rome, Bologna, and elsewhere. In 1271 he was again in +Paris lecturing to the students; in 1272 he was professor at Naples. In +1263 he had been offered the archbishopric of Naples by Clement IV, but +refused the offer. He died, in 1274, on his way to Lyons to attend a +general council for the purpose of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches. He +was called, after the fashion of the times, the _angelic doctor_, and was +canonized by John XXII. The most important of his numerous works, which are +all written in Latin, are the _Summa Theologica_, which, although only +professing to treat of theology, is in reality a complete and systematic +summary of the knowledge of the time, and the _Summa Philosophica_. The +work of St. Thomas consisted in an effort to harmonize the new scientific +teachings of the age--derived from Arabian and Byzantine sources--with the +doctrine of the Church, and to refute heresy. His disciples were known as +_Thomists_. See _Thomism_.--Cf. P. Conway, _St. Thomas Aquinas_; and +article in _Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics_. + +AQUITA'NIA, later AQUITAINE, a Roman province in Gaul, which comprehended +the countries on the coast from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and from the +sea to Toulouse. It was brought into connection with England by the +marriage of Henry II with Eleanor, daughter of the last Duke of Aquitaine. +The title to the province was for long disputed by England and France, but +it was finally secured by the latter (1453). + +ARABAH', a deep rocky valley or depression in north-western Arabia, between +the Dead Sea and Gulf of Akabah, a sort of continuation of the Jordan +valley. + +ARABESQUE (ar'a-besk), a species of ornamentation for enriching flat +surfaces, often consisting of fanciful figures, human or animal, combined +with floral forms. There may be said to be three periods and distinctive +varieties of arabesque--(_a_) the Roman or Graeco-Roman, introduced into +Rome from the East when pure art was declining; (_b_) the Arabesque of the +Moors as seen in the Alhambra, introduced by them into Europe in the Middle +Ages; (_c_) Modern Arabesque, which took its rise in Italy in the +Renaissance period of art. The arabesques of the Moors, who are prohibited +by their religion from representing animal forms, consist essentially of +complicated ornamental designs based on the suggestion of plant-growth, +combined with extremely complex geometrical forms. + +ARABGIR ([.a]-r[.a]b-g[=e]r'), or ARABKIR', a town in Asia, 147 miles +W.S.W. of Erzerum, noted for its manufacture of silk and cotton goods. Pop. +between 20,000 and 30,000. + +ARA'BIA, a vast peninsula in the S.W. of Asia, bounded on the N. by the +great Syro-Babylonian plain, N.E. by the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, +S. or S.E. by the Indian Ocean, and S.W. by the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez. +Its length from N.W. to S.E. is about 1800 miles, its mean breadth about +600 miles, its area approximately 1,200,000 sq. miles, its population +probably less than 5,000,000. Roughly described, it exhibits a central +table-land surrounded by a series of deserts, with numerous scattered +oases, while around this is a line of mountains parallel to and approaching +the coasts, and with a narrow rim of low grounds (_teh[=a]ma_) between them +and the sea. In its general features Arabia resembles the Sahara, of which +it may be considered a continuation. Like the Sahara, it has its wastes of +loose sand, its stretches of bare rocks and stones, its mountains devoid of +vegetation, its oases with their wells and streams, their palm-groves and +cultivated fields--islands of green amidst the surrounding desolation. +Rivers proper there are none. By the ancients the whole peninsula was +broadly divided into three great sections--Arabia Petraea (containing the +city Petra), Deserta (desert), and Felix (happy). The first and last of +these answer roughly to the modern divisions of the region of Sinai in the +N.W. and Yemen in the S.W., while the name _Deserta_ was vaguely given to +the rest of the country. (See _Explorations, Modern_.) The principal +divisions at the present are Madian in the north-west; south of this, +Hejaz, Assir, and Yemen, all on the Red Sea, the last named occupying the +south-western part of the peninsula, and comprising a _teh[=a]ma_ or +maritime lowland on the shores of the Red Sea, with an elevated inland +district of considerable breadth; Hadramaut on the south coast; Oman +occupying the south-east angle; El-Hasa and Koveit on the Persian Gulf; +El-Hamad (Desert of Syria), Nefud, and Jebel Shammar in the north; Nejd, +the Central Highlands, which occupies a great part of the interior of the +country, while south of it is the great unexplored Dahkna or sandy desert. +Between 1902-5 a joint commission of British and Turkish officers laid down +a boundary line defining the limits between Turkish territory and that of +the independent Arab tribes in political relations with Great Britain. +Nearly the whole of Southern Arabia came within the sphere of British +influence. Madian belongs to Egypt; the Hejaz, Yemen, Bahr-el-Hasa, Koveit, +&c., were more or less under the suzerainty of Turkey until 1914. The rest +of the country is ruled by independent chiefs--sheikhs, emirs, and +imams--while the title of sultan has been assumed by the chief of the +Wahabis in Nejd, the sovereign of Oman (who has a subsidy from the Indian +Government), and some petty princes in the south of the peninsula. On 9th +June, 1916, the Grand Shereef of Mecca declared himself independent of the +Turkish Government, and an Arab revolt spread rapidly. The Grand Shereef +Hussein then announced to the Moslem world that the Shereefate of Mecca was +henceforth independent, and on 4th Nov., 1916, he had himself formally +proclaimed King, or Sultan, of Arabia. The status of the whole of Arabia +was determined by the Peace Conference. (See _Hejaz_, _Mesopotamia_, +_Syria_, _Sykes-Picot Treaty_.) The chief towns are Mecca, the birthplace +of Mahomet; Medina, the place to which he fled from Mecca (A.D. 622), and +where he is buried; Hodeida, a seaport exporting Mocha coffee; Aden, on the +S.W. coast, belonging to Britain; Sana, the capital of Yemen; and Muscat, +the capital of Oman. The chief towns of the interior are Hail, the +residence of the Emir of Jebel Shammar; Oneizah, under the same ruler; and +Rijadh, capital of Nejd and Hasa. The most flourishing portions of Arabia +are in Oman, Hadramaut, and Nejd. In the two former are localities with +numerous towns and villages and settled industrious populations like that +of India or Europe. + +The climate of Arabia in general is marked by extreme heat and dryness. +Aridity and barrenness characterize both high and low grounds, and the +date-palm is often the only representative of vegetable existence. There +are districts which in the course of the year are hardly refreshed by a +single shower of rain. Forests there are few or none. Grassy pastures have +their place supplied by steppe-like tracts, which are covered for a short +season with aromatic herbs, serving as food for cattle. The date-palm +furnishes the staple article of food; the cereals are wheat, barley, maize, +and millet; various sorts of fruit flourish; coffee and many aromatic +plants and substances, such as gum-arabic, benzoin, mastic, balsam, aloes, +myrrh, frankincense, &c., are produced. There are also cultivated in +different parts of the peninsula, according to the soil and climate, beans, +rice, lentils, tobacco, melons, saffron, colocynth, poppies, olives, &c. +Sheep, goats, oxen, the horse, the camel, ass, and mule supply man's +domestic and personal wants. Among wild animals are gazelles, ostriches, +the lion, panther, hyena, jackal, &c. Among mineral products are saltpetre, +mineral pitch, petroleum, salt, sulphur, and several precious stones, as +the carnelian, agate, and onyx. The people of Arabia, according to their +own traditions, are derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs and the +naturalized Arabs or Mustarab. They are leading either a settled +agricultural life or a nomadic existence. In Southern Arabia the Jews form +a large element in the towns' population. Commerce is largely in the hands +of foreigners, among whom the Jews and Banians (Indian merchants) are the +most numerous. + +The history of Arabia previous to Mahomet is obscure. The earliest +inhabitants are believed to have been of the Semitic race. Jews in great +numbers migrated into Arabia after the destruction of Jerusalem, and, +making numerous proselytes, indirectly favoured the introduction of the +doctrines of Mahomet. With his advent the Arabians revolted and united for +the purpose of extending the new creed; and under the caliphs--the +successors of Mahomet--they attained great power, and founded large and +powerful kingdoms in three continents. (See _Caliphs_.) On the fall of the +caliphate of Bagdad in 1258 the decline set in, and on the expulsion of the +Moors from Spain the foreign rule of the Arabs came to an end. In the +sixteenth century Turkey subdued Hejaz and Yemen, and received the nominal +submission of the tribes inhabiting the rest of Arabia. The allegiance of +Hejaz was renounced early in the European War; but Yemen achieved its +independence in the seventeenth century, and maintained it till 1871, when +the territory again fell into the hands of the Turks. In 1839 Aden was +occupied by the British. Oman early became virtually independent of the +caliphs, and grew into a well-organized kingdom. In 1507 its capital, +Maskat or Muscat, was occupied by the Portuguese, who were not driven out +till 1659. The Wahabis appeared towards the end of the eighteenth century, +and took an important part in the political affairs of Arabia, but their +progress was interrupted by Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, and they suffered +a complete defeat by Ibrahim Pasha. He extended his power over most of the +country, but the events of 1840 in Syria compelled him to renounce all +claims to Arabia. The Hejaz thus again became subject to Turkish sway, and +until 1914 Turkey continually extended its rule not only over Yemen, but +also over the district of El-Hasa on the Persian Gulf.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir +R. F. Burton, _Pilgrimage to Medina and Mecca_; E. Reclus, _Les Arabes_; +C. M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_, and _Wanderings in Arabia_; G. W. Bury, +_Arabia Infelix_; S. M. Zwemer, _Arabia, the Cradle of Islam._ + +_Arabian Language and Literature._--The Arabic language belongs to the +Semitic dialects, among which it is distinguished for its richness, +softness, and high degree of development. By the spread of Islam it became +the sole written language and the prevailing speech in all South-Western +Asia and Eastern and Northern Africa, and for a time in Southern Spain, in +Malta, and in Sicily; and it is still used as a learned and sacred language +wherever Islam is spread. Almost a third part of the Persian vocabulary +consists of Arabic words, and there is the same proportion of Arabic in +Turkish. The Arabic language is written in an alphabet of its own, which +has also been adopted in writing Persian, Hindustani, Turkish, &c. As in +all Semitic languages (except the Ethiopic), it is read from right to left. +The vowels are usually omitted in Arabic manuscripts, only the consonants +being written. + +Poetry among the Arabs had a very early development, and before the time of +Mahomet poetical contests were held and prizes awarded for the best pieces. +The collection called the _Moallakat_ contains seven pre-Mahommedan poems +by seven authors. Many other poems belonging to the time before Mahomet, +some of equal age with those of the _Moallakat_, are also preserved in +collections. Mahomet gave a new direction to Arab literature. The rules of +faith and life which he laid down were collected by Abu-Bekr, first caliph +after his death, and published by Othman, the third caliph, and constitute +the _Koran_--the Mahommedan Bible. The progress of the Arabs in literature, +the arts and sciences, may be said to have begun with the government of the +caliphs of the family of the Abbassides, A.D. 749, at Bagdad, several of +whom, as Harun al Rashid and Al Mamun, were munificent patrons of learning: +and their example was followed by the Ommiades in Spain. In Spain were +established numerous academies and schools, which were visited by students +from other European countries; and important works were written on +geography, history, philosophy, medicine, physics, mathematics, arithmetic, +geometry, and astronomy. Most of the geography in the Middle Ages is the +work of the Arabs, and their historians since the eighth century have been +very numerous. The philosophy of the Arabs was of Greek origin, and derived +principally from that of Aristotle. Numerous translations of the scientific +works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers were made, principally by +Christian scholars who resided as physicians at the Courts of the caliphs. +These were diligently studied in Bagdad, Damascus, and Cordova, and, being +translated into Latin, became known in the west of Europe. Of their +philosophical authors the most celebrated are Alfarabi (tenth century), Ibn +Sina or Avicenna (died A.D. 1037), Alghazzali (died 1111), Ibn Roshd or +Averroes (twelfth century), called by pre-eminence The Commentator, &c. In +medicine they excelled all other nations in the Middle Ages, and they are +commonly regarded as the earliest experimenters in chemistry. Their +mathematics and astronomy were based on the works of Greek writers, but the +former they enriched, simplified, and extended. It was by them that algebra +was introduced to the Western peoples, and the Arabic numerals were +similarly introduced. Astronomy they especially cultivated, for which +famous schools and observatories were erected at Bagdad and Cordova. The +_Almagest_ of Ptolemy in an Arabic translation was early a textbook among +them. Alongside of science poetry continued to be cultivated, but after the +ninth or tenth centuries it grew more and more artificial. Among poets were +Abu Nowas, Asmai, Abu Temmam, Motenabbi, Abul-Ala, Busiri, Tograi, and +Hariri. Tales and romances in prose and verse were written. The tales of +fairies, genii, enchanters, and sorcerers in particular passed from the +Arabians to the Western nations, as in _The Thousand and One Nights._ Some +of the books most widely read in the Middle Ages, such as _The Seven Wise +Masters,_ the _Fables of Pilpay_ (or Bidpai), and the _Romance of Antar_ +found their way into Europe through the instrumentality of the Arabs. At +the present day Arabic literature is almost confined to the production of +commentaries and scholia, discussions on points of dogma and jurisprudence, +and grammatical works on the classical language. There are a few newspapers +published in Arabic.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Huart, _History of Arabic +Literature;_ R. A. Nicholson, _Literary History of the Arabs._ + +ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE. See _Moorish Architecture_, _Saracenic Architecture_. + +ARABIAN GULF. See _Red Sea_. + +ARABIAN NIGHTS, or THE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS, (Ar. Alf Layla wa-Layla), a +celebrated collection of Eastern tales, based upon an old work, called +_Hazar Afsana_, long current in the East, and supposed to have been derived +by the Arabians from India, through the medium of Persia. They were first +introduced into Europe in the beginning of the eighteenth century by means +of the French translation of Antoine Galland. Of some of them no original +MS. is known to exist; they were taken down by Galland from the oral +communication of a Syrian friend. The story which connects the tales of +_The Thousand and One Nights_ is as follows: The Sultan Shahriyar, +exasperated by the faithlessness of his bride, made a law that every one of +his future wives should be put to death the morning after marriage. At +length one of them, Sheherazade, the generous daughter of the grand-vizier, +succeeded in abolishing the cruel custom. By the charm of her stories the +fair narrator induced the sultan to defer her execution every day till the +dawn of another, by breaking off in the middle of an interesting tale which +she had begun to relate. In the form we possess them these tales belong to +a comparatively late period, though the exact date of their composition is +not known. Lane, who published a translation of a number of the tales, with +valuable notes, is of opinion that they took their present form some time +between 1475 and 1525. Sir Richard Burton's complete English translation +was issued in 16 vols. (1885-8). + +ARABIAN SEA, the part of the Indian Ocean between Arabia and India. + +ARABIC FIGURES, the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0; of Indian +origin, introduced into Europe by the Moors. They did not come into general +use till after the invention of printing. + +ARA'BI PASHA, Egyptian soldier and revolutionary leader, born 1839. In +Sept., 1881, he headed a military revolt, and was for a time virtually +dictator of Egypt. Britain interfered, and after a short campaign, +beginning with the bombardment of Alexandria and ending with the defeat of +Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir, he surrendered, and was banished to Ceylon, being +pardoned in 1900. He died in obscurity in Cairo in 1911. + +ARABLE LAND, land which is fit for ploughing, and capable of being +cultivated, as distinguished from grass-land, wood-land, common pasture, +mountains, forests, morasses, and waste. In Government returns the term is +applied to land that is actually under regular cultivation. The land +capable of being cultivated amounts in England and Wales to about 25 per +cent, and in Ireland to about 13 per cent. In the course of the last thirty +or forty years there has, however, been a considerable diminution in the +area of land actually cultivated, as a result of large foreign imports of +grain and other agricultural products. + +ARABS. The Arabs, as a race, are of middle stature, of a powerful though +slender build, and have a skin of a more or less brownish colour; in towns +and the uplands often almost white. Their features are well cut, the nose +straight, the forehead high. They are naturally active, intelligent, and +courteous; and their character is marked by temperance, bravery, and +hospitality. The first religion of the Arabs, the worship of the stars, was +supplanted by the doctrines of Mahommedanism, which succeeded rapidly in +establishing itself throughout Arabia. Besides the two principal sects of +Islam, the Sunnites and the Shiites, there also exists, in considerable +numbers, a third Mahommedan sect, the Wahabis, which arose in the latter +half of the eighteenth century, and for a time possessed great political +importance in the peninsula. The mode of life of the Arabs is either +nomadic or settled. The nomadic tribes are termed Bedouins (or Bedawins), +and among them are considered to be the Arabs of the purest blood. + +ARACACHA, or ARRACACHA (ar-a-kae'cha), a genus of umbelliferous plants of +Southern and Central America. The root of _A. esculenta_ is divided into +several lobes, each of which is about the size of a large carrot. These are +boiled like potatoes and largely eaten in South America. + +ARACAN (ar-a-kan'), the most northern division of Lower Burmah, on the Bay +of Bengal; chief town and seaport Akyab. It was ceded to the English in +1826, as a result of the first Burmese war. + +ARACARI ([.a]-r[.a]-sae'r[=e]), native name of a genus of brilliant birds +(Pteroglossus) closely allied to the toucans, but generally smaller; +natives of the warm parts of South America. + +ARACATI ([.a]-r[.a]-k[.a]-t[=e]'), a Brazilian river-port, State of Ceara, +on the River Jaguaribe, about 10 miles from its mouth. Exports hides and +cotton. Pop. about 10,000. + +ARA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of monocotyledonous plants, mostly tropical, having +the genus Arum as the type. Most of the species have tuberous roots +abounding in starch, which forms a wholesome food after the acrid juice has +been washed out. See _Arum_, _Caladium_, _Dumb-cane_. + +ARACHIS (ar'a-kis), a genus of leguminous plants much cultivated in warm +climates, and esteemed a valuable article of food. The most remarkable +feature of the genus is that when the flower falls the stalk supporting the +small undeveloped fruit lengthens, and bending towards the ground pushes +the fruit into the ground, when it begins to enlarge and ripen. The pod of +_A. hypogoea_ (popularly called ground, earth, or pea nut) is of a +pale-yellow colour, and contains two seeds the size of a hazel-nut, in +flavour sweet as almonds, and yielding when pressed an excellent oil. + +ARACHNIDA (a-rak'ni-da; Gr. _arachn[=e]_, a spider), a class of Arthropoda +or higher Annulose animals including the Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, Ticks, +&c. They have the body divided into a number of segments or _somites_, some +of which have always articulated appendages (limbs, &c.). There is often a +pair of nervous ganglia in each somite, although in some forms (as spiders) +the nervous system becomes modified and concentrated. They are oviparous +and somewhat resemble insects, but they have a united head and thorax, and +do not undergo a metamorphosis similar to insects. They respire by +tracheae, by pulmonary sacs, or by the skin. + +AR'ACK, or AR'RACK, a spirituous liquor manufactured in the East Indies +from a great variety of substances. It is often distilled from fermented +rice, or it may be distilled from the juice of the coco-nut and other +palms. Pure arack is clear and transparent, of a yellowish or straw colour, +and with a peculiar but agreeable taste and smell; it contains at least 52 +to 54 per cent of alcohol. + +ARAD (o'rod), a town of the former kingdom of Hungary, on the Maros, 30 +miles north of Temeswar, divided by the river into O (Old) Arad and Uj +(New) Arad, connected by a bridge; it has a fortress, and is an important +railway centre, with a large trade and manufactures. The town is now within +the confines of Roumania, Uj Arad being called Arodul Neo. Population of +Old and New Arad together, 63,166. + +AR'ADUS (now RUAD), an inlet about a mile in circumference lying 2 miles +off the Syrian coast, 35 miles N. of Tripolis; the site of the Phoenician +stronghold Arvad, a city second only to Tyre and Sidon; now occupied by +about 3000 people, mainly fishermen. + +ARAFAT', or JEBEL ER RAHMEH ('Mountain of Mercy'), a hill in Arabia, about +200 feet high, with stone steps reaching to the summit, 15 miles south-east +of Mecca; one of the principal objects of pilgrimage among Mahommedans, who +say that it was the place where Adam first received his wife Eve after they +had been expelled from Paradise and separated from each other 120 years. A +sermon delivered on the mount constitutes one great ceremony of the _Hajj_; +or pilgrimage to Mecca, and entitles the hearer to the name and privileges +of a _Hajji_ or pilgrim. + +AR'AGO, Dominique Francois, a French physicist, born in 1786, died at Paris +in 1853. After studying in the Polytechnic School at Paris, he was +appointed a secretary of the Bureau des Longitudes. In 1806 he was +associated with Biot in completing in Spain the measurements of Delambre +and Mechain to obtain an arc of the meridian. Before he got back to France +he had been shipwrecked and narrowly escaped being enslaved at Algiers. In +1809 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences and appointed a professor at +the Polytechnic School. He distinguished himself by his researches in the +polarization of light, galvanism, magnetism, astronomy, &c. His discovery +of the magnetic properties of substances devoid of iron, made known to the +Academy of Sciences in 1824, procured him the Copley medal of the Royal +Society of London in 1825. A further consideration of the same subject led +to the equally remarkable discovery of the production of magnetism by +electricity. He took part in the revolution of 1848, and held the office of +Minister of War and Marine in the provisional Government. At the _coup +d'etat_ of Dec., 1852, he refused to take the oath to the Government of +Louis Napoleon, but the oath was not pressed. His works, which were +posthumously collected and published, consist, besides his _Astronomie +Populaire_, chiefly of contributions to learned societies, and biographical +notices (_eloges_) of deceased members of the Academy of Sciences. + +ARAGO, Emmanuel, son of Dominique Francois, French advocate and politician, +was born at Paris in 1812; called to the bar 1837; took part in the +revolution of 1848; renounced politics after the _coup d'etat_ of Dec., +1852, but continued to practise at the bar. After the fall of the Empire he +again took a prominent part in public affairs, and held several important +offices. He is author of a volume of poems and many theatrical pieces. He +died in 1896. + +ARAGO, Etienne, brother of Dominique Arago, born 1802, died 1892. He +founded the journals _La Reforme_ and _Le Figaro_; was director of the +Theatre du Vaudeville, 1829; took part in the revolution of 1848; was +condemned to transportation, 1849; fled from France, but returned in 1859; +was mayor of Paris during the Franco-Prussian war, and appointed archivist +to the Ecole des Beaux Arts, 1878. He was author of upwards of 100 dramas, +_La Vie de Moliere,_ _Les Bleus et les Blancs_, and other works. + +ARAGON', KINGDOM OF, a former province or kingdom of Spain, now divided +into three provinces of Teruel, Huesca, and Saragossa; bounded on the N. by +the Pyrenees, N.W. by Navarre, W. by Castile, S. by Valencia, and E. by +Catalonia; length about 190 miles, average breadth 90 miles; area, 18,298 +sq. miles. It was governed by its own monarchs until the union with Castile +on the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1469). + +ARAGO'NA, a town in Sicily, 8 miles N.N.E. of Girgenti. Pop. 16,000. In the +neighbourhood is the mud volcano of Macculuba. + +ARAGONITE, a mineral formed of calcium carbonate crystallized in the +rhombic system; specific gravity 2.94 (compare _Calcite_). Aragonite passes +into calcite in the course of geological time, but is important as the +mineral precipitated to form the oolitic limestones of warm seas, and from +being the material of most molluscan shells. It was first found in Aragon. + +ARAGUAYA ([.a]-r[.a]-gw[=i]'[.a]), a Brazilian river, principal affluent of +the Tocantins; rises about the 18th degree of S. lat.; in its course +northwards forms the boundary between the two States of Matto Grosso and +Goyaz, and falls into the Tocantins near lat. 6deg S.; length, about 1300 +miles, of which over 1000 are navigable. + +A'RAL, a salt-water lake in Asia, in Russian territory, about 150 miles W. +of the Caspian Sea, between 43deg 42' and 46deg 44' N. lat., and 58deg 18' +and 61deg 46' E. long.; length 270 miles, breadth 165; area, 26,650 sq. +miles (or not much smaller than Scotland). It stands 240 feet above the +level of the Caspian, and 160 feet above the Mediterranean. It receives the +Amu Darya or Oxus and the Syr Darya or Jaxartes, and contains a multitude +of sturgeon and other fish. It is encircled by desert sandy tracts, and its +shores are without harbours. It has no outlet. The Aral contains a large +number of small islands; steamers have been placed on it by the Russians. + +ARA'LIA, a genus of plants with small flowers arranged in umbels and +succulent berries, the type of the nat. ord. Araliaceae, which is nearly +related to the Umbelliferae, but the species are of a more shrubby habit. +They are natives chiefly of tropical or sub-tropical countries, and in +Britain are represented by the ivy; ginseng belongs to the order. From the +pith of _A. papyrif[)e]ra_ is obtained the Chinese rice-paper. + +A'RAM, Eugene, a self-taught scholar whose unhappy fate has been made the +subject of a ballad by Hood and a romance by Lord Lytton, was born in +Yorkshire, 1704, executed for murder, 1759. In 1734 he set up a school at +Knaresborough. About 1745 a shoemaker of that place, named Daniel Clarke, +was suddenly missing under suspicious circumstances; and no light was +thrown on the matter till full thirteen years afterwards, when an +expression dropped by one Richard Houseman, respecting the discovery of a +skeleton supposed to be Clarke's, caused him to be taken into custody. From +his confession an order was issued for the apprehension of Aram, who had +long quitted Yorkshire, and was at the time acting as usher at the +grammar-school at Lynn. He was brought to trial on 3rd Aug., 1759, at York, +where, notwithstanding an able and eloquent defence which he made before +the court, he was convicted of the murder of Clarke, and sentenced to +death. He was among the first to recognize the affinity of the Celtic to +the other European languages, and under favourable circumstances might have +done some valuable work in philological science.--Cf. W. Bristow, _The +Genuine Account of the Life and Trial of Eugene Aram_. + +ARAMAE'AN, or ARAMAIC. See _Semitic Languages_, _Syriac_. + +AR'AN, an island lying off the W. coast of Donegal, Ireland, has an area of +4335 acres, a lighthouse, and a pop. of 1308, chiefly engaged in +fishing.--Also called _North Island of Aran_, or _Arranmore_. + +ARANE'IDAE, the spider family. + +ARAN ISLANDS, or SOUTH ISLANDS OF ARAN, three islands at the mouth of +Galway Bay, off the W. coast of Ireland. The largest, Aranmore or +Inishmore, comprises 7635 acres, and has a pop. of 2592; the next, +Inishmaan, 2252 acres, pop. 473; and the least, Inishere, 1400 acres, pop. +456. They are remarkable for a number of architectural remains of a very +early date. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture and fishing. + +ARANJUEZ ([.a]-r[.a]n-_h_[u:]-eth'), a small town and palace in Spain, 30 +miles from Madrid, with splendid gardens laid out by Philip II. The Court +used to reside here from Easter till the close of June, when the number of +people increased from 4000 to 20,000. It has a wireless station. Pop. +12,000. + +ARANY (o-ron'y), Janos, Hungarian poet, born 1817, died 1882. He was for +some time a strolling player, but became professor of Latin at the Normal +School of Szalonta, professor of Hungarian literature at Nagy Koeroes, and +secretary of the Hungarian Academy. Author of _The Lost Constitution_, +_Katalin_, and a series of three connected narrative poems on the fortunes +of Toldi. + +ARAP'AHOES, a tribe of American Indians located near the head-waters of the +Arkansas and Platte Rivers. They number in all about 2000. + +ARAPAIMA (a-ra-p[=i]'ma), a genus of South American fresh-water fishes, +ord. Physostomi, family Osteoglossidae, one species of which (_A. gigas_) +grows to the length of 15 or 16 feet, and forms a valuable article of food +in Brazil and Guiana. It is covered with large bony scales, and has a bare +and bony head. + +AR'ARAT, a celebrated mountain in Armenia, an isolated volcanic mass +showing two separate cones known as the Great and Little Ararat, resting on +a common base and separated by a deep intervening depression. The +elevations are: Great Ararat, 16,916 feet; Little Ararat, 12,840 feet; the +connecting ridge, 8780 feet. Vegetation extends to 14,200 feet, which marks +the snow-line. According to the Bible Mount Ararat was the resting-place of +the Ark when the waters of the Flood abated. + +ARARO'BA, or ARRAROBA, the powdered bark of _And[=i]ra arar[=o]ba_. See +_Andira_. + +A'RAS (the ancient ARAXES), a river of Asia Minor, rising S. of Erzerum at +the foot of the Bingol-dagh; it flows for some miles through South +Caucasia, turning eastwards to the Erivan plain N. of Ararat. It then +sweeps in a semi-circle mostly between Caucasia and Persia round to its +confluence with the Kur, 60 miles from its mouth in the Caspian; length, +500 miles. + +ARA'TUS, a Greek poet, born at Soli in Cilicia; lived about 270 B.C.; was a +favourite of Ptolemy Philadelphus. His poem _Phaenomena_ is a version of a +prose work on astronomy by Eudoxus; one verse of it is quoted by St. Paul +in his address to the Athenians (_Acts_, xvii, 28). + +ARA'TUS OF SICYON, a statesman of ancient Greece, born 272 B.C. In 251 B.C. +he overthrew the tyrant of Sicyon and joined that city to the Achaean +League, which he greatly extended. He accepted the aid of Antigonus Doson, +King of Macedon, against the Spartans, and became in time little more than +the adviser of the Macedonian king, who had now made the League dependent +on himself. He is said to have been poisoned by Philip V of Macedon, 213 +B.C. + +ARAUCA'NIANS, a South American native race in the southern part of Chile, +occupying a territory stretching from about 37deg to 40deg of S. lat. They +are warlike and more civilized than many of the native races of S. America, +and maintained almost unceasing war with the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, +when their independence was recognized by Spain, though their territory was +much curtailed. Their early contests with the Spaniards were celebrated in +Ercilla's Spanish poem _Araucana_. With the Republic of Chile they were +long at feud, and in 1861 had at their head a French adventurer named +Antoine de Tounens, who claimed the title of king. In 1882 they submitted +to Chile. The Chilian province of Arauco receives its name from them. + +[Illustration: Chile pine (_Araucaria imbric[=a]ta_)] + +ARAUCA'RIA, a genus of trees of the coniferous or pine order, indigenous to +Australasia and South America. The species are large evergreen trees with +pretty large, stiff, flattened, and generally imbricated leaves, +verticillate spreading branches, and bearing large cones, each scale having +a single large seed. The species _A. imbric[=a]ta_ (the Chile pine or +monkey-puzzle), with hard, sharp, pointed leaves, was introduced into +Britain in 1796. It is a native of the mountains of Southern Chile, where +it forms vast forests and yields a hard durable wood. Its seeds are eaten +when roasted. The Moreton Bay pine of New South Wales (_A. Cunninghamii_) +supplies a valuable timber used in house and boat building, in making +furniture, and in other carpenter work. A species, _A. excelsa_, or Norfolk +Island pine, abounds in several of the South Sea Islands, where it attains +a height of 220 feet with a circumference of 30 feet, and is described as +one of the most beautiful of trees. Its foliage is light and graceful, and +quite unlike that of _A. imbricata_, having nothing of its stiff formality. +Its timber is of some value, being white, tough, and close-grained. + +ARAU'CO, a province of Chile, named from the Araucanian Indians; area, 2189 +sq. miles; pop. 73,260; capital, Lebu. + +ARAVAL'LI HILLS, a range of Indian mountains running N.E. and S.W. across +the Rajputana country, which they separate into two natural +divisions--desert plains on the N.W. and fertile lands on the S.E.; highest +point, Mount Abu (5653 feet). + +ARAXES. See _Aras_. + +AR'B[)A]CES, one of the generals of Sardanapaelus, King of Assyria. He +revolted and defeated his master, and became the founder of the Median +Empire in 846 B.C. + +AR'BALIST. See _Cross-bow_. + +ARBE'LA (now ERBIL), a place in the vilayet of Bagdad, giving name to the +decisive battle fought by Alexander the Great against Darius, at Gaugamela, +about 50 miles distant from it, 1st Oct., 331 B.C. + +ARBITRAGE ([.a]r'bi-tr[.a]zh), or ARBITRATION OF EXCHANGES, an operation or +calculation by which the currency of one country is converted into that of +another through the medium of intervening currencies, for the purpose of +ascertaining whether direct or indirect drafts and remittances are +preferable.--_Arbitrageur_ ([.a]r'bi-tr[.a]-zheur) is one who makes +calculations of currency exchanges. See _Stock Exchange_. + +ARBITRA'TION, the hearing and determination of a cause between parties in +controversy, by a person or persons chosen by the parties. This may be done +by one person, but it is common to choose more than one. Frequently two are +nominated, one by each party, with a third, the _umpire_ (or, in Scotland, +sometimes the _oversman_), who is called on to decide in case of the +primary arbitrators differing. In such a case the umpire may be agreed upon +either by the parties themselves, or by the arbitrators when they have +received authority from the parties to the dispute to settle this point. +The determination of arbitrators is called an _award_. By the law of +England the authority of an arbitrator cannot be revoked by any of the +parties without the leave of the court or of a judge.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: +Russell, _Arbitration_; Redman, _Arbitration_; Scots Law, see Bell, _On +Arbitration_; American Law, see Morse, _Law of Arbitration_; R. G. Morris, +_International Arbitration_. + +AR'BLAST. See _Cross-bow_. + +ARBO'GA, an old Swedish city, province of Westmannland; once an important +commercial town, now only of historical interest from having been at one +time a residence of the family of Vasa, the scene of Church assemblies and +national diets, and for the antiquities in its neighbourhood. Pop. 5050. + +ARBOIS ([.a]r-bwae), a town of France, department of Jura; famous for its +wines. Pop. 5000. + +ARBOR DAY, a day officially set apart in the United States for the annual +planting of trees by the people, and especially by school-children. The +custom was instituted in 1872. + +ARBORE'TUM (Lat. _arbor_, a tree), a place in which a collection of +different trees and shrubs is cultivated for scientific or educational +purposes. The largest arboretum in Britain, perhaps the finest in the whole +world, is that of the Royal Gardens, at Kew, inaugurated in 1762, to which +180 acres are now devoted. Next in celebrity are the arboreta at Edinburgh +(Inverleith) and at Dublin (Glasnevin), the Botanical Gardens at Oxford, +and the Botanic Gardens at Glasgow. Other arboreta are that of the Jardin +des Plantes, Paris, and the Arnold Arboretum, at Jamaica Plain, Boston. The +term arboretum has also been applied in a restricted sense, as in the +_Arboretum Fruticetum Britannicum_, the monumental work by J. C. Loudon. + +AR'BORICULTURE includes the culture of trees and shrubs, as well as all +that pertains to the preparation of the soil, the sowing of the seeds, and +the treatment of the plants in their young state, the preparation of the +land previous to their final transplantation, their just adaptation to soil +and situation, their relative growth and progress to maturity, their +management during growth, and the proper season and period for felling +them. + +ARBOR VITAE (literally, 'tree of life'), the name of several coniferous +trees of the genus Thuja, allied to the cypress, with flattened branchlets, +and small imbricated or scale-like leaves. The name is derived from +valuable medicinal properties having formerly been ascribed to the aromatic +resin they mostly yield. Those generally cultivated in Britain are: the +common Arbor Vitae (_Thuja occident[=a]lis_), a native of North America, +where it grows to a height of 40 or 50 feet, introduced into Britain about +1566; the giant Arbor Vitae or Red Cedar (_Thuja gigantea_), introduced in +1854; and the Chinese Arbor Vitae (_Thuja orient[=a]lis_). + +ARBROATH (ar-br[=o]th'), or ABERBROTHOCK, a royal municipal and police +burgh and seaport in the county of Forfar, Scotland, at the mouth of the +small River Brothock. Its ancient abbey, founded by William the Lion in +1178, and dedicated to Saints Mary and Thomas a Becket, is now a +picturesque ruin. There are numerous flax and hemp spinning-mills and +factories, and much canvas and linen is made; also tanning, shoemaking, and +fishing, and a small shipping trade, but the harbour is bad. Pop. 19,499. +It unites with Montrose, Forfar, Brechin, and Inverbervie (the Montrose +burghs) in sending a member to Parliament. + +ARBUTH'NOT, John, an eminent physician and distinguished wit, born at +Arbuthnot, Kincardineshire, Scotland, 1667, died 1735. He received the +degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of St. Andrews, and went to +London, where he soon distinguished himself by his writings and by his +skill in his profession. In 1704 he was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society, +and soon after he was appointed physician extraordinary, and then physician +in ordinary to Queen Anne. About this time he became intimate with Swift, +Pope, Gay, and other wits of the day. His writings, other than professional +or scientific, include his contributions (in conjunction with Swift and +Pope) to the _Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus_, _History of John Bull_, _Art +of Political Lying_, &c. He was conspicuous not only for learning and wit, +but also for worth and humanity. + +AR'BUTUS, a genus of plants belonging to the Ericaceae, or heath order, and +comprising a number of small trees and shrubs, natives chiefly of Europe +and N. America. _Arb[)u]tus Un[)e]do_ abounds near the lakes of Killarney, +where its fine foliage adds charms to the scenery. The bright red or yellow +berries, somewhat like the strawberry, have an unpleasant taste and +narcotic properties. The Corsicans make wine from them. The trailing +arbutus or may-flower of N. America, a plant with fragrant and beautiful +blossoms, is _Epigaea repens_, of the same nat. ord. + +ARC, a portion of a curved line, especially of a circle. It is by means of +circular arcs that all angles are measured.--_Electric_ or _Voltaic arc_, +the luminous arc of intense brightness and excessively high temperature +which is formed by an electric current in crossing over the interval of +space between the carbon points of an electric lamp. See _Arc-light_. + +ARC, Jeanne d'. See _Joan of Arc_. + +AR'CA, a genus of bivalve molluscs, family Arcadae, whose shells are known +as _ark-shells_. + +ARCACHON ([.a]r-k[.a]-sh[=o][n.]), a town of S.W. France, department +Gironde, on the almost landlocked basin of Arcachon, a much-frequented +bathing-place, with great oyster-breeding establishments. It is connected +by railway with Bordeaux. Pop. 10,266. + +ARCADE, a series of arches supported on piers or pillars, used generally as +a screen and support of a roof, or of the wall of a building, and having +beneath the covered part an ambulatory as round a cloister, or a footpath +with shops or dwellings, as frequently seen in old Italian towns. Sometimes +a porch or other prominent part of an important building is treated with +arcades. At the present day Bologna, Padua, and Berne have fine examples of +mediaeval arcaded streets, and among more modern work various streets in +Turin, and the Rue de Rivoli, Paris, are lined with arcades, with shops +underneath. In mediaeval architecture the term arcade is also applied to a +series of arches supported on pillars forming an ornamental dressing or +enrichment of a wall, a mode of treatment of very frequent occurrence in +the towers, apses, and other parts of churches. In modern use the name +arcade is often applied to a passage or narrow street containing shops +arched over and covered with glass, as for example the Burlington Arcade, +London, the Royal Arcade at Newcastle, and the Galleria Vittorio Emmanuele +in Milan. + +ARCA'DIA, the central and most mountainous portion of the Peloponnesus +(Morea), the inhabitants of which in ancient times were celebrated for +simplicity of character and manners. Their occupation was almost entirely +pastoral, and thus the country came to be regarded as typical of rural +simplicity and happiness. At the present day Arcadia forms a nomarchy of +the kingdom of Greece. Area, 2028 sq. miles. Pop. 162,324. + +ARCA'DIUS, born in 377, died 408; son of the Emperor Theodosius, on whose +death in 395 the empire was divided, he obtaining the East, and his brother +Honorius the West. He proved a feeble and pusillanimous prince. + +ARCANUM, THE GREAT (meaning secret), a term applied in the Middle Ages to +the highest problems of alchemy and the discovery of the supposed great +secrets of nature, such as the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life. +See _Alchemy_. + +ARCATURE, in architecture, a small arcade built into a wall or applied +against it, decorative rather than structural. Arcatures occur in +Anglo-Norman churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. + +ARCESILAUS ([.a]r-ses-i-l[=a]'us), a Greek philosopher, the founder of the +second or middle academy, was born about 315 B.C., died 239 B.C. He left no +writings, and of his opinions so little is known that it has been doubted +whether he was a strict Platonist or a sceptic. + +[Illustration: Parts of an Arch + +_a._ Abutments. _i._ Impost. _p._ Piers. _v._ Voussoirs or arch-stones. +_k._ Keystone. s. Springers. _In._ Intrados. _Ex._ Extrados. ] + +[Illustration: Lancet. Horse-shoe.] + +[Illustration: Segmental. Semicircular.] + +[Illustration: Ogee. Equilateral.] + +ARCH, a structure composed of separate pieces, such as stones or bricks, +having the shape of truncated wedges, arranged on a curved line, so as to +retain their position by mutual pressure. The separate stones which compose +the arch are called _voussoirs_ or _arch-stones_; the extreme or lowest +voussoirs are termed _springers_, and the uppermost or central one is +called the _keystone_. The under or concave side of the voussoirs is called +the _intrados_, and the upper or convex side the _extrados_ of the arch. +The supports which afford resting and resisting points to the arch are +called _piers_ and _abutments_. The upper part of the pier or abutment, +where the arch rests--technically where it _springs from_--is the _impost_. +The _span_ of an arch is in circular arches the length of its chord, and +generally the width between the points of its opposite imposts whence it +springs. The _rise_ of an arch is the height of the highest point of its +intrados above the line of the imposts; this point is sometimes called the +_under side of the crown_, the highest point of the extrados being the +_crown_. Arches are designated in various ways, as from their shape +(circular, elliptic, &c.), or from the resemblance of the whole contour of +the curve to some familiar object (lancet arch, horse-shoe arch), or from +the method used in describing the curve, as equilateral, three-centred, +four-centred, ogee, and the like; or from the style of architecture to +which they belong, as Roman, pointed, and Saracenic arches.--_Triumphal +arch_, originally a simple decorated arch under which a victorious Roman +general and army passed in triumph. At a later period the triumphal arch +was a richly-sculptured, massive, and permanent structure, having an +archway passing through it, with generally a smaller arch on either side. +The name is sometimes given to an arch, generally of wood decorated with +flowers or evergreens, erected on occasion of some public rejoicing, &c. + +ARCHAEAN (aer-k[=e]'an) ROCKS (Gr. _archaios_, ancient), the oldest rocks +of the earth's crust, mostly crystalline in character, and embracing +granites, gneisses, mica-schists, &c., all devoid of fossil remains. These +rocks underlie a group of stratified and igneous masses that are usually +distinguished from them as Huronian; the first beds with a well-marked +fauna (lowest Cambrian) lie above the Huronian, and the Huronian and the +Archaean groups are often conveniently classed together as pre-Cambrian, +and are separated from the stratified and fossiliferous formations, which +indeed have chiefly taken origin from them. The core of the Malvern range, +and the rocks of N.W. Sutherland, are examples of Archaean masses in Great +Britain. + +ARCHAEOL'OGY (Gr. _archaios_, ancient, and _logos_, a discourse), the study +of antiquity, or the science which takes cognizance of the history of +nations and peoples as evinced by the remains, architectural, implemental, +or otherwise, which belong to the earlier epoch of their existence. In a +more extended sense the term embraces every branch of knowledge which bears +on the origin, religion, laws, languages, science, arts, and literature of +ancient peoples. It is to a great extent synonymous with _prehistoric +annals_, as a large if not the principal part of its field of study extends +over those periods in the history of the human race in regard to which we +possess almost no information derivable from written records. Archaeology +divides the primeval period of the human race, more especially as exhibited +by remains found in Europe, into the _stone_, the _bronze_, and the _iron_ +ages, these names being given in accordance with the materials employed for +weapons, implements, &c., during the particular period. The _stone_ age has +been subdivided into the _palaeolithic_ and _neolithic_, the former being +that older period, in which the stone implements were not polished as they +are in the latter and more recent period. The _bronze_ age, which admits of +a similar subdivision, is that in which implements were of copper or +bronze. In this age the dead were burned and their ashes deposited in urns +or stone chests, covered with conical mounds of earth or cairns of stones. +Gold and amber ornaments appear in this age. The _iron_ age is that in +which implements, &c., of iron begin to appear, although stone and bronze +implements are found along with them. The word _age_ in this sense (as +explained under _Age_) simply denotes the stage at which a people has +arrived. The phrase stone age, therefore, merely marks the period before +the use of bronze, the bronze age that before the employment of iron, among +any specific people. See _Excavations_; _Crete_; _Egypt_; &c--BIBLIOGRAPHY: +Sir J. Evans, _Stone Implements of Great Britain_; Boyd-Dawkins, _Early Man +in Britain_; J. Geikie, _Prehistoric Europe_; R. Munro, _Lake Dwellings of +Europe_; Sir W. Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_; H. R. Hall, _Aegean +Archaeology_; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Methods and Aims in Archaeology_; +A. P. F. Michaelis, _A Century of Archaeological Discoveries_. + +[Illustration: Archaeopteryx macrura, a fossil lizard-tailed bird] + +ARCHAEOPTERYX (aer-k[=e]-op'te-riks), a fossil bird from the oolitic +limestone of Solenhofen, of the size of a rook, and differing from all +known birds in having two free claws representing the thumb and forefinger +projecting from the wing, and about twenty tail vertebrae free and +prolonged as in mammals. + +ARCHANGEL (aerk'[=a]n-jel; Gr. prefix, _arch-_, denoting chief), an angel +of superior or of the highest rank. The only archangel mentioned by name in +Scripture is Michael in the _Epistle of Jude_. + +ARCHANGEL (aerk-[=a]n'jel), a seaport, capital of the Russian government of +same name, on the right bank of the Northern Dvina, about 20 miles above +its mouth in the White Sea. Below the town the river divides into several +branches and forms a number of islands, on one of which, called Sollenbole, +is the harbour. The houses are mostly of wood; the place has some +manufactures and an important trade, exporting linseed, flax, tow, tallow, +train-oil, mats, timber, pitch and tar, &c. The port is closed for six +months by ice. Archangel, founded in 1584, was long the only port which +Russia possessed. Pop. 43,388.--The province, which before the Russian +revolution extended from the Ural Mountains to Finland, had an area of +326,063 sq. miles. Pop. 483,500.--For the Archangel Expedition of 1918, see +_Murmansk_, _Russia_. + +ARCHANGEL'ICA. See _Angelica_. + + * * * * * + + +ARCHAEOLOGY: ANTIQUITIES OF THE STONE, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES + +[Illustration: OLDER STONE AGE: 1, Flint Pick. 2, Carved Mammoth Tusk. 3, +Double Scraper. 4, Barbed Harpoon Heads. LATER STONE AGE: 5, Pick of Deer +Antler. 6, Flint and Pyrites. 7, Stone Celt in Haft. 8, Arrowhead. 9, Bowl. +BRONZE AGE: 10, Celt. 11, Drinking-cup. 12, Ornamental Pin. 13, Spear-head. +14, Bronze Tweezers. 15, 16, Gold Bracelets. 17, Engraved Pin. 18, Short +Sword. 19, Spectacle Brooch. 20, Razor. EARLY IRON AGE: 21, Bronze Brooch. +22, Bone Hand-comb for weaving. 23, Bronze Mirror. 24, Bronze Jug. 25, +Bronze Spoon. 26, Iron Currency Bars. 27, Bronze Brooch.] + + * * * * * + + +ARCHBISHOP (aerch-), a chief bishop, or bishop over other bishops; a +metropolitan prelate. The establishment of this dignity is to be traced up +to an early period of Christianity, when the bishops and inferior clergy +met in the capitals to deliberate on spiritual affairs, and the bishop of +the city where the meeting was held presided. In England there are two +archbishops--those of Canterbury and York; the former styled _Primate of +all England_, the latter _Primate of England_. The Archbishop of Canterbury +is the first peer of the realm, having precedence before all great officers +of the Crown and all dukes not of royal birth. He crowns the sovereign, and +when he is invested with his archbishopric he is said to be enthroned. He +can grant special licences to marry at any time or place, and can confer +degrees otherwise to be obtained only from the universities. He is +addressed by the titles of _your grace_ and _most reverend father in God_, +and writes himself _by divine providence_, while the Archbishop of York and +the bishops only write _by divine permission_. The first Archbishop of +Canterbury was Augustine, appointed A.D. 598 by Ethelbert. Next in dignity +is the Archbishop of York, between whom and the Archbishop of Canterbury +the Lord High-Chancellor of England has his place in precedency. The first +Archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed in 622. The incomes of the sees +are L15,000 and L10,000 respectively. An Archbishop of Wales was first +appointed in 1920. Scotland had two archbishops--St. Andrews and Glasgow. +Ireland had four, but the Episcopal Church has but two--Armagh and Dublin, +the former being _Primate of all Ireland_, the latter _Primate of Ireland_. +There are four Roman Catholic archbishops in England and +Wales--Westminster, Cardiff, Birmingham, and Liverpool; two in +Scotland--St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and Glasgow; four in Ireland--Armagh, +Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam. + +ARCHDEACON (aerch-), in England, an ecclesiastical dignitary next in rank +below a bishop, having a certain jurisdiction over a part of the diocese. +From two to four archdeacons are appointed by the bishops, under whom they +perform their duties, and they hold courts which decide cases subject to an +appeal to the bishop. + +ARCHDUKE, a title peculiar to the royal family of Austria--the Habsburgs, +who ruled until 1918. + +ARCHELAUS ([.a]r-k[=e]-l[=a]'us), the name of several personages in ancient +history, one of whom was the son of Herod the Great. He received from +Augustus the sovereignty of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. The people, tired +of his tyrannical and bloody reign, accused him before Augustus, who +banished him to Gaul. + +ARCHER, William, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at Perth, +Scotland, in 1856. Educated at Edinburgh University, he went to London +after some experience of journalism at Edinburgh, and after a visit to +Australia was called to the bar, and was dramatic critic for _The World_ +from 1884 to 1905. Subsequently he has been dramatic critic for _The +Tribune_ and _The Nation_. He has done much to introduce Ibsen to the +English public, by translating his dramas and otherwise, and has written +_English Dramatists of To-day_; _A Life of Macready_; _About the Theatre: +Essays and Studies_; _Masks or Faces?: a Study on the Psychology of +Acting_; _The Theatrical World_ (a collection of his dramatic criticisms) +(5 vols.); _Study and Stage_; _America To-Day_ (the result of a visit in +1900); _Poets of the Younger Generation_; _Real Conversations_ (the result +of a series of interviews with persons of note); _Through Afro-America_ +(1910); _The Life, Trial, and Death of Francisco Ferrer_ (1911); +_Play-Making_ (1912); _The Thirteen Days_ (1915); _India and the Future_ +(1917); _War is War_. + +ARCHER-FISH, a name given to the _Tox[)o]tes jacul[=a]tor_, a scaly-finned, +acanthopterygian fish, about 6 inches long, inhabiting the seas around +Java, which has the faculty of shooting drops of water to the distance of 3 +or 4 feet at insects, thereby causing them to fall into the water, when it +seizes and devours them. The soft, and even the spiny portions of their +dorsal fins are so covered with scales as to be scarcely distinguishable +from the rest of the body. + +[Illustration: Assyrian Archer] + +ARCH'ERY, the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. The use of these +weapons in war and the chase dates from the earliest antiquity. Ishmael, we +learn from _Gen_. xxi, "became an archer". The Egyptians, Assyrians, +Persians, Parthians, excelled in the use of the bow; and while the Greeks +and Romans themselves made little use of it, they employed foreign archers +as mercenaries. Coming to much more recent times, we find the Swiss famous +as archers, but they generally used the arbalist or cross-bow, and were no +match for their English rivals, who preferred the long-bow. (See _Bow_.) +The English victories of Cressy, Poietiers, and Agincourt, gained against +apparently overwhelming odds, may be ascribed to the bowmen. Archery +disappeared gradually as firearms came into use, and as an instrument of +war or the chase the bow is now confined to the most savage tribes of both +hemispheres. But though the bow has been long abandoned among civilized +nations as a military weapon, it is still cherished as an instrument of +healthful recreation, encouraged by archery clubs or societies, which have +been established in many parts of Britain. The oldest, and by far the most +historically important of these societies, is the Royal Company of Archers, +called also the King's Body-guard for Scotland, formed originally, it is +said, by James I, but constituted in its present form by an Act of the +Privy Council of Scotland, in 1676, and having its head-quarters in +Edinburgh, counting among its members many of the nobility and gentry of +the northern kingdom, and holding annual meetings, where prizes are +competed for. In recent years a number of clubs have been formed in the +United States. Archery has the merit of forming a sport open to women as +well as men.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Garrard, _The Arte of Warre_; E. S. +Morse, _Archery, Ancient and Modern_; H. A. Ford, _The Theory and Practice +of Archery_. + +[Illustration: Egyptian Archer with arrow-heads and stone-tipped reed +arrow] + +ARCHES, COURT OF, the chief and most ancient consistory court, belonging to +the archbishopric of Canterbury, for the debating of spiritual causes. It +is named from the church in London, St. Mary le Bow, or Bow Church (so +called from a fine _arched_ crypt), where it was formerly held. The +jurisdiction of this court extends over the province of Canterbury. The +office of president or dean is now merged in that of the judge appointed by +the Public Worship Regulation Act (1874). The court now sits in the library +of Lambeth Palace. + +ARCHIL, or ORCHIL ([.a]r'kil, or'kil), a red, violet, or purple colouring +matter obtained from various kinds of lichens, the most important of which +are the _Roccella tinctoria_ and the _R. fuciformis_, natives of the rocks +of the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, Mozambique and Zanzibar, South +America, &c., and popularly called dyer's-moss. The dye is used for +improving the tints of other dyes, as from its want of permanence it cannot +be employed alone; but the aniline colours have largely superseded it. +Cudbear and litmus are of similar origin. + +ARCHILOCHUS ([.a]r-kil'o-kus) OF PAROS, one of the earliest Ionian lyric +poets, the first Greek poet who composed iambic verses according to fixed +rules. He flourished about 700 B.C. His iambic poems were renowned for +force of style, liveliness of metaphor, and a powerful but bitter spirit of +satire. In other lyric poems of a graver character he was also considered +as a model. All his works are lost but a few fragments. + +ARCHIMAN'DRITE, in the Greek Church, an abbot or abbot-general, who has the +superintendence of many abbots and convents. The title dates from the +fourth century. + +ARCHIME'DEAN SCREW, a machine for raising water, said to have been invented +by Archimedes. It is formed by winding a tube spirally round a cylinder so +as to have the form of a screw, or by hollowing out the cylinder itself +into a double or triple-threaded screw and enclosing it in a water-tight +case. When the screw is placed in an inclined position and the lower end +immersed in water, by causing the screw to revolve, the water may be raised +to a limited extent. + +ARCHIMEDES ([.a]r-ki-m[=e]'d[=e]z), a celebrated ancient Greek physicist +and geometrician, born at Syracuse, in Sicily, about 287 B.C. He devoted +himself entirely to science, and enriched mathematics with discoveries of +the highest importance, upon which the moderns have founded their +admeasurements of curvilinear surfaces and solids. Archimedes is the only +one among the ancients who has left us anything satisfactory on the theory +of mechanics and on hydrostatics. He first taught the hydrostatic principle +to which his name is attached, "that a body immersed in a fluid loses as +much in weight as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid", and +determined by means of it that an artist had fraudulently added too much +alloy to a crown which King Hiero had ordered to be made of pure gold. He +discovered the solution of this problem while bathing; and it is said to +have caused him so much joy that he hastened home from the bath undressed, +and crying out, _Eur[=e]ka! Eur[=e]ka!