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Vol. 1 Part 2, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 2 + Amiel to Atrauli + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34074] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ccccff;"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage.<br /><br /> + +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h2>THE</h2> + +<h1>NEW . GRESHAM</h1> + +<h1>ENCYCLOPEDIA</h1> + +<h2>VOLUME . I . PART . 2</h2> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:19%;"> + <a href="images/image000.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image000.png" + alt="Publishers Mark" title="Publishers Mark" /></a> + </div> +<h2><i>The</i> GRESHAM . PUBLISHING<br /> +COMPANY . <i>Limited</i></h2> + +<h3>66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND<br /> +LONDON W.C.2.<br /> +1922</h3> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS</h3> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<h3>VOLUME I PART 2</h3> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead">PLATES</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width:60%" summary="List of Plates." title="List of Plates."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> Page</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Anatomy</span> (Human Skeleton and Muscles) </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Archæology</span> (Antiquities of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages) </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Architecture</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">MAPS IN COLOUR</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width:60%" summary="List of Maps in Colour." title="List of Maps in Colour."> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Asia</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page274">274</a></td></tr> +</table> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>KEY TO PRONUNCIATION</h3> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by + marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system + of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:—</p> + +<h3>VOWELS</h3> + + <p>ā, as in f<i>a</i>te, or in b<i>a</i>re.</p> + + <p>ä, as in <i>a</i>lms, Fr. <i>â</i>me, Ger. B<i>a</i>hn = á of Indian + names.</p> + + <p>a<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>, the same + sound short or medium, as in Fr. b<i>a</i>l, Ger. M<i>a</i>nn.</p> + + <p>a, as in f<i>a</i>t.</p> + + <p>a<span class="x1"><span class="x3">¨</span></span>, as in + f<i>a</i>ll.</p> + + <p><i>a</i>, obscure, as in rur<i>a</i>l, similar to <i>u</i> in + b<i>u</i>t, ė in h<i>e</i>r: common in Indian names.</p> + + <p>ē, as in m<i>e</i> = <i>i</i> in mach<i>i</i>ne.</p> + + <p>e, as in m<i>e</i>t.</p> + + <p>ė, as in h<i>e</i>r.</p> + + <p>ī, as in p<i>i</i>ne, or as <i>ei</i> in Ger. m<i>ei</i>n.</p> + + <p>i, as in p<i>i</i>n, also used for the short sound corresponding to + ē, as in French and Italian words.</p> + + <p><i>eu</i>, a long sound as in Fr. j<i>eû</i>ne = Ger. long <i>ö</i>, + as in S<i>ö</i>hne, G<i>ö</i>the (Goethe).</p> + + <p>eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p<i>eu</i> = Ger. + <i>ö</i> short.</p> + + <p>ō, as in n<i>o</i>te, m<i>oa</i>n.</p> + + <p>o, as in n<i>o</i>t, s<i>o</i>ft—that is, short or medium.</p> + + <p>ö, as in m<i>o</i>ve, tw<i>o</i>.</p> + + <p>ū as in t<i>u</i>be.</p> + + <p>u, as in t<i>u</i>b: similar to ė and also to <i>a</i>.</p> + + <p>u<span class="x1"><span class="x3">¨</span></span>, as in + b<i>u</i>ll.</p> + + <p>ü, as in Sc. ab<i>u</i>ne = Fr. <i>û</i> as in d<i>û</i>, Ger. + <i>ü</i> long as in gr<i>ü</i>n, B<i>ü</i>hne.</p> + + <p>u<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>, the + corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b<i>u</i>t, Ger. + M<i>ü</i>ller.</p> + + <p>oi, as in <i>oi</i>l.</p> + + <p>ou, as in p<i>ou</i>nd; or as <i>au</i> in Ger. H<i>au</i>s.</p> + +<h3>CONSONANTS</h3> + + <p>Of the <i>consonants</i>, <b>b,</b> <b>d,</b> <b>f,</b> <b>h,</b> + <b>j,</b> <b>k,</b> <b>l,</b> <b>m,</b> <b>n,</b> <b>ng,</b> <b>p,</b> + <b>sh,</b> <b>t,</b> <b>v,</b> <b>z,</b> always have their common English + sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter <b>c</b> is + not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, <b>s</b> or <b>k</b> + being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require + explanation are the following:—</p> + + <p>ch is always as in ri<i>ch</i>.</p> + + <p><i>d</i>, nearly as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>is = Sp. <i>d</i> in + Ma<i>d</i>ri<i>d</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>g is always hard, as in <i>g</i>o.</p> + + <p><i>h</i> represents the guttural in Scotch lo<i>ch</i>, Ger. + na<i>ch</i>, also other similar gutturals.</p> + + <p>n<span class="x1"><span class="x3">˙</span></span>, Fr. nasal + <i>n</i> as in bo<i>n</i>.</p> + + <p>r represents both English <i>r</i>, and <i>r</i> in foreign words, + which is generally much more strongly trilled.</p> + + <p>s, always as in <i>s</i>o.</p> + + <p>th, as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>in.</p> + + <p><i>th</i>, as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>is.</p> + + <p>w always consonantal, as in <i>w</i>e.</p> + + <p>x = ks, which are used instead.</p> + + <p>y always consonantal, as in <i>y</i>ea (Fr. <i>ligne</i> would be + re-written lēny).</p> + + <p>zh, as <i>s</i> in plea<i>s</i>ure = Fr. <i>j</i>.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page143"></a>[143]</span></p> + + <p><b>Amiel´</b>, Henri Frédéric, French-Swiss philosophical writer and + poet, born at Geneva, 1821, died there 1881. Educated at Geneva, he + resided a considerable time abroad, especially in Germany, and was much + influenced by German thought and science. On his return he first held the + chair of æsthetics, and then that of philosophy. He published several + volumes of poetry as well as other works, but he is best known by his + <i>Journal Intime</i>, published after his death, and translated into + English (1885), with a critical study by Mrs. Humphry Ward. It shows + great critical and philosophical power, but is pessimistic.</p> + + <p><b>Amiens</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-mē-an<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), a town of France, capital of the + department of Somme, on the railway from Boulogne to Paris. It has a + citadel, wide and regular streets, and several large open areas; a + cathedral, one of the largest and finest Gothic buildings in Europe, + founded in 1220 by Bishop Evrard, after designs made by the architect + Robert de Luzarches. Having water communication with the sea by the + Somme, which is navigable for small vessels, it has a large trade and + numerous important manufactures, especially cotton and woollen goods. It + was taken by the Germans in 1870, and again in 1914, by General von + Kluck. Pop. (1911) 93,207.—The <i>Peace of Amiens</i>, concluded + between Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Batavian Republic, 27th + March, 1802, put an end for a time to the great war which had lasted + since 1793.</p> + + <p><b>Amir.</b> See <i>Emir</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amirante Islands</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-mē-ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n´tā), a group of eleven small + islands in the Indian Ocean, lying south-west of the Seychelles, and + forming a dependency of Mauritius.</p> + + <p><b>Amlwch</b> (am´lö<i>h</i>), a seaport in North Wales, Island of + Anglesey. Pop. (1921), 2694 (urb. dist.).</p> + + <p><b>Ammana´ti</b>, Bartolomeo, a sculptor and architect, born at + Florence in 1511, died 1592; executed the <i>Leda</i> at Florence, a + gigantic <i>Neptune</i> for St. Mark's Place at Venice, a colossal + <i>Hercules</i> at Padua, and after the inundation in 1557, which + destroyed all the bridges of the Arno, built the celebrated Trinity + Bridge at Florence, finished in 1570. He was an imitator of Michael + Angelo without his inspiration and genius.</p> + + <p><b>Ammergau</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>m´er-gou), a district in Upper Bavaria, + having its centre in the villages of Ober and Unter Ammergau. The former + village is famous on account of the Passion Play which is performed + there, at intervals usually of ten years.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/image045.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image045.jpg" + alt="Ammeter" title="Ammeter" /></a> + Ammeter.—Front removed to show details. + + <p class="poem">A. Large magnet. B. Soft-iron keeper magnetized by + magnet and acting as resistance. D. Cylinder turning within B, and + actuated by current entering at C1, and flowing through spiral wire + (not shown) at base of D, and through coil on cylinder to terminal C2. + E. Hair-spring regulating pointer. F. Pointer stops.</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Am´meter</b> (short for ampere-meter), an instrument used for the + measurement of electric currents. For commercial use the scale is marked + so as to read amperes directly, but for experimental purposes it is usual + to have a scale with divisions numbered in tens, in which case the + reading multiplied by a suitable constant gives the value of the current + in amperes. By employing suitable shunts this admits of the one + instrument being used for a number of ranges.</p> + + <p>The types of ammeter and the principles upon which they work are as + follows: (<i>a</i>) <i>Soft-iron type</i>, the action of a magnetic field + on a piece of soft iron; (<i>b</i>) <i>moving-coil type</i> and + <i>dynamometer type</i>, the action of a magnetic field on a + current-carrying coil; (<i>c</i>) <i>hot-wire type</i>, the expansion of + a conductor due to the heating produced by the current; (<i>d</i>) + <i>induction type</i>, the action of a magnetic field on the eddy + currents produced in a metal disc.</p> + + <p>The "soft-iron" ammeter can be used for both direct and alternating + currents, is inexpensive, and is sufficiently accurate for commercial + use.</p> + + <p>For direct-current measurements where a high degree of accuracy is of + first importance, a "moving-coil" ammeter is invariably used.</p> + + <p>In alternating-current circuits its place is taken by the dynamometer + type, which reads both direct and alternating currents.</p> + + <p>In cases where absence of inductance in the instrument is important, + e.g. in the measurements in wireless-telegraph and telephone circuits, + the "hot-wire" ammeter is used. It measures both direct and alternating + currents, and, when properly used, has a high degree of accuracy.</p> + + <p>The "induction" type cannot be used for direct currents, and has the + limitation that with alternating currents it will read correctly only at + the frequency for which it is calibrated.</p> + + <p>Almost invariably an ammeter gives its full-scale reading when a small + current, say of the order of one-tenth of an ampere, is passing through + the instrument itself. In order to read larger currents a device is + employed whereby a definite fraction of the current to be measured <!-- + Page 144 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page144"></a>[144]</span>passes through the instrument.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J. A. Fleming, <i>A Handbook for the + Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room</i> (2 vols.); G. D. Aspinall + Parr, <i>Electrical Measuring Instruments</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ammia´nus Marcelli´nus</b>, a Roman historian, born at Antioch in + Syria about 320, died about 390. He wrote in 31 books (of which the first + 13 are lost) a history of the Cæsars, from Nerva to Valens, which was + highly thought of by Gibbon for its fidelity. His MS. was printed for the + first time at Rome in 1474.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:14%;"> + <a href="images/image046.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image046.jpg" + alt="Ammon" title="Ammon" /></a> + Ammon. + </div> + + <p><b>Am´mon</b> (often called <b>Ammon-Ra</b>, i.e. Ammon-Sun), an + ancient Egyptian deity, one of the chief gods of the country, identified + by the Greeks with their supreme god Zeus, while the Romans regarded him + as the representative of Jupiter; represented as a ram, as a human being + with a ram's head, ornamented with the solar disc, or simply with the + horns of a ram. There was a celebrated temple of Ammon in the Oasis of + Siwah in the Libyan desert.</p> + + <p><b>Ammon</b>, Oasis of. See <i>Siwah</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ammo´nia</b>, an alkaline substance, which differs from the other + alkalies by being gaseous, and is hence sometimes called the <i>volatile + alkali</i>. It is a colourless pungent gas, composed of nitrogen and + hydrogen; formula, NH<sub>3</sub>. It was first prepared by Priestley, + who termed it <i>alkaline air</i>. He obtained it from sal-ammoniac by + the action of lime, by which method it is yet generally prepared. It is + used for many purposes, both in medicine and scientific chemistry; not, + however, in the gaseous state, but frequently in solution in water, under + the names of <i>liquid ammonia</i>, <i>aqueous ammonia</i>, or <i>spirits + of hartshorn</i>. It is generally prepared from the ammoniacal liquor + obtained as a by-product on distilling coal. Combined with acids, ammonia + forms salts which are of immense value to agriculture. The well-known + odour of farmyard manure is very largely due to the formation of ammonia + during the rotting of the dung. Many animal substances, such as bones, + clippings and shavings of horn, hoof, &c., and certain vegetable + matters yield ammonia when heated. Sal-ammoniac is ammonium chloride.</p> + + <p><b>Ammoni´ăcum</b>, a gum-resinous exudation from an + umbelliferous plant, the <i>Dorēma ammoniăcum</i>. It has a + fetid smell, is inflammable, soluble in water and spirit of wine; used as + an antispasmodic, stimulant, and expectorant in chronic catarrh, + bronchitic affections, and asthma; also used for plasters.</p> + + <p><b>Ammo´niaphone</b>, an instrument, consisting of a metallic tube + containing some substance saturated with ammonia, peroxide of hydrogen, + and a few flavouring compounds, fitted with a mouthpiece to breathe + through, which is said to render the voice strong, clear, rich, and + ringing by the inhalation of the ammoniacal vapour. It was invented by + Dr. Carter Moffat, and was suggested by the presence of ammonia in some + quantity in the atmosphere of Italy—the country of fine + singers.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:21%;"> + <a href="images/image047.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image047.jpg" + alt="Ammonites" title="Ammonites" /></a> + Ammonites obtusus. Ammonites varians + </div> + + <p><b>Am´monites</b>, a group of fossil cephalopods, now divided into a + large number of genera, ranging from the Coal Measures (Texas) to the + uppermost cretaceous strata. The ammonites differ from the nautili in + having the tube connecting the chambers placed on the outer margin of the + coiled shell, while the calcareous neck where it passes through the + partitions is directed forwards. The partitions are much folded, + producing markings like the fronds of ferns where they meet the inner + wall of the shell. The name arises from confusion with a coiled + gastropod, which was held to resemble the horns of the Egyptian deity + Jupiter Ammon.</p> + + <p><b>Am´monites</b>, a Semitic race frequently mentioned in Scripture, + descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (<i>Gen.</i> xix, 38), often + spoken of in conjunction with the Moabites. A predatory and Bedouin race, + they inhabited the desert country east of Gad, their chief city being + Rabbath-Ammon (Philadelphia). Wars between the Israelites and the + Ammonites were frequent; they were overcome by Jephthah, Saul, David, + Uzziah, Jotham, &c. They appear to have existed as a distinct people + in the time of Justin Martyr, but have subsequently become merged in the + aggregate of nameless Arab tribes.</p> + + <p><b>Ammo´nium</b>, the name given to the hypothetical radicle (formula, + NH<sub>4</sub>) of ammonium salts. It functionates as a metal, has not + been isolated, but it is believed to exist in an amalgam with + mercury.</p> + + <p><b>Ammo´nius Sac´cas</b>, a Greek philosopher who lived about <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 175-240. Originally a porter in Alexandria, he + derived his epithet from the carrying of <i>sacks</i> of corn. The son of + Christian parents, he abandoned their faith for the polytheistic + philosophy of Greece. His teaching was historically a transition stage + between Platonism and Neo-Platonism. Among his disciples were Plotinus, + Longinus, Origen, &c. The books often attributed to him are by a + Christian philosopher of the same name. <!-- Page 145 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page145"></a>[145]</span></p> + + <p><b>Ammuni´tion</b>, another form of the word munition, with a more + restricted meaning. It is now taken to include cartridges of all sorts + for guns, howitzers, rifles, and all fire-arms. Ammunition comprises both + cartridges in which explosive and missiles are combined to form one + compact article, and also other forms of projectiles of which the + explosive agent forms one portion and the actual missile the other. + Bombs, grenades, shells, powder, and bullets are all included in the + generic term ammunition. As a qualifying word used adjectivally it is + found in ammunition-wagon, ammunition-carrier, ammunition-mules, + ammunition-column, &c. In the British service the Royal Army Ordnance + Corps is entrusted with the provision of supplies of ammunition + generally, while the actual distribution in the field is the duty of the + ammunition-column, a Royal Artillery organization.</p> + + <p><b>Am´nesty</b> (Gr. <i>amnestia</i>, forgetfulness), the releasing of + a number of persons who have been guilty of political offences from the + consequence of these offences. The earliest recorded amnesty in history + is that of Thrasybulus at Athens, and the last act of amnesty passed in + Britain was that of 1747, after the second Jacobite rebellion.</p> + + <p><b>Am´nion</b>, the innermost membrane surrounding the fetus of + mammals, birds, and reptiles.—In botany, a gelatinous fluid in + which the embryo of a seed is suspended, and by which it is supposed to + be nourished.</p> + + <p><b>Amo´aful</b>, village near Kumassi, West Africa, at which the + Ashanti were defeated by British troops under Wolseley, 31st Jan., + 1874.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:12%;"> + <a href="images/image048.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image048.jpg" + alt="Amoeba" title="Amoeba" /></a> + Amœba proteus. + </div> + + <p><b>Amœ´ba</b>, a microscopic genus of rhizopodous Protozoa, of + which <i>A. difflŭens</i>, common in freshwater ponds and ditches, + is the type. It exists as a mass of protoplasm, and pushes its body out + into finger-like processes or pseudopodia, and by means of these moves + about or grasps particles of food. There is no distinct mouth, and food + is engulfed within any portion of the soft sarcode body. Reproduction + takes place by fission, or by a single pseudopodium detaching itself from + the parent body and developing into a separate amœba.</p> + + <p><b>Amœbe´an Poetry</b>, poetry in which persons are represented + as speaking alternately, as in some of Virgil's <i>Eclogues</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amol´</b>, a town of Northern Persia, 76 miles <span + class="scac">N.E.</span> of Teheran. Extensive ruins tell of former + greatness, the most prominent being the mausoleum of Seyed Quam-u-deen, + who died in 1378. Pop. in winter estimated at about 40,000.</p> + + <p><b>Amo´mum</b>, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Zinziberaceæ + (ginger, &c.), natives of warm climates, and remarkable for the + pungency and aromatic properties of their seeds. Some of the species + yield Cardamoms, others Grains of Paradise.</p> + + <p><b>Amontilla´do</b>, a dry kind of sherry wine of a light colour, + highly esteemed.</p> + + <p><b>Amoor.</b> See <i>Amur</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A´mor</b>, the god of love among the Romans, equivalent to the Gr. + <i>Erōs</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amor´go</b> (ancient <b>Amorgos</b>), an island in the Grecian + Archipelago, one of the Eastern Cyclades, 22 miles long, 5 miles broad; + area, 106 sq. miles; it has a town of the same name, with a castle and a + large harbour. Pop. 3561.</p> + + <p><b>Am´orites</b>, a powerful Canaanitish tribe at the time of the + occupation of the country by the Israelites; occupied the whole of Gilead + and Bashan, and formed two powerful kingdoms—a northern, under Og, + who is called King of Bashan; and a southern, under Sihon, called King of + the Amorites; first attacked and overthrown by Joshua; subsequently + subdued, and made tributary or driven to mingle with the Philistines and + other remnants of the Canaanitish nations.</p> + + <p><b>Amorphous Rocks</b> or <b>Minerals</b>, those having no regular + structure, or without crystallization, even in the minutest + particles.</p> + + <p><b>Amorphozo´a</b>, a term applied to some of the lower groups of + animals, as the sponges and their allies, which have no regular + symmetrical structure.</p> + + <p><b>Amortiza´tion</b>, in law, the alienation of real property to + corporations (that is, in <i>mortmain</i>), prohibited by several English + statutes.</p> + + <p><b>A´mos</b>, one of the minor prophets; flourished under the Kings + Uzziah of Judah and Jeroboam II of Israel (810 to 784 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> by the common chronology). Though engaged in the + occupations of a peasant he must have had a considerable amount of + culture, and his book of prophecies has high literary merits. It contains + denunciations of Israel and the surrounding nations, with promises of the + Messiah.</p> + + <p><b>Amoy´</b>, an important Chinese trading port, on a small island off + the south-east coast opposite Formosa; has a safe and commodious harbour, + and its merchants are among the wealthiest and most enterprising in + China; one of the five ports opened to foreign commerce by the treaty of + Nanking in 1842. The privilege was confirmed and extended by the treaty + of Tien-tsin in 1858, and the port is now open to all countries. Pop. + 114,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ampel´idæ</b>. See <i>Chatterers</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ampère</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-pār), André-Marie, a celebrated + French mathematician and philosopher, founder of the science of + electro-dynamics, born at Lyons in 1775, died at Marseilles in 1836; + professor of <!-- Page 146 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page146"></a>[146]</span>mathematical analysis at the Polytechnic + School, Paris, and of physics at the College of France. What is known as + <i>Ampère's Theory</i> is that magnetism consists in the existence of + electric currents circulating round the particles of magnetic bodies, + being in different directions round different particles when the bodies + are unmagnetized, but all in the same direction when they are + magnetized.</p> + + <p><b>Ampère</b>, Jean-Jacques-Joseph-Antoine, historian and professor of + French literature in the College of France; the only son of André-Marie + Ampère; born at Lyons 1800, died 1864; chief works: <i>Histoire + Littéraire de la France avant le 12<sup><i>e</i></sup> siècle</i> (1839); + <i>Introduction à l'Histoire de la Littérature française au moyen âge</i> + (1841); <i>Littérature, Voyages et Poésies</i> (1833); <i>La Grèce, Rome + et Dante, Études Littéraires d'après Nature; l'Histoire romaine à + Rome</i> (4 vols. 8vo, 1856-64); <i>Promenades en Amérique</i> (1855); + <i>César, Scènes historiques</i> (1859), full of hostile allusions to the + French Empire.</p> + + <p><b>Ampere</b> (am´pār), in electricity, the unit employed in + measuring the strength or intensity of an electric current, being + equivalent to the current produced by the electro-motive force of one + volt in a wire having the resistance of one ohm. The name (cf. + <i>Farad</i>, <i>Coulomb</i>, <i>Watt</i>, &c.) is derived from that + of the well-known physicist, Ampère. An <i>ampere-meter</i> or + <i>ammeter</i> is an instrument by which the strength of an electric + current is given in amperes.</p> + + <p><b>Amphib´ia</b>, a class of vertebrate animals, which in their early + life breathe by gills or branchiæ, and afterwards partly or entirely by + lungs. The Frog, breathing in its tadpole state by gills and afterwards + throwing off these organs and breathing entirely by lungs in its adult + state, is an example of the latter phase of amphibian existence. The + Proteus of the underground caves of Central Europe exemplifies forms in + which the gills of early life are retained throughout life, and in which + lungs are developed in addition to the gills. A second character of this + group consists in the presence of two occipital 'condyles', or processes + by means of which the skull articulates with the spine or vertebral + column; Reptiles possessing one condyle only. The class is divided into + four orders: the Ophiomorpha (or serpentiform), represented by the + Blindworms, in which limbs are wanting and the body is snake-like; the + Urodela or 'Tailed' Amphibians, including the Newts, Proteus, Siren, + &c.; the Anoura, or Tailless Amphibia, represented by the Frogs and + Toads; and the Labyrinthodontia, which includes the extinct forms known + as Labyrinthodons. The term Amphibia was originally employed by Linnæus + in his <i>Systema Naturæ</i>, and adopted by Cuvier in his <i>Tableau + Elémentaire</i>. See <i>Batrachia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amphibol´ogy</b>, in logic, an equivocal phrase or sentence, not + from the double sense of any of the words, but from its admitting a + double construction, as 'The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose'.</p> + + <p><b>Amphic´tyonic League</b> (or <b>Council</b>), in ancient Greece, a + confederation of tribes for the protection of religious worship, but + which also discussed questions of international law, and matters + affecting their political union. The most important was that of the + twelve northern tribes which met alternately at Delphi and Thermopylæ. + The tribes sent two deputies each, who assembled with great solemnity; + composed the public dissensions, and the quarrels of individual cities, + by force or persuasion; punished civil and criminal offences, and + particularly transgressions of the law of nations, and violations of the + temple of Delphi. Its calling on the States to punish the Phocians for + plundering Delphi caused the Sacred Wars, 595-586, 448-447, 357-346 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>Amphi´on</b>, in Greek mythology, son of Zeus and + Antiŏpē, and husband of Niŏbē. He had miraculous + skill in music, being taught by Mercury, or, according to others, by + Apollo. In poetic legend he is said to have availed himself of his skill + when building the walls of Thebes—the stones moving and arranging + themselves in proper position at the sound of his lyre. See + <i>Zethus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amphioxus.</b> See <i>Lancelet</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:19%;"> + <a href="images/image049.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image049.jpg" + alt="Amphipoda" title="Amphipoda" /></a> + Amphipoda + + <p class="poem">1. Shore-jumper (<i>Orchestia littoralis</i>), 2. + Portion showing the respiratory organs <i>a a a</i>.</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Amphip´oda</b>, an order of sessile-eyed malacostracan crustaceans, + with feet directed partly forward and partly backward. Many species are + found in springs and rivulets, others in salt water. The sand-hopper and + shore-jumper are examples.</p> + + <p><b>Amphip´rostyle</b>, in architecture, said of a structure having the + form of an ancient Greek or Roman oblong rectangular temple, with a + prostyle or portico on each of its ends or fronts, but with no columns on + its sides or flanks.</p> + + <p><b>Amphisbæ´na</b> (Gr., from <i>amphis</i>, both ways, and + <i>bainein</i>, to go), a genus of serpentiform, limbless, lacertilian + reptiles; body cylindrical, destitute of scales, and divided into + numerous annular segments; the tail obtuse, and scarcely to be + distinguished from the head, whence the belief that it moved equally well + with either end foremost. There are several species, found in tropical + America. They feed on ants and earthworms, and were formerly, but + erroneously, deemed poisonous. In Greek mythology the <!-- Page 147 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page147"></a>[147]</span>amphisbæna was + a serpent believed to possess two heads.</p> + + <p><b>Amphis´cii</b> (Gr. <i>amphi</i>, on both sides, and <i>skia</i>, + shadow), a term sometimes applied to the inhabitants of the intertropical + regions, whose shadows at noon in one part of the year are cast to the + north and in the other to the south, according as the sun is in the + southern or northern signs.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:51%;"> + <a href="images/image050.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image050.jpg" + alt="Amphitheatre at Pompeii" title="Amphitheatre at Pompeii" /></a> + Amphitheatre at Pompeii + </div> + + <p><b>Amphithe´atre,</b> an ancient Roman building of an oval form + without a roof, having a central area (the <i>arena</i>) encompassed with + rows of seats, rising higher as they receded from the centre, on which + people used to sit to view the combats of gladiators and of wild beasts, + and other sports. The first amphitheatre at Rome was that constructed by + C. Scribonius Curio, 59 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> The Colosseum at + Rome is the largest of all the ancient amphitheatres, being capable of + containing 100,000 persons, 87,000 of whom occupied numbered and reserved + seats. That at Verona is one of the best examples remaining. Its + dimensions are 502 feet by 401, and it is 98 feet high. The name means + 'both-ways theatre', or 'theatre all round', the theatre forming only a + semicircular building.</p> + + <p><b>Amphitri´tē</b>, in Greek mythology, daughter of + Oceănus and Tethys, or of Nereus and Doris, and wife of Poseidon + (or Neptune), represented as drawn in a chariot of shells by Tritons, + with a trident in her hand. In the Homeric poems she is the + personification of the Sea, and her marriage to Poseidon is alluded to in + a number of scenes depicted on ancient monuments. Such are a bas-relief + in the glyptothek at Munich and a mosaic in the museum at Naples.</p> + + <p><b>Amphit´ryon,</b> in Greek legend, King of Thebes, son of Alcæus, + and husband of Alcmena. Plautus, and after him Molière, have made an + amour of Jupiter with Alcmena the subject of amusing comedies.</p> + + <p><b>Amphiu´ma,</b> a genus of amphibians which frequent the lakes and + stagnant waters of North America. The adults retain the clefts at which + the gills of the tadpole projected.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:15%;"> + <a href="images/image051.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image051.jpg" + alt="Amphora" title="Amphora" /></a> + Amphora<br /> + From a Roman specimen in the British Museum + </div> + + <p><b>Am´phŏra,</b> a vessel used by the Greeks and Romans for + holding liquids; commonly tall and narrow, with two handles and a pointed + end which fitted into a stand or was stuck in the ground to enable it to + stand upright; used also as a cinerary urn, and as a liquid + measure—Greek = 9 gallons; Roman = 6 gallons.</p> + + <p><b>Amplex´icaul,</b> in botany, said of a leaf that embraces and + nearly surrounds the stem.</p> + + <p><b>Am´plitude,</b> in astronomy, the distance of any celestial body + (when referred by a secondary circle to the horizon) from the east or + west points.</p> + + <p><b>Ampthill,</b> a market-town of England, Bedfordshire, about 7 miles + south-west of Bedford. Pop. (1921), 2269.</p> + + <p><b>Ampul´la,</b> the Latin name for a vessel bellying out like a jug, + which contained unguents for the bath; also a vessel for drinking at + table. The ampulla has also been employed for ceremonial purposes, such + as holding the oil or chrism used in various Church rites and for + anointing monarchs at their coronation. The ampulla of the English + sovereigns now in use is an eagle, weighing about 10 oz., of the purest + chased gold, which passed through various hands to the Black Prince. The + ampulla of the French kings, kept at Rheims in the tomb of St. Remy, was + destroyed in 1793.</p> + + <p><b>Amputa´tion,</b> in surgery, that operation by which a member is + separated from the body. <!-- Page 148 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page148"></a>[148]</span></p> + + <p><b>Amra´oti</b>, a town of British India in Berár; it is celebrated + for its cotton, and is a place of good trade. Pop. 35,000. The district + has an area of 4733 sq. miles. Pop. 876,000.</p> + + <p><b>Am´ritsir</b>, or <b>Amritsar</b> ('the pool of immortality'), a + flourishing commercial town of India, capital of a district of the same + name, in the Punjab, the centre of the Sikh religion since the end of the + sixteenth century. It has considerable manufactures of shawls and silks; + and receives its name from the sacred pond constructed by Ram Das, the + apostle of the Sikhs, in which the Sikhs and other Hindus immerse + themselves that they may be purified from all sin. Pop. + 152,756.—The district of Amritsir has an area of 1601 sq. miles. + Pop. 900,000.</p> + + <p><b>Am´ru</b>, originally an opponent, and subsequently a zealous + supporter of Mahomet, and one of the ablest of the Mahommedan warriors. + He brought Egypt under the power of the Caliph Omar in 638, and governed + it wisely till his death in 663. The burning of the famous Alexandrian + Library has been generally attributed to him, though only on the + authority of a writer who lived six centuries later.</p> + + <p><b>Am´sterdam</b> (that is, 'the dam of the Amstel'), one of the chief + commercial cities of Europe, capital of Holland (but not the residence of + the sovereign), situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Y or + Ij, an arm of the Zuider-Zee. On account of the lowness of the site of + the city the greater part of it is built on piles. It is divided by + numerous canals into about 90 islands, which are connected by nearly 300 + bridges. Many of the streets have a canal in the middle with broad + brick-paved quays on either side, planted with rows of trees; the houses + are generally of brick, many of them six or seven stories high, with + pointed gables turned to the streets. Among the public buildings are the + old stadthouse, the work of Jacob van Kempen, commenced in 1648 and + finished in 1655, which is now a royal palace, the interior being + decorated by the Dutch painters and sculptors of the seventeenth century + with their masterpieces; the justiciary hall, an imitation of a Greek + temple; the town hall (fourteenth century); the exchange, a handsome + building, constructed in 1836 on the site of the old bourse built in + 1608; the Palace of National Industry; the national museum; and the + central railway station. The old church is a structure of the fourteenth + century with stained-glass windows painted by Digman in the fifteenth + century. The chief educational institutions of the kingdom are here, + including the city university, a free university, gymnasiums and other + secondary schools, the national picture gallery or museum, containing + many masterpieces of Dutch artists, &c. Among its numerous industries + may be mentioned as a speciality the cutting and polishing of diamonds. + It has also factories and workshops dealing with wool, cotton, silk, + tobacco, leather, machinery, and metal goods, glass, liqueurs, cocoa, + &c. The harbour, formed by the Y, lies along the whole of the north + side of the city, and is surrounded by various docks and basins. The + trade is very great, being much facilitated by the great ship-canal (15 + miles long, opened 1876, admitting the largest vessels) connecting the Y + directly with the North Sea at Y-Muiden, where the entrance is between + two long piers projecting into the sea. Another canal of much less + importance, the North Holland Canal (46 miles long, 20 feet deep), + connects Amsterdam with the Helder. Between the harbour and the Zuider + Zee the Y is now crossed by a great dam in which are locks to admit + vessels and regulate the amount of water in the North Sea Canal. The + oversea trade of Amsterdam has immensely increased since the opening of + the great canal, and the foreign trade of the kingdom practically centres + in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. There is also a large trade with the interior + by railway, river, and canal. In the beginning of the thirteenth century + Amsterdam was but a fishing village. In the fourteenth and fifteenth + centuries it had attained some importance, especially through the Baltic + trade. The ruin of Antwerp through the troubles with Spain was greatly to + its advantage, and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries + Amsterdam was one of the wealthiest and most flourishing cities in the + world. Its forced alliance with France ruined its trade, but since 1813 + its commerce has revived. Amsterdam is the birthplace of Spinoza and of + the painters van de Velde and van der Neer. Pop. (1919), 647,120.</p> + + <p><b>Amsterdam</b>, a town of New York State, United States, on the + Mohawk River and the Erie Canal, 33 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> + of Albany; a busy manufacturing town. Pop. (1920), 33,524.</p> + + <p><b>Amsterdam</b>, New, a town in British Guiana, on the east side of + the River Berbice, near the sea, with some trade as a seaport. Pop. + 8903.</p> + + <p><b>Amsterdam Island</b>, a small and almost inaccessible island in the + Indian Ocean, about halfway in a direct line between the Cape of Good + Hope and Tasmania. It is sparsely provided with vegetation, and inhabited + only by sea-birds, but it was taken possession of by France in 1893, + along with the neighbouring St. Paul. It was discovered by the Dutch in + 1633.</p> + + <p><b>Amstetten</b>, a town in Lower Austria, on the Ybbs, and on the + railway from Vienna to Linz. In 1805 a victory was gained here by the + French under Murat over the Russians under Bagration. Pop. 3760.</p> + + <p><b>Amuck´</b>, or <b>Amuk</b>, to run, a phrase applied to natives of + the Eastern Archipelago, who are <!-- Page 149 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page149"></a>[149]</span>occasionally seen to + rush out in a frantic state of temporary mental derangement, making + indiscriminate and murderous assaults on all that come in their way.</p> + + <p><b>Amu-Darya.</b> See <i>Oxus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amu-Darya,</b> district. See <i>Turkestan</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Am´ulet,</b> a piece of stone, metal, &c., marked with certain + figures or characters, which people in some countries wear about them, + superstitiously deeming them a protection against diseases, enchantments, + witchcraft, &c. According to Pliny the elder, the <i>bulla</i>, or + amulet, was first hung by Tarquinius Priscus on the neck of his son. + Articles that archæologists have decided to be amulets have been found + dating from prehistoric times, and they were commonly worn in ancient + times by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, as they still are by Persians, + Arabs, and many other peoples. See <i>Charms</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amundsen</b>, Captain Roald, Norwegian polar explorer, born at + Borge, Norway, 16th July, 1872. He was first-lieutenant on the + <i>Belgica</i> during the Belgian south polar expedition, 1897-9. He then + planned an expedition to the area of the north magnetic pole and a + north-west passage by water. On 17th June, 1903, he embarked from + Christiania on the small sailing vessel the <i>Gjöa</i>, with a company + of six men, and reached King William Land, where the vessel remained for + two years. Here he made his headquarters, and by numerous excursions was + able to prove that the north magnetic pole has no stationary position, + but is in continual movement. On 11th July, 1906, his vessel reached the + Behring Strait, and on 30th August entered the Pacific. After his return + Amundsen began his preparations for an Antarctic expedition, and on 9th + August, 1910, he sailed from Norway on Nansen's ship, the <i>Fram</i>, + and reached the South Pole on 7th March, 1912. He published an account of + his North-West Passage expedition, entitled <i>Sydpolen. Den norske + Sydpolsfaerd med</i> Fram <i>1910-12</i>. An English translation was + published in 1913. Amundsen started on a North Polar Expedition in + 1918.</p> + + <p><b>Amur´</b>, or <b>Amoor´</b>, one of the largest rivers of Eastern + Asia, formed by the junction of the Rivers Shilka and Argun; flows first + in a south-eastern and then in a north-eastern direction till it falls + into an arm of the Sea of Okhotsk, opposite the Island of Sakhalin, after + a course of 1500 miles. It forms, for a large portion of its course, part + of the boundary-line between the Russian and the Chinese dominions, and + is navigable throughout for four months in the year.—<i>Amoor + Territory.</i> In 1858 Russia acquired from China the territory on the + left bank of the Upper and Middle Amoor, together with that on both banks + of the Lower Amoor. The western portion of the territory was organized as + a separate province, with the name of the Amoor (area, 154,795 sq. miles. + Pop. 261,500). The eastern portion was joined to the Maritime Province of + Eastern Siberia.</p> + + <p><b>Am´urath</b>, or <b>Murad</b>, the name of several Ottoman sultans. + See <i>Ottoman Empire</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Amyclæ</b> (a-mī´klē), a town of ancient Greece, the + chief seat of the Achæans in Laconia, a short distance from Sparta, by + which it was conquered about 800 <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>Amyg´daloid</b> (Gr. <i>amygdalē</i>, an almond), meaning + 'almond-shaped', a term used in anatomy and geology.</p> + + <p><b>Amyg´dalus</b>, the genus to which the almond belongs.</p> + + <p><b>Am´yl</b>, in chemistry, a hypothetic radicle believed to exist in + many compounds, especially the fusel-oil series, and having the formula + C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>.