_ 'I have found it, I have found it!' +Practical mechanics also received a great deal of attention from +Archimedes, who boasted that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point he could +move the world. He is the inventor of the compound pulley, probably of the +endless screw, the Archimedean screw, &c. During the siege of Syracuse by +the Romans he is said to have constructed many wonderful machines with +which he repelled their attacks, and he is stated to have set on fire their +fleet by burning-glasses. At the moment when the Romans gained possession +of the city by assault (212 B.C.), tradition relates that Archimedes was +slain while sitting in the market-place contemplating some mathematical +figures which he had drawn in the sand. + +ARCHIPEL'AGO, a term originally applied to the Aegean, the sea lying +between Greece and Asia Minor, then to the numerous islands situated +therein, and subsequently to any cluster of islands. In the Grecian +Archipelago the islands nearest the European coast lie together almost in a +circle, and for this reason are called the _Cyclades_ (Gr. _kyklos_, a +circle); those nearest the Asiatic, being farther from one another, the +_Sporades_ ('scattered'). (See these articles, and _Negropont_, _Scio_, +_Samos_, _Rhodes_, _Cyprus_, &c.) The Malay, Indian, or Eastern +Archipelago, on the east of Asia, includes Borneo, Sumatra, and other large +islands. + +ARCHITEC'TURE, in a general sense, is the art of designing and constructing +houses, bridges, and other buildings for the purposes of civil life; or, in +a more limited but very common sense, that branch of the fine arts which +has for its object the production of edifices not only convenient for their +special purpose, but characterized by unity, beauty, and often +grandeur.--The first habitations of man were such as nature afforded, or +cost little labour to the occupant--caves, huts, and tents. But as soon as +men rose in civilization and formed settled societies they began to build +more commodious and comfortable habitations. They bestowed more care on the +materials, preparing bricks of clay or earth, which they at first dried in +the air, but afterwards baked by fire; and subsequently they smoothed +stones and joined them at first without, and at a later period with, mortar +or cement. After they had learned to build houses, they erected temples for +their gods on a larger and more splendid scale than their own dwellings. +The Egyptians are the most ancient nation known to us among whom +architecture had attained the character of a fine art. Other ancient +peoples among whom it had made great progress were the Babylonians, whose +most celebrated buildings were temples, palaces, and hanging gardens; the +Assyrians, whose capital, Nineveh, was rich in splendid buildings; the +Phoenicians, whose cities, Sidon, Tyre, &c., were adorned with equal +magnificence; and the Israelites, whose temple was a wonder of +architecture. But comparatively few architectural monuments of these +nations have remained till our day. + +This is not the case with the architecture of Egypt, however, of which we +possess ample remains in the shape of pyramids, temples, sepulchres, +obelisks, &c. Egyptian chronology is far from certain, but the greatest of +the architectural monuments of the country, the pyramids of Ghizeh, are at +least as old as 2800 or 2700 B.C. The Egyptian temples had walls of great +thickness and sloping on the outside from bottom to top; the roofs were +flat, and composed of blocks of stone reaching from one wall or column to +another. The columns were numerous, close, and very thick, generally +without bases, and exhibiting great variety in the designs of their +capitals. The principle of the arch, though known, was not employed for +architectural purposes. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes carved in stone, +and on the walls sculptures in outline of deities and animals, with +innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects which belong to this +style. + +[Illustration: Egyptian--Restoration of Temple of Luxor] + +The earliest architectural remains of Greece are of unknown antiquity, and +consist of massive walls built of huge blocks of stone. In historic times +the Greeks developed an architecture of noble simplicity and dignity. The +discoveries in Crete and Argolis have shown that Greek architecture owes +much less than was supposed to Egyptian and Chaldaean architecture. It is +considered to have attained its greatest perfection in the age of Pericles, +or about 460-430 B.C. The great masters of this period were Phidias, +Ictinus, Callicrates, &c. All the extant buildings are more or less in +ruins. The style is characterized by beauty, harmony, and simplicity in the +highest degree. Distinctive of it are what are called the _orders_ of +architecture, by which term are understood certain modes of proportioning +and decorating the column and its superimposed entablature. The Greeks had +three orders, called respectively the _Doric_, _Ionic_, and _Corinthian_. +(See articles under these names.) Greek buildings were abundantly adorned +with sculptures, and painting was extensively used, the details of the +structures being enriched by different colours or tints. Lowness of roofs +and the absence of arches were distinctive features of Greek architecture, +in which, as in that of Egypt, horizontality of line is another +characteristic mark. The most remarkable public edifices of the Greeks were +temples, of which the most famous is the Parthenon at Athens. Others exist +in various parts of Greece as well as in Sicily, Southern Italy, Asia +Minor, &c., where important Greek communities were early settled. Their +theatres were semicircular on one side and square on the other, the +semicircular part being usually excavated in the side of some convenient +hill. This part, the auditorium, was filled with concentric seats, and +might be capable of containing 20,000 spectators. A number exist in Greece, +Sicily, and Asia Minor, and elsewhere. By the end of the Peloponnesian War +(_c._ 400 B.C.) the best period of Greek architecture was over; a noble +simplicity had given place to excess of ornament. After the death of +Alexander the Great (323 B.C.) the decline was still more marked. + +[Illustration: Byzantine--Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople] + +Among the Romans there was no original development of architecture as among +the Greeks, though they early took the foremost place in the construction +of such works as aqueducts and sewers, the arch being in early and +extensive use among this people. As a fine art, however, Roman architecture +had its origin in copies of the Greek models, all the Grecian orders being +introduced into Rome, and variously modified. Their number, moreover, was +augmented by the addition of two new orders--the _Tuscan_ and the +_Composite_. The Romans became acquainted with the architecture of the +Greeks soon after 200 B.C., but it was not till about two centuries later +that the architecture of Rome attained (under Augustus) its greatest +perfection. Among the great works now erected were temples, aqueducts, +amphitheatres, magnificent villas, triumphal arches, monumental pillars, +&c. The _amphitheatre_ differed from the theatre in being a completely +circular or rather elliptical building, filled on all sides with ascending +seats for spectators and leaving only the central space, called the +_arena_, for the combatants and public shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous +structure of this kind. The _thermae_, or baths, were vast structures in +which multitudes of people could bathe at once. Magnificent tombs were +often built by the wealthy. Remains of private residences are numerous, and +the excavations at Pompeii in particular have thrown great light on the +internal arrangements of the Roman dwelling-house. Almost all the +successors of Augustus embellished Rome more or less, erected splendid +palaces and temples, and adorned, like Hadrian, even the conquered +countries with them. But after the period of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) Roman +architecture is considered to have been on the decline. The refined and +noble style of the Greeks was neglected, and there was an attempt to +embellish the beautiful more and more. This decline was all the more rapid +at a later time owing to the disturbed state of the Empire and the +incursions of the barbarians. + +In Constantinople, after its virtual separation from the Western Empire, +arose a style of art and architecture which was practised by the Greek +Church during the whole of the Middle Ages. This is called the Byzantine +style. The church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, built by Justinian +(reigned 527-565), offers the most typical specimen of the style, of which +the fundamental principle was an application of the Roman arch, the dome +being the most striking feature of the building. In the most typical +examples the dome or cupola rests on four pendentives. + +After the dismemberment of the Roman Empire the beautiful works of ancient +architecture were almost entirely destroyed by the Goths, Vandals, and +other barbarians in Italy, Greece, Asia, Spain, and Africa; or what was +spared by them was ruined by the fanaticism of the Christians. A new style +of architecture now arose, two forms of which, the Lombard and the Norman +Romanesque, form important phases of art. The Lombard prevailed in North +Italy and South Germany from the eighth or ninth to the thirteenth century +(though the Lombard rule came to an end in 774); the Norman Romanesque +flourished, especially in Normandy and England, from the eleventh to the +middle of the thirteenth century. The semicircular arch is the most +characteristic feature of this style. With the Lombard Romanesque were +combined Byzantine features, and buildings in the pure Byzantine style were +also erected in Italy, as the church of St. Mark at Venice. + +ARCHITECTURE + +[Illustration] + +The conquests of the Moors introduced a fresh style of architecture into +Europe after the eighth century--the Moorish or Saracenic. This style +accompanied the spread of Mahommedanism after its rise in Arabia in the +seventh century. The edifices erected by the Moors and Saracens in Spain, +Egypt, and Turkey are distinguished, among other things, by a peculiar form +of the arch, which forms a curve constituting more than half a circle or +ellipse. A peculiar flowery decoration, called _arabesque_, is a common +ornament of this style, of which the building called the Alhambra (q.v.) is +perhaps the chief glory. + +[Illustration: Norman Romanesque--Galilee Chapel, Durham Cathedral] + +The Germans were unacquainted with architecture until the time of +Charlemagne. He introduced into Germany the Byzantine and Romanesque +styles. Afterwards the Moorish or Arabian style had some influence upon +that of the Western nations, and thus originated the mixed style which +maintained itself till the middle of the thirteenth century. Then began the +modern Gothic style, which grew up in France, England, and Germany. Its +striking characteristics are its pointed arches, its pinnacles and spires, +its large buttresses, clustered pillars, vaulted roofs, profusion of +ornament, and, on the whole, its lofty, bold character. Its most +distinctive feature, as compared with the Greek or the Egyptian style, is +the predominance in it of perpendicular or rising lines, producing forms +that convey the idea of soaring or mounting upwards. Its greatest +capabilities have been best displayed in ecclesiastical edifices. The +Gothic style is divided into four principal epochs: the Early Pointed, or +general style of the thirteenth century; the Decorated, or style of the +fourteenth century; the Perpendicular, practised during the fifteenth and +early part of the sixteenth centuries; and the Tudor, or general style of +the sixteenth century. This style lasted in England up to the seventeenth +century, being gradually displaced by that branch of the Renaissance or +modified revival of ancient Roman architecture which is known as the +_Elizabethan style_, and which is perhaps more purely an English style than +any other that can be named. + +The rise of the Renaissance style in Italy is the greatest event in the +history of architecture after the introduction of the Gothic style. The +Gothic style had been introduced into the country and extensively employed, +but had never been thoroughly naturalized. The Renaissance is a revival of +the classic style based on the study of the ancient models; and having +practically commenced in Florence about the beginning of the fifteenth +century, it soon spread with great rapidity over Italy and the greater part +of Europe. The most illustrious architects of this early period of the +style were Brunelleschi, who built at Florence the dome of the cathedral, +the Pitti Palace, &c., besides many edifices at Milan, Pisa, Pesaro, and +Mantua; Alberti, who wrote an important work on architecture, and erected +many beautiful churches; Bramante, who began the building of St. Peter's, +Rome, and Michael Angelo, who erected its magnificent dome. On St. Peter's +were also employed Raphael, Peruzzi, and San Gallo. The noblest building in +this style of architecture in Britain is St. Paul's, London, the work of +Sir Christopher Wren. + +[Illustration: Italian Gothic--Doges' Palace, Venice] + +Since the Renaissance period there has been no architectural development +requiring special note. In buildings erected at the present day some one of +the various styles of architecture is employed according to taste. Modern +dwelling-houses have necessarily a style of their own as far as stories and +apartments and windows and chimneys can give them one. In general the +Grecian style, as handed down by Rome and modified by the Italian +architects of the Renaissance, from its right angles and straight +entablatures, is more convenient, and fits better with the distribution of +our common buildings, than the pointed and irregular Gothic. But the +occasional introduction of the Gothic outline and the partial employment of +its ornaments has undoubtedly an agreeable effect both in public and +private edifices; and we are indebted to it, among other things, for the +spire, a structure exclusively Gothic, which, though often misplaced, has +become an object of general approbation and a pleasing landmark to cities +and villages. The works most characteristic of the present day are the +large bridges, viaducts, &c., in many of which iron is the sole or most +characteristic portion of the material. + +[Illustration: Renaissance--St. Peter's, Rome] + +A few words may be added on the architecture of India and China. Although +many widely-differing styles are to be found in India, the oldest and only +true native style of Indian ecclesiastical architecture is the Buddhist, +the earliest specimens dating from 250 B.C. Among the chief objects of +Buddhist art are _stupas_ or _topes_, built in the form of large towers, +and employed as _dagobas_ to contain relics of Buddha or of some noted +saint. Other works of Buddhist art are temples or monasteries excavated +from the solid rock, and supported by pillars of the natural rock left in +their places. Buddhist architecture is found in Ceylon, Tibet, Java, &c., +as well as in India. The most remarkable Hindu or Brahmanical temples are +in Southern India. They are pyramidal in form, rising in a series of +stories. The Saracenic or Mohammedan architecture afterwards introduced +into India is, of course, of foreign origin. The Chinese have made the +_tent_ the elementary feature of their architecture; and of their style any +one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are depicted upon +common chinaware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper side, as if made +of canvas instead of wood. (For further information see _Greek_, _Roman_, +_Gothic_, _English_, _French_, _Russian Architecture_; and _Building_, +_Fine Arts_, _Arch_, _Column_, _Aqueduct_, _Corinthian_, _Doric_, _Ionic_, +_Theatre_, &c.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Ruskin, _Seven Lamps of Architecture_; +E. A. Freeman, _History of Architecture_; Viollet-le-Duc, _How to build a +House_; J. T. Micklethwaite, _Modern Parish Churches_; H. H. Statham, +_Architecture for General Readers_ and _Critical History of Architecture_; +J. Fergusson, _History of Architecture in all Countries_; F. M. Simpson, _A +History of Architectural Development_; _Cyclopedia of Architecture_. + +ARCHITRAVE (aer'ki-traev), in architecture, the part of an entablature +which rests immediately on the heads of the columns, being the lowest of +its three principal divisions, the others being the _frieze_ and the +_cornice_. + +ARCHIVES (aer'k[=i]vz). See _Records_. + +ARCHIVOLT (aer'ki-volt), in architecture, the ornamental band of mouldings +on the face of an arch and following its contour. + +ARCHONS (aer'konz), the chief magistrates of ancient Athens, chosen to +superintend civil and religious concerns. They were nine in number; the +first was properly the _arch[=o]n_, or _arch[=o]n ep[=o]n[)y]mos_, by whose +name the year was distinguished in the public records; the second was +called _arch[=o]n basileus_, or king archon, who exercised the functions of +high priest; the third, _polemarchos_, or general of the forces. The other +six were called _thesmoth[)e]tai_, or legislators. + +ARCHYTAS ([.a]r-k[=i]'tas), an ancient Greek mathematician, statesman, and +general, who flourished about 400 B.C., and belonged to Tarentum in +Southern Italy. The invention of the analytic method in mathematics is +ascribed to him, as well as the solution of many geometrical and mechanical +problems. He constructed various machines and automata, among the most +celebrated of which was his flying pigeon. He was a Pythagorean in +philosophy, and Plato and Aristotle are said to have been both deeply +indebted to him. Only inconsiderable fragments of his works are extant. + +ARCIS-SUR-AUBE ([.a]r-s[=e]-s[.u]r-[=o]b), a small town of France, +department Aube, at which, in 1814, was fought a battle between Napoleon +and the Allies, after which the latter marched to Paris. Pop. 3000. + +ARC-LIGHT, a certain kind of electric light in which the illuminating +source is the current of electricity passing between two sticks of carbon +kept a short distance apart, one of them being in connection with the +positive, the other with the negative terminal of a battery or dynamo. + +ARCO, a town of Tyrol, near Lake Garda, a favourite winter resort of +invalids. Pop. 3800. + +ARCOLE ([.a]r'ko-l[.a]), a village in North Italy, 15 miles S.E. of Verona, +celebrated for the battles of 15th, 16th, and 17th Nov., 1796, fought +between the French under Bonaparte and the Austrians, in which the latter +were defeated with great slaughter. + +ARCOS' DE LA FRONTE'RA, a city of Spain, 30 miles E. by N. from Cadiz, on +the Guadalete, here crossed by a stone bridge, on a sandstone rock 570 feet +above the level of the river. On the highest part of the rock stands the +castle of the dukes of Arcos, partly in ruins. The principal manufactures +are leather, hats, and cordage. Pop. 13,980. + +AR'COT, two districts and a town of India, within the Presidency of +Madras.--_North Arcot_ is an inland district with an area of 7616 sq. +miles. The country is partly flat and partly mountainous, where intersected +by the Eastern Ghats. Pop. 2,200,000.--_South Arcot_ lies on the Bay of +Bengal, and has two seaports, Cuddalor and Porto Novo. Area 5217 sq. miles. +Pop. 2,170,000.--The town _Arcot_ is in North Arcot, on the Palar, about 70 +miles W. by S. of Madras. There is a military cantonment at 3 miles' +distance. The town contains handsome mosques, a nabob's palace in ruins, +and the remains of an extensive fort. Arcot played an important part in the +wars which resulted in the ascendancy of the British in India. It was taken +by Clive, 31st Aug., 1751, and heroically defended by him against an +apparently overwhelming force under Raja Sahib. Pop. 11,475. + +ARCTIC ([.a]rk'tik), an epithet given to the north pole from the proximity +of the constellation of the Bear, in Greek called _arktos_. The _Arctic +Circle_ is an imaginary circle on the globe, parallel to the equator, and +23deg 28' distant from the north pole. This and its opposite, the +_Antarctic_, are called the two polar circles. + +ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See _North Polar Expeditions_. + +ARCTIC OCEAN, that part of the water surface of the earth which surrounds +the north pole, and washes the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and +America; its southern boundary roughly coinciding with the Arctic Circle +(lat. 66deg 30' N.). It encloses many large islands, and contains large +bays and gulfs which deeply indent the northern shores of the three +continents. Its great characteristic is ice, which is perpetual nearly +everywhere. + +ARCTIC REGIONS, the regions round the north pole, and extending from the +pole on all sides to the Arctic Circle in lat. 66deg 30' N. The Arctic or +North Polar Circle just touches the northern headlands of Iceland, cuts off +the southern and narrowest portion of Greenland, crosses Fox's Strait north +of Hudson's Bay, whence it goes over the American continent to Behring's +Strait. Thence it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth of the Obi, then crossing +Northern Russia, the White Sea, and the Scandinavian Peninsula, returns to +Iceland. Though much skill and heroism have been displayed in the +exploration of this portion of the earth, there is still an area round the +pole estimated at 2,500,000 sq. miles, which is a blank to geographers. +Many have adopted the belief in the existence of an open polar sea about +the north pole. But this belief is not supported by any positive evidence. +Valuable minerals, fossils, &c., have been discovered within the Arctic +regions. In the archipelago north of the American continent excellent coal +frequently occurs. The mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland. Fossil ivory +is obtained in islands at the mouth of the Lena. In Scandinavia, parts of +Siberia, and north-west America, the forest region extends within the +Arctic Circle. The most characteristic of the natives of the Arctic regions +are the Esquimaux. The most notable animals are the white-bear, the +musk-ox, the reindeer, and the whalebone whale. Fur-bearing animals are +numerous. The most intense cold ever registered in those regions was 74deg +below zero F. The aurora borealis is a brilliant phenomenon of Arctic +nights. See _North Polar Expeditions_. + +ARC'TIUM. See _Burdock_. + +ARC'TOMYS. See _Marmot_. + +ARCTU'RUS, or ALPHA BOOETIS, a fixed star of the first magnitude in the +constellation of Booetes (the Ploughman), is one of the brightest stars in +the northern heavens, yellow in colour. Its light is believed to be +intrinsically at least 140 times as brilliant as the sun's, and to take +over 40 years to reach us. It is notable as having a comparatively large +proper motion. + +ARDAHAN', a small fortified town about 6400 feet above the sea, between +Kars and Batum in Armenia. It was captured by the Russians in 1877, and +ceded to them by the Berlin Treaty, 1878. It was handed over to Turkey by +the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, but the Turkish troops evacuated it +after the armistice in 1918. + +AR'DEA, the genus to which the heron belongs, type of the family +Ard[=e]idae, which includes also cranes, storks, bitterns, &c. + +AR'DEBIL, or ARDABIL, a Persian town, province of Azerbaijan, near the +Karasu, a tributary of the Aras, about 40 miles from the Caspian, in an +elevated and healthy situation; it has mineral springs and a considerable +trade. Pop. 16,000. + +ARDECHE ([.a]r-d[=a]sh), a department in the south of France (Languedoc), +on the west side of the Rhone, taking its name from the River Ardeche, +which rises within it, and falls into the Rhone after a course of 46 miles; +area, 2144 sq. miles. It is generally of a mountainous character, and +contains the culminating point of the Cevennes. Silk and wine are produced. +Annonay is the principal town, but Privas is the capital. Pop. (1921), +294,308. + +ARDEN, FOREST OF, a wood in Warwickshire. Shakespeare is supposed to have +used it as a setting for _As You Like It_. + +ARDENNES ([.a]r-den'), an extensive tract of hilly land stretching over a +large portion of the north-east of France and south-west of Belgium. +Anciently the whole tract formed one immense forest (_Arduenna Silva_ of +Caesar); but large portions are now occupied by cultivated fields and +populous towns. + +ARDENNES ([.a]r-den'), a frontier department in the north-east of France; +area, 2027 sq. miles, partly consisting of the Forest of Ardennes. There +are extensive slate-quarries, numerous ironworks, and important +manufactures of cloth, ironware, leather, glass, earthenware, &c. It was +the scene of many battles during the European War (1914-8). Chief towns, +Mezieres (the capital), Rocroi, and Sedan. Pop. 277,791. + +ARDNAMURCHAN (-mur'_h_an) POINT, the most westerly point of the Island of +Great Britain, in Argyllshire, having a lighthouse, 180 feet above +sea-level, visible 18 to 20 miles off. + +AR'DOCH, a parish in south Perthshire, celebrated for its Roman remains, +one, a camp, being the most perfect existing in Scotland. + +ARDROSS'AN, a seaport of Scotland, in Ayrshire, on the Firth of Clyde. It +has a large harbour and shipbuilding yards, and is a centre of steamship +services with Arran, Ireland, and Douglas, I.O.M. Pop. (1921), 7214. + +ARDS'LEY, East and West, an urban district or town of England, W. Riding of +Yorkshire, several miles north-west of Wakefield, with collieries, +iron-mines, ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921), 7058. + +ARE (aer), the unit of the French land measure, equal to 100 sq. metres, or +1076.44 English sq. feet. A _hectare_ is 100 ares, equal to 2.47 English +acres. The tenth part of an are is called a _deciare_, and a hundredth part +a _centiare_. + +A'REA, the superficial content of any figure or space, the quantity of +surface it contains in terms of any unit. See _Mensuration_. + +ARE'CA, a genus of lofty palms with pinnated leaves, and a drupe-like fruit +enclosed in a fibrous rind. _A. Cat[)e]chu_ of the Coromandel and Malabar +coasts is the common areca palm which yields areca or betel-nuts, and also +the astringent juice catechu. _A. olerac[)e]a_ is the cabbage tree or +cabbage palm of the West Indies. With lime and the leaves of the +betel-pepper, the areca-nuts when green form the celebrated masticatory of +the East. They are an important article in Eastern trade. + +ARECIBO ([.a]-re-th[=e]'b[=o]), a seaport town on the north coast of the +Island of Porto Rico. Pop. 9612. + +AREIOPAGUS. See _Areopagus_. + +ARE'NA, the enclosed space in the central part of the Roman amphitheatres, +in which took place the combats of gladiators or wild beasts. It was +usually covered with sand or saw-dust to prevent the gladiators from +slipping, and to absorb the blood. See _Amphitheatre_. + +ARENACEOUS ROCKS include all sediments in which quartz sand is the most +important constituent. Owing to its resistance to comminution and to +chemical attack, quartz accumulates in sea-beaches while other mineral +matter becomes removed. Hence sands gather near a shore and ultimately +become consolidated by various natural cements into sandstones, those +cemented by silica being styled quartzites. Sand-dunes in deserts or on +coasts are unconsolidated arenaceous rock-masses. + +AR'ENDAL a seaport of Southern Norway, exporting timber, wood pulp, and +iron, and owning numerous ships. It is a well-built place, having been +rebuilt since the great fire of 1868. Wood pulp, paper, and cotton are +manufactured. Pop. 11,000. + +ARENENBERG CASTLE (mediaeval, NARRENBERG), a castle and estate in the Swiss +Canton Thurgau, the possession of Queen Hortense, who died there in 1837. +In 1855 it became the property of the Empress Eugenie. + +ARENGA, a term sometimes used as the generic name of the areng or gomuti +palm, which is then botanically designated _Arenga saccharifera_. See +_Gomuti_. + +ARENIC'OLA. See _Lobworm_. + +ARE'OLAR TISSUE, an assemblage of fibres in bundles, pervading almost every +part of the animal structure, and connected with each other so as to form +innumerable small cavities, the whole serving as a means by which the +various organs and parts of organs are connected together. It is called +also _Cellular Tissue_ and _Connective Tissue_. The fibres are of two +kinds--white fibrous tissue and yellow elastic fibrous tissue, and +interspersed among the bundles or occupying the cellular cavities are cells +and corpuscles of several kinds. It is a tissue found in large quantities +under the skin, covering the muscles, the blood-vessels, and nerves, and in +various parts forming a kind of protective covering for delicate and +important organs. It is because of its general distribution, and because of +its binding various structures together, that it is called +_connective_.--In botany the term is sometimes applied to the +_non_-vascular substance, composed entirely of untransformed cells, which +forms the soft substance of plants. + +AREOM'ETER (from Gr. _araios_, thin, _metron_, a measure), an instrument +for measuring the specific gravity of liquids; a _hydrometer_ (q.v.). + +AREOP'AGUS, the oldest of the Athenian courts of justice, an assembly +having a position more august than an ordinary court, and in its best days +exercising a general supervision over public morals. It obtained its name +from its place of meeting, on the Hill of Ares (Mars), near the Acropolis +or citadel of Athens. Another explanation connects the word with _Arae_ +(Curses), commonly known as _Semnae_ (Awful Goddesses), who were the +guardians of the hill. It existed from very remote times, and the crimes +tried before it were wilful murder, poisoning, robbery, and arson, while it +had under its control also dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the +State and in religion. Its meetings were held in the open air, and its +members were selected from those who had held the office of archon. The +tribunal eventually lost many of its powers, but it continued to exist in +name at least as late as the time of Cicero or later, having had an +existence of seven or eight hundred years. + +AREQUIPA ([.a]-r[=a]-k[=e]'p[.a]), a city of Peru, capital of a province of +same name, situated in a fertile valley, 7850 feet above sea-level, at a +distance of about 55 miles from the coast and on the railway which runs +from its port Mollendo inland to Puno on Lake Titicaca. Behind the city +rises the volcano of Arequipa, or Peak of Misti (20,328 feet). The climate +is healthy but the locality is liable to earthquakes, one of which almost +completely destroyed the town in 1868, after which it was rapidly rebuilt. +A considerable trade is carried on through Mollendo, there being a large +transit trade with the interior, and the town carries on various +industries, manufacturing cotton and woollen goods, &c. It was founded in +1540. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000.--The province has an area of 21,947 sq. miles, +and a pop. of 229,007. + +ARES ([=a]'r[=e]z). See _Mars_. + +ARETHU'SA, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Nereus and Doris, a nymph +changed by Art[)e]mis into a fountain in order to free her from the pursuit +of the river-god Alpheus. This fountain was said to exist in the small +Island of Ortygia, near Syracuse, and was fabled to have a subterranean +connection with the River Alpheus in Greece. + +ARETINO (ae-r[=a]-t[=e]'noe), Guido. See _Guido_. + +ARETINO, Pietro, Italian poet, born at Arezzo 1492, died at Venice 1556, +the natural son of a nobleman called Luigi Bacci. He early displayed a +talent for satirical poetry, and when still a young man was banished from +Arezzo on account of a sonnet against indulgences. He went to Perugia, and +thence to Rome (1517), where he secured the papal patronage, but +subsequently lost it through writing licentious sonnets. Through the +influence of the Medici family he found an opportunity to insinuate himself +into the favour of Francis I. In 1527 Aretino went to Venice, where he +acquired powerful friends, among them the Bishop of Vicenza. By his +devotional writings he regained the favour of the Roman Court. He called +himself 'the divine', and 'the scourge of princes', but he was also their +abject flatterer, and that solely to obtain money. The obscenity of some of +his writings was such that his name has become proverbial for +licentiousness. Among them are five comedies and a tragedy. + +AREZZO ([.a]-ret's[=o]; ancient ARRETIUM), a city of Central Italy, capital +of a province of the same name in Tuscany, near the confluence of the +Chiana with the Arno. It has a noble cathedral, containing some fine +pictures and monuments; remains of an ancient amphitheatre, &c. It was one +of the twelve chief Etruscan towns, and in later times fought long against +the Florentines, to whom it had finally to succumb. It is the birthplace of +Maecenas, Petrarch, Pietro Aretino, Redi, and Vasari. Pop. 50,093.--The +province of Arezzo contains 1274 sq. miles, and 292,763 inhabitants (1915). + +AR'GAL, ARGOL, or TARTAR, a hard crust formed on the sides of vessels in +which wine has been kept, red or white according to the colour of the wine. +It is an impure bitartrate of potassium. + +[Illustration: Argali (_Ovis ammon_)] + +AR'GALI, a species of wild sheep (_Capr[)o]vis Arg[)a]li_ or _Ovis ammon_) +found on the mountains of Siberia, Central Asia, and Kamtchatka. It is 4 +feet high at the shoulders, and proportionately stout in its build, with +horns nearly 4 feet in length measured along the curve, and at their base +about 19 inches in circumference. It lives in small herds. This true argali +must not be confounded with the North-African wild sheep, called the +bearded argali and known as the arni, the Algerian moufflon, and the +Barbary sheep. + +AR'GALL, Sir Samuel (1572-1639), one of the early English adventurers to +Virginia. He planned and executed the abduction of Pocahontas, the daughter +of the Indian chief Powhattan, in order to secure the ransom of English +prisoners. He was deputy-governor of Virginia (1617-9), and was accused of +many acts of rapacity and tyranny. In 1620 he served in an expedition +against Algiers, and was knighted by James I. + +AR'GAND LAMP, a lamp named after its inventor, Aime _Argand_, a Swiss +chemist and physician (born 1755, died 1803), the distinctive feature of +which is a burner forming a ring or hollow cylinder covered by a chimney, +so that the flame receives a current of air both on the inside and on the +outside. + +ARGAUM ([.a]r-g[.a]'[u:]m), a village of India, in Berar, celebrated for +the victory of General Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) over the Mahrattas +under Scindia and the Rajah of Berar, 29th Nov., 1803. + +AR'GELANDER, Friedrich Wilhelm August, German astronomer, born in 1799. He +added to the knowledge of the progressive motion of the solar system in +space, and published a catalogue of 560 stars having 'proper motion'. His +works include: _Atlas des noerdlichen gestirnten Himmels_ (1857), _Neue +Uranometrie_ (1843), &c. He died in 1875. + +ARGEMONE ([.a]r-jem'o-n[=e]), a small genus of ornamental American plants +of the poppy order. From the seeds of _A. mexic[=a]na_ is obtained an oil +very useful to painters. The handsomest species is _A. grandifl[=o]ra_, +which has large flowers of a pure white colour. + +ARGENSOLA ([.a]r-_h_en-s[=o]'l[.a]), Lupercio and Bartolome Leonardo de, +brothers, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, the former in 1565, died in 1613; +the latter born in 1566, died in 1631. Lupercio produced tragedies and +lyric poems; Bartolome a number of poems and a historical work, _The +Conquest of the Moluccas_. Their writings are singularly alike in +character, and are reckoned among the Spanish classics. The tragedies are +of the heavy Senecan type, but the satirical writings of both brothers are +full of pungent wit of a pleasing kind. + +ARGENSON ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-s[=o][n.]), Marc Pierre de Voyer, Comte d', +celebrated French statesman, born in 1696, died 1764. After holding a +number of subordinate offices he became minister for foreign affairs, and +succeeded in bringing about the Congress of Breda, which was the prelude to +that of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was present at the battle of Fontenoy, and was +exiled to his estate for some years through the machinations of Madame +Pompadour. His _Considerations sur le Gouvernement de la France_ was a very +advanced study on the possibility of combining with a monarchic form of +government democratic principles and local self-government. _Les Essais, ou +Loisirs d'un Ministre d'Etat_, published in 1785, is a collection of +characters and anecdotes in the style of Montaigne. + +AR'GENT, in coats of arms, the heraldic term expressing silver: represented +in engraving by a plain white surface. + +ARGENTAN ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-tae[n.]), a French town, department of Orne +(Normandy), with an old castle and some manufactures. Pop. 6300. + +ARGENTEUIL ([.a]r-zh[.a][n.]-teu-y[.e]), a town in France, department +Seine-et-Oise, 7 miles below Paris; it has an active trade in wine, fruit, +and vegetables. Pop. 24,282. + +ARGENTIE'RA, or KIM[=O]LI (ancient, CIM[=O]LUS), an island in the Grecian +Archipelago, one of the Cyclades, about 18 miles in circumference, rocky +and sterile. It produces a detergent chalk called _Cimolian earth_ (q.v.), +used in washing and bleaching. Pop. 1337. + +AR'GENTINE, a silvery-white slaty variety of calc-spar, containing a little +silica with laminae usually undulated. It is found in primitive rocks and +frequently in metallic veins.--Argentine is also the name of a small +British fish (_Scop[)e]lus bore[=a]lis_) less than 2 inches long and of a +silvery colour. + +AR'GENTINE REPUBLIC, formerly called the United Provinces of LA PLATA, a +vast country of South America, the extreme length of which is 2300 miles, +and the average breadth a little over 500 miles, the total area 1,153,119 +sq. miles. It consists of fourteen provinces, ten territories, and one +federal district. It is bounded on the N. by Bolivia; on the E. by +Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; on the S. by the Antarctic +Ocean; and on the W. by the Andes. It comprises four great natural +divisions: (1) the Andine region, containing the provinces of Mendoza, San +Juan, Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy; (2) the Pampas, +containing the provinces of Santiago, Santa Fe, Cordova, San Luis, and +Buenos Ayres, with the territories Formosa, Pampa, and Chaco; (3) the +Argentine 'mesopotamia', between the Rivers Parana and Uruguay, containing +the provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and the territory Misiones; (4) +Patagonia, including the eastern half of Tierra del Fuego. With the +exception of the N.W., where lateral branches of the Andes run into the +plain for 150 or 200 miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which is hilly, +the characteristic feature of the country is the great monotonous and level +plains called 'pampas'. In the north these plains are partly +forest-covered, but all the central and southern parts present vast +treeless tracts, which afford pasture to immense herds of horses, oxen, and +sheep, and are varied in some places by brackish swamps, in others by salt +steppes. The great water-course of the country is the Parana, having a +length of fully 2000 miles from its source in the mountains of Goyaz, +Brazil, to its junction with the Uruguay, where begins the estuary of La +Plata. The Parana is formed by the union of the Upper Parana and Paraguay +Rivers, near the N.E. corner of the State. Important tributaries are the +Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado. The Parana, Paraguay, and Uruguay +are valuable for internal navigation. Many of the streams which tend +eastward terminate in marshes and salt lakes, some of which are rather +extensive. Not connected with the La Plata system are the Colorado and the +Rio Negro, the latter formerly the southern boundary of the State, +separating it from Patagonia. The source of the Negro is Lake Nahuel Huapi, +in Patagonia (area, 1200 sq. miles), in the midst of magnificent scenery. +The level portions of the country are mostly of tertiary formation, and the +river and coast regions consist mainly of alluvial soil of great fertility. +In the pampas clay have been found the fossil remains of extinct mammalia, +some of them of colossal size. + +European grains and fruits, including the vine, have been successfully +introduced, and large areas are now under wheat, maize, flax, and other +crops, another source of wealth consisting in the countless herds of cattle +and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the pampas, and which +multiply there very rapidly. Gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and +iron, besides marble, jasper, precious stones, and bitumen, are found in +the mountainous districts of the N.W., while petroleum wells have been +discovered on the Rio Vermejo; but the development of this mineral wealth +has hitherto been greatly retarded by the want of proper means of +transport. As a whole there are not extensive forests in the State except +in the region of the Gran Chaco (which extends also into Bolivia), where +there is known to be 60,000 sq. miles of timber. Thousands of square miles +are covered with thistles, which grow to a great height in their season. +Cacti also forms great thickets. Peach and apple trees are abundant in some +districts. The native fauna includes the puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the +llama, the alpaca, the vicuna, armadillos, the rhea or nandu, a species of +ostrich, &c. The climate is agreeable and healthy, 97deg being about the +highest temperature experienced. The rainfall is very scanty in some +districts, and is nowhere very large. + +As a whole this vast country is very thinly inhabited, some parts of it as +yet being very little known. The native Indians were never very numerous, +and have given little trouble to the European settlers. Tribes of them yet +in the savage state still inhabit the less-known districts, and live by +hunting and fishing. Some of the Gran Chaco tribes are said to be very +fierce, and European travellers have been killed by them. The European +element is strong in the republic, more than half the population being +Europeans or of pure European descent. Large numbers of immigrants arrive +from Southern Europe, the Italians having the preponderance among those of +foreign birth. The typical inhabitants of the pampas are the _Gauchos_, a +race of half-breed cattle-rearers and horse-breakers; they are almost +continually on horseback, galloping over the plains, collecting their herds +and droves, taming wild horses, or catching and slaughtering cattle. In +such occupations they require a marvellous dexterity in the use of the +lasso and bolas. + +The River La Plata was discovered in 1512 by the Spanish navigator Juan +Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata territory had been brought into the +possession of Spain by the end of the sixteenth century. In 1810 the +territory cast off the Spanish rule, and in 1816 the independence of the +United States of the Rio de la Plata was formerly declared, but it was long +before a settled government was established. The present constitution dates +from 1853, being modified in 1866 and 1898. The executive power is vested +in a president--elected by the representatives of the fourteen provinces +for a term of six years. A national congress of two chambers--a Senate and +a House of Deputies--wields the legislative authority, and the republic is +making rapid advances in social and political life. The national revenue +for 1918 amounted to about L32,860,306, while the expenditure amounted to +L34,407,074; the public debt was, at the end of 1916, about L120,000,000. +There are about 22,000 miles of railway opened. The external commerce is +important, the chief exports being beef and mutton, wheat, maize, and +linseed, wool, skins and hides, tallow. The imports are chiefly +manufactured goods. The trade is largely with Britain and France, and is +increasing rapidly, the exports having advanced from L9,000,000 in 1876 and +L73,200,000 in 1908 to L201,360,000 in 1920. The imports in 1920 were +L170,820,000. The chief denomination of money is the dollar or _peso_, +value (in gold) 4s. Buenos Ayres (or Aires) is the capital. Other towns are +Rosario, Cordova, La Plata, Tucuman, Mendoza, and Santa-Fe. The population +of the republic, which is rapidly increasing by immigration, was, in 1905, +5,678,197, and 8,284,266 in 1918; of the capital, 1,637,155 +(1918).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854 to +1904_; W. H. Hudson, _The Naturalist in La Plata_; Keane and Markham, +_Central and South America_ (in Stanford's _Compendium of Geography and +Travel_); Martinez and Lewandowski, _Argentine in the Twentieth Century_; +Sir John Foster Fraser, _The Amazing Argentine_; H. Stephens, _Illustrated +Descriptive Argentina_; _The Argentine Year Book_. + +AR'GENTITE, sulphide of silver, a blackish or lead-grey mineral, a valuable +ore of silver found in the crystalline rocks of many countries. + +ARGENTOMETER. See _Hydrometer_. + +ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS are rocks in which clay prevails (including shales and +slates). + +ARGIVES ([.a]r'j[=i]vz), or ARGIVI, the inhabitants of Argos; used by Homer +and other ancient authors as a generic appellation for all the Greeks. + +AR'GO. See _Argonauts_. + +ARGOL. See _Argal_. + +ARGOLIS. See _Argos_. + +ARGON, a gas which is fairly widely distributed in the free state and is a +constant constituent of the atmosphere, of which it forms about 1 per cent +by volume. It was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay in 1894. +During their determinations of the density of nitrogen they noticed that +the density of nitrogen derived from the air differed from the density of +nitrogen derived from ammonia and other compounds of nitrogen, and after a +series of very careful experiments they succeeded in isolating a new gas, +which they named Argon. The gas occurs in sea and river water, in plants, +in the blood of animals, and the gases issuing from volcanoes and mineral +springs. It is always in the free state and never in combination, and is +associated with nitrogen. It is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, and +may be liquefied and solidified. It is heavier than air, and is chemically +a very inert substance. It is usually referred to as one of the _rare_ +gases of the atmosphere. Argon is manufactured in fairly large quantity +from air, making use of the inertness of the substance compared to oxygen +and nitrogen, the chief constituents of the air. Several methods are in +use, e.g. nitrogen may be removed by passing it repeatedly over red-hot +magnesium; thus the nitrogen is absorbed and the argon left. When oxygen +and nitrogen of air are absorbed by a mixture of 90 per cent calcium +carbide and 10 per cent calcium chloride previously heated to redness _in +vacuo_, a gas becoming richer and richer in argon is obtained. Another +method of preparing argon is by fractionation of liquid air. It is used for +filling electric bulbs. + +[Illustration: Argonaut--Female] + +AR'GONAUT, a molluscous animal of the genus Argonauta, belonging to the +dibranchiate or two-gilled cuttle-fishes, distinguished by the females +possessing a single-chambered external shell, not organically connected +with the body of the animal. The males have no shell and are of much +smaller size than the females. The shell is fragile, translucent, and +boat-like in shape; it serves as the receptacle of the ova or eggs of the +female, which sits in it with the respiratory tube or 'funnel' turned +towards the carina or 'keel'. This famed mollusc swims only by ejecting +water from its funnel, and it can crawl in a reversed position, carrying +its shell over its back like a snail. The account of its floating on the +surface of the sea, with its sail-shaped arms extended to catch the breeze, +and with the six other arms as oars, is a mere fable. The argonaut, or +_paper-nautilus_, must be carefully distinguished from the +_pearly-nautilus_ or nautilus proper (_Nautilus Pompilius_). + +ARGONAUTS, in the legendary history of Greece, those heroes who performed a +hazardous voyage to Colchis, a far-distant country at the eastern extremity +of the Euxine (Black Sea), with Jason in the ship _Argo_, for the purpose +of securing a golden fleece, which was preserved suspended upon a tree, and +under the guardianship of a sleepless dragon. By the aid of Medea, daughter +of the King of Colchis, Jason was enabled to seize the fleece, and, after +many strange adventures, to reach his home at Iolcos in Thessaly. Among the +Argonauts were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus and +Theseus.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. R. Hope Moncrieff, _Classic Myth and Legend_; +Kingsley, _The Heroes_; N. Hawthorne, _The Wonder-book_. + +ARGO-NAVIS, the southern constellation of the Ship, is almost entirely +invisible in Britain. It contains Canopus, next to Sirius the brightest +fixed star. In the great nebula in Argo is situated the remarkable star Eta +Argus. It is variable, generally faint, but in 1837 it became temporarily +one of the brightest stars in the sky. + +ARGONNE, a district of France, between the Rivers Meuse, Marne, and Aisne, +celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez against the Prussians in 1792, and +for the military movements and actions which took place therein previous to +the battle of Sedan, in 1870. + +ARGONNE, BATTLE OF. When, in the autumn of 1914, the Allies retreated +towards the Marne, the German Crown Prince's army endeavoured to invest +Verdun. His right wing advanced through the thick and extensive forest of +Argonne, but took precipitate flight after the battle of the Marne before +the army of General Sarrail. In the summer of 1915 the Crown Prince +endeavoured to hack his way through the French Argonne lines, using much +heavy artillery, poison-gas, liquid-fire, and tear-shells. A final effort +to break through was made in September, between Le Four de Paris and +Vienne-le-Chateau, but, after gaining a footing in the first line of French +trenches, the Germans were hurled back by a dashing counter-attack. The +great salient from the Argonne to St. Mihiel was the salvation of Verdun. + +AR'GOS, a town of Greece, in the north-east of the Peloponnesus, between +the Gulfs of Aegina and Nauplia or Argos. This town and the surrounding +territory of Argolis were famous from the legendary period of Greek history +onwards. Here, besides Argos, was Mycenae, where Agamemnon ruled. Modern +Argos is a straggling place of 10,000 inhabitants, with some ancient +remains. The territory Argolis forms a nomarchy of Greece. Pop., Argolis +and Corinthia, 153,172. The capital is Nauplia. + +ARGOS'TOLI, a city of the Ionian Islands, capital of Cephalonia, and the +residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. 14,000. + +AR'GOSY, a poetical name for a large merchant-vessel; derived from +_Ragusa_, a port which was formerly more celebrated than now, and whose +vessels did a considerable trade with England. It is popularly but +erroneously connected with the ship _Argo_ in which Jason sailed. See +_Argonauts_. + +ARGOT (Fr.; [.a]r-g[=o]), the jargon, slang, or peculiar phraseology of a +class or profession; originally the conventional slang of thieves and +vagabonds, invented for the purpose of disguise and concealment. Some of +Francois Villon's poems are written in argot.--Cf. W. von Knoblauch, +_Dictionary of Argot_. + +ARGUIM, or ARGUIN ([.a]r-gwim', [.a]r-gwin'), a small island on the west +coast of Africa, not far from Cape Blanco, formerly a centre of trade. Its +possession was violently disputed between the Portuguese, Dutch, English, +and French. + +AR'GUMENT, a term sometimes used as synonymous with the _subject_ of a +discourse, but more frequently appropriated to any kind of method employed +for the purpose of confuting or at least silencing an opponent. Logicians +have reduced arguments to a number of distinct heads, such as the +_argumentum ad judicium_, which founds on solid proofs and addresses to the +judgment; the _argumentum ad verecundiam_, which appeals to the modesty or +bashfulness of an opponent by reminding him of the great names or +authorities by whom the view disputed by him is supported; the _argumentum +ad ignorantiam_, the employment of some logical fallacy towards persons +likely to be deceived by it; and the _argumentum ad hominem_, an argument +which presses a man with consequences drawn from his own principles and +concessions, or his own conduct. See _Fallacy_, _Logic_. + +ARGUMENT OF THE PEOPLE, the document set forth by the Council of the Army +on 15th Jan., 1649, fifteen days before the execution of King Charles I. +See _Levellers_. + +AR'GUS, in Greek mythology, a fabulous being, said to have had a hundred +eyes, placed by Juno to guard Io. Hence 'argus-eyed', applied to one who is +exceedingly watchful. + +[Illustration: Argus-pheasant (_Argus gigant[=e]us_)] + +ARGUS-PHEASANT (_Argus gigant[=e]us_), a large, beautiful, and very +singular species of pheasant, found native in the south-east of Asia, more +especially in Sumatra and some of the other islands. The males measure from +5 to 6 feet from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail, which +has two greatly-elongated central feathers. The plumage is exceedingly +beautiful, the secondary quills of the wings, which are longer than the +primary feathers, being each adorned with a series of ocellated or eye-like +spots (whence the name--see _Argus_) of brilliant metallic hues. The +general body plumage is brown. + +ARGYLL, or ARGYLE ([.a]r-g[=i]l'), an extensive county in the south-west of +the Highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland and partly of +islands belonging to the Hebrides group, the chief of which are Islay, +Mull, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Luing, Lismore, and Colonsay, with Iona and +Staffa. On the land side the mainland is bounded north by Inverness; east +by Perth and Dumbarton; elsewhere surrounded by the Firth of Clyde and its +connections and the sea; area, 3255 sq. miles (or over 2,000,000 acres), of +which the islands comprise about 1000 sq. miles. It is greatly indented by +arms of the sea, which penetrate far inland, the most important of these +being Loch Sunart, Loch Linnhe (the extremities of which are Loch Eil and +Loch Leven), Loch Etive, Loch Fyne, Loch Tarbert, Loch Riddon, Loch +Striven, and Loch Long. The mainland is divided into six districts of +Northern Argyle, Lorn, Argyle, Cowal, Knapdale, and Kintyre; the two first +being subdivided into the sub-districts of Lochiel, Ardgour, Sunart, +Ardnamurchan, Morven, and Appin. The county is exceedingly mountainous, the +chief summits being Bidean-nam-Bian (3766 feet), Ben Laoigh (3708 feet), +Ben Cruachan (3611 feet), Benmore, in Mull (3185 feet), the Paps of Jura +(2565 feet), and Ben Arthur or the Cobbler (2891 feet). There are several +lakes, the principal of which is Loch Awe. Cattle and sheep are reared in +numbers, and fishing is largely carried on, as is also the making of +whisky. There is but little arable land. The chief minerals are slate, +marble, limestone, and granite. County town, Inveraray; others, +Campbeltown, Oban, and Dunoon. Pop. (1921), 76,856. + +ARGYLL, CAMPBELLS OF, a historic Scottish family, raised to the peerage in +the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more eminent +members are: Archibald, 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of Flodden, +1513.--Archibald, 5th Earl, attached himself to the party of Mary of Guise, +and was the means of averting a collision between the Reformers and the +French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency after Mary's abdication, +but afterwards commanded her troops at the battle of Langside; died +1575.--Archibald, 8th Earl and 1st Marquess, born 1598: a zealous partisan +of the Covenanters; created a marquess by Charles I. It was by his +persuasion that Charles II visited Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in +1651. At the Restoration he was committed to the Tower, and afterwards sent +to Scotland, where he was tried for high treason, and beheaded in +1661.--Archibald, 9th Earl, son of the preceding, served the king with +great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and was excluded from the general +pardon by Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he +refused to take the required oath except with a reservation. For this he +was tried and sentenced to death. He managed to escape to Holland, from +whence he returned with a view of aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan, +however, failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was +beheaded in 1685.--Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding, +died 1703; took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-9, which placed +William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important +appointments and the title of duke.--John, 2nd Duke and Duke of Greenwich, +son of the above, born 1678, died 1743; served under Marlborough at the +battles of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges +of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in his own country for +his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had the military command in +Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar's +army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and forced the Pretender to quit the +kingdom. He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his political career was +full of intrigue. He is the Duke of Argyll in Scott's _Heart of +Midlothian_.--George Douglas Campbell, K.G., K.T., &c., 8th Duke (of United +Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early took a part in politics, +especially in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In +1852 he became Lord Privy Seal under Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord +Palmerston in 1859; Postmaster-General in 1860; Secretary for India from +1868 to 1874; again Lord Privy Seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to +agree with his colleagues on their Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wrote +_The Reign of Law_, _Scotland as it Was and as it Is_, &c.--John Douglas +Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of, son of the 8th Duke and a daughter of the +2nd Duke of Sutherland, was born in 1845, and succeeded his father in 1900. +He completed his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, sat in Parliament +as member for Argyllshire, 1868-78, was Governor-General of Canada from +1878 to 1883, and again sat in Parliament as member for South Manchester +from 1895 to 1900, as a Liberal-Unionist. He married the Princess Louise of +Great Britain, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871. He died in 1914. +His works include: _The United States after the War_, _Imperial +Federation_, _Canadian Pictures_, _Memories of Canada and Scotland_, _Life +of Lord Palmerston_, _Tales and Poems_, _The Psalms in English Verse_, +_Life and Times of Queen Victoria_, _Yesterday and To-day in Canada_, &c. + +ARGYLL AND SUTHERLAND HIGHLANDERS (Princess Louise's), raised by the 5th +Duke of Argyll (1794), received their present title in 1872. The regiment +served under Sir David Baird in Cape Colony, and at Balaklava made itself +immortal as Sir Colin Campbell's 'thin red line'. It was further +distinguished in the European War at Gheluvelt, Le Cateau, and the second +battle of Ypres. + +ARGYRO-CASTRO ([.a]r'gi-r[=o]-), a town in Albania, 40 miles north-west of +Janina; built on three ridges intersected by deep ravines, across which are +several bridges. It was occupied by the Greeks in 1916. Pop. about 10,000. + +ARGYROPU'LOS, Johannes, one of the principal revivers of Greek learning in +the fifteenth century. Born in Constantinople 1415, died at Rome 1486. + +ARIA, in music. See _Air_. + +ARIADNE (a-ri-ad'ne), in Greek mythology, a daughter of Minos, King of +Crete. She gave Theseus a clue of thread to conduct him out of the +labyrinth after his defeat of the Minotaur. Theseus abandoned her on the +Isle of Naxos, where she was found by Dionysus, who married her. + +ARIA'NA, the ancient name of a large district in Asia, forming a portion of +the Persian Empire; bounded on the north by the provinces of Bactriana, +Margiana, and Hyrcania; east by the Indus; south by the Indian Ocean and +the Persian Gulf; west by Media. + +ARIANO (ae-r[=e]-ae'n[=o]), a town in South Italy, province of Avellino, 44 +miles north-east of Naples, the seat of a bishop, with a handsome +cathedral. Pop. 17,650. + +AR'IANS, the adherents of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius, who, about A.D. +318, promulgated the doctrine that Christ was a created being inferior to +God the Father in nature and dignity, though the first and noblest of all +created beings; and also that the Holy Spirit is not God, but created by +the power of the Son. Arianism has been defined as an attempt to determine +the relations of the Persons of the Trinity on a basis of distinction and +subordination. It does not seem to have sprung from any strong ethical +impulse; its philosophy was pagan, and the object of the leaders political +rather than religious. The doctrines were condemned by the Council of +Nicaea in 325. Arius died in 336, and after his death his party gained +considerable accessions, including several emperors, and for a time held a +strong position. Since the middle of the seventh century, however, the +Arians have nowhere constituted a distinct sect, although similar opinions +have been advanced by various theologians in modern times. The Arian +controversy was revived in England during the eighteenth century by William +Whiston and Dr. Samuel Clarke.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. M. Gwatkin, _Studies of +Arianism_; J. H. Newman, _Arians of the Fourth Century_; J. H. Colligan, +_Arian Movement in England_. + +ARICA ([.a]-r[=e]'k[.a]), a seaport of Chile, 30 miles S. of Tacna; +previous to 1880 it belonged to Peru. It has suffered frequently from +earthquakes, being in 1868 almost entirely destroyed, part of it being also +submerged by an earthquake wave. Pop. about 4000. It has a wireless +station. + +ARICA. See _Tacna-Arica Dispute_. + +ARICHAT (-shat'), a seaport town and fishing station of Nova Scotia, on a +small bay, south coast of Madame Island. Pop. about 2500. + +ARIEGE ([.a]-r[=e]-[=a]zh), a mountainous department of France, on the +northern slopes of the Pyrenees, comprising the ancient countship of Foix +and parts of Languedoc and Gascony. The principal rivers are the Ariege, +Arize, and Salat, tributaries of the Garonne. Sheep and cattle are reared; +the arable land is small in quantity. Chief town, Foix. Area, 1892 sq. +miles. Pop. (1921), 172,851. + +A'RIEL, a symbolic name for Jerusalem in the Old Testament; in the +demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's +_Tempest_, Ariel was the "tricksy spirit" whom Prospero had in his service. + +ARIES ([=a]'ri-[=e]z; Lat.), the Ram, a northern constellation. It is the +first of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which the sun enters at the vernal +equinox, about the 21st of March. The "First Point in Aries" is where the +equator cuts the ecliptic in the ascending node, from which point the right +ascensions of heavenly bodies are reckoned on the equator, and their +longitudes upon the ecliptic. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes the +sign Aries no longer corresponds with the constellation Aries, which it did +2000 years ago. + +[Illustration: Aril, Fruit of Nutmeg] + +AR'IL, or ARIL'LUS, in some plants, as in the nutmeg, an extra covering of +the seed, outside of the true seed-coats, proceeding from the placenta, +partially investing the seed, and falling off spontaneously. It is either +succulent or cartilaginous, coloured, elastic, rough, or knotted. In the +nutmeg it is known as _mace_. + +ARIMAS'PIANS, in ancient Greek traditions, a people who lived in the +extreme north-east of the ancient world. They were said to be one-eyed and +to carry on a perpetual war with the gold-guarding griffins, whose gold +they endeavoured to steal. Cf. Milton, _Paradise Lost_, II, 943. + +ARIMATHAE'A, a town of Palestine, identified with the modern _Ramleh_, 22 +miles W.N.W. of Jerusalem. + +ARI'ON, an ancient Greek poet and musician, born at Methymna, in Lesbos, +flourished about 625 B.C. He lived at the Court of Periander of Corinth, +and afterwards visited Sicily and Italy. Returning from Tarentum to Corinth +with rich treasures, the avaricious sailors resolved to murder him. Apollo, +however, having informed him in a dream of the impending danger, Arion in +vain endeavoured to soften the hearts of the crew by the power of music. He +then threw himself into the sea, when one of a shoal of dolphins, which had +been attracted by his music, received him on his back and bore him to land. +The sailors, having returned to Corinth, were confronted by Arion and +convicted of their crime. The lyre of Arion, and the dolphin which rescued +him, became constellations in the heavens. A fragment of a hymn to +Poseidon, ascribed to Arion, is extant. + +ARIOS'TO, LUDOVI'CO, one of the most celebrated poets of Italy, was born at +Reggio, in Lombardy, 8th Sept., 1474, of a noble family; died 6th June, +1533. His lyric poems in the Italian and Latin languages, distinguished for +ease and elegance of style, introduced him to the notice of the Cardinal +Ippolito d'Este, son of Duke Ercole I of Ferrara. In 1503 Ippolito employed +him in his service and used his counsel in the most important affairs. In +this service he began and finished, in ten or eleven years, his immortal +poem, the _Orlando Furioso_, which was published in 1515, and immediately +became highly popular. He afterwards entered the service of Alfonso I, Duke +of Ferrara, the cardinal's brother, a lover of the arts, who put much +confidence in him. After quelling disturbances that had broken out in the +wild and mountainous Garfagnana, he returned to Ferrara, where he employed +himself in the composition of his comedies, and in putting the last touches +to his _Orlando_. The _Orlando Furioso_ is a continuation of the _Orlando +Innamorato_ of Bojardo, details the chivalrous adventures of the paladins +of the age of Charlemagne, and extends to forty-six cantos. The best +English translation is that of Rose (1823). Cf. E. Gardner, _Ariosto: the +Prince of Court Poets_; J. S. Nicholson, _Life and Genius of Ariosto_. + +ARISH. See _El Arish_. + +ARISTAEUS, in Greek mythology, son of Apollo and Cyrene, the introducer of +bee-keeping. Cf. Virgil, _Georgics_, IV, 315-558. + +ARISTARCHUS (a-ris-taer'kus), an ancient Greek grammarian, born at +Samothrace 220 B.C., died at Cyprus 143 B.C. He edited Homer's poems with +the greatest acuteness and ability, endeavouring to restore the text to its +genuine state, and to clear it of all interpolations and corruptions; hence +the phrase, Aristarchian criticism. His edition of Homer furnished the +basis of all subsequent ones. + +ARISTARCHUS, an ancient Greek astronomer belonging to Samos, flourished +about 155 B.C., and first asserted the revolution of the earth about the +sun; also regarded as the inventor of the sun-dial. + +ARIS'TEAS, a personage of ancient Greek legend, represented to have lived +over many centuries, disappearing and reappearing by turns. + +ARISTIDES (a-ris-t[=i]'d[=e]z), a statesman of ancient Greece, for his +strict integrity surnamed the _Just_. He was one of the ten generals of the +Athenians when they fought with the Persians at Marathon, 490 B.C. Next +year he was eponymous archon, and in this office enjoyed such popularity +that he excited the jealousy of Themistocles, who succeeded in procuring +his banishment by ostracism (about 483). Three years after, when Xerxes +invaded Greece with a large army, the Athenians hastened to recall him, and +Themistocles now admitted him to his confidence and councils. In the battle +of Plataea (479) he commanded the Athenians, and had a great share in +gaining the victory. To defray the expenses of the Persian war he persuaded +the Greeks to impose a tax, which should be paid into the hands of an +officer appointed by the States collectively, and deposited at Delos. The +confidence which was felt in his integrity appeared in their entrusting him +with the office of apportioning the contribution. He died at an advanced +age about 468 B.C., so poor that he was buried at the public expense. + +ARISTIP'PUS (c. 425-366 B.C.), a disciple of Socrates, and founder of a +philosophical school among the Greeks, which was called the _Cyrenaic_, +from his native city Cyr[=e]n[=e], in Africa; flourished 380 B.C. His moral +philosophy differed widely from that of Socrates, and was a science of +refined voluptuousness. His fundamental principles were--that all human +sensations may be reduced to two, pleasure and pain. Pleasure is a gentle, +and pain a violent emotion. All living beings seek the former and avoid the +latter. Happiness is nothing but a continued pleasure, composed of separate +gratifications; and as it is the object of all human exertions, we should +abstain from no kind of pleasure. Still we should always be governed by +taste and reason in our enjoyments. His doctrines were taught only by his +daughter Ar[)e]t[=e], and by his grandson Aristippus the younger, by whom +they were systematized. Other Cyrenaics compounded them into a particular +doctrine of pleasure, and are hence called _Hedonici_. His writings are +lost. + +ARISTOC'RACY (Gr. _aristos_, best, _kratos_, rule), a form of government by +which the wealthy and noble, or any small privileged class, rules over the +rest of the citizens. The term has now become almost entirely social in +meaning, and is mostly applied to the nobility or chief persons in a State. + +ARISTOGEITON (-g[=i]'ton), a citizen of Athens, whose name is rendered +famous by a conspiracy (514 B.C.) formed in conjunction with his friend +Harmodius against the tyrants Hippias and Hipparchus, the sons of +Pisistratus. Both Aristogeiton and Harmodius lost their lives through their +attempts to free the country, and were reckoned martyrs of liberty. + +ARISTOLOCHIA (-l[=o]'ki-a), a genus of plants, the type of the ord. +Aristolochiaceae, which consists of dicotyledonous monochlamydeous plants, +with an inferior 3-6-celled fruit, found for the most part in the hotter +parts of the world, and in many cases used medicinally on account of their +tonic and stimulating properties. The genus has emmenagogic qualities, +especially the European species _A. rotunda_, _A. longa_, and _A. +Clemat[=i]tis_. _A. bracte[=a]ta_ is used in India as an anthelminthic; _A. +odoratissima_, a West Indian species, is a valuable bitter and +alexipharmic. _A. serpentaria_ is the Virginian snake-root, popularly +regarded as a remedy for snake bites. + +ARISTOPHANES (-tof'a-n[=e]z), the greatest comic poet of ancient Greece, +born at Athens probably about the year 455 B.C., died 375 B.C. Little is +known of his life. He appeared as a poet in 427 B.C., and having indulged +in some sarcasms on the powerful demagogue Cleon, was ineffectually accused +by the latter of having unlawfully assumed the title of an Athenian +citizen. He afterwards revenged himself on Cleon in his comedy of the +_Knights_, in which he himself acted the part of Cleon, because no actor +had the courage to do it. Of fifty-four (or forty-four) comedies attributed +to him, eleven only remain; believed to be the flower of the ancient +comedy, and distinguished by wit, humour, and poetry, as also by grossness. +In them there is constant reference to the manners, actions, and public +characters of the day, the freedom of the old Greek comedy allowing an +unbounded degree of personal and political satire. The names of his extant +plays are _Acharnians_, _Knights_, _Clouds_, _Wasps_, _Peace_, _Birds_, +_Lysistrata_, _Thesmophoriazusae_, _Frogs_, _Ecclesiasuzae_, and +_Plutus_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. B. Rogers, _Complete Works of Aristophanes, +with verse translation_ (by far the best translation); Hookham-Frere, +_Translation_ (five plays only); Couat, _Aristophane et l'ancienne comedie +attique_. + +AR'ISTOTLE (Gr. _Aristot'eles_), a distinguished philosopher and naturalist +of ancient Greece, the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy, was +born in 384 B.C. at Stagira, in Macedonia; died at Chalcis, 322 B.C. His +father, Nicomachus, was physician to Amyntas II, King of Macedonia, and +claimed to be descended from Aesculapius. Aristotle had lost his parents +before he came, at about the age of seventeen, to Athens to study in the +school of Plato. With that philosopher he remained for twenty years, became +pre-eminent among his pupils, and was known as the 'Intellect of the +School'. Upon the death of Plato, 348 B.C., he took up his residence at +Atarneus, in Mysia, on the invitation of his former pupil Hermeias, the +ruler of that city, on whose assassination by the Persians, 343 B.C., he +fled to Mitylene with his wife Pythias, a near relative of Hermeias. During +his residence at Mitylene he received an invitation from Philip of Macedon +to superintend the education of his son Alexander, then in his fourteenth +year. This relationship between the great philosopher and the future +conqueror continued for five or six years, during which the prince was +instructed in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, logic, ethics, and politics, and +in those branches of physics which had even then made some considerable +progress. On Alexander succeeding to the throne Aristotle continued to live +with him as his friend and councillor till he set out on his Asiatic +campaign (334 B.C.). He returned to Athens and established his school in +the Lyceum, a gymnasium attached to the temple of Apollo Lyceius, which was +assigned to him by the State. He delivered his lectures in the wooded walks +of the Lyceum while walking up and down with his pupils. From the action +itself, or more probably from the name of the walks (_peripatoi_), his +school was called Peripatetic. Pupils gathered to him from all parts of +Greece, and his school became by far the most popular in Athens. The +statement that he had two circles of pupils, the _exoteric_ and the +_esoteric_ has given rise to much controversy. By some it has been held +that Aristotle published during his lifetime popular discourses with a view +to make way for his doctrines in Athenian society, then impregnated with +Platonic theories, and that these are called exoteric in contradistinction +to those in which are embodied his matured opinions. It was during the time +of his teaching at Athens that Aristotle is believed to have composed the +great bulk of his works. But it is not possible to speak with any certainty +about the chronology of his writings, as the references may be additions of +editors. On the death of Alexander a revolution occurred in Athens hostile +to the Macedonian interests with which Aristotle was identified. He +therefore retired to Chalcis, where he soon after died. Sir Charles +Walston, in 1891, opened a tomb near Eretria which he supposed to be that +of Aristotle. According to Strabo he bequeathed all his works to +Theophrastus, who, with other disciples of Aristotle, amended and continued +them. They afterwards passed through various hands, till, about 50 B.C., +Andronicus of Rhodes put the various fragments together and classified them +according to a systematic arrangement. Many of the books bearing his name +are spurious, others are of doubtful genuineness. The whole are generally +divided into logical, theoretical, and practical. The logical works are +comprehended under the title _Organon_ (Instrument). The theoretical are +divided into physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The physical works +(including those on natural history) are on the _General Principles of +Physical Science_, _The Heavens_, _Generation and Destruction_, +_Meteorology_, _Natural History of Animals_, _On the Parts of Animals_, _On +the Generation of Animals_, _On the Locomotion of Animals_, _On the Soul_, +_On Memory_, _Sleep and Waking_, _Dreams_, _Divination_. In mathematics +there are two treatises, _On Indivisible Lines_ and _Mechanical Problems_. +_The Metaphysics_ consist of fourteen books; the title (_Ta meta ta +Physika_, 'the things following the Physics',) is the invention of an +editor. The practical works embrace ethics, politics, economics, and +treatises on art, and comprise the _Nicomachaean Ethics_ (so called because +dedicated to his son, Nicomachus), _The Politics_, _Oeconomics_, _Poetry_, +and _Rhetoric_. Among the lost works are the dialogues and others termed +exoteric. A treatise _On the Constitution of Athens_ was discovered in +1891. His style is devoid of grace and elegance. His works were first +printed in a Latin translation, with the commentaries of Averroes, at +Venice in 1489; the first Greek edition was that of Aldus Manutius (5 +vols., 1495-8). See _Peripatetic Philosophy_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Blakesley, +_Life of Aristotle_; S. H. Butcher, _Poetics_ (with translation and +excursus); R. Shute, _History of the Aristotelian Writings_; J. C. Wilson, +_Aristotelian Studies_; E. Zeller, _Aristotle and the Earlier +Peripatetics_; E. Barker, _Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle_. + +ARISTOX'ENUS, an ancient Greek musician and philosopher of Tarentum, born +about 324 B.C. He studied music under his father Mnesias, and philosophy +under Aristotle, whose successor he aspired to be. He endeavoured to apply +his musical knowledge to philosophy, and especially to the science of mind, +but it only appears to have furnished him with far-fetched analogies and +led him into a kind of materialism. We have a work on the _Elements of +Harmony_ by him. + +ARITH'METIC (Gr. _arithmos_, number) is primarily the science of numbers. +As opposed to algebra it is the practical part of the science. Although the +processes of arithmetical operations are often highly complicated, they all +resolve themselves into the repetition of four primary +operations--addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Of these +the two latter are only complex forms of the two former, and subtraction +again is merely a reversal of the process of addition. Little or nothing is +known as to the origin and invention of arithmetic. Some elementary +conception of it is in all probability coeval with the first dawn of human +intelligence. In consequence of their rude methods of numeration, the +science made but small advance among the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and +Romans, and it was not until the introduction of the decimal scale of +notation and the Arabic, or rather Indian, numerals into Europe that any +great progress can be traced. In this scale of notation every number is +expressed by means of the ten digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, by +giving each digit a local as well as its proper or natural value. The value +of every digit increases in a tenfold proportion from the right towards the +left; the distance of any figure from the right indicating the power of 10, +and the digit itself the number of those powers intended to be expressed: +thus 3464 = 3000 + 400 + 60 + 4 = 3 x 10^3 + 4 x 10^2 + 6 x 10 + 4. The +earliest arithmetical signs appear to have been hieroglyphical, but the +Egyptian hieroglyphics were too diffuse to be of any arithmetical value. +The units were successive strokes to the number required, the ten an open +circle, the hundred a curled palm-leaf, the thousand a lotus flower, ten +thousand a bent finger. The letters of the alphabet afforded a convenient +mode of representing figures, and were used accordingly by the Chaldeans, +Hebrews, and Greeks. The first nine letters of the Hebrew alphabet +represented the units, the second nine tens, the remaining four together +with five repeated with additional marks, hundreds; the same succession of +letters with added points was repeated for thousands, tens of thousands, +and hundreds of thousands. The Greeks followed the same system up to tens +of thousands. They wrote the different classes of numbers in succession as +we do, and they transferred operations performed on units to numbers in +higher places; but the use of different signs for the different ranks +clearly shows a want of full perception of the value of place as such. They +adopted the letter M as a sign for 10,000 and by combining this mark with +their other numerals they could note numbers as high as 100,000,000. The +Roman numerals, which are still used in marking dates or numbering +chapters, were almost useless for purposes of computation. From one to four +were represented by vertical strokes [I], [II], [III], [IIII], five by [V], +ten by [X], fifty by [L], one hundred by [square C], afterwards [C], five +hundred by [D], a thousand by [M]. These signs were derived from each other +according to particular rules, thus [V] was the half of [X], [inverted V] +being also used; [L] was likewise the half of [C]. [M] was artistically +written [M] and [cIc*] and [Ic*], afterwards [D], became five hundred. +[ccI] represented 5000, [ccIc*c*] 10,000, [Ic*c*c*] 50,000, [cccIc*c*c*] +100,000. They were also compounded by addition and subtraction, thus [IV] +stood for four, [VI] for six, [XXX] for thirty, [XL] for forty, [LX] for +sixty. Arithmetic is divided into _abstract_ and _practical_: the former +comprehends notation, numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication, +division, measures and multiples, fractions, powers and roots; the latter +treats of the combinations and practical applications of these and the +so-called rules, such as reduction, compound addition, subtraction, +multiplication, and division, proportion, interest, profit and loss, &c. +Another division is _integral_ and _fractional_ arithmetic, the former +treating of integers, or whole numbers, and the latter of fractions. +Decimal fractions were invented in the sixteenth century, and logarithms, +embodying the last great advance in the science, in the seventeenth +century. + +ARITHMET'ICAL, pertaining to arithmetic or its operations.--_Arithmetical +mean_, the middle term of three quantities in arithmetical progression, or +half the sum of any two proposed numbers; thus 11 is the arithmetical mean +to 8 and 14.--_Arithmetical progression_, a series of numbers increasing or +decreasing by a common difference, as 1, 3, 5, 7, &c.--_Arithmetical +signs_, certain symbols used in arithmetic, and indicating processes or +facts. The common signs used in arithmetic are the following: [plus sign] +signifying that the numbers between which it is placed are to be added; +[minus sign] - that the second is to be subtracted from the first; [times +sign] that the one is to be multiplied by the other; [divide sign] that the +former is to be divided by the latter; [equals sign] signifies that the one +number is equal to the other; [proportional signs - colons] are the signs +placed between the members of a proportional series, as 4 : 6 :: 8 : 12. A +small figure placed on the right hand of another at the top signifies the +corresponding power of the number beside which it is placed, as 5^2, 4^3, +meaning the square of 5 and the cube of 4. [cube root] placed before or +over a number signifies the square root of that number; with a figure it +signifies the root of a higher power, as [cube root], which means cube +root. A period placed to the left of a series of figures indicates that +they are decimal fractions. + +A'RIUS, the originator of the Arian heresy. See _Arians_. + +ARIZO'NA, a former territory of the United States, admitted into the union +as a sovereign State on 14th Feb., 1912, is bounded south by Mexico, west +by California and Nevada (the River Colorado forming the greater part of +the boundary), north by Utah, and east by New Mexico; area, 113,956 sq. +miles. The surface is generally mountainous, but many fertile and +well-watered valleys lie between the ridges. Part of the surface consists +of deserts often entirely destitute of vegetation. The territory belongs to +the basin of the Colorado, which passes through a portion of it, besides +forming the boundary; while the Gila and Little Colorado, tributaries of +the Colorado, traverse it from east to west. The canyons of the Colorado +form a wonderful feature, the river flowing for hundreds of miles in a deep +rocky channel with walls rising perpendicularly to the height of 1500 to +6000 feet. In some parts timber is plentiful. The rainfall is small, and +irrigation has been employed for agricultural purposes. Large tracts of +elevated land have been found excellently adapted as pastures for sheep and +cattle. The territory is rich in copper, gold, silver, lead, and other +minerals, and mining is largely carried on, with much copper smelting and +refining. The capital is Phoenix. Pop. 29,053. The Southern and the Santa +Fe Pacific Railways traverse it. Pop. (1920), 333,903 (of which 171,468 are +white), exclusive of Apaches and other Indians on reservations (area, +29,017 sq. miles; pop. (1920), 42,400). + +ARJISH DAGH, the loftiest peak of the peninsula of Asia Minor, at the +western extremity of the Anti-Taurus Range, 13,150 feet; an extinct +volcano; on the N. and N.E. slopes are extensive glaciers. + +ARK, the name applied in our translation of the Bible to the boat or +floating house in which Noah resided during the flood or deluge; to the +floating vessel of bulrushes in which the infant Moses was laid; and to the +chest in which the tables of the law were preserved--the _ark of the +covenant_. This last was made of shittim-wood, overlaid within and without +with gold, about 3 3/4 feet long by 2 1/4 feet high and broad, and over it +were placed the golden covering or mercy-seat and the two cherubim. It was +placed in the sanctuary of the temple of Solomon; before his time it was +kept in the tabernacle, and was moved about as circumstances dictated. At +the captivity it appears to have been either lost or destroyed. + +ARKANSAS (ar'kan-s[a:] or ar-kan'sas), one of the United States of America, +bounded north by Missouri; east by the Mississippi, which separates it from +the States of Mississippi and Tennessee; south by Louisiana and Texas; and +west by the Indian Territory and Texas; area, 53,335 sq. miles. The surface +in the east is low, flat, and swampy, densely wooded, and subject to +frequent inundations from the numerous streams which water it. Towards the +centre it becomes more diversified, presenting many undulating slopes and +hills of moderate elevation. In the west it rises still higher, being +traversed by a range of hills called the Ozark, which attains a height of +2000 feet, some peaks rising to 3000. In various parts the prairies are of +great extent; the forests also are extensive, principally of oak, hickory, +ash, cotton, linden, maple, locust, and pine. Coal and other minerals are +worked. The principal rivers, all tributaries of the Mississippi, are the +Arkansas, the Red River, the St. Francis, and the Washita. Near the centre +of the State are warm springs, much resorted to for chronic rheumatic and +paralytic affections. The climate is subject to great extremes of heat and +cold, and in the lower districts is unhealthy to new settlers. The staple +products are cotton and maize; fruit is tolerably abundant. Many districts +are admirably adapted for grazing, and great numbers of excellent cattle +are reared. Arkansas was colonized as early as 1685 by the French. As part +of Louisiana it was purchased by the United States in 1803. It was made +into a separate territory in 1819, and admitted into the Union in 1836. It +was one of the seceding States. The capital is Little Rock. The enumerated +population in 1920 was 1,750,995. + +ARKANSAS, a river of the United States, which gives its name to the above +State, the largest affluent of the Mississippi after the Missouri. It rises +in the Rocky Mountains, about lat. 39deg N., long. 107deg W., flows in a +general south-easterly direction through Colorado, Kansas, the Indian +Territory, and lastly through the State of Arkansas, and after a course of +2170 miles enters the Mississippi. During greater part of the year it is +navigable for steamboats for 800 miles. + +ARKITE. See _Explosives_. + +ARK'LOW, a town in Ireland, County Wicklow, on the right bank of the Avoca, +which falls into the sea about 500 yards below the town; the scene of a +severe fight during the rebellion of 1798. Fishing is the chief industry. +Pop. 5042. + +[Illustration: Arkwright's Water Frame] + +ARK'WRIGHT, Sir Richard, famous for his inventions in cotton-spinning, was +born at Preston, in Lancashire, in 1732, died 1792. The youngest of +thirteen children, he was bred to the trade of a barber. When about +thirty-five years of age he gave himself up exclusively to the subject of +inventions for spinning cotton. The thread spun by Hargreaves' jenny could +not be used except as weft, being destitute of the firmness or hardness +required in the longitudinal threads or warp. But Arkwright supplied this +deficiency by the invention of the _spinning-frame_, which spins a vast +number of threads of any degree of fineness and hardness, leaving the +operator merely to feed the machine with cotton and to join the threads +when they happen to break. His invention introduced the system of spinning +by rollers, the carding, or _roving_ as it is technically termed (that is, +the soft, loose strip of cotton), passing through one pair of rollers, and +being received by a second pair, which is made to revolve with (as the case +may be) three, four, or five times the velocity of the first pair. By this +contrivance the roving is drawn out into a thread of the desired degree of +tenuity and hardness. His inventions being brought into a pretty advanced +state, Arkwright removed to Nottingham in 1768 in order to avoid the +attacks of the same lawless rabble that had driven Hargreaves out of +Lancashire. Here his operations were at first greatly fettered by a want of +capital; but two gentlemen of means having entered into partnership with +him, the necessary funds were obtained, and Arkwright erected his first +mill, which was driven by horses, at Nottingham, and took out a patent for +spinning by rollers in 1769. As the mode of working the machinery by +horse-power was found too expensive, he built a second factory on a much +larger scale at Cromford, in Derbyshire, in 1771, the machinery of which +was turned by a water-wheel. Having made several additional discoveries and +improvements in the processes of carding, roving, and spinning, he took out +a fresh patent for the whole in 1775, and thus completed a series of the +most ingenious and complicated machinery. Notwithstanding a series of +law-suits in defence of his patent rights, and the destruction of his +property by mobs, he amassed a large fortune. He was knighted by George III +in 1786. + +ARLBERG ([.a]rl'ber_h_), a branch of the Rhaetian Alps, in the west of +Tyrol, between it and Vorarlberg, pierced by the fourth longest railway +tunnel in the world. It is 6 1/2 miles long, and was finished in Nov., +1883, and connects the valley of the Inn with that of the Rhine, and the +Austrian railway system with the Swiss railways. + +AR'LECDON, an urban district of England, in Cumberland, 4 miles east of +Whitehaven, with coal and iron mines. Pop. (1921), 5152. + +ARLES ([.a]rl; ancient, AREL[=A]TE), a town of Southern France, department +Bouches du Rhone, 17 miles south-east of Nismes. It was an important town +at the time of Caesar's invasion, and under the later emperors it became +one of the most flourishing towns on the farther side of the Alps. It still +possesses numerous ancient remains, of which the most conspicuous are those +of a Roman amphitheatre, which accommodated 24,000 spectators. It has a +considerable trade, manufactures of silk, &c., and furnishes a market for +the surrounding country. Pop. 16,746. + +AR'LINGTON, Henry Bennet, Earl of, member of the Cabal ministry, and one of +the scheming creatures of Charles II, born 1618, died 1685. He is supposed +to have lived and died a Roman Catholic. + +AR'LON, a Belgian town, capital province of Luxemburg, a thriving town, +with manufactures of ironware, leather, tobacco, &c. Pop. 12,012. + +ARM, the upper limb in man, connected with the thorax or chest by means of +the scapula or shoulder-blade, and the clavicle or collar-bone. It consists +of three bones, the arm-bone (_hum[)e]rus_), and the two bones of the +fore-arm (_radius_ and _ulna_), and it is connected with the bones of the +hand by the _carpus_ or wrist. The head or upper end of the arm-bone fits +into the hollow called the _glenoid cavity_ of the scapula, so as to form a +joint of the ball-and-socket kind, allowing great freedom of movement to +the limb. The lower end of the humerus is broadened out by a projection on +both the outer and inner sides (the outer and inner _condyles_), and has a +pulley-like surface for articulating with the fore-arm to form the +elbow-joint. This joint somewhat resembles a hinge, allowing of movement +only in one direction. The ulna is the inner of the two bones of the +fore-arm. It is largest at the upper end, where it has two processes, the +_coronoid_ and the _olecranon_, with a deep groove between to receive the +humerus. The radius--the outer of the two bones--is small at the upper and +expanded at the lower end, where it forms part of the wrist-joint. The +muscles of the upper arm are either _flexors_ or _extensors_, the former +serving to bend the arm, the latter to straighten it by means of the +elbow-joint. The main flexor is the _biceps_, the large muscle which may be +seen standing out in front of the arm when a weight is raised. The chief +opposing muscle of the biceps is the _triceps_. The muscles of the fore-arm +are, besides flexors and extensors, _pronators_ and _supinators_, the +former turning the hand palm downwards, the latter turning it upwards. The +same fundamental plan of structure exists in the limbs of all vertebrate +animals. + +ARMA'DA, the Spanish name for any large naval force; usually applied to the +Spanish fleet vaingloriously designated the _Invincible Armada_, intended +to act against England A.D. 1588. It was under the command of the Duke of +Medina-Sidonia, and consisted of 130 great war vessels, larger and stronger +than any belonging to the English fleet, with 30 smaller ships of war, and +carried 19,295 marines, 8460 sailors, 2088 slaves, and 2630 cannon. It had +scarcely quitted Lisbon on 29th May, 1588, when it was scattered by a +storm, and had to be refitted in Corunna. It was to co-operate with a land +force collected in Flanders under the Prince of Parma, and to unite with +this it proceeded through the English Channel towards Calais. In its +progress it was attacked by the English fleet under Lord Howard, who, with +his lieutenants, Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, endeavoured by dexterous +seamanship and the discharge of well-directed volleys of shot to destroy or +capture the vessels of the enemy. The great lumbering Spanish vessels +suffered severely from their smaller opponents, which most of their shot +missed. Arrived at length off Dunkirk, the armada was becalmed, thrown into +confusion by fire-ships, and many of the Spanish vessels destroyed or +taken. The Duke of Medina-Sidonia, owing to the severe losses, at last +resolved to abandon the enterprise, and conceived the idea of reconveying +his fleet to Spain by a voyage round the north of Great Britain; but storm +after storm assailed his ships, scattering them in all directions, and +sinking many. Some went down on the cliffs of Norway, others in the open +sea, others on the Scottish coast, others on the coast of Ireland. In all, +seventy-two large vessels and over 10,000 men were lost.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: +J. A. Froude, _Spanish Story of the Armada_; Sir J. K. Laughton, _State +Papers relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada_; J. R. Hale, _Story of +the Great Armada_. + +ARMADALE, a town of Scotland, Linlithgowshire, in coal and iron district. +Pop. 4739. + +[Illustration: Armadillos--Left, Hairy Armadillo. Right, Kappler's +Armadillo] + +ARMADI'LLO (genus Das[)y]pus), an edentate mammal peculiar to South +America, consisting of various species, belonging to a family intermediate +between the sloths and ant-eaters. They are covered with a hard bony shell, +divided into belts, composed of small separate plates like a coat of mail, +flexible everywhere except on the forehead, shoulders, and haunches, where +it is not movable. The belts are connected by a membrane which enables the +animal to roll itself up like a hedgehog. These animals burrow in the +earth, where they lie during the daytime, seldom going abroad except at +night. They are of different sizes: the largest, _Dasypus gigas_, being 3 +feet in length without the tail, and the smallest only 10 inches. They +subsist chiefly on fruits and roots, sometimes on insects and flesh. They +are inoffensive, and their flesh is esteemed good food.--There is a genus +of isopodous Crustacea called Armadillo, consisting of animals allied to +the wood-lice, capable of rolling themselves into a ball. + +ARMAGEDDON (-ged'don), the great battlefield of the Old Testament, where +the chief conflicts took place between the Israelites and their +enemies--the table-land of Esdraelon in Galilee and Samaria, in the centre +of which stood the town of Megiddo, on the site of the modern Lejjun: used +figuratively in the _Apocalypse_ to signify the place of 'the battle of the +great day of God'. It may, however, be _har migdo_, his fruitful mountain, +'the mountain land of Israel'. The phrase 'an Armageddon' expresses any +great slaughter or final conflict, and has been frequently applied to the +Great War of 1914-8. During this war severe fighting took place in Sept., +1918, on the field of Armageddon, the entrance to the passes of Megiddo. +The battle ended in an overwhelming victory for General Allenby's armies. +See _Megiddo_. + +ARMAGH ([.a]r-mae'), a county of Ireland, in the province of Ulster; +surrounded by Monaghan, Tyrone, Lough Neagh, Down, and Louth; area, 328,086 +acres, of which about a half is under tillage. The north-west of the county +is undulating and fertile. The northern part, bordering on Lough Neagh, +consists principally of extensive bogs. On the southern border is a range +of barren hills. The chief rivers are the Blackwater, which separates it +from Tyrone; the Upper Bann, which discharges itself into Lough Neagh; and +the Callan, which falls into the Blackwater. There are several small lakes. +The manufacture of linen is carried on very extensively. Armagh, Lurgan, +and Portadown are the chief towns. The county sends three members to +Parliament. Pop. 120,291.--The county town, _Armagh_, is situated partly on +a hill, about half a mile from the Callan. It has a Protestant cathedral +crowning the hill, a Gothic building dating from the eighth century, +repaired and beautified recently; a new Roman Catholic cathedral in the +pointed Gothic style, and various public buildings. It is the see of an +archbishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, who is primate of all +Ireland, and is a place of great antiquity. Pop. 7356. + +ARMAGNAC ([.a]r-m[.a]-ny[.a]k), an ancient territory of France, in the +province of Gascony, some of the counts of which hold prominent places in +the history of France. Bernard VII, son of John II, surnamed the Hunchback, +succeeded his brother, John III, in 1391, and was called to Court by +Isabella of Bavaria, with the view of heading the Orleans in opposition to +the Burgundian faction, where he no sooner gained the ascendancy than he +compelled the queen to appoint him Constable of France. He showed himself a +merciless tyrant, and became so generally execrated that the Duke of +Burgundy, to whom Isabella had turned for help, found little difficulty in +gaining admission into Paris, and even seizing the person of Armagnac, who +was cast into prison in 1418, when the exasperated populace burst in and +killed him and his followers. John V, grandson of the above, who succeeded +in 1450, made himself notorious for his crimes. He was assassinated in his +castle of Lectoure in 1473 by an agent of Louis XI, against whom he was +holding out. + +AR'MATURE, a term applied to the piece of soft iron which is placed across +the poles of permanent or electro-magnets for the purpose of receiving and +concentrating the attractive force. In the case of permanent magnets it is +also important for preserving their magnetism when not in use, and hence it +is sometimes termed the _keeper_. It produces this effect in virtue of the +well-known law of induction, by which the armature, when placed near or +across the poles of the magnet, is itself converted into a temporary magnet +with reversed poles, and these, reacting upon the permanent magnet, keep +its particles in a state of constant magnetic tension, or, in other words, +in that constrained position which is supposed to constitute magnetism. A +horse-shoe magnet should therefore never be laid aside without its +armature; and in the case of straight bar-magnets two should be placed +parallel to each other, with their poles reversed, and a keeper or armature +across them at both ends. The term is also applied to the core and coil of +the electro-magnet, which revolves before the poles of the permanent magnet +in the magneto-electric machine. + +ARME BLANCHE, a term applied to the rapier and duelling-foil, and +frequently also to all weapons other than fire-arms. The phrase is +particularly applied to the sabres and lances carried by cavalry, but also +to the bayonet. + +ARME'NIA, a mountainous country of Western Asia, of great historical +interest as the original seat of one of the oldest civilized peoples in the +world. The name Armenia occurs in the _Vulgate_, but the Hebrew name is +Ararat. It has an area of about 120,000 sq. miles, and is intersected by +the Euphrates, which divides it into the ancient divisions, Armenia Major +and Armenia Minor. The country is an elevated plateau, enclosed on several +sides by the ranges of Taurus and Anti-Taurus, and partly occupied by other +mountains, the loftiest of which is Ararat. Several important rivers take +their rise in Armenia, namely, the Kur or Cyrus, and its tributary the Aras +or Araxes, flowing east to the Caspian Sea; the Halys or Kizil-Irmak, +flowing north to the Black Sea; and the Tigris and Euphrates, which flow +into the Persian Gulf. The chief lakes are Van and Urumiyah. The climate is +rather severe. The soil is on the whole productive, though in many places +it would be quite barren were it not for the great care taken to irrigate +it. Wheat, barley, tobacco, hemp, grapes, and cotton are raised; and in +some of the valleys apricots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts are grown. +The inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine Armenian stock, a branch of the +Aryan or Indo-European race; but besides them, in consequence of the +repeated subjugation of the country, various other races have obtained a +footing. The total number of Armenians is estimated at 2,900,000, of whom +one-half are in Armenia. The remainder, like the Jews, are scattered over +various countries, and are generally engaged in commercial pursuits. They +everywhere retain, however, their distinct nationality. + +Little is known of the early history of Armenia, but it was a separate +State as early as the eighth century B.C., when it became subject to +Assyria, as it also did subsequently to the Medes and the Persians. It was +conquered by Alexander the Great in 325 B.C., but regained its independence +about 190 B.C. Its king, Tigranes, son-in-law of the celebrated +Mithrid[=a]tes, was defeated by the Romans under Lucullus and Pompey +between 69-66 B.C., but was left on the throne. Since then its fortunes +have been various under the Romans, Parthians, Byzantine emperors, +Persians, Saracens, and Turks. Until quite recently Armenia had no +political existence, having been partitioned between Turkey, Persia, and +Russia, the last acquiring considerable portions in 1829 and 1878. The hope +of the Armenians to see their country formed into an autonomous province +administered by Christians was frustrated by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. +The advanced party amongst the Armenians, therefore, determined to obtain +their object by the production of disturbances and the spread of a +revolutionary movement. The Porte retaliated by wholesale massacres of the +Armenians in 1896, 1904, and 1908. The Armenian revolutionary and national +parties in the meantime continued their activity and propaganda. Armenia +proclaimed its independence in Aug., 1918. In Jan., 1920, the Supreme +Council of the Allied Governments recognized the Armenian Republic of +Erivan. A mandate for Armenia was also offered to the United States of +America, but it was refused by the American Senate in May, 1920. On 18th +March, 1922, Soviet Russia concluded a treaty with Turkey, giving to the +latter most of Armenia. Batum was attached to Georgia. See _Erivan_, +_Russia_, _Turkey_. + +The Armenians received Christianity at an early date, most probably at the +beginning of the third century, although native historians maintain that +several of the apostles preached in Armenia. The real apostle of Armenia +was Gregory the Illuminator, in the third century. During the Monophysitic +disputes they held with those who rejected the twofold nature of Christ, +and being dissatisfied with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451) +they separated from the Greek Church in 536. The Popes had at different +times attempted to gain them over to the Roman Catholic faith, but have not +been able to unite them permanently and generally with the Roman Church. +There are, however, small numbers here and there of United Armenians, who +acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, agree in their doctrines +with the Catholics, but retain their peculiar ceremonies and discipline. +But the far greater part are yet Monophysites, and have remained faithful +to their old religion and worship. Their doctrine differs from the orthodox +chiefly in their admitting only one nature in Christ, and believing the +Holy Spirit to proceed from the Father alone. Their sacraments are seven in +number. They adore saints and their images, but do not believe in +purgatory. Their hierarchy differs little from that of the Greeks. The +_Catholicus_, or head of the Church, has his seat at Etchmiadzin, a +monastery near Erivan, the capital of former Russian Armenia, on Mount +Ararat. + +The Armenian language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, and +is most closely connected with the Iranic group. The Old Armenian or Haikan +language, which is still the literary and ecclesiastical language, is +distinguished from the New Armenian, the ordinary spoken language, which +contains a large intermixture of Persian and Turkish elements. The most +flourishing period of Armenian literature extended from the fourth to the +fourteenth century. It then declined, but a revival began in the +seventeenth century, and at the present day wherever any extensive +community of Armenians has settled they have set up a printing-press. The +Armenian Bible, translated from a Syriac version, and revised by means of +the Septuagint, by Isaac the Great and St. Mesrop, early in the fifth +century, is a model of the classic style.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. N. and H. +Buxton, _Travel and Politics in Armenia_; N. T. Gregor, _History of +Armenia_; W. L. Williams, _Armenia, Past and Present_. + +ARMENTIERES ([.a]r-m[.a][n.]-ty[=a]r), a town in France, department Nord, +10 miles W.N.W. of Lille, on the Lys. The town had extensive manufactures +of linen and cotton goods and an extensive trade. The Germans captured +Armentieres by massed assault early in April, 1918, after methodically +shelling the town for about two years and destroying almost every building +in it. The enemy's offensive was intended to achieve greater results. +Indeed, its object was to break through to the Channel ports. It began on +9th April, after artillery preparation, from La Bassee to Armentieres. +When, however, the battle of Armentieres died down, the enemy plan to break +through to the coast had been definitely and finally frustrated. German +losses were extremely heavy, their attacks having been made with massed +troops. (See _Ypres_.) Pop. 28,086. + +ARM'FELT, Gustav Moritz, Count of, Swedish soldier, born 1757, died 1814. +Though he had been highly favoured and loaded with honours by Gustavus III, +he incurred the enmity of the Duke of Sudermania, guardian of the young +king, Gustavus IV, and was deprived of all his titles and possessions. He +was restored to his fortune and honours in 1799, when Gustavus IV attained +his majority, and held several high military posts. Ultimately, however, he +entered the Russian service, was made count, chancellor of the University +of Abo, president of the department for the affairs of Finland, member of +the Russian Senate, and served in the campaign against Napoleon in 1812. + +ARMIDA ([.a]r-m[=e]'d[.a]), a beautiful enchantress in Tasso's _Jerusalem +Delivered_, who succeeds in bringing the hero Rinaldo, with whom she had +fallen violently in love, to her enchanted gardens. Here he completely +forgets the high task to which he had devoted himself, until messengers +from the Christian host having arrived at the island, Rinaldo escapes with +them by means of a powerful talisman. In the sequel Armida becomes a +Christian. + +AR'MILLARY SPHERE (Lat. _armilla_, a hoop), an astronomical instrument +consisting of an arrangement of rings, all circles of one sphere, intended +to represent the principal circles of the celestial globe, the rings +standing for the meridian of the station, the ecliptic, the tropics, the +arctic and antarctic circles, &c., in their relative positions. Its main +use is to give a representation of the apparent motions of the celestial +bodies. + +ARMIN'IANS, a sect or party of Christians, so called from Jacobus +_Arminius_ or Harmensen. (See _Arminius_.) They were called also +_Remonstrants_, from their having presented a _remonstrance_ to the +States-general in 1610. The Arminian doctrines are: (1) Conditional +election and reprobation, in opposition to absolute predestination. (2) +Universal redemption, or that the atonement was made by Christ for all +mankind, though none but believers can be partakers of the benefit. (3) +That man, in order to exercise true faith, must be regenerated and renewed +by the operation of the Holy Spirit, which is the gift of God; but that +this grace is not irresistible and may be lost, so that men may relapse +from a state of grace and die in their sins. Arminianism being a revolt +against certain aspects of Calvinism, especially the absolutism of the +eternal decrees, its doctrines were vehemently attacked by the Calvinists +of Holland, and were condemned by the Synod of Dort in 1619. The Arminians, +in consequence, were treated with great severity; many of them fled to, and +spread in, other countries, and though there is no longer any particular +sect to which the name is exclusively applied, many bodies are classed as +Arminians, as being opposed to the Calvinists on the question of +predestination.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Regenboog, _Historie der Remonstranten_; +Caspar Brandt, _Life of Arminius_ (English translation by J. Guthrie); +W. B. Pope, _Compendium of Christian Theology_ (3 vols.). + +ARMIN'IUS, an ancient German hero celebrated by his fellow-countrymen as +their deliverer from the Roman yoke, born about 18-16 B.C., assassinated +A.D. 19. Having been sent as a hostage to Rome, he served in the Roman +army, and was raised to the rank of _eques_. Returning home, he found the +Roman governor, Quintilius Varus, making efforts to Romanize the German +tribes near the Rhine. Placing himself at the head of the discontented +tribes he completely annihilated the army of Varus, consisting of three +legions, in a three days' battle fought in the Teutoburg Forest. For some +time he baffled the Roman general Germanicus, and after many years' +resistance to the vast power of the Empire he drew upon himself the hatred +of his countrymen by aiming at the regal authority, and was assassinated. A +national monument to his memory was inaugurated on the Grotenburg, near +Detmold, in 1875.