—<i>Amyl Nitrite</i>, or <i>Nitrite of + Amyl</i>, an amber-coloured fluid, smelling and tasting like essence of + pears, which has been employed as an anæsthetic and also in relieving + cardiac distress, as in angina pectoris.</p> + + <p><b>Am´ylene</b> (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>10</sub>), an ethereal liquid with + an aromatic odour, prepared from fusel-oil. It possesses anæsthetic + properties, and has been tried as a substitute for chloroform, but is + very dangerous.</p> + + <p><b>Amyl´ic Alcohol</b>, one of the products of the fermentation of + grain, &c., commonly known by the name of fusel-oil (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Amyot</b> (ä-mi-ō), Jacques, French writer and scholar, whose + translations from the Greek have themselves become classics, was born in + 1513, and died Bishop of Auxerre in 1593, having been for twelve years a + professor of classics at Bourges, and having enjoyed the patronage of + Margaret of Navarre and Henry II. His chief translations are those of + Plutarch's <i>Lives</i> and his <i>Morals</i>, the <i>Aethiopica</i> of + Heliodorus, and the <i>Daphnis and Chloe</i> of Longus. Sir Thomas + North's English translation of Plutarch (1575), of which Shakespeare made + much use, was derived from that of Amyot.</p> + + <p><b>Amyrida´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical + trees or shrubs, the leaves, bark, and fruit of which abound in fragrant + resinous and balsamic juices. Myrrh, frankincense, and the gum-elemi of + commerce are among their products. Among the chief genera of the order + are <i>Amyris</i>, <i>Balsamodendron</i>, <i>Boswellia</i>, and + <i>Canarium</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A´na</b>, the neuter plural termination of Latin adjectives in + <i>-ānus</i>, often forming an affix with the names of eminent men + to denote a collection of their memorable sayings—thus + <i>Scaligeriana</i>, <i>Johnsoniana</i>, the sayings of Scaliger, of + Johnson; or to denote a collection of anecdotes, or gossipy matter, as in + <i>boxiana</i>. Hence, as an independent noun, books recording such + sayings; the sayings themselves. <!-- Page 150 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page150"></a>[150]</span></p> + + <p><b>Anabap´tists</b> (from the Gr. <i>anabaptizein</i>, to rebaptize), + a name given to a Christian sect by their adversaries, because, as they + objected to infant baptism, they rebaptized those who joined their body. + Their doctrine is based upon the words of Christ in <i>St. Mark</i>, xvi, + 16. The founder of the sect appears to have been Nicolas Storch, a + disciple of Luther's, who seems to have aimed also at the reorganization + of society based on civil and political equality. Gathering round him a + number of fiery spirits, among whom was Thomas Münzer, he incited the + peasantry of Suabia and Franconia to insurrection—the doctrine of a + community of goods being now added to their creed. This insurrection was + quelled in 1525, when Münzer was put to the torture and beheaded. After + the death of Münzer the sectaries dispersed in all directions, spreading + their doctrines wherever they went. In 1534 the town of Münster in + Westphalia became their centre of action. Under the leadership of + Bockhold and Matthias their numbers increased daily, and being joined by + the restless spirits of the adjoining towns, they soon made themselves + masters of the town and expelled their adversaries. Matthias became their + prophet, but he fell in a sally against the Bishop of Münster, Count + Waldeck, who had laid siege to the city. Bockhold then became leader, + assuming the name of John of Leyden, King of the New Jerusalem, and + Münster became a theatre of all the excesses of fanaticism, lust, and + cruelty. The town was eventually taken (June, 1535), and Bockhold and a + great many of his partisans suffered death. This was the last time that + the movement assumed anything like political importance. In the meantime + some of the apostles, who were sent out by Bockhold to extend the limits + of his kingdom, had been successful in various places, and many + independent teachers, who preached the same doctrines, continued active + in the work of founding a new empire of pure Christians. It is true that + they rejected the practice of polygamy, community of goods, and + intolerance towards those of different opinions which had prevailed in + Münster; but they enjoined upon their adherents the other doctrines of + the early Anabaptists, and certain heretical opinions in regard to the + humanity of Christ, occasioned by the controversies of that day about the + sacrament. The most celebrated of those Anabaptist prophets were Melchior + Hoffmann, the founder of the Hoffmannists or Millenarians; Galenus + Abrahamssohn, from whom the sect of the Galenists were called; and Simon + Menno, founder of various sects known as Mennonites. Menno's principles + are contained in his <i>Principles of the True Christian Faith</i> + (1556), a work which is held as authoritative on points of doctrine and + worship among the Baptist communities at the present day. The application + of the term Anabaptist to the general body of Baptists throughout the + world is unwarranted, because these sects have nothing in common with the + bodies which sprung up in various countries of Europe during the + Reformation, except the practice of adult baptism. The Baptists + themselves repudiate the name Anabaptist, as they claim to baptize + according to the original institution of the rite, and never repeat + baptism in the case of those who in their opinion have been so baptized. + It is under the designation of Mennonites that they exist to-day, + principally in Holland, Germany, and the United States.</p> + + <p><b>An´abas.</b> See <i>Climbing-perch</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anab´asis</b> (Gr. <i>anabasis</i>, a march up country), the title + of Xenophon's celebrated account of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger + against his brother Artaxerxes, King of Persia. The title is also given + to Arrian's work which records the campaigns of Alexander the Great.</p> + + <p><b>An´ableps</b>, a genus of fishes of the perch family, found in the + rivers of Guiana, consisting of but one species, remarkable for a + peculiar structure of the eyes, in which there is a division of the iris + and cornea, by transverse ligaments forming two pupils, and making the + whole eye appear double. The young are brought forth alive.</p> + + <p><b>Anabolism</b> (Gr. <i>ana</i>, up, and <i>bolé</i>, a throw), a + biological term suggested by Michael Foster, and used by Gaskell in 1886, + and meaning the building-up of organic life, or the process by which a + substance is transformed into another which is more complex. Anabolism is + the constructive phase of metabolism (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Anacanthi´ni</b> (Gr. neg. prefix <i>an</i>, and <i>akantha</i>, a + spine), an order of osseous fishes, including the cod, plaice, &c., + with spineless fins, cycloid or ctenoid scales, the ventral fins either + absent or below the pectorals, and ductless swim-bladder.</p> + + <p><b>Anacardia´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical + trees and shrubs which secrete an acrid resinous juice, which is often + used as a varnish. Mastic, Japan lacquer, and Martaban varnish are some + of their products. The cashoo or cashew (genus Anacardium), the pistacia, + sumach, mango, &c., are members of the order.</p> + + <p><b>Anach´aris</b>, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Hydrocharidaceæ, the + species of which grow in ponds and streams of fresh water; water-thyme or + water-weed. It appeared in Britain in the nineteenth century. <i>A. + Alsinastrum</i> has been introduced from North America into European + rivers, canals, and ponds, and by its rapid growth in dense tangled + masses tends to choke them so as materially to impede navigation. The + plants in our canals perfect no seed, their spread being due to + vegetative vigour only.</p> + + <p><b>Anach´ronism</b>, an error of chronology by <!-- Page 151 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page151"></a>[151]</span>which things are + represented as coexisting which did not coexist; applied also to anything + foreign to or out of keeping with a specified time. Thus it is an + anachronism when Shakespeare, in <i>Troilus and Cressida</i>, makes + Hector quote Aristotle. There are anachronisms in the <i>Cid</i> and the + <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, and also in Dante's <i>Inferno</i>, when the poet + introduces pagan mythology into the Christian hell.</p> + + <p><b>Anacolu´thon</b>, a want of grammatical and logical sequence in the + structure of a sentence.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:29%;"> + <a href="images/image052.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image052.jpg" + alt="Anaconda" title="Anaconda" /></a> + Anaconda (<i>Python tigris</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Anacon´da</b>, the popular name of two of the largest species of + the serpent tribe, viz. a Ceylonese species of the genus Python (<i>P. + tigris</i>), said to have been met with 33 feet long; and <i>Eunectes + murīnus</i>, a native of tropical America, allied to the + boa-constrictor, and the largest of the serpent tribe, attaining the + length of 40 feet. They frequent swamps and rivers, are without poison + fangs, and kill their victims by constriction.</p> + + <p><b>Anaconda</b>, a town of the United States, Montana, with the + largest copper-smelting works in the world. Pop. (1920), 11,668.</p> + + <p><b>Anac´reon</b>, an amatory lyric Greek poet of the sixth century + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, native of Teos, in Ionia. Only a few + fragments of his works have come down to us; the collection of odes that + usually passes under the name of Anacreon is mostly the production of a + later time, the poetry of the real Anacreon being much less + frivolous.</p> + + <p><b>Anadyom´ĕnē</b> (Gr., 'she who comes forth'), a name + given to Aphroditē (Venus) when she was represented as rising from + the sea, as in the celebrated painting by Apelles, painted for the temple + of Æsculapius at Cos, and afterwards in the temple of Julius Caesar at + Rome.</p> + + <p><b>Anadyr</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-nä´dēr), the most easterly of the + larger rivers of Siberia and of all Asia; rises in the Stanovoi + Mountains, and falls into the Gulf of Anadyr; length, 600 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Anæ´mia</b> (Gr., 'want of blood'), a medical term applied to an + unhealthy condition of the body, in which there is a diminution of the + red corpuscles which the blood should contain. The principal symptoms are + paleness and general want of colour in the skin, languor, emaciation, + want of appetite, fainting, palpitation, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Anæsthe´sia</b>, or <b>Anæsthe´sis</b>, a state of insensibility to + pain, produced by inhaling chloroform, or by the application of other + anæsthetic agents.</p> + + <p><b>Anæsthet´ics</b> are medical agents chiefly used in surgical + operations for the abolition of pain. They are divided into (1) + <i>general anæsthetics</i>, those in which complete unconsciousness is + produced; (2) <i>local anæsthetics</i>, those which act upon the nerves + of a limited area alone.</p> + + <p>The earliest record of attempts to produce anæsthesia is to be found + in the thirteenth century. Since then many agents have been tried. The + first scientific effort was in 1800, when Sir Humphry Davy experimented + with nitrous oxide, but without practical result. In 1844 Wells, an + American dentist, used nitrous oxide, also without result. In 1846 + Morton, another American dentist, used ether, and from that time it was + increasingly used in America. In the same year the first operation under + ether was performed in University College Hospital, London. In 1847 Sir + James Simpson (Edinburgh) introduced chloroform. Through his influence it + was soon largely used throughout England and Scotland, and continued to + be the chief anæsthetic till about the end of the nineteenth century, + when ether again became popular in England. To-day, in England, as always + in the United States, ether is the most widely-used anæsthetic. Much + controversy exists regarding the respective merits of ether and + chloroform. The general opinion is, that ether is on the whole safer, but + more liable, in the British climate, to be followed by bronchitis; while + there are various conditions when chloroform is still preferable. They + are frequently combined in use. <i>Nitrous-oxide gas</i> (laughing gas) + is much used in dentistry. Lately, nitrous oxide has been used with + ether; while ether and oxygen together were <!-- Page 152 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page152"></a>[152]</span>much used with the + British Expeditionary Force in France during the European War (1914-8). + The administration of all anæsthetics is helped when the patient is given + a hypodermic injection of morphia shortly before. <i>Twilight sleep</i>, + increasingly used in childbirth, is the production of a partial + anæsthesia by the administration of scopolamin morphine. <i>Local + anæsthetics</i> are much used in minor surgery, and with proper technique + act effectively. Cocaine was the first of these, and is still widely + used. Of later developments, eucaine and novocaine are best known. Spinal + anæsthesia is the injection of stovaine or similar substance into the + spinal cord, producing anæsthesia of a large part of the body, varying + according to the site of the injection.</p> + + <p><b>Anagal´lis</b>, a genus of the nat. ord. Primulaceæ, to which + belongs the Pimpernel, the 'poor man's weather-glass'. See + <i>Pimpernel</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anagni</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-nän´yē), a town of Italy, province + of Rome; the seat of a bishopric erected in 487. Pop. 10,400.</p> + + <p><b>An´agram</b>, the transposition of the letters of a word or words + so as to form a new word or phrase, a connection in meaning being + frequently preserved; thus, <i>evil</i>, <i>vile</i>; <i>Horatio + Nelson</i>, <i>Honor est a Nilo</i> (honour is from the Nile). The + seventeenth century was the golden age of the anagram, but it was + employed by the Hebrews and the Greeks.</p> + + <p><b>Anahuac</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-na<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-wa<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k´; Mex., 'near the water'), an old + Mexican name applied to the plateau of the city of Mexico, from the lakes + situated there, generally elevated from 6000 to 9000 feet above the + sea.</p> + + <p><b>An´akim</b>, the posterity of Anak, the son of Arba, noted in + sacred history for their fierceness and loftiness of stature. Their + stronghold was Kirjath-arba or Hebron, which was taken and destroyed by + Caleb and the tribe of Judah.</p> + + <p><b>Anakolu´thon.</b> See <i>Anacoluthon</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Analep´tic</b>, a restorative or invigorating medicine or diet.</p> + + <p><b>An´alogue</b>, in comparative anatomy an organ in one species or + group having the same function as an organ of different structure in + another species or group, as the wing of a bird and that of an insect, + both serving for flight. Organs in different animals having a similar + anatomical structure, development, and relative position, independent of + function or form, such as the arm of a man and the wing of a bird, are + termed <i>homologues</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anal´ogy</b> is the mode of reasoning from resemblance to + resemblance. When we find on attentive examination resemblances in + objects apparently diverse, and in which at first no such resemblances + were discovered, a presumption arises that other resemblances may be + found by further examination in these or other objects likewise + apparently diverse. It is on the belief in a unity in nature that all + inferences from analogy rest. The general inference from analogy is + always perfectly valid. Wherever there is resemblance, similarity or + identity of cause somewhere may be justly inferred; but to infer the + particular cause without particular proof is always to reason falsely. + Analogy is of great use and constant application in science, in + philosophy, and in the common business of life.</p> + + <p><b>Anal´ysis</b>, the resolution of an object, whether of the senses + or the intellect, into its component elements. The word was introduced by + Boyle in the seventeenth century. In philosophy it is the mode of + resolving a compound idea into its simple parts, in order to consider + them more distinctly, and arrive at a more precise knowledge of the + whole. It is opposed to <i>synthesis</i>, by which we combine and class + our perceptions, and contrive expressions for our thoughts, so as to + represent their several divisions, classes, and relations.</p> + + <p>Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the widest sense, the expression and + development of the functions of quantities by calculation; in a narrower + sense the resolving of problems by algebraic equations. The analysis of + the ancients was exhibited only in geometry, and made use only of + geometrical assistance, whereby it is distinguished from the analysis of + the moderns, which extends to all measurable objects, and expresses in + equations the mutual dependence of magnitudes. Analysis is divided into + lower and higher, the lower comprising, besides arithmetic and algebra, + the doctrines of functions, of series, combinations, logarithms, and + curves, the higher comprising the differential and integral calculus, and + the calculus of variations.</p> + + <p>In chemistry, analysis is the process of decomposing a compound + substance with a view to determine either (<i>a</i>) what elements it + contains (<i>qualitative analysis</i>), or (<i>b</i>) how much of each + element is present (<i>quantitative analysis</i>). Thus by the first + process we learn that water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and by + the second that it consists of one part of hydrogen by weight to eight + parts of oxygen. As a means of testing soils and feeding-stuffs, analysis + has given important results; it has enabled Liebig to solve the problem + of plant-nutrition.</p> + + <p><b>Anam.</b> See <i>Annam</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anamor´phosis</b>, a term denoting a drawing executed in such a + manner as to present a distorted image of the object represented, but + which, when viewed from a certain point, or reflected by a curved mirror + or through a polyhedron, shows the object in its true proportions.</p> + + <p><b>An´ănas.</b> See <i>Pine-apple</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anapa´</b>, a seaport of Russia in province Kuban, on the Black + Sea, 50 miles south-east of Kertsh, constructed by the Turks in 1781, and + formerly fortified. Pop. about 7000.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 153 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page153"></a>[153]</span></p> + + <p><b>An´apæst</b>, in prosody, a foot consisting of two short and one + long syllable, or two unaccented and one accented syllable, e.g.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><a href="images/assyrian.png"><img src="images/assyrian.png" class="middle" style="height:6ex" alt="The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold" /></a></p> + + <p><b>An´aplasty</b>, a surgical operation to repair superficial lesions, + or make up for lost parts, by the employment of adjacent healthy + structure or tissue. Artificial noses, &c., are thus made.</p> + + <p><b>Anarajapoo´ra</b>, or <b>Anuradhapura</b>, a ruined city, the + ancient capital of Ceylon, built about 540 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and said to have covered an area of 300 sq. + miles, doubtless a great exaggeration. There are still several dagobas in + tolerable preservation, but the great object of interest is the sacred + Bo-tree planted over 2000 years, and probably the oldest historical tree + in the world, but shattered by a storm in 1887.</p> + + <p><b>An´archists</b>, a revolutionary sect or body setting forth as the + social ideal the extreme form of individual freedom, holding that all + government is injurious and immoral, and that the destruction of every + social form now existing must be the first step to the creation of a new + social system. According to Herbert Spencer, anarchism is the doctrine of + <i>laisser faire</i>. Anarchists usually look upon Diderot as one of + their pioneers, and quote his lines: "La nature n'a fait ni serviteurs ni + maîtres. Je ne veux ni donner ni reçevoir de lois." Historically, + however, it is Proudhon who may be considered as the father of anarchism. + The recognition of the anarchists as an independent sect may be dated + from the secession of Bakunin and his followers from the Social Democrats + at the congress of the Hague in 1872, since which they have maintained an + active propaganda. Their principal journals have been <i>La Révolte</i> + (Paris), the <i>Freiheit</i> (New York), <i>Liberty</i> (Boston), and the + <i>Anarchist</i> (London). Among modern philosophers of anarchism are + Elisée Reclus and Prince Kropotkin.</p> + + <p><b>Anarthrop´oda</b>, one of the two great divisions (the Arthropoda + being the other) of the Annulosa, or ringed animals, in which there are + no articulated appendages. It includes the leeches, earth-worms, + tube-worms, &c.</p> + + <p><b>A´nas</b>, a genus of web-footed birds, containing the true + ducks.</p> + + <p><b>Anasarca.</b> See <i>Dropsy</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anasta´sius I</b>, Emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 491, at the age of sixty. He was a member of the + imperial life-guard, and owed his elevation to Ariadne, widow of Zeno, + whom he married forty days after the death of her husband. He + distinguished himself by suppressing the combats between men and wild + beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale of offices, building the + fortifications of Constantinople, &c. His support of the heretical + Eutychians led to a dangerous rebellion. He died <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 518.</p> + + <p><b>Anastat´ica</b>, a genus of cruciferous plants, including the Rose + of Jericho (<i>A. hierochuntica</i>). See <i>Rose of Jericho</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anastatic Printing</b>, a process by which the perfect facsimile of + a page of type or an engraving, old or new, can be reproduced and printed + in the manner of a lithograph. The print or page to be transferred is + dipped in diluted nitric acid, and, while moist with dilute acid, it is + laid face downwards on a polished zinc plate and passed through a + roller-press. The zinc is immediately corroded by the acid contained in + the paper, excepting on those parts occupied by the ink of the type or + engraving. The ink, while rejecting the acid, is loosened by it, and + deposits a thin film on the zinc, thus protecting it from the action of + the acid. The result is that those parts are left slightly raised in + relief and greasy. The plate is then treated as in ordinary lithographic + printing (q.v.).—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: F. H. + Collins, <i>Authors' and Printers' Dictionary</i>; C. T. Jacobi, + <i>Printing</i>; J. Southward, <i>Modern Printing</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anastomo´sis</b>, in animals and plants, the inosculation of + vessels, or the opening of one vessel into another, as an artery into + another artery, or a vein into a vein. By means of anastomosis, if the + course of a fluid is arrested in one vessel it can proceed along others. + It is by anastomosis that circulation is re-established in amputated + limbs, and in aneurism when the vessel is tied.</p> + + <p><b>Anath´ema</b>, originally a gift hung up in a temple (Gr., + <i>anatithēmi</i>, to lay up), and dedicated to some god, a votive + offering; but it gradually came to be used for <i>expulsion</i>, + <i>curse</i>. The Roman Catholic Church pronounces the sentence of + anathema against heretics, schismatics, and all who wilfully pursue a + course of conduct condemned by the Church. The subject of the anathema is + declared an outcast from the Church, all the faithful are forbidden to + associate with him, and the utter destruction of his body and soul is + foretold.</p> + + <p><b>Anat´idæ</b>, a family of swimming birds, including the Ducks, + Swans, Geese, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Anato´lia</b> (from Gr. <i>anatolē</i>, the sunrise, the + Orient), the modern name of Asia Minor (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Anatolian Railway.</b> See <i>Bagdad Railway, Turkey</i>.</p> + +<h3>ANATOMY</h3> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:80%;"> + <a href="images/image053.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image053.jpg" + alt="Anatomy" title="Anatomy" /></a> + </div> + <p><b>Anat´omy</b>, in the literal sense, means simply a cutting up, but + is now generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially + separating the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) + with a view to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to + the science which treats of the internal structure of <!-- Page 154 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page154"></a>[154]</span>organized + bodies. By means of the dissection of the human body the surgeon and + physician acquire the knowledge of the geography of the territory in + which all their professional operations are carried on. <i>Comparative + anatomy</i> is the science which compares the anatomy of different + classes or species of animals, as that of man with quadrupeds, or that of + quadrupeds with fishes. The anatomy of an animal may be studied from + various standpoints: with relation to the succession of forms which it + exhibits from its first stage to its adult form (<i>developmental</i> or + <i>embryotical anatomy</i>); with reference to the general properties and + structure of the tissues or textures (<i>general anatomy</i>, + <i>histology</i>); with reference to the changes in structure of organs + or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (<i>morbid</i> + or <i>pathological anatomy</i>); or with reference to the function, use, + or purpose performed by the organs or parts (<i>teleological</i> or + <i>physiological anatomy</i>). According to the parts of the body + described, the different divisions of human anatomy receive different + names; as, <i>osteology</i>, the description of the bones; + <i>myology</i>, of the muscles; <i>arthrology</i>, of the ligaments and + sinews; <i>splanchnology</i>, of the viscera or internal organs, in which + are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver, spleen, + kidneys, bladder, pancreas, &c. <i>Angiology</i> describes the + vessels through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including + the blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the + lymphatic vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while + others are distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the + tissues and carrying them back into the blood. <i>Neurology</i> describes + the system of the nerves and of the brain; <i>dermatology</i> treats of + the skin.—Among anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned + the making and preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of + this sort can be preserved (1) by macerating the body so as to obtain the + bones of the skeleton; or (2) by treating the body or some part of it + with alcohol, formalin, or other preservative, which renders its tissues + imperishable.</p> + + <p>Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be + mentioned Hippocrates the younger (460-377 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), Aristotle (384-322 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria + (about 300 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), Celsus (53 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>-<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 37), and Galen of + Pergamus (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 130-200), the most celebrated of + all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time till the + revival of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was + checked in its progress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first + publicly performed dissection, and published a <i>System of Anatomy</i> + which was a textbook in the schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the + sixteenth century Fallopio of Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius of + Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and many others, enriched anatomy with new + discoveries. In the seventeenth century Harvey discovered the circulation + of the blood, Asellius discovered the manner in which the nutritious part + of the food is conveyed into the circulation, while the lymphatic system + was detected and described by the Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned + anatomists of later times we can only mention Malpighi, Boerhaave, + William and John Hunter, the younger Meckel, Bichat, Rosenmüller, Quain, + Sir A. Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Joh. Müller, Gegenbaur, Owen, and + Huxley.</p> + + <p>Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision + for enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for + dissection. An Act of some years previously had, it is true, empowered a + criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly-qualified persons + the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was + far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high + prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious + practice of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the + case of the notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy + these evils a statute was passed in 1832, which was intended to make + provision for the wants of surgeons, students, or other duly-qualified + persons, by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the + bodies of persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, &c. + The Act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical + schools, and required persons practising the operations to obtain a + licence. Relatives may effectually object to the anatomical examination + of a body even though the deceased had expressed a desire for + it.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: D. J. Cunningham, + <i>Textbook of Anatomy</i>; J. Quain, <i>Elements of Anatomy</i>; A. M. + Buchanan, <i>Manual of Anatomy</i>; A. Thomson, <i>Anatomy for Art + Students</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anaxag´oras</b>, an ancient Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, + born at Clazomenæ, in Ionia, probably about 500 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> When only about twenty years of age he settled + at Athens, and soon gained a high reputation, and gathered round him a + circle of renowned pupils, including Pericles, Euripides, Socrates, + &c. At the age of fifty he was publicly charged with impiety and + condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual + banishment. He thereupon went to Lampsacus, where he died about 428. + Anaxagoras belonged to the atomic school of Ionic philosophers. He held + that there was an infinite number of different kinds of elementary atoms, + and that these, in themselves motionless and originally existing in a + state of <!-- Page 155 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page155"></a>[155]</span>chaos, were put in motion by an eternal, + immaterial, spiritual, elementary being, <i>Nous</i> (Intelligence), from + which motion the world was produced. His conception of <i>Nous</i> as the + first cause of movement marks a great advance in the history of + philosophical thought, for he thus placed spirit above matter. The stars + were, according to him, of earthy materials; the sun a glowing mass, + about as large as the Peloponnesus; the earth was flat; the moon a dark, + inhabitable body, receiving its light from the sun; the comets wandering + stars.</p> + + <p><b>Anaximan´der,</b> an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, was born at + Miletus in 611 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and died 547. The + fundamental principle of his philosophy is that the source of all things + is an undefined substance infinite in quantity. The firmament is composed + of heat and cold, the stars of air and fire. The sun occupies the highest + place in the heavens, has a circumference twenty-eight times larger than + the earth, and resembles a cylinder, from which streams of fire issue. + The moon is likewise a cylinder, nineteen times larger than the earth. + The earth has the shape of a cylinder, and is placed in the midst of the + universe, where it remains suspended. His philosophy is thus a step in + advance of the theories of Thales, the conception of the Infinite, + however vague, being superior to the idea of water constituting the first + principle of all things. Anaximander occupied himself a great deal with + mathematics and geography. To him is credited the invention of + geographical maps and the first application of the <i>gnomon</i> or style + fixed on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices and equinoxes.</p> + + <p><b>Anaximenes</b> (an-aks-im´e-nēz) <b>of Miletus</b>, an + ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, according to whom air was the first + principle of all things. Finite things were formed from the infinite air + by compression and rarefaction produced by eternally existent motion; and + heat and cold resulted from varying degrees of density of the primal + element. He flourished about 550 B.C.</p> + + <p><b>Anbury</b> (an´be-ri) (called also <b>Club-root</b> and <b>Fingers + and Toes</b>), a disease in turnips, in which knobs or excrescences are + formed on the root, which is then useless for feeding purposes. Some + authorities distinguish anbury proper from 'fingers and toes' in turnips, + setting it down as a distinct disease due to a fungus, while in the other + case the roots simply assume a bad habit of growth through some unknown + influence.</p> + + <p><b>Ancachs</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-ka<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>ch´), a department of Peru, between the + Andes and the Pacific; area, 16,562 sq. miles. Capital Hararaz. Pop. + 500,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ancestor-worship,</b> an ancient and widespread practice, displayed + in its most characteristic form in modern China and ancient Rome, which + apparently was based upon the belief that dead parents or ancestors, + represented by images or 'ancestral tablets', could be revived by + appropriate ceremonies, such as burning incense or offering libations, + and give the benefit of their wisdom to their descendants who performed + the vitalizing ritual and asked for their advice upon, or their sanction + for, actions affecting the welfare of the family. The earliest deity was + a dead king (Osiris), whose advice was sought by his son and successor. + Hence in primitive religions, in which an endless variety of + modifications of these more ancient beliefs has arisen, ancestor-worship + may take the form of pious devotion to an actual ancestor or to a + supernatural deity. As many of the most ancient gods were identified with + animals, the dead ancestor, or his soul, is believed by many peoples to + become incarnate in the appropriate animal, which is accorded the special + veneration of a god or supernatural adviser, and set apart as sacred. + Ancestor-worship still survives in a great variety of forms among various + peoples.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E. B. Tylor, + <i>Primitive Culture</i>; F. B. Jevons, <i>Introduction to the History of + Religion</i>; D. G. Brinton, <i>Religions of Primitive Peoples</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anchises</b> (an-kī´sēz), the father of the Trojan hero + Æneas, who carried him off on his shoulders at the burning of Troy and + made him the companion of his voyage to Italy. This voyage, which is not + mentioned in the Homeric legend, is described by Virgil in his + <i>Æneid</i>. He died at Drepanum, in Sicily.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <a href="images/image054.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image054.jpg" + alt="Stockless Anchor" title="Stockless Anchor" /></a> + Modern Stockless Anchor (Hall's Patent) + </div> + + <p><b>An´chor,</b> an implement for holding a ship or other vessel at + rest in the water. In ancient times large stones or crooked pieces of + wood heavily weighted with metal were used for this purpose. The anchor + now used is of iron, formed with a strong <i>shank</i>, at one extremity + of which is the <i>crown</i>, from which branch out two <i>arms</i>, + terminating in broad <i>palms</i> or <i>flukes</i>, the sharp extremity + of which is the <i>peak</i> or <i>bill</i>; at the other end of the shank + is the <i>stock</i> (fixed at right angles to the plane of the arms), + behind which is the <i>ring</i>, to which a cable can be attached. The + principal use of the stock is to <!-- Page 156 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page156"></a>[156]</span>cause the arms to fall + so as one of the flukes shall enter the ground. Many anchors are made + nowadays without a stock. The anchors of the largest size carried by + men-of-war are the <i>best</i> and <i>small bowers</i>, the <i>sheet</i>, + and the <i>spare</i>, to which are added the <i>stream</i> and the + <i>kedge</i>, which are used for anchoring in a stream or other sheltered + place and for warping the vessel from one place to another. Many + improvements and novelties in the shape and construction of anchors have + been introduced within recent times. The principal names connected with + those alterations are those of Lieutenant Rodgers, who introduced the + <i>hollow-shanked anchor</i> with the view of increasing the strength + without adding to the weight; Porter, who made the arms and flukes + movable by pivoting them to the stock instead of fixing them immovably, + causing the anchor to take a readier and firmer hold, and avoiding the + chance of the cable becoming foul; Trotman, who further improved on + Porter's invention; and M. Martin, whose anchor is of very peculiar form, + and is constructed so as to be self-canting, the arms revolving through + an angle of 30° either way, and the sharp points of the flukes being + always ready to enter the ground.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:47%;"> + <a href="images/image055.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image055.jpg" + alt="Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, etc" title="Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, etc" /></a> + Type of Anchor used on Lusitania, Mauretania, &c. + </div> + + <p><b>An´chorites</b>, or <b>An´chorets</b> (Gr. + <i>anachorētai</i>, persons who have withdrawn themselves from the + world), in the early Church a class of religious persons who generally + passed their lives in cells, from which they never removed. Their + habitations were, in many instances, entirely separated from the abodes + of other men, sometimes in the depth of wildernesses, in pits or caverns; + at other times several of these individuals fixed their habitations in + the vicinity of each other, but they always lived personally separate. + The continual prevalence of fierce wars, civil commotions, and + persecutions at the beginning of the Christian era must have made + retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of quiet and + contemplative minds. This spirit, however, soon led to fanatical + excesses; many anchorites went without proper clothing, wore heavy + chains, and we find at the close of the fourth century Simeon Stylites + passing thirty years on the top of a column without ever descending from + it, and finally dying there. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity + became blended with the Grecian philosophy and strongly tinged with the + peculiar notions of the East, the anchorites were most numerous; in + Europe there were comparatively few, and on the development and + establishment of the monastic system they completely disappeared. See + <i>Asceticism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anchovy</b> (an-chō´vi), a small fish of the Herring family, + all the species, with exception of the common anchovy (<i>Engraulis + encrasichŏlus</i>) and <i>E. meletta</i> (both Mediterranean + species), inhabitants of the tropical seas of India and America. The + common anchovy, so esteemed for its rich and peculiar flavour, is not + much larger than the middle finger. It is caught in vast numbers in the + Mediterranean, and frequently on the coasts of France, Holland, and the + south of England, and pickled for exportation. A favourite sauce is made + by pounding the pickled fish in water, simmering for a short time, adding + a little cayenne pepper, and straining the whole through a + hair-sieve.</p> + + <p><b>Ancho´vy-pear</b> (<i>Grias cauliflōra</i>), a tree of the + nat. ord. Myrtaceæ, a native of Jamaica, growing to the height of 50 + feet, with large leaves and large white flowers, and bearing a fruit + somewhat bigger than a hen's egg, which is pickled and eaten like the + mango, and strongly resembles it in taste.</p> + + <p><b>Anchu´sa.</b> See <i>Alkanet</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anchylo´sis.</b> See <i>Ankylosis</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ancient Lights</b>, in English law, windows or other openings which + have been in existence for at least twenty years, and during that time + have <!-- Page 157 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page157"></a>[157]</span>enjoyed the access of light without + interruption, go that a right is established against the obstruction of + the light by a neighbouring proprietor.</p> + + <p><b>Ancillon</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-sē-yōn<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), Jean Pierre Frédéric, an author and + statesman of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1767 (where his father + was pastor of the French reformed church); died there in 1837. He became + professor of history in the military academy at Berlin, and in 1806 he + was charged with the education of the crown-prince. He successively + occupied several important offices of state, being at last appointed + Minister of Foreign Affairs. He wrote on philosophy, history, and + politics, partly in French, partly in German.