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: see Tacitus, _Annals_ (translated by +Murphy); O. Kemmer, _Arminius_; F. W. Fischer, _Armin und die Roemer_. + +ARMINIUS, Jacobus (properly Jakob Harmensen), founder of the sect of +Arminians or Remonstrants, born in South Holland in 1560, died 1609. He +studied at Utrecht, in the University of Leyden, and at Geneva, where his +chief preceptor in theology was Theodore Beza (1582). On his return to +Holland he was appointed minister of one of the churches in Amsterdam, and +chosen to undertake the refutation of a work which strongly controverted +Beza's doctrine of predestination; but he happened to be convinced by the +work which he had undertaken to refute. Elected in 1603 professor of +divinity at Leyden, he openly declared his opinions, and was involved in +harassing controversies, especially with his fellow professor Gomarus. +These contests, with the continual attacks on his reputation, at length +impaired his health and brought on a complicated disease, of which he died. +See _Arminians_. + +AR'MITAGE, Edward, English historical painter, born 1817, died 1896. He +studied under Delaroche at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, was one of the +ablest pupils of that painter, and in 1842 exhibited at the Salon (in the +Louvre) a picture of _Prometheus Bound_. At the exhibition of cartoons for +historical pictures in Westminster Hall (1843) he obtained a premium of +L300 for his design of _Caesar's First Invasion of Britain_. Other similar +premiums were gained by his _Spirit of Religion_ (1845), and _Battle of +Meeanee_ (1847--L500). He now went to study at Rome, and exhibited at the +Academy in 1848 his _Henry VIII and Katherine Parr_, and his _Trafalgar_ +(_Death of Nelson_). He had pictures in most of the subsequent Academy +exhibitions up nearly to the time of his death. In 1867 he was elected an +associate, and in 1872 a full academician. He did much for the restoration +of fresco painting in England. A large number of his pictures were biblical +in subject, such as _Ahab and Jezebel_, _Esther's Banquet_, _The Remorse of +Judas_, _Joseph and Mary_, _Herod's Birthday Feast_, &c. As professor of +painting to the Royal Academy he delivered lectures on painting, which were +published in 1883. In 1898 appeared a volume of his _Pictures and +Drawings_. + +ARMOR'ICA (from two Celtic words signifying 'upon the sea'), a name +anciently applied to all north-western Gaul, afterwards limited to what is +now Brittany. Hence _Armoric_ is one name for Breton or the language of the +inhabitants of Brittany, a Celtic dialect closely allied to Welsh. + +ARMOUR. See _Arms_. + +ARMOURED CAR, a self-propelled car completely protected by bullet-proof +armour-plating. Such a car is a stage in the development of mechanical +warfare, i.e. warfare by means of a self-propelled, armed, and manned +machine. The idea is a very ancient one, some form of protected vehicle +having been in use among the Chinese in almost prehistoric times. The +modern armoured car is constructed on a strongly-engined chassis, and is +provided with a bullet-proof armour-plating both for engine and crew. This +armour is continued low down over the wheels. The armament of such a car +consists of two heavy machine-guns, firing through slits in the +armour-plating of the body of the car. + +ARMOUR-PLATES, iron or steel plates with which the sides of vessels of war +are covered with the view of rendering them shot-proof. See _Iron-clad +Vessels_. + +ARMS, COAT OF, or ARMORIAL BEARINGS, a collective name for the devices +borne on shields, on banners, &c., as marks of dignity and distinction, +and, in the case of family and feudal arms, descending from father to son. +They were first employed by the Crusaders, and became hereditary in +families at the close of the twelfth century. They took their rise from the +knights painting their banners or shields each with a figure or figures +proper to himself, to enable him to be distinguished in battle when clad in +armour. See _Heraldry_. + +ARMS, COLLEGE OF. See _Herald_. + +[Illustration: Armour, from the effigy of Sir Richard Peyton, in Tong +Church, Shropshire] + +ARMS and ARMOUR. The former term is applied to weapons of offence, the +latter to the various articles of defensive covering used in war and +military exercises, especially before the introduction of gunpowder. +Weapons of offence are divisible into two distinct sections--firearms, and +arms used without gunpowder or other explosive substance. The first arms of +offence would probably be wooden clubs, then would follow wooden weapons +made more deadly by means of stone or bone, stone axes, slings, bows and +arrows with heads of flint or bone, and afterwards various weapons of +bronze. Subsequently a variety of arms of iron and steel was introduced, +which comprised the sword, javelin, pike, spear or lance, dagger, axe, +mace, chariot scythe, &c.; with a rude artillery consisting of catapults, +ballistae, and battering-rams. From the descriptions of Homer we know that +almost all the Grecian armour, defensive and offensive, in his time was of +bronze; though iron was sometimes used. The lance, spear, and javelin were +the principal weapons of this age among the Greeks. The bow is not often +mentioned. Among ancient nations the Egyptians seem to have been most +accustomed to the use of the bow, which was the principal weapon of the +Egyptian infantry. Peculiar to the Egyptians was a defensive weapon +intended to catch and break the sword of the enemy. With the Assyrians the +bow was a favourite weapon; but with them lances, spears, and javelins were +in more common use than with the Egyptians. Most of the large engines of +war--chariots with scythes projecting at each side from the axle, +catapults, and ballistae--seem to have been of Assyrian origin. During the +historical age of Greece the characteristic weapon was a heavy spear from +21 to 24 feet in length. The sword used by the Greeks was short, and was +worn on the right side. The Roman sword was from 22 to 24 inches in length, +straight, two-edged, and obtusely pointed, and as by the Greeks was worn on +the right side. It was used principally as a stabbing weapon. It was +originally of bronze. The most characteristic weapon of the Roman legionary +soldier, however, was the _pilum_, which was a kind of pike or javelin, +some 6 feet or more in length. The pilum was sometimes used at close +quarters, but more commonly it was thrown. The favourite weapons of the +ancient Germanic races were the battle-axe, the lance or dart, and the +sword. The weapons of the Anglo-Saxons were spears, axes, swords, knives, +and maces or clubs. The Normans had similar weapons, and were well +furnished with archers and cavalry. The cross-bow was a comparatively late +invention introduced by the Normans. Gunpowder was not used in Europe to +discharge projectiles till the beginning of the fourteenth century. Cannon +are first mentioned in England in 1338, and there seems to be no doubt that +they were used by the English at the siege of Cambrai in 1339. The +projectiles first used for cannon were of stone. Hand fire-arms date from +the fifteenth century. At first they required two men to serve them, and it +was necessary to rest the muzzle on a stand in aiming and firing. The first +improvement was the invention of the match-lock, about 1476; this was +followed by the wheel-lock, and about the middle of the seventeenth century +by the flint-lock, which was in universal use until it was superseded by +the percussion-lock, the invention of a Scottish clergyman early in the +nineteenth century. The needle-gun dates from 1838. The only important +weapon not a fire-arm that has been invented since the introduction of +gunpowder is the bayonet, which is believed to have been invented about +1650. See _Cannon_, _Musket_, _Rifle_, &c. + +[Illustration: Greek Armour] + +[Illustration: Roman Armour--Soldiers wearing Cuirass] + +[Illustration: Chain Armour] + +[Illustration: Horse-armour of Maximilian I of Germany _a_, Chamfron. _b_, +Manefaire. _c_, Poitrinal, poitrel, or breastplate. _d_, Croupiere or +buttock-piece.] + +[Illustration: Allecret (Light Plate) Armour, A.D. 1540] + +Some kind of defensive covering was probably of almost as early invention +as weapons of offence. The principal pieces of defensive armour used by the +ancients were shields, helmets, cuirasses, and greaves. In the earliest +ages of Greece the shield is described as of immense size, but in the time +of the Peloponnesian War (about 420 B.C.) it was much smaller. The Romans +had two sorts of shields: the _scutum_, a large oblong rectangular +highly-convex shield, carried by the legionaries; and the _parma_, a small +round or oval flat shield, carried by the light-armed troops and the +cavalry. In the declining days of Rome the shields became larger and more +varied in form. The helmet was a characteristic piece of armour among the +Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. Like all other body armour it was +usually made of bronze. The helmet of the historical age of Greece was +distinguished by its lofty crest. The Roman helmet in the time of the early +emperors fitted close to the head, and had a neck-guard and hinged +cheek-pieces fastened under the chin, and a small bar across the face for a +visor. Both Greeks and Romans wore cuirasses, at one time of bronze, but +afterwards of flexible materials. Greaves for the legs were worn by both, +but among the Romans usually on one leg. The ancient Germans had large +shields of plaited osier covered with leather; afterwards their shields +were small, bound with iron, and studded with bosses. The Anglo-Saxons had +round or oval shields of wood, covered with leather, and having a boss in +the centre; and they had also corselets, or coats of mail, strengthened +with iron rings. The Normans were well protected by mail; their shields +were somewhat triangular in shape, their helmets conical. In Europe +generally metal armour was used from the tenth to the eighteenth century, +and at first consisted of a tunic made of iron rings firmly sewn flat upon +strong cloth or leather. The rings were afterwards interlinked one with +another so as to form a garment of themselves, called _chain-mail_. Another +variety of this flexible armour was known as _banded-mail_. This consisted +of rings sewn upon a fabric foundation, the whole being covered with +leather. In addition to this, 'scale armour', which had been in use from +the very earliest periods of history, was still in common fashion in the +thirteenth century. By degrees the suit of mail was reinforced by the +addition of pieces of plate on the breast, knees, elbows, and arms, and by +the end of the fourteenth century the full suit of plate had been evolved, +the mail being only worn as a skirt round the waist or as a coif attached +to the helmet. The golden age of plate armour is the middle of the +fifteenth century, when the design was light and graceful, and at the same +time fully protective. In the sixteenth century, when 'shock tactics' of +cavalry were the order of the day, the 'war harness' became heavier. This +was particularly noticeable in the armour for the joust or tournament, in +which sport the aim of the contestants was to score points and not to +inflict injury. Many of these jousting armours weigh over 80 lb. The +weapons in use through the whole of the plate-armour period were the lance, +the sword, the axe or war-hammer, the long-bow, and the cross-bow. The +introduction of fire-arms in the fourteenth century was one of the causes +which led to the increase of weight in armour, for the armourer was +continually improving and strengthening his products to make them proof +against musket and pistol, and he generally succeeded, but by doing so +increased the weight till it became insupportable. In the seventeenth +century leg armour was abandoned, and by the end of the civil war the +popular defence was the steel cap and breastplate. In the eighteenth +century armour entirely disappeared, except for ceremonial, and was thought +to be entirely obsolete till it was revived in the recent war in the form +of the steel shrapnel-helmet, which was favoured by all the Allies and also +by the enemy. The German troops occasionally used heavy body armour. +Daggers and clubs, weapons likewise thought to be obsolete, were frequently +used by all combatants, especially on raids.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Hutton, _The +Sword of the Centuries_; H. S. Cowper, _The Art of Attack_; C. ffoulkes, +_Armour and Weapons_; C. H. Ashdown, _British and Foreign Arms and Armour_; +C. Hall, _Modern Weapons of War by Land_. + +ARMSTRONG, John, Scottish poet and physician, born about 1709, died 1779. +After studying medicine in Edinburgh he settled in London. In 1744 he +published his chief work, the _Art of Preserving Health_, a didactic poem. +This work raised his reputation to a height which his subsequent efforts +scarcely sustained. In 1746 he became physician to a hospital for soldiers, +and in 1760 he was appointed physician to the forces which went to Germany. +After his return to London he published a collection of his _Miscellanies_, +which contained, however, nothing valuable. He afterwards visited France +and Italy, and published an account of his tour under the name of Lancelot +Temple. His last production was a volume of _Medical Essays_. + +ARMSTRONG, William George, Lord, engineer and mechanical inventor, born at +Newcastle-on-Tyne, 10th Nov., 1810. He was trained as a solicitor, and +practised as such for some time. Among his early inventions were the +hydro-electric machine, a powerful apparatus for producing frictional +electricity, and the hydraulic crane. In 1847 the Elswick works, near +Newcastle, were established for the manufacture of his cranes and other +heavy iron machinery, and these works are now among the most extensive of +their kind. Here the first rifled ordnance gun which bears his name was +made in 1854. His improvements in the manufacture of guns and shells led to +his being appointed engineer of rifled ordnance under Government, and he +was knighted in 1858. This appointment came to an end in 1863, since which +time his ordnance has taken a prominent place in the armaments of different +countries. He was made a peer, as Baron Armstrong, in 1887. He died 27th +Dec., 1900. + +ARMSTRONG GUN, a kind of cannon, so called from its inventor. It has an +inner tube or core of steel, rifled with numerous shallow grooves, the tube +being surrounded by a jacket of spirally-coiled bars of wrought iron, so +disposed as to bring the metal into the most favourable position for the +strain to which it is to be exposed. His first guns were small, but larger +ones were soon made, and afterwards those of the very highest calibre. The +breech-loading principle was also adopted in them, and special provision to +effect this satisfactorily was invented by him. The improved shells +introduced by him were of the elongated and pointed type now so well known, +the charge being inserted in a special chamber behind the bore. + +ARMY, a collection of bodies of men armed, disciplined, and organized for +war. The essence of a modern army is that it shall be composed of organized +units each under its own commander, grouped in formations of +ever-increasing size, and owing allegiance through these commanders to one +supreme head. Discipline and organization are essential, or such a force +becomes merely a collection of armed men. + +In the early days of our history every able-bodied man was, to a greater or +lesser extent, a possible fighting man, and all had arms of one kind or +another. Consequently, when an army was required, landowners and county +authorities were ordered to provide the troops necessary. Every free +landowner between the ages of sixteen and sixty was liable to service, +which was limited to two months in a year. This was the Saxon 'fyrd' +system. Later it was improved on by the institution of 'Thane's Service', +which made it incumbent on the more considerable landowners to appear fully +armed and mounted, and to serve for the whole campaign. The horse, however, +was only used as a means of locomotion: for fighting purposes their riders +dismounted, as did the dragoons of the seventeenth century and the mounted +infantry of still more modern times. The fyrd was an unorganized and +undisciplined force and entirely ephemeral in its nature, so that we find +the Danish kings of England casting about for some more permanent force, +which came into existence under the title of the 'House Carles', or Royal +Guard. With the Norman Conquest the fyrd was largely supplanted by the +feudal system of knight's service, according to which the country was +divided into knight's fees, each of which had to provide its quotum of men. +The gradual appearance of the custom of avoiding service by payments of +money--in time regulated under the name of scutage--led to the employment +of paid mercenaries, who for some two centuries were almost invariably +foreigners. In the twelfth century it was found that sufficient troops +could not be provided under these two systems, so the fyrd was +re-established as a National Militia by the Assize of Arms, and in the next +century further steps were taken to protect it under the Statute of +Winchester. In the fourteenth century the archer, with his longbow, became +a very important part of the fighting forces of England, and an army of +those days consisted of the heavily-armed and armoured knights and +men-at-arms for shock action, and the unarmoured archers for 'volley +action', to use a later term. With the gradual disappearance of the foreign +mercenaries, it became the custom for the king to issue indents to certain +influential subjects for the raising of paid troops. From this custom arose +the free companies, which, in time, became nothing more or less than +commercial undertakings. The indents were accepted, and the men enlisted +primarily for what could be got out of the business of fighting, either in +the shape of ransom or the sack of towns. Some attempt was also made at +tactical organization, and an army of the period was divided into vanguard, +battle, and rearguard. Artillery also was beginning to be developed in +Germany for siege purposes. The sixteenth century saw the first formation +of companies into regiments, though as yet of no fixed strength. Arms were +also modernized, and by the end of the century muskets, 18-feet pikes, and +swords, were the arms of infantry instead of the varied assortment of +halberds, pikes, muskets, harquebuses, and longbows common at the +beginning. Elizabeth introduced the press-gang as an aid to recruiting, and +abolished the white coat of the soldier in favour of a long red or blue +cassock. In the next century Cromwell's new model army became the first +standing army of England, and, though it was disbanded by Act of Parliament +at the Restoration, one of its regiments--Monk's--remained, and is now the +Coldstream Guards. After this regiments were raised from time to time on +one pretext or another, and the nucleus of a standing army became a _fait +accompli_, though it was for a long time considered more as an appanage of +the king than as a national institution. With the standing army came the +first beginnings of civilian control, a Secretary-at-War being appointed in +1660. He had, however, no responsibility, and was subordinate to the +commander-in-chief, and it was not till 1710 that he assumed his present +responsibility to Parliament. During the eighteenth century the strength of +the army rose or fell according to the state of the military barometer and +the success or otherwise of the various recruiting expedients, among which +was the first attempt at a short-service system in 1703. In 1871-2 the old +numbering in regiments was abolished and a territorial designation +substituted. According to this scheme, the first twenty-five regiments, all +of which had already two battalions, were grouped together, the rest being +joined arbitrarily to form new regiments under county designations. With +these regiments were affiliated the militia and volunteer battalions, which +have now been amalgamated into the Special Reserve and the Territorial +Force. + +For the requirements of the war of 1914-8 the Empire, as a whole, including +India, raised and maintained a total of 8,654,467 men, of which the +contribution of the United Kingdom was over 6,000,000. Casualties for the +whole Empire were 3,060,616, of which the United Kingdom has for her share +nearly 2,500,000, including 666,083 killed, 1,644,786 wounded, and 140,312 +missing. + +During 1918 the combatant strength of all arms of the British army in +France fluctuated between 1,293,000 in March and 1,164,790 in November, +while the rifle or infantry strength was from 616,000 to 416,748 during the +same periods. From the date of the armistice to 31st Dec., 1919, the +following number of demobilizations and discharges were effected:-- + +Demobilized.--Officers, 144,144; other ranks, 3,332,882. + +Discharged as medically unfit.--Officers, 23,476; other ranks, 207,500. + +Discharged from reserves.--Other ranks, 143,603. + +The modern British army is governed by the Army Council (instituted 1904), +presided over by the Secretary of State for War. This Council, which +consists of five military and five civilian members, including the +president, works through the War Office, of which the principal departments +are in charge of one or other of the members of the Council. On the +military side these departments are those of the Chief of the Imperial +General Staff, the Adjutant-General to the Forces, the +Quartermaster-General to the Forces, and the Master-General of the +Ordnance. For administrative and training purposes the United Kingdom is +divided into seven Commands and the London District. When necessary, +Commands are further subdivided into Districts. The army, generally +speaking, consists of (1) the Regular Army, (2) the Territorial Force, and +(3) the Reserves. The service battalions, which formed such a large and +important part of the army in the war, do not, properly speaking, form part +of the permanent military forces, though the organization of the army as a +whole is such that it is capable of expansion to any extent by the process +of raising new battalions and affiliating them to existing regular or +territorial units. The regular army comprises the Household Cavalry, +Cavalry of the Line, the Royal Regiment of Artillery, the Corps of Royal +Engineers, the Brigade of Guards, and Infantry of the Line. In addition +there are administrative troops and services such as the Royal Army Service +Corps, the Royal Army Medical Corps, with its allied service Queen +Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service, the Royal Army Ordnance +Corps, and others. Other corps brought into existence during the war, such +as the Tank and Machine-gun Corps, have at present no permanent status. In +the future, however, machine-gun companies will form an integral portion of +each battalion of the regular army. + +Under the conditions of the war the old national method of voluntary +recruitment was found to be insufficient, and recourse was had to the +principle of universal military service. Under the Military Service Acts +the age limit was gradually raised till it finally included all men up to +the age of fifty. Exceptions were made in the case of munition-workers, or +those employed on work of national importance. Since the signature of the +Treaty of Peace the army so raised was gradually demobilized till, by 31st +March, 1920, it had decreased to 400,000, including 100,000 Indians paid by +the Imperial Government. Concurrently with demobilization, voluntary +enlistment was reintroduced, and the post-war army is once more a voluntary +one, in which men serve under very much improved conditions as to pay and +prospects. The period of service under this system is twelve years, of +which seven normally are with the colours and five in the reserve: in +certain cases modifications of these periods are allowed, and, in addition, +a soldier may be allowed to extend his colour service to the full twelve +years, or, in exceptional cases, to complete twenty-one years for pension. +Discharge or transfer to the reserve is ordinarily granted on completion of +the agreed period of service. Pay of all ranks was very materially improved +in 1919. Whereas formerly a private soldier on enlistment received 1s. a +day, he now receives 2s. 9d., and after two years' service 3s. 6d. To this +last amount is added, under very reasonable conditions, a further daily sum +of 6d. proficiency pay. A sergeant now gets 7s. a day instead of from 2s. +4d. to 3s. 4d., and a regimental sergeant-major 14s. instead of 5s. or 6s. +Add to these rates of pay free rations, free housing, free medical +attendance, and, in the future, doubtless free education, and it must be +admitted that the present-day soldier is not badly paid. The rate of pay is +a flat rate for all arms, special allowances being given where necessary. + +The Household Cavalry comprises the 1st and 2nd Life Guards and the Horse +Guards (Blues). In peace-time they serve only in London and Windsor. They +alone retain the old cavalry rank of corporal of horse instead of sergeant. +Cavalry of the line consists of dragoon guards, dragoons, hussars, and +lancers. The dragoon guards are numbered separately from 1 to 7, while +dragoons, hussars, and lancers run consecutively from 1 to 21. A regiment +of cavalry is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of 25 officers +and 497 other ranks. Each regiment is organized in three squadrons +commanded by majors, while a squadron is divided into four troops, each +under a subaltern officer, troops being further subdivided into sections +under non-commissioned officers. Cavalry regiments, except hussars, carry +guidons or standards for ceremonial purposes. These differ from the colours +of infantry in that they are not consecrated and are carried by +non-commissioned officers instead of by officers. Hussars carry no +standards. There are six cavalry depots for recruiting and +preliminary-training purposes, i.e. for lancers at Woolwich, hussars at +Scarborough, Bristol, and Dublin, and dragoons at Newport (Mon.) and +Dunbar. The Cavalry Special Reserve consists of the Irish Horse and King +Edward's Horse, and during the war reserve cavalry regiments were +maintained. + +The Royal Regiment of Artillery comprises batteries of horse artillery +designated by letters of the alphabet, and batteries of field, siege, +heavy, and mountain by numbers. A battery, with some exceptions in the case +of the heaviest type, consists of six guns or howitzers, horse artillery +having 13-pounder guns, and field artillery 18-pounder guns or 4.5-inch +howitzers. Horse artillery is intended to act with cavalry, and is +therefore provided with a rather lighter gun. It can go anywhere that +cavalry can go, and all the gun detachments are mounted. Field artillery +works with infantry, and the gun detachments either walk or are carried on +the limbers, only the officers, certain non-commissioned officers, and +specialists such as scouts, range-finders, and trumpeters being mounted. + +A battery is commanded by a major, with a captain as second-in-command, and +is organized in three sections of two guns each under a subaltern. These +sections are again subdivided into subsections of one gun each under a +sergeant. Each gun is drawn by six horses, the driver of the leading pair +being responsible for direction and pace. A corporal in the Royal Artillery +is known as a bombardier, and the rank and file as gunners or drivers, +according to their special duties, though drivers are also trained to some +extent as gunners. + +Heavy and siege artillery have come into their own in the late war, and +consist roughly of all armament heavier than that of field artillery. +Sixty-pounders and 4.7-inch howitzers form heavy batteries, while guns of 6 +inch and upwards drawn by mechanical transport or mounted on railway trucks +are known as siege batteries. Mountain artillery, of which most of the +batteries are in India, is armed with 2.95-inch screw guns capable of being +dismantled and carried piecemeal on mules. Another form is found on the +west coast of Africa, where carriers take the place of mules. These guns +are brought into action very quickly, but their shell-power is small. + +The corps of Royal Engineers is responsible for the construction and +maintenance of barracks, fortifications, and other military works, and for +the personnel required for search-lights and electrical communications of +the coast and anti-aircraft defences. With few exceptions the personnel of +the corps is recruited entirely from skilled tradesmen and artisans. For +service in the field, Royal Engineer units known as field squadrons and +field companies accompany the fighting troops, and carry a certain amount +of bridging material and tools. More highly specialized units carry out +such services as mining, heavy bridging, railway, survey, and sound-ranging +work. An important feature of Royal Engineer work in war is the supply of +materials and stores, for which purpose an elaborate organization is +provided in addition to the units already noted. + +The Brigade of Guards--the infantry of the household troops--comprises the +five regiments of foot-guards. These are the Grenadier, the Coldstream, the +Scots, the Irish, and the Welsh Guards of from one to three battalions +each. Being household troops these regiments are subject to certain special +regulations and have certain privileges. As a general rule they serve only +in London, Windsor, or Aldershot, and only leave England for active +service, though individual battalions have served in the past both in Cairo +and Gibraltar. + +The infantry, of which there are sixty-eight regiments of from two to four +battalions each, provides the bulk of the army. Infantry is formed into +regiments for recruiting and territorial distribution purposes, but the +battalion is the actual unit both for fighting and administration. In many +cases the Army List gives the name of an officer holding the appointment of +colonel of the regiment: this is in all cases a purely honorary appointment +and entails no duties or responsibilities. An infantry battalion is +commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of 32 officers and 1000 +other ranks. Both in peace and war a battalion is divided into +head-quarters and four companies, each of the latter having six officers, +including the company commander, who is a major or senior captain. +Subalterns command platoons. For recruiting purposes for infantry of the +line the country is divided into Regimental Districts, in which are located +the depots of the regiment concerned: these depots are commanded by a +senior officer of one of the battalions of the regiment with the necessary +staff for training purposes. Recruits are usually first trained at the +depot and later transferred to the battalion requiring them. The Regimental +Districts are again combined into larger districts in which are situated +the Record Offices dealing with the regiments of the district. The +denomination of the district dealing with any particular regiment is shown +in the Army List in brackets. The principles of interior organization are +the same throughout the army, and as they can be best illustrated with the +example of an infantry battalion a short description of this organization +follows. Owing to the continual growth of military science, the improvement +in arms and means of destruction generally, and the confusion and noise +inseparable from a modern battle, the size of the personally-controlled +unit has gradually decreased till, in the present day, in the British army, +it is accepted as an axiom that no larger number of men than six can be +conveniently controlled in battle by one man. In former days companies, +battalions, and even larger formations were both controlled and received +their executive orders direct from their commanders--and to such an extent +was this carried that Fortescue, in his _History of the British Army_, +notes that Marlborough was in the habit of putting his whole army through +the platoon exercise by means of flags and bugle-calls. This, of course, +was not actually in face of the enemy, but the principle is the same. The +stress of modern war now makes individual control of large bodies +impossible, and the British army is therefore organized both for peace and +war in a series of units of ever-increasing size, each under its own +commander, who is responsible to his immediate superior for the well-being, +training, and leading of his command. Taking the infantry organization as +an example, we find that in the lowest stage, that of the 'section', the +command is both personal and direct, in that the corporal controls and +commands the six men composing his fighting unit personally and directly by +word of mouth. In peace-time, and for administrative and training purposes, +the section may reach to ten men, who live, work, and play together. In the +next stage--that of the 'platoon', consisting of four sections--we find the +control is rather less personal and direct, in that the platoon commander, +a subaltern, controls his command largely through his subordinates, the +section commanders. A further stage is that of the 'company', which +consists of four platoons and company head-quarters. A company is commanded +by a major or senior captain, has a captain as second-in-command, and a +company sergeant-major and quartermaster-sergeant to assist in running it. +Here again the control is less direct though still personal. The next stage +is the amalgamation of companies into a battalion, consisting of a +head-quarters and four companies. Battalion head-quarters consist of a +lieutenant-colonel commanding, a major second-in-command, an adjutant, and +a quartermaster. Certain other officers, when required, and the regimental +sergeant-major and quartermaster-sergeant, and various other ranks make up +the total of some 130. The commanding officer of a battalion is directly +responsible for the well-being of his command, for its training, +discipline, equipment, and general efficiency. In carrying on his duties he +works through his company commanders, and with the assistance of the +regimental staff mentioned above, so that we have a direct chain of command +and responsibility from the corporal commanding a section of six to ten men +through platoons and companies to the lieutenant-colonel commanding a +battalion of some thousand men. A detail of armament made possible by the +enormous increase of machine-guns necessitated during the war is +interesting. Thirty-two Lewis-guns are now provided for each infantry +battalion, and are distributed to alternate sections in a platoon. Thus in +each platoon two sections are known as rifle sections and two as Lewis-gun +sections, and these arms are normally used by the respective sections; but +men of all sections are trained in the use of both rifle and Lewis-gun. + +When we come to formations larger than a battalion, we find the system of +control and command becoming less and less personal and direct, as in all +such formations the commander works to a less or greater extent through his +staff. Roughly speaking, the staff is of two divisions, the one consisting +of the general staff branch and the other of the branch of the adjutant and +quartermaster-general. Again speaking very generally, the general staff is +charged with duties bearing directly on military operations, while officers +of the adjutant and quartermaster-general's branch deal more with +administrative questions. Officers of the general staff are known as +general staff officers, while those of the other branch are called, for +example, assistant or deputy-assistant adjutant or quartermaster-general, +according to their several duties. + +The formation in which distinct and separate units are first collected +under one superior commander is known as a brigade. This, according to +present establishment, consists of three battalions and a trench-mortar +battery, the whole under a general officer called a brigadier-general, +assisted by a staff of two officers--a brigade-major and a staff-captain. +Since March, 1920, however, the title of brigadier-general has been altered +to 'colonel-commandant'. The strength of a brigade is something over 3000 +of all ranks. In a division, which is the next highest formation, and which +is commanded by a major-general with a staff of three general staff +officers and three officers belonging to the A.G. and Q.M.G. branch, we +find the first appearance of a mixed force. It is not a force of 'all +arms', as cavalry is not included, but, in addition to infantry (three +brigades), it has a considerable strength in artillery, besides engineers +and the necessary administrative troops. Two or more divisions, together +with a cavalry regiment and certain other troops, form an 'army corps', and +two or more corps go to make up an 'army'. These are not at present +peace-time formations of the British army. + +Of the administrative troops and services already mentioned, the Royal Army +Service Corps provides for the material wants of the army both in the way +of food and transport. It is organized in companies designated by numerals. + +The Royal Army Medical Corps provides the personnel and organization for +the medical and sanitary services of the army. In peace-time this service +is organized on a garrison basis, hospitals being established where +required for the use of all troops in that particular garrison. For war +purposes medical officers are still attached to regiments, and in addition +the corps provides the personnel and organization necessary for field +ambulances, casualty clearing-stations, hospital trains and ships, and +various classes of fixed hospitals. The corps is organized in numbered +companies, and the rank and file are trained in first aid and ambulance +duties generally. It is administered by a director-general of Army Medical +Services with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is an officer of the +adjutant-general's department. + +The other departments and administrative services of the army consist of +the Royal Army Ordnance Corps, dealing generally with munitions of war; the +Army Pay Department; the Royal Army Chaplains' Department; and the Royal +Army Veterinary Corps, of which the functions are sufficiently designated +by their title. In addition, there are manufacturing establishments at +Woolwich Arsenal and elsewhere. + +The Army Reserve consists of men who have completed their term of colour +service, or service with a unit, and have thus passed into civil life, +though still remaining liable for a period of years to be recalled to the +colours if mobilization is ordered. + +The Special Reserve was formed under the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act +of 1907 out of the old militia. It consists generally of one battalion to +each regiment of infantry, and is numbered consecutively with regular +battalions of the regiment. It will, in the future, probably be again known +as the Militia. + +The Royal Marines--artillery and infantry, or the 'blue' and the 'red' +marines, Kipling's "soldier and sailor too"--are not part of the army +proper, as they are administered entirely by the Admiralty. They are, +however, amenable to the Army Act when serving ashore. The term of service +is for twelve years, which may be extended to make up twenty-one. Men may +be transferred to or from the army at their own request. + +The Territorial Force, or, as it is to be called in future, the Territorial +Army, is raised entirely on a county or territorial basis. It was +originally created by the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act of 1907 out of +a nucleus of the old yeomanry and volunteers. It is raised and administered +by County Associations in each county and principal city. These +associations consist of a president, chairman, military representative, and +co-opted members. The administration of the Territorial Army is carried out +by the County Associations in accordance with schemes provided by the Army +Council, while all questions of training are reserved to the War Office. +The Territorial Army consists of all arms, including machine-gun corps and +the necessary administrative services: its full war establishment is fixed +at approximately 345,000 of all ranks, though, for the present, only some +60 per cent of them are to be enlisted. The rejuvenated Territorial Army is +to be in all respects a true second line of imperial defence, +self-contained and self-supporting, while the regular army and its special +reserve of militia battalions form the first line. Defence entails a +certain amount of offence to bring it to a successful issue: it has +therefore been decided that the new Territorial Army will not be relegated +merely to the duty of guarding the country from invasion, but will, in a +national emergency, be entitled to take its place under its own +organization in the fighting line in any part of the world where its +services may be required. This will entail enlistment for general service, +but the interest of the force and of individuals composing it are +safeguarded by the proviso that before the Territorial Army can be ordered +out of the country an Act authorizing the movement be passed by Parliament. +It is further provided that the Territorial Army will on no account be +called on to supply drafts for regular regiments, and that in case fresh +regiments have to be raised on the lines of the New Army, the machinery of +the Territorial Army will be used to organize them. Enlistment will be for +three or four years, according to whether a man has served during the +European War (1914-8) or not; age limits are normally between 18 and 38. +The army is to be organized in one cavalry (yeomanry) division of 12 +regiments, and 14 infantry divisions each under a selected general officer, +either regular or territorial. Pay and allowances during training periods +will be as in the regular army, and in addition certain bounties will be +obtainable. Training periods will be fifteen days in camp annually, besides +a minimum number of drills and a musketry course. On completion of colour +service a man will pass to the Territorial Reserve. + +The New Army, consisting of the 'service battalions' of existing regiments, +is a product of the war. When, on the outbreak of war, many new regiments +were rapidly raised, they were affiliated to regular regiments with +consecutive numbers after the territorial battalions, and this organization +was continued and extended to cope with the personnel obtained under the +Military Service Acts. + +Educational establishments connected with the army include the Staff +College, the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, and the Royal Military +Academy at Woolwich. At the Staff College officers obtain a course of +instruction and study to fit them for service on the staff of the army. At +Sandhurst, where the course of instruction is two years, some 700 gentlemen +cadets are trained for commissions in the guards, cavalry, and infantry of +the line, and the Indian army. At Woolwich gentlemen cadets desirous of +entering the Royal Artillery or the Royal Engineers receive their training. +In addition to these there are schools of gunnery and engineering, the +Small Arms School at Hythe, the School of Physical Training at Aldershot, +and many others: while, for sons and orphans of soldiers, there are the +Duke of York's Royal Military School and the Royal Hibernian School. The +Royal Hospital, Chelsea, and the Royal Hospital, Kilmainham, Dublin, are +institutions for the care of old and distressed soldiers. In every garrison +there are garrison schools for soldiers under fully qualified army +schoolmasters, while in the future there is likely to be a very great +increase in educational facilities of all kinds for the rank and file of +the army. The training of the British army for war now embraces a variety +of subjects, and at the Royal Military College and Academy the gentlemen +cadets are not only taught the principles and practice of their future +profession, but are also instructed in the methods of imparting their +knowledge to others. For example, the course of training at the Royal +Military College embraces drill and weapon training--under which head is +included musketry (both theory and practice) and bayonet work--physical +training, and riding. As part of the physical-training course they receive +instruction as to the best methods of organizing regimental +assaults-at-arms and sports. Among the more academic subjects are military +history and tactics, field sketching and topography, field engineering, +military law and administration, and elementary hygiene. A great deal of +practical work is done, and the course of two years is designed to fit a +young officer, on joining his regiment, to undertake the entire charge and +training of his troop or platoon. At the Royal Military Academy extra +subjects, such as artillery work and more advanced engineering, are also +taught. + +As to the soldier's training generally, drill is insisted on as an aid to +discipline, which it undoubtedly is, and exact performance of the various +movements ordered is expected. In other branches of training more +individuality is allowed, and the days when the bayonet-exercise was +performed by a battalion to the music of the regimental band having passed, +considerable latitude as to positions and execution is permitted in this +particular branch, attention being principally concentrated on inculcating +the 'offensive spirit'. The modern soldier also learns how to use a +Lewis-gun, to throw or fire a grenade, what to do in case of a gas attack, +the rudiments of field engineering, and how to keep himself healthy. + +In addition to the more generally-known units of the army there are certain +corps which, though raised in the colonies, still form part of the army, +and which are administered by the imperial authorities. Under this head are +the Royal Malta Artillery (local service); the West India Regiment (two +battalions) and the West African Regiment, both for general service and +both administered by the War Office. Among other colonial corps maintained +by the imperial Government, though not forming part of the regular army, +are the West African Frontier Force (Nigeria) and the King's African Rifles +(East Africa). Both these are administered by the Colonial Office. + +_Dominions._--The military forces of the self-governing dominions are +raised and organized under the laws of such dominions. + +Those of the Commonwealth of Australia are organized on a system of +compulsory military training for all males between the ages of twelve and +twenty-six. In the earlier stages boys are trained in cadet corps, from +which they pass to the Citizen Army, and from there, having attained the +age of twenty-six, to recognized rifle clubs. The annual period of training +in the Citizen Army is sixteen days. When the scheme is in full working +order this force will consist of twenty-three 4-battalion brigades of +infantry, twenty-three regiments of light horse, fifty-six 4-gun batteries, +and the necessary complement of engineers and administrative troops. During +the war this organization was in abeyance, and regiments were raised as +required for overseas service, and, though proposals for conscription were +negatived, the commonwealth still managed to send some 330,000 men to the +various theatres of war out of 417,000 raised. The casualties, killed, +wounded, and missing, were 210,724. + +The Commonwealth also maintains a small permanent force of trained +professional soldiers. + +The New Zealand forces are also organized on the principle of universal +training for all males. The details differ somewhat from those in favour in +Australia, but the principle is the same, i.e. that every male should be +trained for home defence. Boys of from twelve to eighteen years of age are +trained in cadet corps, from which they pass to regiments of the +Territorial Force, and from twenty-five to thirty belong to the reserve. +Cadets do annually a specified number of drills, while the territorial +training extends to seven clear days, a musketry course, and certain drills +every year. For the purposes of the war, conscription was introduced in +1916, and 220,000 men were raised between 1914 and 1918, out of which the +casualties were nearly 57,000. + +Canada, unlike Australia and New Zealand, has no system of graduated +military training. The military forces of the dominion are organized as a +militia under a Minister of Militia and Defence working with a Council. +This militia is recruited by voluntary enlistment, and, on the outbreak of +war, consisted of a permanent force of 3000 and some 60,000 men who had +received militia training. This made possible the rapid dispatch to France +of a division which, by 1916, had increased to a corps of four divisions +and a cavalry brigade. Like the Mother Country and New Zealand, Canada +introduced conscription in 1917, and during the war raised nearly 641,000 +men and suffered 206,149 casualties, of which 56,110 were killed, 149,733 +wounded, and 306 missing. + +The Union of South Africa divides its military forces into the permanent +force and the citizen force. There is also a coast-defence force. The +permanent force consists of the five regiments of the South African Mounted +Rifles. South Africa's greatest military effort during the war was directed +towards German South-West and East Africa, but some 27,000 men were +enlisted for and sent to Europe out of a total number of 136,000 raised. +This total does not include coloured troops. The casualties were 18,000. + +In other self-governing portions of the Empire troops were raised as +required, and in the West and East African colonies the existing formations +of native troops were considerably increased for service in suitable +portions of the various theatres of war. The official statement of troops +raised shows under the heading of 'other colonies' 134,837, including +coloured troops from South Africa and the West Indies. The casualties among +them amounted to 7519. + +_The Army in India._--The military forces in India consist of those units +of British cavalry, artillery, and infantry temporarily serving in the +country, and the Indian army proper, consisting of regiments recruited from +among the native inhabitants and normally serving there. Enlistment is +voluntary and for general service, one of the promises made by a man on +enrolment being "to go wherever ordered by land and sea and not to allow +caste usages to interfere with his duties as a soldier". The Indian army, +as a disciplined and organized force, dates from the years between 1748 and +1758. In 1748 Major Stringer Lawrence arrived in Madras with a commission +from the Company as commander-in-chief. His first act was to form the +existing European independent companies into regiments; his second to raise +certain native independent companies. In 1758 he formed these companies in +their turn into battalions, which he designated 'coast sepoys', and which +still exist under their present names of the 61st Pioneers and following +numbers. His system was extended to the other presidencies, and at the +period of the mutiny, in 1857, the native army in India consisted of some +230,000 regular troops, besides irregulars. When the post-mutiny +reconstruction took place, the army was reorganized on an irregular basis +instead of as regular regiments on the British model. According to this new +system, the number of British officers in a regiment was considerably +reduced; native officers were given command of troops and companies, while +the British officer's command became the squadron, or wing. Native +artillery, with the exception of certain mountain batteries, was abolished, +and cavalry was reconstituted on the Silladar system, whereby, in +consideration of a larger monthly pay than was given to the infantry sepoy, +the trooper, or sowar, provided his own horse and sword. The system thus +introduced virtually remains to the present day, though it has been +modified and improved to suit later conditions. The infantry officer's +command has decreased from the wing of four companies to the double company +of two, and it is now known as a company and is organized in four platoons +on the British service model, platoons being commanded by Indian officers. +Of late years the number of British officers with an Indian regiment has +been increased to twelve, and at the present time a committee is sitting in +India to deliberate on the future construction of the army. It is therefore +impossible to give details of its future strength. This, just before the +war, was some 160,000, organized in 38 regiments of cavalry, the corps of +guides, 3 regiments of sappers and miners, 118 regiments of infantry of 1 +battalion each, and 10 regiments of Gurkhas of 2 battalions each. There +were also 13 mountain batteries. The 'Imperial Service Troops', of which +many contingents took part in the war, are raised, paid, and maintained by +princes and chiefs as a contribution to the defence of the country, while +their training is supervised by British inspecting officers. The 'Indian +Defence Force', which has lately replaced the volunteers, and in which +service is compulsory for Europeans, is available for home defence only. +During the war India, by voluntary enlistment, provided 1,401,350 men. Of +these many new regiments were formed, and second, third, and fourth +battalions added to existing regiments. Casualties were very nearly +114,000, including some 48,000 killed. Native Indian officers of cavalry +are known as ressaldars, ressaiders, and jemadars, while those of the +infantry are called subadars and jemadars. In each regiment the senior +Indian officer is called ressaldar or subadar-major. + +The army in India, by which is meant all military forces in India, is +administered by a commander-in-chief, who is a member of council. The +head-quarter staff includes a military secretary, the chief of the general +staff, an adjutant and a quartermaster-general, director-general of +ordnance and military works, and a director of medical +services.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hon. J. W. Fortescue, _History of the British +Army_; C. W. C. Oman, _A History of the Art of War: Middle Ages_; C. H. +Firth, _Cromwell's Army_; C. Walton, _History of the British Standing Army, +1660-1700_; War Office, _Army Book for the British Empire_; F. N. Maude, +_Evolution of Modern Strategy_; G. F. R. Henderson, _The Science of War_; +C. Romagny, _Histoire generale de l'armee nationale_; Heimann, _L'Armee +allemande_. + +ARMY ACT. See _Military Law_. + +[Illustration: Army Worm] + +ARMY WORM, the very destructive larva of the moth _Helioph[)i]la_ or +_Leucania unipuncta_, so called from its habit of marching in compact +bodies of enormous number, devouring almost every green thing it meets. It +is about 1-1/2 inches long, greenish in colour, with black stripes, and is +found in various parts of the world, but is particularly destructive in +North America. The larva of _Sci[)a]ra militaris_, a European two-winged +fly, is also called army worm. + +ARNAT'TO, or ANNOTTA. See _Annatto_. + +ARNAULD ([.a]r-n[=o]), the name of a French family, several members of +which greatly distinguished themselves.--Antoine, an eminent French +advocate, was born 1560, died 1619. Distinguished as a zealous defender of +the cause of Henry IV, and for his powerful and successful defence of the +University of Paris against the Jesuits in 1594. His family formed the +nucleus of the sect of the Jansenists (see _Jansenius_) in France.--His son +Antoine, called the _Great Arnauld_, was born 6th Feb., 1612, at Paris, +died 9th Aug., 1694, at Brussels. He devoted himself to theology, and was +received in 1641 among the doctors of the Sorbonne. He engaged in all the +quarrels of the French Jansenists with the Jesuits, the clergy, and the +Government, was the chief Jansenist writer, and was considered their head. +Excluded from the Sorbonne, he retired to Port Royal, where he wrote, in +conjunction with his friend Nicole, a celebrated system of logic (hence +called the _Port Royal Logic_). On account of persecution he fled, in 1679, +to the Netherlands. His works, which are mainly controversies with the +Jesuits or the Calvinists, are very voluminous.--His brother Robert, born +1588, died 1674, retired to Port Royal, where he wrote a translation of +Josephus, and other works.--Robert's daughter Angelique, born 1624, died +1684, was eminent in the religious world, and was subjected to persecution +on account of her unflinching adherence to Jansenism. + +AR'NAUTS. See _Albania_. + +ARNDT ([.a]rnt), Ernst Moritz, German patriot and poet, was born 1769, died +1860. He was appointed professor of history at Greifswald in 1806, and +stirred up the national feeling against Napoleon in his work _Geist der +Zeit_ (_Spirit of the Time)_. In 1812-3 he zealously promoted the war of +independence by a number of pamphlets, poems, and spirited songs, among +which it is sufficient to refer to his _Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland?_, +_Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess_, and _Was blasen die Trompeten? +Husaren, heraus!_, which were caught up and sung from one end of Germany to +the other. In 1817 he married a sister of the theologian Schleiermacher, +and settled at Bonn in order to undertake the duties of professor of +history. He was, however, suspended till 1840 on account of his liberal +opinions, when he was restored to his chair on the accession of Frederick +William IV. + +ARNDT, Johann, celebrated German mystic theologian, born 1555, died 1621. +His principal work, _Wahres Christenthum_ (True Christianity), is still +popular in Germany, and has been translated into almost all European +languages. Another of his publications is _Paradiesgaertlein_, translated +into English (The Garden of Paradise). + +ARNE ([.a]rn), Thomas Augustine, English composer, born at London 1710, +died 1778. His first opera, _Fair Rosamond_, was performed in 1733 at +Lincoln's-Inn Fields, and was received with great applause. Then followed a +version of Fielding's _Tom Thumb_, altered into _The Opera of Operas_, a +musical burlesque. His style in the _Comus_ (1738) is still more original +and cultivated. To him we owe the national air _Rule, Britannia_, +originally given in a popular piece called the _Masque of Alfred_. After +having composed two oratorios and several operas he received the degree of +Doctor of Music at Oxford. He composed, also, music for several of the +songs in Shakespeare's dramas, and various pieces of instrumental music. + +ARNEE', one of the numerous Indian varieties of the buffalo _(Bub[)a]lus +arni)_, remarkable as being the largest animal of the ox kind known. It +measures about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and from 9 to 10 1/2 feet long +from the muzzle to the root of the tail. It is found chiefly in the forests +at the base of the Himalayas. + +ARN'HEM, or ARNHEIM, a town in Holland, province of Gelderland, 18 miles +south-west of Zutphen, on the right bank of the Rhine. Pleasantly situated, +it is a favourite residential resort, and it contains many interesting +public buildings; manufactures cabinet wares, mirrors, carriages, +mathematical instruments, &c.; has paper-mills, and its trade is important. +In 1795 it was stormed by the French, who were driven from it by the +Prussians in 1813. Pop. 70,664 (1917). + +ARNHEM LAND, a portion of the northern territory of S. Australia, lying +west of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and forming a sort of peninsula. + +AR'NI, a town of Madras, on the Cheyair River, 16 miles south of Arcot; +formerly a large military station; stormed by Clive in 1751, and scene of +defeat of Hyder Ali by Sir Eyre Coote in 1782. Pop. 5050. + +AR'NICA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositae, containing eighteen +species, one of which is found in Central Europe, _A. mont[=a]na_ +(leopard's bane or mountain tobacco), but is not a native of Britain. It +has a perennial root, a stem about 2 feet high, bearing on the summit +flowers of a dark golden yellow. In every part of the plant there is an +acrid resin and a volatile oil, and in the flowers an acrid bitter +principle called _arnicin_. The root contains also a considerable quantity +of tannin. A tincture of it is employed as an external application to +wounds and bruises. It was introduced into English gardens about the middle +of the eighteenth century. + +AR'NIM, Elisabeth von, a German writer, also known as Bettina, wife of +Louis Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet Clemens Brentano; born at +Frankfort in 1785, died at Berlin 1859. Even in her childhood she +manifested an inclination towards eccentricities and poetical peculiarities +of many kinds. She entered into correspondence with Goethe, for whom she +entertained a violent passion, although he was then in his sixtieth year. +In 1835 she published Goethe's _Briefwechsel mit einem Kinde_ (Goethe's +Correspondence with a Child), containing, among others, the letters that +she alleged to have passed between her and Goethe. Her later writings dealt +with subjects like the emancipation of the Jews, and the abolition of +capital punishment. Her husband, Ludwig Achim von Arnim, born at Berlin in +1781, died 1831, distinguished himself as a writer of novels. In concert +with her brother, Clemens Brentano, he published a collection of popular +German songs and ballads entitled _Des Knaben Wunderhorn_.--Her daughter, +Gisela von Arnim, is known in literature by her _Dramatische Werke_ (3 +vols., 1857-63). + +AR'NO (ancient ARNUS), a river of Italy which rises in the Etruscan +Apennines, makes a sweep to the south and then flows westwards, divides +Florence into two parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4 miles below it, into the +Tuscan Sea, after a course of 130 miles. + +ARNO'BIUS, an early Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca +Veneria, in Numidia, and in 303 became a Christian; he died about 326. He +wrote seven books of _Disputationes adversus Gentes_ (or _Adversus +Nationes_), in which he refuted the objections of the heathens against +Christianity. This work betrays a defective knowledge of Christianity, but +is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology. + +ARNOLD, an urban district or town of England, Nottinghamshire, 3 miles +north-east of Nottingham, with lace and hosiery manufactures, &c. It has a +church built in the twelfth century, and a tower dating from the fifteenth +century and restored in 1868 and 1877. Pop. 11,800. + +AR'NOLD, Benedict, a general in the American army during the War of +Independence, born in 1741. He rendered his name infamous by his attempt to +betray the strong fortress of West Point, with all the arms and immense +stores which were there deposited, into the hands of the British. The +project failed through the capture of Major Andre, when Arnold made his +escape to the British lines. He received a commission as brigadier-general +in the British army, and took part in several marauding expeditions. He +subsequently settled in the West Indies, and ultimately came to London, +where he died in 1801. + +AR'NOLD, Sir Edwin, K.C.I.E., poet, Sanskrit scholar, and journalist, born +1832. Educated at Oxford, where he took the Newdigate prize for a poem +entitled the _Feast of Belshazzar_ in 1852, he was successively second +master in King Edward VI's College at Birmingham, and principal of the +Sanskrit College at Poonah in Bombay. In 1861 he joined the editorial staff +of the _Daily Telegraph_, with which he was henceforth connected. He died +in 1904. He was author of _Poems, Narrative and Lyrical_; translations from +the Greek and Sanskrit; _The Light of Asia_, a poem on the life and +teaching of Buddha; _The Light of the World_; _Pearls of the Faith_; _Lotus +and Jewel_, &c. + +AR'NOLD, Matthew, English critic, essayist, and poet, was born at Laleham, +near Staines, 1822, being a son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He was educated at +Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford, and became a Fellow of Oriel College. He was +private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, 1847-51; appointed inspector of +schools, 1851; professor of poetry at Oxford, 1858; published _A Strayed +Reveller and other poems_, 1848; _Empedocles on Etna_, 1853; _Merope_, +1858; _Essays in Criticism_, 1865; _On the Study of Celtic Literature_, +1867; _Schools and Universities on the Continent_, 1868; _St. Paul and +Protestantism_, 1870; _Literature and Dogma_, 1873; _Last Essays on Church +and Religion_, 1877; _God and the Bible_, 1878; _Discourses on America_, +1885, &c. He received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh, and that of +D.C.L. from Oxford, and lectured in Britain and in America. He died in +1888. A complete edition of his works in 15 vols. appeared in +1905.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. W. Paul, _Matthew Arnold_ (English Men of Letters +Series); G. Saintsbury, _Matthew Arnold_ (Modern English Writers Series); +G. W. E. Russell, _Matthew Arnold_ (Literary Lives Series); F. Bickley, +_Matthew Arnold and his Poetry_. + +AR'NOLD, Thomas, headmaster of Rugby School, and professor of modern +history in the University of Oxford, born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, +in 1795, died 1842. He entered Oxford in his sixteenth year, and in 1815 he +was elected Fellow of Oriel College, and both in that year and 1817 he +obtained the chancellor's prize for Latin and English essays. After taking +deacon's orders he settled at Laleham, near Staines, where he employed +himself in preparing young men for the universities. In 1828 he was +appointed headmaster of Rugby School, and devoted himself to his new duties +with the greatest ardour. While giving due prominence to the classics, he +deprived them of their exclusiveness by introducing various other branches +into his course, and he was particularly careful that the education which +he furnished should be in the highest sense moral and Christian. His +success was remarkable. Not only did Rugby School become crowded beyond any +former precedent, but the superiority of Dr. Arnold's system became so +generally recognized that it may be justly said to have done much for the +general improvement of the public schools of England. In 1841 he was +appointed professor of modern history at Oxford, and delivered his +introductory course of lectures with great success. His chief works are his +edition of Thucydides, his _History of Rome_ (unhappily left unfinished), +and his _Sermons_. There is an admirable memoir of him by A. P. Stanley, +Dean of Westminster (London, 2 vols., 1845).--Cf Lytton Strachey, _Eminent +Victorians_. + +AR'NOLD OF BRESCIA, an Italian religious and political reformer and martyr +of the twelfth century. He was one of the disciples of Abelard, and +attracted a considerable following by preaching against the corruption of +the clergy. Excommunicated by Innocent II, he withdrew to Zuerich, but soon +reappeared in Rome, where he was taken and burned (1155). + +ARNOLD-FORSTER, Hugh Oakeley, grandson of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, and adopted +son of the late W. E. Forster, M.P., whose wife was his aunt, was born in +1855, died in 1909. He was educated at Rugby and University College, +Oxford. He sat as member of Parliament for West Belfast from 1892, for +Croydon from 1906, as a Liberal Unionist, was Parliamentary Secretary to +the Admiralty from 1900 to 1903, then Secretary of State for War, a +position which he held till Dec., 1905, having put forward sweeping +proposals for the improvement of our army. He wrote on various subjects, +especially books for popular instruction, including _How to Solve the Irish +Land Question_, _The Citizen Reader_, _This World of Ours_, _Things New and +Old_, _In a Conning Tower_, _A History of England_, _English Socialism of +To-day_, _Military Needs and Military Policy_, &c. + +AR'NON, a river in Palestine, the boundary between the country of the +Moabites and that of the Amorites, afterwards of the Israelites, a +tributary of the Dead Sea. It is now called Wady-el-Mojib. + +AR'NOT, or AR'NUT, a name of the agreeably flavoured farinaceous tubers of +the earth-nut or pig-nut (_Bunium flexu[=o]sum_ and _B. Bulbocast[)a]num_). +See _Earth-nut_. + +AR'NOTT, Dr. Neil, an eminent physician and physicist, was born at +Arbroath, 1788, died 1874. Having graduated as M.A. at Aberdeen, he then +studied medicine, and was appointed a surgeon in the East India Company's +naval service. In 1811 he commenced practice in London. In 1837 he was +appointed extraordinary physician to the queen. In 1827 he published +_Elements of Physics_, and in 1838 a treatise on _Warming and Ventilation_, +&c. He is widely known as the inventor of a stove which is regarded as one +of the most economical arrangements for burning fuel, a ventilating +chimney-valve, and his water-bed for the protection of the sick against +bed-sores. In 1869 he gave L1000 to each of the four Scottish universities +and L2000 to London University for the promotion of the study of physics. +He was a strong advocate of a scientific as opposed to a purely classical +education. + +ARNPRIOR, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 35 miles west of Ottawa, on +the right bank of the River Ottawa, where it is joined by the Madawaska, +and with important railway connections. Pop. 4405. + +ARNSBERG ([.a]rnz'ber_h_), a town in Prussia, province Westphalia, capital +of the district of same name, on the Ruhr. Pop. 10,256.--The district of +Arnsberg has an area of 2972 sq. miles, and a population of 2,400,000. + +ARNSTADT ([.a]rn'st[.a]t), a town of Germany, in Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, +11 miles south by west of Erfurt, upon the Gera, which divides it into two +parts. It has manufactures in leather, &c., and a good trade in grain and +timber. Pop. 17,907. + +ARNSWALDE ([.a]rnz'v[.a]l-de), a town of Prussia, province Brandenburg, 39 +miles south-east of Stettin. Pop. 8730. + +AR'NULF, great-grandson of Charlemagne, elected King of Germany in A.D. +887; invaded Italy, captured Rome, and was crowned emperor by the Pope +(896); died A.D. 898. + +AROI'DEAE. See _Araceae_. + +AR'OLSEN, a German town, capital of Waldeck. Pop. 2793. + +AROMAT'ICS, drugs, or other substances which yield a fragrant smell, and +often a warm pungent taste, as calamus (_Ac[=o]rus Cal[)a]mus_), ginger, +cinnamon, cassia, lavender, rosemary, laurel, nutmegs, cardamoms, pepper, +pimento, cloves, vanilla, saffron. Some of them are used medicinally as +tonics, stimulants, &c. + +AROMATIC VINEGAR, a very volatile and powerful perfume made by adding the +essential oils of lavender, cloves, &c., and often camphor, to +crystallizable acetic acid. It is a powerful excitant in fainting, languor, +and headache. + +ARO'NA, an ancient Italian town near the south extremity of Lago Maggiore. +Pop. 4474. In the vicinity is the colossal statue of San Carlo Borromeo, 70 +feet in height, exclusive of pedestal 42 feet high. + +AROOS'TOOK, a river of the north-eastern United States and New Brunswick, a +tributary of the St. John, length 120 miles. + +AROU'RA, or ARU'RA, an ancient Egyptian measure of surface, according to +Herodotus the square of 100 cubits, containing, 21,904 sq. feet. + +ARPAD, founder of the Magyar monarchy, born about 870, died 907. See +_Hungary_. + +ARPEGGIO ([.a]r-pej'[=o]), the distinct sound of the notes of an +instrumental chord; the striking the notes of a chord in rapid succession, +as in the manner of touching the harp instead of playing them +simultaneously. + +ARPENT ([.a]r-pae[n.]), formerly a French measure of land, equal to +five-sixths of an English acre; but it varied in different parts of France; +the Parisian arpent contained 32,400 sq. feet, the common arpent 40,000 sq. +feet. + +ARPINO ([.a]r-p[=e]'n[=o]; ancient ARPINUM), a town of Southern Italy, +province of Caserta, celebrated as the birthplace of Gaius Marius and +Cicero. It manufactures woollens, linen, paper, &c. Pop. 10,309. + +ARQUA ([.a]r'kw[.a]), a village of Northern Italy, about 13 miles +south-west of Padua, where the poet Petrarch died, 18th July, 1374. A +monument has been erected over his grave. Pop. 1700. + +AR'QUEBUS, a hand-gun; a species of fire-arm of the sixteenth century, +resembling a musket. It was fired from a forked rest, and sometimes cocked +by a wheel, and carried a ball that weighed nearly 2 ounces. A larger kind +used in fortresses carried a heavier shot. + +ARRACA'CHA. See _Aracacha_. + +ARRACAN'. See _Aracan_. + +AR'RACK. See _Arack_. + +AR'RAGON. See _Aragon_. + +AR'RAH, a town of British India, in Shahabad district, Bengal, rendered +famous during the mutiny of 1857 by the heroic resistance of a body of +twenty civilians and fifty Sikhs, cooped up within a detached house, to a +force of 3000 sepoys, who were ultimately routed and overthrown by the +arrival of a small European reinforcement. Pop. 46,170. + +ARRAIGNMENT (ar-r[=a]n'-), the act of calling or setting a prisoner at the +bar of a court to plead guilty or not guilty to the matter charged in an +indictment or information. In Scots law the term is _calling the +diet_.--The _Clerk of Arraigns_ is an officer attached to assize courts and +to the Old Bailey, who assists in the arraignment of prisoners, and puts +formal questions to the jury. + +AR'RAN, an island of Scotland, in the Firth of Clyde, part of Bute county; +length, north to south, 20 miles; breadth, about 10 miles; area, 165 sq. +miles, or 105,814 acres, of which about 15,000 are under cultivation. It is +of a wild and romantic appearance, particularly the northern half, where +the island attains its loftiest summit in Goatfell, 2866 feet high. The +coast presents several indentations, of which that of Lamlash, forming a +capacious bay, completely sheltered by Holy Island, is one of the best +natural harbours in the west of Scotland. On the small island of Pladda, +about a mile from the south shore, a lighthouse has been erected. The +geology of Arran has attracted much attention, as furnishing within a +comparatively narrow space distinct sections of the great geological +formations; while the botany possesses almost equal interest, both in the +variety and the rarity of many of its plants. Among objects of interest are +relics of Danish forts, standing stones, cairns, &c. Lamlash and Brodick +are villages. The island is a favourite resort of summer visitors, and is +reached by steamer from Ardrossan. Pop. 8294. + +ARRAN, EARLS OF. See _Hamilton, Family of_. + +ARRANGEMENT, in music, the adaptation of a composition to voices or +instruments for which it was not originally written; also, a piece so +adapted. + +AR'RAN ISLANDS. See _Aran_. + +ARRARO'BA. See _Araroba_. + +ARRAS ([.a]-rae), a town of France, capital of the department +Pas-de-Calais, well built, with several handsome squares and a citadel, +cathedral, public library, botanic garden, museum, and numerous flourishing +industries. In the Middle Ages it was famous for the manufacture of +tapestry, to which the English applied the name of the town itself +(arrazo). The battle of Arras was fought and Vimy Ridge taken by the Allies +on 9th April, 1917. Pop. 24,200. + +ARREST' is the apprehending or restraining of one's person, which, in civil +cases, can take place legally only by process in execution of the command +of some court or officers of justice; but in criminal cases any man may +arrest without warrant or precept, and every person is liable to arrest +without distinction, but no man is to be arrested unless charged with such +a crime as will at least justify holding him to bail when taken. _Magna +Charta_ and the _Habeas Corpus Act_ are the two great statutes for securing +the liberty of the subject against unlawful arrests and suits. + +ARREST'MENT, in Scots law, a process by which a creditor may attach money +or movable property which a third party holds for behoof of his debtor. In +1870 an Act was passed for Scotland which provides that only that part of +the weekly wages of labourers, and of workpeople generally, which is in +excess of 20_s_. is liable to arrestment for debt. + +ARREST OF JUDGMENT, in law, the staying or stopping of a judgment after +verdict, for causes assigned. Courts have power to arrest judgment for +intrinsic causes appearing upon the face of the record; as when the +declaration varies from the original writ; when the verdict differs +materially from the pleadings; or when the case laid in the declaration is +not sufficient in point of law to found an action upon. + +ARRE'TIUM. See _Arezzo_. + +ARRHENATH'ERUM, a genus of oat-like grasses, of which _A. elatius_, +sometimes called French rye-grass, is a valuable fodder plant. + +ARRHENIUS, Svante August, famous Swedish physicist and chemist, born 19th +Feb., 1859, at Wyk, near Upsala. He was educated at the Universities of +Upsala (1876-81) and Stockholm (1881-4), spent two years in travelling, and +after doing much original research was appointed professor of physics at +the University of Stockholm. To him is due the establishment of the theory +of electrolytic dissociation, supplying a reasonable explanation of many +chemical phenomena otherwise insoluble. He subsequently extended the +application of the electrolytic theory to the phenomena of atmospheric +electricity. His dissertation _Sur la conductibilite galvanique des +electrolytes_ appeared in 1884. Among his other works is _Worlds in the +Making_ (English translation, 1908). + +AR'RIA, the heroic wife of a Roman named Caec[=i]na Paetus. Paetus was +condemned to death in A.D. 42 for his share in a conspiracy against the +emperor Claudius, and was encouraged to suicide by his wife, who stabbed +herself and then handed the dagger to her husband with the words, 'It does +not hurt, Paetus!' + +AR'RIAN, or FLAVIUS ARRIANUS, a Greek historian, native of Nicomedia, +flourished in the second century, under the emperor Hadrian and the +Antonines. He was first a priest of Ceres; but at Rome he became a disciple +of Epictetus, was honoured with the citizenship of Rome, and was advanced +to the senatorial and even consular dignities. His extant works are: _The +Expedition of Alexander_, in seven books; a book _On the Affairs of India_; +an _Epistle to Hadrian_; a _Treatise on Tactics_; a _Periplus of the Euxine +Sea_; a _Periplus of the Red Sea_; and his _Enchiridion_, a moral treatise, +containing the discourses of Epictetus. + +AR'RIS, in architecture, the line in which the two straight or curved +surfaces of a body, forming an exterior angle, meet each other. + +ARRO'BA (Spanish), a weight formerly used in Spain, and still used in the +greater part of Central and South America. In the States of Spanish origin +its weight is generally equal to 25.35 lb. avoirdupois; in Brazil it equals +32.38 lb.--Also a measure for wine, spirits, and oil, ranging from 2-3/4 +gallons to about 10 gallons. + +ARROEE, Danish island. See _Aeroee_. + +ARRONDISSEMENT. See _France_. + +ARROW. See _Archery, Bow_. + +ARROWHEAD (Sagittaria), a genus of aquatic plants found in all parts of the +world within the torrid and temperate zones, nat. ord. Alismaceae, +distinguished by possessing barren and fertile flowers, with a three-leaved +calyx and three coloured petals. The common arrowhead (_S. sagittifolia_), +the only native species in Britain, is known by its arrow-shaped leaves +with lanceolate straight lobes. + +ARROWHEADED CHARACTERS. See _Cuneiform Writing_. + +ARROW LAKE, an expansion of the Columbia River, in British Columbia, +Canada; about 95 miles long from N. to S.; often regarded as forming two +lakes--Upper and Lower Arrow Lake. + +ARROWROCK DAM. See _Dams_ and _Reservoirs_. + +[Illustration: Arrow-root (_Maranta arundin[=a]c[)e]a_)] + +ARROW-ROOT, a starch largely used for food and for other purposes. +Arrow-root proper is obtained from the rhizomes or rootstocks of several +species of plants of the genus Maranta (nat. ord. Marantaceae), and perhaps +owes its name to the scales which cover the rhizome, which have some +resemblance to the point of an arrow. Some, however, suppose that the name +is due to the fact of the fresh roots being used as an application against +wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows, and others say that _arrow_ is a +corruption of _ara_, the Indian name of the plant. The species from which +arrow-root is most commonly obtained is _M. arundin[=a]c[)e]a_, hence +called the _arrow-root plant_. Brazilian arrow-root, or tapioca meal, is +got from the large fleshy root of _Manihot utilissima_, after the poisonous +juice has been got rid of; East Indian arrow-root, from the large +rootstocks of _Curc[)u]ma angustifolia_; Chinese arrow-root, from the +creeping rhizomes of _Nelumbium speci[=o]sum_; English arrow-root, from the +potato; Portland arrow-root, from the corms of _Arum macul[=a]tum_; and +Oswego arrow-root, from Indian corn. Analyses made in 1902 and 1906 show +that the idea generally held of the nourishing qualities of arrow-root is a +delusion, and that the proteids, which are true muscle-builders, are +present in an extremely small extent. Arrow-root, however, mixed with eggs, +milk, and flavourings, is largely used in the dietary of invalids. + +ARROWSMITH, Aaron, a distinguished English chartographer, born 1750, died +1823; he raised the execution of maps to a perfection it had never before +attained.--His nephew, John, born 1790, died 1873, was no less +distinguished in the same field; his _London Atlas of Universal Geography_ +may be specially mentioned. + +ARROYO ([.a]r-r[=o]'yo), the name of two towns of Spain, in Estremadura, +the one, called Arroyo del Puerco (pop. 5727), about 10 miles west of +Caceres; the other, called Arroyo Molinos de Montanches, about 27 miles +south-east of Caceres, memorable from the victory gained by Lord Hill over +a French force under General Gerard, 28th Oct., 1811. + +AR'RU (or AROO) ISLANDS, a group belonging to the Dutch, south of western +New Guinea, and extending from north to south about 127 miles. They are +composed of coralline limestone, nowhere exceeding 200 feet above the sea, +and are well wooded and tolerably fertile. The natives belong to the Papuan +race, and some of them are Christians. The chief exports are trepang, +tortoise-shell, pearls, mother-of-pearl, and edible birds'-nests. Pop. of +group about 20,000. + +ARSA'CES, the founder of a dynasty of Parthian kings (256 B.C.), who, +taking their name from him, are called Arsacidae. There were thirty-one in +all. See _Parthia_. + +AR'SAMAS, a manufacturing town in the Russian government of Nijni-Novgorod, +on the Tesha, 250 miles east of Moscow, with a cathedral and large convent. +Pop. 12,000. + +AR'SENAL, a royal or public magazine or place appointed for the making, +repairing, keeping, and issuing of military stores. An arsenal of the first +class should include factories for guns and gun-carriages, small-arms, +small-arms ammunition, harness, saddlery, tents, and powder; a laboratory +and large store-houses. In arsenals of the second class workshops take the +place of the factories. The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, which manufactures +warlike implements and stores for the army and navy, was formed about 1720, +and comprises factories, laboratories, &c., for the manufacture and final +fitting up of almost every kind of arms and ammunition. Great quantities of +military and naval stores are kept at the dockyards of Chatham, Portsmouth, +Plymouth, and Pembroke. In France there are various arsenals or depots of +war-material, which is manufactured at Mezieres, Toulouse, Besancon, &c.; +the great naval arsenals are Brest and Toulon. Until 1919 the chief German +arsenals were at Spandau, Strassburg, and Dantzig. The chief Austrian +arsenal was the immense establishment at Vienna, which included +gun-factory, laboratory, small-arms and carriage factories, &c. Russia had +her principal arsenal at Petrograd, with supplementary factories of arms +and ammunition at Briansk, Kiev, and elsewhere. In Italy Turin is the +centre of the military factories. There are a number of arsenals in the +United States, but individually they are of little importance. + +AR'SENIC (symbol AS, atomic weight 75), a common element usually found +combined with metals as arsenides, the commonest of which is arsenical +pyrites, FeAsS. It has a steel colour and high metallic lustre, and +tarnishes on exposure to the air, first changing to yellow, and finally to +black. In hardness it equals copper; it is extremely brittle, and very +volatile, beginning to sublime before it melts. It burns with a blue flame, +and emits a smell of garlic. Its specific gravity is 5.76. It forms +compounds with most of the metals. Combined with sulphur it forms orpiment +and realgar, which are the yellow and red sulphides of arsenic. Orpiment is +the true _arsenicum_ of the ancients. With oxygen arsenic forms two +compounds, the more important of which is arsenious oxides or arsenic +trioxide (As_4O_6), which is the _white arsenic_, or simply _arsenic_ of +the shops. It is usually seen in white, glassy, translucent masses, and is +obtained by sublimation from several ores containing arsenic in combination +with metals, particularly from arsenical pyrites. Of all substances arsenic +is that which has most frequently occasioned death by poisoning, both by +accident and design. The best remedies against the effects of arsenic on +the stomach are ferric hydroxide or magnesic hydroxide, or a mixture of +both, with copious draughts of bland liquids of a mucilaginous consistence, +which serve to procure its complete ejection from the stomach. Oils and +fats generally, milk, albumen, wheat-flour, oatmeal, sugar or syrup, have +all proved useful in counteracting its effect. Like many other virulent +poisons it is a safe and useful medicine, especially in skin diseases, when +judiciously employed. It is used as a flux for glass, and also for forming +pigments. The arsenite of copper (Scheele's green) and a double arsenite +and acetate of copper (emerald green) were formerly largely used to colour +paper-hangings for rooms; but as poisonous gases are liable to be given +off, the practice has been to a great extent abandoned. Arsenic compounds +have been used for colouring confectionery, and other articles, bright +green, but their chief industrial use is in the preparation of +insecticides. Arsenic is found in crude oil of vitriol, and occasionally in +products such as grape-sugar, beer, &c., in the manufacture of which oil of +vitriol is employed. Plants die when placed in a solution of arsenic, but +corn is often steeped in such a solution, previous to planting, for +preventing smut, and the growth of the future plant is not injured thereby. + +ARSHIN ([.a]r-sh[=e]n'), a Russian measure of length equal to 28 inches. + +ARSIN'OE, a city of ancient Egypt on Lake Moeris, said to have been founded +about 2300 B. C., but renamed after Arsinoe, wife and sister of Ptolemy II +of Egypt, and called also _Crocodilopolis_, from the sacred crocodiles kept +at it. + +AR'SIS, a term applied in prosody to that syllable in a measure where the +emphasis is put; in elocution, the elevation of the voice, in distinction +from _thesis_, or its depression. _Arsis_ and _thesis_, in music, are the +strong position and weak position of the bar, indicated by the down-beat +and up-beat in marking time. + +AR'SON, in English law, the malicious burning of a dwelling-house or +outhouse of another man, which by the common law is felony, and which, if +any person is therein, is capital. Also, the wilful setting fire to any +church, chapel, warehouse, mill, barn, agricultural produce, ship, +coal-mine, and the like. In Scotland it is called _wilful fire-raising_, +and in both England and Scotland it is a considerable aggravation of the +crime if the burning is to defraud insurers. + +ART, in its most extended sense, as distinguished from nature on the one +hand and from science on the other, has been defined as every regulated +operation or dexterity by which organized beings pursue ends which they +know beforehand, together with the rules and the result of every such +operation or dexterity. Science consists in _knowing_, art in _doing_. In +this wide sense it embraces what are usually called the useful arts. In a +narrower and purely aesthetic sense it designates what are more +specifically termed the fine arts, as architecture, sculpture, painting, +music, and poetry. The useful arts have their origin in positive practical +needs, and restrict themselves to satisfying them. The fine arts minister +to the sentiment of taste through the medium of the beautiful in form, +colour, rhythm, or harmony. See _Fine Arts_, _Painting_, _Sculpture_, +&c.--In the Middle Ages it was common to give certain branches of study the +name of arts.--Cf. A. C. R. Carter, _History of Art_, _The Year's Art_. + +ART COLLECTIONS. See _Collections, Artistic_. + +ART, Teaching of. With the advent of the present industrial age the +teaching of art has undergone a profound change. The fine and the +industrial arts have been equally affected. In mediaeval times, and in the +earlier classic ages, the system of apprenticeship prevailed, and all +teaching of the arts and of the artistic crafts was given by masters of the +various arts or trades to the apprentices who worked under their guidance +as assistants. Standards of excellence were maintained by trade guilds, who +enforced rules as to workmanship as well as rules for the economic +conditions of each trade or craft. The painter of pictures, or of mural +decorations, was trained in the same way as any other craftsman, working as +an apprentice under a master. + +When, in the last century, machinery driven by steam-power took the place +of hand labour in industry, the small independent workshops gradually +disappeared, as the industrial centres increased in those localities where +coal or raw material was most easily obtained; and, as the processes of +each trade or craft became more and more subdivided and specialized, the +old system of apprenticeship, which had become unnecessary, broke down. The +teaching and tradition of the small independent craft workshops had no +counterpart in the new centralized industrial systems. Even the painters of +pictures needed no longer to prepare their own materials, for special +industries arose, and mechanical processes were developed, for the work +which formerly had been done in the artists' workshops by apprentices. The +fine arts in this way suffered the loss of their old systems of teaching +and instruction. + +To meet the need for a revival of art teaching in the crafts and other +industries, there arose a movement towards the centralization of teaching +in schools of art during the latter half of the nineteenth century. +Following the impulse given to that movement by the great exhibition in +1850, the British Government founded the schools of science and art in +London and in most of the important provincial towns. Earlier in the +century bodies of artists had founded national academies for the teaching +of art; and the teaching of drawing was gradually adopted as a part of +ordinary school education. Step by step training in schools of art or +technical schools took the place of the teaching formerly given during +apprenticeship in every craft workshop. The ancient guilds were replaced by +the new trades unions, but these took no part in the maintenance of +artistic standards nor of quality in workmanship. + +At the present time the teaching of art begins with the early school +lessons in drawing, and is carried on in special technical classes or +schools of art, where teachers of the 'fine arts' and of the artistic +crafts give instruction to students preparing for professional work. In a +few of the artistic trades the system of apprenticeship still survives, but +the teaching given by that means is usually supplemented by attendance at a +school of art or technical school. Under the Education Act of 1918 +attendance at technical classes in the daytime became compulsory for +apprentices in all industrial trades. + +The subject of art teaching was formerly disregarded by the universities, +but has become definitely within their province since the founding of the +Slade professorships at Oxford, Cambridge, and London Universities, and of +the professorship of fine art at the University of Edinburgh. + +The chief schools of art in Great Britain are the schools of the Royal +Academy in London, the Slade School at University College, London, and the +Royal College of Art at South Kensington, also the Central School of Arts +and Crafts, and the other large metropolitan schools of the London County +Council. + +In most of the English provincial towns are municipal or other schools of +art under the control of the Board of Education. + +In Scotland the chief schools are the four central institutions--the +Edinburgh College of Art, and the schools of art of Glasgow, Aberdeen, and +Dundee. In each of these a diploma is given on the satisfactory completion +of a prescribed course of study. + +In Ireland the chief schools are those of the Royal Hibernian Academy in +Dublin, and the provincial schools of art under the Department of +Agriculture and Technology. + +On the Continent the chief centre of artistic training has for many years +been in Paris. Advanced students from most European and American art +schools spend some of the later period of their study in the schools of +Paris, in painting, in sculpture, or in architecture. There is, naturally, +a valuable incentive and stimulation due to this gathering together of +advanced students from all countries, as well as to the high academic +tradition and sense of style of the French. + +The 'atelier' system, which is followed in the French schools, is simple +and personal. The expenses of an 'atelier', or studio, are borne by a group +of students by the consent and under the guidance of an artist of +reputation, who visits the 'atelier' at stated intervals, but is not +concerned in its administration. In this way the relations between the +professor and his pupils are extremely direct and personal. Most of the +distinguished artists of Paris are attached to some 'atelier' to which +chosen pupils are admitted. + +There are also in Paris excellent schools for training in the applied arts, +schools for furniture-making, printing, jewellery, and other artistic +trades. These are on private foundations, but also receive State aid. + +The teaching of art that is given at the present day as a part of ordinary +general education attempts little more than a training in the elements of +drawing, with some practice in the use of colour. The purpose of the +drawing lesson is the attainment of skill in the representation of objects +rather than the training of the aesthetic sense, or of artistic judgment or +taste. + +In the schools of art opportunities are provided for training in drawing +and painting, sculpture, and architecture, and in the general principles of +design in these arts, and in many of the artistic crafts and industrial +processes. In some localities, where particular industries or artistic +trades are concentrated, special schools for artistic and technical +training are provided. The present tendency is towards the development of +special schools for particular artistic trades or professions. + +A complete system of training in any art must of necessity include: (1) +actual technical practice; (2) teaching of the canons of workmanship of the +art; (3) acquaintance with its historical development, especially with the +notable examples and the highest achievements of past masters in the art. + +ARTA (ancient AMBRACIA), a gulf, town, and river of north-western Greece. +The town was transferred by Turkey to Greece in 1881 (pop. 8000). It stands +on the River Arta, which for a considerable distance above its mouth formed +a part of the boundary between Greece and Turkey.--The province of Arta has +an area of 395 sq. miles, and a pop. of 52,400. + +ARTAXERX'ES (Old Pers. _Artakhsathra_, 'the mighty'), the name of several +Persian kings:--1. ARTAXERXES, surnamed Longim[)a]nus, succeeded his father +Xerxes I, 465 B.C. He subdued the rebellious Egyptians, terminated the war +with Athens, governed his subjects in peace, and died 425 B.C.--2. +ARTAXERXES, surnamed Mnemon, succeeded his father Darius II in the year 405 +B.C. After having vanquished his brother Cyrus he made war on the Spartans, +who had assisted his enemy, and forced them to abandon the Greek cities and +islands of Asia to the Persians. On his death, 359 B.C., his son Ochus +ascended the throne under the name of--3. ARTAXERXES OCHUS (359 to 339 +B.C.). After having overcome the Phoenicians and Egyptians, and displayed +great cruelty in both countries, he was poisoned by his general Bagoas. + +ARTE'DI, Peter, a Swedish naturalist, born 1705, drowned at Amsterdam 1735. +He studied at Upsala, turned his attention to medicine and natural history, +and was a friend of Linnaeus. His _Bibliotheca Ichthyologica_ and +_Philosophia Ichthyologica_, together with a life of the author, were +published at Leyden in 1738. + +ARTEL, a name for co-operative associations in Russia. These associations +were known in ancient Russia as _drushina_ or _wataga_. The artels +originally consisted of bodies of men associating for the purpose of +jointly undertaking a piece of work and dividing the profits. Artels were +formed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries for the co-operation of +their members in hunting and fishing. Inspired and stimulated by the +Schulze-Delitzsch associations established in Germany, the Russian artels +have extended their activity to various branches of industrial life. There +are now consum artels, credit artels, and insurance artels, but the most +important are the artisan and industrial artels. Some of the artels, +however, are little more than trade guilds with mutual responsibility. + +AR'T[)E]MIS, an ancient Greek divinity, identified with the Roman Diana. +She was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto or Latona, and was the twin +sister of Apollo, born in the Island of Delos. She is variously represented +as a huntress, with bow and arrows; as a goddess of the nymphs, in a +chariot drawn by four stags; and as the moon-goddess, with the crescent of +the moon above her forehead. She was a maiden divinity, never conquered by +love, except when Endymion made her feel its power. She demanded the +strictest chastity from her worshippers, and she is represented as having +changed Actaeon into a stag, and caused him to be torn in pieces by his own +dogs, because he had secretly watched her as she was bathing. The Artemisia +was a festival celebrated in her honour at Delphi. The famous temple of +Artemis at Ephesus was considered one of the wonders of the world, but the +goddess worshipped there was very different from the huntress goddess of +Greece, being of Eastern origin, and regarded as the symbol of fruitful +nature. + +ARTEMI'SIA, Queen of Caria, in Asia Minor, about 352-350 B.C., sister and +wife of Maus[=o]lus, to whom she erected in her capital, Halicarnassus, a +monument, called the Mausol[=e]um, which was reckoned among the seven +wonders of the world. + +ARTEMI'SIA, a genus of plants of numerous species, nat. ord. Compositae, +comprising mugwort, southernwood, and wormwood. Certain alpine species are +the flavouring ingredient in absinthe. See _Wormwood_. + +ARTEMI'SIUM, a promontory in Euboea, an island of the Aegean, near which +several naval battles between the Greeks and Persians were fought, 480 B.C. + +AR'TEMUS WARD. See _Browne, Charles Farrar_. + +AR'TERIES, the system of cylindrical vessels or tubes, membranous, elastic, +and pulsatile, which convey the blood from the heart to all parts of the +body, by ramifications which, as they proceed, diminish in size and +increase in number, and terminate in minute capillaries uniting the ends of +the arteries with the beginnings of the veins. There are two principal +arteries or arterial trunks: the _aorta_, which rises from the left +ventricle of the heart and ramifies through the whole body, sending off +great branches to the head, neck, and upper limbs, and downwards to the +lower limbs, &c.; and the _pulmonary artery_, which conveys venous blood +from the right ventricle to the lungs, to be purified in the process of +respiration. + +ARTERIOT'OMY, the opening or cutting of an artery for the purpose of +blood-letting, as, for instance, to relieve pressure of the brain in +apoplexy. + +[Illustration: Artesian Well. A. A. Outcrops of pervious stratum (C) acting +as collecting areas. B and D. Impervious stratum.] + +ARTE'SIAN WELLS, so called from the French province of Artois, where they +appear to have been first used on an extensive scale, are perpendicular +borings into the ground through which water rises to the surface of the +soil, producing a constant flow or stream, the ultimate sources of supply +being higher than the mouth of the boring, and the water thus rising by the +well-known law. They are generally sunk in valley plains and districts +where the lower pervious strata are bent into basin-shaped curves. The rain +falling on the outcrops of these saturates the whole porous bed, so that +when the bore reaches it the water by hydraulic pressure rushes up towards +the level of the highest portion of the strata. The supply is sometimes so +abundant as to be used extensively as a moving power, and in arid regions +for fertilizing the ground, to which purpose artesian springs have been +applied from a very remote period. Thus many artesian wells have been sunk +in the Algerian Sahara, which have proved an immense boon to the district. +The water of most of these is potable, but a few are a little saline, +though not to such an extent as to influence vegetation. The hollows in +which London and Paris lie are both perforated in many places by borings of +this nature. At London they were first sunk only to the sand, but +afterwards into the chalk. One of the most celebrated artesian wells is +that of Grenelle, near Paris, 1798 feet deep, completed in 1841, after +eight years' work. Artesian wells are now common in many countries, and +have been sunk to the depth of a mile or more. As the temperature of water +from great depths is invariably higher than that at the surface, artesian +wells have been made to supply warm water for heating manufactories, +greenhouses, hospitals, fish-ponds, &c. They have also been made in the +United States and Australia for the purpose of irrigation. Petroleum wells +are generally of the same technical description. Artesian wells are now +made with larger diameters than formerly, and altogether their construction +has been rendered much more easy in modern times. See _Boring_. + +ARTEVELD, or ARTEVELDE ([.a]r'te-velt, [.a]r'te-vel-de), the name of two +men distinguished in the history of the Low Countries.--1. Jacob van, a +brewer of Ghent, born about 1300, was selected by his fellow-townsmen to +lead them in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. In 1338 he +was appointed captain of the forces of Ghent, and for several years +exercised a sort of sovereign power. A proposal to make the Black Prince, +son of Edward III of England, Governor of Flanders led to an insurrection +in which Arteveld lost his life (1345).--2. Philip, son of the former, at +the head of the forces of Ghent gained a great victory over the Count of +Flanders, Louis II, and for a time assumed the state of a sovereign prince. +His reign proved short-lived. The Count of Flanders returned with a large +French force, fully disciplined and skilfully commanded. Arteveld was rash +enough to meet them in the open field at Roosebeke, between Courtrai and +Ghent, in 1382, and fell with 25,000 Flemings. + +ARTHRI'TIS (Gr. _arthron_, a joint), any inflammatory distemper that +affects the joints, particularly chronic rheumatism or gout. + +ARTHRO'DIA, a species of articulation, in which the head of one bone is +received into a shallow socket in another; a ball-and-socket joint. + +ARTHROP'ODA, one of the two primary divisions (Anarthropoda being the +other) into which modern naturalists have divided the sub-kingdom Annulosa, +having the body composed of a series of segments, some always being +provided with articulated appendages. The division comprises Crustaceans, +Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Insects. + +ARTHROZO'A, a name sometimes given to all articulated animals, including +the arthropoda and worms. + +ARTHUR, Chester Alan, twenty-first President of the United States, born +1830, died 1886, was the son of Scottish parents, his father being pastor +of Baptist churches in Vermont and New York. He chose law as a profession, +and practised in New York. As a politician he became a leader in the +Republican party. During the civil war he was energetic as +quarter-master-general of New York in getting troops raised and equipped. +He was afterwards collector of customs for the port of New York. In 1880 he +was elected Vice-President, succeeding as President on the death of +Garfield in 1881. + +AR'THUR, KING, an ancient British hero of the sixth century, son of Uther +Pendragon and the Princess Igerna, wife of Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall. He +married Guinevere, or Ginevra; established the famous order of the Round +Table; and reigned, surrounded by a splendid Court, twelve years in peace. +After this, as the poets relate, he conquered Denmark, Norway, and France, +slew the giants of Spain, and went to Rome. From thence he is said to have +hastened home on account of the faithlessness of his wife, and Modred, his +nephew, who had stirred up his subjects to rebellion. He subdued the +rebels, but died in consequence of his wounds, on the Island of Avalon. The +story of Arthur is supposed to have some foundation in fact, and has ever +been a favourite subject with our romanticists and our poets. It is +generally believed that Arthur was one of the last great Celtic chiefs who +led his countrymen from the west of England to resist the settlement of the +Saxons in the country. But many authorities regard him as a leader of the +Cymry of Cumbria and Strath-Clyde against the Saxon invaders of the east +coast and the Picts and Scots north of the Forth and the Clyde. See +_Grail_, _Merlin_, _Round Table_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Rhys, _Studies in the +Arthurian Legend_; W. Lewis Jones, _King Arthur in History and Legend_. + +ARTHUR'S SEAT, a picturesque hill within the King's Park in the immediate +vicinity of Edinburgh; has an altitude of 822 feet; descends rollingly to +the N. and E. over a base each way of about five furlongs; presents an +abrupt shoulder to the S., and breaks down precipitously to the W. It is +composed of a diversity of eruptive rocks, with some interposed and +up-tilted sedimentary ones; and derives its name somehow from the legendary +King Arthur. + +AR'TIAD (Gr. _artios_, even-numbered), in chemistry, a name given to an +element of even equivalency, as a dyad, tetrad, &c.: opposed to a perissad, +an element of uneven equivalency, such as a monad, triad, &c. + +ARTICHOKE (_Cyn[)a]ra Scol[)y]mus_), sometimes called 'the Globe +Artichoke', a well-known plant of the nat. ord. Compositae, somewhat +resembling a thistle, with large divided prickly leaves. The erect +flower-stem terminates in a large round head of numerous imbricated oval +spiny scales which surround the flowers. The fleshy bases of the scales +with the large receptacle are the parts that are eaten. Artichokes were +introduced into England early in the sixteenth century. The Jerusalem +artichoke (a corruption of the It. _girasole_, a sunflower), or _Helianthus +tuber[=o]sus_, is a species of sunflower, whose roots are used like +potatoes; it was introduced into England in the early part of the +seventeenth century. + +ARTICLE, in grammar, a part of speech used before nouns to limit or define +their application. In English _a_ or _an_ is usually called the indefinite +article (the latter form being used before a vowel sound), and _the_, the +definite article, but they are also described as adjectives. _An_ was +originally the same as _one_, and _the_ as _that_. In Latin there were no +articles, and Greek has only the definite article. + +ARTICLES, LORDS OF THE, in Scottish history, a committee chosen equally +from each estate or division of Parliament to prepare the various measures, +which, when completed, were laid before the Parliament for adoption or +rejection. They were first appointed in 1369, and gradually became a +recognized part of the Scottish legislative machinery. Abolished 1690. + +ARTICLES, THE SIX, in English ecclesiastical history, articles imposed by a +statute (often called the Bloody Statute) passed in 1541, the thirty-third +year of the reign of Henry VIII. They decreed the acknowledgment of +transubstantiation, the sufficiency of communion in one kind, the +obligation of vows of chastity, the propriety of private masses, celibacy +of the clergy, and auricular confession. Acceptance of these doctrines was +made obligatory on all persons under the severest penalties; the Act, +however, was relaxed in 1544, and repealed in 1549. + +ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, of the Church of England, a statement of the +particular points of doctrine, thirty-nine in number, maintained by the +English Church; first promulgated by a convocation held in London in +1562-3, and confirmed by royal authority; founded on and superseding an +older code issued in the reign of Edward VI. The first five articles +contain a profession of faith in the Trinity; the incarnation of Jesus +Christ, His descent to hell, and His resurrection; the divinity of the Holy +Ghost. The three following relate to the canon of the Scripture. The eighth +article declares a belief in the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds. +The ninth and following articles contain the doctrine of original sin, of +justification by faith alone, of predestination, &c. The nineteenth, +twentieth, and twenty-first declare the Church to be the assembly of the +faithful; that it can decide nothing except by the Scriptures. The +twenty-second rejects the doctrine of purgatory, indulgences, the adoration +of images, and the invocation of saints. The twenty-third decides that only +those lawfully called shall preach or administer the sacraments. The +twenty-fourth requires the liturgy to be in English. The twenty-fifth and +twenty-sixth declare the sacraments effectual signs of grace (though +administered by evil men), by which God excites and confirms our faith. +They are two: baptism and the Lord's supper. Baptism, according to the +twenty-seventh article, is a sign of regeneration, the seal of our +adoption, by which faith is confirmed and grace increased. In the Lord's +supper, according to article twenty-eight, the bread is the communion of +the body of Christ, the wine the communion of his blood, but only through +faith (article twenty-ninth); and the communion must be administered in +both kinds (article thirty). The twenty-eighth article condemns the +doctrine of transubstantiation, and the elevation and adoration of the +host; the thirty-first rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous; +the thirty-second permits the marriage of the clergy; the thirty-third +maintains the efficacy of excommunication. The remaining articles relate to +the supremacy of the king, the condemnation of Anabaptists, &c. They were +ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. All candidates for ordination must +subscribe these articles, but they are not binding upon laymen, except +judges and certain university officials. This formulary is now accepted by +the Episcopalian Churches of Scotland, Ireland, and America. + +ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION are the rules framed by a company for the +administration of its affairs. Public companies usually have separate +articles of their own, but this is not essential. When a registered company +has no articles, its business procedure is regulated by the statutory form, +found in Schedule 1 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act, 1908, and known +as Table A. When separate articles are used they must be printed, signed, +stamped, and filed along with the memorandum of association. Unlike the +memorandum, the articles may be altered at any time, by special resolution, +provided the alteration is within the powers given by the memorandum. Thus, +where preferred shares are created by the memorandum, their privileges are +more secure than if merely issued under the articles. The articles are +intended merely for internal administration, and, while binding in +questions between the company and its members as such, they do not affect +third parties, unless the company has acted _ultra vires_ and this was +discoverable from the articles, which the public can inspect at a nominal +fee.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir F. B. Palmer, _Company Law_; A. Coles, _Guide for +the Company Secretary_; A. F. Topham, _Principles of Company Law_. + +ARTICLES OF WAR. See _Military Law_. + +ARTICULA'TA, the third great section of the animal kingdom according to the +arrangement of Cuvier, applied to invertebrates such as insects and worms, +in which the body displays a jointed structure. The name is now obsolete. +See _Arthropoda_. + +ARTICULA'TION, in anatomy a joint; the joining or juncture of the bones. +This is of three kinds: (1) _Diarthr[=o]sis_, or a movable connection, such +as the ball-and-socket joint; (2) _Synarthr[=o]sis_, immovable connection, +as by suture, or junction by serrated margins; (3) _Symphysis_, or union by +means of another substance, by a cartilage, tendon, or ligament. + +ARTIFICIAL LIMBS. Artificial limbs of a primitive kind have been in use +from very early times; but, as the material of which they were made was +perishable, few specimens have been preserved. In the museum of the Royal +College of Surgeons in London there is a good specimen of a Roman +artificial leg which is believed to date back to the third century B.C. +This leg is made of wood, covered with thin bronze; it has an iron +sole-plate, and was fastened on by means of a waist-belt. + +In Irish legend we are told of Nuada, who led the tribe of the Dananns back +to Ireland, having an artificial hand made of silver; from this he received +the name of Argetlam or Silver-handed. In mediaeval times Goetz von +Berlichingen, who lost his right hand at the siege of Landshut (1505), had +a hand made of iron to supply its place. + +Great improvements have been made in the manufacture of artificial limbs +during the last fifty years. After the Franco-Prussian war the French +Government adopted an artificial arm and hand known as the 'Beaufort' and +issued it to the soldiers who required it. This hand had a movable thumb +controlled by a cord passing up the arm and fastened to a loop band over +the opposite shoulder. An Englishman named Heather Bigg invented a hand +with a movable thumb which was worked by a piston and controlled by a +rubber ball fastened under the arm-pit. These designs have been improved +upon from time to time, and an artificial hand can now be made which is +capable of opening and closing at will, and of lifting and holding light +articles. + +Artificial legs vary in design, from the simple pin leg to ingenious +contrivances such as the 'Anglesey' leg, which is made of seasoned willow +wood with steel ankles and knee-joints. This 'Anglesey' leg is the standard +best-quality limb in Great Britain. The German artificial-limb makers use +leather instead of wood. These leather legs fit comfortably, but are too +heavy, as they have to be supported by steel bands. + +ARTILLERY, all ordnance such as guns and howitzers as opposed to small arms +and machine-guns. The term is also used for the troops who serve these +arms. + +Generally speaking, artillery is divided into field, heavy, and siege +artillery. For details of organization see _Army_. The earliest form of +artillery was a metal tube which was placed in a convenient position on the +ground. The charge of gunpowder was ignited by placing a match to a hole +bored at the closed end, and the resulting explosion forced the +projectile--a stone--more or less in the required direction. Later on this +primitive weapon was provided with wheels. In another form one man fired it +while a second man supported it on his shoulder. In the later Middle Ages +guns of various calibres were known by the names of birds of prey or +reptiles; among such were falcons and falconets, culverins and +demi-culverins. The fourteenth century saw the development of artillery for +siege purposes--chiefly by the Germans--and in the next century it began to +be employed in open warfare; while in 1537 the present Honourable Artillery +Company was formed in London to encourage the use of all 'weapons of +volley'. These weapons of volley were not even confined to fire-arms, but +included bows and cross-bows. The earliest English troops raised as +artillery personel were called the Regiment of Firelocks. Of late years +artillery science has made almost inconceivable progress, thanks to which, +_inter alia_, it is no longer necessary for the target to be visible from +the gun-position. This fact, combined with the use of smokeless powder, +makes the locating of hostile batteries exceedingly difficult. All field +artillery, by which is meant guns and howitzers, which accompany mobile +troops are designed on the quick-firing principle, by which the inevitable +recoil at the moment of firing is absorbed by an arrangement known as the +recoil-carriage, thus preventing any movement of the gun-carriage proper, +and avoiding unnecessary labour for the gun-detachments, while at the same +time allowing the men composing it to remain under cover of the shield with +which the guns are provided. With the quick-firing gun, propellent and +projectile are combined in one cartridge similar to that in use with small +arms; with the howitzer they are separated. This difference is due to the +fact that whereas guns are designed for a flat trajectory with a deep zone +of fire-effect, howitzers are intended for high-angle fire with an almost +vertical fall of shrapnel-bullets. This effect is produced by varying the +charge for different ranges. A field battery consists of 6 guns or +howitzers and 12 ammunition-wagons. Both guns and wagons are of the +limbered type, i.e. in two detachable parts, and the weight behind the team +of an English gun is approximately 2 tons. + +As to tactical principles, it is recognized that the function of artillery +is to assist the other arms, that it cannot by itself win a battle, and +that its true _metier_ is to prepare the way for and assist the infantry. +During 1914-18 some 700,000 officers and men served with the Royal +Regiment. + +ARTILLERY COMPANY, THE HONOURABLE, the oldest existing body of volunteers +in Great Britain, instituted in 1537, revived in 1610. It comprises six +companies of infantry, besides artillery, and furnishes a guard of honour +to the sovereign when visiting the city of London. Previous to 1842 the +Company elected their own officers, but since that date they have been +appointed by the Crown. + +ARTILLERY SCHOOLS, institutions established for the purpose of giving a +special training to the officers, and in some cases the men, belonging to +the artillery service. In Great Britain the artillery schools are at +Woolwich and Shoeburyness. The Department of Artillery studies at Woolwich +give artillery officers the means of continuing their studies after they +have completed the usual course at the Royal Military College, and of +qualifying for appointments requiring exceptional scientific attainments. +The School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness gives instruction in gunnery to +officers and men, and conducts all experiments connected with artillery and +stores. The sands at the mouth of the Thames afford ample opportunity for +artillery practice and firing at long ranges. The Royal Artillery +Institution at Woolwich contains a museum, lecture-room, and +printing-press, from which professional and scientific papers are +periodically issued. + +ARTIODAC'TYLA (Gr. _artios_, even numbered, _dakt[)y]los_, a finger or +toe), a section of the Ungulata or hoofed mammals, comprising all those in +which the number of the toes is even (two or four), including the +ruminants, such as the ox, sheep, deer, &c., and also a number of +non-ruminating animals, as the hippopotamus and the pig. + +ARTISANS' AND LABOURERS' DWELLINGS ACT, an English Act of Parliament passed +in 1868 to empower town councils and other local authorities to demolish or +improve dwellings unfit for human habitation, and to build and maintain +better dwellings in lieu thereof. Other Acts for the same object were +passed in 1875, 1879, and 1882. See _Housing_. + +ARTOCARPA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of plants, the bread-fruit order, by some +botanists ranked as a sub-order of the Urticaceae or nettles. They are +trees or shrubs, with a milky juice, which in some species hardens into +caoutchouc, and in the cow-tree (_Bros[)i]mum Galactodendron_) is a milk as +good as that obtained from the cow. Many of the plants produce an edible +fruit, of which the best known is the bread-fruit (Artocarpus). + +ARTOIS ([.a]r-twae), a former province of France, anciently one of the +seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, now almost completely included in +the department of Pas-de-Calais. + +ARTOIS, THE BATTLE OF. See _European War_. + +ARTS, the name given to certain branches of study in the Middle Ages, +originally called the 'liberal arts' to distinguish them from the 'servile +arts' or mechanical occupations. These arts were usually given as grammar, +dialectics, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Hence +originated the terms 'art classes', 'degrees in arts', 'Master of Arts', +&c., still in common use in universities, the faculty of arts being +distinguished from those of divinity, law, medicine, or science. See +_University_. + +ARTSYBASHEV, Mikhail, Russian author, born in 1878. After a number of short +stories he wrote, at the age of twenty-five, a novel entitled _Sanin_, +published in 1907, which placed him at once among the most famous +contemporary Russian authors. Whatever opinion literary critics may hold of +this novel, his wonderful realism, simplicity of style, and psychological +analysis cannot be disputed. + +ART UNIONS, associations for encouraging art, an object which they mainly +pursue by disposing of pictures, sculptures, &c., by lottery among +subscribers. They seem to have originated in France during the time of +Napoleon I. They soon afterwards took root in Germany, where they have been +very successful. The first art union established in Britain was that at +Edinburgh in 1834. Art unions were legalized by the Art Unions Act, 1846 +See _Lottery_. + +ARTVIN, a town in the Republic of Georgia, in the Caucasus, about 35 miles +inland from Batum. Pop. 6720. + +ARUBA ([.a]-roe'b[.a]), an island off the north coast of Venezuela, +belonging to Holland (a dependency of Curacoa), about 30 miles long and 7 +broad; surface generally rock, quartz being abundant, and containing +considerable quantities of gold; a phosphate which is exported for manure +is also abundant. The climate is healthy. Pop. 9481 (1916). + +ARU ISLANDS. See _Arru Islands_. + +[Illustration: Cuckoo Pint or Wake Robin (_Arum macul[=a]tum_). + +1, Spadix. 2, Stamen. 3, Female flower. 