</p> + + <p><b>Anckarström.</b> See <i>Ankarström</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anco´na</b>, a seaport of Italy, capital of the province of the + same name, on the Adriatic, 130 miles <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of + Rome, with harbour works begun by Trajan, who built the ancient mole or + quay. A triumphal arch of white marble, erected in honour of Trajan, + stands on the mole. Ancona is a station of the Italian fleet, and the + commerce is increasing. The town is indifferently built, but has some + remarkable edifices, among others, the cathedral. There is a colossal + statue of Count Cavour. Ancona is said to have been founded about four + centuries <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, by Syracusan refugees. It fell + into the hands of the Romans in the first half of the third century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and became a Roman colony. Pop. 68,430. The + province has an area of 748 sq. miles. Pop. 333,381.</p> + + <p><b>Ancona Fowl.</b> See <i>Poultry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ancre</b> (än<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-kr), Concino Concini, Marshal and + Marquis d', was a native of Florence, and on the marriage of Marie de' + Médici to Henri IV, in 1600, came in her suite to France, where he + obtained rapid promotion, more especially after the assassination of the + king (1610). He became successively Governor of Normandy, Marshal of + France, and last of all, Prime Minister. Being thoroughly detested by all + classes, at last a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was shot + dead on the bridge of the Louvre in 1617.</p> + + <p><b>Ancre, Battle of.</b> This battle was the final one in the British + offensive in France in 1916. It began on 13th Nov. after a two day's + preliminary bombardment of the German salient, on both sides of the River + Ancre, from Beaumont-Hamel to St. Pierre Divion. One area of + extraordinary strength was the Y ravine which stretches from + Beaumont-Hamel plateau towards the river. The assaults on both banks of + the river were vigorous and determined. A fierce struggle was waged in + the Y ravine, which Scottish troops ultimately cleared with the bayonet. + Beaumont-Hamel having fallen, the British line was extended well beyond + it. Further gains were made on the following day. The prisoners captured + numbered 7200. This brilliant action paved the way for further successes + in the spring.</p> + + <p><b>An´cus Mar´cius</b>, according to the traditionary history of Rome + the fourth king of that city, who succeeded Tullus Hostilius, 638, and + died 614 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He was the son of Numa's + daughter, and sought to imitate his grandfather by reviving the neglected + observances of religion. He is said to have built the wooden bridge + across the Tiber known as the Sublician, constructed the harbour of + Ostia, and built the first Roman prison.</p> + + <p><b>Ancy´ra.</b> See <i>Angora</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Andalu´sia</b> (Sp. <i>Andalucia</i>), a large and fertile district + in the south of Spain, bounded <span class="scac">N.</span> by + Estremadura and New Castile, <span class="scac">E.</span> by Murcia, + <span class="scac">S.</span> by the Mediterranean Sea, and <span + class="scac">W.</span> by Portugal and the Atlantic; area, about 33,777 + sq. miles, comprising the modern provinces of Seville, Huelva, Cadiz, + Jaen, Cordova, Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. It is traversed throughout + its whole extent by ranges of mountains, the loftiest being the Sierra + Nevada, many summits of which are covered with perpetual snow (Mulahacen + is 11,678 feet). Minerals abound, and several mines have been opened by + English companies, especially in the province of Huelva, where the + Tharsis and Rio Tinto copper-mines are situated. The principal river is + the Guadalquivir. The vine, myrtle, olive, palm, banana, carob, &c., + grow abundantly in the valley of the Guadalquivir. Wheat, maize, barley, + and many varieties of fruit grow almost spontaneously; besides which, + honey, silk, and cochineal form important articles of culture. The horses + and mules are the best in the Peninsula; the bulls are sought for + bull-fighting over all Spain; sheep are reared in vast numbers. + Agriculture is in a backward state, and the manufactures are by no means + extensive. The Andalusians are descended in part from the Moors, of whom + they still preserve decided characteristics. Andalusia is still famous + for its bull-fighters. Pop. 3,828,916.</p> + + <p><b>Andalusian Fowl.</b> See <i>Poultry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´damans</b>, a chain of islands on the east side of the Bay of + Bengal, the principal being the North, Middle, South, and Little + Andamans. Middle Andaman is about 60 miles long, and 15 or 16 miles + broad; North and South Andaman are each about 50 miles long. The + Andamanese, about 1315 in number (1911), are mostly in a state of nature, + living almost naked in the rudest habitations. They are small (generally + much less than 5 feet), well-formed, and active, skilful archers and + canoeists, and excellent swimmers and divers. These islands have been + used since 1858 as a penal settlement by the Indian Government, the + settlement being at <!-- Page 158 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page158"></a>[158]</span>Port Blair, on South Andaman. Here rice, + coffee, pineapples, nutmegs, &c., are grown, while the jungle has + been cleared off the neighbouring hills. The natives in the vicinity of + the settlement have become to some extent civilized. The climate is + humid, but the settlement is healthy. Pop. 18,000.</p> + + <p><b>Andante</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-da<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n´tā; It., 'at a walking pace'), in + music, denotes a movement somewhat slow, graceful, distinct, and + soothing. The word is also applied substantively to that part of a sonata + or symphony having a movement of this character. In Handel's music one + often meets the expression <i>andante allegro</i>, which is equivalent to + <i>andante con moto</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Andelys, Les</b> (lāz än<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>d-lēz), two towns in France called + respectively Grand and Petit Andely, distant half a mile from each other, + in the department of Eure, on the right bank of the Seine, 19 miles <span + class="scac">S.E.</span> of Rouen. Grand Andely dates from the sixth + century, its church, built in the thirteenth century, is one of the + finest in the department. Petit Andely owes its origin to Richard + Cœur de Lion, who, in 1195, built here the Château Gaillard, in its + time one of the strongest fortresses in France, but now wholly a ruin. + Pop. 5530.</p> + + <p><b>Andenne´</b>, a town of Belgium, province of Namur, on the right + bank of the Meuse and 10 miles east of Namur; manufactures delftware, + porcelain, tobacco-pipes, paper, &c. Pop. 7803.</p> + + <p><b>Andernach</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n´der-na<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span><i>ch</i>), a town of Rhenish Prussia, on + the left bank of the Rhine, 10 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> of + Coblentz, partly surrounded with walls. Pop. 9800.</p> + + <p><b>An´dersen</b>, Hans Christian, a Danish novelist, poet, and writer + of fairy tales, was born of poor parents at Odense, 2nd April, 1805. He + learned to read and write in a charity school, from which he was taken + when only nine years old, and was put to work in a manufactory in order + that his earnings might assist his widowed mother. In his leisure time he + eagerly read national ballads, poetry, and plays, and wrote several + tragedies full of sound and fury. In 1819 he went to Copenhagen, but + failed in getting any of his plays accepted, and in securing an + appointment at the theatre, having to content himself for some time with + unsteady employment as a joiner. His abilities at last brought him under + the notice of Councillor Collin, a man of considerable influence, who + procured for him free entrance into a Government school at Slagelse. From + this school he was transferred to the university, and soon became + favourably known by his poetic works. Through the influence of + Oehlenschläger and Ingermann he received a royal grant to enable him to + travel, and in 1833 he visited Italy, his impressions of which he + published in <i>The Improvvisatore</i> (1835)—a work which rendered + his fame European. The scene of his following novel, <i>O. T.</i>, was + laid in Denmark, and in <i>Only a Fiddler</i> he described his own early + struggles. In 1835 appeared the first volume of his <i>Fairy Tales</i>, + of which successive volumes continued to be published year by year at + Christmas, and which have been the most popular and widespread of his + works. Among his other works are <i>Picture-books without + Pictures</i>—conversations of the author with the moon, who came to + visit the poet in his garret; <i>A Poet's Bazaar</i>—the result of + a voyage in 1840 to the East; and a number of dramas. In 1845 he received + an annuity from the Government. He visited England in 1848, and acquired + such a command of the language that his next work, <i>The Two + Baronesses</i>, was written in English. In 1855 he published an + autobiography, under the title <i>My Life's Romance</i>, an English + translation of which, published in 1871, contained additional chapters by + the author, bringing the narrative to 1867. Among his later works we may + mention, <i>To Be or Not To Be</i> (1857); <i>Tales from Jutland</i> + (1859); <i>The Ice Maiden</i> (1863). He died 4th Aug, 1875, having had + the pleasure of seeing many of his works translated into most of the + European languages.</p> + + <p><b>Anderson</b>, a town of the United States, Indiana, on the west + branch of White River, 32 miles north-east of Indianapolis, with various + manufacturing works. Pop. 23,856.</p> + + <p><b>Anderson</b>, Elizabeth Garrett, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, + born in 1836, maiden name Garrett, married Mr. J. S. Anderson of the + Orient Line of steamers. She studied medicine, but met with many + obstacles, the study of medicine by women being then discouraged on all + hands; at last she was licensed to practise by the Apothecaries' Society + in 1865, and afterwards passed examinations at the University of Paris + and obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine. From 1866 to 1890 she was + senior physician to the New Hospital for Women; from 1876 to 1898 + lecturer on medicine in the London School of Medicine for Women. She did + much to aid in opening the medical profession to women. In 1908 she was + elected Mayor of Aldeburgh, being the first woman to hold the position of + mayor in England. She died on 17th Dec., 1917. Her daughter Louisa + Garrett Anderson, born in 1873, went to France in 1914 as Joint Organiser + of and Chief Surgeon to the Women's Hospital Corps, Voluntary Unit.</p> + + <p><b>Anderson</b>, James, a Scottish writer on political and rural + economy, born at Hermiston in 1739, died in 1808. In 1790 he started the + <i>Bee</i>, which ran to eighteen volumes, and contains many useful + papers on agricultural, economical, and other topics. Some of his other + publications, <!-- Page 159 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page159"></a>[159]</span><i>Recreations in Agriculture</i>, + <i>Natural History</i>, &c., contain anticipations of theories + afterwards propounded by Malthus and Ricardo.</p> + + <p><b>Anderson</b>, John, <span class="scac">F.R.S.</span>, professor of + natural philosophy in the University of Glasgow, born 1726, died 1796. By + his will he directed that the whole of his effects should be devoted to + the establishment of an educational institution in Glasgow, to be + denominated <i>Anderson's University</i>, for the use of the unacademical + classes. According to the design of the founder, there were to be four + colleges—for arts, medicine, law, and theology—besides an + initiatory school. As the funds, however, were totally inadequate to the + plan, it was at first commenced with only a single course of lectures on + natural philosophy and chemistry. The institution gradually enlarged its + sphere of instruction, coming nearer and nearer to the original design of + its founder, the medical school in particular possessing a high + reputation. In 1886 it was incorporated with other institutions to form + the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College (now Glasgow Royal + Technical College), Anderson's College medical school, however, retaining + a distinct position.</p> + + <p><b>Anderson</b>, Joseph, Scottish antiquary, born in 1832, became a + school teacher, was for some years newspaper editor, and in 1870 was + appointed keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. His + chief works embody the lectures delivered by him as Rhind lecturer in + archæology to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland: <i>Scotland in + Early Christian Times</i>, <i>Scotland in Pagan Times</i>, and the + <i>Early Christian Monuments of Scotland</i>. He also edited <i>The + Orkneyinga Saga</i>, <i>The Oliphants in Scotland</i>, and Drummond's + <i>Ancient Scottish Weapons</i>. He died in 1916.</p> + + <p><b>Anderson</b>, Robert, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, Scottish + biographical writer, born 1750, died 1830. He furnished biographical and + critical notices for <i>A Complete Edition of the Poets of Great + Britain</i> (1792-5), and was for a time editor of the <i>Edinburgh + Magazine</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Andersson</b>, Carl Jan, an African traveller, born in Sweden in + 1827, died in the land of the Ovampos, in Western Africa, in July, 1867. + He published <i>Lake Ngami, or Discoveries in South Africa</i> (London, 2 + vols., 1856), and <i>The Okavango River</i> (London, 1861). The + observations of his last voyage were published in 1875 in <i>Notes of + Travel in South Africa</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Andes</b> (an´dēz), or, as they are called in Spanish South + America, <b>Cordilleras</b> (ridges) <b>de los Andes</b>, or simply + <b>Cordilleras</b>, a range of mountains stretching along the whole of + the west coast of South America, from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama + and the Caribbean Sea. In absolute length (4500 miles) no single chain of + mountains approaches the Andes, and only a certain number of the higher + peaks of the Himalayan chain rise higher above the sea-level; which peak + is the highest of all is not yet settled. Several main sections of this + huge chain are distinguishable. The Southern Andes present a lofty main + chain, with a minor chain running parallel to it on the east, reaching + from Tierra del Fuego and the Straits of Magellan, northward to about + lat. 28° <span class="scac">S.</span>, and rising in Aconcagua to a + height of 23,080 feet. North of this is the double chain of the Central + Andes, enclosing the wide and lofty plateaus of Bolivia and Peru, which + lie at an elevation of more than 12,000 feet above the sea. The mountain + system is here at its broadest, being about 500 miles across. Here are + also several very lofty peaks, as Illampu or Sorata (21,484 feet), Sahama + (21,054 feet), Illimani (21,024 feet). Farther north the outer and inner + ranges draw closer together, and in Ecuador there is but a single system + of elevated masses, generally described as forming two parallel chains. + In this section are crowded together a number of lofty peaks, most of + them volcanoes, either extinct or active. Of the latter class are + Pichincha (15,918 feet), with a crater 2500 feet deep; Tunguragua (16,685 + feet); Sangay (17,460 feet); and Cotopaxi (19,550 feet). The loftiest + summit here appears to be Chimborazo (20,581 feet); others are Antisana + (19,260 feet) and Cayambe (19,200 feet). Northward of this section the + Andes break into three distinct ranges, the east-most running + north-eastward into Venezuela, the westmost running north-westward to the + Isthmus of Panama. In the central range is the volcano of Tolima (17,660 + feet). The western slope of the Andes is generally exceedingly steep, the + eastern much less so, the mountains sinking gradually to the plains. The + whole range gives evidence of volcanic action, but it consists almost + entirely of sedimentary rocks. Thus mountains may be found rising to the + height of over 20,000 feet, and fossiliferous to their summits (as + Illimani and Sorata or Illampu). There are about thirty volcanoes in a + state of activity. The loftiest of these burning mountains seems to be + Gualateïri, in Peru (21,960 feet). The heights of the others vary from + 13,000 to 20,000 feet. All the districts of the Andes system have + suffered severely from earthquakes, towns having been either destroyed or + greatly injured by these visitations. Peaks crowned with perpetual snow + are seen all along the range, and glaciers are also met with, more + especially from Aconcagua southwards. The passes are generally at a great + height, the most important being from 10,000 to 15,000 feet. Railways + have been constructed to cross the chain at a similar elevation. The + Andes are extremely rich in the precious metals, gold, silver, copper, + platinum, mercury, and tin all being wrought; lead and iron are also + found. The llama and kindred species—the guanaco, vicuña, <!-- Page + 160 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page160"></a>[160]</span>and + alpaca—are characteristic of the Andes. Among birds, the condor is + the most remarkable. The vegetation necessarily varies much according to + elevation, latitude, rainfall, &c., but generally is rich and varied. + Except in the south and north little rain falls on the western side of + the range, and in the centre there is a considerable desert area. On the + east side the rainfall is heavy in the equatorial regions, but in the + south is very scanty or altogether deficient. From the Andes rise two of + the largest water systems of the world—the Amazon and its + affluents, and the La Plata and its affluents. Besides which, in the + north, from its slopes flow the Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some + tributaries to the Orinoco. The mountain chain pressing so close upon the + Pacific Ocean, no streams of importance flow from its western slopes. The + number of lakes is not great; the largest and most important is that of + Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau. In the Andes are towns at a greater + elevation than anywhere else in the world, the highest being the + silver-mining town of Cerro de Pasco (14,270 feet), the next being + Potosi.</p> + + <p><b>An´desin</b>, a kind of felspar containing both soda and lime, and + named from being first obtained in the Andes.</p> + + <p><b>An´desite</b>, a name given to a crystalline volcanic rock or group + of rocks of very wide occurrence, consisting mostly of felspar mixed with + other ingredients, especially hornblende and augite, often also + hypersthene and mica, the four chief varieties being named accordingly. + Andesite is often porphyritic in character, with large crystals of + felspar scattered through it. These rocks are commonly eruptive products + of volcanoes of the tertiary or more recent periods, and the name was + given by C. L. von Buch on account of their prevalence in the lavas of + volcanoes of the Andes. The Ochils and other hills of middle Scotland + largely consist of andesite.</p> + + <p><b>Andijan´</b>, a town of Russian Turkestan, Ferghana, south of the + Syr-Darya, a terminus of the Transcaspian Railway, 73 miles north-east of + Khokand. Pop. 82,235.</p> + + <p><b>Andi´ra</b>, a genus of leguminous American trees, with fleshy + plum-like fruits. The wood is suitable for building purposes. The bark of + <i>A. inermis</i>, or cabbage tree, is narcotic, and is used as an + anthelminthic under the name of <i>worm-bark</i> or <i>cabbage bark</i>. + The powdered bark of <i>A. ararōba</i> is used as a remedy in + certain skin diseases, as herpes.</p> + + <p><b>Andiron</b> (and´ī-ėrn), a horizontal iron bar raised + on short legs, with an upright standard at one end, used to support + pieces of wood when burning in an open hearth, one andiron being placed + on either side of the hearth.</p> + + <p><b>Andkhoo</b>, or <b>Andkhoui</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>nd-<i>h</i>ö´, a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>nd-<i>h</i>ö´i), a town of Afghanistan, + about 200 miles south of Bokhara, on the commercial route to Herat. Pop. + estimated at 15,000.</p> + + <p><b>Andocides</b> (an-dos´i-dēz), an Athenian orator, born about + 440 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, died about 393 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> He took an active part in public affairs, and + was four times exiled; the first time along with Alcibiades, for + profaning the Eleusinian mysteries. Several of his orations are extant, + one called <i>On the Mysteries</i> being the best.</p> + + <p><b>Andor´ra</b>, or <b>Andorre´</b>, a small nominally independent + State in the Pyrenees, south of the French department of Ariége, with an + area of about 191 sq. miles. It has been a separate State for six hundred + years, is governed by its own civil and criminal codes, and has its own + courts of justice, the laws being administered by two judges, one of whom + is chosen by France, the other by the Bishop of Urgel, in Spain. The + little State pays an annual due of 960 francs to France, and 460 pesetas + to the Bishop of Urgel. The chief industry is the rearing of sheep and + cattle. The commerce is largely in importing contraband goods into Spain. + The inhabitants, who speak the Catalan dialect of Spanish, are simple in + their manners, their wealth consisting mainly of cattle and sheep. The + village of Old Andorra is the capital. Pop. 5231.</p> + + <p><b>An´dover</b>, a town in England, in Hants, 12 miles north by west + of Winchester, with a fine church, and a trade in corn, malt, &c. + Interesting Roman remains have been found in the vicinity. Pop. (1921), + 8569.</p> + + <p><b>An´dover</b>, a town in Massachusetts, 25 miles <span + class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Boston, chiefly remarkable for its literary + institutions—Phillip's Academy, founded in 1778; the Andover + Theological Seminary, founded in 1807; and Abbot Academy, a girls' + school, founded in 1829. Pop. 7300.</p> + + <p><b>Andrassy</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-drä´shē), Count Julius, Hungarian + statesman, born 1823, died in 1890. He took part in the revolution of + 1848, was condemned to death, but escaped and went into exile. He was + appointed Premier when self-government was restored to Hungary in 1867; + became imperial Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1871, but retired from + public life in 1879.</p> + + <p><b>Andrassy</b>, Julius, Hungarian statesman, son of the preceding. He + was born in 1860, and entered the Reichstag in 1884. He became Minister + of the Interior in 1906, and retained that office until 1909. In 1912 he + represented Austria at the conference on the Balkan question. In 1918 he + was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs, but soon resigned.</p> + + <p><b>André</b> (an´drā), Major John, adjutant-general in the + British army during the American revolutionary war. Employed to negotiate + the defection of the American general Arnold, and the delivery of the + works at West Point, he was apprehended in disguise, 23rd Sept., 1780, + within <!-- Page 161 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page161"></a>[161]</span>the American lines; declared a spy from + the enemy, and hanged 2nd Oct., 1780. His remains were brought to England + in 1821 and interred in Westminster Abbey, where a monument has been + erected to his memory.</p> + + <p><b>Andrea del Sarto.</b> See <i>Sarto</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Andreæ</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n´dre-ā), Johann Valentin, German + author, born 1586, died 1654. He was the author of numerous tracts, + several of them of an amusing and satirical character. He was long + believed to be the founder of the celebrated Rosicrucian order, an + opinion that received a certain support from some of his works, but in + all probability the real intention of the writer was to ridicule the + folly of contemporary alchemists.</p> + + <p><b>An´dreasberg, St.</b>, a mining town of the Harz Mountains, in + Prussia, 57 miles <span class="scac">S.S.E.</span> of Hanover. Pop. about + 4000.</p> + + <p><b>Andreev</b>, Leonid Nicolaievitsh, Russian author, born in 1871, + died in 1919. He studied law at the Universities of Moscow and Petrograd, + but finding his practice unremunerative he became a police-court reporter + for a daily paper. At the age of twenty-three he attempted suicide, + driven to it by his miserable circumstances and struggle for existence. + His first story, <i>About a Poor Student</i>, based upon his own + experiences, attracted but little attention, and his literary career + really began when Gorky discovered his talent. He was one of the most + prolific Russian writers, the short story being his speciality. He was a + mystic and a fatalist, like so many of his compatriots. His works + include: <i>The Red Laugh</i> (1905); <i>The Seven who were Hanged</i> + (1909); <i>Judas Iscariot and the Others</i> (1910); <i>A Dilemma</i> + (1910); <i>Silence and Other Stories</i>, &c. His works have been + translated into many European languages.</p> + + <p><b>Andrew, St.</b>, brother of St. Peter, and the first disciple whom + Christ chose. He is said to have preached in Scythia, in Thrace and Asia + Minor, and in Achaia (Greece), and according to tradition he was + crucified by order of the Roman governor Ægeas at Patræ, now Patras, in + Achaia, on a cross of the form <a href="images/cross.png"><img + src="images/cross.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="X" /></a> + (decussate cross), now known as a St. Andrew's cross. The Russians revere + him as the apostle who brought the gospel to them; the Scots, as the + patron saint of their country. The day dedicated to him is 30th Nov. The + Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted by Peter the Great in 1698. + For the Scottish Knights of St. Andrew or the Thistle, see + <i>Thistle</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´drewes</b>, Lancelot, an eminent and learned bishop of the + English Church, born in London in 1555, died at Winchester 1626; was high + in favour both with Queen Elizabeth and James I. In 1605 he became Bishop + of Chichester; in 1609 was translated to Ely, and appointed one of the + king's privy-councillors; and in 1618 he was translated to Winchester. He + was one of those engaged in preparing the authorized version of the + Scriptures. He left sermons, lectures, and other writings.</p> + + <p><b>An´drews, St.</b>, an ancient city and parliamentary burgh in + Fifeshire, Scotland, 31 miles north-east from Edinburgh; was erected into + a royal burgh by David I in 1140, and after having been an episcopal, + became an archiepiscopal see in 1472, and was for long the ecclesiastical + capital of Scotland. The cathedral, now in ruins, was begun about 1160, + and took 157 years to finish. The old castle, founded about 1200, and + rebuilt in the fourteenth century, is also an almost shapeless ruin. In + it James III was born and Cardinal Beaton assassinated, and in front of + it George Wishart was burned. There are several other interesting ruins. + The trade and manufactures are of no importance, but the town is in + favour as a watering-place. Golf is much played here. Pop. + 7597.—The <i>University of St. Andrews</i>, the oldest of the + Scottish universities, founded in 1411, consists of the united colleges + of St. Salvator and St. Leonard and the college of St. Mary, both at St. + Andrews, and embraces also University College, Dundee. In 1579 the + colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard were restricted to the teaching + of arts and medicine, and that of St. Mary to theology. In 1747 the two + former colleges were united by Act of Parliament. University College, + Dundee, was founded in 1880. The united college of St. Salvator and St. + Leonard has a principal (who is also principal of the university) and + twelve professors, and the college of St. Mary has a principal and four + professors. Degrees, open to women as well as men, are conferred in arts, + divinity, science, medicine, and law; and the university also confers the + diploma and title of <span class="scac">L.L.A.</span> (Lady Literate in + Arts). The number of students is 420. In connection with the university + is a library, founded in 1612 and containing about 150,000 printed + volumes and 150 MSS. The university unites with the other three Scottish + universities in returning three members to Parliament. Madras College or + Academy, founded by Dr. Bell of Madras, the principal secondary school of + the place, provides accommodation for upwards of 1500 scholars.</p> + + <p><b>An´drews</b>, Thomas, chemist, was born at Belfast in 1813; studied + chemistry at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson, and for a short time in Paris; + then medicine at Belfast, Dublin, and Edinburgh, taking the degree of + <span class="scac">M.D.</span> at the last place. After practising and + teaching chemistry for ten years in Belfast, he became vice-president of + the Northern College there, which in 1849 was converted into Queen's + College, and Andrews now became professor of chemistry in the college, a + post which he held till 1879. He died in 1885, having received various + academic distinctions in <!-- Page 162 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page162"></a>[162]</span>the course of his life. His name is + associated with valuable researches on the heat of chemical combustion, + and on the nature of ozone, but especially with the discovery of the + existence of a critical temperature for every gas, above which it cannot + be liquefied by any pressure, however great. He wrote many scientific + papers, which have been published in a collective form by P. G. Tait and + A. Crum Brown.</p> + + <p><b>An´dria</b>, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, with a fine + cathedral, founded in 1046; the Church of Sant' Agostino, with a + beautiful Pointed Gothic portal; a college; manufactures of majolica, and + a good trade. Pop. 53,274.</p> + + <p><b>Androclus</b>, or <b>Androcles</b>, a Roman slave who once pulled a + thorn out of a lion's paw and dressed the wound. Androclus was afterwards + condemned to be thrown to the lions in the Circus Maximus, and + encountered the same lion that he had helped; the beast, instead of + attacking him, fawned on him and caressed him. The story is told by Aulus + Gellius, <i>Noctes Atticæ</i>, v, 14.</p> + + <p><b>Andrœ´cium</b>, in botany, the male system of a flower; the + aggregate of the stamens.</p> + + <p><b>Andromache</b> (an-drom´a-kē), in Greek legend, wife of + Hector, and one of the most attractive women of Homer's <i>Iliad</i>. The + passage describing her parting with Hector, when he was setting out to + battle, is well known and much admired (<i>Iliad</i>, vi, 369-502). + Euripides and Racine have made her the chief character of tragedies.</p> + + <p><b>Androm´ĕda</b>, in Greek mythology, daughter of the Ethiopian + king Cepheus and of Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia having boasted that her + daughter surpassed the Nereids, if not Hēra (Juno) herself, in + beauty, the offended goddesses prevailed on their father, Poseidōn + (Neptune), to afflict the country with a horrid sea-monster, which + threatened universal destruction. To appease the offended god, Andromeda + was chained to a rock, but was rescued by Perseus; and after death was + changed into a constellation. The legend forms the subject of tragedies + by Euripides and Sophocles, and Ovid introduced it into his + <i>Metamorphoses</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Androm´eda.</b> See <i>Ericaceæ</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Androni´cus</b>, the name of four emperors of + Constantinople.—<b>Andronicus I</b>, Comnenus, born 1110, murdered + 1185.—<b>Andronicus II</b>, Palæologus, born 1258, died 1332. His + reign is celebrated for the invasion of the Turks.—<b>Andronicus + III</b>, Palæologus the Younger, born 1296, died + 1341.—<b>Andronicus IV</b>, Palæologus, reigned in the absence of + John IV. In 1373 he gave way to his brother Manuel, and died a monk.</p> + + <p><b>Androni´cus</b>, Livius, the most ancient of the Latin dramatic + poets; flourished about 240 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>; by origin a + Greek, and long a slave. A few fragments of his works have come down to + us.</p> + + <p><b>Androni´cus</b> of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher who lived at + Rome in the time of Cicero. He arranged Aristotle's works in much the + same form as they retain in present editions.</p> + + <p><b>Androni´cus Cyrrhestes</b> (sir-es´tēz), a Greek architect + about 100 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, who constructed at Athens the + Tower of the Winds, an octagonal building, still standing. On the top was + a Triton, which indicated the direction of the wind. Each of the sides + had a sort of dial, and the building formerly contained a clepsydra or + water-clock.</p> + + <p><b>Andropo´gon</b>, a large genus of grasses, mostly natives of warm + countries. <i>A. Schœnanthus</i> is the sweet-scented lemon-grass + of conservatories. Others also are fragrant.</p> + + <p><b>An´dros</b> (now <b>Andro</b>), one of the islands of the Grecian + Archipelago, the most northerly of the Cyclades; about 25 miles long and + 6 or 7 broad; area, 100 sq. miles. A considerable trade is done in silk, + wine, olives, figs, oranges, and lemons. Andro or Castro, the capital, + has a good port. Pop. 18,809.</p> + + <p><b>Andros Islands</b>, a group of isles belonging to the Bahamas, + lying south-west of New Providence, not far from the east entrance to the + Gulf of Florida. The passages through them are dangerous. Pop. 7545.</p> + + <p><b>Andrussovo</b>, a Russian village in the government of Smolensk. A + treaty was signed here between Poland and Russia (1667).</p> + + <p><b>Andujar</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-<i>d</i>ö-<i>h</i>är´), a town in + Spain, in Andalusia, 50 miles <span class="scac">E.N.E.</span> of + Cordova, on the Guadalquivir, which is here crossed by a fine bridge; + manufactures a peculiar kind of porous earthen water-bottles and jugs + (<i>alcarazas</i>). Pop. 16,500.</p> + + <p><b>An´ecdote</b>, originally some particular about a subject not + noticed in previous works on that subject; now any particular or detached + incident or fact of an interesting nature; a single passage of private + life.</p> + + <p><b>Anega´da</b>, a British West Indian island, the most northern of + the Virgin group, 10 miles long by 4½ broad; contains numerous salt + ponds, from which quantities of salt are obtained. Pop. 200.</p> + + <p><b>Anelectric</b>, a body not easily electrified.</p> + + <p><b>Anelectrode</b>, the positive pole of a galvanic battery.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:27%;"> + <a href="images/image056.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image056.jpg" + alt="Anemometer" title="Anemometer" /></a> + Beckley's Improved Robinson Cup Anemometer + </div> + + <p><b>Anemom´eter</b> (Gr. <i>anĕmos</i>, wind, <i>metron</i>, + measure), an instrument for measuring the force and velocity of the wind. + This force is usually measured by the pressure of the wind upon a square + plate attached to one end of a spiral spring (with its axis horizontal), + which yields more or less according to the force of the wind, and + transmits its motion to a pencil which leaves a trace upon paper moved by + clockwork. Various instruments have been devised for this purpose, but + the one most commonly adopted by <!-- Page 163 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page163"></a>[163]</span>meteorological stations + is after the type invented by Dr. Robinson of Armagh. It consists of four + hemispherical cups <span class="scac">A</span> attached to the ends of + equal horizontal arms, forming a horizontal cross which turns freely + about a vertical axis <span class="scac">B</span>. By means of an endless + screw carried by the axis a train of wheelwork is set in motion; and the + indication is given by a hand which moves round a dial; or in some + instruments by several hands moving round different dials like those of a + gas-meter. It is found that the centre of each cup moves with a velocity + which is almost exactly one-third of that of the wind. There are various + other forms of the instrument, one of which is portable, and is + especially intended for measuring the velocity of currents of air passing + through mines, and the ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public + buildings. The direction of the wind as indicated by a vane can also be + made to leave a continuous record by various contrivances; one of the + most common being a pinion carried by the shaft of a vane, and driving a + rack which carries a pencil.</p> + + <p><b>Anem´ŏnē</b> (Gr. <i>anĕmos</i>, wind), + wind-flower, a genus of plants belonging to the Buttercup family + (Ranunculaceæ), containing about ninety species, found in temperate + regions, three of them occurring in Britain: the white-flowered (<i>A. + nemorōsa</i>), the only one truly native; the blue-flowered (<i>A. + apennīna</i>); and the yellow-flowered (<i>A. ranunculoides</i>), a + common European species naturalized in some parts of Britain. Several + species are cultivated as florists' flowers.</p> + + <p><b>Anemoph´ilous</b>, said of flowers that are fertilized by the wind + conveying the pollen.</p> + + <p><b>Anem´oscope</b>, any contrivance indicating the direction of the + wind; generally applied to a vane which turns a spindle descending + through the roof to a chamber where, by means of a compass-card and + index, the direction of the wind is shown.</p> + + <p><b>Aneroid Barometer.</b> See <i>Barometer</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ane´thum</b>, a genus of plants; dill.</p> + + <p><b>Aneu´rin</b>, a poet and prince of the Cambrian Britons who + flourished in the seventh century, author of an epic poem, the + <i>Gododin</i>, relating the defeat of the Britons of Strathclyde by the + Saxons at the battle of Cattraeth. See <i>Celtic Literature</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´eurism</b>, or <b>Aneurysm</b> (Gr. <i>aneurysma</i>, a + widening), the dilatation or expansion of some part of an artery. + Aneurisms arise partly from the too violent motion of the blood, and + partly from degenerative changes occurring in the coats of the artery, + diminishing their elasticity. They are therefore more frequent in the + great branches; in particular, in the vicinity of the heart, in the arch + of the aorta, and in the extremities, where the arteries are exposed to + frequent injuries by stretching, violent bodily exertions, thrusts, + falls, and contusions. An internal aneurism may burst and cause + death.</p> + + <p><b>Angara´</b>, a Siberian river which flows into Lake Baikal at its + <span class="scac">N.</span> extremity, and leaves it near the <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> end, joining the Yenisei as the Lower Angara or + Upper Tunguska.</p> + + <p><b>Angel</b> (Gr. <i>angelos</i>, a messenger), one of those spiritual + intelligences who are regarded as dwelling in Heaven and employed as the + ministers or agents of God. To these the name of good angels is sometimes + given, to distinguish them from bad angels, who were originally created + to occupy the same blissful abode, but lost it by rebellion. The Old + Testament represents them as messengers of the Divine will, and Christ + spoke of them more than once (<i>St. Matt.</i> xviii, 10; <i>St. + Luke</i>, xv, 10). Generally, however, Scripture speaks of angels with + great reserve, Michael and Gabriel alone being mentioned by name in the + canonical books, while Raphael is mentioned in the Apocrypha. The angels + are represented in Scripture as in the most elevated state of + intelligence, purity, and bliss, ever doing the will of God so perfectly + that we can seek for nothing higher or better than to aim at being like + them. There are indications of a diversity of rank and power among them, + and something like angelic orders—Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel, + &c., seraphim and cherubim. They are represented as frequently taking + part in communications made from heaven to earth, as directly and + actively ministering to the good of believers, and shielding or + delivering them from evils incident to their earthly lot. That every + person has a <!-- Page 164 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page164"></a>[164]</span>good and a bad angel attendant on him was + an early belief, and is held to some extent yet. Roman Catholics, since + St. Ambrosius, who died in 397, show a certain veneration or worship to + angels, and beg their prayers and their kind offices. The New Testament, + however, formally forbidding such veneration (<i>Col.</i> ii, 18, + &c.), Protestants consider this unlawful.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:18%;"> + <a href="images/image057.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image057.jpg" + alt="Angel of Queen Elizabeth" title="Angel of Queen Elizabeth" /></a> + Angel of Queen Elizabeth + </div> + + <p><b>Angel</b>, a gold coin introduced into England in the reign of + Edward IV, and coined down to the Commonwealth, so named from having the + representation of the archangel Michael piercing a dragon upon it. It had + different values in different reigns, varying from 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> + to 10<i>s.