4, Fruit.] + +A'RUM, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Araceae. _A. macul[=a]tum_ (the common +wake-robin, lords-and-ladies, or cuckoo pint) is abundant in woods and +hedges in England and Ireland, but is rare in Scotland. It has acrid +properties, but its corm yields a starch which is known by the name of +Portland sago or arrowroot. At one time this was prepared to a considerable +extent in Portland Island. All the species of this genus develop much heat +during flowering. + +AR'UNDEL, a town in Sussex, England, on the River Arun, 4 miles from its +mouth, the river being navigable to the town for vessels of 250 tons. The +castle of Arundel, the chief residence of the dukes of Norfolk, stands on a +knoll on the north-east side of the town. Pop. (1921), 2741. + +AR'UNDEL, Thomas, third son of Richard FitzAlan, Earl of Arundel, born +1352, died 1413. He was Chancellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury. +He concerted with Bolingbroke to deliver the nation from the oppression of +Richard II, and was a bitter persecutor of the Lollards and followers of +Wycliffe. + +ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, a series of ancient sculptured marbles discovered by +William Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece at the expense of and for +Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who lived in the time of James I and +Charles I, and was a liberal patron of scholarship and art. After the +Restoration they were presented by the grandson of the collector to the +University of Oxford. Among them is the _Parian Chronicle_, a chronological +account of the principal events in Grecian, and particularly in Athenian, +history, during a period of 1186 years, from the reign of Cecrops (1450 +B.C.) to the archonship of Diognetus (264 B.C.). + +ARUN'DO. See _Phragmites_. + +ARUSPICES (a-rus'pi-s[=e]z), or HARUSPICES, a class of priests in ancient +Rome, of Etrurian origin, whose business was to inspect the entrails of +victims killed in sacrifice, and by them to foretell future events. + +ARUWIMI, a large river of equatorial Africa, a tributary of the Congo, on +the north bank. + +ARVAL BROTHERS (_Fratres Arv[=a]les_), a college or company of twelve +members elected for life from the highest ranks in ancient Rome, so called +from offering annually public sacrifices for the fertility of the fields +(Lat. _arvum_, a field). + +ARVE ([.a]rv), a river rising in the Savoyan Alps, passes through the +valley of Chamonix, and falls into the Rhone near Geneva, after a course of +about 50 miles. + +ARVIC'OLA, a genus of rodent animals, sub-ord. Muridae or Mice. There are +three British species. _A. amphibia_ is the water-vole (or water-rat), and +_A. agrestis_ is the field-vole or short-tailed field-mouse. They are +prolific animals, having three or four litters in the year, each consisting +of from four to ten young. + +A'RYAN, or INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. See _Indo-European Family_. + +AS, a Roman weight of 12 ounces, answering to the libra or pound, and equal +to 237.5 grains avoirdupois, or 327.1873 grammes French measure. In the +most ancient times of Rome the copper or bronze coin which was called _as_ +actually weighed an _as_, or a pound, but in 264 B.C. it was reduced to 2 +ounces, in 217 to 1 ounce, and in 191 to 1/2 ounce. + +[Illustration: As (half real size)--Specimen in British Museum] + +A'SA, great grandson of Solomon and third King of Judah; he ascended the +throne at an early age, and distinguished himself by his zeal in rooting +out idolatry with its attendant immoralities. He died after a prosperous +reign of forty-one years. + +ASAFE'TIDA, or ASAFOETIDA, a fetid inspissated sap from Central Asia, the +solidified juice of the _Narthex Asafetida_, a large umbelliferous plant. +It is used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic, and in cases of flatulency, in +hysteric paroxysms, and other nervous affections. Notwithstanding its very +disagreeable odour it is used as a seasoning in the East, and sometimes in +Europe. An inferior sort is the product of certain species of Ferula. + +ASAGRAE'A. See _Sabadilla_. + +ASA'MA, an active volcano of Japan, about 50 miles north-west of Tokio, +8260 feet high. + +A'SAPH, a Levite and psalmist appointed by David as leading chorister in +the divine services. His office became hereditary in his family, or he +founded a school of poets and musicians, which were called, after him, "the +sons of Asaph". See _Psalms_. + +ASAPH, ST., a small cathedral city and bishop's see in Wales, 15 miles +north-west of Flint; founded about 550 by St. Kentigern or St. Mungo, +bishop of Glasgow, and named after his disciple St. Asaph, from whom both +the diocese and town took their name. The cathedral was built about the +close of the fifteenth century; it consists of a choir, a nave, two aisles, +and a transept. Pop. 1833. + +ASARABAC'CA, a small hardy European plant, nat. ord. Aristolochiaceae +(_As[)a]rum europoeum_). Its leaves are acrid, bitter, and nauseous, and +its root is extremely acrid. Both the leaves and root were formerly used as +an emetic. It entered into the composition of medicated snuffs recommended +in cases of headache. + +AS'ARUM. See _Asarabacca_. + +ASBEN, AIR, or AHIR, a kingdom of Africa, in the Sahara. It consists of a +succession of mountain groups and valleys, with a generally western slope, +and attains in its highest summits a height of over 5000 feet. The valleys +are very fertile, and often of picturesque appearance. The inhabitants are +Tuaregs or Berbers, with an admixture of negro blood. They live partly in +villages, partly as nomads. The country is nominally ruled over by a +sultan, who resides in the capital, Agades. Pop. about 60,000. + +ASBES'TOS, or ASBESTUS, a remarkable and highly-useful mineral, a fibrous +variety of several members of the hornblende family, composed of separable +filaments, with a silky lustre. The fibres are sometimes delicate, +flexible, and elastic; at other times stiff and brittle. It is +incombustible, and anciently was wrought into a soft, flexible cloth, which +was used as a shroud for dead bodies. In modern times it has been +manufactured into incombustible cloth, gloves, felt, paper, &c.; is +employed in gas-stoves; is much used as a covering to steam boilers and +pipes; is mixed with metallic pigments, and used as a paint on wooden +structures, roofs, partitions, &c., to render them fire-proof, and is +employed in various other ways, the manufacture having recently greatly +developed. Some varieties are compact, and take a fine polish, others are +loose, like flax or silky wool. _Ligniform asbestos_, or _mountain-wood_, +is a variety presenting an irregular filamentous structure, like wood. +_Rock-cork_, _mountain-leather_, _fossil-paper_, and _fossil-flax_ are +varieties. Asbestos is found in many parts of the world, but is chiefly +supplied by Italy, Canada, and Australia. Mineralogically it is distinct +from chrysotile, which is used for similar purposes. + +ASBJOERNSEN ([.a]s'byeurn-sen), Peter Kristen, born 1812, died 1885, a +distinguished Norwegian naturalist and collector of the popular tales and +legends, fairy stories, &c., of his native country. + +ASBURY PARK, a small town on the coast of New Jersey, United States, a +great summer resort. Its population increases during the summer months from +10,000 to 100,000. + +AS'CALON, or ASH'KELON, a ruined town of Palestine, on the sea-coast, 40 +miles W.S.W. of Jerusalem. It was occupied by the Crusaders under Richard I +after a great battle with Saladin (1192) and by General Allenby's troops in +Nov., 1917. + +ASCA'NIUS, the son of Aeneas and Creusa, and the companion of his father's +wanderings from Troy to Italy. + +AS'CARIS. See _Nematoda_. + +ASCEN'SION (discovered on Ascension Day), an island of volcanic origin +belonging to Britain, near the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean, about +lat. 7deg 55' S.; long. 14deg 25' W.; 700 miles north-west of St. Helena; +area, about 34 sq. miles. Pop. 196 (1914). It is retained by Britain as a +naval sanatorium, coaling and victualling station, and store depot. It has +a steam factory, naval and victualling yards, hospitals, and a coal depot. +It is celebrated for its turtle, which are the finest in the world. Wild +goats are plentiful, and oxen, sheep, pheasants, guinea-fowl, and rabbits +have been introduced, and thrive well. The village of Georgetown, the seat +of government, stands on the west side of the island, which is governed +under the admiralty by a naval officer. + +ASCENSION, RIGHT, of a star or other heavenly body, in astronomy, the arc +of the equator intercepted between the first point of Aries and that point +of the equator which comes to the meridian at the same instant with the +star. + +ASCENSION DAY, the day on which the ascension of the Saviour is +commemorated, often called _Holy Thursday_: a movable feast, always falling +on the Thursday but one before Whitsuntide. + +ASCET'ICISM and ASCET'ICS (from the Gr. _ask[=e]sis_, meaning practice, +bodily exercise, or athletic training). The early Christians, who devoted +themselves to severe exercises of piety and strove to distinguish +themselves from the world by abstinence from sensual enjoyments and by +voluntary penances, adopted the name to signify the practice of spiritual +things. Ascetics and asceticism have played an important part in the +Christian Church, but the principle of striving after a higher and more +spiritual life by subduing the animal appetites and passions has no +necessary connection with Christianity. Thus there were ascetics among the +Jews previous to Christ, and asceticism was inculcated by the Stoics, while +in its most extreme form it may still be seen among the Brahmans and +Buddhists. Monasticism was but one phase of asceticism. It must also be +borne in mind that in the history of asceticism, pagan, Christian, Jewish, +and Mohammedan, we are often dealing not only with religious but distinctly +abnormal temperaments. See _Monasticism_. + +ASCH ([.a]sh), a town of Czecho-Slovakia, in the extreme north-western +corner of former Bohemia, with manufactures of cotton, woollen, and silk +goods, bleachfields, dyeworks, &c. Pop. 21,583. + +ASCHAFFENBURG ([.a]-sh[.a]f'en-boer_h_), a town of Bavaria, on the Main and +Aschaff, 26 miles E.S.E. of Frankfort. The chief edifice is the castle of +Johannisberg, built between 1605 and 1614, and for centuries the summer +residence of the Elector. There are manufactures of coloured paper, +tobacco, liqueurs, &c. Pop. 29,891. + +ASCHAM (as'kam), Roger, a learned Englishman, born in 1515 of a respectable +family in Yorkshire, died 1568. He was entered at St. John's College, +Cambridge, 1530, and was elected fellow in 1534 and tutor in 1537. He was +Latin secretary to Edward VI and also to Mary. He was tutor to Princess +Elizabeth during her girlhood, and he became her secretary after she +ascended the throne. In 1544 he wrote his _Toxophilus, or Schole of +Shooting_, in praise of his favourite amusement and exercise--archery. +Between 1563 and 1568 he wrote his _Scholemaster_, a treatise on the best +method of teaching children Latin. Some of his writings, including many +letters, were in Latin. He wrote the best English style of his time. His +life was written by Dr. Johnson to accompany an edition of his works +published in 1769. + +ASCHERSLEBEN ([.a]sh'[.e]rz-l[=a]-ben), a town of Prussian Saxony, in the +district of Magdeburg, near the junction of the Eine with the Wipper. +Industries: woollens, machinery and metal goods, sugar, paper, &c. Pop. +28,968. + +ASCID'IA (Gr. _askos_, a wine-skin), the name given to the 'Sea-squirts' or +main section of the Tunicata, a class of animals of low grade, resembling a +double-necked bottle, of a leathery or gristly nature, found at low-water +mark on the sea-beach, and dredged from deep water attached to stones, +shells, and fixed objects. One of the prominent openings admits the food +and the water required in respiration, the other is the excretory aperture. +A single _ganglion_ represents the nervous system, placed between the two +apertures. Male and female reproductive organs exist in each ascidian. They +pass through peculiar phases of development, the young ascidian appearing +like a tadpole-body. They may be _single_ or _simple_, _social_ or +_compound_. In _social ascidians_ the peduncles of a number of individuals +are united into a common tubular stem, with a partial common circulation of +blood. In these animals evolutionists see a link between the Mollusca and +the Vertebrata. + +[Illustration: Ascidians + +1, Perophora: _a_, mouth; _b_, vent; _c_, intestinal canal; _d_, stomach; +_e_, common tubular stem. 2, Ascidia echinata. 3, Ascidia virginea. 4, +Cynthia quadrangularis. 5, Botryllus violaceus.] + +ASCLEPLIADA'CEAE, an order of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, the distinguishing +characteristic of which is that the anthers adhere to the five stigmatic +processes, the whole sexual apparatus forming a single mass. The +pollination arrangements are peculiar, recalling those of orchids. The +members of this order are shrubs, or sometimes herbaceous plants, +occasionally climbing, almost always with a milky juice. Many of them are +employed as purgatives, diaphoretics, tonics, and febrifuges, and others as +articles of food. Asclepias is the typical genus. See _Asclepias_, +_Calotropis_, _Stapelia_, _Stephanotis_. + +ASCLE'PIADES (-d[=e]z), the name of a number of ancient Greek +writers--poets, grammarians, &c--of whom little is known, and also of +several ancient physicians, the most celebrated of whom was _Asclepiades_, +of Bithynia, who acquired considerable repute at Rome about the beginning +of the first century B.C. + +ASCLE'PIAS, or SWALLOW-WORT, a genus of plants, the type and the largest +genus of the nat. ord. Asclepiadaceae. Most of the species are North +American herbs, having opposite, alternate, or verticillate leaves. Many of +them possess powerful medicinal qualities. _A. decumbens_ is diaphoretic +and sudorific, and has the singular property of exciting general +perspiration without increasing in any sensible degree the heat of the +body; _A. curassavica_ is emetic, and its roots are frequently sent to +England as ipecacuanha; the roots of _A. tuber[=o]sa_ are famed for +diaphoretic properties. Many other species are also used as medicines, and +several are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. + +ASCLEPIOS. See _Aesculapius_. + +AS'COLI, or ASCOLI PICENO (ancient, ASC[)U]LUM), a province in Central +Italy.--The capital of the province, also called _Ascoli Piceno_, episcopal +see of the Marches (the ancient Asc[)u]lum), is situated 90 miles +north-east of Rome and contains, among several handsome new buildings, the +remains of temples, an ancient theatre, &c. It has also many fine +pre-Renaissance buildings, such as the Gothic Church S. Francesco and the +Palazzo del Commune. At Castel Trosino, near Ascoli, a necropolis of the +seventh century was discovered in 1895. Population of the town, 28,882; of +the province, 261,835 (1915). + +AS'COLI SATRIANO (ancient, ASC[)U]LUM AP[)U]LUM), a town of S. Italy, +province Foggia. Pop. 9700. + +ASCOMYCE'TES (-t[=e]z), one of the main subdivisions of the Eumycetes or +Higher Fungi, distinguished by their principal spores being produced in +organs called _asci_. Typically, an _ascus_ is a cylindrical or club-shaped +structure containing at maturity eight _ascospores_, which are usually +liberated explosively and thereafter dispersed by the wind. As a rule +numerous asci are massed together in a layer or _ascus-hymenium_, which is +variously disposed on a more or less massive fruit-body, according to the +form and structure of which the group is further subdivided into a number +of sections and families, the chief being Erysiphales, Plectascineae, +Pyrenomycetes, Discomycetes (q.v.). + +ASCO'NIUS (Quintus A. Pedianus), a Roman writer of the first century A.D., +who wrote a life of Sallust, a reply to the detractors of Virgil, and +commentaries on Cicero's orations, some of which are extant. + +AS'COT, an English race-course adjacent to the S.W. extremity of the great +park of Windsor. The races, which take place in the second week in June, +constitute, for value of stakes and quality of horses, the best meeting of +the year, as it is the most fashionable. + +AS'GARD (literally, gods' yard, or the abode of the gods), in Scandinavian +mythology the home of the gods or _Aesir_, rising, like the Greek Olympus, +from _midgard_, or the middle world, that is, the earth. It was here that +Odin and the rest of the gods, the twelve Aesir, dwelt--the gods in the +mansion called Gladsheim, the goddesses dwelling in Vingulf. Walhalla, in +which heroes slain in battle dwelt, was also here. Below the boughs of the +ash tree Yggdrasill the gods assembled every day in council. + +ASGILL (as'gil), John, an eccentric English writer, a lawyer by profession, +born 1659, died 1738. In 1699 he published a pamphlet to prove that +Christians were not necessarily liable to death, death being the penalty +imposed for Adam's sin and Christ having satisfied the law. Having crossed +over to Ireland, he was beginning to get into a good practice, and was +elected to the Irish House of Commons, when his pamphlet was ordered to be +burned by the public hangman, and he himself was expelled the House. His +whole subsequent life was passed in pecuniary and other troubles, mostly in +the Fleet or within the rules of the King's Bench. + +ASH (_Frax[)i]nus_), a genus of deciduous trees belonging to the nat. ord. +Oleaceae, having imperfect flowers and a seed-vessel prolonged into a thin +wing at the apex (called a _samara_). There are a good many species, +chiefly indigenous to North America. The common ash (_F. excelsior_), the +only species indigenous to Central and Northern Europe, has a smooth bark, +and grows tall and rather slender. The branches are flattened; the leaves +have five pairs of pinnae, terminated by an odd one, dark-green in colour; +lanceolate, with serrated edges. The flowers are produced in loose spikes +from the sides of the branches, and are succeeded by flat seeds which ripen +in autumn. It is one of the most useful of British trees on account of the +excellence of its hard tough wood and the rapidity of its growth, but often +suffers greatly from a canker caused by the fungus _Nectria ditissima_. +There are many varieties of it, as the weeping-ash, the curled-leaved ash, +the entire-leaved ash, &c. The flowering or manna ash (_F. Ornus_), by some +placed in a distinct genus (Ornus), is a native of the south of Europe and +Palestine. It yields the substance called manna, which is obtained by +making incisions in the bark, when the juice exudes and hardens. Among +American species are the white ash (_F. americana_), with lighter bark and +leaves; the red or black ash (_F. pubescens_), with a brown bark; the black +ash (_F. sambucifolia_), the blue ash, the green ash, &c. They are all +valuable trees. The mountain-ash or rowan belongs to a different order. + +[Illustration: Common Ash (_Frax[)i]nus excelsior_) + +1, Hermaphrodite flower. 2, Anthers of male flower.] + +ASH, or ASHES, the incombustible residue of organic bodies (animal or +vegetable) remaining after combustion; in common usage, any incombustible +residue of bodies used as fuel; as a commercial term, the word generally +means the ashes of vegetable substances, from which are extracted the +alkaline matters called potash, pearl-ash, kelp, barilla, &c. + +ASHAN'GO, a region in the interior of Southern Africa between lat. 1deg and +2deg S., and between the Ogowe and the Lower Congo, a mountainous country +in the French territory. The inhabitants belong to the Bantu stock, and +among them are a dwarfish people, the Obongo, said to be about 4-1/2 feet +high at most. + +ASHANTI', a British territory in West Africa belonging to the Gold Coast +Colony, of which it forms a large inland portion, under a chief +commissioner; area about 20,000 sq. miles. It is in great part hilly, +well-watered, and covered with dense tropical vegetation, and rich forests +with excellent timber trees. The country round the towns, however, is +carefully cultivated. The crops are chiefly rice, maize, millet, +sugar-cane, cocoa, and yams, the last forming the staple vegetable food of +the natives. Rubber is also a product. The domestic animals are cows, +horses of small size, goats, and a species of hairy sheep. The wild animals +include the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, lion, hippopotamus, &c. Birds +are numerous, and crocodiles and other reptiles abound. Gold is abundant, +and mining concessions are now successfully worked. The Ashantis make +excellent cotton and silk cloths, articles in gold and other metals, +earthenware, leather, &c. Ashanti used to form a kingdom ruled +despotically, human sacrifices being very common. It is now under British +administration, and attention is given to education, sanitation, +agriculture, means of communication, &c. There are Government schools at +Coomassie and Sunyani and a number of missionary schools. The chief town is +Coomassie (or Kumassi), now reached by a railway from the coast (length 168 +miles); its population is 24,000. The British first came in contact with +the Ashantis in 1807, and hostilities continued off and on till 1826, when +they were driven from the sea-coast. Immediately after the transfer of the +Dutch settlements on the Gold Coast to Britain in 1872--when the entire +coast remained in British hands--the Ashantis reclaimed the sovereignty of +the tribes round the settlement of Elmina. This brought on a war, leading +to a British expedition in 1874, in which Coomassie was captured. In 1896 +the country became a British protectorate. In 1901 a rebellion had to be +put down, and next year Ashanti was fully annexed. Pop. 287,814 +(1911).--Cf. R. A. Freeman, _Travels and Life in Ashantee and Jaman_. + +ASH'BOURNE, a town of England, in Derbyshire, 12 miles N.W. of Derby, with +manufactures of cottons and lace. Pop. 4039. + +ASH'BURTON, a town in Devonshire, England, 16 miles S.W. of Exeter, a +parliamentary borough till 1868, and till 1918 giving name to a +parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), 2362. + +ASH'BURTON, Alexander Baring, Lord, a British statesman and financier, born +1774, died 1848. A younger son of Sir Francis Baring, he was bred to +commercial pursuits, which for some years kept him in the United States and +Canada, and in 1810 he became head of the great firm of Baring Brothers & +Co. He sat in Parliament from 1806 to 1835, when he was raised to the +peerage, after being a member of Peel's Government (1834-5). + +ASH'BURTON TREATY, a treaty concluded at Washington, 1842, by Alexander +Baring, Lord Ashburton, and the President of the United States; it defined +the boundaries between the States and Canada, &c. + +ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH (ash'bi-del-a-zoech'), a town in Leicestershire, England, +on the borders of Derbyshire, with manufactures of hosiery, leather, &c. +Pop. (1921), 4983. + +ASH'DOD, a place on the coast of Palestine, formerly one of the chief +cities of the Philistines, now an insignificant village. + +A'SHER, one of Jacob's sons, and founder of the tribe called after him, who +occupied a fertile territory in Palestine along the coast between Carmel +and Lebanon. + +ASHE'RA, an ancient Semitic goddess whose symbol was the phallus. In the +Revised Version of the Old Testament this word is used to translate what in +the Authorized Version is translated "grove", as connected with the +idolatrous practices into which the Jews were prone to fall. + +ASH'FORD, a thriving town of England, in Kent, situated near the confluence +of the upper branches of the River Stour, with large locomotive and +railway-carriage works. It gives name to a parliamentary division of the +county. Pop. (1921), 14,355. + +ASHINGTON, an urban district or town of England, Northumberland, north-east +of Morpeth, and about 2 miles from the sea, in a district of collieries. +Pop. (1921), 29,406. + +ASHI'RA, a native race or people of Western Equatorial Africa, to the south +of the Ogowe River, in the French Congo Territory. + +ASH'LAND, a city of the United States, in Wisconsin. Pop. (1920), +11,334.--Also a city of Kentucky. Pop. (1920), 14,729. + +ASH'LAR, masonry consisting of stones squared and smoothed in front and +built in regular courses. + +ASHLEY, LORD. See _Shaftesbury, First Earl of_. + +ASHMEAD-BARTLETT, Sir Ellis, English politician, born in 1849. He entered +Parliament in 1880, and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from 1885 to 1892. +He served in the Graeco-Turkish and South African wars, and was knighted in +1892. He died in 1902. + +ASH'MOLE, Elias, English antiquary, born 1617, died 1692. He became a +chancery solicitor in London, but afterwards studied at Oxford, taking up +mathematics, physics, chemistry, and particularly astrology. He published +_Theatrum Chymicum_ in 1652. On the Restoration he received the post of +Windsor Herald, and other appointments both honourable and lucrative. In +1672 appeared his _History of the Order of the Garter_. He presented to the +University of Oxford his collection of rarities, to which he afterwards +added his books and MSS., thereby commencing the Ashmolean Museum. + +ASH'TAROTH. See _Astarte_. + +ASHTON-IN-MAKERFIELD, a town of Lancashire, England, 4 miles from Wigan, +with collieries, cotton-mills, &c. Pop. (1921), 22,489. + +ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, +England, 6 miles east of Manchester, on the north bank of the River Tame, a +well-built place, with handsome streets and public buildings. The chief +employment is the cotton manufacture, but there are also collieries and +ironworks, which employ a great many persons. Pop. 51,080; (municipal +borough) (1921), 43,333. + +ASHTON-UPON-MERSEY, a town or urban district of England, Cheshire, on the +south side of the Mersey, several miles south-west of Manchester. Pop. +(1921), 7780. + +ASHURA'DA, a small island in the S.E. corner of the Caspian, formed by +Russia into a trading station. + +ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, so called from a custom in the +Western Church of sprinkling ashes that day on the heads of penitents, then +admitted to penance. The period at which the fast of Ash-Wednesday was +instituted is uncertain; but it probably dates from the eighth century at +least. In the Roman Catholic Church the ashes are now strewn on the heads +of all the clergy and people present. In the Anglican Church Ash-Wednesday +is regarded as an important fast day. + +ASIA, the largest of the great divisions of the earth; length, from the +extreme south-western point of Arabia, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, to +the extreme north-eastern point of Siberia--East Cape, or Cape Vostochni, +in Behring's Strait--6900 miles; breadth, from Cape Chelyuskin, in Northern +Siberia, to Cape Romania, the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, +5300 miles; area estimated at 17,250,000 sq. miles, about a third of all +the land of the earth's surface. On three sides, N., E., and S., the ocean +forms its natural boundary, while in the W. the frontier is marked mainly +by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, Caspian Sea, the Caucasus, the Black +Sea, the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal, and the Red Sea. There is no proper +separation between Asia and Europe, the latter being really a great +peninsula of the former. Asia, though not so irregular in shape as Europe, +is broken in the S. by three great peninsulas, Arabia, Hindustan, and +Farther India, while the east coast presents peninsular projections and +islands, forming a series of sheltered seas and bays, the principal +peninsulas being Kamtshatka and Corea. The principal islands are those +forming the Malay or Asiatic Archipelago, which stretch round in a wide +curve on the S.E. of the continent. Besides the larger islands--Sumatra, +Java, Borneo, Celebes, Mindanao, and Luzon (in the Philippine group)--there +are countless smaller islands grouped round these. Other islands are +Ceylon, in the S. of India; the Japanese Islands and Sakhalin on the E. of +the continent; Formosa, S.E. of China; Cyprus, S. of Asia Minor; and New +Siberia and Wrangell, in the Arctic Ocean. + +The mountain systems of Asia are of great extent, and their culminating +points are the highest in the world. The greatest of all is the Himalaya +system, which lies mainly between long. 70deg and 100deg E. and lat. 28deg +and 37deg N. It extends, roughly speaking, from north-west to south-east, +its total length being about 1500 miles, forming the northern barrier of +Hindustan. The loftiest summits are Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high, +Godwin-Austen, 28,265, and Kanchinjinga, 28,156. The principal passes, +which rise to the height of 18,000 to 20,000 feet, are the highest in the +world. A second great mountain system of Central Asia, connected with the +north-western extremity of the Himalaya system by the elevated region of +Pamir (about long. 70deg-75deg E., lat. 37deg-40deg N.), is the Thian-Shan +system, which runs north-eastward for a distance of 1200 miles. In this +direction the Altai, Sayan, and other ranges continue the line of +elevations to the north-eastern coast. A north-western continuation of the +Himalaya is the Hindu Kush, and farther westward a connection may be traced +between the Himalaya mass and the Elburz range (18,460) feet, south of the +Caspian, and thence to the mountains of Kurdistan, Armenia, and Asia Minor. + +There are vast plateaux and elevated valley regions connected with the +great central mountain systems, but large portions of the continent are low +and flat. Tibet forms the most elevated table-land in Asia, its mean height +being estimated at 15,000 feet. On its south is the Himalayan range, while +the Kuen-Lun range forms its northern barrier. Another great but much lower +plateau is that which comprises Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Persia, and +which to the north-west joins into the plateau of Asia Minor. The principal +plain of Asia is that of Siberia, which extends along the north of the +continent and forms an immense alluvial tract sloping to the Arctic Ocean. +Vast swamps or peat-mosses called _tundras_ cover large portions of this +region. South-west of Siberia, and stretching eastward from the Caspian, is +a low-lying tract consisting to a great extent of steppes and deserts, and +including in its area the Sea of Aral. In the east of China there is an +alluvial plain of some 200,000 sq. miles in extent; in Hindustan are plains +extending for 2000 miles along the south slope of the Himalaya; and between +Arabia and Persia, watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, is the plain of +Mesopotamia or Assyria, one of the richest in the world. Of the deserts of +Asia the largest is that of Gobi (long. 90deg-120deg E., lat. 40deg-48deg +N.), large portions of which are covered with nothing but sand or display a +surface of bare rock. An almost continuous desert region may also be traced +from the desert of North Africa through Arabia (which is largely occupied +by bare deserts), Persia, and Baluchistan to the Indus. + +POLITICAL MAP OF ASIA + +[Illustration] + +Some of the largest rivers of Asia flow northward to the Arctic Ocean--the +Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena. The Hoang-Ho and Yang-tse, and the Amoor, +are the chief of those which flow into the Pacific. The Ganges, +Brahmaputra, Irawadi, and Indus flow into the Indian Ocean. The Persian +Gulf receives the united waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris. There are +several systems of inland drainage, large rivers falling into lakes which +have no outlet. + +The largest lake of Asia (partly also European) is the Caspian Sea, which +receives the Kur from the Caucasus (with its tributary the Aras from +Armenia), and the Sefid Rud and other streams from Persia (besides the +Volga from European Russia, and the Ural, which is partly European, partly +Asiatic). The Caspian lies in the centre of a great depression, being 83 +feet below the level of the Sea of Azov. East from the Caspian is the Sea +of Aral, which, like the Caspian, has no outlet, and is fed by the Rivers +Amu-Darya (Oxus) and Syr-Darya. Still farther east, to the north of the +Thian-Shan Mountains, and fed by the Ili and other streams, is Lake +Balkhash, also without an outlet and very salt. Other lakes having no +communication with the ocean are Lob Nor, in the desert of Gobi, receiving +the River Tarim, and the Dead Sea, far below the level of the +Mediterranean, and fed by the Jordan. The chief fresh-water lake is Lake +Baikal, in the south of Siberia, between long. 104deg and 110deg E., a +mountain lake from which the Yenisei draws a portion of its waters. + +Geologically speaking, large areas of Asia are of comparatively recent +date, the lowlands of Siberia, for instance, being submerged during the +tertiary period, if not more recently. Many geologists believe that +subsequently to the glacial period there was a great sea in Western Asia, +of which the Caspian and Aral Seas are the remains. The desiccation of +Central Asia is still going on, as is also probably the upheaval of a great +part of the continent. The great mountain chains and elevated plateaux are +of ancient origin, however, and in them granite and other crystalline rocks +are largely represented. Active volcanoes are only met with in the extreme +east (Kamtchatka) and in the Eastern Archipelago. From the remotest times +Asia has been celebrated for its mineral wealth. In the Altai and Ural +Mountains gold, iron, lead, and platinum are found; in India and other +parts rubies, diamonds, and other gems are, or have been, procured; salt in +Central Asia; coal in China, India, Central Asia, &c.; petroleum in the +districts about the Caspian and in Burmah; bitumen in Syria; while silver, +copper, sulphur, &c., are found in various parts. + +Every variety of climate may be experienced in Asia, but as a whole it is +marked by extremes of heat and cold and by great dryness, this in +particular being the case with vast regions in the centre of the continent +and distant from the sea. The great lowland region of Siberia has a short +but very hot summer, and a long but intensely cold winter, the rivers and +their estuaries being fast bound with ice, and at a certain depth the soil +is hard frozen all the year round. The northern part of China to the east +of Central Asia has a temperate climate with a warm summer, and in the +extreme north a severe winter. The districts lying to the south of the +central region, comprising the Indian and Indo-Chinese Peninsulas, Southern +China, and the adjacent islands, present the characteristic climate and +vegetation of the southern temperate and tropical regions modified by the +effects of altitude. Some localities in Southern Asia have the heaviest +rainfall anywhere known. As the equator is approached the extremes of +temperature diminish till at the southern extremity of the continent they +are such as may be experienced in any tropical country. Among climatic +features are the monsoons of the Indian Ocean and the eastern seas, and the +cyclones or typhoons, which are often very destructive. + +The plants and animals of Northern and Western Asia generally resemble +those of similar latitudes in Europe (which is really a prolongation of the +Asiatic continent), differing more in species than in genera. The principal +mountain trees are the pine, larch, and birch; the willow, alder, and +poplar are found in lower grounds. In the central region European species +reach as far as the Western and Central Himalaya, but are rare in the +Eastern. They are here met by Chinese and Japanese forms. The lower slopes +of the Himalaya are clothed almost exclusively with tropical forms. Higher +up, between 4000 and 10,000 feet, are found all the types of trees and +plants that belong to the temperate zone, there being extensive forests of +conifers. Here is the native home of the deodar cedar. The south-eastern +region, including India, the Eastern Peninsula, and China, with the +islands, contains a vast variety of plants useful to man and having here +their original habitat, such as the sugar-cane, rice, cotton, and indigo, +pepper, cinnamon, cassia, clove, nutmeg, and cardamoms, banana, coco-nut, +areca, and sago palms; the mango and many other fruits, with plants +producing a vast number of drugs, caoutchouc, and gutta-percha. The forests +of India and the Malay Peninsula contain oak, teak, sal, and other timber +woods, besides bamboos, palms, sandal-wood, &c. The palmyra palm is +characteristic of Southern India; while the talipot palm flourishes on the +western coast of Hindustan, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula. The cultivated +plants of India and China include wheat, barley, rice, maize, millet, +sugar-cane, tea, coffee, indigo, cotton, jute, opium, tobacco, &c. In North +China and the Japanese Islands large numbers of deciduous trees occur, such +as oaks, maples, limes, walnuts, poplars, and willows, the genera being +European but the individual species Asiatic. Among cultivated plants are +wheat, and in favourable situations rice, cotton, the vine, &c. Coffee, +rice, sugar, &c., are extensively grown in some of the islands of the +Asiatic Archipelago. In Arabia and the warmer valleys of Persia, +Afghanistan, and Baluchistan aromatic shrubs are abundant. Over large parts +of these regions the date palm flourishes and affords a valuable article of +food. Gum-producing acacias are, with the date palm, the commonest trees in +Arabia. African forms are found extending from the Sahara along the desert +region of Asia. + +Nearly all the mammals of Europe are found in Northern Asia, with numerous +additions to the species. Central Asia is the native land of the horse, the +ass, the ox, the sheep, and the goat. Both varieties of the camel, the +single and the double humped, are Asiatic. To the inhabitants of Tibet and +the higher plateaux of the Himalaya the yak is what the reindeer is to the +tribes of the Siberian plain, almost their sole wealth and support. The +elephant, of a different species from that of Africa, is a native of +tropical Asia. The Asiatic lion, which inhabits Arabia and Persia, and +still exists in the north-west of India, is smaller than the African +species. Bears are found in all parts, the white bear in the far north, and +other species in the more temperate and tropical parts. The tiger is the +most characteristic of the larger Asiatic Carnivora. It is found in Armenia +and throughout the entire continent, being absent, however, from the +greater portion of Siberia and from the high table-land of Tibet; it is +found also in Sumatra, Java, and Bali. In South-Eastern Asia and the +islands we find the rhinoceros, buffalo, ox, deer, squirrels, porcupines, +&c. In birds nearly every order is represented. Among the most interesting +forms are the hornbills, the peacock, the Impey pheasant, the tragopan or +horned pheasant, and other gallinaceous birds, the pheasant family being +very characteristic of South-Eastern Asia. It was from Asia that the common +domestic fowl was introduced into Europe. The tropical parts of Asia abound +in monkeys, of which the species are numerous. Some are tailed, others, +such as the orang, are tailless, but none have prehensile tails like the +American monkeys. In the Malay Archipelago marsupial animals, so +characteristic of Australia, first occur in the Moluccas and Celebes, while +various mammals common in the western part of the Archipelago are absent. A +similar transition towards the Australian type takes place in the species +of birds. (See _Wallace's Line_.) Of marine mammals the dugong is peculiar +to the Indian Ocean; in the Ganges is found a peculiar species of dolphin. +At the head of the reptiles stands the Gangetic crocodile, frequenting the +Ganges and other large rivers. Among the serpents are the cobra de capello, +one of the most deadly snakes in existence; there are also large boas and +pythons, besides sea and fresh-water snakes. The seas and rivers produce a +great variety of fish. The Salmonidae are found in the rivers flowing into +the Arctic Ocean. Two rather remarkable fishes are the climbing perch and +the archer-fish. The well-known goldfish is a native of China. + +Asia is mainly peopled by races belonging to two great ethnographic types, +the Caucasic or fair type, and the Mongolic or yellow. To the former belong +the Aryan, or Indo-European, and the Semitic races, both of which mainly +inhabit the south-west of the continent; to the latter belong the Malays +and Indo-Chinese in the S.E., as well as the Mongolians proper (Chinese, +&c.), occupying nearly all the rest of the continent. To these may be added +certain races of doubtful affinities, as the Dravidians of Southern India, +the Cingalese of Ceylon, the Ainos of Yesso, and some negro-like tribes +called Negritos, which inhabit Malacca and the interior of several of the +islands of the Eastern Archipelago. The total population is estimated at +823,000,000, or more than half that of the whole world, of which +330,000,000 inhabit Chinese territory, 302,000,000 British, and 25,000,000 +Russian. Portions of Asia are under the control of European Powers (Russia, +Great Britain, Holland, France), of the United States of America, China, +and Japan. The chief States are China, Japan, Corea, Siam, Afghanistan, +Persia, and Arabia. The chief religions are the Brahmanism of India, the +Buddhism of Burmah, China, &c., the creeds of Confucius and Lao-tse in +China, and the various forms of Mahommedanism in Arabia, Persia, India, &c. +More than a half of the whole population profess some form of Buddhism. +Several native Christian sects are found in India, Armenia, Kurdistan, and +Syria. + +Asia is generally regarded as the cradle of the human race. It possesses +the oldest historical documents, and, next to the immediately contiguous +kingdom of Egypt, the oldest historical monuments in the world. The Old +Testament contains the oldest historical records which we have of any +nation in the form of distinct narrative. The period at which Moses wrote +was probably 1500 or 1600 years before the Christian era. His and the later +Jewish writings confine themselves almost exclusively to the history of the +Hebrews; but in Babylonia, as in Egypt, civilization had made great +advances long before this time. The earliest seat of the Aryan race some +assign to the banks of the Oxus. Hence, perhaps from the pressure of the +Mongolian tribes to the north, they spread themselves to the south-east and +south-west, finally occupying Northern India, Persia, and other parts of +Western Asia, and spreading into Europe, perhaps about 2000-1500 B.C. In +China authentic history extends back probably to about 1000 B.C., with a +long preceding period of which the names of dynasties are preserved without +chronological arrangement. The kingdoms of Assyria, Babylonia, Media, and +Persia predominated by turns in South-Western Asia. In regard to the +history of these monarchies, much light has been obtained from the +decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions. The arms of the Pharaohs +extended into Asia, but their conquests there were short-lived. From Cyrus +(559 B.C.), who extended the empire of Persia from the Indus to the +Mediterranean, while his son, Cambyses, added Egypt and Libya to it, to the +conquest of Alexander (330 B.C.) Persia was the dominant Power in Western +Asia. Alexander's great empire became broken up into separate kingdoms, +which were finally absorbed in the Roman Empire, and this ultimately +extended to the Tigris. Soon after the most civilized portions of the three +continents had been reduced under one empire, the great event took place +which forms the dividing-line of history, the birth of Christ and the +spread of Christianity. In A.D. 226 a protracted struggle began between the +newer Persian Empire and the Romans, which lasted till the advent of +Mahomet, and the conquests of the Arabians. Persia was the first great +conquest of Mahomet's followers. Syria and Egypt soon fell before their +arms, and within forty years of the celebrated flight of Mahomet from Mecca +(the _Hejra_), the sixth of the caliphs, or successors of the Prophet, was +the most powerful sovereign of Asia. The Mongols next became the dominant +race. In 999 Mahmud, whose father, born a Turkish slave, became Governor of +Ghazni, conquered India, and established his rule. The dynasty of the +Seljuk Tartars was established in Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium, and Kharism, +and was distinguished for its struggles with the Crusaders. Othman, an emir +of the Seljuk sultan of Iconium, established the Ottoman Empire in 1300. +About 1220 Genghis Khan, an independent Mongol chief, made himself master +of Central Asia, conquered Northern China, overran Turkestan, Afghanistan, +and Persia; his successors took Bagdad and abolished the caliphate. In Asia +Minor they overthrew the Seljuk dynasty. One of them, Timur or Tamerlane, +carried fire and sword over Northern India and Western Asia, defeated and +took prisoner Bajazet, the descendant of Othman (1402), and received +tribute from the Greek emperor. The Ottoman Empire soon recovered from the +blow inflicted by Timur, and Constantinople was taken and the Eastern +Empire finally overthrown by the Sultan Mohammed II in 1453. China +recovered its independence about 1368 and was again subjected by the Manchu +Tartars (1618-45), soon after which it began to extend its empire over +Central Asia. Siberia was conquered by the Cossacks on behalf of Russia +(1580-4). The same country effected a settlement in the Caucasus about +1786, and has since continued to make steady advances into Central Asia. +The discovery by the Portuguese of the passage to India by the Cape of Good +Hope led to their establishment on the coast of the peninsula (1498). They +were speedily followed by the Spanish, Dutch, French, and British. The +struggle between the two last Powers for the supremacy of India was +completed by the destruction of the French settlements (1760-5). At present +the forms of government in Asia range from the primitive rule of the nomad +sheik to the constitutional monarchy of Japan.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sven Hedin, +_Through Asia_; H. F. Blanford, _Elementary Geography of India, Burma, and +Ceylon_; Max. Mueller, _The Sacred Books of the East_; A. Little, _The Far +East_; R. Cobbold, _Innermost Asia_; Colonel A. Durand, _The Making of a +Frontier_; J. G. C. Chamberlain, _Continents and their Peoples_; E. +Huntington, _The Pulse of Asia_; E. C. Hannah, _Eastern Asia_. + +ASIA, CENTRAL, a designation loosely given to the regions in the centre of +Asia east of the Caspian, also called Turkestan, and formerly Tartary. The +eastern portion belongs to China, the western to Russia. Russian Central +Asia comprises the Kirghiz Steppe (Uralsk, Turgai, Akmolinsk, +Semipalatinsk, &c.), and what was the government-general of Turkestan till +1918, besides the territory of the Turkomans, or Transcaspia and Merv. See +_Turkestan, Republic of_. + +ASIA MINOR, the most westerly portion of Asia, being the peninsula lying +west of the Upper Euphrates, and forming part of Asiatic Turkey. It forms +an extensive plateau, with lofty mountains rising above it, the most +extensive ranges being the Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which border it on the +south and south-east, and rise to over 10,000 feet. There are numerous +salt- and freshwater lakes. The chief rivers are the Kizil-Irmak (Halys), +Sakaria (Sangarius), entering the Black Sea; and the Sarabat (Hermus) and +Menderes (Maeander), entering the Aegean. The coast regions are generally +fertile, and have a genial climate; the interior is largely arid and +dreary. Valuable forests and fruit-trees abound. Smyrna is the chief town. +_Anatolia_ is an equivalent name. See _European War_; _Turkey_. + +ASIAGO, a town in Italy in the province of Vicenza, capital of the Seven +Communes (Sette Communi). In the great European War several battles were +fought on the Asiago Plateau. The town was evacuated by the Italians on +28th May, 1916, but retaken on 25th June, 1916. See _European War_. + +ASIATIC SOCIETIES, learned bodies instituted for the purpose of collecting +information respecting the different countries of Asia, such as the Asiatic +Society of Bengal, founded in 1784 by Sir William Jones; and the Royal +Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, established by Colebrooke, +and opened in 1823. There are similar societies on the European Continent +and in America, such as the Societe Asiatique at Paris, founded in 1822; +the Oriental Society of Germany (Deutsche Morgenlaendische Gesellschaft), +founded in 1845; and the Oriental Society at Boston, founded in 1842. + +ASIPHONA'TA, or ASIPHON'IDA, an order of lamellibranchiate, bivalve +molluscs, destitute of the siphon or tube through which, in the Siphonata, +the water that enters the gills is passed outwards. It includes the +oysters, the scallop-shells, the pearl-oyster, the mussels, and in general +the most useful and valuable molluscs. + +ASIR. See _Hejaz_. + +ASKABAD', the administrative centre of the Russian province of Transcaspia, +situated in the Akhal Tekke oasis, and occupied by Skobelev in Jan., 1881, +after the sack of Geok Tepe. Its distance from Merv is 232 miles, from +Herat 388 miles. Pop. 54,000. + +AS'KEW, Anne, a victim of religious persecution, born 1521, martyred 1546. +She was a daughter of Sir William Askew of Lincolnshire, and was married to +a wealthy neighbour named Kyme, who, irritated by her Protestantism, drove +her from his house. In London, whither she went probably to procure a +divorce, she spoke against the dogmas of the old faith, and, being tried, +was condemned to death as a heretic. Being put to the rack to extort a +confession concerning those with whom she corresponded, she continued firm, +and was then taken to Smithfield, chained to a stake, and burned. + +ASKJA ([.a]sk'y[.a]), a volcano near the centre of Iceland, first brought +into notice by an eruption in 1875. Its crater is 17 miles in +circumference, surrounded by a mountain-ring from 500 to 1000 feet high, +the height of the mountain itself being between 4000 and 5000 feet. + +AS'MANNSHAUSEN (-hou-zn), a Prussian village on the Rhine, in the district +of Wiesbaden, celebrated for its wine. Many judges prefer the red wine of +Asmannshausen to the best Burgundy, but it retains its merits for three or +four years only. + +ASMO'DAI, or ASMO'DEUS, an evil spirit, who, as related in the book of +Tobit, slew seven husbands of Sara, daughter of Raguel, but was driven away +into the uttermost parts of Egypt by the young Tobias under the direction +of the angel Raphael. Asmodai signifies a desolater, a destroying angel, +identical with the demon A[=e]shma of the Zend-Avesta. He is represented in +the Talmud as the prince of demons who drove King Solomon from his kingdom. + +ASMONAE'ANS, a family of high priests and princes who ruled over the Jews +for about 130 years, from 153 B.C., when Jonathan, son of Mattathias, the +great-grandson of Chasmon or Asmonaeus, was nominated to the +high-priesthood. + +ASNIERES (aen-y[=a]r), a town on the Seine, a N.W. suburb of Paris, a +favourite boating resort of the Parisians. Pop. 42,583. + +ASO'KA, an Indian sovereign who reigned from 264 to 228 B.C. over the whole +of Northern India, grandson of Chandragupta or Sandracottus. He embraced +Buddhism, and forced his subjects also to become converts. Many temples and +_stupas_, or brick cupolas, still remaining are attributed to him. + +ASO'KA (_Jonesia as[=o]ca_), an Indian tree, nat. ord. Leguminosae, having +a lovely flower, showing orange, scarlet, and bright-yellow tints; sacred +to the god Siva, and often mentioned in Indian literature. + +ASO'PUS, the name of several rivers in Greece, of which the most celebrated +is in Boeotia. + +[Illustration: Asp (_Naja haje_)] + +ASP, or ASPIC (_Naja_, or _Vip[)e]ra haje_), a species of viper found in +Egypt, resembling the cobra de capello or spectacle-serpent of the East +Indies, and having a very venomous bite. When approached or disturbed it +elevates its head and body, swells out its neck, and appears to stand erect +to attack the aggressor. Hence the ancient Egyptians believed that the asps +were guardians of the spots they inhabited, and the figure of this reptile +was adopted as an emblem of the protecting genius of the world. The +balancing motions made by it in the endeavour to maintain the erect +attitude have led to the employment of the asp as a dancing serpent by the +African jugglers. The "deaf adder that stoppeth her ear" of _Psalm_ lviii, +4, 5 is translated asp in the margin, and seems to have been this species. +Cleopatra is said to have committed suicide by means of an asp's bite, but +the incident is generally associated with the Cerastes or horned viper, not +with the haje. The name asp is also given to a viper (_Vipera aspis_) +common on the continent of Europe. + +ASPARAGINE, or AMINOSUCCINAMIC ACID, CH_2CONH_2, CH(NH_2)COOH, is a white +crystalline substance of unpleasant acid taste found in the shoots of +asparagus, in potato and dahlia tribes, and in many other plants, from +which it may be extracted by means of water. + +ASPAR'AGUS (_Aspar[)a]gus officin[=a]lis_), a plant of the order Liliaceae, +the young shoots of which, cut as they are emerging from the ground, are a +favourite culinary vegetable. In Greece, and especially in the southern +steppes of Russia and Poland, it is found in profusion; and its edible +qualities were esteemed by the ancients. Pliny states that asparagus was in +his time cultivated in gardens, particularly at Ravenna. The best asparagus +is grown in gardens near the sea, and hundreds of acres are devoted to its +cultivation in Holland and Belgium. It grows wild in Essex and +Lincolnshire, but does not attain nearly to the size of the cultivated +plant. It is usually raised from seed; and the plants should remain three +years in the ground before they are cut; after which, for several years, +they will continue to afford a regular annual supply. The beds are +protected by straw or litter in winter. Its diuretic properties are +ascribed to the presence of a crystalline substance found also in the +potato, lettuce, &c. + +ASPA'SIA, a celebrated woman of ancient Greece, was born at Miletus, in +Ionia, but passed a great part of her life at Athens, where her house was +the general resort of the most distinguished men in Greece. She won the +affection of Pericles, who united himself to Aspasia as closely as was +permitted by the Athenian law, which declared marriage with a foreign woman +illegal. Her power in the State has often been exaggerated, but it is +beyond question that her genius left its mark upon the administration of +Pericles. In 432-431 B.C. she was accused of impiety, and was only saved +from condemnation by the eloquence and tears of Pericles. After his death +(429 B.C.) Aspasia is said to have attached herself to a wealthy but +obscure cattle-dealer of the name of Lysicles, whom she raised to a +position of influence in Athens. Nothing more is known of her life. She had +a son by Pericles, who was legitimated (430 B.C.) by a special decree of +the people. There is a bust bearing her name in the Pio Clementino Museum +in the Vatican. + +ASPATRIA, a town (urban district) of England, Cumberland, 8 miles +north-east of Maryport, with an agricultural college. Pop. 3340. + +AS'PE, a town of Southern Spain, province of Alicante. Pop. (1921), 3525. + +AS'PECT, in astrology, denotes the situation of the planets with respect to +each other. There are five different major aspects: the sextile, when the +planets are 60deg distant; quartile, when they are 90deg distant; trine, +when 120deg distant; opposition, when 180deg distant; and conjunction, when +both are in the same longitude. The aspects were classed by astrologers as +_benign_, _malignant_, or _indifferent_, according to their fancied +influences upon human affairs. + +ASPECT OF LAND. See _Exposure_. + +AS'PEN, or trembling poplar (_P[=o]p[)u]lus trem[)u]la_), a species of +poplar indigenous to Britain and to most mountainous regions throughout +Europe and Asia. It is a beautiful tree of rapid growth and extremely +hardy, with nearly circular toothed leaves, smooth on both sides, and +attached to footstalks so long and slender as to be shaken by the slightest +wind; wood light, porous, soft, and of a white colour, useful for various +purposes. + +ASPER, or ASPRE, a small Turkish coin, of which there are 120 in the +piastre, value 1/54d. + +ASPERGILL'US, the brush used in Roman Catholic churches for sprinkling holy +water on the people. It is said to have been originally made of hyssop. + +AS'PERN and ESSLINGEN (or ESSLING) (es'ling-en), two villages east of +Vienna, and on the opposite bank of the Danube; celebrated as the chief +contested positions in the bloody but indecisive battle fought between the +Archduke Charles and Napoleon I, 21st and 22nd May, 1809, when it was +estimated that the Austrians lost a third of their army, and the French no +less than half. + +ASPER'ULA, the woodruff genus of plants. + +ASPHALT, or ASPHAL'TUM, the most common variety of bitumen; also called +mineral pitch. Asphalt is a compact, glossy, brittle, black or brown +mineral, which breaks with a polished fracture, melts easily with a strong +pitchy odour when heated, and when pure burns without leaving any ashes. It +is found in the earth in many parts of Asia, Europe, and America, and in a +soft or liquid state on the surface of the Dead Sea, which, from this +circumstance, was called _Asphalt[=i]tes_. It is of organic origin, the +asphalt of the great Pitch Lake of Trinidad being derived from bituminous +shales, containing vegetable remains in the process of transformation. +Asphalt is produced artificially in making coal-gas. During the process +much tarry matter is evolved and collected in retorts. If this be +distilled, naphtha and other volatile matters escape, and asphalt is left +behind. It is sometimes called _Jew's Pitch_. + +ASPHALTE (or ASPHALT) ROCK, a limestone impregnated with bitumen, found in +large quantities in various localities in Europe, as in the Val de Travers, +Neufchatel, Switzerland; in the department of Ain in France; in Alsace, +Hanover, Holstein, Sicily, &c. These rocks contain a variable quantity of +bitumen (from 7 or 8 to 20 or 30 per cent) naturally diffused through them. +The Val de Travers asphalt was discovered in 1710. In 1837 an English +patent was taken out for its application to roads, pavements, terraces, +areas, roofs, &c. Since then other asphalte-rocks, as well as artificial +preparations made by mixing bitumen, gas-tar, pitch, or other materials +with sand, chalk, &c., have been brought into competition with it. + +AS'PHODEL (_Asphod[)e]lus_), a genus of plants, ord. Liliaceae, consisting +of perennials, with fasciculated fleshy roots, flowers arranged in racemes, +six stamens inserted at the base of the perianth, a sessile almost +spherical ovary with two cells, each containing two ovules; fruit a capsule +with three cells, in each of which there are, as a rule, two seeds. Two +species are cultivated in Britain as garden flowers, the yellow asphodel +(_Asphodelus lut[)e]us_) and the white asphodel (_Asphodelus albus_). The +English word 'daffodil' is a perversion of asphodel. The _Asphodelus +ram[=o]sus_, which attains a height of 5 feet, is cultivated in Algeria and +elsewhere, its tubercles yielding a very pure alcohol, and the residue, +together with the stalks and leaves, being used in making pasteboard and +paper. The asphodel was a favourite plant among the ancients, who were in +the habit of planting it round their tombs. In Greek religion it is +associated with Persephone, the dead, and the underworld. + +ASPHYX'IA, literally, the state of a living animal in which no pulsation +can be perceived, but the term is more particularly applied to a suspension +of the vital functions from causes hindering respiration. The normal +accompaniments of death from asphyxia are dark fluid blood, a congested +brain and exceedingly congested lungs, the general engorgement of the +viscera, and an absence of blood from the left cavities of the heart while +the right cavities and pulmonary artery are gorged. The restoration of +asphyxiated persons has been successfully accomplished at long periods +after apparent death. The attempt should be made to maintain the heat of +the body and to secure the inflation of the lungs as in the case of the +apparently drowned. See _Respiratory System_. + +ASPHYXIATING GAS. See _Poison Gas_. + +ASPIC, a dish consisting of a clear savoury meat jelly, containing fowl, +game, fish, &c. + +ASPIDISTRA, a genus of plants of the lily family, comprising three or four +species, natives of China and Japan, being plants with large smooth oblong +lanceolate leaves, rising from an underground rhizome, and with campanulate +flowers of a dull purplish or brownish colour. They are now very common in +Britain, being especially cultivated as indoor plants. + +ASPID'IUM, a genus of ferns, nat. ord. Polypodiaceae, comprising the +shield-fern and male-fern. + +AS'PINWALL. See _Colon_. + +AS'PIRATE, a name given to any sound like our _h_, to the letter _h_ +itself, or to any mark of aspiration, as the Greek rough breathing ([Greek: +h]). Such characters or sounds as the Sanskrit _kh_, _gh_, _bh_, and the +Greek _ch_, _th_, _ph_, are called _aspirates_. + +AS'PIRATOR, an instrument used to promote the flow of a gas from one vessel +into another by means of a liquid. The simplest form of aspirator is a +cylindrical vessel containing water, with a pipe at the upper end which +communicates with the vessel containing the gas, and a pipe at the lower +end also, with a stopcock and with its extremity bent up. By allowing a +portion of the water to run off by the pipe at the lower part of the +aspirator a measured quantity of air or other gas is sucked into the upper +part. + +ASPLE'NIUM, a genus of ferns, of the nat. ord. Polypodiaceae. Nine species +are found in Britain, among them the well-known Wall-rue. + +ASPROMON'TE, a mountain of Italy in the south-west of Calabria, where +Garibaldi was wounded and taken prisoner with the greater part of his army, +in Aug., 1862. + +ASPROPOT'AMO. See _Achelous_. + +ASPULL, a town (urban district) of England, Lancashire, 2 or 3 miles +north-east of Wigan, with large collieries and other works. Pop. 7851. + +ASQUITH, Herbert Henry, prominent politician of the Liberal party, born in +1852, educated at City of London School and Balliol College, Oxford, where +he graduated with high distinction. Called to the Bar in 1876, he became +Q.C. in 1890; in 1886 was elected member of Parliament for East Fife, and +held his seat for this constituency uninterruptedly until Dec., 1918, when +he was defeated. From 1892 to 1895 he was Home Secretary, being also made a +Privy Councillor in the former year. Both in regard to the South African +War and various other questions, when out of office, he spoke more in +harmony with the views of Lord Rosebery than with those of Sir H. +Campbell-Bannerman, but under the latter he accepted the post of Chancellor +of the Exchequer in the ministry formed in Dec., 1905. On the retirement of +Sir Henry in 1908 he succeeded him as Prime Minister. He at once hastened +to draw up the Liberal reform programme, the list of measures including the +Lloyd George Budget (1909), the Parliament Act (1911), the Insurance Act, +and the Irish Home Rule Bill. In May, 1915, a cabinet crisis having +resulted from disagreements, Asquith formed a Coalition Government, eight +Unionists being admitted. Towards the end of 1916 there was a feeling in +the country not only that the Coalition cabinet of twenty-three ministers +was unwieldy, but that Mr. Asquith's Government was not sufficiently +energetic and showed too much hesitation in dealing with the vital problems +of the war. Mr. Asquith therefore resigned on 5th Dec., 1916, and Mr. Lloyd +George formed a new ministry. Unseated in the General Election of 1918, Mr. +Asquith accepted the invitation to stand for Paisley in 1920. He was +returned by a majority of 2834. + +AS'RAEL, the Mahommedan angel of death, who takes the soul from the body. + +ASS (_Equus as[)i]nus_), a species of the horse genus, supposed by Darwin +to have sprung from the wild variety (_Asinus toeni[)o]pus_) found in +Abyssinia; by some writers to be a descendant of the _on[)a]ger_ or wild +ass, inhabiting the mountainous deserts of Tartary, &c.; and by others to +have descended from the kiang or djiggetai (_A. hemi[)o]nus_) of +South-Western Asia. The ass was used in Egypt long before the horse, and it +played an important part in Homeric Greece. According to Aristotle, +however, it was unknown in his time in Pontus, Scythia, and in the land of +the Celts. The ass seems to have been introduced into England in the days +of Ethelred, but did not become common before the end of the seventeenth +century. Both in colour and size the ass is exceedingly variable, ranging +from dark grey and reddish brown to white, and from the size of a +Newfoundland dog in North India to that of a good-sized horse. In the +south-western countries of Asia and in Egypt, in some districts of Southern +Europe, as in Spain, and in Kentucky and Peru, great attention has been +paid to selection and interbreeding, with a result no less remarkable than +in the case of the horse. Thus in Syria there appear to be four distinct +breeds: a light and graceful animal used by ladies, an Arab breed reserved +for the saddle, an ass of heavier build in use for ploughing and draft +purposes, and the large Damascus breed. The efforts made to raise the +deteriorated British breed have only been partially successful. The male +ass is mature at two years of age, the female still earlier. The she-ass +carries her young eleven months. The teeth of the young ass follow the same +order of appearance and renewal as those of the horse. The life of the ass +does not usually exceed thirty years. It is in general much healthier than +the horse, and is maintained in this condition by a smaller quantity and +coarser quality of food; it is superior to the horse in its ability to +carry heavy burdens over the most precipitous roads, and is in no respect +its inferior in intelligence, despite the reputation for stupidity which it +has borne from very ancient times. The skin is used as parchment to cover +drums, &c., and in the East is made into shagreen. The hybrid offspring of +the horse and the female ass is the hinny, that of the ass and the mare is +the mule; but the latter is by far the larger and more useful animal. +Asses' milk, long celebrated for its sanative qualities, more closely +resembles that of a woman than any other. It is very similar in taste, and +throws up an equally fluid cream, which is not convertible into butter. + +ASSA. See _Piave, Battles of the_; _European War_. + +ASSAB', a bay of Africa on the south-west coast of the Red Sea, belonging +to the Italian territory of Eritrea, which has been acquired since Italy +established here a colony and free port in 1881. + +ASSAFOETIDA. See _Asafetida_. + +ASSAI-PALM (as-[=i]; _Euterpe olerac[)e]a_), a native of tropical S. +America, only about 4 inches in diameter and 60 or 80 feet high, with a +crown of leaves, beneath which a small fruit grows on branched horizontal +spadices. The pulp of the fruit mixed with water is used as a beverage. + +ASSAL', a salt lake in North-Eastern Africa, in Adal. + +ASSAM', one of the fifteen provinces of British India, separated from +Eastern Bengal and reconstituted in 1912; area, 53,015 sq. miles. It forms +a series of fertile valleys watered by the Brahmaputra and its tributaries, +the valley of the Brahmaputra, which is the main one, consisting of rich +alluvial plains, either but little elevated above the river, or so low that +large extents of them are flooded for three or four days once or twice in +the year, while the course of the river often changes. The climate is +marked by great humidity, and malarious diseases are common in the low +grounds; otherwise it is not unhealthy. The whole province, except the +cultivated area, may be designated as forest, the trees including teak, +sal, sissoo, the date and sago palm, the areca palm (the betel-nut tree), +the Indian fig tree, &c. The article of most commercial importance is tea, +which was first exported in 1838, and the yield of which is now over +100,000,000 pounds annually. Other crops raised are rice, Indian corn, +pulse, oil-seeds, sugar-cane, hemp, jute, potatoes, &c. In the jungles and +forests roam herds of elephants, the rhinoceros, tiger, buffalo, leopard, +bear, wild hog, jackal, fox, goat, and various kinds of deer. Among +serpents are the python and the cobra. Pheasants, partridges, snipe, wild +peacock, and many kinds of water-fowl abound. Coal, petroleum, and +limestone are found in abundance; iron is smelted to a small extent; +gold-dust is met with; lime is exported to Bengal. There is no single +Assamese nationality, and the Assamese language is merely a modern dialect +of Bengali. Pop. 6,713,635, 3,637,828 of whom are Hindus, 1,886,528 +Mahommedans, 66,430 Christians, 10,506 Buddhists, the rest being chiefly +hill tribes of aboriginal faiths. The labourers in the tea-gardens are +mostly drawn from Bengal. In 1826 Assam became a possession of Britain, +being taken from the Burmese, who had made themselves masters of it about +the end of the eighteenth century. The largest town is Sylhet (pop. +14,000).