</i></p> + + <p><b>Angel-fish</b>, a fish, <i>Squatīna angĕlus</i>, nearly + allied to the sharks, very ugly and voracious, preying on other fish. It + is from 6 to 8 feet long, and takes its name from its pectoral fins, + which are very large, extending horizontally like wings when spread. This + fish connects the rays with the sharks, but it differs from both in + having its mouth placed at the extremity of the head. It is common on the + south coasts of Britain, and is also called <i>Monk-fish</i> and + <i>Fiddle-fish</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Angel´ica</b>, a genus of umbelliferous plants, one of which, <i>A. + sylvestris</i>, a tall plant bearing large umbels of white flowers tinged + with pink, is common in wet places in Britain, and was formerly believed + to possess <i>angelic</i> properties as an antidote to poison, a specific + against witchcraft, &c. The name is also given to an allied plant, + the <i>Archangelica officinālis</i>, found on the banks of rivers + and ditches in the north of Europe, once generally cultivated as an + esculent, and still valued for its medicinal properties. It has a large + fleshy aromatic root, and a strong-furrowed branched stem as high as a + man. It is cultivated for its agreeable aromatic odour and carminative + properties. Its blanched stems, candied with sugar, form a very agreeable + sweetmeat, possessing tonic and stomachic qualities.</p> + + <p><b>Angelico</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-jel´i-kō), <b>Fra</b>, the common + appellation of <i>Fra Giovanni da Fiesole</i>, one of the most celebrated + of the early Italian painters. Born 1387, he entered the Dominican order + in 1407, and was employed by Cosmo de' Medici in painting the monastery + of St. Mark and the church of St. Annunziata with frescoes. These + pictures gained him so much celebrity that Pope Nicholas V invited him to + Rome to ornament his private chapel in the Vatican, and offered him the + archbishopric of Florence, which Angelico declined. He died at, Rome + 1455. He has been called the 'painter of seraphic dreams'. His works were + considered unrivalled in finish and in sweetness and harmony of colour, + and were made the models for religious painters of his own and succeeding + generations.</p> + + <p><b>Angeln</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>ng´eln), a district in Schleswig of about + 300 sq. miles, bounded <span class="scac">N.</span> by the Bay of + Flensburg, <span class="scac">S.</span> by the Schlei, <span + class="scac">E.</span> by the Baltic, the only continental territory + which has retained the name of the Angles.</p> + + <p><b>Angelo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n´je-lō), Michael. See + <i>Buonarotti</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´gelus</b>, in the Roman Catholic Church, a short form of prayer + in honour of the incarnation, consisting mainly of versicles and + responses, the angelic salutation three times repeated, and a collect, so + named from the word with which it commences, '<i>Angelus</i> Domini' + (Angel of the Lord). Hence, also, the bell tolled in the morning, at + noon, and in the evening to indicate the time when the angelus is to be + recited. The prayer is attributed to St. Bonaventura, and in Germany and + Italy it is called 'Ave Maria'.</p> + + <p><b>Ångermann</b> (ong´er-ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n), a Swedish river which falls into the + Gulf of Bothnia, noted for its fine scenery. It is navigable for nearly + 70 miles for vessels of 600 tons.</p> + + <p><b>Angermünde</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>ng´er-mün-de), a town in Prussia, on Lake + Münde, 42 miles north-east of Berlin. Pop. 8200.</p> + + <p><b>Angers</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-zhā), a town and river-port of + France, capital of the department of Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of the + province of Anjou, on the banks of the Maine, 5½ miles from the Loire, + 150 miles south-west of Paris. It has an old castle, built by Louis IX, + once a place of great strength, now used as a prison, barrack, and + powder-magazine; a fine cathedral of the twelfth and thirteenth + centuries, with very fine old painted windows; is the seat of a bishop, + and has a school of arts and manufactures; a public library, an + art-gallery, a large modern hospital, the remains of a hospital founded + by Henry II of England in 1155; courts of law, theatre, &c. It + manufactures sail-cloth, hosiery, leather, and chemicals; foundries, + &c. In the neighbourhood are immense slate-quarries. Pop. 83,786.</p> + + <p><b>Angevins</b> (an´je-vins), natives of Anjou, often applied to the + race of English sovereigns called Plantagenets (q.v.). Anjou became + connected with England by the marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, + with Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou. The Angevin kings of England were Henry + II, Richard I, John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and + Richard II.</p> + + <p><b>Angilbert, St.</b>, the most celebrated poet of his age, secretary + and friend of Charlemagne, whose daughter, Bertha, he married. In the + latter part of his life he retired to a monastery, of which he became + abbot. Died 814. <!-- Page 165 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page165"></a>[165]</span></p> + + <p><b>Angina Pectoris</b> (an´ji-na pek´to-ris), or <b>Heart-spasm</b>, a + disease characterized by an extremely acute constriction, felt generally + in the lower part of the sternum, and extending along the whole side of + the chest and into the corresponding arm, a sense of suffocation, + faintness, and apprehension of approaching death: seldom experienced by + any but those with organic heart-disease. The disease rarely occurs + before middle age, and is more frequent in men than in women. Those + liable to attack must lead a quiet, temperate life, avoiding all scenes + which would unduly rouse their emotions. The first attack is occasionally + fatal, but usually death occurs as the result of repeated seizures. The + paroxysm may be relieved by opiates, or the inhalation, under due + precaution, of anæsthetic vapours.</p> + + <p><b>Angiosperm</b> (an´ji-o-spėrm), a term for any plant which + has its seeds enclosed in a seed-vessel. Exogens are divided into those + whose seeds are enclosed in a seed-vessel, and those with seeds produced + and ripened without the production of a seed-vessel. The former are + <i>angiosperms</i>, and constitute the principal part of the species; the + latter are <i>gymnosperms</i>, and chiefly consist of the Coniferæ and + Cycadaceæ.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:22%;"> + <a href="images/image058.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image058.jpg" + alt="Angles" title="Angles" /></a> + </div> + <p><b>Angle</b>, the point where two lines meet, or the meeting of two + lines in a point. A <i>plane rectilineal angle</i> is formed by two + straight lines which meet one another, but are not in the same straight + line; it may be considered the degree of opening or divergence of the two + straight lines which thus meet one another. A <i>right angle</i> is an + angle formed by a straight line falling on another perpendicularly, or an + angle which is measured by an arc of 90 degrees. When a straight line, as + <span class="scac">A B</span> (fig. 1), standing on another straight line + <span class="scac">C D</span>, makes the two angles <span class="scac">A + B C</span> and <span class="scac">A B D</span> equal to one another, each + of these angles is called a <i>right angle</i>. An <i>acute angle</i> is + that which is less than a right angle, as <span class="scac">E B + C</span>. An <i>obtuse angle</i> is that which is greater than a right + angle, as <span class="scac">E B D</span>. Acute and obtuse angles are + both called <i>oblique</i>, in opposition to right angles. + <i>Exterior</i> or <i>external angles</i>, the angles of any rectilineal + figure without it, made by producing the sides; thus, if the sides <span + class="scac">A B</span>, <span class="scac">B C</span>, <span + class="scac">C A</span> of the triangle <span class="scac">A B C</span> + (fig. 2) be produced to the points <span class="scac">F D E</span>, the + angles <span class="scac">C B F</span>, <span class="scac">A C D</span>, + <span class="scac">B A E</span> are called <i>exterior</i> or <i>external + angles</i>. A <i>solid angle</i> is that which is made by more than two + plane angles meeting in one point and not lying in the same plane, as the + angle of a cube. A <i>spherical angle</i> is an angle on the surface of a + sphere, contained between the arcs of two great circles which intersect + each other.</p> + + <p><b>Angler</b> (<i>Lophius piscatorius</i>), also from its habits and + appearance called <b>Fishing-frog</b> and <b>Sea-devil</b>, a remarkable + fish often found on the British coasts. It is from 3 to 5 feet long; the + head is very wide, depressed, with protuberances, and bearing long + separate movable tendrils; the mouth is capacious, and armed with + formidable teeth. Its voracity is extreme, and it is said to lie + concealed in the mud, and attract the smaller fishes within its reach by + gently waving the filamentous appendages on its head.</p> + + <p><b>Angles</b>, a Low German tribe who in the earliest historical + period had their seats in the district about Angeln, in the duchy of + Schleswig, and who in the fifth century and subsequently crossed over to + Britain along with bands of Saxons and Jutes (and probably Frisians + also), and colonized a great part of what from them has received the name + of England, as well as a portion of the Lowlands of Scotland. The Angles + formed the largest body among the Germanic settlers in Britain, and + founded the three kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.</p> + + <p><b>Anglesey</b> (ang´gl-sē), or <b>Anglesea</b> ('the Angles' + Island'), an island and county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea, + separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait; 20 miles long and 17 + miles broad; area, 176,630 acres. The surface is comparatively flat, and + the climate is milder than that of the adjoining coast. The chief + agricultural products are oats and barley, wheat, rye, potatoes, and + turnips. Numbers of cattle and sheep are raised. Anglesey yields a little + copper, lead, silver, ochre, &c. The Menai Strait is crossed by a + magnificent suspension-bridge, 580 feet between the piers and 100 feet + above high-water mark, and also by the great Britannia Tubular Railway + Bridge. The chief market-towns are Beaumaris, Holyhead, Llangefni, and + Amlweh. The county returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921), + 51,695.</p> + + <p><b>Anglesey</b>, Henry William Paget, Marquess of, English soldier and + statesman, was the eldest son of Henry, first Earl of Uxbridge, and was + born in 1768. He was educated at Oxford, and in 1790 entered Parliament + as member for the Carnarvon boroughs. In 1793 he entered the army, and in + 1794 he took part in the campaign in Flanders under the Duke of York. In + 1808 he was sent into Spain with two brigades of cavalry to join Sir John + Moore, and in the retreat to Coruña commanded the rear-guard. In 1812 he + became, by his father's death, Earl of Uxbridge. On Napoleon's escape + from Elba he was appointed commander of the British cavalry, and at the + <!-- Page 166 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page166"></a>[166]</span>battle of Waterloo, by the charge of the + heavy brigade, overthrew the Imperial Guard. For his services he was + created Marquess of Anglesey. In 1828 he became Lord-Lieutenant of + Ireland and made himself extremely popular, but was recalled in + consequence of favouring Catholic Emancipation. He was again + Lord-Lieutenant in 1830, but lost his popularity by his opposition to + O'Connell and his instrumentality in the passing of the Irish Coercion + Acts; and he quitted office in 1833. From 1846-52 he was Master-General + of the Ordnance. He died in 1854.</p> + + <p><b>Anglicanism</b>, the term is capable of a wider use, but is usually + employed as descriptive of the type of doctrine formulated by the Church + of England in the period of the Protestant Reformation. The two most + notable formularies of that period are the Confession of Faith, known as + the Thirty-nine Articles, which assumed its present shape in 1571, and + the Liturgy, known as the Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1559 in what + was substantially its present shape. By the Clerical Subscription Act of + 1865 assent is required to both Prayer Book and Articles. The Articles + are not and never were binding upon laymen.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Mgr. Moyes, <i>Aspects of + Anglicanism</i>; F. Y. Kinsman, <i>Principles of Anglicanism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Angling</b>, the art of catching fish with a hook or <i>angle</i> + (A. Sax. <i>angel</i>) baited with worms, small fish, flies, &c. We + find occasional allusions to this pursuit among the Greek and Latin + classical writers; it is mentioned several times in the Old Testament, + and it was practised by the ancient Egyptians. The first reference to + angling in England is a passage in a tract, entitled <i>Piers Fulham</i>, + supposed to have been written about the year 1420. The oldest work on the + subject in English is the <i>Treatyse of Fysshinge with an Angle</i>, + printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with a treatise on hunting and + hawking, the whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana Berners or Barnes, + prioress of a nunnery near St. Albans. Walton's inimitable discourse on + angling was first printed in 1653. The chief appliances required by an + angler are a rod, line, hooks, and baits. Rods are made of various + materials, and of various sizes. The cane rods are lightest, and where + fishing-tackle is sold they most commonly have the preference; but in + country places the rod is often of the angler's own manufacture. Rods are + commonly made in separate joints, so as to be easily taken to pieces and + put up again. They are made to taper from the butt end to the top, and + are usually possessed of a considerable amount of elasticity. In length + they may vary from 10 feet to more than double that length, with a + corresponding difference in strength—a rod for salmon being + necessarily much stronger than one suited for ordinary burn trout. The + <i>reel</i>, an apparatus for winding up the line, is attached to the rod + near the lower end, where the hand grasps it while fishing. The best are + usually made of brass, are of simple construction, and so made as to wind + or unwind freely and rapidly. That part of the line which passes along + the rod and is wound on the reel is called the <i>reel line</i>, and may + vary from 20 to 100 yards in length, according to the size of the water + and the habits of the fish angled for; it is usually made of twisted + horse-hair and silk, or of oiled silk alone. The casting line, which is + attached to this, is made of the same materials, but lighter and finer. + To the end of this is tied a piece of fine gut, on which the hook, or + hooks, are fixed. The casting or gut lines should decrease in thickness + from the reel line to the hooks. The hook, of finely-tempered steel, + should readily bend without breaking, and yet retain a sharp point. It + should be long in the shank and deep in the bend; the point straight and + true to the level of the shank; and the barb long. Their sizes and sorts + must of course entirely depend on the kind of fish that is angled for. + Floats formed of cork, goose and swan quills, &c., are often used to + buoy up the hook so that it may float clear of the bottom. For heavy fish + or strong streams a cork float is used; in slow water and for lighter + fish quill floats. <i>Baits</i> may consist of a great variety of + materials, natural or artificial. The principal natural baits are worms: + common garden worms, brandlings, and red worms, maggots, or gentles (the + larvæ of blow-flies such as are found on putrid meat), insects, small + fish (as minnows), salmon roe, &c. The artificial flies so much used + in angling for trout and salmon are composed of hairs, furs, and wools of + every variety, mingled with pieces of feathers, and secured together by + plaited wire, or gold and silver thread, marking-silk, wax, &c. The + wings may be made of the feathers of domestic fowls, or any others of a + showy colour. Some angling authorities recommend that the artificial + flies should be made to resemble as closely as possible the insects on + which the fish is wont to feed, but experience has shown that the most + capricious and unnatural combinations of feather, fur, &c., have been + often successful where the most realistic imitations have failed. + Artificial minnows, or other small fish, are also used by way of bait, + and are so contrived as to spin rapidly when drawn through the water in + order to attract the notice of the fish angled for. Angling, especially + with the fly, demands a great deal of skill and practice, the casting of + the line properly being the initial difficulty. Nowhere is the art + pursued with greater success and enthusiasm than in Britain and the + United States.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: <i>Fishing</i> + (vol. i), <i>Salmon and Trout</i> (vol. ii), <i>Pike and Coarse Fish</i> + <!-- Page 167 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page167"></a>[167]</span>(Badminton Library); H. G. Hutchinson, + <i>Fishing</i> (2 vols., Country Life series); Viscount Grey, <i>Fly + Fishing</i>; Gathorne-Hardy, <i>The Salmon</i>; Marquess of Granby, + <i>The Trout</i>; H. T. Sheringham, <i>Elements of Angling</i>; W. M. + Gallichan, <i>The Complete Fisherman</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anglo-Catholic</b>, a term sometimes used to designate those + churches which hold the principles of the English Reformation, the + Anglican or Established Church of England and the allied churches. The + term is also applied to that party in the English Church which favours + doctrines and religious forms closely approaching those of the Roman + Catholic Church, objects to be called Protestant, and corresponds closely + with the <i>Ritualistic</i> section of the Church.</p> + + <p><b>Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.</b> See <i>Sudan</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:26%;"> + <a href="images/image059.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image059.jpg" + alt="Saxon Architecture" title="Saxon Architecture" /></a> + Saxon Architecture. Doorway, Earl's Barton, Northampton + </div> + + <p><b>Anglo-Saxons</b>, the name commonly given to the nation or people + formed by the amalgamation of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who settled + in Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries after Christ, the + Anglo-Saxons being simply the English people of the earlier period of + English history. The tribes who were thus the ancestors of the bulk of + the English-speaking nationalities came from North Germany, where they + inhabited the parts about the mouths of the Elbe and Weser, and the first + body of them who gained a footing in Britain are said to have landed in + 449, and to have been led by Hengist and Horsa. From the preponderance of + the Angles the whole country came to be called <i>Engla-land</i>, that + is, the land of the Angles or English.</p> + + <p>Many scholars object to the term 'Anglo-Saxon' as being inaccurate and + open to misinterpretation. Correctly used, Anglo-Saxon means + <i>English-Saxon</i>, as distinguished from the Old-Saxon of the + Continent; incorrectly used, as it has been too frequently, it is taken + as = Angle + Saxon, a union of Angle and Saxon. Camden (1551-1623) is + responsible for the widespread use of the term; ignorance is responsible + for the misuse. Many scholars prefer to apply the term 'Old English' to + the language and people of England before <span class="scac">A.D.</span> + 1100, partly because this term is more accurate and partly because its + use helps to emphasize the essential continuity of the language.</p> + + <p>The whole Anglo-Saxon community was frequently spoken of as consisting + of the <i>eorls</i> and the <i>ceorls</i>, or the nobles and common + freemen. The former were the men of property and position, the latter + were the small landholders, handicraftsmen, &c., who generally placed + themselves under the protection of some nobleman, who was hence termed + their <i>hláford</i> or lord. Besides these there was the class of the + serfs or slaves (<i>theówas</i>), who might be either born slaves or + freemen who had forfeited their liberty by their crimes, or whom poverty + or the fortune of war had brought into this position. They served as + agricultural labourers on their masters' estates, and were mere chattels, + as absolutely the property of their master as his cattle.</p> + + <p>The king (<i>cyning</i>, <i>cyng</i>) was at the head of the State; he + was the highest of the nobles and the chief magistrate. He was not looked + upon as ruling by any Divine Right, but by the will of the people, as + represented by the <i>witan</i> (wise men) or great council of the + nation. The new king was not always the direct and nearest heir of the + late king, but one of the royal family whose abilities and character + recommended him for the office. He had the right of maintaining a + standing army of household troops, the duty of calling together the + <i>witan</i>, and of laying before them public measures, with certain + distinctions of dress, dwelling, &c., all his privileges being + possessed and exercised by the advice and consent of the + <i>witena-gemót</i> or parliament (literally, 'meeting of the wise'). + Next in rank and dignity to the king were the <i>ealdormen</i>, who were + the chief witan or counsellors, and without whose assent laws could not + be made, altered, or abrogated. They were at the head of the + administration of justice in the shires, possessing both judicial and + executive authority, and had as their officers the <i>scír-geréfan</i> or + sheriffs. The ealdormen led the <i>fyrd</i> or armed force of the county, + and the ealdorman, as such, held possession of certain lands attached to + the office, and was entitled to a share of fines and other moneys levied + for the king's use and passing through his hands. The whole executive + government may be considered as a great aristocratical association, of + which the ealdormen were the <!-- Page 168 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page168"></a>[168]</span>members, and the king little more than the + president. The ealdorman and the king were both surrounded by a number of + followers called <i>thegnas</i> or thanes, who were bound by close ties + to their superior. The king's thanes were the higher in rank; they + possessed a certain quantity of land, smaller in amount than that of an + ealdorman, and they filled offices connected with the personal service of + the king or with the administration of justice. The <i>scir-geréfa</i> + (shire-reeve or sheriff) was also an important functionary. He presided + at the county court along with the ealdorman and bishop, or alone in + their absence; and he had to carry out the decisions of the court, levy + fines, collect taxes, &c. The shires were divided into hundreds and + tithings, the latter consisting of ten heads of families, who were + jointly responsible to the State for the good conduct of any member of + their body. For the trial and settlement of minor causes there was a + hundred court held once a month. The place of the modern Parliament was + held by the <i>witena-gemót</i>. Its members, who were not elected, + comprised the æthelings or princes of the blood royal, the bishops and + abbots, the ealdormen, the thanes, the sheriffs, &c.</p> + + <p>One of the peculiar features of Anglo-Saxon society was the + <i>wergyld</i>, which was established for the settling of feuds. A sum, + paid either in kind or in money, was placed upon the life of every + freeman, according to his rank in the State, his birth, or his office. A + corresponding sum was settled for every wound that could be inflicted + upon his person; for nearly every injury that could be done to his civil + rights, his honour, or his domestic peace, &c. From the operation of + this principle no one from king to peasant was exempt.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image060.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image060.jpg" + alt="Anglo-Saxon Ploughing" title="Anglo-Saxon Ploughing" /></a> + Ploughing<br /> + From an Anglo-Saxon Calendar in the British Museum. + </div> + + <p>Agriculture, including especially the raising of cattle, sheep, and + swine, was the chief occupation of the Anglo-Saxons. Gardens and orchards + are frequently mentioned, and vineyards were common in the southern + counties. The forests were extensive, and valuable both from the mast + they produced for the swine, and from the beasts of the chase which they + harboured. Hunting was a favourite recreation among the higher ranks, + both lay and clerical. Fishing was largely carried on, herrings and + salmon being the principal fish caught; and the Anglo-Saxon whaling + vessels used to go as far as Iceland. The manufactures were naturally of + small moment. Iron was made to some extent, and some cloth, and saltworks + were numerous. In embroidery and working of gold the English were famous + over Europe. There was a considerable trade at London, which was + frequented by Normans, French, Flemings, and the merchants of the Hanse + towns. Our Anglo-Saxon forefathers were notorious for their excess in + eating and drinking, and in this respect formed a strong contrast to + their Norman conquerors. Ale, mead, and cider were the common beverages, + wine being limited to the higher classes. Pork and eels were favourite + articles of food. The houses were rude structures, but were often richly + furnished and hung with fine tapestry. The dress of the people was loose + and flowing, composed chiefly of linen, and often adorned with + embroidery. The men wore their hair long and flowing over their + shoulders. Christianity was introduced among the Anglo-Saxons in the end + of the sixth century by St. Augustine, who was sent by Pope Gregory the + Great, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Kent, then under + King Ethelred, was the first place where it took root, and thence it soon + spread over the rest of the country. The Anglo-Saxon Church long remained + independent of Rome, notwithstanding the continual efforts of the Popes + to bring it under their power. It was not till the tenth century that + this result was brought about by Dunstan. Many Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastics + were distinguished for learning and ability, but the Venerable Bede holds + the first place.</p> + + <p><i>Anglo-Saxon Language.</i>—The Anglo-Saxon language, which is + simply the earliest form of English, claims kinship with Dutch, + Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and German, especially with the Low German + dialects (spoken in North Germany). It was called by those who spoke it + <i>Englisc</i> (English). The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature + show different dialects, of which the northern and the southern were the + principal. The former was the first to be cultivated as a literary + language, but afterwards it was supplanted in this respect by the + southern or that of Wessex. It is in the latter that the principal + Anglo-Saxon works are written. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet was substantially + the same as that which we still use, except that some of the letters were + different in form, while it had two characters either of which + represented the sounds of <i>th</i> in <i>thy</i> and in <i>thing</i>. + Nouns and adjectives are declined much as in German or in Latin. The + pronouns of the first and second person had a dual number, 'we two' or + 'us two' and 'you two', besides the plural for more than two. The <!-- + Page 169 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page169"></a>[169]</span>infinitive of the verb is in <i>-an</i>, + the participle in <i>-ende</i>, and there is a gerund somewhat similar in + its usage to the Latin gerund. The verb had four moods—indicative, + subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, but only two tenses, the present + (often used as a future) and the past. Other tenses and the passive voice + were formed by auxiliary verbs. Anglo-Saxon words terminated in a vowel + much more frequently than the modern English, and altogether the language + is so different that it has to be learned quite like a foreign tongue. + Yet, notwithstanding the large number of words of Latin or French origin + that our language now contains, and the changes it has undergone, its + framework, so to speak, is still Anglo-Saxon. Many chapters of the New + Testament do not contain more than 4 per cent of non-Teutonic words, and + as a whole it averages perhaps 6 or 7.</p> + + <p>The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in + prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period, + one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to + England. The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is the ancient epic of + <i>Beowulf</i>, extending to more than 6000 lines. Beowulf is a + Scandinavian prince, who slays a monster named Grendel, after + encountering supernatural perils, and is at last slain in a contest with + a frightful dragon. Its scene appears to be laid entirely in Scandinavia. + Its date is uncertain; parts of it may have been brought over at the + emigration from Germany, though in its present form it is much later than + this. The poetical remains include a number of religious poems, or poems + on sacred themes; ecclesiastical narratives, as lives of saints and + versified chronicles; psalms and hymns; secular lyrics; allegories, + gnomic poems, riddles, &c. The religious class of poems was the + largest, and of these Cædmon's (flourished about 660) are the most + remarkable. His poems consist of paraphrases of considerable portions of + the Bible history, and treat of the creation, the temptation, the fall, + the exodus of the Israelites, the story of Daniel, the incarnation, and + the harrowing of hell, or release of the ransomed souls by Christ. Other + most interesting poems are those ascribed to Cynewulf, the <i>Christ</i>, + <i>Elene</i>, and <i>Juliana</i>, the subjects respectively being Christ, + the finding of the cross by the Empress Helena, and the life of Juliana. + Rhyme was not used in Anglo-Saxon poetry, alliteration being employed + instead, as in the older northern poetry generally. The style of the + poetry is highly elliptical, and it is full of harsh inversions and + obscure metaphors.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image061.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image061.jpg" + alt="Anglo-Saxon Brooch" title="Anglo-Saxon Brooch" /></a> + Anglo-Saxon Brooch + + <p class="poem">Ornament on front (left) is formed by means of plates + of thin gold and wire, with bosses of ivory and red glass.</p> + </div> + + <p>The Anglo-Saxon prose remains consist of translations of portions of + the Bible, homilies, philosophical writings, history, biography, laws, + leases, charters, popular treatises on science and medicine, grammars, + &c. Many of these were translations from the Latin. The Anglo-Saxon + versions of the Gospels, next to the Moeso-Gothic, are the earliest + scriptural translations in any modern language. The Psalms are said to + have been translated by Bishop Aldhelm (died 709), and also under + Alfred's direction; and the <i>Gospel of St. John</i> by Bede; but it is + not known who were the authors of the extant versions. A translation of + the first seven books of the Bible is believed to have been the work of + Ælfric, who was Abbot of Ensham and lived about the beginning of the + eleventh century. We have also eighty homilies from his pen, several + theological treatises, a Latin grammar, &c. King Alfred was a + diligent author, besides being a translator of Latin works. We have under + his name translations of Boethius' <i>De Consolatione Philosophiæ</i>, + the <i>Universal History</i> of Orosius, Bede's <i>Ecclesiastical + History</i>, the <i>Pastoral Care</i> of Gregory the Great, &c. The + most valuable to us of the Anglo-Saxon prose writings is the <i>Saxon + Chronicle</i>, as it is called, a collection of annals recording + important events in the history of the country, and compiled in different + religious houses. Of this <i>Chronicle</i> there are seven MSS. in + existence, and the latest text comes down to 1154. A considerable body of + laws remains, as well as a large number of charters. The whole of the + literature has never yet been printed. For Anglo-Saxon history, see + <i>England</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: (History) + H. M. Chadwick, <i>The Origin of the English Nation</i> (Cambridge); + (Language) Sweet, <i>Anglo-Saxon Primer</i> and <i>Reader</i>; + (Literature) B. ten Brink, <i>Geschichte der Englischen Litteratur</i>; + Stopford A. Brooke, <i>English Literature, from the beginning to the + Norman Conquest</i>; Henry Morley, <i>English Writers</i> (vols. i and + ii).</p> + + <p><b>Anglo-Saxon Law.</b> Series of laws written in the vernacular, and + unique among Teutonic peoples, were issued from the seventh century + onwards by Æthelberht, Hlothhere, Eadric, and Withraed, Kings of Kent, by + Ine, King of Wessex, by Alfred, Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmund, + Edgar, Æthelred, and Canute, in <!-- Page 170 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page170"></a>[170]</span>addition to a number of important by-laws + and regulations of various kinds, which bear no king's name. We hear, + also, of laws issued by other kings which have been lost, and there must + have been a considerable body of traditional law which was never + committed to writing. What laws are extant, show us a society mainly + agricultural, divided by birth into a noble, a free peasant, and a + servile class. There was also a dependent class in Kent, intermediate + between the freeman and the slave. The strongest social ties were those + of the kindred, and the relationship between lord and man.</p> + + <p>The laws were issued by the king and his councillors. Cases were + decided by the production of oaths which varied in value according to the + rank of the swearer, or by the several forms of the ordeal. No + distinction was made between civil and criminal law, and even homicide + could be atoned for by payment of a sum varying according to the social + status of the dead man. The object of the laws was to restrict private + vengeance, to prevent and punish theft (primarily of cattle), to stop + dishonest trading, to secure the persons and residences of the people, to + enforce the mutual obligations of relatives, and masters and men, to + provide adequate defence for the kingdom by means of garrisoned boroughs + and a well-armed mounted infantry, to protect the helpless, and to + safeguard the rights of the Church and its servants.</p> + + <p>The early laws present considerable difficulty owing to their + antiquity. The laws of Æthelberht are the earliest records in the English + language, though, like many of the other laws, they are only preserved in + a MS. of the twelfth century. The standard edition is Liebermann's + <i>Gesetze der Angelsachsen</i> (Halle, A. S. Max Niemeyer).—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of + English Law</i>; H. M. Chadwick, <i>Studies in Anglo-Saxon + Institutions</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ango´la</b>, a Portuguese territory in Western Africa, south of the + Congo, extending from the sea to Rhodesia, and from about lat. 6° <span + class="scac">S.</span> to lat. 17° <span class="scac">S.</span> (area, + 484,800 sq. miles; pop. 4,119,000). It is a country of varied features, + and its resources, as yet hardly known, are probably very great. The + province is rich in malachite, copper, iron, petroleum, and salt; rubber + supplies are becoming exhausted. The Coanza (Kwanza) is the largest + river. The capital is the seaport of Loanda; other ports are Benguella + (or Benguela) and Mossamedes. Three railways now run inland from these + places. It exports coffee, hides, gum, rubber, wax, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Angola Pea</b> (<i>Cajānus indicus</i>). See <i>Pigeon + Pea</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ango´niland</b>, a district of South Africa, lying to the west of + the southern half of Lake Nyassa, and partly in British Central Africa, + partly in Rhodesia. It is a plateau with an average height of 4000 feet, + the name being derived from the Angoni, a race of mixed Zulu blood, who + used to make murderous raids on their neighbours, and have given much + trouble to the missionaries and others.</p> + + <p><b>Ango´ra</b> (ancient, <b>Ancy´ra</b>), a town in Asia Minor, 215 + miles <span class="scac">E.S.E.</span> of Constantinople, with + considerable remains of Byzantine architecture, and relics of earlier + times, both Greek and Roman, such as the remnants of the Monumentum + Ancyranum, raised in honour of the Emperor Augustus, and giving us much + valuable information about his public life and work. All the animals of + this region are long haired, especially the goats (see <i>Goat</i>), + sheep, and cats. This hair forms an important export as well as the + fabric called camlet here manufactured from it; other exports being + goats' skins, dye-stuffs, gums, honey and wax, &c. A railway connects + it with Skutari. Pop. 32,000. In 1920 Kemal Pasha set up a National + Government at Angora, and refused to recognize the Treaty of Sèvres. A + treaty concluded with France was ratified by the Angora Government on + 23rd Oct., 1921.</p> + + <p><b>Angostu´ra</b>, or <b>Ciudad Bolivar</b>, a city of Venezuela, + capital of the province of Bolivar, on the Orinoco, about 240 miles from + the sea, with governor's residence, a college, a handsome cathedral, and + a considerable trade, steamers and sailing-vessels ascending to the town. + Exports: gold, cotton, indigo, tobacco, coffee, cattle, &c.; imports: + manufactured goods, wines, flour, &c. Pop. 17,535.</p> + + <p><b>Angostura Bark</b>, the aromatic bitter medicinal bark obtained + chiefly from <i>Galipēa officinālis</i>, a tree of 10 to 20 + feet high, growing in the northern regions of South America; nat. ord. + Rutaceæ. The bark is valuable as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also used + for a kind of bitters. From this bark being adulterated, indeed sometimes + entirely replaced, by the poisonous bark of <i>Strychnos Nux-Vomica</i>, + its use as a medicine has been almost given up.</p> + + <p><b>Angoulême</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-gö-lām), an ancient town of + Western France, capital of department Charente, on the Charente, 60 miles + <span class="scac">N.N.E.</span> of Bordeaux, on the summit of a rocky + hill. It has a fine old cathedral, built in the twelfth century and + restored in 1875, a beautiful modern town hall, built in 1858, a lyceum, + public library, natural history museum, &c. There are manufactures of + paper, woollens, and linens; distilleries, sugar-works, tanneries, + &c. Calvin lived here for three years (1527-30). Pop. 38,211.</p> + + <p><b>Angra do Heroismo</b>, the chief seaport of Terceira, one of the + Azores, with the only convenient harbour in the whole group. It has a + cathedral, a military college and arsenal, &c., and is the residence + of the Governor-General of <!-- Page 171 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page171"></a>[171]</span>the Azores, and of the foreign consuls. + Pop. 10,057.</p> + + <p><b>Angra Pequena</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n´gra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span> pe-kā´na<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>; Port. 'little bay'), a bay on the coast + of former German S.W. Africa, where the Bremen commercial firm Lüderitz + in 1883 acquired a strip of territory and established a trading station. + In 1884, notwithstanding some weak protests of the British, Germany took + under her protection the whole coast territory from the Orange River to + 26° <span class="scac">S.</span> lat., and soon after extended the + protectorate to the Portuguese frontier, but not including the British + settlement of Walvis Bay. Angra Pequena, called by the Germans + Lüderitzbucht, was captured by the South African forces in Sept., 1915. + See <i>South-West Africa</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Angri</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n´grē), a town of Southern Italy, + 12 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> of Salerno, in the centre of a + region which produces grapes, cotton, and tobacco in great quantities. In + the vicinity of Angri, Teias, King of the Ostrogoths, was defeated by + Narses. Pop. 11,574.</p> + + <p><b>Anguilla</b> (an-gwil´la). See <i>Eel</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anguilla</b> (ang-gil´a), or <b>Snake Island</b>, one of the + British West India Islands, 60 miles <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of + St. Kitts; about 20 miles long, with a breadth varying from 3 to 1¼ + miles; area, 35 sq. miles. A little sugar, cotton, tobacco, and maize is + grown. There is a saline lake in the centre, which yields salt. Pop. + 4075, of whom 100 are white.</p> + + <p><b>Anguis</b> (ang´gwis). See <i>Blind-worm</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Angus</b> (ang´gus), a name of Forfarshire.</p> + + <p><b>An´halt</b>, formerly a duchy of North Germany, lying partly in the + plains of the Middle Elbe, and partly in the valleys and uplands of the + Lower Harz, and almost entirely surrounded by Prussia; area, 888 sq. + miles. All sorts of grain, wheat especially, are grown in abundance; also + flax, rape, potatoes, tobacco, hops, and fruit. Excellent cattle are + bred. The inhabitants are principally occupied in agriculture, though + there are some iron-works and manufactures of woollens, linens, + beet-sugar, tobacco, &c. The dukes of Anhalt traced their origin to + Bernard (1170-1212), son of Albert the Bear. In time the family split up + into numerous branches, and the territory was afterwards held by three + dukes (Anhalt-Köthen, Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau). In 1863 the + Duke of Anhalt-Dessau became sole heir to the three duchies. The united + principality, incorporated in the German Empire, had one vote in the + Bundesrath and two in the Reichstag. The executive power, previous to the + changes resulting from the European War, was vested in the duke, and the + legislative in a Diet of thirty-six members. The reigning duke in 1918 + was Eduard, who succeeded his brother on 21st April, 1918. With the + outbreak of the revolution in Germany in 1918 Anhalt became a republic, + but its status in the German Republic still remains to be determined. + Pop. (1919), 331,258, almost all Protestants. The chief towns are Dessau, + Bernburg, Köthen, and Zerbst.</p> + + <p><b>An´holt</b>, an island belonging to Denmark, in the Cattegat, + midway between Jutland and Sweden, 7 miles long, 4½ broad, largely + covered with drift-sand, and surrounded by dangerous banks and reefs. + Pop. 300.</p> + + <p><b>Anhy´dride</b>, a chemical term synonymous with acidic oxide (see + <i>Chemistry</i>) and applied to those oxides which unite with water to + form acids. They were formerly called <i>anhydrous acids</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anhy´drite</b>, anhydrous sulphate of calcium, a mineral presenting + several varieties of structure and colour. The <i>vulpinite</i> of Italy + possesses a granular structure, resembling a coarse-grained marble, and + is used in sculpture. Its colour is greyish-white, intermingled with + blue.</p> + + <p><b>Ani</b> (ä´nē), a ruined city in Armenia, formerly the + residence of the Armenian dynasty of the Bagratidæ, having in the + eleventh century a population of 100,000 and 1000 churches. In the + thirteenth century it was taken by the Tartars, and was destroyed by an + earthquake in 1319.</p> + + <p><b>Aniche</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-nēsh), a town or village in the + French department Nord, arrondissement Douai, with coal-mines, + glass-works, chemical-works, &c. Pop. 6927.</p> + + <p><b>Aniene</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-nē-ā´nā). See + <i>Anio</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´iline</b>, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>, is an + extremely important substance as it forms the starting-point in the + preparation of a large number of substances. It was first prepared by + Unverdorben, in 1826, by distillation of indigo. Aniline is present in + small quantity in coal-tar, and is prepared commercially from benzene by + transforming it by means of nitric acid into nitro-benzene and reducing + this with scrap-iron and hydrochloric acid. The substance can also be + prepared by reducing nitro-benzene electrolytically. It is a liquid of + peculiar odour, boiling at 182° C., colourless when quite pure, but + rapidly darkening in colour on standing, so that commercial aniline is + usually dark-brown. It is a basic substance, and forms crystalline salts + with acids. The salts, like aniline itself, become coloured on exposure + to air. Aniline contains the characteristic chemical group + NH<sub>2</sub>, the amino group, and substances containing this group + react with nitrous acid at 0° C., forming diazonium compounds; these + combine readily with phenols, naphthols, and other amino compounds to + form azo compounds, highly-coloured compounds many of which are dyes. + Many dyes are prepared from aniline, e.g. rosaniline, magenta, methylene + blue, aniline blue, &c., also some explosives, e.g. tetranitraniline, + which is a powerful explosive prepared by nitrating aniline and the + substance tetranitromethylaniline, <!-- Page 172 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page172"></a>[172]</span>"tetryl", used in + detonators. Several medicinal substances are also prepared from aniline, + for instance, antifebrin and atoxyl.</p> + + <p><b>An´ilism</b>, aniline poisoning, a name given to the aggregate of + symptoms which often show themselves in those employed in aniline works, + resulting from the inhalation of aniline vapours. It may be either acute + or chronic. In a slight attack of the former kind, the lips, cheeks, and + ears become of a bluish colour, and the person's walk may be unsteady; in + severe cases there is loss of consciousness. Chronic anilism is + accompanied by derangement of the digestive organs and of the nervous + system, headaches, eruptions on the skin, muscular weakness, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Animal</b>, an organized and sentient living being. Life in the + earlier periods of natural history was attributed almost exclusively to + animals. With the progress of science, however, it was extended to + plants. In the case of the higher animals and plants there is no + difficulty in assigning the individual to one of the two great kingdoms + of organic nature, but in their lowest manifestations the vegetable and + animal kingdoms are brought into such immediate contact that it becomes + almost impossible to assign them precise limits, and to say with + certainty where the one begins and the other ends. From <i>form</i> no + absolute distinction can be fixed between animals and plants. Many + animals, such as the sea-shrubs, sea-mats, &c., so resemble plants in + external appearance that they were, and even yet popularly are, looked + upon as such. With regard to <i>internal structure</i> no line of + demarcation can be laid down, all plants and animals being, in this + respect, fundamentally similar; that is, alike composed of molecular, + cellular, and fibrous tissues. Neither are the chemical characters of + animal and vegetable substances more distinct. Animals contain in their + tissues and fluids a larger proportion of nitrogen than plants, whilst + plants are richer in carbonaceous compounds than the former. In some + animals, moreover, substances almost exclusively confined to plants are + found. Thus the outer wall of the Sea-squirts contains <i>cellulose</i>, + a substance largely found in plant-tissues; whilst <i>chlorophyll</i>, + the colouring-matter of plants, occurs in Hydra and many other lower + animals. <i>Power of motion</i>, again, though broadly distinctive of + animals, cannot be said to be absolutely characteristic of them. Thus + many animals, as oysters, sponges, corals, &c., in their mature + condition are rooted or fixed, while the embryos of many plants, together + with numerous fully-developed forms, are endowed with locomotive power by + means of vibratile, hair-like processes called cilia. The distinctive + points between animals and plants which are most to be relied on are + those derived from the <i>nature and mode of assimilation of the + food</i>. Plants feed on <i>inorganic matters</i>, consisting of water, + ammonia, carbonic acid, and mineral matters. They can only take in food + which is presented to them in a <i>liquid</i> or <i>gaseous</i> state. + The exceptions to these rules are found chiefly in the case of plants + which live <i>parasitically</i> on other plants or animals, in which + cases the plant may be said to feed on organic matters, represented by + the juices of their hosts. Animals, on the contrary, require + <i>organized</i> matters for food. They feed either upon plants or upon + other animals. But even carnivorous animals can be shown to be dependent + upon plants for subsistence; since the animals upon which Carnivora prey + are in their turn supported by plants. Animals, further, can subsist on + <i>solid</i> food in addition to liquids and gases; but many animals + (such as the Tapeworms) live by the mere imbibition of fluids which are + absorbed by their tissues, such forms possessing no distinct digestive + system. Animals require a due supply of <i>oxygen gas</i> for their + sustenance, this gas being used in respiration. Plants, on the contrary, + require <i>carbonic acid</i>. The animal exhales or gives out carbonic + acid as the part result of its tissue-waste, whilst the plant, taking in + this gas, is enabled to decompose it into its constituent carbon and + oxygen. The plant retains the former for the uses of its economy, and + liberates the oxygen, which is thus restored to the atmosphere for the + use of the animal. Animals receive their food into the interior of their + bodies, and assimilation takes place in their internal surfaces. Plants, + on the other hand, receive their food into their external surfaces, and + assimilation is effected in the external parts, as is exemplified in the + leaf-surfaces under the influence of sunlight. Cf. T. J. Parker and W. A. + Haswell, <i>Text-Book of Zoology</i>; <i>Cambridge Natural + History</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Animal Chemistry.</b> See <i>Chemistry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Animalcule</b> (an-i-mal´kūl), a general name given to many + forms of animal life from their minute size. The larger examples are just + visible to the naked eye, but most of them are strictly <span + class="correction" title="Original reads `miscroscopic'." + >microscopic</span>. Some are pigmented, but the majority are colourless. + The term is not applicable to a particular zoological type, but it is + customary to confine it to the 'Protozoa', 'Rotifera', or 'Wheel + Animalcules'.</p> + + <p><b>Animal Heat.</b> All animals possess a certain amount of heat or + temperature which is necessary for the performance of vital action. The + only classes of animals in which a constantly-elevated temperature is + kept up are birds and mammals. The bodily heat of the former varies from + 39.4° to 43.9° C., and of the latter from 35.5° to 40.5° C. The mean or + average heat of the human body is about 99° F., and it never falls much + below this in health. Below birds, animals are named 'cold-blooded', this + term meaning in its <!-- Page 173 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page173"></a>[173]</span>strictly-physiological sense that their + temperature is usually that of the medium in which they live, and that it + varies with that of the surrounding medium. The temperature of + 'warm-blooded' animals is remarkably constant, although there are + individual variations. In man this variation is slight, amounting only to + fractions of a degree. The cause of the evolution of heat in the animal + body is referred to the union (by a process resembling ordinary + combustion) of the carbon and hydrogen of the system with the oxygen + taken in from the air in the process of respiration.</p> + + <p><b>Animal Magnetism.</b> See <i>Hypnotism</i>, <i>Mesmer</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Animals, Cruelty to</b>, an offence against which societies have + been formed and laws passed in England and other countries. According to + English law, if any person shall cruelly beat, ill-treat, overdrive, + abuse, or torture any domestic animal, he shall forfeit a sum not + exceeding £5 for every such offence. Bull-baiting, cock-fighting, and the + like are also prohibited. Provision is also made for the punishment of + persons unlawfully and maliciously killing, maiming, or wounding cattle, + dogs, birds, beasts, and other animals.</p> + + <p><b>Animal Worship</b>, a practice found to prevail, or to have + prevailed, in the most widely-distant parts of the world, both the Old + and the New, but nowhere to such an amazing extent as in ancient Egypt, + notwithstanding its high civilization. Nearly all the more important + animals found in the country were regarded as sacred in some part of + Egypt, and the degree of reverence paid to them was such that throughout + Egypt the killing of a hawk or an ibis, whether voluntary or not, was + punished with death. The worship, however, was not, except in a few + instances, paid to them as actual deities. The animals were merely + regarded as sacred to the deities, and the worship paid to them was + symbolical.</p> + + <p><b>An´ima Mun´di.</b> See <i>Pantheism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Animé</b> (an´i-me), a resin obtained from the trunk of an American + tree (<i>Hymenæa Courbaril</i>). It is of a transparent amber colour, has + a light, agreeable smell, and is soluble in alcohol. It strongly + resembles copal, and, like it, is used in making varnishes. See + <i>Copal</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´imism</b>, the system of medicine propounded by Stahl, and based + on the idea that the soul (<i>anima</i>) is the seat of life. In modern + usage the term is applied to express the general doctrine of souls and + other spiritual beings, and especially to the tendency, common among + savage races, to attribute souls or spirits to inanimate things, and to + explain phenomena not due to obvious natural causes by attributing them + to spiritual agency. Amongst the beliefs of animism is that of a human + apparitional soul, bearing the form and appearance of the body, and + living after death a sort of semi-human life.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir J. G. Frazer, <i>The Golden + Bough</i>; Andrew Lang, <i>Myth, Ritual, and Religion</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anio</b> (now <b>Aniēne</b> or <b>Teverōne</b>), a + river in Italy, a tributary of the Tiber, which it enters from the east a + short distance above Rome, renowned for the natural beauties of the + valley through which it flows, and for the remains of ancient buildings + there situated, as the villas of Mæcenas and the Emperor Hadrian.</p> + + <p><b>Anise</b> (an´is; <i>Pimpinella Anīsum</i>), an annual plant + of the nat. ord. Umbelliferæ, a native of Eastern Asia, Egypt, and the + Mediterranean coasts, and cultivated in Spain, France, Italy, Malta, + &c., whence the fruit, popularly called <i>aniseed</i>, is imported. + This fruit is ovate, with ten narrow ribs, between which are oil-vessels. + It has an aromatic smell, and is largely employed to flavour liqueurs + (aniseed or anisette), sweetmeats, &c. <i>Star-anise</i> is the fruit + of an evergreen Asiatic tree (<i>Illicium anisātum</i>), nat. ord. + Magnoliaceæ, and is brought chiefly from China. Its flavour is similar to + that of anise, and it is used for the same purposes. An essential oil is + obtained from both kinds of anise, and is used for scenting soaps and in + the preparation of cordials.</p> + + <p><b>Anjou</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-zhö), an ancient province of France, now + forming the department of Maine-et-Loire, and parts of the departments of + Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, and Sarthe; area, about 3000 sq. miles. In 1060 + the province passed into the hands of the House of Gatinais, of which + sprang Count Godfrey V, who, in 1127, married Matilda, daughter of Henry + I of England, and so became the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings. Anjou + remained in the possession of the English kings up to 1204, when John + lost it to the French king Philip Augustus. In 1226 Louis VIII bestowed + this province on his brother Charles; but in 1328 it was reunited to the + French Crown. John I raised it to the rank of a duchy, and gave it to his + son Louis. Henceforth it remained separate from the French Crown till + 1480, when it fell to Louis XI.</p> + + <p><b>Ankarström</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n´ka<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-streum), Jan Jakob, the murderer of + Gustavus III of Sweden, was born about 1762, and was at first a page in + the Swedish Court, afterwards an officer in the royal bodyguard. He was a + strenuous opponent of the sovereign's measures to restrict the privileges + of the nobility, and joined Counts Horn and Ribbing in a plot to + assassinate Gustavus. The assassination took place on 15th March, 1792. + Ankarström was tried, tortured, and executed in April, dying boasting of + his deed.</p> + + <p><b>Anker</b>, an obsolete measure used in Britain for spirits, beer, + &c., containing 8½ imperial gallons. A measure of similar capacity + was used in Germany and elsewhere in Europe. <!-- Page 174 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page174"></a>[174]</span></p> + + <p><b>An´klam</b>, a town in Prussia, province of Pomerania, 47 miles + north-west of Stettin, on the River Peene, which is here navigable. + Shipbuilding, woollen and cotton manufactures, soap-boiling, tanning, + &c., are carried on. Pop. 15,280.</p> + + <p><b>Anko´bar</b>, or <b>Anko´ber</b>, a town in Abyssinia, former + capital of Shoa, on a steep conical hill 8200 feet high. Pop. 2000.</p> + + <p><b>Ankylo´sis</b>, or <b>Anchylo´sis</b>, stiffness of the joints + caused by a more or less complete coalescence of the bones through + ossification, often the result of inflammation or injury. False ankylosis + is stiffness of a joint when the disease is not in the joint itself, but + in the tendinous and muscular parts by which it is surrounded.</p> + + <p><b>Ankylostomi´asis</b>, a 'worm disease' to which miners are subject + in some localities, is caused by vast numbers of small parasitic worms + (<i>Ankylostoma</i> or <i>Anchylostoma duodenale</i>) in the duodenum or + upper portions of the intestinal canal. Deriving their sustenance from + the system, these worms produce anæmia or bloodlessness (that is, + deficiency of the red corpuscles of the blood), the sufferers being + pallid, feeble, short-breathed, liable to faint, and unequal to any + laborious work, and death may result if a cure is not effected. + Fortunately the disease is not difficult to cure if the remedies are + applied—remedies such as will expel the worms from the intestine. + The disease is said to be common in tropical and sub-tropical countries + all over the world. In Europe it was perhaps first observed in 1879 in + the case of workmen engaged in excavating the St. Gothard tunnel. Since + 1896 it has been well known in some of the German mines; and in 1903 it + was detected among the miners engaged in the Dolcoath mine in Cornwall. + The eggs of the worms are carried from the body with the fæces; under + favourable circumstances they develop into larvæ, which may gain entrance + again into the human body by the mouth (perhaps in drinking-water), to + attain full development in the intestine. Careful sanitary arrangements + are a preventive of the disease, which is also known as 'miner's worm', + 'miner's anæmia', &c.</p> + + <p><b>Ann</b>, or <b>Annat</b>, in Scottish law, the half-year's stipend + of a living, after the death of the clergyman, payable to his family or + next of kin. The right to the ann is not vested in the clergyman himself, + but in his representatives; and, accordingly, it can neither be disposed + of by him nor attached for his debts.</p> + + <p><b>Anna</b>, an Anglo-Indian money of account, the sixteenth part of a + rupee, and of the value of one penny; it is divided into four pice.</p> + + <p><b>An´naberg</b>, a town in Saxony, 47 miles south-west of Dresden. + Mining (for silver, cobalt, iron, &c.) is carried on, and there are + manufactures of lace, ribbons, fringes, buttons, &c. Pop. 17,025.</p> + + <p><b>Anna Comne´na</b>, daughter of Alexius I, Comnenus, Byzantine + emperor. She was born 1083, and died 1148. After her father's death she + endeavoured to secure the succession for her husband, Nicephorus + Briennius, but was baffled by his want of energy and ambition. She wrote + (in Greek) a life of her father Alexius (<i>The Alexiad</i>, a work in + fifteen books). She is a character in Sir Walter Scott's <i>Count Robert + of Paris</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anna Ivanov´na</b>, Empress of Russia, born in 1693, the daughter + of Ivan, the elder half-brother of Peter the Great. She was married in + 1710 to the Duke of Courland, in the following year was left a widow, and + in 1730 ascended the throne of the tsars on the condition proposed by the + senate, that she would limit the absolute power of the tsars, and do + nothing without the advice of the council composed of the leading members + of the Russian aristocracy. But no sooner had she ascended the throne + than she declared her promise null, and proclaimed herself autocrat of + all the Russias. She chose as her favourite Ernest John von Biren or + Biron, who was soon all-powerful in Russia, and ruled with great + severity. Several of the leading nobles were executed, and many thousand + men exiled to Siberia. In 1737 Anna forced the Courlanders to choose + Biren as their duke, and nominated him at her death regent of the empire + during the minority of Prince Ivan (of Brunswick). Anna died in 1740. See + <i>Biren</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´nals</b>, a history of events in chronological order, each event + being recorded under the year in which it occurred. The name is derived + from the first annual records of the Romans, which were called + <i>annāles pontificum</i> or <i>annāles maxĭmi</i>, + drawn up by the <i>pontifex maximus</i> (chief pontiff). The practice of + keeping such annals was afterwards adopted also by various private + individuals, as by Fabius Pictor, Calpurnius Piso, and others. The name + hence came to be applied in later times to historical works in which the + matter was treated with special reference to chronological arrangement, + as to the <i>Annals</i> of Tacitus.</p> + + <p><b>Annam´</b>, a country of Asia occupying the east side of the + South-eastern or Indo-Chinese Peninsula, along the China Sea. It + comprises Tonquin in the north, Annam (in a narrower sense), and + Cochin-China farther south; with the inland territory of the Laos tribes: + together, area, 170,000 sq. miles; pop. 15,000,000, 9,000,000 being in + Tonquin. In the narrow sense Annam now denotes the country between + Tonquin and French Cochin-China, under the nominal rule of a native king + (the present ruler, Khai-Dinh, succeeded to the throne in 1916). Annam + has an <!-- Page 175 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page175"></a>[175]</span>area of 52,100 sq. miles. Pop. (1919), + 5,952,000, including 2117 Europeans. The coast is considerably indented, + especially at the mouths of the rivers, where it affords many commodious + harbours. Tonquin is mountainous on the north, but in the east is nearly + level, terminating towards the sea in an alluvial plain yielding good + crops of rice, cotton, fruits, ginger, and spices, and a great variety of + varnish trees, palms, &c. The principal river is the Song-ka, which + has numerous tributaries, many of them being joined together by canals, + both for irrigation and commerce. Tonquin is rich in gold, silver, + copper, and iron. Annam (in the narrow sense) is, generally speaking, + unproductive, but contains many fertile spots, in which grain, leguminous + plants, sugar-cane, cinnamon, &c., are produced in great abundance. + Agriculture is the chief occupation, but many of the inhabitants are + engaged in the spinning and weaving of cotton and silk into coarse + fabrics, the preparation of varnish, iron-smelting, and the construction + of ships or junks. The inhabitants are said to be the ugliest of the + Mongoloid races of the peninsula, being under the middle size and less + robust than the surrounding peoples. Their language is monosyllabic, and + is connected with the Chinese. The religion of the majority is Buddhism, + but the educated classes hold the doctrines of Confucius. The principal + towns are Hanoi, the capital of Tonquin, and Huë, the capital of the + kingdom and formerly of the whole empire. Annam was conquered by the + Chinese in 214 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, but in <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1428 it completely won its independence. The + French began to interfere actively in its affairs in 1847 on the plea of + protecting the native Christians. By the treaties of 1862 and 1867 they + obtained the southern and most productive part of Cochin-China, + subsequently known as French Cochin-China; and in 1874 they obtained + large powers over Tonquin, notwithstanding the protests of the Chinese. + Finally, in 1883, Tonquin was ceded to France, and next year Annam was + declared a French protectorate. After a short period of hostilities with + China the latter recognized the French claims, and Tonquin is now a + French colony, while the kingdom of Annam is, since 1886, entirely under + French direction. Cf. F. R. Eberhardt, <i>Guide de l' Annam</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Annamaboe</b> (-bō´), a seaport in Western Africa, on the + Gold Coast, 10 miles east of Cape Coast Castle, with some trade in + gold-dust, ivory, palm-oil, &c. Pop. about 5000.</p> + + <p><b>An´nan</b>, a royal and police burgh in Scotland, on the Annan, a + little above its entrance into the Solway Firth, one of the Dumfries + district of burghs. Pop. 3928.—The River <i>Annan</i> is a stream + 40 miles long running through the central division of Dumfriesshire, to + which it gives the name of <i>Annandale</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Annap´olis</b>, the capital of Maryland, United States, on the + Severn, near its mouth in Chesapeake Bay. It contains a college (St. + John's), a state-house, and the United States Naval Academy. Pop. (1920), + 11,214.</p> + + <p><b>Annap´olis</b>, a small town in Nova Scotia, on an inlet of the Bay + of Fundy, with an important traffic by railway and steamboat. It is one + of the oldest European settlements in America, dating from 1604.</p> + + <p><b>Ann Arbor</b>, a town of Michigan, United States, on the Huron + River, about 40 miles west of Detroit; the seat of the State university. + It has flour-mills, and it manufactures woollens, iron, and agricultural + implements. Pop. 19,516.</p> + + <p><b>Annates</b> (an´nāts), a year's income claimed for many + centuries by the Pope on the death of any bishop, abbot, or parish + priest, to be paid by his successor. In England they were at first paid + to the Archbishop of Canterbury, but were afterwards appropriated by the + Popes. In 1532 the Parliament gave them to the Crown; but in 1703 Queen + Anne restored them to the Church by applying them to the augmentation of + poor livings. See <i>Queen Anne's Bounty</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image062.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image062.jpg" + alt="Annatto" title="Annatto" /></a> + Annatto (<i>Bixa Orellāna</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Annat´to</b>, or <b>Annato</b>, an orange-red colouring matter, + obtained from the pulp surrounding the seeds of <i>Bixa + Orellāna</i>, a shrub native to tropical America, and cultivated in + Guiana, St. Domingo, and the East Indies. It is sometimes used as a dye + for silk and cotton goods, though it does not produce a very durable + colour, but it is much used in medicine for tinging plasters and + ointments, and to a considerable extent by farmers for giving a rich + colour to milk, butter, and cheese. The colour given by annatto + approaches very <!-- Page 176 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page176"></a>[176]</span>nearly the natural colouring matter of + milk fat. It is guaranteed to preserve the same colour throughout the + year, and is considered to be a legitimate colouring matter.</p> + + <p><b>Anne</b>, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland was born at + Twickenham, near London, 6th Feb., 1664. She was the second daughter of + James II, then Duke of York, and Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of + Clarendon. With her father's permission she was educated according to the + principles of the English Church. In 1683 she was married to Prince + George, brother of King Christian V of Denmark. On the arrival of the + Prince of Orange in 1688, Anne wished to remain with her father; but she + was prevailed upon by Lord Churchill (afterwards Duke of Marlborough) and + his wife to join the triumphant party. After the death of William III in + 1702 she ascended the English throne. Her character was essentially weak, + and she was governed first by Marlborough and his wife, and afterwards by + Mrs. Masham. Most of the principal events of her reign are connected with + the war of the Spanish Succession. The only important acquisition that + England made by it was Gibraltar, which was captured in 1704. Another + very important event of this reign was the union of England and Scotland + under the name of Great Britain, which was accomplished in 1707. Anne + seems to have long cherished the wish of securing the succession to her + brother James, but this was frustrated by the internal dissensions of the + cabinet. Grieved at the disappointment of her secret wishes, she fell + into a state of weakness and lethargy, and died, 20th July, 1714. The + reign of Anne was distinguished not only by the brilliant successes of + the British arms, but also on account of the number of admirable and + excellent writers who flourished at this time, among whom were Pope, + Swift, and Addison. Anne bore her husband many children, all of whom died + in infancy, except one son, the Duke of Gloucester, who died at the age + of twelve.</p> + + <p><b>Anne</b> (of Austria), daughter of Philip III of Spain, was born at + Madrid in 1602, and in 1615 was married to Louis XIII of France. + Richelieu, fearing the influence of her foreign connections, did + everything he could to humble her. In 1643 her husband died, and she was + left regent, but placed under the control of a council. But the + Parliament overthrew this arrangement, and entrusted her with full + sovereign rights during the minority of her son Louis XIV. Having brought + upon herself the hatred of the nobles by her boundless confidence in + Cardinal Mazarin, she was forced to flee from Paris during the wars of + the Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposition, and was able in 1661 + to transmit to her son unimpaired the royal authority. She spent the + remainder of her life in retirement, and died 20th Jan., 1666.</p> + + <p><b>Annealing</b> (an-ēl´ing), a process to which many articles + of metal and glass are subjected after making, in order to render them + more tenacious and which consists in heating them and allowing them to + cool slowly. When the metals are worked by the hammer, or rolled into + plates, or drawn into wire, they acquire a certain amount of brittleness, + which destroys their usefulness, and has to be remedied by annealing. The + tempering of steel is one kind of annealing. Annealing is particularly + employed in glass-houses, and consists in putting the glass vessels, as + soon as they are formed and while they are yet hot, into a furnace or + oven, in which they are suffered to cool gradually. The toughness is + greatly increased by cooling the articles in oil.</p> + + <p><b>Annecy</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-sē), an ancient town in France, + department of Haute-Savoie, situated on the Lake of Annecy, 21 miles s. + of Geneva; contains a cathedral and a ruinous old castle once the + residence of the counts of Genevois; manufactures of cotton, leather, + paper, and hardware. Pop. 15,622.—The lake is about 9 miles long + and 2 broad.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image063.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image063.jpg" + alt="Lobworm" title="Lobworm" /></a> + Lobworm (one of the Annelida) + </div> + + <p><b>Annel´ida</b>, or <b>Annulata</b>, an extensive division or class + of Annulosa or articulate animals, so called because their bodies are + formed of a great number of small rings, the outward signs of internal + segmentation. The earth-worm, the lobworm, the nereis, and the leech + belong to this division. They have red, rarely yellow or green, blood + circulating in a double system of contractile vessels, a double + ganglionated nervous cord, and respire by external branchiæ, internal + vesicles, or by the skin. Their organs of motion consist of bristles or + <i>setæ</i>, which are usually attached to the lateral surfaces of each + segment, the bristles being borne on 'foot processes' or + <i>parapodia</i>. The number of body segments varies. As many as 400 may + be found in some sea-worms. A complete digestive system is developed, + consisting of a mouth—armed with horny jaws and a protrusible + proboscis—gizzard, stomach, and intestine. See <i>Earth-worm</i>, + <i>Leech</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Annexation</b>, a term applied to the acquisition by a State of + territory previously belonging to another Power, or independent. It is + applicable not only to the extension of a State's sovereignty <!-- Page + 177 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page177"></a>[177]</span>over + adjoining territory, but also to an acquisition of a remote territory. + The inhabitants of the annexed territory are absolved from their + allegiance to their former sovereign. Such annexations in modern history + were those of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany in 1871, of California by the + United States, of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, and of the + Boer Republics by Great Britain.</p> + + <p><b>Annfield Plain</b>, a straggling colliery town (urban district) of + England, Durham, about 7 miles south-west of Gateshead. Pop. (1921), + 16,524.</p> + + <p><b>Annobon´</b>, or <b>Annobom</b>, a beautiful Spanish island of + Western Africa, south of the Bight of Biafra, about 4 miles long by 2 + miles broad, and rising abruptly to the height of 3000 feet, richly + covered with vegetation. Pop. 2000.</p> + + <p><b>Annonay</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-o-nā), a town in southern France, + department of Ardèche, 37 miles <span class="scac">S.S.W.</span> of + Lyons, in a picturesque situation. It is the most important town of + Ardèche, manufacturing paper and glove leather to a large extent, also + cloth, felt, silk stuffs, gloves, hosiery, chemical manures, glue, + gelatine, brushes, chocolate, and candles. There is an obelisk in memory + of Joseph Montgolfier of balloon fame. Pop. 16,660.</p> + + <p><b>An´nual</b>, in botany, a plant that springs from seed, grows up, + produces seed, and then dies, all within a single year or season. Among + annual grasses may be noted all our cereals, barley, wheat, rye, and + oats.</p> + + <p><b>An´nual</b>, in literature, the name given to a class of + publications which at one time enjoyed an immense yearly circulation, and + were distinguished by great magnificence both of binding and + illustration, which rendered them much sought after as Christmas and New + Year presents. Their contents were chiefly prose tales and ballads, + lyrics, and other poetry. The earliest was the <i>Forget-me-not</i>, + started in 1822, and followed next year by the <i>Friendship's + Offering</i>. The <i>Literary Souvenir</i> was commenced in 1824, and the + <i>Keepsake</i> in 1827. Among the names of the editors occur those of + Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. S. C. Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessington, + Mary Howitt, &c. The popularity of the annuals reached its zenith + about 1829, when no less than seventeen made their appearance; in 1856 + the <i>Keepsake</i>, the last of the series, ceased to exist.</p> + + <p><b>Annual Register</b>, an English publication commenced in 1758 by + Dodsley, the publisher, and since continued in yearly volumes down to the + present day. There was also an <i>Edinburgh Annual Register</i>, the + historical part of which was for several years contributed by Sir Walter + Scott and afterwards by Robert Southey. It commenced in 1808 and came to + a close in 1827.</p> + + <p><b>Annu´ity</b>, a periodical payment, made annually, or at more + frequent intervals, and continuing either a certain number of years, or + for an uncertain period, to be determined by a particular event, as the + death of the recipient or annuitant, or that of the party liable to pay + the annuity; or the annuity may be perpetual. An annuity is usually + raised by the present payment of a certain sum as a consideration whereby + the party making the payment, or some other person named by him, becomes + entitled to an annuity, and the rules and principles by which this + present value is to be computed have been the subjects of careful + investigation. The present value of a perpetual annuity is evidently a + sum of money that will yield an interest equal to the annuity, and + payable at the same periods; and an annuity of this description, payable + quarterly, will evidently be of greater value than one of the same amount + payable annually, since the annuitant has the additional advantage of the + interest on three of the quarterly payments until the expiration of the + year. In other words, it requires a greater present capital to be put at + interest to yield a given sum per annum, payable quarterly, than to yield + the same annual sum payable at the end of each year. The present value of + an annuity for a limited period is a sum which, if put at interest, will + at the end of that period give an amount equal to the sum of all the + payments of the annuity and interest; and, accordingly, if it be proposed + to invest a certain sum of money in the purchase of an annuity for a + given number of years, the comparative value of the two may be precisely + estimated, the rate of interest being given. But annuities for uncertain + periods, and particularly life annuities, are more frequent, and the + value of the annuity is computed according to the probable duration of + the life by which it is limited. Such annuities are often created by + contract, whereby the Government or a private annuity office agrees, for + a certain sum advanced by the purchaser, to pay a certain sum in yearly, + quarterly, or other periodical payments to the person advancing the + money, or to some other named by him, during the life of the annuitant. + Or the annuity may be granted to the annuitant during the life of some + other person, or during two or more joint lives, or during the life of + the longest liver or survivor among a number of persons named. If a + person having a certain capital, and intending to spend this capital and + the income of it during his own life, could know precisely how long he + should live, he might lend his capital at a certain rate during his life, + and by taking every year, besides the interest, a certain amount of the + capital, he might secure the same annual amount for his support during + his life in such manner that he should have the same sum to spend every + year, and consume precisely his whole capital during his life. But since + he does not know how long <!-- Page 178 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page178"></a>[178]</span>he is to live, he agrees with the + Government or an annuity office to take the risk of the duration of his + life, and they agree to pay him a certain annuity for life in exchange + for the capital which he proposes to invest in this way. The probable + duration of his life therefore becomes a subject of computation; and for + the purpose of making this calculation tables of longevity are made by + noting the proportion of deaths at certain ages in the same country or + district. Founding on a comparison of many such tables, the British + Government has empowered the Postmaster-General to grant annuities at the + following rates, which are probably more closely adjusted to their actual + value than those of insurance companies and other dealers in annuities: + To secure an immediate annuity of £100, the cost is, for males of 20 + years, £2279, 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>; for females of same age, £2482, + 10<i>s.</i>; for males of 30 years, £2045, 8<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>, for + females, £2258, <i>6s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; for males of 40 years, £1789, + 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; for females, £1990; for males of 60, £1148, + 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; females, £1275, 8<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>; and so on. + <i>Deferred</i> annuities, that is, such as have their first payments + postponed for a greater or less number of years, are also granted. We + give the rates for an annuity of £100 deferred 20 years: Males aged 20, + £848, 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; females, £1014, 13<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>; + males aged 35, £557, 1<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i>; females, £697, 1<i>s.</i> + 8<i>d.</i>; and so on. If a person on whose life the deferred annuity is + to depend should die before payment commences, the purchase-money may be + returned to his or her representatives, provided that an agreement to + that effect had been made in the first instance, but in this case the + purchase-money is necessarily higher. See <i>Insurance</i>.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Baily, <i>Life Annuities and + Assurances</i>; J. Henry, <i>Government Life Annuity Commutation + Tables</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Annuloi´da</b>, one of Professor Huxley's eight primary groups, a + division (sub-kingdom) of animals, including the Rotifera, Scolecida + (tape-worms, &c.), all which are more or less ring-like in + appearance, and the Echinodermata, whose embryos show traces of + annulation.</p> + + <p><b>Annulo´sa</b>, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals regarded by some + as synonymous with the Arthropoda or Articulata; according to other + systematists, including both the Articulata and Annulata or worms.</p> + + <p><b>Annunciation</b>, the declaration of the angel Gabriel to the + Virgin Mary informing her that she was to become the mother of our + Lord.—<i>Annunciation</i> or <i>Lady Day</i> is a feast of the + Church in honour of the annunciation, celebrated on the 25th of + March.—The Italian order of <i>Knights of the Annunciation</i> was + instituted by Amadeus VI, Duke of Savoy, in 1360. The king is always + grand-master. The knights must be of high rank, and must already be + members of the order of St. Mauritius and St. Lazarus. The decoration of + the order consists of a golden shield suspended from a chain or collar of + roses and knots, the letters F. E. R. T. being inscribed on the roses, + and standing for <i>Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit</i> (its bravery held + Rhodes).—There are two orders of <i>nuns of the Annunciation</i>, + one originally French, founded in 1501 by Joanna of Valois; the other + Italian, founded in 1604 by Maria Vittoria Fornari of Genoa.</p> + + <p><b>Annunzio</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-nu<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>nt´syō), Gabriele d', Italian poet, + novelist, and dramatist, born at Pescara in 1863, his patronymic being + Rapagnetta. He was educated at Prato and in Rome, and early took to + literature and journalism. In 1898 he was elected a member of the Italian + Chamber of Deputies, in which he joined the Socialist party. He came + before the public when a schoolboy with a volume of verse called <i>Primo + Vere</i>, to which others—naturally much more mature—were + subsequently added. Several of his novels have been published in English, + as: <i>The Child of Pleasure</i>, <i>The Victim</i>, <i>The Triumph of + Death</i>, <i>The Virgin of the Rocks</i>, <i>The Fire of Life</i>. Some + of these have been very successful, though disfigured to some extent by + coarse realism and voluptuousness. He began to write plays later in life. + Among them <i>Gioconda</i>, <i>The Dead City</i>, and <i>Francesca da + Rimini</i> may be read in English versions, and <i>Gioconda</i> and + <i>Francesca</i> have been performed on the English stage. His more + recent works include: <i>Le Martyr de Saint Sebastien</i> (1911), <i>Le + Chèvrefeuille</i> (1914), <i>La Beffa di Buccari</i> (1918), + <i>Notturno</i> (1918). D'Annunzio is the most prominent Italian writer + of the present day, and in wealth of language and distinction of style + stands far ahead of all others. He served in the European War from + 1915-18, and was wounded. In Sept., 1919, he led a raid and occupied the + port of Fiume. See <i>European War</i> and <i>Fiume</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´oa</b>, an animal (<i>Anoa depressicornis</i>) closely allied to + the buffalo, about the size of an average sheep, very wild and fierce, + inhabiting the rocky and mountainous localities of the Island of Celebes. + The horns are straight, thick at the root, and set nearly in a line with + the forehead.