--Cf. E. A. Gait, _History of Assam_. + +AS'SAPAN (_Sciuropt[)e]rus volucella_), the flying-squirrel of N. America, +a little animal with folds of skin along its sides which enable it to take +leaps of 40 or 50 yards. + +ASSASS'INS (from _hashsh[=a]sh[=i]n_, drinkers of _hashish_), an Asiatic +order or society having the practice of assassination as its most +distinctive feature, founded by Hassan Ben Sabbah, the Himyarite, a _dai_ +or missionary of the heterodox Mahommedan sect the Ismailites. The society +grew rapidly in numbers, and in 1090 the Persian fortress of Alamut fell +into their hands. Other territories were added, and the order became a +recognized military power. Its organization comprised seven ranks, at its +head being the Sheikh-al-Jebala or 'Old man of the mountains'. Upon a +select band fell the work of assassination, to which they were stimulated +by the intoxicating influence of _hashish_. For nearly two centuries they +maintained their power under nine sheikhs. Hassan, after a long and +prosperous reign, died in 1124. Most of his successors died violent deaths +at the hands of relatives or dependents. After proving themselves strong +enough to withstand the powerful sultans Noureddin and Saladin, and making +themselves feared by the Crusaders, the _Assassins_ were overcome by the +Tartar leader Hulaku. The last chief, Rokneddin, was killed for an act of +treachery subsequent to his capture, and his death was followed by a +general massacre of the assassins, in which 12,000 perished. Dispersed +bands led a roving life in the Syrian mountains, and it is alleged that in +the Druses and other small existing tribes their descendants are still to +be found. See _Crusades_; _Khoja_. + +ASSAULT', in law, an attempt or offer, with force and violence, to do a +corporal hurt to another, as by striking at him with or without a weapon. +If a person lift up or stretch forth his arm and offer to strike another, +or menace anyone with any staff or weapon, it is an assault in law. +Assault, therefore, does not necessarily imply a hitting or blow, because +in trespass for assault and battery a man may be found guilty of the +assault and acquitted of the battery. But every battery includes an +assault. + +ASSAYE, or ASSYE (as-s[=i]'), a village in Southern India, in Hyderabad, +where Wellington (then Major-General Wellesley) gained a famous victory in +1803. With only 4500 troops at his disposal he completely routed the +Mahratta force of 50,000 men and 100 guns. The victory, however, cost him +more than a third of his men. + +ASSAYING, the estimation of the amount of pure metal present in an ore or +an alloy. The term was originally applied to testing of gold and silver +only. It is now usually applied to the determination of the quantity of +valuable metal in an ore or alloy, and is also sometimes applied to the +estimation of any element which may affect the value of the ore. + +Assaying, therefore, means the estimation of one or more metals in an ore +or alloy. Before an assay can be made, an average sample of the material +must be obtained. If an ore, pieces of material are taken from different +parts of the vein or, if already mined, from different parts of the dump. +The pieces are crushed up finely and divided into four equal parts. Two of +these parts are then mixed and divided into four again, and so on until an +average sample has been obtained. In the case of metals in ingots or bars, +samples are obtained by drilling and chipping corners or edges. Coins, +which are never homogeneous, may be rolled out into a thin sheet and cut +into small pieces. A preliminary examination is made to determine the +constituents. Finally an assay of the substance is made. The methods used +are determined by the metals and the proportions of these present in the +ore or alloy. Originally the term assaying was applied to dry methods, i.e. +the substance was heated in a special crucible with a suitable flux, and a +bead of metal was obtained which was weighed. An assay now may be carried +out in various ways, for example, by fusing with a reducing agent and +obtaining a bead of metal, or by dissolving the substance to be assayed in +suitable solvent and precipitating the metal as an insoluble salt, or +volumetric methods may be used. Dry assaying is still used for gold. The +assay depends on first heating the gold ore or alloy with lead in a porous +crucible, that is, _cupelling_ it. Lead oxidizes on heating in a furnace; +part volatilizes, and part of the oxide is absorbed by the cupel and +carries with it oxides of other metals with the exception of gold and +silver. The proportion of lead must be regulated, depending on the metals +alloyed with gold. A bead is obtained containing gold and silver. This is +beaten out into a thin plate, and then rolled out until it is thin enough +to be rolled up by hand. The gold alloy is rolled up in the fingers into a +cornette and treated with nitric acid. This dissolves silver, leaving a +brittle cornette of gold, which is thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed. +All gold alloys and silver alloys must be assayed, and their fineness +stamped on them. The Goldsmith's Company of London is the statutory +assay-master of England.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. and J. J. Beringer, _A Text-book +of Assaying_; E. A. Wraight, _Assaying in Theory and Practice_; J. Park, _A +Text-book of Practical Assaying_. + +AS'SEGAI (from Ar. _as-zahayah_), a spear used as a weapon among the +Kaffirs of S. Africa, made of hard wood tipped with iron, and used for +throwing or thrusting. + +ASSEMBLY, GENERAL, the supreme ecclesiastical court of the Established +Church of Scotland, consisting of delegates from every presbytery, +university, and royal burgh in Scotland. It has the countenance of a +representative of the king, styled the Lord High Commissioner, who is +always a nobleman. It holds its meetings annually and (according to the +present practice) in the month of May, usually sitting for ten or twelve +days. In its judicial capacity as a court of review, and as the court of +last resort, the General Assembly has a right to determine finally every +question brought from the inferior courts, by reference, complaint, or +appeal. It possesses, besides, a general superintendence of the discipline +of the Church, of the management of the inferior courts, of the conduct of +the clergy, and of the morals of the people. In its legislative capacity it +has the power of enacting statutes with regard to every subject of +ecclesiastical cognizance, which are binding on the Assembly itself, on the +inferior courts, and on the individual members of the Church. But by an Act +of Assembly in 1697, from its substance and design named the Barrier Act, +every proposition for a new law must first be considered in the form of an +overture; and though it should be approved of by the Assembly it cannot be +enacted as a statute till it has been first transmitted to the several +presbyteries of the Church for their consideration, and has received the +sanction of at least a majority of the presbyteries. The United Free Church +of Scotland has also a General Assembly similar in its constitution and +functions to that of the Established Church, and the same is the case with +the Presbyterian Churches of Ireland and America. + +ASSEMBLY, NATIONAL (France), a body set up in France on the eve of the +Revolution. Upon the convocation of the States-General by Louis XVI the +privileged nobles and clergy refused to deliberate in the same chamber with +the commons or _tiers-etat_ (third estate). The latter, therefore, on the +proposition of the Abbe Sieyes, constituted themselves an _assemblee +nationale_, with legislative powers (17th June, 1789). They bound +themselves by oath not to separate until they had furnished France with a +constitution, and the Court was compelled to give its assent. In the 3250 +decrees passed by the Assembly were laid the foundations of a new epoch, +and, having accomplished this task, it dissolved itself, 30th Sept., 1791. + +ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES. See _Westminster Assembly_. + +ASSEMBLY, THE RIGHT OF, is an essential principle of popular government, as +understood by the British and American constitutions. The right of British +citizens to assemble peaceably for any purpose which is not strictly +prohibited by law is implied in the right of petition, as affirmed in the +Bill of Rights (q.v.). Unlawful assembly, which is a criminal offence, is +distinguished from the offence of riot. Whilst the latter is an actual +attempt to carry an unlawful purpose into effect, the former is defined as +"an assembly with intent to carry out a common purpose which may lead to a +breach of the peace". + +AS'SEN, chief town of the province of Drenthe, Holland. Pop. 13,000. + +ASSENT', THE ROYAL, is the approbation given by the sovereign in Parliament +to a Bill which has passed both Houses, after which it becomes a law. It +may either be done in person, when the sovereign comes to the House of +Peers and the assent (in Norman French) is declared by the Clerk of +Parliament; or it may be done by letters-patent under the great seal, +signed by the sovereign. + +AS'SER, JOHN, a learned British ecclesiastic, originally a monk of St. +David's, distinguished as the instructor, companion, and biographer of +Alfred the Great, who appointed him abbot of two or three different +monasteries, and finally Bishop of Sherborne, where he died in 908 or 910. +His life of Alfred, written in Latin in 893 (_Annales Rerum Gestarum +Aelfredi Magni_), is of very great value, though its authenticity has been +questioned. There are several English translations of it. + +ASSESSED TAXES, taxes charged upon persons by means of a schedule or paper +sent to each, and strictly including such taxes as the income-tax, the +house-tax, local rates, &c. In Britain the so-called assessed taxes include +those upon servants, carriages, dogs, armorial bearings, &c., though these +are really excise licence duties. + +ASSES'SOR, a person appointed to ascertain and fix the amount of taxes, +rates, &c.; or a person who sits along with the judges in certain courts, +and assists them with his professional knowledge. + +AS'SETS (Fr. _assez_, enough), property or goods available for the payment +of a bankrupt or deceased person's obligations. Assets are personal or +real, the former comprising all goods, chattels, &c., devolving upon the +executor as saleable to discharge debts and legacies. In commerce and +bankruptcy the term is often used as the antithesis of 'liabilities', to +designate the stock in trade and entire property of an individual or an +association.--_Intangible_ (or fictitious) assets are those not represented +by any existing value, e.g. goodwill; _liquid_ assets are cash, +investments, or other immediately available funds. + +ASSIDE'ANS, HASIDE'ANS, or HASIDIM ('the pious'), one of the two great +sects into which, after the Babylonish captivity, the Jews were divided +with regard to the observance of the law--the Hasidim accepting it in its +later developments, the Zadikim professing adherence only to the law as +given by Moses. See _Pharisees_, _Talmudists_, _Rabbinists_. + +ASSIEN'TO, the permission of the Spanish Government to a foreign nation to +import negro slaves from Africa into the Spanish colonies in America, for a +limited time, on payment of certain duties. It was accorded to the +Netherlands about 1552, to the Genoese in 1580, and to the French Guinea +Company (afterwards the Assiento Company) in 1702. In 1713 the celebrated +_Assiento Treaty_ with Britain for thirty years was concluded at Utrecht. +By this contract the British obtained the right to send yearly a ship of +500 tons, with all sorts of merchandise, to the Spanish colonies. This led +to frequent abuses and contraband trade; acts of violence followed, and in +1739 a war broke out between the two Powers. At the peace of +Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, four years more were granted to the British; but +by the Treaty of Madrid, two years later, L100,000 sterling were promised +for the relinquishment of the two remaining years, and the contract was +annulled. + +ASSIGNATS ([.a]s-[=e]-ny[.a]), the name of the national paper currency in +the time of the French Revolution. Assignats to the value of 400,000,000 +francs were first struck off by the Constituent Assembly, with the +approbation of the king, 19th April, 1790, to be redeemed with the proceeds +of the sale of the confiscated goods of the Church. On the 27th Aug. of the +same year Mirabeau urged the issuing of 2,000,000,000 francs of new +assignats, which caused a dispute in the Assembly. Vergasse and Dupont, who +saw that the plan was an invention of Claviere for his own enrichment, +particularly distinguished themselves as the opponents of the scheme. +Mirabeau's exertions, however, were seconded by Pethion, and 800,000,000 +francs more were issued. They were increased by degrees to 45,578,000,000, +and their value rapidly declined. In the winter of 1792-3 they lost 30 per +cent, and, in spite of the law to compel their acceptance at their nominal +value, they continued to fall, till in the spring of 1796 they had sunk to +one three hundred and forty-fourth their nominal value. This depreciation +was due partly to the want of confidence in the stability of the +Government, partly to the fact that the coarsely-executed and +easily-counterfeited assignats were forged in great numbers. They were +withdrawn by the Directory from the currency, and at length redeemed by +mandats at one-thirtieth of their nominal value. + +ASSIGNEE', a person appointed by another to transact some business, or +exercise some particular privilege or power. Formerly the persons appointed +under a commission of bankruptcy, to manage the estate of the bankrupt on +behalf of the creditors, were so called, but now they are called +_trustees_. + +ASSIGN'MENT is a transfer by deed of any property, or right, title, or +interest in property, real or personal. Assignments are usually given for +leases, mortgages, and funded property. + +ASSINIBOI'A, the smallest of the four districts into which that portion of +the north-western territories of Canada now forming the provinces of +Saskatchewan and Alberta was divided in 1882. It lay on the west of +Manitoba, with Saskatchewan on the north and Alberta on the west, the +United States on the south. The name is now given to an electoral district +of the province of Saskatchewan. The region contains much good wheat land. +Regina was the capital, as it now is of the new province. + +ASSINIBOINE, a river of Canada, which flows through Manitoba and joins the +Red River at Winnipeg, about 40 miles above the entrance of the latter into +Lake Winnipeg, after a somewhat circuitous course of about 500 miles from +the west and north-west. Steamers ply on it for over 300 miles. + +ASSIOUT. See _Siout_. + +ASSISI ([.a]s-s[=e]'s[=e]), a small town in Italy, in the province of +Umbria, 20 miles north of Spoleto, the see of a bishop, and famous as the +birthplace of St. Francis d'Assisi. The splendid church built over the +chapel where the saint received his first impulse to devotion is one of the +finest remains of mediaeval Gothic architecture. + +ASSI'ZES, a term chiefly used in England to signify the sessions of the +courts held at Westminster prior to Magna Charta, but thereafter appointed +by successive enactments to be held annually in every county. Twelve +judges, who are members of the highest courts in England, twice in every +year perform a _circuit_ into all the counties into which the kingdom is +divided (the counties being grouped into seven circuits), to hold these +assizes, at which both civil and criminal cases are decided. Occasionally +this circuit is performed a third time for the purpose of jail-delivery. In +London and Middlesex, instead of circuits, courts of _nisi prius_ are held. +At the assizes all the justices of the peace of the county are bound to +attend. Special commissions of assize are granted for inquest into certain +causes. In Scotland the term _assize_ is still applicable to the jury in +criminal cases. + +Among the more important historic uses of the term _assize_ are its +application to any sitting or deliberative council, and its transference +thence to their ordinances, decrees, or assessments. In the latter sense we +have the Assizes of Jerusalem, a code of feudal laws formulated in 1099 +under Godfrey of Bouillon; the Assizes of Clarendon (1166), of Northampton +(1176), and of Woodstock (1184); also the _assisae venalium_ (1203), for +regulating the prices of articles of common consumption; the Assize of Arms +(1181), an ordinance for organizing the national militia, &c. + +ASSMANSHAUSEN. See _Asmannshausen_. + +ASSOCIATED COUNTIES, a term applied to Essex, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk, +and Hertford, with, subsequently, Huntingdon and Lincoln. The association +was formed in 1642 to raise an army for the Parliament and keep the war out +of their own districts. The successive leaders were Lord Grey of Wark, the +Earl of Manchester, and Cromwell. + +ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, a doctrine of both psychological and philosophical +import. In psychology the term is used to comprise the conditions under +which one idea is able to recall another to consciousness. It is, +therefore, the doctrine which deals with the reproduction of past +experience by a present object of consciousness. The phrase 'association of +ideas' was first introduced by Locke, and dealt with by Berkeley and +Hartley, who became the founder of the so-called _Associationist School_. + +ASS'ONANCE, in poetry, a term used when the terminating words of lines have +the same vowel sound but make no proper rhyme. Such verses, having what we +should consider false rhymes, are regularly employed in Spanish poetry; but +cases are not wanting in leading British poets. Mrs. Browning not only used +them frequently, but justified the use of them. + +ASSOUAN ([.a]s-s[=o]-[.a]n'), or ASWAN (_Sy[=e]n[=e]_), a town of Upper +Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile, below the first cataract, opposite the +Island of Elephantine. The granite quarries of the Pharaohs are here. Pop. +15,000. + +ASSOUAN DAM, a great dam constructed across the Nile in Upper Egypt, near +Assouan, at the foot of the first cataract. It is about a mile and a +quarter long, and is provided with a large number of sluices in two tiers. +It was originally built to a height of about 96 feet between 1898 and 1902, +and raised to a height of 112 feet above bed-rock between 1907 and 1911. It +is intended to regulate the supply of water for irrigation purposes to the +country lower down, the water being stored up at the time when the river is +high, and allowed to escape when it is required for the crops. When the +reservoir is full it forms a lake about 130 miles long. The dam was planned +by Sir William Willcocks, and the work carried out under Sir William +Garstin and Sir Benjamin Baker, at a cost of L5,000,000 (Egyptian). + +ASSUMP'SIT, in English law, an action to recover compensation for the +non-performance of a _parole_ promise; that is, a promise not contained in +a deed under seal. Assumpsits are of two kinds, _express_ and _implied_. +The former are where the contracts are actually made in word or writing; +the latter are such as the law implies from the justice of the case; e.g. +employment to do work implies a promise to pay. + +ASSUMPTION. See _Asuncion_. + +ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF, the ecclesiastical festival celebrating the +miraculous ascent into Heaven of the Virgin Mary's body as well as her +soul, kept on the 15th of August. The legend first appeared in the third or +fourth century, and the festival was instituted some three centuries later. + +ASSURANCE. See _Insurance_. + +[Illustration: Assyrian bas-relief from the Palace of Nimrud showing +Lion-hunting about 884 B.C.] + +ASSYR'IA (the ASSHUR of the Hebrews, ATHURA of the ancient Persians), an +ancient monarchy in Asia, intersected by the upper course of the Tigris, +and having the Armenian Mountains on the north and Babylonia on the south; +area, about 50,000 sq. miles; surface partly mountainous, hilly, or +undulating, partly a portion of the fertile Mesopotamian plain. The +numerous remains of ancient habitations show how thickly this vast flat +must have once been peopled; now, for the most part, it is a mere +wilderness. Geographically and historically, however, Assyria and Babylonia +are interdependent, and the Assyrians and Babylonians are ethnographically +and linguistically the same race. Whereas, however, the classical authors +speak of Assyria to the exclusion of Babylonia, the decipherment of the +inscriptions has proved that Babylonia was the mother-country, and that +Assyria, except during a period of eight centuries, was a dependency of the +former. This discovery coincides with the contents of the tenth chapter of +_Genesis_. See _Babylonia_. + +AST, Georg Anton Friedrich, German philosopher, 1776-1841. He wrote on +aesthetics and the history of philosophy, but is best known as an editor of +Plato, whose works he published with a Latin translation and commentary. + +AS'TACUS. See _Crayfish_. + +ASTAR'TE, a Syrian goddess, probably corresponding to the _Ashtaroth_ of +the Hebrews, and representing the productive power of nature. She was a +moon-goddess. Some regard her as corresponding to _Hera_ (_Juno_), and +others identify her with _Aphrodit[=e]_. + +ASTATIC NEEDLE, a magnetic needle having another needle of the same +intensity fixed parallel to it, the poles being reversed, so that the +needles neutralize one another, and are unaffected by the earth's +magnetism; used in the _astatic galvanometer_. + +AS'TER, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositae, comprehending several +hundred species, scattered over Europe and Asia, but mostly natives of +North America. Many are cultivated as ornamental plants. One, _A. +Tripolium_, is native in Britain, and is found in salt marshes, having a +pretty purple flower. Asters generally flower late in the season, and some +are hence called Michaelmas or Christmas Daisies. The China Aster, not an +aster proper (_Aster_ or _Callist[)e]phus chinensis_), is a very showy +annual, of which there are many varieties. + +ASTERABAD'. See _Astrabad_. + +ASTE'RIA, a name applied to a variety of corundum, which displays an +opalescent star of six rays of light when cut with certain precautions; and +also to the _cat's-eye_, which consists of quartz, and is found especially +in Ceylon. + +ASTER'IDAE. See _Asteroidea_. + +AS'TERISK, the figure of a star, thus *, used in printing and writing, as a +reference to a passage or note in the margin, or to fill the space when a +name, or the like, is omitted. + +ASTEROI'DEA, the ord. of the Echinodermata to which the star-fishes belong. +See _Star-fishes_. + +AS'TEROIDS, PLANETOIDS, or MINOR PLANETS, a numerous group of very small +planets revolving round the sun, in the great majority of cases at mean +distances, intermediate between those of Mars and Jupiter, in orbits of +large eccentricity at considerable inclination to the ecliptic. The +diameter of the largest is not supposed to exceed 450 miles, while most of +the others are very much smaller. Over one thousand are known, and new +members are being constantly discovered. The first to be discovered was +Ceres, on 1st Jan., 1801, and within seven years more Pallas, Juno, and +Vesta were seen. The diminutive size of these four bodies, and resemblances +in their orbits, gave rise to the opinion that they were but the fragments +of a planet that had formerly existed and had been brought to an end by +some catastrophe. For nearly forty years investigations were carried on, +but no more planets were discovered till 8th Dec., 1845, when a fifth +planet in the same region of the solar system was discovered. The rapid +succession of discoveries that followed was for a time taken as a +corroboration of the disruption theory, but the breadth of the zone +occupied makes the hypothesis of a shattered planet more than doubtful. In +recent years a few have been discovered which are at times considerably +within the orbit of Mars, the nearest perihelia being less than 15 million +miles beyond the earth's orbit. Another group, known as the 'Trojan +Planets', has been found, whose mean distances are practically identical +with that of Jupiter. The total mass of the asteroids cannot exceed +one-fourth that of the earth, and is probably much less. See _Planets_. + +ASTEROL'EPIS, a genus of primitive ganoid fishes, found only in a fossil +state in the Old Red Sandstone. They were about 1 foot long, and the head +and body were enclosed in armour of strong bony plates. + +ASTHMA (ast'ma), difficulty of respiration, returning at intervals, with a +sense of stricture across the chest and in the lungs, a wheezing, hard +cough at first, but more free towards the close of each paroxysm, with a +discharge of mucus, followed by a remission. Asthma is essentially a spasm +of the muscular tissue which is contained in the smaller bronchial tubes. +It generally attacks persons advanced in years, and seems, in some +instances, to be hereditary. The exciting causes are various--accumulation +of blood or viscid mucus in the lungs, noxious vapours, a cold and foggy +atmosphere, or a close, hot air, flatulence, accumulated faeces, violent +passions, organic diseases in the thoracic viscera, &c. In recent years a +treatment first used by Dr. Alexander Francis has come into prominence. By +far the most important part of the treatment consists in obviating or +removing the several exciting causes. It seldom proves fatal except as +inducing dropsy, consumption, &c. + +ASTI ([.a]s't[=e]), a town of Northern Italy, province of Alessandria, 28 +miles E.S.E. of Turin, the see of a bishop, with an old cathedral. In the +Middle Ages it was one of the most powerful republics of Northern Italy. It +was the birthplace of Alfieri, the poet, whose statue adorns the principal +square. There is also an equestrian statue of King Humbert. The industries +comprise silk, matches, gold, mosaic wares, &c. A favourite wine is +produced in the neighbourhood. Asti, anciently _Asta_, was a place of some +importance under the Roman emperors, and in the Middle Ages was an +independent republic. Pop. 41,252. + +ASTIG'MATISM (Gr. _a_, not, _stigma_, spot, mark), a malformation or +imperfection, congenital or accidental, of the globe of the eye, in +consequence of which the individual does not see objects clear and +distinct, but with a blurred outline. It is due to the cornea or +transparent outer coat of the eye not being regularly spherical, but having +different degrees of curvature in different directions. Usually the degree +of convexity is not the same horizontally as it is vertically, so that the +rays from an object, instead of converging into one focus, meet in more +than one. If a person with this defect is looking at vertical lines crossed +by horizontal ones he will see the one set more distinctly than the other, +though a slight movement will enable him to see the other distinctly also, +but not at the same time. Almost all eyes are more or less astigmatic, but +persons only become aware of it when it is excessive. Special lenses are +required to correct it--usually lenses plane in one direction and concave +or convex in the other. Short sight or long sight is often associated with +astigmatism, so that suitable spectacles cannot be very easily provided. + +ASTLE, Thomas, English antiquary, born 1735, died 1803. He was a trustee of +the British Museum and keeper of the public records in the Tower. His chief +work, _The Origin and Progress of Writing_, appeared in 1784, and the +portion dealing with mediaeval handwriting is still of value. He formed a +famous collection of MSS., the most valuable portion of which is now in the +British Museum. + +ASTOM'ATA, one of the two groups into which the Protozoa are divided with +regard to the presence or absence of a mouth, of which organ the Astomata +are destitute. The group comprises two classes, Gregarinida and Rhizopoda. +See _Stomatoda_. + +ASTON MANOR, formerly a municipal and parliamentary borough of +Warwickshire, England, situated about 1-1/2 miles E.N.E. of Birmingham, and +engaged in similar branches of industry. It was incorporated with +Birmingham in 1911 and gives its name to one of its parliamentary +divisions. Pop. 75,029. + +ASTOR, John Jacob, born near Heidelberg, Germany, 1703, died at New York, +1848. In 1783 he emigrated to the United States, settled at New York, and +became extensively engaged in the fur trade. In 1811 the settlement of +Astoria, founded by him, near the mouth of the Columbia River, was formed +to serve as a central depot for the fur trade between the lakes and the +Pacific. He subsequently engaged in various speculations, and died worth +L4,000,000, leaving L80,000 to found the Astor Library in New York. This +institution is contained in a splendid building, enlarged in 1859 at the +cost of his son, and comprises about 260,000 volumes. Since 1895 it has +formed part of the New York public library.--His great-grandson, William +Waldorf Astor, born in 1848, died in 1919, naturalized in England in 1899, +was made a baron in 1916 and a viscount in 1917. + +ASTOR, LADY. Nancy Witcher, Viscountess Astor, married the second Viscount +Astor in 1906. She is a daughter of the late Colonel Chiswell Dabney +Langhorne, of Virginia, United States. In Nov., 1919, she was elected +member of Parliament for the Sutton division of Plymouth, and was the first +woman to take a seat in the House of Commons. + +ASTOR'GA, a city of Spain, province of Leon; the _Asturica Augusta_ of the +Romans. It figured prominently during the Peninsular War; it was taken by +the French after an obstinate defence, 1810, and retaken by the Spaniards, +1812. Pop. 5682. + +ASTO'RIA, a town of Oregon, United States, on the Columbia River, with +numerous salmon-canning establishments. Pop. 10,595. See _Astor_. + +ASTRABAD', a town of Persia, province of same name, about 24 miles E. of +the Caspian. It was formerly the residence of the Kajar princes, the +ancestors of the present Persian dynasty. It is very unhealthy, but is +still the centre of a considerable trade. Pop. estimated at from 10,000 to +30,000. The province of Astrabad has an area of 5800 sq. miles, and a pop. +of 150,000. + +ASTRAE'A, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Zeus and Themis, the goddess +of justice. During the golden age she dwelt on earth, but on that age +passing away she withdrew from the society of men and was placed among the +stars, where she forms the constellation Virgo. The name was given to one +of the asteroids, discovered in 1845. It revolves round the sun in 1511.10 +solar days, and is about 2-1/2 times the distance of the earth from the +sun. + +AS'TRAGAL, in architecture, a small semicircular moulding, with a fillet +beneath it, which surrounds a column in the form of a ring, separating the +shaft from the capital. + +ASTRAG'ALUS, a genus of papilionaceous plants, herbaceous or shrubby, and +often spiny. _A. gummifer_ yields gum tragacanth. + +ASTRAG'ALUS, the upper bone of the foot supporting the tibia; the buckle, +ankle, or sling bone. It is a strong irregularly-shaped bone, and is +connected with the others by powerful ligaments. + +ASTRAKHAN ([.a]s-tr[.a]-_h_[.a]n'), a Russian city, capital of government +of same name, on an elevated island in the Volga, about 30 miles above its +mouth in the Caspian, communicating with the opposite banks of the river by +numerous bridges. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop and has a large +cathedral, as well as places of worship for Mahommedans, Armenians, &c. The +manufactures are large and increasing, and the fisheries (sturgeon, &c.) +very important. It is the chief port of the Caspian, and has regular steam +communication with the principal towns on its shores. In 1919 the town was +made a naval base by the Bolshevist Government of Moscow. Pop. 163,800, +composed of various races.--The government (or province) has an area of +91,042 sq. miles. It consists almost entirely of two vast steppes, +separated from each other by the Volga, and forming for the most part arid +sterile deserts. In 1918 the district of Astrakhan proclaimed its autonomy +and independence of Moscow. Pop. 1,427,500. + +ASTRAKHAN, a name given to sheepskins with a curled woolly surface obtained +from a variety of sheep found in Bukhara, Persia, and Syria; also a rough +fabric with a pile in imitation of this. + +ASTRALITE. See _Explosives_. + +ASTRAL SPIRITS, spirits formerly believed to people the heavenly bodies or +the aerial regions. In the Middle Ages they were variously conceived as +fallen angels, souls of departed men, or spirits originating in fire, and +belonging neither to heaven, earth, nor hell. Paracelsus regarded them as +demoniacal in character. + +ASTRIN'GENT, a medicine which contracts the organic textures and canals of +the body, thereby checking or diminishing excessive discharges. The chief +astringents are the mineral acids, alum, lime-water, chalk, salts of +copper, zinc, iron, lead, silver; and among vegetables catechu, kino, +oak-bark, and galls. + +ASTROCA'RYUM, a genus of tropical American palms, species of which yield +oil and valuable fibre. Tucum oil and tucum thread are obtained from _A. +vulg[=a]re_. + +AS'TROLABE, an instrument formerly used for taking the altitude of the sun +or stars, now superseded by the quadrant and sextant. The name was also +formerly given to an armillary sphere.--Cf. Chaucer, _Treatise on the +Astrolabe_. + +ASTROLABE BAY, an inlet on the N.E. coast of Australian New Guinea. + +ASTROL'OGY, literally, the science or doctrine of the stars. The name was +formerly used as equivalent to astronomy, but is now restricted in meaning +to the pseudo-science which pretends to enable men to judge of the effects +and influences of the heavenly bodies on human and other mundane affairs, +and to foretell future events by their situations and conjunctions. As +usually practised, the whole heavens, visible and invisible, were divided +by great circles into twelve equal parts, called _houses_. As the circles +were supposed to remain immovable, every heavenly body passed through each +of the twelve houses every twenty-four hours. The portion of the zodiac +contained in each house was the part to which chief attention was paid, and +the position of any planet was settled by its distance from the boundary +circle of the house, measured on the ecliptic. The houses had different +names and different powers, the first being called the house of life, the +second the house of riches, the third of brethren, the sixth of marriage, +the eighth of death, and so on. The part of the heavens about to rise was +called the _ascendant_, the planet within the house of the ascendant being +_lord of the ascendant_. The different _aspects_ of the planets were of +great importance. To _cast a person's nativity_ (or _draw his horoscope_) +was to find the position of the heavens at the instant of his birth, which +being done, the astrologer, who knew the various powers and influences +possessed by the sun, the moon, and the planets, could predict what the +course and termination of that person's life would be. The temperament of +the individual was ascribed to the planet under which he was born, as +_saturnine_ from _Saturn_, _jovial_ from _Jupiter_, _mercurial_ from +_Mercury_, _&c._, words which are now used with little thought of their +original meaning. The virtues of herbs, gems, and medicines were supposed +to be due to their ruling planets. The history of astrology, which was the +foster-sister of astronomy, goes back to the early days of the human race. +Egyptians and Hindus, as well as the nations on the Euphrates and Tigris, +were zealous astrologers. The Christian Church strongly opposed the +teachings of astrology, but its study spread among Jews and Arabs during +the Middle Ages. Francis Bacon abused the astrologers of his day, and Swift +wrote against them his famous _Prediction for the Year 1708, by Isaac +Bickerstaff, Esq._--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. H. Bennet, _Astrology_; G. Wilde, +_Chaldean Astrology Up-to-date_; A. Maury, _La Magie et l'astrologie a +l'antiquite et au moyen age_; A. J. Pearce, _Textbook of Astrology_. + +ASTRON'OMY (from Gr. _astron_, a heavenly body, and _nemein_, to classify +or arrange) is that science which investigates the motions, distances, +magnitudes, and various phenomena of the heavenly bodies. The science may +be divided into several branches. _Descriptive astronomy_ denotes merely a +presentation of astronomical facts in a systematic but popular form; +_practical astronomy_ treats of the instruments used in observing the +celestial bodies, the methods of their employment, and the manner of +deducing results from the observations; investigation of the causes of the +motions of these bodies was formerly termed _physical astronomy_, but now +generally _dynamical_ or _gravitational astronomy_; _physical astronomy_ or +_astro-physics_ is the comparatively modern branch which deals with their +physical conditions, radiation, temperature, and chemical constitution. +Recent years have added two new fields of investigation which are full of +promise for the advancement of astronomical science. The first of +these--_celestial photography_--has furnished us with invaluable +light-pictures of the sun, moon, and other bodies, and has recorded the +existence of myriads of stars invisible even to the best telescopes; while +the second, _spectrum analysis_, now employed by many scientists, reveals +to us a knowledge of the physical constituents of the universe, telling us +for instance that in the sun (or his atmosphere) there exist many of the +elements familiar to us on the earth. It is also applied to the +determination of the velocities with which stars are approaching, or +receding from, our system; and to the measurement of movements taking place +within the solar atmospheric envelopes. From analysis of some of the +unresolved nebulae the inference is drawn that they are not star-swarms but +simply incandescent gas; whence a second inference results favourable to +the hypothesis of the gradual condensation of nebulae, and the successive +evolutions of suns and systems. + +The most remote period to which we can go back in tracing the history of +astronomy refers us to a time about 2500 B.C., when the Chinese are said to +have recorded the simultaneous conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, +Mercury, and the moon. This remarkable phenomenon is found, by calculating +backward, to have taken place 2460 B.C. Astronomy has also an undoubtedly +high antiquity in India. The mean annual motion of Jupiter and Saturn was +observed as early as 3062 years B.C.; tables of the sun, moon, and planets +were formed, and eclipses calculated. In the time of Alexander the Great, +the Chaldeans or Babylonians had carried on astronomical observations for +1900 years. They regarded comets as bodies travelling in extended orbits, +and predicted their return; and there is reason to believe that they had +correct ideas regarding the solar system. The priests of Egypt gave +astronomy a religious character; but their knowledge of the science is +testified to only by their ancient zodiacs and the position of their +pyramids with relation to the cardinal points. It was among the Greeks that +astronomy took a more scientific form. Thales of Miletus (born 639 B.C.) +predicted a solar eclipse, and his successors held opinions which are in +many respects wonderfully in accordance with modern ideas. Pythagoras (500 +B.C.) and his followers formed theories of the planetary system. They +taught the sphericity and revolution of the earth, but placed an imaginary +'Central Fire', not the sun itself, at the centre of the system. Great +progress was made in astronomy under the Ptolemies, and we find Timochares +and Aristyllus employed about 300 B.C. in making useful planetary +observations. But Aristarchus of Samos (born 267 B.C.) is said, on the +authority of Archimedes, to have far surpassed them, by teaching the double +motion of the earth around its axis and around the sun. A hundred years +later Hipparchus determined more exactly the length of the solar year, and +the eccentricity of the ecliptic, discovered the precession of the +equinoxes, and even undertook a catalogue of the stars. It was in the +second century after Christ that Claudius Ptolemy, a famous mathematician +of Pelusium in Egypt, propounded the system that bears his name, viz., that +the earth was the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and +planets revolved around it in the following order: nearest to the earth was +the sphere of the moon; then followed the spheres of Mercury, Venus, the +Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; then came the sphere of the fixed stars; +these were succeeded by two _crystalline_ spheres and an outer sphere named +the _primum mobile_ or first movable, which last was again circumscribed by +the _coelum empyreum_, of a cubic shape, wherein happy souls found their +abode. The Arabs began to make scientific astronomical observations about +the middle of the eighth century, and for 400 years they prosecuted the +science with assiduity. Ibn-Yunis (A.D. 1000) made important observations +of the perturbations and eccentricities of Jupiter and Saturn. In the +sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus, born in 1473, introduced the system +that bears his name, and which recognized the sun's central place in the +solar system, and that all the other bodies, the earth included, revolve +around it. This arrangement of the universe (see _Copernicus_) came at +length to be generally received on account of the simplicity it substituted +for the complexities and difficulties of the theory of Ptolemy. The +observations and calculations of Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer, born in +1546, continued over many years, were of the highest value, and secured for +him the title of regenerator of practical astronomy. His assistant and +pupil, Kepler, born in 1571, was enabled, principally from the data +provided by his master's labours, to arrive at those laws which have made +his name famous: 1. That the planets move, not in circular, but in +elliptical orbits, of which the sun occupies a focus. 2. That the radius +vector, or imaginary straight line joining the sun and any planet, moves +over equal spaces in equal times. 3. That the squares of the times of the +revolutions of the planets are as the cubes of their mean distances from +the sun. Galileo, who died in 1642, advanced the science by his +observations and by the new revelations he made through his telescopes, +which established the truth of the Copernican theory. Newton, born in 1642, +carried physical astronomy suddenly to comparative perfection. Accepting +Kepler's laws as a statement of the facts of planetary motion, he deduced +from them his theory of gravitation. The science was enriched towards the +close of the eighteenth century by the discovery by Herschel of the planet +Uranus and its satellites, the resolution of the Milky Way into myriads of +stars, and the investigation of nebulae and of double and triple stars. The +splendid analytical researches of Lalande, Lagrange, Delambre, and Laplace +mark the same period. The nineteenth century opened with the discovery of +the first four minor planets; and the existence of another planet +(Neptune), more distant from the sun than Uranus, was, in 1845, +independently predicted by Leverrier and Adams. Of late years the sun has +attracted a number of observers, the spectroscope and photography having +been especially fruitful in this field of investigation. By various methods +the sun's mean distance has been ascertained within very small limits of +error, and found to be nearly 93,000,000 miles. Many additions have been +made to the known secondary planets or satellites, including some with +retrograde motions. A vast number of asteroids has been discovered, and the +width of the zone occupied by them found to be much more extensive. Much +success has been achieved in ascertaining the parallax of fixed stars. + +The objects with which astronomy has chiefly to deal are the earth, the +sun, the moon, the planets, the fixed stars, comets, nebulae, and meteors. +The stellar universe is composed of an unknown host of stars, many millions +in number. Those visible to the naked eye were in ancient times grouped +into the constellations still recognized. The nebulae are cloud-like +patches of light scattered all over the heavens. Some of them have been +resolved into star-clusters, but many of them are masses of incandescent +gas. Of the so-called fixed stars, many form binary or multiple systems, +the members revolving in orbits under each other's attractions, while other +more scattered groups are moving clusters, travelling in parallel paths +through space like flocks of birds. Variable stars and extinct or dark +stars are also known. The fixed stars preserve, at least to unaided vision, +an unalterable relation to each other, because of their vast distance from +the earth. Their apparent movement from east to west is the result of the +earth's revolution on its axis in twenty-four hours from west to east. The +planets have not only an apparent, but also a real and proper motion, +since, like our earth, they revolve around the sun in their several orbits +and periods. The nearest of these bodies to the sun is _Mercury_. _Venus_, +the second planet from the sun, is to us the brightest and most beautiful +of all the planets. The _Earth_ is the first planet accompanied by a +satellite or moon. _Mars_, the next planet, has two satellites, discovered +in 1877. Its surface has a variegated character, and the existence of land, +water, snow, and ice has been inferred. The _Asteroids_, of which over 1000 +are known, form a broad zone of small bodies, at distances from a little +beyond the earth's to that of Jupiter. _Jupiter_, the largest planet, has +at least nine satellites, of which the two outermost have retrograde +motion. Its surface is diversified by spots, markings, and bands parallel +to its equator. _Saturn_, with its nine or more satellites and broad thin +rings in its equatorial plane, is, perhaps, the most striking telescopic +object in the heavens. _Ur[)a]nus_--discovered by Herschel in 1781--is +accompanied by four satellites. _Neptune_, the farthest removed from the +sun, has one satellite, the motion of which is retrograde. Besides the +planets, quite a number of comets are known to be members of the solar +system. The physical constitution of these bodies is still one of the +enigmas of astronomy. The observation of meteors has recently attracted +much attention. They are seen in largest numbers in the autumn months. +Meteor streams are supposed to represent the results of the disintegration +of comets. Among the more modern astronomers we may mention: Gustav +Kirchhoff, G. B. Donati, Christian Doppler, H. C. Vogel, Sir William +Huggins, Simon Newcomb, and Sir David Gill. See _Earth_, _Sun_, _Moon_, +_Planet_, _Comet_, _Stars_, _Asteroids_, _Celestial Photography_, +_Spectrography_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. N. Lockyer, _Dawn of Astronomy_; +Sir G. C. Lewis, _Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients_; Sir. +F. W. Dyson, _Astronomy_; Sir R. Ball, _Atlas, and Popular Guide to the +Heavens_; G. P. Serviss, _Astronomy with an Opera-glass_; _The Pleasures of +the Telescope_; A. M. Clerke, _History of Astronomy during the 19th +Century_, H. Macpherson, _Romance of Modern Astronomy_; C. A. Young, +_General Astronomy_; G. F. Chambers, _Handbook of Astronomy_ (3 vols.); +E. W. Maunder, _Astronomy of the Bible_; A. C. D. Crommelin, _The Star +World_; Agnes Giberne, _Sun, Moon, and Stars_ (popular). + +ASTROPALIA, an island in the Aegean Sea. It was occupied during the Balkan +war of 1912 by the Italians under Admiral Presbitero and General d'Ameglio. + +ASTROPHYSICS. See _Spectroscopy_. + +ASTUR. See _Goshawk_. + +ASTU'RIA, or THE ASTURIAS, a Spanish principality, now forming the province +of Oviedo, on the north coast of Spain; an alpine region, with steep and +jagged mountain ridges, valuable minerals, luxuriant grazing lands, and +fertile well-watered valleys. The heir apparent of Spain has borne since +1388 the title of Prince of the Asturias. See _Spain_. + +ASTY'AGES (-j[=e]z), last king of the Medes, 593-558 B.C., deposed by +Cyrus, an event which transferred the supremacy from the Medes to the +Persians. + +ASUNCION ([.a]-s[u:]n-th[=e]-on'), or NUESTRA SENORA DE LA ASUNCION (Eng. +_Assumption_), the chief city of Paraguay, on the River Paraguay, +picturesquely situated and with good public buildings. It was founded in +1537 on the feast of the Assumption. Its trade is mostly in the yerba tea, +hides, tobacco, oranges, &c. It was taken and plundered by the Brazilians +in 1869. A railway runs for a short distance into the interior. Pop. +(1920), 99,836. + +[Illustration: Aswail (_Ursus labi[=a]tus_)] + +AS'WAIL, the native name for the sloth-bear (_Ursus labi[=a]tus_) of the +mountains of India, an uncouth, unwieldy animal, with very long black hair, +inoffensive when not attacked. Its usual diet consists of roots, +bees'-nests, grubs, snails, ants, &c. Its flesh is in much favour as an +article of food. When captured young it is easily tamed. + +ASY'LUM, a sanctuary or place of refuge, where criminals and debtors +sheltered themselves from justice, and from which they could not be taken +without sacrilege. Temples were anciently asylums, as were Christian +churches in later times. (See _Sanctuary_.) The term is now usually applied +to an institution for receiving, maintaining, and, so far as possible, +ameliorating the condition of persons labouring under certain bodily +defects or mental maladies; sometimes also a refuge for the unfortunate. + +ASYLUM, RIGHT OF. See _Extradition_. + +ASYMPTOTE (as'im-t[=o]t), in geometry, a line which is continually +approaching a curve, but never meets it, however far either of them may be +prolonged. This may be conceived as a tangent to a curve at an infinite +distance. See _Conic Sections_. + +ASYN'DETON, a figure of speech by which connecting words are omitted; as 'I +came, I saw, I conquered', or Cicero's 'Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit'. + +ATACAMA ([.a]-t[.a]-kae'm[.a]), a desert region on the west coast of S. +America belonging to Chile, partly in the province of Atacama, partly in +the territory of Antofagasta. It mainly consists of a plateau extending +from Copiapo northward to the River Loa, and lies between the Andes and the +sea. It forms the chief nitrate district of Chile, there being also rich +silver-mines, while gold is also found, as well as argentiferous lead, +copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron; with guano on the coast. The northern +portion belonged to Bolivia until 1904. The Chilian province of Atacama has +an area of 30,711 sq. miles, and a pop. of 63,893. + +ATACA'MITE, a combination of the hydroxide and chloride of copper, +occurring abundantly in some parts of South America, as at Atacama, whence +it has its name. It is worked as an ore in South America, and is exported +to England. + +ATAHUAL'PA, the last of the Incas, succeeded his father in 1529 on the +throne of Quito, whilst his brother Huascar obtained the kingdom of Peru. +They soon made war against each other, when the latter was defeated, and +his kingdom fell into the hands of Atahualpa. The Spaniards, taking +advantage of these internal disturbances, with Pizarro at their head +invaded Peru, and advanced to Atahualpa's camp. Here, while Pizarro's +priest was telling the Inca how the Pope had given Peru to the Spaniards, +fire was opened on the unsuspecting Peruvians, Atahualpa was captured, and, +despite the payment of a vast ransom in gold, was executed (1533). + +ATALAN'TA, in Greek mythology, a famous huntress of Arcadia. She was to be +obtained in marriage only by him who could outstrip her in a race, the +consequence of failure being death. One of her suitors obtained from +Aphrod[=i]t[=e] (Venus) three golden apples, which he threw behind him, one +after another, as he ran. Atalanta stopped to pick them up, and was not +unwillingly defeated. There was another Atalanta belonging to Boeotia, who +cannot very well be distinguished, the same stories being told about both. + +ATAMAN. See _Hetman_. + +AT'AVISM (Lat. _at[)a]vus_, an ancestor), in biology, the tendency to +reproduce the ancestral type in animals or plants which have become +considerably modified by breeding or cultivation; the reversion of a +descendant to some peculiarity of a more or less remote ancestor. See +_Mendelism_, _Natural Selection_, _Evolution_, _Heredity_. The term +_atavism_ is also frequently used in sociological literature, in the sense +of reversion to more primitive types, as explanation of criminal instincts +and pathological phenomena. + +ATAXY, or ATAXIA, in medicine, irregularity in the animal functions, or in +the symptoms of a disease. See _Locomotor Ataxy_. + +ATBA'RA, the most northerly tributary of the Nile. It rises in the +Abyssinian highlands, receives several large tributaries, and enters the +Nile about 18deg N. The town of Atbara is situated about 380 miles S.E. of +Wadi Halfa. The battle of Atbara, between the British under Earl Kitchener +(then Sir Herbert), and the followers of the Mahdi, was fought on 8th +April, 1898. + +ATCHAFALAY'A ('Lost Water'), a river of the United States, an outlet of the +Red River which strikes off before the junction of that river with the +Mississippi, flows southward, and enters the Gulf of Mexico by Atchafalaya +Bay. Its length is about 225 miles. + +ATCHEEN'. See _Acheen_. + +ATCH'ISON, a city of Kansas, United States, on the Missouri, about 30 miles +from Leavenworth, an important railway centre with an increasing trade. +Pop. (1920), 12,630. + +A'T[=E], among the Greeks, the goddess of hate, injustice, crime, and +retribution, daughter of Zeus according to Homer, but of [)E]ris (Strife) +according to Hesiod. + +AT'ELES, a genus of American monkeys. See _Spider-monkey_. + +ATELIERS NATIONAUX ([.a]-tl-y[=a] n[.a]-syo-n[=o]), or national workshops, +were established by the French Provisional Government in 1848. They +interfered much with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw +themselves on the Government for work. The breaking up of the system led to +disorders, but it was abolished in July, 1848. + +ATELLA'NAE FAB'ULAE (called also OSCAN PLAYS), a kind of light interlude, +in ancient Rome, performed not by the regular actors, but by freeborn young +Romans; it originated from the ancient _Atella_, a city of the Oscans. They +were the origin of the Italian _commedie dell'arte_. Cf. Munk, _De Fabulis +Atellanis_. + +ATESH'GA (the place of fire), a sacred place of the Guebres or Persian +fire-worshippers, on the Peninsula of Apsheron, on the W. coast of the +Caspian, visited by large numbers of pilgrims, who bow before the sacred +flames which issue from the bituminous soil. + +ATH (aet), a fortified town of Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, on the +Dender; it carries on weaving, dyeing, and printing cottons. It was the +scene of fighting in Nov., 1918. Pop. 11,108. + +ATHABAS'CA, a river and lake of Canada. The river rises on the eastern +slopes of the Rocky Mountains not far from Mount Hooker, in the province of +Alberta, flows N.E. and N., and falls into Lake Athabasca after a course of +about 600 miles.