</p> + + <p><b>Ano´bium</b>, a genus of coleopterous insects, the larvae of which + often do much damage by their boring into old wood. By means of their + heads they produce a loud, ticking sound in the wood, the so-called + <i>death-watch</i> ticking. <i>A. striātum</i>, a common species, + when frightened, is much given to feigning death.</p> + + <p><b>An´ode</b>, (Gr. <i>ana</i>, up, <i>hodos</i>, way), the positive + pole of the voltaic current, being that part of the surface of a + decomposing body which the electric current enters: opposed to + <i>cathode</i> (Gr. <i>kata</i>, down, <i>hodos</i>, way), the way by + which it departs.</p> + + <p><b>An´odon</b>, or <b>Anodon´ta</b>, a genus of <!-- Page 179 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page179"></a>[179]</span>lamellibranchiate + bivalves, including the fresh-water mussels, without or with very slight + hinge-teeth. See <i>Mussel</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´odyne</b>, a medicine, such as an opiate or narcotic, which + allays pain.</p> + + <p><b>Anointing</b>, rubbing the body or some part of it with oil, often + perfumed. From time immemorial the nations of the East have been in the + habit of anointing themselves for the sake of health and beauty. The + Greeks and Romans anointed themselves after the bath. Wrestlers anointed + themselves in order to render it more difficult for their antagonists to + get hold of them. In Egypt it was common to anoint the head of guests + when they entered the house where they were to be entertained. In the + Mosaic law a sacred character was attached to the anointing of the + garments of the priests, and things belonging to the ceremonial of + worship. The Jewish priests and kings were anointed when inducted into + office, and were called the <i>anointed of the Lord</i>, to show that + their persons were sacred and their office from God. In the Old Testament + also the prophecies respecting the Redeemer style him <i>Messias</i>, + that is, the <i>Anointed</i>, which is also the meaning of his Greek name + Christ. The custom of anointing still exists in the Roman Catholic Church + in the ordination of priests and the confirmation of believers and the + sacrament of extreme unction. The ceremony is also frequently a part of + the coronation of kings.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:29%;"> + <a href="images/image064.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image064.jpg" + alt="Anomalure" title="Anomalure" /></a> + Anomalure (<i>Anomalurus Peli</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Anom´alure</b> (<i>Anomalūrus</i>), a genus of rodent animals + inhabiting the west coast of Africa, resembling the flying-squirrels, but + having the under surface of the tail furnished for some distance from the + root with a series of large horny scales, which, when pressed against the + trunk of a tree, may subserve the same purpose as those instruments with + which a man climbs up a telegraph pole to set the wires.</p> + + <p><b>Anom´aly</b>, a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy, the + angle which a line drawn from a planet to the sun has passed through + since the planet was last at its perihelion or nearest distance to the + sun. The <i>anomalistic year</i> is the interval between two successive + times at which the earth is in perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 minutes + 48 seconds. In consequence of the advance of the earth's perihelion among + the stars in the same direction as the earth's motion, and of the + precession of the equinoxes, which carries the equinoxes back in the + opposite direction to the earth's motion, the anomalistic year is about 4 + minutes 40 seconds longer than the sidereal year, and about 25 minutes + longer than the tropical or common year. The time of a complete + revolution of the perihelion is computed at 108,000 years.</p> + + <p><b>Anomu´ra</b>, a section of the crustaceans of the ord. Decapoda, + with irregular tails not formed to assist in swimming, including the + hermit-crabs and others.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:17%;"> + <a href="images/image065.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image065.jpg" + alt="Anona" title="Anona" /></a> + Anona or Sour-sop (<i>Anōna muricāta</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Ano´na</b>, a genus of plants, the type of the nat. ord. Anonaceæ. + <i>A. squamōsa</i> (sweet-sop) grows in the West Indian Islands, + and yields an edible fruit having a thick, sweet, luscious pulp. <i>A. + muricāta</i> (sour-sop) is cultivated in the West and East Indies; + it produces a large pear-shaped fruit, of a greenish colour, containing + an agreeable slightly-acid pulp. The genus produces other edible fruits, + as the common custard-apple or bullock's heart, from <i>A. + reticulāta</i>, and the cherimoyer of Peru, from <i>A. + Cherimolia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anona´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of trees and shrubs, having simple, + alternate leaves, destitute of stipules, by which character they are + distinguished from the Magnoliaceæ, to which they are otherwise closely + allied. They are mostly tropical plants of the Old and the New World, and + are generally aromatic. See <i>Anona</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anoplothe´rium</b>, an extinct genus of the Ungulata or Hoofed + Quadrupeds, forming the type of a distinct family, which were in many + respects intermediate between the swine and the true ruminants. These + animals were pig-like in form, but possessed long tails, and had a cleft + hoof, with two rudimentary toes. Some of them were as small as a + guinea-pig, others as large as an ass. Six incisors, two canines, eight + premolars, and six molars existed in each jaw, the series being + continuous, no interval existing in the jaw. <i>A. commūne</i>, + from the Eocene rocks, is a familiar species.</p> + + <p><b>Anoplu´ra</b>, an order of apterous insects, of which the type is + the genus Pedicŭlus or louse, <!-- Page 180 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page180"></a>[180]</span></p> + + <p><b>Anopshehr.</b> See <i>Anupshahr</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anorexia.</b> See <i>Appetite</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anos´mia</b>, a disease consisting in a diminution or destruction + of the power of smelling, sometimes constitutional, but most frequently + caused by strong and repeated stimulants, as snuff, applied to the + olfactory nerves.</p> + + <p><b>Anoura.</b> See <i>Anura</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anquetil-Duperron</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>nk-tēl-du<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-pā-ron<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), Abraham Hyacinthe, a French + orientalist, born 1731, died 1805. He studied theology for some time, but + soon devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian. His + zeal for the Oriental languages induced him to set out for India, where + he prevailed on some of the Parsee priests to instruct him in the Zend + and Pehlevi and to give him some of the Zoroastrian books. In 1762 he + returned to France with a valuable collection of MSS. In 1771 he + published his <i>Zend-Avesta</i>, a translation of the <i>Vendidad</i>, + and other sacred books, which aroused much interest. Among his other + works are <i>L'Inde en rapport avec l'Europe</i> (1790), and a selection + from the <i>Vedas</i>. His knowledge of the Oriental languages was by no + means exact.</p> + + <p><b>Ansbach.</b> See <i>Anspach</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´selm</b>, St., a celebrated Christian philosopher and + theologian, born at Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033, died at Canterbury 1109. + At the age of twenty-seven (1060) he became a monk at Bec, in Normandy, + whither he had been attracted by the celebrity of Lanfranc. Three years + later he was elected prior, and in 1078 he was chosen abbot, which he + remained for fifteen years. During this period of his life he wrote his + first philosophical and religious works: the dialogues on <i>Truth</i> + and <i>Free-will</i>, and the treatises <i>Monologion</i> and + <i>Proslogion</i>; and at the same time his influence made itself so felt + among the monks under his charge that Bec became the chief seat of + learning in Europe. In 1093 Anselm was offered by William Rufus the + archbishopric of Canterbury, and accepted it, though with great + reluctance, and with the condition that all the lands belonging to the + see should be restored. William II soon quarrelled with the archbishop, + who would show no subservience to him, and would persist in acknowledging + Pope Urban II in opposition to the antipope Clement. William ultimately + had to give way. He acknowledged Urban as Pope, and conferred the pallium + upon Anselm. The king became his bitter enemy, however, and so great were + Anselm's difficulties that in 1097 he set out for Rome to consult with + the Pope. Urban received him with great distinction, but did not venture + really to take the side of the prelate against the king, though William + had refused to receive Anselm again as archbishop, and had seized on the + revenues of the see of Canterbury, which he retained till his death in + 1100. Anselm accordingly remained abroad, where he wrote most of his + celebrated treatise on the atonement, entitled <i>Cur Deus Homo</i> + (<i>Why God was made Man</i>). When William was succeeded by Henry I + Anselm was recalled; but Henry insisted that he should submit to be + reinvested in his see by himself, although the Popes claimed the right of + investing for themselves alone. Much negotiation followed, and Henry did + not surrender his claims till 1107, when Anselm's long struggle on behalf + of the rights of the Church came to an end. Anselm was a great scholar, a + deep and original thinker, and a man of the utmost saintliness and piety. + Anselm's great achievement in philosophy was his ontological argument for + the existence of God; and his importance in the ecclesiastical history of + England cannot be exaggerated. The chief of his writings are the + <i>Monologion</i>, the <i>Proslogion</i>, and the <i>Cur Deus Homo</i>. + The first is an attempt to prove inductively the existence of God by pure + reason without the aid of Scripture or authority; the second is an + attempt to prove the same by the deductive method; the <i>Cur Deus + Homo</i> is intended to prove the necessity of the incarnation. Among his + numerous other writings are more than 400 letters. His life was written + by his domestic chaplain and companion, Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, and + is edited by M. Rule for the 'Rolls Series'. See <i>Scholasticism</i>. + Cf. Père Ragey, <i>Histoire de Saint Anselme</i>; J. M. Rigg, <i>Anselm + of Canterbury</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ans´gar</b>, or <b>Anshar</b>, called the <i>Apostle of the + North</i>, born in 801 in Picardy, died in 864 or 865. He took the + monastic vows while still in his boyhood, and in the midst of many + difficulties laboured as a missionary in Denmark and Sweden. He died with + the reputation of having made, if not the first, the most successful + attempts to propagate Christianity in the North.</p> + + <p><b>An´son</b>, George, Lord, celebrated English navigator, born 1697, + died 1762. He entered the navy at an early age and became a commander in + 1722, and captain in 1724. He was for a long time on the South Carolina + station. In 1740 he was made commander of a fleet sent to the South Sea, + directed against the trade and colonies of Spain. The expedition + consisted of five men-of-war and three smaller vessels, which carried + 1400 men. After much suffering and many stirring adventures he reached + the coast of Peru, made several prizes, and captured and burned the city + of Paita. His squadron was now reduced to one ship, the <i>Centurion</i>, + but with it he took the Spanish treasure galleon from Acapulco, and + arrived in England in 1744 with treasure to the amount of £500,000, + having circumnavigated the globe. His adventures and discoveries are + described in the well-known <i>Anson's Voyage</i>, <!-- Page 181 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page181"></a>[181]</span>compiled from materials + furnished by Anson. A few days after his return he was made rear-admiral + of the blue, and not long after rear-admiral of the white. His victory + over the French admiral Jonquière, near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised + him to the peerage, with the title of Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton. Four + years afterwards he was made First Lord of the Admiralty. In 1758 he + commanded the fleet before Brest, protected the landing of the British at + St. Malo, Cherbourg, &c., and received the repulsed troops into his + vessels. Finally, in 1761, he was appointed to convey the queen of George + III to England.</p> + + <p><b>Anso´nia</b>, a town of the United States, Conn., on the Nangatuck, + with manufactures of brass and copper, and especially clocks. Pop. + 17,643.</p> + + <p><b>Anspach</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n´spa<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span><i>h</i>), or <b>Ansbach</b>, a town in + Bavaria, at the junction of the Holzbach with the Lower Rezat, 24 miles + south-west of Nürnberg. Anspach gave its name to an ancient principality + or margravate, which had a territory of about 1300 sq. miles, with + 300,000 inhabitants. in the end of the eighteenth century. The last + margrave sold his possessions in 1791 to Prussia. It was occupied by the + French in 1806, and transferred by Napoleon to Bavaria. The town has + manufactures of trimmings, buttons, straw-wares, &c. Pop. 19,995.</p> + + <p><b>An´sted</b>, David Thomas, an English geologist, born 1814, died + 1880. He was professor of geology at King's College, London, and + assistant-secretary to the Geological Society, whose quarterly journal he + edited for many years.</p> + + <p><b>An´ster</b>, John, <span class="scac">LL.D.</span>, professor of + civil law in the University of Dublin, born in County Cork, 1793, died + 1867. He published a volume of poems, but is chiefly known by his fine + translation of Goethe's <i>Faust</i>, Part I, 1835; Part II, 1864.</p> + + <p><b>An´stey</b>, Christopher, an English poet, born 1724, died 1805. He + was author of <i>The New Bath Guide</i>, a humorous and satirical + production describing fashionable life at Bath in the form of a series of + letters in different varieties of metre, which had a great reputation in + its day, but is now almost forgotten.</p> + + <p><b>Anstruther</b> (an´stru<i>th</i>-ėr; popularly + an´stėr), Easter and Wester, two small royal and police burghs of + Scotland, in Fifeshire, forming, with the contiguous royal burgh of + Cellardyke or Nether Kilrenny, one fishing and seaport town. Total pop. + (1921), 4641.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:33%;"> + <a href="images/image066.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image066.jpg" + alt="Wood-ant" title="Wood-ant" /></a> + The Wood-ant (<i>Formica rufa</i>) + + <p class="poem">1. Egg. 2. Larva. 3. Cocoon of fine white silk. 4. + Young ant, taken out of cocoon. 5. Male ant. 6. Female ant. 7. Worker + ant. (All magnified.)</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Ant</b>, the common name of hymenopterous (or membranous-winged) + insects of various genera, of the family Formicĭdæ, of which there + are numerous species, at least 2000 being known. They are found in most + temperate and tropical regions. They are small but powerful insects, and + have long been noted for their remarkable intelligence and interesting + habits. They are social insects, living in communities regulated by + definite laws, each member of the society bearing a well-defined and + separate part in the work of the colony. Each community consists of + males; of females much larger than the males; and of barren females, + otherwise called neuters, workers, or nurses. The neuters are wingless, + and the males and females only acquire wings for their 'nuptial flight', + after which the males perish, and the few females which escape the + pursuit of their numerous enemies divest themselves of their wings, and + either return to established nests, or become the foundresses of new + colonies. The neuters perform all the labours of the ant-hill or abode of + the community; they excavate the galleries, procure food, and feed the + larvæ or young ants, which have not got organs of motion. In fine weather + they carefully convey them to the surface for the benefit of the sun's + heat, and as attentively carry them to a place of safety either when bad + weather is threatened or the ant-hill is disturbed. In like manner they + watch over the safety of the nymphs or pupæ about to acquire their + perfect growth. Some communities possess a special type of neuters, known + as 'soldiers', from the duties that specially fall upon them, and from + their powerful biting jaws. There is a very considerable variety in the + materials, size, and form of ant-hills, or nests, according to the + peculiar nature or instinct of the species. Most of the British ants form + nests in woods, fields, or gardens, their abodes being generally in the + form of small mounds rising above the surface of the ground and + containing numerous galleries and apartments. Some excavate nests in old + tree-trunks. One little yellow ant (<i>Myrmīca domestica</i>) is + common in houses in Britain in some localities. Some <!-- Page 182 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page182"></a>[182]</span>ants live on + animal food, very quickly picking quite clean the skeleton of any dead + animal they may light on. Others live on saccharine matter, being very + fond of the sweet substance, called honey-dew, which exudes from the + bodies of aphides, or plant-lice. These they sometimes keep in their + nests, and sometimes tend on the plants where they feed; sometimes they + even superintend their breeding. By stroking the aphides with their + antennæ they cause them to emit the sweet fluid, which the ants then + greedily sip up. Various other insects are looked after by ants in a + similar manner, or are found in their nests. It has been observed that + some species, like the European Red Ant (<i>Formīca + sanguinĕa</i>), resort to violence to obtain working ants of other + species for their own use, plundering the nests of suitable kinds of + their larvæ and pupæ, which they carry off to their own nests to be + carefully reared and kept as slaves. In temperate countries male and + female ants survive, at most, till autumn, or to the commencement of cool + weather, though a very large proportion of them cease to exist long + previous to that time. The neuters pass the winter in a state of torpor, + and of course require no food. The only time when they require food is + during the season of activity, when they have a vast number of young to + feed. Some ants of Southern Europe feed on grain, and store it up in + their nests for use when required. Some species have stings as weapons, + others only their powerful mandibles, or an acrid and pungent fluid + (formic acid) which they can emit. The name ant is also given to the + neuropterous insects otherwise called Termites (q.v.). <span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), <i>Ants, + Bees, and Wasps</i>; H. W. Bates, <i>A Naturalist on the Amazons</i>; + <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antac´id</b>, an alkali, or any remedy for acidity in the stomach. + Dyspepsia and diarrhœa are the diseases in which antacids are + chiefly employed. The principal antacids in use are magnesia, lime, and + their carbonates, and the carbonates of potash and soda.</p> + + <p><b>Antæ´us</b>, the giant son of Poseidon (Neptune) and Gē (the + Earth), who was invincible so long as he was in contact with the earth. + Heracles (Hercules) grasped him in his arms and stifled him suspended in + the air, thus preventing him from touching the earth.</p> + + <p><b>Antakieh</b>, or <b>Antakia</b>. See <i>Antioch</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antal´kali</b>, a substance which neutralizes an alkali, and is + used medicinally to counteract an alkaline tendency in the system. All + true acids have this power.</p> + + <p><b>Antananarivo</b> (an-tan-an-a-rē´vō), the capital of + Madagascar, situated in the central province of Imérina, on rocky + eminences rising from a plain. Until 1869 all buildings within the city + were of wood or rush, but since the introduction of brick and stone, the + whole city has been rebuilt. It contains two former royal palaces, + immense timber structures; a Protestant and a Roman Catholic cathedral, + mission churches, schools, &c. Antananarivo is the residence of the + French governor of Madagascar, and there is a strong French garrison. It + has manufactures of metal work, cutlery, silk, &c. Pop. (exclusive of + the troops) 63,115.</p> + + <p><b>An´tar</b>, an Arabian warrior and poet of the sixth century, + author of one of the seven Moallakas (poems) hung up in the Kaaba at + Mecca; hero of a romance analogous in Arabic literature to the Arthurian + legend of the English. The romance of <i>Antar</i> is composed in + rhythmic prose interspersed with fragments of verse, many of which are + attributed to Antar himself, and has been generally ascribed to Asmai + (born <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 740, died about <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 830), preceptor to Harun-al-Rashid. It has been + published in 32 vols. at Cairo (1889).</p> + + <p><b>Antarctic</b> (ant-ärk´tik), a term signifying the opposite of + <i>Arctic</i>, and therefore relating to the southern pole or to the + regions near it. The <i>Antarctic Circle</i>, which of course corresponds + to the <i>Arctic Circle</i>, is a circle parallel to the equator and + distant from the south pole 23° 28´, marking the area within which the + sun does not set when on the tropic of Capricorn. The Antarctic Circle + has been arbitrarily fixed on as the limits of the Antarctic Ocean, it + being the average limit of the pack-ice; but the name is often extended + to embrace a much wider area. The lands within or near the Antarctic + Circle are but imperfectly known, and a very large area around the south + pole is altogether unknown. The work of exploration has been hitherto + baffled at various points by what seems an unsurmountable ice-barrier, + which in some places is connected with masses of land and may as a whole + belong to a great Antarctic continent. Among land-masses that have long + been known to exist in the Antarctic Ocean, though our knowledge of them + is very imperfect, are those to which have been attached the names Graham + Land, Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, Enderby Land, South Shetland Islands, + &c. The Antarctic regions are even colder and more inhospitable than + the Arctic, and partly on account of their remoteness from the maritime + nations there have been far fewer efforts at their exploration, the south + pole being far less a goal of discovery than the north. See <i>South + Polar Expeditions</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image067.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image067.jpg" + alt="Ant-eater" title="Ant-eater" /></a> + Ant-eater (<i>Myrmecophăga jubāta</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Ant-eater</b>, a name given to mammals of various genera that prey + chiefly on ants, but usually confined to the genus Myrmecophăga, + ord. Edentata. In this genus the head is remarkably elongated, the jaws + destitute of teeth, and the mouth furnished with a long, extensile <!-- + Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page183"></a>[183]</span>tongue covered with glutinous saliva, by + the aid of which the animals secure their insect prey. The eyes are + particularly small, the ears short and round, and the legs, especially + the fore-legs, very strong, and furnished with long, compressed, acute + nails, admirably adapted for breaking into the ant-hills. The most + remarkable species is the <i>Myrmecophăga jubāta</i>, or + ant-bear, a native of the warmer parts of South America. It is from 4 to + 5 feet in length from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the black + bushy tail, which is about 2 feet long. The body is covered with long + hair, particularly along the neck and back. It is a harmless and solitary + animal, and spends most of its time in sleep. Some are adapted for + climbing trees in quest of the insects on which they feed, having + prehensile tails. All are natives of South America. The name ant-eater is + also given to the pangolins and to the aardvark. The echidna of Australia + is sometimes called <i>porcupine ant-eater</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antece´dent</b>, in grammar, the noun to which a relative or other + pronoun refers; as, Solomon was the <i>prince who</i> built the temple, + where the word <i>prince</i> is the antecedent of <i>who</i>.—In + logic, that member of a hypothetical or conditional proposition which + contains the condition, and which is introduced by <i>if</i> or some + equivalent word or words; as, if the sun is fixed, the earth must move. + Here the first and conditional proposition is the <i>antecedent</i>, the + second the <i>consequent</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antedilu´vian</b>, before the flood or deluge of Noah's time; + relating to what happened before the deluge. In geology the term has been + applied to organisms, traces of which are found in a fossil state in + formations preceding the Diluvial (Glacial epoch), particularly to + extinct animals such as the palæotherium, the mastodon, &c.</p> + + <p><b>An´telope</b>, the name given to the members of a large family of + Ruminant Ungulata or Hoofed Mammalia, closely resembling the Deer in + general appearance, but essentially different in nature from the latter + animals. They are included with the Sheep and Oxen in the family of the + Cavicornia or 'Hollow-horned' Ruminants. Their horns, unlike those of the + Deer, are not deciduous, but are permanent; are never branched, but are + often twisted spirally, and may be borne by both sexes. They are found in + greatest number and variety in Africa. Well-known species are the chamois + (European), the gazelle, the addax, the eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the + springbok, the sasin or Indian antelope, and the prongbuck of + America.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:23%;"> + <a href="images/image068.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image068.jpg" + alt="Antennae" title="Antennae" /></a> + Antennæ + + <p class="poem">1,1. Filiform Antennæ of Cucujo Firefly of Brazil + (<i>Pyrophŏrus luminōsus</i>). 2. Denticulate Antenna; 3. + Bipinnate; 4. Lamellicorn; 5. Clavate; 6. Geniculate; 7. Antenna and + Antennule of Crustacean.</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Anten´næ</b>, the name given to the movable jointed organs of touch + and hearing attached to the heads of insects, myriapods, &c., and + commonly called horns or feelers. They present a very great variety of + forms.</p> + + <p><b>Antequera</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-te-kā´ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a city of Andalusia, in Spain, in the + province of Malaga, a place of some importance under the Romans, with a + ruined Moorish castle. It manufactures woollens, leather, soap, &c. + Pop. 32,360.</p> + + <p><b>Ant´eros</b>, in Greek mythology, the god of mutual love. According + to some, however, Anteros is the enemy of love, or the god of antipathy; + he was also said to punish those who did not return the love of + others.</p> + + <p><b>Anthe´lion</b>, pl. <b>Anthelia</b>, a luminous ring, or rings, + seen by an observer, especially in alpine and polar regions, around the + shadow of his head projected on a cloud or fog-bank, or on grass covered + with dew, 50 or 60 yards distant, and opposite the sun when rising or + setting. It is due to the diffraction of light.</p> + + <p><b>Anthelmin´thics</b>, or <b>Anthelmin´tics</b>, a class of remedies + used to destroy worms when lodged in the alimentary canal; classed as + vermicides or vermifuges, according as the object is to kill the worms, + or to expel them by purgation.</p> + + <p><b>An´them</b>, originally a hymn sung in alternate <!-- Page 184 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page184"></a>[184]</span>parts; in + modern usage, a sacred tune or piece of music set to words taken from the + Psalms or other parts of the Scriptures, first introduced into church + service in Elizabeth's reign; a developed motet. The anthem may be for + one, two, or any number of voices, but seldom exceeds five parts, and may + or may not have an organ accompaniment written for it.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:23%;"> + <a href="images/image069.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image069.jpg" + alt="Anthemion" title="Anthemion" /></a> + Anthemion + </div> + + <p><b>Anthe´mion</b>, an ornament or ornamental series used in Greek and + Roman decoration, which is derived from floral forms, more especially the + honeysuckle. It was much used for the ornamentation of friezes and + interiors, for the decoration of fictile vases, the borders of dresses, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>An´themis</b>, a genus of composite plants, comprising the camomile + or chamomile.</p> + + <p><b>Anthe´mius</b>, a Greek mathematician and architect of Lydia; + designed the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and is credited with + the invention of the dome; died <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 534.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:18%;"> + <a href="images/image070.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image070.jpg" + alt="Anther in Lily" title="Anther in Lily" /></a> + The Reproductive Organs of the Lily + </div> + + <p><b>An´ther</b>, the male organ of the flower; that part of the stamen + which is filled with pollen.</p> + + <p><b>Antheste´ria</b>, an annual Greek festival held in honour of all + the gods, but especially in honour of Dionysus. It celebrated the + beginning of spring, and the season when the wine of the previous vintage + was considered fit for use.</p> + + <p><b>Anthocy´anin</b>, the blue colour of flowers, a pigment obtained + from those petals of flowers which are blue, by digesting them in spirits + of wine.</p> + + <p><b>Anthol´ogy</b> (Gr. <i>anthos</i>, a flower, and <i>legein</i>, to + gather), the name given to several collections of short poems which have + come down from antiquity. The first to compile a Greek anthology was + Meleager, a Syrian, about 60 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He entitled + his collection, which contained selections from forty-six poets besides + many pieces of his own, the <i>Garland</i>; a continuation of this work + by Philip of Thessalonica in the age of Tiberius was the first entitled + <i>Anthology</i>. Later collections are that of Constantine Cephalas, in + the tenth century, who made much use of the earlier ones, and that of + Maximus Planudes, in the fourteenth century, a monk of Constantinople, + whose anthology is a tasteless series of extracts from the + <i>Anthology</i> of Cephalas, with some additions. The treasures + contained in both, increased with fragments of the older poets, idylls of + the bucolic poets, the hymns of Callimachus, epigrams from monuments and + other works, have been published in modern times as the <i>Greek + Anthology</i>. There is no ancient Latin anthology, the oldest being that + of Scaliger (1573).</p> + + <p><b>An´thon</b>, Charles, <span class="scac">LL.D.</span>, an American + editor of classical school-books, and of works intended to facilitate the + study of Greek and Latin literature; born 1797, died 1867. He was long a + professor in Columbia College, New York.</p> + + <p><b>An´thony</b>, St. the founder of monastic institutions, born near + Heraclea, in Upper Egypt, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 251. Giving up + all his property he retired to the desert, where he was followed by a + number of disciples, who thus formed the first community of monks. He + died at the age of 105.—<i>St. Anthony's Fire</i>, a name given to + erysipelas.</p> + + <p><b>An´thracene</b> (C<sub>14</sub>H<sub>10</sub>) occurs in coal-tar + in small quantity, about 0.25-0.45 per cent. During the distillation of + tar a high-boiling fraction, boiling above 270° C., is obtained; this is + crude anthracene oil, a greenish oily substance which, on further + distillation, yields a crystalline mass, 50 per cent anthracene. This is + carefully purified by distillation and chemical treatment to separate the + anthracene from the other substances occurring with it, and the product + obtained is finally purified by crystallization. When pure it forms + colourless crystalline scales melting at 216° C., and having a violet + fluorescence. It forms a series of derivatives, the most important being + anthraquinone and alizarine and the numerous derivatives of these. + Anthracene was originally a useless product in coal-tar distillation, but + it became valuable as soon as it was discovered that alizarine—from + which many dyes are manufactured directly or indirectly—could be + prepared from it.</p> + + <p><b>An´thracite</b>, glance or blind coal, a non-bituminous coal of a + shining lustre, approaching to metallic, and which burns without smoke, + with a weak or no flame, and with intense heat. It consists of, on an + average, 90 per cent carbon, 2 oxygen, 3 hydrogen, and 5 ashes. It has + some of the properties of coal or charcoal, and, like that substance, + represents an extreme alteration of vegetable substances by loss of + gases, either during conditions of decay or after entombment among + stratified rocks. It is found in England, <!-- Page 185 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page185"></a>[185]</span>Scotland, and Ireland, + and in large quantities in the United States (Pennsylvania), and near + Swansea (South Wales). See <i>Coal</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´thrax</b>, a fatal disease to which animals are subject, always + associated with the presence of an extremely minute micro-organism + (<i>Bacillus anthrăcis</i>) in the blood. It attacks cattle more + frequently than other animals; sheep, horses, pigs, dogs, and fowls are + liable to anthrax, but not cats. The mode of infection in animals is + chiefly by ingestion. It may also be contracted through a wound or + scratch in the skin, but this mode of infection is commoner in human + beings than in animals. It frequently assumes an epizootic form, and + extends over large districts, affecting all classes of animals which are + exposed to the exciting causes. It is also called splenic fever, and is + communicable to man, appearing as carbuncle, malignant pustule, or + wool-sorter's disease.</p> + + <p><b>Anthropol´atry</b>, the worship of man, a word always employed in + reproach; applied by the Apollinarians, who denied Christ's perfect + humanity, towards the orthodox Christians.</p> + + <p><b>Anthro´polite</b>, a petrifaction of the human body or skeleton, or + of parts of the body, by the encrusting action of calcareous waters, and + hence hardly to be considered fossil or sub-fossil.</p> + + <p><b>Anthropol´ogy</b>, the science of man, including the study of man's + place in nature, that is, of the measurement of his agreement with and + divergence from other animals and the history of the emergence of human + characteristics; of the distinctive features and geographical + distribution of the races of mankind, their customs and beliefs; of the + remains of extinct types of the human family and the evidence relating to + their modes of life. It puts under contribution all sciences which have + man for their object, as anatomy, palæontology, psychology, archæology, + history, and comparative religion. All the races of mankind that are now + living, much as they differ in external appearance, such as colour of + skin, character of hair, form of skull, face, and body, and stature, + belong to one species, <i>Homo Sapiens</i>; but an earlier species of + more brutal type, <i>H. neanderthalensis</i>, now completely extinct, is + known from fossil remains found in Germany, Belgium, France, Gibraltar, + and Croatia. Three more ancient and primitive types, probably + representing distinct genera of the human family, have been discovered + respectively at Piltdown, in Sussex (Eoanthropus), at Mauer, near + Heidelberg (Palæanthropus), and in Java, the Ape-man (Pithecanthropus). + The Piltdown man may represent the very remote, but direct, ancestor of + modern man; but the Heidelberg man and the Ape-man were probably + divergent 'sports' whose descendants never became men of the modern + type.</p> + + <p>In structure the gorilla reveals a close kinship with the human + family, and was probably derived from a common ancestry which probably + differentiated into man's forerunner and the gorilla's in Miocene times. + Of existing races the aboriginal Australian is much the most primitive, + and represents the survival of the earliest type of <i>Homo Sapiens</i> + soon after this species became differentiated from men of the Neanderthal + species. The negro, whose home is tropical Africa, is primitive in some + respects, but in others is highly specialized. He is distinguished by his + black skin, flat nose, prominent jaws and thick everted lips, and + so-called 'woolly' or 'pepper-corn' hair. In stature he shows a wider + range of variation than any other race, including, as he does, the + tallest and the shortest varieties of mankind. The Bushman is a + peculiarly distinct racial type now restricted to the deserts of South + Africa. Though his skin is yellowish rather than black, he is akin to the + negro. The Mongolian race probably assumed its distinctive features, + yellowish skin, coarse black hair, and characteristic facial and bodily + traits, in Eastern Asia; and the aboriginal population of America was + sprung mainly from the less-specialized branch of this race. The + so-called white races include three main stocks, a people of short + stature, olive complexion, and long heads, the Mediterranean race; a + taller people with fair hair and long heads, the Nordic race; and a + short, thick-set, black-haired, broad-headed Alpine race, which made its + way from Asia into Europe many centuries after the other two chief + components of Europe's population. For long ages in every part of the + world intermixture has been taking place in varying degrees between the + different races of mankind, so that to-day probably no pure race exists. + See <i>Ethnography</i>, <i>Ethnology</i>, <i>Man</i>, &c.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E. B. Tylor, <i>Anthropology</i>; D. G. + Brinton, <i>Races and Peoples</i>; W. Z. Ripley, <i>The Races of + Europe</i>; E. Carpenter, <i>Anthropology</i>; G. Elliott Smith, <i>The + Migrations of Early Culture</i>; H. G. F. Spurrell, <i>Modern Man and his + Forerunners</i>; <i>Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques</i>; + <i>The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anthropom´etry</b>, the systematic examination of the height, + weight, and other physical characteristics of the human body. It was + shown in the British Association Report of 1888 that variations in + stature, weight, and complexion, existing in different districts of the + British islands, are chiefly due to difference of racial origin.</p> + + <p>The Scotch male adults stand first in height (68.71 inches), the Irish + second (67.90 inches), the English third (67.66 inches), and the Welsh + last (66.66 inches). In weight the Scotch take the first place (165.3 + lb.), the Welsh the second <!-- Page 186 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page186"></a>[186]</span>(158.3 lb.), the English the third (155.0 + lb.), and the Irish the last (154.1 lb.). The average height of adult + females is 4.71 inches less than the male average, and their average + weight 32.2 lb. under that of the males. The average height of the adult + males of the principal races or nationalities of the world may be given + as under; but it is acknowledged that more numerous measurements might + alter some of the figures considerably: Polynesians 69.33 inches, + Patagonians 69 inches, Negroes of the Congo 69 inches, Scotch 68.71 + inches, Iroquois Indians 68.28 inches, Irish 67.90 inches, United States + (whites) 67.67 inches, English 67.66 inches, Norwegians 67.66 inches, + Zulus 67.19 inches, Welsh 66.66 inches, Danes 66.65 inches, Dutch 66.62 + inches, American Negroes 66.62 inches, Hungarians 66.58 inches, Germans + 66.54 inches, Swiss 66.43 inches, Belgians 66.38 inches, French 66.23 + inches, Berbers 66.10 inches, Arabs 66.08 inches, Russians 66.04 inches, + Italians 66 inches, Spaniards 65.66 inches, Esquimaux 65.10 inches, + Papuans 64.78 inches, Hindus 64.76 inches, Chinese 64.17 inches, Poles + 63.87 inches, Finns 63.60 inches, Japanese 63.11 inches, Peruvians 63 + inches, Malays 62.34 inches, Lapps 59.2 inches, Bosjesmans 52.78 inches. + General average, 65.25 inches.</p> + + <p><b>Anthropomor´phism</b>, the representation or conception of the + Deity under a human form, or with human attributes and affections. + <i>Anthropomorphism</i> is based upon the natural inaptitude of the human + mind for conceiving spiritual things except through sensuous images, and + in its consequent tendency to accept such expressions as those of + Scripture when it speaks of the eye, the ear, and the hand of God, of his + seeing and hearing, of his remembering and forgetting, of his making man + in his own image, &c., in a too literal sense. In a general sense + anthropomorphism is the assumption of man that his own characteristics + are present in beings or things widely different from himself, more + particularly in forces of nature and gods. The term is, therefore, also + applied to that doctrine which attributes to animals mental faculties of + the same nature as those of man, though much lower in degree: strictly + called <i>biological anthropomorphism</i>, to distinguish it from + anthropomorphism proper, or <i>theological anthropomorphism</i>. Cf. E. + Caird, <i>Evolution of Religion</i>; J. R. Illingworth, <i>Personality, + Human and Divine</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anthropoph´agi</b>, man-eaters, cannibals. Cannibalism was + practised in very ancient times; and though some peoples, as the New + Zealanders and Fijians, have given it up in recent times, it is still + practised over a wide area in Central Africa, where human flesh is a + common article of food. Superstitious ideas are often associated with + cannibalism among those who practise it. The Caribs were cannibals at the + time of the Spanish conquest, and the word 'cannibal' is derived from + their name. See <i>Cannibalism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anthus.</b> See <i>Pipit</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anti-aircraft guns</b> are guns so mounted that they may be pointed + upward to fire directly against objects in the air. During the European + War these guns, fitted with special appliances and ammunition, were used + for defence against air-raids of the enemy, against Zeppelins and Gothas. + The anti-aircraft guns are of various types, ranging from light + machine-guns up to batteries of 3-inch and 6-inch guns. Some of them have + brought down enemy machines flying at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 + feet.</p> + + <p><b>Antibes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-tēb) (ancient <b>Antipolis</b>), a + fortified town and seaport of France, department Alpes-Maritimes, on the + Mediterranean, 11 miles <span class="scac">S.S.W.</span> of Nice; founded + about 340 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Pop. 12,198.</p> + + <p><b>Anti-burgher Synod</b>, a section of the Scottish Secession Church, + which held its first meeting in Edinburgh in the house of Adam Gib on + 10th April, 1747. It was formed in consequence of a breach resulting from + a controversy respecting the religious clause of the oath taken by + burgesses in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Perth. Those in favour of the oath + were designated Burghers, whilst their opponents, who condemned the oath + of the burgesses, became known as Anti-burghers. The union of the burgher + and anti-burgher sections was brought about in 1820 through the exertions + of John Jamieson, minister at the Anti-burgher Church in Nicholson + Street, Edinburgh. See <i>United Free Church of Scotland</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´tichlor</b>, the name given to any chemical substance, such as + hyposulphite of sodium, employed to remove the small quantity of chlorine + which obstinately adheres to the fibres of the cloth when goods are + bleached by means of chlorine.</p> + + <p><b>An´tichrist</b>, a word occurring in the first and second + <i>Epistles of St. John</i>, and nowhere else in Scripture, in passages + having an evident reference to a personage real or symbolical mentioned + or alluded to in various other passages both of the Old and New + Testaments. The <i>idea itself</i>, however, of Antichrist can be traced + back to the second century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and appears + first of all in the <i>Book of Daniel</i>. In every age the Church has + held through all its sects some definite expectation of a formidable + adversary of truth and righteousness prefigured under this name. Thus + Roman Catholics have found Antichrist in heresy, and Protestants in + Romanism. In one point the sects have generally been agreed, namely, in + regarding the various intimations on this subject in the Old and New + Testaments as a homogeneous declaration or warning, inspired by the + spirit of prophecy, of danger to the true <!-- Page 187 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page187"></a>[187]</span>religion from some + disaffection and revolt organized in the latter days by Satan. Most + modern critics take a different view of the matter. They do not regard + the various Scriptural writers who have dealt with this subject as having + had any common inspiration or design. They believe that each writer from + his own point of view, guided by mere human sagacity, gives expression in + his predictions to his own individual apprehensions, or narrates as + prediction what he already knows. Originally Antichrist is nothing else + than the incarnate devil, and the idea of the battle of God with a human + opponent, endowed with devilish wickedness, arose under the influence of + historical conditions. It is the near political horizon which suggests + the danger, or contemporary history the substance of the prophecy; thus + the Antichrist of Daniel is Antiochus Epiphanes, that of St. John Nero, + that of St. Paul some adversary of Christianity about to appear in the + time of the Emperor Claudius.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: + S. Baring-Gould, <i>Curious Myths of the Middle Ages</i>; W. Bousset, + <i>Antichrist</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anticli´max</b>, a sudden declension of a writer or speaker from + lofty to mean thoughts or language, as in the well-known lines, quoted in + Pope's <i>Martinus Scriblerus on the Art of Sinking in Poetry</i> as from + an anonymous author:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war,</p> + <p>Lieutenant-colonel to the Earl of Mar.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Pope, Addison, and Fielding were masters in this art of sudden + descent.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image071.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image071.jpg" + alt="Anticlinal line" title="Anticlinal line" /></a> + <i>a</i>, <i>a.</i> Anticlinal line. <i>b.</i> Synclinal line + </div> + + <p><b>Anticli´nal line or axis</b>, in geology, the ridge of a wave-like + curve made by a series of superimposed strata, the strata dipping from it + on either side as from the ridge of a house: a <i>synclinal line</i> runs + along the trough of such a wave.</p> + + <p><b>Anti-Corn-Law League</b>, an association formed in England in 1836 + to procure the repeal of the laws regulating or forbidding the + importation of corn. The object of the league was attained in 1846.</p> + + <p><b>Anticos´ti</b>, an island of Canada, in the mouth of the St. + Lawrence, 125 miles long by 30 miles broad. The interior is mountainous + and wooded, but there is much good land, and it is well adapted for + agriculture.</p> + + <p><b>Anticy´clone</b>, a phenomenon presenting some features opposite to + those of a cyclone. It consists of a region of high barometric pressure, + the pressure being greatest in the centre, with light winds flowing + outwards from the centre, and not inwards as in the cyclone, accompanied + with great cold in winter and with great heat in summer.</p> + + <p><b>Anticyra</b> (an-tis'i-ra), the name of two towns of Greece, the + one in Thessaly, the other in Phocis, famous for hellebore, which in + ancient times was regarded as a specific against insanity and melancholy. + Hence various jocular allusions in ancient writers (<i>Naviga + Anticyram</i>, sail to Anticyra).</p> + + <p><b>An´tidote</b>, a medicine to counteract the effects of poison.</p> + + <p><b>Antietam</b> (an-tē'tam), a small stream in the United States + which falls into the Potomac about 50 miles <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> of Washington; scene of an indecisive battle + between the Federal and Confederate armies, 17th Sept., 1862.</p> + + <p><b>Anti-Federalists</b>, the political party in the United States + which after the formation of the Federal constitution in 1787 opposed its + ratification. Whilst the Federalists were striving to turn the federation + into a united nation, and stood for a strong Government and centralizing + tendencies, their opponents, the Anti-Federalists, either more + democratic, or pretending that a strong Government meant a 'disguised' + monarchic power, endeavoured to preserve a loose disintegrated + federation. The Anti-Federalist party was gradually transformed into the + Democratic-Republican party, led by Jefferson.</p> + + <p><b>Antifriction Metal</b>, a name given to various alloys of tin, + zinc, copper, antimony, lead, &c., which oppose little resistance to + motion, with great resistance to the effects of friction, so far as + concerns the wearing away of the surfaces of contact. Babbitt's metal (50 + parts tin, 5 antimony, 1 copper) is one of them.</p> + + <p><b>Antigone</b> (an-tig´o-nē), in Greek mythology, the daughter + of Œdipus and Jocasta, celebrated for her devotion to her brother + Polynices, for burying whom against the decree of King Creon she suffered + death. She is the heroine of Sophocles' <i>Œdipus at Colonus</i> + and his <i>Antigone</i>; also of Racine's tragedy <i>Les Frères + Ennemis</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antig´onish</b>, a town in the <span class="scac">E.</span> of Nova + Scotia, in county of the same name; the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, + with a cathedral, a college, and a good harbour. Pop. 1787.</p> + + <p><b>Antig´onus</b>, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, born + about 382 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> In the division of the empire, + after the death of Alexander, Antigonus obtained Greater Phrygia, Lycia, + and Pamphylia as his dominion. But he soon managed to extend his power, + being assisted by his warlike son, Demetrius Poliorcētēs. + Ptolemy, <!-- Page 188 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page188"></a>[188]</span>Seleucus, and Lysimachus, who had also + been generals of Alexander, alarmed by his ambition, united themselves + against him; and a long series of contests ensued in Syria, + Phœnicia, Asia Minor, and Greece, ending in 301 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> with the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in which + Antigonus was defeated and slain, his dominions being divided among the + conquerors.</p> + + <p><b>Antigonus Gon´atas</b>, son of Demetrius Poliorcētēs, + and grandson of the above, succeeded his father in the kingdom of Macedon + and all his other European dominions, but did not obtain actual + possession of them for some years. He died, after a reign of forty-four + years, 239 <span class="scac">B.C</span>.</p> + + <p><b>Antigua</b> (an-tē´gwa), one of the British West Indies, the + most important of the Leeward group; 28 miles long, 20 broad; area, 108 + sq. miles. Its shores are high and rocky, and much indented by creeks and + inlets furnishing several good harbours. The surface is diversified by + hill and dale, but nowhere rises to a greater height than 1500 feet. A + considerable portion of it is fertile, and the climate is healthy, but + there is a scarcity of water, there being no streams and few springs, + droughts are not infrequent, and hurricanes are apt to cause serious loss + and damage. Chief products are sugar, cotton, and pineapples. The island + has fairly good shipping connections with the United Kingdom, the United + States, and Canada. Antigua is governed as a crown colony, the Islands of + Barbuda and Redonda being attached to it. The capital, St. John, the + residence of the governor of the Leeward Islands, stands on the shore of + a well-sheltered harbour in the north-west part of the island. Falmouth + (English Harbour) in the south has also an excellent harbour with a + dockyard. The island was discovered by Columbus in 1493; the first + settlement was made by the English in 1632. Since then, except for a + short period of occupation by the French, it has been a British + possession. Pop. 32,269 (1911).</p> + + <p><b>Anti-Jac´obin</b>, a famous magazine (1797-1818), the original + object of which was to satirize the Jacobin principles of the Fox section + of Whigs; principal contributors: Gifford, Canning, Frere, and Ellis.</p> + + <p><b>Anti-Lebanon</b>, the eastern of the two parallel ranges known as + the Mountains of Lebanon in Palestine. See <i>Lebanon</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antilegom´ena</b> (things spoken against or objected to), a term + applied by early Christian writers to the <i>Epistle to the Hebrews</i>, + 2 <i>Peter</i>, <i>James</i>, <i>Jude</i>, 2 and 3 <i>John</i>, and the + <i>Apocalypse</i>, which, though read in the churches, were not for some + time received into the canon of Scripture.</p> + + <p><b>Antilles</b> (an-til´ēz), another name for the West Indian + Islands (excluding Bahamas). See <i>West Indies</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antilochus</b> (an-til´o-kus), in Greek legend, a son of Nestor, + distinguished among the younger heroes who took part in the Trojan War by + beauty, bravery, and swiftness of foot. He was slain by Memnon, but + Achilles avenged his death.</p> + + <p><b>Antimacass´ar</b>, a covering for chairs, sofas, couches, &c., + made of open cotton or worsted work, to preserve them from being soiled, + as by the oil applied to the hair.</p> + + <p><b>Antimachus</b> (an-tim´a-kus), a Greek poet who lived about 400 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and wrote an epic called the + <i>Thebais</i> on the mythical history of Thebes, and a long elegy called + <i>Lydē</i>, inspired by a mistress or wife of that name. Both + works were full of mythological details. Only fragments of his writings + remain, and from these it can be gathered that his style was rather + laboured and artificial. Yet the Alexandrian grammarians ranked him next + to Homer.</p> + + <p><b>An´timony</b> (chemical symbol, Sb, from Lat. <i>stibium</i>; sp. + gr. 6.7, atomic wt. 120.2), a brittle metal of a bluish-white or + silver-white colour and a crystalline or laminated structure. It melts at + 630.6° C., and burns with a bluish-white flame. The mineral called + stibnite or antimony-glance, is a tri-sulphide + (Sb<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>), and is the chief ore from which the metal + is obtained. It is found in many places, including France, Spain, + Hungary, Italy, Canada, Australia, and Borneo. The metal, or, as it was + formerly called, the <i>regulus of antimony</i>, does not rust or tarnish + when exposed to the air. When alloyed with other metals it hardens them, + and is therefore used in the manufacture of alloys, such as + Britannia-metal, type-metal, and pewter. In bells it renders the sound + more clear; it renders tin more white and sonorous as well as harder, and + gives to printing types more firmness and smoothness. The salts of + antimony are very poisonous. The protoxide is the active base of tartar + emetic and James's powder, and is justly regarded as a most valuable + remedy in many diseases.—<i>Yellow antimony</i> is a preparation of + antimony of a deep yellow colour, used in enamel and porcelain painting. + It is of various tints, and the brilliancy of the brighter hues is not + affected by foul air.</p> + + <p><b>Antino´mianism</b> ('opposition to the law'), the name given by + Luther to the inference drawn by John Agricola (1492-1566), from the + doctrine of justification by faith, that the moral law is not binding on + Christians as a rule of life. The term antinomian has since been applied + to all doctrines and practices which seem to contemn or discountenance + strict moral obligations. The Lutherans and Calvinists have both been + charged with antinomianism, the former on account of their doctrine of + justification by faith, the latter both on this ground and that of the + doctrine of predestination. The charge is, of course, vigorously repelled + by both.</p> + + <p><b>Antin´omy</b>, the opposition of one law or rule <!-- Page 189 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page189"></a>[189]</span>to another law + or rule; in the Kantian philosophy, that natural contradiction which + results from the law of reason, when, passing the limits of experience, + we seek to conceive the complex of external phenomena, or nature, as a + world or cosmos.</p> + + <p><b>Antinous</b> (an-tin´o-us), a young Bithynian whom the extravagant + love of Hadrian has immortalized. He drowned himself in the Nile in <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 122. Hadrian set no bounds to his grief for his + loss. He gave his name to a newly-discovered star, erected temples in his + honour, called a city after him, and caused him to be adored as a god + throughout the empire. Statues, busts, &c., of him are numerous.</p> + + <p><b>Antioch</b> (an´ti-ok), a town in Syria, famous in ancient times as + the capital of the Greek Kings of Syria, on the left bank of the Orontes, + about 21 miles from the sea, in a beautiful and fertile plain. It was + founded by Seleucus Nicator in 300 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and + named after his father Antiochus. In Roman times it was the seat of the + Syrian governors, and the centre of a widely-extended commerce. It was + called the 'Queen of the East' and 'The Beautiful'. Antioch is frequently + mentioned in the New Testament, and it was here that the disciples of our + Saviour were first called Christians (<i>Acts</i>, xi, 26). In the first + half of the seventh century it was taken by the Saracens, and in 1098 by + the Crusaders. They established the principality of Antioch, of which the + first ruler was Bohemond, and which lasted till 1268, when it was taken + by the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. In 1516 it passed into the hands of the + Turks. The modern Antioch, or <i>Antakieh</i>, has recently grown from a + small place to a flourishing town. Pop. estimated at 30,000.—There + was another Antioch, in Pisidia, at which St. Paul preached on his first + missionary journey.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:18%;"> + <a href="images/image072.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image072.jpg" + alt="Antiochus Epiphanes" title="Antiochus Epiphanes" /></a> + Medal of Antiochus Epiphanes + </div> + + <p><b>Antiochus</b> (an-tī´o-kus), a name of several Græco-Syrian + kings of the dynasty of the Seleucĭdæ.—<b>Antiochus I,</b> + called <i>Sōtēr</i> ('saviour'), was the son of Seleucus, + general of Alexander the Great, and founder of the dynasty. He was born + about 324 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and succeeded his father in 280 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> During the greater part of his reign he + was engaged in a protracted struggle with the Gauls who had crossed from + Europe, and by whom he was killed in battle, 261 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>—<b>Antiochus II</b>, surnamed <i>Theos</i> + (god), succeeded his father, lost several provinces by revolt, and was + murdered in 246 B.C. by Laodicē, his wife, whom he had put away to + marry Berenīcē, daughter of Ptolemy.—<b>Antiochus + III</b>, surnamed the <i>Great</i>, grandson of the preceding, was born + 242 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, succeeded in 223 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> The early part of his reign embraced a series of + wars against revolted provinces and neighbouring kingdoms, his + expeditions extending to India, over Asia Minor, and afterwards into + Europe, where he took possession of the Thracian Chersonese. Here he + encountered the Romans, who had conquered Philip V of Macedon, and were + prepared to resist his further progress. Antiochus gained an important + adviser in Hannibal, who had fled for refuge to his Court; but he lost + the opportunity of an invasion of Italy while the Romans were engaged in + war with the Gauls, of which the Carthaginian urged him to avail himself. + The Romans defeated him by sea and land, and he was finally overthrown by + Scipio at Mount Sipўlus, in Asia Minor, 190 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and very severe terms were imposed upon him. He + was killed while plundering a temple in Elymais to procure money to pay + the Romans.—<b>Antiochus IV</b>, called <i>Epiphănes,</i> + youngest son of the above, is chiefly remarkable for his attempt to + extirpate the Jewish religion, and to establish in its place the + polytheism of the Greeks. This led to the insurrection of the Maccabees, + by which the Jews ultimately recovered their independence. He died 164 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>Antioquia</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-tē-ō-kē´a<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), a town of South + America, in Colombia, on the River Cauca; founded in 1542. Pop. 8730. It + gives name to a department of the republic; area, 22,752 sq. miles. Pop. + 739,434. Capital, Medellin.</p> + + <p><b>Antip´aros</b> (ancient, <b>Oliăros</b>), one of the Cyclades + Islands in the Grecian Archipelago, containing a famous stalactitic + grotto or cave. It lies south-west of Paros, from which it is separated + by a narrow strait, and has an area of 10 sq. miles, and about 700 + inhabitants.</p> + + <p><b>Antip´ater</b>, a general and friend of Philip of Macedon, father + of Alexander the Great. On the death of Alexander, in 323 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, the regency of Macedonia was assigned to + Antipater, who succeeded in establishing the Macedonian rule in Greece on + a firm footing. He died 317 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, at an + advanced age.</p> + + <p><b>Antip´athy</b>, a special dislike exhibited by individuals to + particular objects or persons, usually resulting from physical or nervous + organization. An antipathy is often an unaccountable repugnance to what + people in general regard with no particular dislike, as certain sounds, + smells, articles of food, &c., and it may be manifested by fainting + or extreme discomfort.</p> + + <p><b>Antiphlogis´tic</b>, a term applied to medicines or methods of + treatment that are intended to counteract inflammation, such as + bloodletting, purgatives, diaphoretics, &c. <!-- Page 190 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page190"></a>[190]</span></p> + + <p><b>An´tiphon</b>, a Greek orator, born near Athens; founder of + political oratory in Greece. His orations are the oldest extant, and he + is said to have been the first who wrote speeches for hire. He was put to + death for taking part in the revolution of 411 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, which established the oligarchic government of + the Four Hundred. Antiphon seems to have specialized in homicide cases; + his most celebrated speech is <i>On the Murder of Herodas</i>. Cf. Sir + R. C. Jebb, <i>Attic Orators</i>; J. F. Dobson, <i>The Greek + Orators</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antiphon</b>, or <b>Antiph´ony</b> ('alternate song'), in the + Christian Church a verse first sung by a single voice, and then repeated + by the whole choir; or any piece to be sung by alternate voices.</p> + + <p><b>Antipodes</b> (an-tip´o-dēz), the name given relatively to + people or places on opposite sides of the earth, so situated that a line + drawn from one to the other passes through the centre of the earth and + forms a true diameter. The longitudes of two such places differ by 180°. + The difference in their time is about twelve hours, and their seasons are + reversed.</p> + + <p><b>Antipodes Islands</b>, a group of small uninhabited islands in the + South Pacific Ocean, about 460 miles <span class="scac">S.E.</span> by + <span class="scac">E</span>. of New Zealand; so called from being nearly + antipodal to Greenwich. Antipodes Island rises to 1300 feet, and is + largely covered with coarse grass; huts have been fitted up to shelter + castaways.</p> + + <p><b>An´tipope</b>, the name applied to those who at different periods + have produced a schism in the Roman Catholic Church by opposing the + authority of the Pope, under the pretence that they were themselves + Popes. The Roman Church cannot admit that there ever existed two Popes; + but the fact is, that in several cases the competitors for the papal + chair were equally Popes; that is to say, the claims of all were equally + good. Each was frequently supported by whole nations, and the schism was + nothing but the struggle of political interests. Twenty-nine antipopes + are enumerated in Church history; the last of them is Felix V, + 1439-49.</p> + + <p><b>Antipyret´ics</b>, medicines given for the purpose of reducing + fever by lowering the patient's temperature, whether by causing + perspiration or otherwise. Quinine, antipyrin, phenacetin, are common + antipyretics. An aperient or purgative often serves the same purpose.</p> + + <p><b>Antipy´rin</b>, a drug obtained from coal-tar products, valuable in + reducing fever and in relieving pain, being much used in nervous headache + and neuralgia.</p> + + <p><b>An´tiquaries</b>, those devoted to the study of ancient times + through their relics, as old places of burial, remains of ancient + habitations, early monuments, implements or weapons, statues, coins, + medals, paintings, inscriptions, books, and manuscripts, with the view of + arriving at a knowledge of the relations, modes of living, habits, and + general condition of the people who created or employed them. Societies + or associations of antiquaries have been formed in all countries of + European civilization. In Britain the Society of Antiquaries of London + was founded in 1572, revived in 1717. and incorporated in 1751. The + Society of Antiquaries of Scotland was founded in 1780, incorporated in + 1783, and has the management of a large national antiquarian museum in + Edinburgh. One of the best-known antiquarian societies in Europe is the + <i>Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord</i> at Copenhagen.</p> + + <p><b>Antiques</b> (an-tēks'), a term specifically applied to the + remains of ancient art, as statues, paintings, vases, cameos, and the + like, and more especially to the works of Grecian and Roman + antiquity.</p> + + <p><b>Antirrhinum</b> (an-ti-rī´num) (from <i>anti</i>, instead of, + and <i>rhis</i>, snout), a genus of annual or perennial plants of the + nat. ord. Scrophulariaceæ, commonly known as <i>snapdragon</i>, on + account of the peculiarity of the blossoms, which, by pressing between + the finger and thumb, may be made to open and shut like a mouth. They all + produce showy flowers, and are much cultivated in gardens. Many varieties + of some of them, such as the great or common snapdragon (<i>Antirrhinum + majus</i>), have been produced by gardeners. The lesser snapdragon grows + in sandy soil, and is found in cornfields in the south of England and + Ireland.</p> + + <p><b>Antisana</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-tē-sä´na<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a volcano in the Andes of Ecuador, 35 + miles <span class="scac">S.E.</span> by <span class="scac">E.</span> of + Quito. Whymper, who ascended it in 1880, makes its height 19,260 + feet.</p> + + <p><b>Antis´cians</b> (Gr. <i>anti</i>, over against, <i>skia</i>, a + shadow), those who live under the same meridian, at the same distance + <span class="scac">N.</span> and <span class="scac">S.</span> of the + equator, and whose shadows at noon consequently are thrown in contrary + directions.</p> + + <p><b>Antiscorbu´tics</b>, remedies against scurvy. Lemon-juice, ripe + fruit, milk, salts of potash, green vegetables, potatoes, fresh meat, and + raw or lightly-boiled eggs, are some of the principal foodstuffs + containing antiscorbutic vitamines.</p> + + <p><b>Anti-Sem´itism</b>, hostility to the Jews (Semites), actively + exhibited in severities and attacks of various kinds. The movement + assumed vast proportions about 1880 and manifested itself in various + countries, especially Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Roumania, and + France. It may be attributed to different motives in different countries, + but on the whole owed its origin not only to the fact of the Jews being a + 'peculiar people' by race and religion, but also to the comparatively + high position won by them in modern times in the financial and political + worlds. The religious element is quite <!-- Page 191 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page191"></a>[191]</span>prominent in the + popular attacks on the Jew, although modern anti-Semitism is essentially + social and economic. In Western Russia there was a great outburst against + the Jews in 1881, in which men, women, and children were slaughtered. The + Government of the Tsar, by its anti-Jewish policy, may be said to have + sanctioned this murderous outbreak, which was followed by harsh laws and + actual persecutions, though afterwards there was a mitigation of the + severity shown towards the Jews. Yet in 1903 the world was startled by a + terrible massacre of Jews at Kishinev, in Bessarabia, connived at by the + authorities on the spot; and towards the end of 1905, in connection with + the Russian revolutionary movement, there were dreadful massacres of Jews + in Odessa, Kishinev, and other towns, the authorities being similarly + involved. In Roumania, until 1919, the position of the Jews resembled + what it was elsewhere in mediæval times, and was less favourable than it + was even under the Turks. In Germany the movement has been worked chiefly + by politicians for their own ends, though the racial and religious + question has also had some influence; and among the ignorant the belief + that the Jews murder Christian children for ritual purposes has been + revived, as also in Austria and in Hungary. In these countries the + movement has been partly political, partly social and economic, partly + religious. In France anti-Semitism has been employed chiefly as a weapon + by monarchists and clericals as against republicanism, and by the + Socialists as against capitalism, racial antipathy having also its + influence on the movements. It reached its height in 1895 at the time of + the Dreyfus affair. In Britain, too, anti-Semitism has of late made + itself felt.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: A. + Leroy-Beaulieu, <i>Israel among the Nations</i>; Bernard Lazare, + <i>L'anti-sémitisme, son histoire et ses causes</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antisep´tic</b> (Gr. <i>anti</i>, against, and <i>sēpein</i>, + to rot), an agent which destroys the germs of putrefaction or suppuration + is called an antiseptic. Many substances act thus, e.g. chlorine, iodine, + hypochlorous acid, sulphurous acid, camphor, creosote, iodoform, nascent + oxygen ('Sanitas'), corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde ('Formalin'), + potassium permanganate ('Condy's Fluid'), carbolic acid (Lysol, Izal, + Cyllin); lately aniline dyes have become prominent: of these flavine has + proved the most useful addition to surgery of recent years. It was much + used in the European War (1914-8).—<i>Antiseptics</i> are also used + for purifying surgical instruments, &c., and commercially as + disinfectants. When introduced by Lister into surgical practice they led + to revolutionary advances in surgery. The tendency of late years has been + to abandon antiseptic for aseptic (sterile) mode of technique, but during + the war (1914-8) there was a general return to antiseptic methods in + surgery.</p> + + <p><b>Antispasmod´ic</b>, a medicine for the cure of spasms and + convulsions; such belong largely to the class of ethers, as sulphuric + ether, chloric ether, nitric ether, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Antisthenes</b> (an-tis´the-nēz), a Greek philosopher and the + founder of the school of Cynics, born at Athens about 444 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> He was first a disciple of Gorgias and then of + Socrates, at whose death he was present. His philosophy was a one-sided + development of the Socratic teaching. He held virtue to consist in + complete self-denial and in disregard of riches, honour, or pleasure of + every kind. He himself lived as a beggar. He died in Athens at an + advanced age.</p> + + <p><b>Antis´trophe.</b> See <i>Strophe</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anti-submarine.</b> See <i>Submarine</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anti-Taurus</b>, a mountain range of Anatolia, Asia Minor, + extending from the Cicilian Taurus towards the north-east, and connecting + the Taurus mountain system with Mount Ararat, Mount Elbruz, and the + Caucasus. See <i>Taurus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antith´esis</b> (opposition), a figure of speech consisting in a + contrast or opposition of words or sentiments; as, 'When our vices + <i>leave us</i>, we flatter ourselves we <i>leave them</i>'; 'The + prodigal <i>robs his heir</i>, the miser <i>robs himself</i>'.</p> + + <p><b>Antitoxin</b>, the name given to a class of bodies of unknown + nature having the capacity of neutralizing the poisonous substances + (toxins) by which certain bacteria produce disease. If such a toxin be + introduced every few days in increasing doses, into, e.g., the horse, and + if, after some months of this treatment, the animal be bled, its serum + contains the antitoxin to the toxins used. The use of the antitoxin to + the toxin of diphtheria is most efficacious in curing that disease, and + the treatment has caused a great fall in the death-rate. It ought to be + applied as soon as possible after signs appear in the throat. An + antitoxic treatment is also applicable in cases of tetanus (lock-jaw), a + disease liable to follow any wound contaminated with dirt, especially + with manured soil. Less success has been achieved when the disease is + fully established, but if the antitoxin be injected immediately after the + wound has been incurred, then the subsequent development of the disease + is prevented. This preventive treatment has been attended with marked + effect in the case of wounds received in war, which it is almost + impossible to keep free from contamination. Antitoxins were extensively + used during the European War. (1914-8). In bacterial diseases other than + those mentioned, sera have been produced by injecting into large animals + dead and living bacteria, e.g. the organisms of epidemic cerebro-spinal + meningitis (spotted fever), pneumonia, blood-poisoning, &c., and + these sera probably depend <!-- Page 192 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page192"></a>[192]</span>for their action on the presence of bodies + similar to antitoxins. See <i>Bacteria</i>, <i>Diphtheria</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Anti-trade Winds</b>, a name given to any of the upper tropical + winds which move northward or southward in the same manner as the + trade-winds which blow beneath them in the opposite direction. These + great aerial currents descend to the surface after they have passed the + limits of the trade-winds, and form the south-west or west-south-west + winds of the north temperate, and the north-west or west-north-west winds + of the south temperate zones.</p> + + <p><b>Antitrinita´rians</b>, all who do not receive the doctrine of the + divine Trinity, or the existence of three persons in the Godhead; + especially applied to those who oppose such a doctrine on philosophical + grounds, as contrasted with Unitarians, who reject the doctrine as not + warranted by Scripture.</p> + + <p><b>An´titype</b>, that which is correlative to a type; by theological + writers the term is employed to denote the reality of which a <i>type</i> + is the prophetic symbol.</p> + + <p><b>An´tium</b>, in ancient Italy, one of the most ancient and powerful + cities of Latium, the chief city of the Volsci, and often at war with the + Romans, by whom it was finally taken in 338 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> It was 38 miles distant from Rome, a flourishing + seaport, and became a favourite residence of the wealthy Romans. It was + destroyed by the Saracens, but vestiges of it remain at Porto d'Anzo, + near which many valuable works of art have been found.</p> + + <p><b>Antivari</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-tē´va<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rē), a seaport town on the eastern + shore of the Adriatic, ceded to Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin + (1878). Antivari was opened as a free port on 23rd Oct., 1909. It was + occupied by the Austrians in 1916, and by the Italians in Nov., 1918. + Pop. 2500.</p> + + <p><b>Antlers</b>, the horns of the deer tribe, or the snags or branches + of the horns.</p> + + <p><b>Ant-lion</b>, the larva of a Neuropterous insect + (<i>Myrmelĕon formicārius</i>), which in its perfect state + greatly resembles a dragon-fly; curious on account of its ingenious + method of catching the insects—chiefly ants—on which it + feeds. It digs a funnel-shaped hole in the driest and finest sand it can + find, and when the pit is deep enough, and the sides are quite smooth and + sloping, it buries itself at the bottom with only its formidable + mandibles projecting, and waits till some luckless insect stumbles over + the edge, when it is immediately seized, its juices sucked, and the dead + body jerked out. It inhabits Southern Europe.</p> + + <p><b>Antofagas´ta</b>, a Chilian seaport on the Bay of Morena, and a + territory of the same name taken from Bolivia in the war of 1879-82, and + definitely ceded to Chile in 1885. The territory has an area of 46,408 + sq. miles; pop. (1919), 235,506. The port is connected by railway with + the silver and other mines lying inland, and exports silver, copper, + cubic nitre, &c., partly from Bolivia. Pop. (1919), 69,175.</p> + + <p><b>Antoinette</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-twa<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-net), Marie. See <i>Marie + Antoinette</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antokolski</b>, Mark, Russian sculptor of Jewish extraction, born + at Vilna in 1843. He studied at the Petrograd Academy of Fine Arts, and + his earliest success was a wooden statue <i>The Jewish Tailor</i> (1864). + In 1868 he received a grant for travelling, and whilst in Italy he + finished his famous statue, <i>Ivan the Terrible</i>. He was made an + academician, and in 1878 was awarded the first prize for sculpture at the + Paris International Exhibition. In 1888 he settled permanently in Paris, + where he died in 1902. His works include: <i>Peter the Great</i> (1872), + <i>Christ before the People</i> (1874), <i>The Death of Socrates</i> + (1876), <i>Spinoza</i> (1882), <i>Yermak</i> and <i>The Sleeping + Beauty</i> (1900).</p> + + <p><b>Antommarchi</b> (-mär´kē), Carlo Francesco, Italian + physician, born in Corsica in 1780, died in Cuba 1838. He was professor + of anatomy at Florence when he offered himself as physician to Napoleon + at St. Helena. Napoleon at first received him with reserve, but soon + admitted him to his confidence, and testified his satisfaction with him + by leaving him a legacy of 100,000 francs. On his return to Europe he + published <i>Les Derniers Moments de Napoléon</i> (2 vols., 8vo, + 1823).</p> + + <p><b>Antonell´i</b>, Giacomo, cardinal, born 1806, died 1876. He was + educated at the Grand Seminary of Rome, where he attracted the attention + of Pope Gregory XVI, who appointed him to several important offices. On + the accession of Pius IX in 1846 Antonelli was raised to the dignity of + cardinal-deacon; two years later he became president and Minister of + Foreign Affairs, and in 1850 was appointed Secretary of State. During the + sitting of the Œcumenical Council (1869-70) he was a prominent + champion of the papal interest. He strongly opposed the assumption of the + united Italian crown by Victor Emanuel.</p> + + <p><b>Antonell´o</b> (of Messina), an Italian painter who died at Venice, + probably in 1493, and is said to have introduced oil-painting into Italy, + having been instructed in it by Jan Van Eyck. Three works by him are in + the National Gallery, London.</p> + + <p><b>Antoni´nus, Itinerary of.</b> See <i>Itinerary</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antoni´nus</b>, Marcus Aurelius. See <i>Aurelius</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antoni´nus, Wall of</b>, a barrier erected by the Romans across the + isthmus between the Forth and the Clyde, in the reign of Antoninus Pius. + Its western extremity was at or near Dunglass Castle, its eastern at + Carriden, and the whole length of it exceeded 27 miles. It was + constructed <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 140 by Lollius Urbicus, the + imperial <!-- Page 193 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page193"></a>[193]</span>legate, and consisted of a ditch 40 feet + wide and 20 feet deep, and a rampart of stone and earth on the south side + 24 feet thick and 20 feet in height. It was strengthened at either end + and along its course by a series of forts and watch-towers. It may still + be traced at various points, and is commonly known as <i>Graham's + Dyke</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:16%;"> + <a href="images/image073.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image073.jpg" + alt="Antoninus Pius" title="Antoninus Pius" /></a> + Coin of Antoninus Pius + </div> + + <p><b>Antoni´nus Pius</b>, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, Roman emperor, was born + at Lavinium, near Rome, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 86, died <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 161. In 120 <span class="scac">A.D.</span> he + became consul, and he was one of the four persons of consular rank among + whom Hadrian divided the supreme administration of Italy. He then went as + proconsul to Asia, and after his return to Rome became more and more the + object of Hadrian's confidence. In <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 138 he + was selected by that emperor as his successor, and the same year he + ascended the throne. He speedily put down the persecutions of the + Christians, and carried on but a few wars. In Britain he extended the + Roman dominion, and, by raising a new wall (see preceding article), put a + stop to the invasions of the Picts and Scots. The senate gave him the + surname <i>Pius</i>, that is, dutiful or showing filial affection, + because to keep alive the memory of Hadrian he had built a temple in his + honour. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius, his adopted son.