--_Lake Athabasca_, or Lake of the Hills, is about 190 +miles S.S.E. of the Great Slave Lake, to which its waters are carried by +means of the Slave River. It is about 200 miles in length from east to +west, and 35 miles wide where widest, but narrows to a point at either +extremity.--The former district of _Athabasca_, in 1905 divided between the +two new provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, had British Columbia on the +west, Keewatin on the east, Alberta and Saskatchewan districts on the +south, the parallel of 60deg on the north, being crossed by the Athabasca +and the Peace Rivers. Lake Athabasca is partly in Alberta, partly in +Saskatchewan. + +ATHALI'AH, daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, and wife of Joram, King of +Judah. After the death of her son Ahaziah, she opened her way to the throne +by the murder of forty-two princes of the royal blood. She reigned six +years; in the seventh the high-priest Jehoiada placed Joash, the young son +of Ahaziah, who had been secretly preserved, on the throne of his father, +and Athaliah was slain. Cf. 2 _Kings_, xi. The story of Athaliah supplied +Racine with the plot of one of his most famous tragedies. + +ATHANA'SIAN CREED, a creed or exposition of Christian faith, supposed +formerly to have been drawn up by St. Athanasius, though this opinion is +now generally rejected, and the composition often ascribed to Hilary, +Bishop of Arles (about 430). It is an explicit avowal of the doctrines of +the Trinity (as opposed to Arianism, of which Athanasius was a great +opponent) and of the incarnation, and contains what are known as the +'damnatory clauses', in which it declares that damnation must be the lot of +those who do not believe the true and catholic faith. It is contained in +the _Book of Common Prayer_, to be read on certain +occasions.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. J. A. Hort, _Two Dissertations_; G. D. W. +Ommanney, _Critical Dissertation on the Athanasian Creed_; J. A. Robinson, +_The Athanasian Creed_; E. C. S. Gibson, _The Three Creeds_; R. O. P. +Taylor, _Athanasian Creed in the Twentieth Century_. + +ATHANA'SIUS, ST., Archbishop of Alexandria, a renowned father of the +Church, born in that city about A.D. 296, died 373. While yet a young man +he attended the Council at Nice (325), where he gained the highest esteem +of the fathers by the talents which he displayed in the Arian controversy. +He had a great share in the decrees passed here, and thereby drew on +himself the hatred of the Arians. Shortly afterwards he was appointed +Archbishop of Alexandria. The complaints and accusations of his enemies at +length induced the Emperor Constantine to summon him in 334 before the +Councils of Tyre and Jerusalem, when he was suspended, and afterwards +banished to Treves. The death of Constantine put an end to this banishment, +and Constantius recalled the holy patriarch. His return to Alexandria +resembled a triumph. Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 342. Again +in 355 he was sentenced to be banished, when he retired into those parts of +the desert which were entirely uninhabited. He was followed by a faithful +servant, who, at the risk of his life, supplied him with the means of +subsistence. Here Athanasius composed many writings, full of eloquence, to +strengthen the faith of the believers, or expose the falsehood of his +enemies. When Julian the Apostate ascended the throne, toleration was +proclaimed to all religions, and Athanasius returned to his former position +at Alexandria. His next controversy was with the heathen subjects of +Julian, who excited the emperor against him, and he was obliged to flee in +order to save his life. The death of the emperor and the accession of +Jovian (363) again brought him back; but Valens becoming emperor, and the +Arians recovering the superiority, he was once more compelled to flee. He +concealed himself in the tomb of his father, where he remained four months, +until Valens allowed him to return. From this period he remained +undisturbed in his office till he died. Of the forty-six years of his +official life he spent twenty in banishment, and the greater part of the +remainder in defending the Nicene Creed. Athanasius was not so much a +speculative theologian as a great Christian pastor (cf. L. Duchesne, +_Histoire ancienne. de l'Eglise_, 1907). His writings, which are in Greek, +are on polemical, historical, and moral subjects. The polemical treat +chiefly of the doctrines of the Trinity, the incarnation of Christ, and the +divinity of the Holy Spirit. The historical ones are of the greatest +importance for the history of the Church. See _Athanasian Creed_. + +A'THEISM (Gr. _a_, priv., and _Theos_, God), the disbelief of the existence +of a God or supreme intelligent being; the doctrine opposed to _theism_ or +_deism_. The term has been often loosely used as equivalent with +_infidelity_ generally, with deism, with pantheism, and with the denial of +immortality. The most famous exponents of atheism were La Mettrie, Holbach, +Feuerbach, and Carl Vogt; whilst Comte and Haeckel have put forward systems +of thought essentially atheistic.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Flint, _Anti-theistic +Theories_; J. S. Blackie, _Natural History of Atheism_; F. A. Lange, +_History of Materialism_. + +ATH'ELING, a title of honour among the Anglo-Saxons, meaning one who is of +noble blood. The title was gradually confined to the princes of the blood +royal, and in the ninth and tenth centuries was used exclusively for the +sons or brothers of the reigning king. + +ATHELING, Edgar. See _Edgar Atheling_. + +ATH'ELNEY, formerly an island in the midst of fens and marshes, now drained +and cultivated in Somersetshire, England, about 7 miles southeast of +Bridgwater. Alfred the Great took refuge in it during a Danish invasion, +and afterwards founded an abbey there. + +ATH'ELSTAN, King of England, born 895, died 941, succeeded his father, +Edward the Elder, in 925. He was victorious in his wars with the Danes of +Northumberland, and the Scots, by whom they were assisted. After a signal +overthrow of his enemies at Brunanburgh he governed in peace and with great +ability. + +ATH[=E]'NA, or ATH[=E]N[=E], a Greek goddess, identified by the Romans with +Minerva, the representative of the intellectual powers; the daughter of +Zeus (Jupiter) and M[=e]tis (that is, wisdom or cleverness). According to +the legend, before her birth Zeus swallowed her mother, and Athena +afterwards sprang from the head of Zeus with a mighty war shout and in +complete armour. In her character of a wise and prudent warrior she was +contrasted with the fierce Ares (Mars). In the wars of the giants she slew +Pallas and Enceladus. In the wars of the mortals she aided and protected +heroes. She is also represented as the patroness of the arts of peace. The +sculptor, the architect, and the painter, as well as the philosopher, the +orator, and the poet, considered her their tutelar deity. She is also +represented among the healing gods. In all these representations she is the +symbol of the thinking faculty, the goddess of wisdom, science, and art; +the latter, however, only in so far as invention and thought are +comprehended. In the images of the goddess a manly gravity and an air of +reflection are united with female beauty in her features. As a warrior she +is represented completely armed, her head covered with a gold helmet. As +the goddess of peaceful art she appears in the dress of a Grecian matron. +To her insignia belong the Aegis, the Gorgon's head, the round Argive +buckler; and the owl, the cock, the serpent, an olive branch, and a lance +were sacred to her. All Attica, but particularly Athens, was sacred to her, +and she had numerous temples there. Her most brilliant festival at Athens +was the Panathenaea. + +ATHENAE'UM, the temple of Athena or Minerva, at Athens, frequented by +poets, learned men, and orators. The same name was given at Rome to the +school which Hadrian established on the Capitoline Mount for the promotion +of literary and scientific studies. In modern times the same name is given +to literary clubs and establishments connected with the sciences. It is +also the title of several literary periodicals. + +ATHENAE'US, a Greek rhetorician and grammarian, who lived at the end of the +second and beginning of the third century after Christ, author of an +encyclopaedic work, in the form of conversation, called _The Professors at +the Dinner-table_ (_Deipnosophistae_), which is a rich but ill-arranged +treasure of historical, antiquarian, philosophical, grammatical, &c., +knowledge. + +ATHENAG'ORAS, a Platonic philosopher of Athens, a convert to Christianity, +who wrote a Greek _Apology for the Christians_, addressed to the Emperor +Marcus Aurelius, in 177, one of the earliest that appeared. + +ATH'ENS (Gr. _Ath[=e]nai_, Lat. _Ath[=e]nae_), anciently the capital of +Attica and centre of Greek culture, now the capital of the kingdom of +Greece. It is situated in the central plain of Attica, about 4 miles from +the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Aegina, an arm of the Aegean Sea running in +between the mainland and the Peloponnesus. It is said to have been founded +about 1550 B.C. by Cecrops, the mythical Pelasgian hero, and to have borne +the name Cecropia until under Erechtheus it received the name of Athens in +honour of Ath[=e]n[=e]. The Acropolis, an irregular oval crag 150 feet +high, with a level summit 1000 feet long by 500 in breadth, was the +original nucleus of the city, which, according to tradition, was extended +by Theseus when Athens became the head of the confederate Attic States. The +three chief eminences near the Acropolis--the Areopagus to the north-west, +the Pnyx to the south-west, and the Museum to the south of the Pnyx--were +thus included within the city boundary as the sites of its chief public +buildings, the city itself, however, afterwards taking a northerly +direction. On the east ran the Ilissus and on the west the Cephissus, while +to the south-west lay three harbours--Phalerum, the oldest and nearest; the +Piraeus, the most important; and Munychia, the Piraean Acropolis. At the +height of its prosperity the city was connected with its harbours by three +massive walls (the 'long walls'). The architectural development of Athens +may be dated from the rule of the Pisistratids (560-510 B.C.), who are +credited with the foundation of the huge temple of the Olympian Zeus, +completed by Hadrian seven centuries later, the erection of the Pythium or +temple of the Pythian Apollo, and of the Lyceum or temple of Apollo +Lyceus--all near the Ilissus; and to whom were due the enclosure of the +Academy, a gymnasium and gardens to the north of the city, and the building +of the Agora with its Portico or Stoa, Bouleuterium or Senate-house, +Tholus, and Prytaneum. With the foundation of Athenian democracy under +Clisthenes, the Pnyx or place of public assembly, with its semicircular +area and cyclopean wall, first became of importance, and a commencement was +made of the Dionysiac theatre (theatre of Dionysus or Bacchus) on the south +side of the Acropolis. After the destruction wrought by the Persians in 480 +B.C., Themistocles reconstructed the city upon practical lines and with a +larger area, enclosing the city in new walls 7-1/2 miles in circumference, +erecting the north wall of the Acropolis, and developing the maritime +resources of the Piraeus; while Cimon added to the southern fortifications +of the Acropolis, placed on it the temple of Wingless Victory, planted the +Agora with trees, laid out the Academy, and built the Theseum on an +eminence north of the Areopagus; his brother-in-law, Peisianax, erected the +famous Stoa Poecil[=e], a hall with walls covered with paintings (whence +the _Stoics_ got their name). Under Pericles the highest point of artistic +development was reached. An Odeum was erected on the east of the Dionysiac +theatre for the recitations of rhapsodists and musicians; and with the aid +of the architects Ict[=i]nus, Callicrates, and Mnesicles, and of the +sculptor Phidias, the Acropolis was perfected. Covering the whole of the +western end rose the Propylaea, the splendid structure through which the +Acropolis was entered, constructed of Pentelic marble and consisting of a +central gateway portico with two wings in the form of Doric temples. Just +outside the Propylaea was the small temple of Wingless Victory. A short +distance within the entrance stood the bronze statue of Athena Promachus, a +colossal work of Phidias, 66 feet high, showing the goddess in complete +armour and leaning on a lance. Beyond it to the left was the Erechtheum, +the shrine of Athena Polias, guardian of the city, containing a very +ancient and sacred statue of Athena in olive-wood; while to the right, on +the highest part of the Acropolis, was the marble Parthenon or temple of +Athena, the crowning glory of the whole. This renowned structure, still +glorious in its ruins, was built under the auspices of Pericles, Phidias +being the sculptor and artistic adviser, and Ict[=i]nus and Callicrates the +architects. It is in the Doric style, and among its numerous sculptures +were fifty life-size statues, while in the interior was a chryselephantine +(gold and ivory) figure of the goddess, 39 feet high. (See _Parthenon_.) +Minor statues and shrines occupied the rest of the area of the Acropolis, +which was for the time wholly appropriated to the worship of the guardian +deities of the city. The Acropolis museum, a building of recent date, +contains an interesting and valuable collection of works of art found here. +In the interval between the close of the Peloponnesian War and the battle +of Chaeronea few additions were made to the city. But the long walls and +Piraeus, destroyed by Lysander, were restored by Conon, and under the +orator Lycurgus the Dionysiac temple was completed, the Panathenaic stadium +commenced, and the choragic monuments of Lysicrates and Thrasyllus erected. +Later on Ptolemy Philadelphus gave Athens the Ptolemaeum near the Theseum, +Attalus I the stoa north-east of the Agora, Eumenes II that near the great +theatre, and Antiochus Epiphanes carried on the Olympieum. Under the Romans +it continued a flourishing city, Hadrian in the second century adorning it +with many new buildings, and constructing an aqueduct, finished by his son +Antoninus Pius. At this time also a wealthy citizen, Herodes Atticus, did +much to beautify the city, and in particular constructed an Odeum, the +ruins of which are still conspicuous. Indeed Athens was at no time more +splendid than under the Antonines, when Pausanias visited and described it. +But after a time Christian zeal, the attacks of barbarians, and robberies +of collectors made sad inroads among the monuments. About A.D. 420 paganism +was totally annihilated at Athens, and when Justinian closed even the +schools of the philosophers, the reverence for buildings associated with +the names of the ancient deities and heroes was lost. The Parthenon was +turned into a church of the Virgin Mary, and St. George stepped into the +place of Theseus. Finally, in 1456, the place fell into the hands of the +Turks. The Parthenon became a mosque, and in 1687 was greatly damaged by an +explosion at the siege of Athens by the Venetians. Enough, however, remains +of it and of the neighbouring structures to attest the splendour of the +Acropolis; while of the other buildings of the city, the Theseum, or temple +of Theseus, and the Horologium, or temple of the Winds, are admirably +preserved, as are also structures belonging to the Pnyx, Panathenaic +stadium (restored and again used for games), &c. The Theseum, indeed, is +said to be the best preserved building of all ancient Greece, and is hardly +less imposing than the Parthenon. Of more than a hundred columns that +belonged to the Olympieum or temple of the Olympian Zeus, completed by +Hadrian, only fifteen are still standing. Soon after the commencement of +the war of liberation in 1821 the Turks surrendered Athens, but captured it +again in 1826-7. The Great Powers now intervened to bring about the +independence of Greece. The Turks evacuated Athens in 1833, and the troops +of King Otho then entered the city. In 1835 it became the royal residence, +and it soon began to make rapid progress, though its natural position is by +no means advantageous. The modern city mostly lies north, north-east, and +north-west of the Acropolis, and consists mainly of straight and well-built +streets. Among the principal buildings are the royal palace, a stately +building with a facade of Pentelic marble (completed 1843), the university, +the academy of science, national museum of archaeology, public library, +exhibition building, polytechnic institute, theatre, and observatory. There +are two universities, the National University, opened in 1836, and the +Capodistrian University with 3250 students. There are valuable museums, in +particular the National Museum and that in the Polytechnic School, which +contains the Schliemann collection, &c. These are constantly being added to +by excavations. There are four foreign archaeological schools or +institutes, the French, German, American, and British. The Zappeion or +exhibition building is a handsome structure, erected at the expense of the +brothers Zappas to exhibit Greek industries. Tramways have been made in the +principal streets, and the city is connected by tramway and railway (6 +miles) with its port, the Piraeus. Athens has also railway connection with +the north and west of the kingdom as well as with the Peloponnesus. The +Piraeus is the chief Greek centre of trade and industry. Water is brought +from Mount Pentelicus on the north-east, the aqueduct begun by Hadrian +being utilized in supplying the city. Pop. 167,479, and including the +Piraeus 241,058.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. A. Gardner, _Ancient Athens_; J. E. +Harrison, _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_; W. Warde Fowler, +_The City-State_, chapter vi; W. M. Leake, _Topography of Athens and the +Demi_; C. H. Weller, _Athens and its Monuments_. + +ATHENS, the name of many places in the United States, the chief being in +Georgia, and containing the Georgia University and the State college of +agriculture. It carries on the cotton manufacture, has manufactures of +agricultural implements, &c., and is a centre of trade. It was founded in +1801. Pop. 14,913. + +ATH'ERINE (_Ather[=i]na_), the name of a genus of small fishes abundant in +the Mediterranean and caught in British waters, especially on the coasts of +the south of England, some of them being highly esteemed as food. They are +also known as _Sand-smelts_. There are two British species. + +ATHERO'MA, in pathology, a term applied to a change that may take place in +the inner coat of an artery, consisting in a kind of fatty degeneration, +leading to an aneurism or bursting. Also an encysted tumour containing +matter of a curdy appearance. + +ATH'ERSTONE, a town in Warwickshire, England, 8 miles S.E. of Tamworth, and +equidistant (100 miles) from London, Liverpool, and Lincoln. It has +manufactures of hats, and is the reputed birthplace of the poet Drayton. +Pop. (1921), 20,849 (rural district). + +ATH'ERTON, town of England, Lancashire, 13 miles north-west of Manchester; +cotton-factories, collieries, and ironworks give chief employment to the +inhabitants. Pop. (1921), 19,863. + +ATHLETES (ath'l[=e]ts; Gr. _athl[=e]tai_, from _athlos_, a contest, +_athlon_, a prize), originally, in ancient Greece, combatants who took part +and contended for a prize (_athlon_) in the public games. The profession +was an honourable one; tests of birth, position, and character were +imposed, and crowns, statues, special privileges, and pensions were among +the rewards of success. (See _Games_.) The word is used in a similar sense +at the present day, but is more especially applied to persons who can +exhibit feats of strength. Games and athletic competitions, if they do not +hold such an honourable position to-day as they did in antiquity, are still +practised with great enthusiasm and excite the keenest interest in their +patrons. + +ATHLETIC SPORTS, a general name for certain physical exercises demanding a +special natural ability, and embodying a variety of events which +conventionally include not only running and jumping but such feats of +strength as putting the weight and throwing the hammer. The selection of +these events at any athletic meeting is a somewhat arbitrary one, and the +inclusion of those which require strength and skill rather than speed and +agility rests more on a traditional than a logical basis. A particular +feature which distinguishes these exercises as athletic sports is the +presence of the idea of competition; thus running and walking, as isolated +exercises, can be called 'sports' only when men compete against one +another, although the factor of competition may be only indirectly present, +as when an athlete endeavours to beat a record. + +In this country athletic sports have long been a national characteristic, +and records, more or less authentic, have been handed down for the last +hundred years or more. Until comparatively recently, such sports have been +the prerogative of the British Isles; but during the last thirty years the +United States have adopted them with enormous enthusiasm and success, and +more recently still the vogue has extended throughout the Continent, and +good results have been obtained by representatives from France, Germany, +Italy, Austria, Sweden, and Finland, as well as from all the Colonies. In +this country no school, no matter how small or how humble its pretensions, +fails to hold its athletic meeting annually. The same applies to all +colleges of the leading universities, Oxford and Cambridge, the best +representatives of which compete against one another, whilst the smaller +universities hold similar competitions. In addition, a large number of +clubs are in existence throughout the country for the promotion and +encouragement of sports, the whole system of athletics being under the +Amateur Athletic Association (founded in 1880), whose rules and regulations +for the correct maintenance of athletics in the best interests of +amateurism are regarded as a standard throughout the world. Under its +auspices an annual meeting--the Amateur Championships--is held. This +meeting is open to the whole world, and many of the championships have been +held at one time or another by distinguished visitors from America, the +Colonies, and the Continent. At the time of writing, the association is +considering the project of holding two distinct annual meetings, one of +which shall, as hitherto, be unrestricted, the other confined to residents +in the British Isles. This, which is the most important meeting of the +year, has taken place uninterruptedly since its origin in 1866 with the +exception of the military interval, 1915-8, and has been successfully +resumed in 1919. For the past fourteen or fifteen years the meeting has +been held in London on the first Saturday in July, and this practice will +probably be a permanent one, although hitherto the venue was, in rotation, +London, the Midlands, and the North. The university and inter-university +meetings are held before Easter, the former at the respective university +towns, the latter at Queen's Club, London. Among other important +representative contests may be mentioned the Public Schools' Championships +(usually in April), the United Hospitals' Championships, the Irish, the +Scottish, the Welsh, the Midland and the Northern Counties' Championships. +During the war, athletics were practically restricted to the services, and +the Army Athletic Championships, held in Aug., 1919, was a successful +reunion of soldier athletes from the various theatres of war, and included, +for the first time in history, coloured troops. + +The standard inter-university meeting comprises ten events, namely, flat +races--100 yards, 1/4 mile, 1/2 mile, 1 mile, and 3 miles; 120-yards hurdle +race; the high jump and long jump; putting the weight and throwing the +hammer. These events appear in the programme of the Amateur Championship +meeting, with the substitution of a 4-miles race for the 3 miles, and the +addition of a 220-yards race, a 2-miles walking race, a 2-miles +steeplechase (representing a miniature cross-country event), and the pole +jump. A relay race, in which four representatives from each club run half a +mile, a quarter of a mile, 220 yards, and 220 yards respectively, is also +included as a standard event; whilst at the 1919 meeting a race of 440 +yards over hurdles appeared for the first time, and will probably occupy a +permanent place in the programme. Two additional Amateur Championship +events, 7-miles walk and 10-miles flat race, are usually held at a separate +meeting in the spring. + +In addition to the preceding British meetings, a great International +contest, the Olympic Games, is held every four years in a country selected +by the Olympic committee. This meeting is truly international, the last +before 1914 having taken place at Stockholm in 1912, when representatives +from the most distant parts of the world competed with representatives from +every country in Europe in a remarkably elaborate programme, which +included, in addition to the preceding, such feats as throwing the javelin +and the discus, and the classic 'Marathon race' over the traditional +distance of 26-1/4 miles. The 1920 Olympic meeting was arranged to take +place at Antwerp. + +Although many excellently arranged athletic sports are held successfully +upon a grass course, at any important meeting the races are contested upon +a properly-constructed cinder-path, a quarter or a third of a mile in +length, and in shape an oval flattened on two sides so as to include as +much straight as possible. The width of the running path is variable, but +18 to 24 feet may be regarded as an average. The centre is of grass, and +spaces are prepared for the hurdle race, for the jumps, and the other +events which are described as the _field_, as opposed to _track_, events. + +Flat races are classified as 'sprint races', 'middle distance' and 'long +distance' races, although the distinction between these is somewhat +arbitrary. Whether or no a man is actually capable of running the whole +distance in question at full speed, the term 'sprint' is applied to those +distances in which an attempt is made to put forth a continuous maximum +effort. The limit is, by general consent, fixed at 300 yards. At any good +meeting the 100-yards race will be run in 10 seconds; at the very best +meeting this time will be beaten; and many runners have been credited with +9-4/5 seconds, a few, under exceptional conditions, with 9-3/5 seconds. The +record for 220 yards is 21-1/5 seconds. Middle-distance running includes +races from a quarter mile to a mile, and races are held at 440 yards, 600 +yards, 880 yards, 1000 yards, 1 mile, and very occasionally at 3/4 mile. +With modern specialization, however, it is rare to find any one runner +capable of supremacy at more than one of these distances. The 1/4 mile is +the common ground for the sprinter and the middle-distance runner, and 48 +seconds has been beaten on several occasions, although it may be said that +anything inside 50 seconds is a first-class performance. The record for 600 +yards is 1 minute 11 seconds. The 1/2-mile race has demonstrated latterly, +perhaps, the greatest advance of all; and whilst anything under 2 minutes +may still be regarded as a good performance, a championship event will most +always be won in 3 or 4 seconds faster time; whilst at an Olympic meeting +the wonderful record of 1 minute 52-1/2 seconds has been made. The mile, +which was originally regarded as a long-distance event, is now legitimately +considered as within the capacity of a middle-distance runner. At any +first-class meeting 4 minutes 20 seconds will be accomplished, and any +diminution of this time may be regarded as of superlative merit. The +record, which has stood since 1886, is 4 minutes 12-3/4 seconds, although a +recent performance in America, which is a tiny fraction of a second faster, +has yet to be passed. Over 1 mile, long-distance running begins, and, as +considerable staying-power is required, it is not unusual to find one man +prove champion at 4 miles and 10 miles, and even the 1-mile race in the +same year. No runner has yet achieved the capacity of running 12 miles +within the hour, although two or three have been within a few hundred yards +of this distance. About ten years ago the fashion became a craze of +contesting 'Marathon races' in which all sorts of distances, quite +independent of the classic 26-1/4 miles, were employed. At rare intervals +very long-distance running, such as 50 miles, is indulged in. For any +distance over 20 miles a special form of endurance is called for, rather +than orthodox running in good style. As a competition 'walking' is an +unsatisfactory exercise, because of the extreme difficulty in deciding when +the athlete is still fulfilling the orthodox regulation as to what +constitutes fair 'heel and toe', inasmuch as the style of a man who is +ostensibly walking, yet actually progressing at a rate faster than 9 miles +an hour (faster than the average untrained person can run), is exceedingly +difficult to analyse. About fifteen years ago long-distance walking became +exceedingly popular, and hundreds of competitors attempted the classic walk +to Brighton and back. + +The usual hurdle race is over 120 yards, with ten flights of hurdles 10 +yards apart, so that a distance of 15 yards separates the start from the +first flight, and the same distance the last flight from the finish. The +hurdles are 3-1/2 feet high, with perfectly-level top rails. In correct +'hurdling' the 'three-stride method' is essential, that is to say, three +strides are taken on the flat between the hurdles, and the athlete rises 6 +feet from the obstacle, taking it in his stride, so that retardation of +speed is reduced to a minimum. The skill and accuracy of an accomplished +hurdler is remarkable, and the race is frequently run inside 16 seconds; a +record of 15 seconds, and even a trifle less, has been accomplished. + +In this country, running long jump and high jump (and to a less extent the +pole jump) alone are practised to any extent, although as occasional events +the standing high and long jumps are contested, and, still less frequently, +the old-fashioned hop, step, and jump. In the long jump the athlete employs +all the impetus he can acquire by a sprint of about 30 yards. The ideal +aimed at is to run at the fastest speed which is consistent with reaching +the taking-off board with accuracy, and then to leap as high as possible. A +fraction of an inch under 25 feet has been cleared on two occasions, +although it may be said that anything over 24 feet is exceptional, and that +any jumper capable of 23 feet consistently has a good chance to win an +Amateur Championship. The high jump requires skill of a very peculiar +character. Whilst the novice regards this feat as dependent on momentum, +and takes a correspondingly long run to acquire speed, the crack performer +employs his capacity of manipulating his body and limbs so as to cross the +bar in a horizontal position. In this way the prodigious height of 6 feet 7 +inches has been cleared. In general it may be said that first-class jumping +begins at 6 feet. + +Pole jumping, a particularly pretty event to watch, has never been +practised to any great extent in this country, and, in fact, does not even +appear to be so popular here as twenty years ago. The pole employed is of +light but strong bamboo about 14 feet long, with a sharp ferrule at one +end, which is stuck firmly into the ground. By the help of the pole, which +is firmly grasped near the other end, the jumper elevates himself to the +bar, over which he throws his legs and his body, finally relinquishing his +hold of the pole, to fall on the opposite side. Recent years have witnessed +the development of great skill in this event, particularly by the +Americans, Canadians, and Swedes, and 13 feet has been cleared. + +The weight or shot is an iron ball weighing 16 lb., which must be put with +one hand only from the shoulder within a circle of 7 feet diameter. +Although great strength is essential, skill in utilizing the whole of the +body plays a very important part. Over 50 feet has been put on several +occasions. + +The 'hammer' is a ball of lead or iron attached by a wire to a handle. The +total length must not exceed four feet; the weight of the whole must be at +least 16 lb. The performer grasps the handle with one or both hands, and, +standing within a 7-foot circle, swings the ball round and round to acquire +impetus, which is then increased by rapid rotatory movements of his body. +Once again skill and co-ordination must be wedded to strength. A crack +performer has thrown over 175 feet. + +Throwing the javelin and discus are classical rather than popular events, +and their cultivation is fashionable only when an Olympic contest is +imminent. Among other 'strong-men' contests, which have long been favourite +sports in Scotland, are tossing the _caber_ and putting the stone. The +latter is usually a very heavy implement weighing about 56 lb.; the 'caber' +is the trunk of a fir or other tree, freed from branches, which is held +upright close to the chest by the smaller end, and thrown so as to alight +on the heavier end.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Encyclopaedia of Sports and Games_; +_Annual Sporting and Athletic Register_; F. A. M. Webster, _The Evolution +of the Olympic Games, 1829_ B.C.-A.D. _1914_; G. Le Roy, _Athletisme_; +E. W. Hjertberg, _Athletics in Theory and Practice_; P. Withington, _The +Book of Athletics_. + +ATHLONE', a town of Ireland, divided by the Shannon into two parts, one in +Westmeath, the other in Roscommon; about 76 miles west of Dublin. Its +position has made it one of the chief military depots, and a centre of +trade by river, canal, and railway. It manufactures woollen goods, linens, +&c. Up to 1885 it sent one member to Parliament. Pop. 7500. + +ATH'OLL, or ATHOLE, a mountainous and romantic district in the north of +Perthshire, Scotland, giving the title to a duke of the Murray family who +owns a large area there. + +ATHOR, HATHOR, or HET-HER, an Egyptian goddess, identified with +Aphrod[=i]t[=e] or Venus. Her symbol was the cow bearing on its head the +solar disc and hawk-feather plumes. Her chief temple was at Denderah. From +her the third month of the Egyptian year derived its name. + +A'THOS (now HAGION OROS or MONTE SANTO, that is, Holy Mountain), a mountain +6700 feet high, terminating the most eastern of the three peninsulas of +Macedonia that jut in parallel directions into the Archipelago. The name, +however, is frequently applied to the whole peninsula, which is about 30 +miles long by 5 broad. It is covered with forests, and plantations of +olive, vine, and other fruit-trees. Both the surface and coast-line are +irregular. The Persian fleet under Mardonius was wrecked here in 493 B.C., +and to avoid a similar calamity Xerxes caused a canal, of which traces may +yet be seen, to be cut through the isthmus that joins the peninsula to the +mainland. On the peninsula there are situated about twenty monasteries and +a multitude of hermitages, which contain from 6000 to 8000 monks and +hermits of the order of St. Basil. The libraries of the monasteries are +rich in literary treasures and manuscripts. Every nation belonging to the +Greek Church has here one or more monasteries of its own, which are +annually visited by pilgrims. After having passed in the fifteenth century +from the sovereignty of the Greek Emperors of Byzantium to that of the +Sultans, it fell again into the hands of the Greeks, who occupied it in +Nov., 1912. Each of the twenty monasteries is a little republic in itself, +and until 1912 they used to pay an annual tribute of nearly L4000 to the +Turks, and were governed by a synod of twenty monastic deputies and four +presidents meeting weekly. They are now ruled either by abbots chosen for +life, or by a board of overseers elected for a certain number of years. The +revenue of the community is derived from pilgrims, and from a considerable +trade in amulets, rosaries, crucifixes, images, and wooden furniture. + +ATHY', a town in Ireland, county of Kildare, 37 miles south-west of Dublin, +on the Barrow, which is here joined by the Grand Canal. Its chief trade is +in corn. Pop. 3535. + +ATIT'LAN, a lake and mountain of Central America in Guatemala. The lake is +about 24 miles long and 10 broad; the mountain is an active volcano 12,160 +feet high. + +ATLAN'TA, a city in the United States, capital of Georgia, on an elevated +ridge, 7 miles south-east of the Chattahoochee River. It is an important +railway centre; carries on a large trade in grain, paper, cotton, flour, +and especially tobacco, and possesses flour-mills, paper-mills, ironworks, +&c. Here are Atlanta University for negro men and women, a theological +college, a medical college, &c. Atlanta suffered severely during the Civil +War, and a battle was fought there on 22nd July, 1864. A fire which broke +out on 21st May, 1917, caused damage estimated at more than L1,000,000. +Pop. (1920), 200,600. + +ATLAN'TES, or TELAM[=O]NES, in architecture, male figures used in place of +columns or pilasters for the support of an entablature or cornice. Female +figures so employed are termed _caryatides_. + +ATLANTIC CITY, a fashionable watering-place of the United States, on the +coast of New Jersey. It is an important air port, and has an aerodrome +covering about 160 acres. Pop. 50,682. + +ATLANTIC OCEAN, the vast expanse of sea lying between the west coasts of +Europe and Africa and the east coasts of North and South America, and +extending from the Arctic to the Antarctic Ocean; greatest breadth, between +the west coast of Northern Africa and the east coast of Florida, 4150 +miles; least breadth, between Norway and Greenland, 930 miles. The total +area of the North Atlantic (including the inland seas) is 13,262,000 sq. +miles; the area of the South Atlantic is 12,627,000 sq. miles. The +principal inlets and bays are Baffin's and Hudson's Bays, the Gulf of +Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, the North Sea, the Bay of Biscay, and the Gulf +of Guinea. The principal islands north of the equator are Iceland, the +Faroe and British Islands, the Azores, Canaries, and Cape Verde Islands, +Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the West India Islands; and south of the +equator, Ascension, St. Helena, and Tristan da Cunha. + +The great currents of the Atlantic are the Equatorial Current (divisible +into the Main, Northern, and Southern Equatorial Currents), the Gulf +Stream, the North African and Guinea Current, the Southern Connecting +Current, the Southern Atlantic Current, the Cape Horn Current, Rennel's +Current, and the Arctic Current. The current system is primarily set in +motion by the trade-winds which drive the water of the intertropical region +from Africa towards the American coasts. The Main Equatorial Current, +passing across the Atlantic, is turned by the S. American coast, along +which it runs at a rate of 30 to 50 miles a day, till, having received part +of the North Equatorial Current, it enters the Gulf of Mexico. Issuing +thence between Florida and Cuba under the name of the Gulf Stream, it flows +with a gradually-expanding channel nearly parallel to the coast of the +United States. It then turns north-eastward into the mid-Atlantic, the +larger proportion of it passing southward to the east of the Azores to +swell the North African and Guinea Current created by the northerly winds +off the Portuguese coast. The Guinea Current, which takes a southerly +course, is divided into two on arriving at the region of the north-east +trades, part of it flowing east to the Bight of Biafra and joining the +South African feeder of the Main Equatorial, but the larger portion being +carried westward into the North Equatorial drift. Rennel's Current, which +is possibly a continuation of the Gulf Stream, enters the Bay of Biscay +from the west, curves round its coast, and then turns north-west towards +Cape Clear. The Arctic Current runs along the east coast of Greenland +(being here called the Greenland Current), doubles Cape Farewell, and flows +up towards Davis' Strait; it then turns to the south along the coasts of +Labrador and the United States, from which it separates the Gulf Stream by +a cold band of water. Immense masses of ice are borne south by this current +from the Polar seas. In the interior of the North Atlantic there is a large +area comparatively free from currents, called the Sargasso Sea, from the +large quantity of sea-weed (of the genus Sargassum) which drifts into it. A +similar area exists in the South Atlantic. In the South Atlantic the +portion of the Equatorial Current which strikes the American coast below +Cape St. Roque flows southward at the rate of from 12 to 20 miles a day +along the Brazil coast under the name of the Brazil Current. It then turns +eastward and forms the South Connecting Current, which, on reaching the +South African coast, turns northward into the Main and Southern Equatorial +Currents. Besides the surface currents, an under current of cold water +flows from the poles to the equator, and an upper current of warm water +from the equator towards the poles. + +The greatest depth as yet discovered is north of Porto Rico, in the West +Indies, namely 27,360 feet. Cross-sections of the North Atlantic between +Europe and America show that its bed consists of two great valleys lying in +a north-and-south direction, and separated by a ridge, on which there is an +average depth of 1800 fathoms. The mean depth of the North Atlantic is 2047 +fathoms, that of the South Atlantic 2067 fathoms. A ridge, called the +_Wyville-Thomson Ridge_, with a depth of little more than 200 fathoms above +it, runs from near the Butt of Lewis to Iceland, cutting off the colder +water of the Arctic Ocean from the warmer water of the Atlantic. The South +Atlantic, of which the greatest depth yet found is over 3000 fathoms, +resembles the North Atlantic in having an elevated plateau or ridge in the +centre with a deep trough on either side. The saltness and specific gravity +of the Atlantic gradually diminish from the tropics to the poles, and also +from within a short distance of the tropics to the equator. In the +neighbourhood of the British Isles the salt has been stated at one +thirty-eighth of the weight of the water. The North Atlantic is the +greatest highway of ocean traffic in the world. It is also a great area of +submarine communication, by means of the telegraphic cables that are laid +across its bed. See _Oceanography_. + +ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See _Telegraph_. + +ATLAN'TIDES (-d[=e]z), a name given to the Pleiades, which were fabled to +be the seven daughters of Atlas or of his brother Hesperus. + +ATLAN'TIS, an island which, according to Plato, existed in the Atlantic +over against the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), was the home +of a great nation, and was finally swallowed up by the sea. The legend has +been accepted by some as fundamentally true; but others have regarded it as +the outgrowth of some early discovery of the New World. + +ATLAN'TOSAURUS, a gigantic fossil reptile, ord. Dinosauria, obtained in the +upper Jurassic strata of the Rocky Mountains, attaining a length of 110 +feet or more. + +ATLAS, an extensive mountain system in North Africa, starting near Cape Nun +on the Atlantic Ocean, traversing Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis, and +terminating on the coast of the Mediterranean; divided generally into two +parallel ranges, running W. to E., the Greater Atlas lying towards the +Sahara and the Lesser Atlas towards the Mediterranean. The principal chain +is about 1500 miles long, and the principal peaks rise above or approach +the line of perpetual congelation, Miltsin in Morocco being 11,400 feet +high, and Tizi Likumpt being 13,150. The highest elevation is perhaps Tizi +Tamyurt, estimated at fully 15,000 feet. Silver, antimony, lead, copper, +iron, &c., are among the minerals. The vegetation is chiefly European in +character, except on the low grounds and next the desert. + +ATLAS, in Greek mythology, the name of a Titan whom Zeus condemned to bear +the vault of heaven.--The same name is given to a collection of maps and +charts, and was first used by Gerard Mercator in the sixteenth century, the +figure of Atlas bearing the globe being given on the title-pages of such +works. + +ATLAS, in anatomy, is the name of the first vertebra of the neck, which +supports the head. It is connected with the occipital bone in such a way as +to permit of the nodding movement of the head, and rests on the second +vertebra or _axis_, their union allowing the head to turn from side to +side. + +AT'LAS, a kind of silk or silk-satin fabric of Eastern manufacture. + +ATMIDOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the evaporation from water, ice, +or snow. It somewhat resembles Nicholson's hydrometer, being constructed so +as to float in water and having an upright graduated stem, on the top of +which is a metal pan. Water, ice, or snow is put into the pan, so as to +sink the zero of the stem to a level with the cover of the vessel, and as +evaporation goes on the stem rises, showing the amount of evaporation in +grains. + +ATMOM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the amount of evaporation from a +moist surface in a given time. It is often a thin hollow ball of porous +earthenware in which is inserted a graduated glass tube. The cavity of the +ball and tube being filled with water and the top of the tube closed, the +instrument is exposed to the free action of the air; the relative rapidity +with which the water transuding through the porous substance is evaporated +is marked by the scale on the tube as the water sinks. + +AT'MOSPHERE, primarily the gaseous envelope which surrounds the earth; but +the term is applied to that of any orb. Twilight effects show that the +atmosphere is sufficiently dense up to a height of 40 miles to scatter or +reflect to an appreciable degree the sun's rays, while the phenomena of +meteors, which are rendered luminous through friction, show that it +extends, though in extremely attenuated form, to 100 or even 200 or more +miles. It exerts on every part of the earth's surface a pressure of about +15 (14.73) lb. per sq. inch. The existence of this atmospheric pressure was +first proved by Torricelli, who thus accounted for the rush of a liquid to +fill a vacuum, and who, working out the idea, produced the first barometer. +The average height of the mercurial column counterbalancing the atmospheric +weight at the sea-level is a little less than 30 inches; but the pressure +varies from hour to hour, and, roughly speaking, diminishes in geometrical +progression with arithmetical increase in altitude. Of periodic variations +there are two maxima of daily pressure, occurring when the temperature is +about the mean of the day, and two minima, when it is at its highest and +lowest respectively; but the problems of diurnal and seasonal oscillations +have yet to be fully solved. The pressure upon the human body of average +size is no less than 14 tons, but as it is exerted equally in all +directions no inconvenience is caused by it. It is sometimes convenient to +take the atmospheric pressure as a standard for measuring other fluid +pressures; thus the steam pressure of 30 lb. per sq. inch on a boiler is +spoken of as a pressure of two atmospheres. + +The atmosphere, first subjected to analysis by Priestley and Scheele in the +latter part of the eighteenth century, consists practically of oxygen and +nitrogen in the almost constant proportion of 20.81 volumes of oxygen to +79.19 volumes of nitrogen, or, by weight, 23.01 parts of oxygen to 76.99 of +nitrogen. The gases are associated together, not as a chemical compound, +but as a mechanical mixture. Upon the oxygen present depends the power of +the atmosphere to support combustion and respiration, the nitrogen acting +as a diluent to prevent its too energetic action. It had long been known +that atmospheric nitrogen appeared to have a very slightly greater density +than nitrogen obtained from other sources. Lord Rayleigh and Sir William +Ramsay found that the fact was due to a still more inert gas which forms +nearly 1 per cent of the air, and which had not previously been separated +from nitrogen. This has been named _argon_. Besides these gases, the +atmosphere also contains aqueous vapour in variable quantity, ozone, +carbonic acid gas, traces of ammonia, nitric acid, and, in towns, +sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid gas. In addition to its gaseous +constituents the atmosphere is charged with dust, bacteria, &c. For other +gases which are present in traces, see _Neon_. See _Climate_; +_Meteorology_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Flammarion, _L'Atmosphere_; Sir Napier +Shaw, _The Weather Map_. + +ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE, name given by early inventors to engines in which the +piston is restored to the bottom of its stroke by atmospheric pressure. + +ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY, so called in consequence of the motive power being +derived from the pressure of the atmosphere, or from compressed air. The +idea of thus obtaining motion was first suggested by the French engineer +Papin, about 200 years ago. In 1810, and again in 1827, Medhurst published +a scheme for 'propelling carriages through a close-fitting air-tight tunnel +by forcing in air behind them'; and in 1825 a similar project was patented +by Vallance of Brighton. About 1835 H. Pinkus, an American residing in +England, patented a pneumatic railway. The carriages were to travel on an +open line of rails, along which a cast-iron tube of between 3 and 4 feet +diameter was to be laid, having a longitudinal slit from 1 to 2 inches wide +and closed by a flexible valve along its upper side, through which a +connection could be formed between the leading carriage and a piston +working within the tube. This method was improved by Messrs. Clegg & +Samuda, who in 1840 tried some experiments on a portion of the West London +Railway with sufficient success to induce the Government to advance a loan +to the Dublin and Kingstown Railway Company, for the construction of a +pneumatic line from Kingstown to Dalkey. It was opened for passenger +traffic at the end of 1843, and was worked for many months. The London and +Croydon Company subsequently obtained powers for laying down an atmospheric +railway by the side of their other line from London to Croydon, and in +experimental trips in 1845 a speed of 30 miles an hour was obtained with +sixteen carriages, and of 70 miles with six carriages. But during the +intense heat of the summer of 1846 the iron tube frequently became so hot +as to melt the composition which sealed the valve, and the line had to be +worked by locomotives. The mechanical difficulty of commanding a sufficient +amount of rarefaction led to the abandonment of the system for railway +purposes. It has been revived, however, for the conveyance of letters and +parcels in towns by means of tubes of moderate diameter laid beneath the +streets. See _Pneumatic Dispatch_. + +[Illustration: Atoll] + +ATOLL', the Polynesian name for coral islands of the ringed type enclosing +a lagoon in the centre. They are found chiefly in the Pacific in +archipelagos, and occasionally are of large size. Suadiva Atoll is 44 miles +by 34; Rimsky 54 by 20. See _Coral_. + +ATOMIC THEORY, a theory as to the existence and properties of atoms (see +_Atoms_); especially, in chemistry, the theory accounting for the fact that +in compound bodies the elements combine in certain constant proportions, by +assuming that all bodies are composed of ultimate atoms, the weight of +which is different in different kinds of matter. It is associated with the +name of Dalton, who systematized and extended the imperfect results of his +predecessors. On its practical side the atomic theory asserts three _Laws +of Combining Proportions_: (1) The Law of Constant or Definite Proportions, +teaching that in every chemical compound the nature and relative weights of +the constituent elements are definite and invariable; thus water invariably +consists of 8 parts by weight of oxygen to 1 part by weight of hydrogen; +(2) The Law of Multiple Proportions, according to which the several +proportions in which one element unites with a given weight of another +invariably bear towards each other a simple relation; thus 1 part by weight +of hydrogen unites with 8 parts by weight of oxygen to form water, and with +16 (i.e. 8x2) parts of oxygen to form peroxide of hydrogen; (3) The Law of +Combination in Reciprocal Proportions, that the proportions in which two +elements combine with a third also represent the proportions in which, or +in some simple multiple of which, they will themselves combine; thus in +olefiant gas hydrogen is present with carbon in the proportion of 1 to 6, +and in carbonic oxide, oxygen is present with carbon in the proportion of 8 +to 6, 1 to 8 being also the proportions in which hydrogen and oxygen +combine with each other. The theory that these _proportional numbers_ are, +in fact, nothing else but the relative weights of atoms so far accounts for +the phenomena that the existence of these laws might have been predicted by +the aid of the atomic hypothesis long before they were actually discovered +by analysis. In themselves, however, the laws do not prove the theory of +the existence of ultimate particles of matter of a certain relative weight; +and although many chemists, even without expressly adopting the atomic +theory itself, have followed Dalton in the use of the terms _atom_ and +_atomic weight_, in preference to _proportion_, _combining weight_, +_equivalent_, and the like, yet in using the word _atom_ it should be held +in mind that it merely denotes the combining weights of the elements. These +will remain the same whether the atomic hypothesis which suggested the +employment of the term be true or false. Dalton supposed that the atoms are +spherical, and invented certain symbols to represent the mode in which he +conceived they might combine. The latest atomic hypothesis is one which +assigns an electrical structure to the atom. See _Chemistry_; +_Electricity_; _Matter_. Cf. H. E. Roscoe and A. Harden, _New View of +Dalton's Atomic Theory_; Sir J. J. Thomson, _Atomic Theory_. + +ATOMIC WEIGHTS. See _Chemistry_; _Molecular Weights_. + +ATOMISTS. See _Atoms_. + +ATOMS, for many years regarded as the ultimate indivisible particles of the +chemical elements. The idea originated with some of the ancient +philosophers (the atomists), more especially Democritus (450 B.C.), +Epicurus, and Lucretius (99-55 B.C.), and was developed into a definite +theory by Dalton (1804). According to Dalton the atoms of any one element +are alike in all their properties, but differ from the atoms of other +elements, and when chemical combination occurs it takes place between the +atoms of the combining elements (see _Chemistry_). Various views have been +held with regard to the nature of atoms. Newton regarded them as hard, +ponderable particles, perfectly unalterable, and concluded that the +difference between substances was due to different kinds of atoms. Lord +Kelvin propounded the view that the properties of atoms might be explained +by those of vortices or vortex rings in a homogeneous frictionless fluid. +As a result of the researches of British and French physicists on radium, +the latest view is that matter and electricity are closely connected, that +atoms are not indivisible, but complex aggregates containing positive and +negative electrons, the differences between the atoms depending mainly on +the numbers of these electrons and their velocity. See _Radium_. + +ATONEMENT, in Christian theology, the special work of Christ effected by +His life, sufferings, and death. The first explicit exposition of the +evangelical doctrine of the atonement is ascribed to Anselm, Archbishop of +Canterbury, in 1093. + +ATRATO ([.a]-trae't[=o]), a river of S. America, in the north-west of +Colombia, emptying itself by nine mouths into the Gulf of Darien; it is +navigable by steamers of some size for 250 miles, and has long been the +subject of schemes for establishing water-communication between the +Atlantic and Pacific. + +ATRAULI, a town of India, United Provinces, Aligarh district, clean, well +built, and with a good trade. Pop. 16,560. + + * * * * * + + +Corrections made to printed original. + +Article Animalcule. "but most of them are strictly microscopic.": +'miscroscopic' in original. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. 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