</p> + + <p><b>Anto´nius</b>, Marcus (Mark Antony), Roman triumvir, born 83 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, was connected with the family of Cæsar by his + mother. Debauchery and prodigality marked his youth. To escape his + creditors he went to Greece in 58, and from thence followed the consul + Gabinius on a campaign in Syria as commander of the cavalry. He served in + Gaul under Cæsar in 52 and 51. In 50 he returned to Rome to support the + interests of Cæsar against the aristocratical party headed by Pompey, and + was appointed tribune. When war broke out between Cæsar and Pompey, + Antony led reinforcements to Cæsar in Greece, and in the battle of + Pharsalia he commanded the left wing. He afterwards returned to Rome with + the appointment of Master of the Horse and Governor of Italy (47). In 44 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he became Cæsar's colleague in the + consulship. Soon after Cæsar was assassinated, Antony, by the reading of + Cæsar's will, and by the oration which he delivered over his body, + excited the people to anger and revenge, and the murderers were obliged + to flee. After several quarrels and reconciliations with Octavianus, + Cæsar's heir (see <i>Augustus</i>), Antony departed to Cisalpine Gaul, + which province had been conferred upon him against the will of the + Senate. But Cicero thundered against him in his famous <i>Philippics</i>; + the Senate declared him a public enemy, and entrusted the conduct of the + war against him to Octavianus and the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. After a + campaign of varied fortunes Antony fled with his troops over the Alps. + Here he was joined by Lepidus, who commanded in Gaul, and through whose + mediation Antony and Octavianus were again reconciled. It was agreed that + the Roman world should be divided among the three conspirators, who were + called <i>triumviri</i>. Antony was to take Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; and + Octavianus, Africa and Sicily. They decided upon the proscription of + their mutual enemies, each giving up his friends to the others, the most + celebrated of the victims being Cicero the orator. Antony and Octavianus + departed in 42 for Macedonia, where the united forces of their enemies, + Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army, which was, however, speedily + defeated at Philippi. Antony next visited Athens, and thence proceeded to + Asia. In Cilicia he ordered Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, to apologize for + her insolent behaviour to the <i>triumviri</i>. She appeared in person, + and her charms fettered him for ever. He followed her to Alexandria, + where he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of the world, till + he was aroused by a report that hostilities had commenced in Italy + between his own relatives and Octavianus. A short war, followed, which + was decided in favour of Octavianus before the arrival of Antony in + Italy. A reconciliation was effected, which was sealed by the marriage of + Antony with Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. A new division of the + Roman dominions was now made (in 40), by which Antony obtained the East, + Octavianus the West. After his return to Asia Antony gave himself up + entirely to Cleopatra, assuming the style of an Eastern despot, and so + alienating many of his adherents and embittering public opinion against + him at Rome. At length war was declared at Rome against the Queen of + Egypt, and Antony was deprived of his consulship and government. Each + party assembled its forces, and Antony lost, in the naval battle at + Actium, 31 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, the dominion of the world. He + followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, and on the arrival of Octavianus his + fleet and cavalry deserted, and his infantry was defeated. Deceived by a + false report of her death which Cleopatra had disseminated, he fell upon + his own sword (30 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>).—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Mommsen, <i>Roman History</i>; Plutarch, + <i>Lives</i> (translated by Langhorne); De Quincey, <i>Essay on the + Cæsars</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Antonoma´sia</b>, in rhetoric, the use of the name of some office, + dignity, profession, science, or trade instead of the true name of the + person, as <!-- Page 194 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page194"></a>[194]</span>when <i>his majesty</i> is used for a + king, <i>his lordship</i> for a nobleman; or when, instead of Aristotle, + we say, <i>the philosopher</i>; or, conversely, the use of a proper noun + instead of a common noun; as, a <i>Solomon</i> for a wise man.</p> + + <p><b>Antony</b>, Mark. See <i>Antonius</i> (<i>Marcus</i>).</p> + + <p><b>Antony, St.</b> See <i>Anthony</i>.</p> + + <p><b>An´trim</b>, a county of Ireland, province of Ulster, in the + north-east of the island; area, 702,654 acres, of which about a third are + arable. The eastern and northern districts are comparatively mountainous, + with tracts of heath and bog, but no part rises to a great height. The + principal rivers are the Lagan and the Bann, which separate Antrim from + Down and Londonderry respectively. The general soil of the plains and + valleys is strong loam. Flax, oats, and potatoes are the principal + agricultural produce. Cattle, sheep, swine, and goats are extensively + reared. There are salt-mines and beds of iron-ore, which is worked and + exported. A range of basaltic strata stretches along the northern coast, + of which the celebrated Giant's Causeway is the most remarkable portion, + the vast aggregates of natural rock pillars there being very striking. + The interior also contains some scenes of picturesque beauty, + particularly the fertile valley of the Lagan, between Belfast and + Lisburn. Much of the scenery of the county, however, is dreary and + monotonous. Lough Neagh, the largest lake of the United Kingdom, is + principally in Antrim. Its waters are carried to the sea by the Bann, + which is of no use for navigation, being obstructed by weirs and rocks. + The spinning of linen and cotton yarn, and the weaving of linen and + cotton, are the staple manufactures, but the cotton manufacture is small + compared with that of linen. The principal towns are Belfast, Lisburn, + Ballymena, Larne, and Carrickfergus. In 1898 Belfast, the former capital, + was constituted into a county borough. About fifty per cent of the + inhabitants are Presbyterians, being the descendants of Scottish + immigrants of the seventeenth century. The county sends four members to + Parliament; Belfast returns nine. Pop. (excluding Belfast) 193,864 + (1911).—The town of Antrim, at the north end of Lough Neagh, is a + small place with a pop. of 1826.</p> + + <p><b>Ant-thrush</b>, a name given to certain passerine or perching birds + having resemblances to the thrushes and supposed to feed largely on ants. + They all have longish legs, short wings, and a short tail. The true + ant-thrushes of the Old World belong to the genus Pitta. They chiefly + inhabit southern and south-eastern Asia and the Eastern Archipelago, but + are also found in Africa and Australia, and are birds of brilliant + plumage, exhibiting black, white, scarlet, blue, and green in vivid + contrast, there being generally no blending of colours by means of + intermediate hues. These birds are not now regarded as allied to the + thrushes, nor are they allied to the ant-birds, or ant-thrushes of the + New World, which live among close foliage and bushes. Some of these are + called ant-shrikes and ant-wrens. They belong to several genera.</p> + + <p><b>Ant´werp</b> (Du. and Ger. <i>Antwerpen</i>, Fr. <i>Anvers</i>), + the chief port of Belgium, and one of the first on the Continent, the + capital of a province of the same name, on the Scheldt, about 50 miles + from the open sea. It lies in a fertile plain at an abrupt turn of the + river, which is here from 160 to 280 yards wide, and has a depth varying + from 25 to 50 feet. It is strongly fortified, being completely surrounded + on the land side by a semicircular inner line of fortifications, the + defences being completed by an outer line of forts and outworks. Fine + quays have been constructed along the river banks. The general appearance + of the city is exceedingly picturesque, an effect produced by the + numerous churches, convents, and magnificent public buildings, the + stately antique houses that line its older thoroughfares, and the + profusion of beautiful trees with which it is adorned. The older streets + are tortuous and irregular, but those in the newer quarters are wide and + regular. Some of the squares are very handsome. The cathedral, with a + spire 400 feet high, one of the largest and most beautiful specimens of + Gothic architecture in Belgium, contains Rubens' celebrated masterpieces, + <i>The Descent from the Cross</i>, <i>The Elevation of the Cross</i>, and + <i>The Assumption</i>. The other churches of note are St. James's, St. + Andrew's, and St. Paul's, all enriched with paintings by Rubens, Vandyck, + and other masters. Among the other buildings of note are the exchange, + the town hall, the palace, the theatre, academy of the fine arts, picture + and sculpture galleries, &c. The harbour accommodation is extensive + and excellent, large new docks and quays having been recently built, and + other works being under construction or contemplated. The shipping trade + is now very large, Antwerp being a great centre of the world's commerce, + and the goods being largely in transit. The entries of vessels in a year + aggregate over 13,000,000 tons. Much of the trade is with Britain. There + are numerous but not very important industries. Antwerp is mentioned as + early as the eighth century, and in the eleventh and twelfth it had + attained a high degree of prosperity. In the sixteenth century it is said + to have had a pop. of 200,000, and it had then an extensive foreign + trade. The wars between the Netherlands and Spain greatly injured its + commerce, which was almost ruined by the closing of the navigation of the + Scheldt in accordance with the peace of Westphalia (1648). It was only in + the nineteenth century that its prosperity revived. In the European War + <!-- Page 195 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page195"></a>[195]</span>(1914-8), the Germans, under General von + Beseler, entered Antwerp on 7th Oct., 1914, and remained there until + Nov., 1918. Pop. (1919), 322,857.—The province consists of a + fertile plain 1093 sq. miles in area, and has a pop. of over + 1,000,000.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:15%;"> + <a href="images/image074.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image074.jpg" + alt="altcaption" title="altcaption" /></a> + Anubis + </div> + + <p><b>Anu´bis</b> (<i>Anepo</i> on the monuments), one of the deities of + the ancient Egyptians, the son of Osiris by Isis. The Egyptian sculptures + represent him with the head, or under the form, of a jackal, with long + pointed ears. His office was to conduct the souls of the dead from this + world to the next, and in the lower world he weighed the actions of the + deceased previous to their admission to the presence of Osiris.</p> + + <p><b>Anúpshahr</b> (<i>a</i>-nöp´shär), a town of Hindustan, United + Provinces, on the Ganges, 75 miles <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of + Delhi, a resort of Hindu pilgrims who bathe in the Ganges. Pop. + 15,000.</p> + + <p><b>Anu´ra</b>, or <b>Anou´ra</b> (Gr. <i>an</i>, negative, + <i>oura</i>, a tail), an ord. of Batrachians which lose the tail when + they reach maturity, such as the frogs and toads.</p> + + <p><b>Anuradhapura.</b> See <i>Anarajapura</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A´nus</b>, the opening at the lower or posterior extremity of the + alimentary canal through which the excrement or waste products of + digestion are expelled.</p> + + <p><b>An´vil</b>, an instrument on which pieces of metal are laid for the + purpose of being hammered. The common smith's anvil is generally made of + seven pieces, namely, the core or body; the four corners for the purpose + of enlarging its base; the projecting end, which contains a square hole + for the reception of a set or chisel to cut off pieces of iron; and the + beak or conical end, used for turning pieces of iron into a circular + form, &c. These pieces are each separately welded to the core and + hammered so as to form a regular surface with the whole. When the anvil + has received its due form, it is faced with steel, and is then tempered + in cold water. The smith's anvil is generally placed loose upon a wooden + block. The anvil for heavy operations, such as the forging of ordnance + and shafting, consists of a huge iron block deeply embedded, and resting + on piles of masonry.</p> + + <p><b>Anville</b>, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' (jän<span + class="x1"><span class="x3">˙</span></span> ba<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>p-tēst + bōr-gē-nyön<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span> dän<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-vēl), a celebrated French + geographer, born 1697, died 1782; published a great number of maps and + writings illustrative of ancient and modern geography.</p> + + <p><b>Anynaks</b>, a negro tribe inhabiting the banks of the Upper Sobat + (a tributary of the White Nile), between the Egyptian Sudan and + Abyssinia. They rebelled against British authority in 1912.</p> + + <p><b>Anzacs</b>, a composite word used as the name of the British + colonial troops in the Gallipoli undertaking. The men being from + Australia and New Zealand, their organization was officially known as the + Australian-New Zealand Army Corps. The full title, however, was much too + cumbersome, and a clerk in one of the head-quarters offices at Zeitoun, + where the troops were in training, hit upon the word <i>Anzacs</i>, + formed from the initial letters of the long title. The Anzacs landed near + Gaba Tepe, Gallipoli, on the morning of 25th April, 1915, and had their + first encounter with the Germans on the Western Front on 6th May, 1916. + In 1916 the word Anzac was officially adopted by the War Office.</p> + + <p><b>Anzin</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-zan<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), a town of France, department of Nord, + about 1 mile north-west of Valenciennes, in the centre of an extensive + coal-field, with blast-furnaces, forges, rolling-mills, foundries, + &c. Pop. 14,325.</p> + + <p><b>Aonia</b>, in ancient geography a name for part of Bœotia in + Greece, containing Mount Helicon and the fountain Aganippe, both haunts + of the muses.</p> + + <p><b>A´orist</b>, the name given to one of the tenses of the verb in + some languages (as the Greek), which expresses indefinite past time.</p> + + <p><b>Aor´ta</b>, in anatomy, the great artery or trunk of the arterial + system, proceeding from the left ventricle of the heart, and giving + origin to all the arteries except the pulmonary. It first rises towards + the top of the breast-bone, when it is called the <i>ascending aorta</i>; + then makes a great curve, called the transverse or <i>great arch of the + aorta</i>, whence it branches off to the head and upper extremities; + thence proceeding towards the lower extremities, under the name of the + <i>descending aorta</i>, it branches off to the trunk; and finally + divides into the two iliacs, which supply the pelvis and lower + extremities.</p> + + <p><b>Aosta</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-os´ta<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>; ancient <b>Augusta Prætoria</b>), a + town of north Italy, 50 miles <span class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Turin, + on the Dora-Baltea, with an ancient triumphal arch, remains of an + amphitheatre, &c. Pop. 7000.</p> + + <p><b>Aoudad</b> (a-ö´dad), the <i>Ammotrăgus + tragelăphus</i>, a quadruped allied to the sheep, most closely to + the mouflon, from which, however, it may be easily distinguished by the + heavy mane, commencing at the throat and falling as far as the knees. It + is a native of North Africa, inhabiting the loftiest and most + inaccessible rocks.</p> + + <p><b>Apaches</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-pä´chez), a warlike race of + North-American Indians, numbering between 5000 and 6000, and inhabiting + Arizona, New Mexico, and <!-- Page 196 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page196"></a>[196]</span>Oklahoma. The final surrender of the tribe + took place in 1886, but a few in Mexico still maintain their independence + and hostility to the whites. The name <i>Apache</i> was assumed by + Parisian hooligans, notorious for their criminal outrages.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´anage</b>, an allowance which the younger princes of a reigning + house in some European countries receive from the revenues of the + country, generally together with a grant of public domains, that they may + be enabled to live in a manner becoming their rank.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´atite</b>, a translucent but seldom transparent mineral, which + crystallizes in a regular six-sided prism, usually terminated by a + truncated six-sided pyramid. It passes through various shades of colour, + from white to yellow, green, blue, and occasionally red, scratches + fluor-spar but is scratched by felspar, and has a specific gravity of + about 3.5. It is a compound of calcium phosphate with calcium fluoride or + chloride. It occurs principally in igneous rocks, particularly diorites. + The very coarse-grained granites of Ontario contain apatite crystals of + corresponding size, which have been picked out as a source of artificial + phosphate manures. Apatite supplies to soils almost all the phosphorus + available for plants in a state of nature.</p> + + <p><b>Ape</b>, a common name of a number of quadrumanous animals + inhabiting the Old World (Asia and the Asiatic Islands, and Africa), and + including a variety of species. The word <i>ape</i> was formerly applied + indiscriminately to all quadrumanous mammals; but it is now limited to + the anthropoid or man-like monkeys. The family includes the chimpanzee, + gorilla, orang-outang, &c., and has been divided into three genera, + Troglodўtes, Simia, and Hylobătes. See <i>Chimpanzee</i>, + <i>Gibbon</i>, <i>Gorilla</i>, <i>Monkey</i>, <i>Orang</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Apeldoorn</b> (ä´pel-dōrn), a town of Holland, province of + Guelderland, 17 miles north of Arnhem, with manufactures of paper. The + royal palace Loo is here. Pop. 44,474.</p> + + <p><b>Apelles</b> (a-pel´ēz), the most famous of the painters of + ancient Greece and of antiquity, was born in the fourth century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, probably at Colophon. Ephorus of Ephesus was + his first teacher, but attracted by the renown of the Sicyonian school he + went and studied at Sicyon. In the time of Philip he went to Macedonia, + and there a close friendship between him and Alexander the Great was + established. The most admired of his pictures was that of Venus rising + from the sea and wringing the water from her dripping locks. His portrait + of Alexander with a thunderbolt in his hand was no less celebrated. He + died about the end of the century. Among the anecdotes told of Apelles is + the one which gave rise to the Latin proverb, 'Ne sutor ultra + crepidam'—'Let not the shoemaker go beyond the shoe'. Having heard + a cobbler point out an error in the drawing of a shoe in one of his + pictures he corrected it, whereupon the cobbler took upon him to + criticize the leg, and received from the artist the famous reply.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´ennines</b> (Lat. <i>Mons Apenninus</i>), a prolongation of the + Alps, forming the 'backbone of Italy'. Beginning at Savona, on the Gulf + of Genoa, the Apennines traverse the whole of the peninsula and also + cross over into Sicily, the Strait of Messina being regarded merely as a + gap in the chain. The average height of the mountains composing the range + is about 4000 feet, and nowhere do they reach the limits of perpetual + snow, though some summits exceed 9000 feet in height. Monte Corno, called + also Gran Sasso d'Italia (Great Rock of Italy), which rises among the + mountains of the Abruzzi, is the loftiest of the chain, rising to the + height of 9541 feet, Monte Majella (9151) being next. Monte Gargano, + which juts out into the Adriatic from the <i>ankle</i> of Italy, is a + mountainous mass upwards of 5000 feet high, completely separated from the + main chain. On the Adriatic side the mountains descend more abruptly to + the sea than on the western or Mediterranean side, and the streams are + comparatively short and rapid. On the western side are the valleys of the + Arno, Tiber, Garigliano, and Volturno, the largest rivers that rise in + the Apennines, and the only ones of importance in the peninsular portion + of Italy. They consist almost entirely of limestone rocks, and are + exceedingly rich in the finest marbles. On the south slopes volcanic + masses are not uncommon. Mount Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the + continent of Europe, is an instance. The lower slopes are well clothed + with vegetation, the summits are sterile and bare.</p> + + <p><b>Apenrade</b> (ä´pen-rä-de), a seaport in Schleswig-Holstein, on a + fiord of the Little Belt, beautifully situated, and carrying on a + considerable fishing industry. Pop. 7800.</p> + + <p><b>Ape´rient</b>, a medicine which, in moderate doses, gently but + completely opens the bowels: examples, castor-oil, Epsom salts, senna, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Apet´alous</b>, a botanical term applied to flowers or + flowering-plants which are destitute of petals or corolla.</p> + + <p><b>Aphanip´tera</b>, an order of wingless insects, composed of the + different species of fleas. See <i>Flea</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Apha´sia</b> (Gr. <i>a</i>, not, and <i>phasis</i>, speaking), in + pathology, a symptom of certain morbid conditions of the nervous system, + in which the patient loses the power of expressing ideas by means of + words, or loses the appropriate use of words, the vocal organs the while + remaining intact and the intelligence sound. There is sometimes an entire + loss of words as connected with ideas, and sometimes only the loss of a + few. In one form of the disease, called <i>aphemia</i>, the <!-- Page 197 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page197"></a>[197]</span>patient can + think and write, but cannot speak; in another, called <i>agraphia</i>, he + can think and speak, but cannot express his ideas in writing. In a great + majority of cases, where post-mortem examinations have been made, morbid + changes have been found in the left frontal convolution of the brain.</p> + + <p><b>Aphe´lion</b> (Gr. <i>apo</i>, from, and <i>hēlios</i>, the + sun), that point of the orbit of the earth or any other planet which is + remotest from the sun.</p> + + <p><b>Aphe´mia.</b> See <i>Aphasia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aphides</b> (af´i-dēz). See <i>Aphis</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image075.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image075.jpg" + alt="Aphides" title="Aphides" /></a> + Aphides + + <p class="poem">Cabbage-leaf Plant-louse (<i>Aphis + brassicæ</i>)—1, 2. Male, natural size and magnified. 3, 4, + Female, natural size and magnified.</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Aphis</b>, a genus of insects (called plant-lice) of the ord. + Hemiptera, the type of the family Aphĭdēs. The species are + very numerous and destructive. The <i>A. rosæ</i> lives on the rose; the + <i>A. fabæ</i> on the bean; the <i>A. humŭli</i> is injurious to + the hop, the <i>A. granaria</i> to cereals, and <i>A. lanigĕra</i> + or woolly aphis equally so to apple trees. The aphides are furnished with + an inflected beak, and feelers longer than the thorax. In the same + species some individuals have four erect wings and others are entirely + without wings. The feet are of the ambulatory kind, and the abdomen + usually ends in two horn-like tubes, from which is ejected the substance + called honey-dew, a favourite food of ants. (See <i>Ant</i>.) The aphides + illustrate parthenogenesis; hermaphrodite forms produced from eggs + produce viviparous wingless forms, which again produce others like + themselves, and thus multiply during summer, one individual giving rise + to millions. Winged sexual forms appear late in autumn, the females of + which, being impregnated by the males, produce eggs.</p> + + <p><b>Apho´nia</b> (Gr. <i>a</i>, not, and <i>phōnē</i>, + voice), in pathology, the greater or less impairment, or the complete + loss of the power of emitting vocal sound. The slighter and less + permanent forms often arise from extreme nervousness, fright, and + hysteria. Slight forms of structural aphonia are of a catarrhal nature, + resulting from more or less congestion and tumefaction of the mucous and + submucous tissues of the larynx and adjoining parts. Severer cases are + frequently occasioned by serous infiltration into the submucous tissue, + with or without inflammation of the mucous membrane of the larynx and of + its vicinity. The voice may also be affected in different degrees by + inflammatory affections of the fauces and tonsils; by tumours in these + situations; by morbid growths pressing on or implicating the larynx or + trachea; by aneurisms; and most frequently by chronic laryngitis and its + consequences, especially thickening, ulceration, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aph´orism</b>, a brief, sententious saying, in which a + comprehensive meaning is involved, as 'Familiarity breeds contempt'; + 'Necessity has no law'.</p> + + <p><b>Aphrodite</b> (af-ro-di´tē), the goddess of love among the + Greeks; counterpart of the Roman Venus. A festival called Aphrodisia was + celebrated in her honour in various parts of Greece, but especially in + Cyprus. See <i>Venus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aphthæ</b> (af´thē), a disease occurring especially in + infants, but occasionally seen in old persons, and consisting of small + white ulcers upon the tongue, gums, inside of the lips, and palate, + resembling particles of curdled milk: commonly called <i>thrush</i> or + <i>milk-thrush</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A´pia</b>, the chief place and trading centre of the Samoa Islands, + on the north side of the Island of Upolu. It has a wireless station.</p> + + <p><b>A´piary</b> (Lat. <i>apis</i>, a bee), a place for keeping bees. + The apiary should be well sheltered from strong winds, moisture, and the + extremes of heat and cold. The hives should face the south or south-east, + and should be placed on shelves 2 feet above the ground, and about the + same distance from each other. There is no place for handling bees like + the open air in suitable weather, and for this reason bee-houses, or + bee-sheds, formerly in use, are not much in vogue now. As to the form of + the hives and the materials of which they should be constructed there are + great differences of opinion. The old dome-shaped straw <i>skep</i> is + still in general use among the cottagers of Great Britain. Its cheapness + and simplicity of construction are in its favour, while it is excellent + for warmth and ventilation; but it has the disadvantage that its interior + is closed to inspection, and the honey can only be got out by stupefying + the bees with the smoke of the common puff-ball or chloroform, or by + fumigating with sulphur, which entails the destruction of the swarm. + Wooden hives of square box-like form are now gaining general favour among + bee-keepers. They usually consist of a large breeding chamber below and + two sliding removable boxes called 'supers' above for the abstraction of + honey without disturbing the contents of the main chamber. It is of great + importance that the apiary should be situated in the neighbourhood of + good feeding <!-- Page 198 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page198"></a>[198]</span>grounds, such as gardens, clover-fields, + or heath-covered hills. When their stores of honey are removed, the bees + must be fed during the winter and part of spring with syrup or with a + solution consisting of 2 lb. loaf-sugar to a pint of water. In the early + spring slow and continuous feeding (a few ounces of syrup each day) will + stimulate the queen to deposit her eggs, by which means the colony is + rapidly strengthened and throws off early swarms. New swarms may make + their appearance as early as May and as late as August, but swarming + usually takes place in the intervening months. See <i>Bee-keeping</i>, + <i>Hives</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Apic´ius</b>, Marcus Gabius, a Roman epicure in the time of + Augustus and Tiberius, who, having exhausted his vast fortune on the + gratification of his palate, and having <i>only</i> about £80,000 left, + poisoned himself that he might escape the misery of plain diet. The book + of cookery published under the title of <i>Apicius</i> was written by one + Cælius, and belongs to a much later date.</p> + + <p><b>A´pion</b>, a Greek grammarian, born in Egypt, lived in the reigns + of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> + 15-54, and went to Rome to teach grammar and rhetoric. Among his works, + one or two fragments only of which remain, was one directed against the + Jews, which was replied to by Josephus.</p> + + <p><b>A´pios</b>, a genus of leguminous climbing plants, producing edible + tubers on underground shoots. An American species (<i>A. + tuberōsa</i>) has been used as a substitute for the potato, but its + tubers, though numerous, are small.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:22%;"> + <a href="images/image076.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image076.jpg" + alt="altcaption" title="altcaption" /></a> + Apis + </div> + + <p><b>A´pis</b>, a bull to which divine honours were paid by the ancient + Egyptians, who regarded him as a symbol of Osiris. At Memphis he had a + splendid residence, containing extensive walks and courts for his + entertainment, and he was waited upon by a large train of priests, who + looked upon his every movement as oracular. He was not suffered to live + beyond twenty-five years, being secretly killed by the priests and thrown + into a sacred well. Another bull, characterized by certain marks, as a + black colour, a triangle of white on the forehead, a white + crescent-shaped spot on the right side, &c., was selected in his + place. His birthday was annually celebrated, and his death was a season + of public mourning. See <i>Animal Worship</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A´pis</b>, a genus of insects. See <i>Bee</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A´pium</b>, a genus of umbelliferous plants, including celery.</p> + + <p><b>Aplacen´tal.</b> See <i>Placenta</i>, <i>Marsupialia</i>, and + <i>Echidna</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aplanat´ic.</b> See <i>Optics</i>, <i>Photography</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aplysia.</b> See <i>Sea-hare</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Apoc´alypse</b> (Gr. <i>apokalypsis</i>, a revelation), the name + given to the last book of the New Testament, in the English version + called <i>The Revelation of St. John the Divine</i>. Although a Christian + work, the <i>Apocalypse</i> belongs to a class of literature dealing with + eschatological subjects and much in vogue among the Jews of the first + century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> It is generally believed that the + <i>Apocalypse</i> was written by the apostle John in his old age (<span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 95-97) in the Isle of Patmos, whither he had + been banished by the Roman Emperor Domitian. Anciently its genuineness + was maintained by Justin Martyr, Irenæus, Clement of Alexandria, + Tertullian, and many others; while it was doubted by Dionysius of + Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom, and, nearer our own times, by + Luther. The <i>Apocalypse</i> has been explained differently by almost + every writer who has ventured to interpret it, and has furnished all + sorts of sects and fanatics with quotations to support their creeds or + pretensions. The modern interpreters may be divided into three + schools—namely, the <i>historical school</i>, who hold that the + prophecy embraces the whole history of the Church and its foes from the + time of its writing to the end of the world; the <i>Præterists</i>, who + hold that the whole or nearly the whole of the prophecy has been already + fulfilled, and that it refers chiefly to the triumph of Christianity over + Paganism and Judaism; and the <i>Futurists</i>, who throw the whole + prophecy, except the first three chapters, forward upon a time not yet + reached by the Church—a period of no very long duration, which is + immediately to precede Christ's second coming. See + <i>Bible</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: R. H. Charles, + <i>Studies in the Apocalypse</i>; F. C. Burkitt, <i>Jewish and Christian + Apocalypses</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Apocalyptic Number</b>, the mystic number 666 found in <i>Rev.</i> + xiii, 18. As early as the second century ecclesiastical writers found + that the name Antichrist was indicated by the Greek characters expressive + of this number. By Irenæus the word <i>Lateinos</i> was found in the + letters of the number, and the Roman Empire was therefore considered to + be Antichrist. Protestants generally believe it has reference to the + Papacy, and, on the other hand, Catholics connect it with Protestantism. + It is, however, almost certain that the number <!-- Page 199 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page199"></a>[199]</span>refers to Nero, for by + transliterating the Greek <i>Kaisar Neron</i> into Hebrew, and adding + together the sums denoted by the Hebrew letters, we obtain the number + 666.</p> + + <p><b>Apocar´pous</b>, in botany, a term applied to such fruits as are + the produce of a single flower, and are formed of one carpel, or a number + of carpels free and separate from each other.</p> + + <p><b>Apoc´rypha</b> (Gr., 'things concealed or spurious'), a term + applied in the earliest churches to various sacred or professedly + inspired writings, sometimes given to those whose authors were unknown, + sometimes to those with a hidden meaning, and sometimes to those + considered objectionable. The term is specially applied to the fourteen + undermentioned books, which were written during the two centuries + preceding the birth of Christ. They were written, not in Hebrew, but in + Greek, and the Jews never allowed them a place in their sacred canon. + They were incorporated into the Septuagint, and thence passed to the + Vulgate. The Greek Church excluded them from the canon in 360 at the + Council of Laodicea. The Latin Church treated them with more favour, but + it was not until 1546 that they were formally admitted into the canon of + the Church of Rome by a decree of the Council of Trent. The Anglican + Church says they may be read for example of life and instruction of + manners, but that the Church does not apply them to establish any + doctrine. All other Protestant churches in Britain and America ignore + them. The following fourteen books form the Apocrypha of the English + Bible: The first and second <i>Books of Esdras</i>, <i>Tobit</i>, + <i>Judith</i>, the rest of the <i>Book of Esther</i>, the <i>Wisdom of + Solomon</i>, the <i>Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach</i>, or + <i>Ecclesiasticus</i>, <i>Baruch the Prophet</i>, the <i>Song of the + Three Children</i>, <i>Susanna and the Elders</i>, <i>Bel and the + Dragon</i>, the <i>Prayer of Manasses</i>, and the first and second + <i>Books of Maccabees</i>. Besides the Apocryphal books of the Old + Testament there are many spurious books composed in the earlier ages of + Christianity, and published under the names of Christ and his apostles, + or of such immediate followers as from their character or means of + intimate knowledge might give an apparent plausibility to such forgeries. + These writings comprise: 1st, the <i>Apocryphal Gospels</i>, which treat + of the history of Joseph and the Virgin before the birth of Christ, of + the infancy of Jesus, and of the acts of Pilate; 2nd, the <i>Apocryphal + Acts of the Apostles</i>; and 3rd, the <i>Apocryphal Apocalypses</i>, + none of which have obtained canonical recognition by any of the + churches.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Wace, <i>The + Apocrypha</i>; Porter, in Hastings' <i>Bible Dict.</i>, i, pp. 111-23; + W. D. F. Oesterley, <i>Book of the Apocrypha</i>; R. H. Charles, + <i>Religious Development between the Old and the New Testaments</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Apocyna´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of dicotyledonous plants, having for + its type the genus Apocўnum or dog-bane. The species have opposite + or sometimes whorled leaves without stipules; the corolla monopetalous, + hypogynous, and with the stamens inserted upon it; fruit two-celled. The + plants yield a milky juice, which is generally poisonous; several yield + caoutchouc, and a few edible fruits. The bark of several species is a + powerful febrifuge. To the order belongs the periwinkle (Vinca). See + <i>Cow-tree</i>, <i>Periwinkle</i>, <i>Oleander</i>, <i>Tanghin</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´oda.</b> See <i>Proteolepadidæ</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´odal Fishes</b>, the name applied to such malacopterous fishes + as want ventral fins. They constitute a small natural family, of which + the common eel is an example.</p> + + <p><b>Apo´dösis</b>, in grammar, the latter member of a conditional + sentence (or one beginning with <i>if</i>, <i>though</i>, &c.) + dependent on the condition or <i>protăsis</i>; as, if it rain + (<i>protasis</i>) I shall not go (<i>apodosis</i>).</p> + + <p><b>Ap´ogee</b> (-jē; Gr. <i>apo</i>, from, and <i>gē</i>, + the earth), that point in the orbit of the moon or a planet where it is + at its greatest distance from the earth; also the greatest distance of + the sun from the earth when the latter is in <i>aphelion</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Apol´da</b>, a town of Germany, in Saxe-Weimar, at which woollen + goods are extensively manufactured. Pop. 22,610.</p> + + <p><b>Apollina´rians</b>, a sect of Christians who maintained the + doctrine that Christ had a human body and a human sensitive soul, but no + human rational mind, the Divine Logos (the Word) taking the place of the + mind, and that God was consequently united in him with the human body and + the sensitive soul. Apollinaris, the author of this opinion, was, from + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 362 till at least <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 382, Bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, and a zealous + opposer of the Arians. As a man and a scholar he was highly esteemed, and + was among the most popular authors of his time. He formed a congregation + of his adherents at Antioch, and made Vitalis their bishop. The + <i>Apollinarians</i>, or <i>Vitalians</i>, as their followers were + called, soon spread their settlements in Syria and the neighbouring + countries, established several societies, with their own bishops, and one + even in Constantinople; but many adherents drifted away to Monophysitism, + and the sect soon became extinct.</p> + + <p><b>Apollina´ris Water</b>, a natural aerated water, belonging to the + class of acidulated soda waters, and derived from the Apollinarisbrunnen, + a spring in the valley of the Ahr, near the Rhine, in Rhenish Prussia, + forming a highly-esteemed beverage.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:26%;"> + <a href="images/image077.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image077.jpg" + alt="Apollo Belvedere" title="Apollo Belvedere" /></a> + Apollo Belvedere (Vatican, Rome) + </div> + + <p><b>Apol´lo</b>, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (Latona), who, being + persecuted by the jealousy of Hera (Juno), after tedious wanderings and + <!-- Page 200 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page200"></a>[200]</span>nine days' labour, was delivered of him + and his twin sister, Artĕmis (Diana), on the Island of Delos. + Skilled in the use of the bow, he slew the serpent Python on the fifth + day after his birth; afterwards, with his sister Artĕmis, he killed + the children of Niobē. He aided Zeus in the war with the Titans and + the giants. He destroyed the Cyclopes, because they forged the + thunderbolts with which Zeus killed his son and favourite Asklepios + (Æsculapius). According to some traditions he invented the lyre, though + this is generally ascribed to Hermes (Mercury). The brightest creation of + polytheism, Apollo is also the most complex, and many aspects of the + people's life were reflected in his cult. He was originally the sun-god; + and though in Homer he appears distinct from Helios (the sun), yet his + real nature is hinted at even here by the epithet Phœbus, that is, + the radiant or beaming. In later times the view was almost universal that + Apollo and Helios were identical. From being the god of light and purity + in a physical sense, he gradually became the god of moral and spiritual + light and purity, the source of all intellectual, social, and political + progress. He thus came to be regarded as the god of song and prophecy, + the god that wards off and heals bodily suffering and disease, the + institutor and guardian of civil and political order, and the founder of + cities. His worship was introduced at Rome at an early period, probably + in the time of the Tarquins. Among the ancient statues of Apollo that + have come down to us, the most remarkable is the one called <i>Apollo + Belvedere</i>, from the Belvedere Gallery in the Vatican at Rome. This + statue was discovered at Frascati in 1455, and purchased by Pope Julian + II, the founder of the Vatican museum. It is a copy of a Greek statue of + the third century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and dates probably from + the reign of Nero.</p> + + <p><b>Apollodo´rus</b>, a Greek writer who flourished 140 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> Among the numerous works he wrote on various + subjects, the only one extant is his <i>Bibliothecē</i>, which + contains a concise account of the mythology of Greece down to the heroic + age.</p> + + <p><b>Apollo´nius of Perga</b>, Greek mathematician, called the 'great + geometer', flourished about 240 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and was + the author of many works, only one of which, a treatise on <i>Conic + Sections</i>, partly in Greek and partly in an Arabic translation, is now + extant.</p> + + <p><b>Apollo´nius of Rhodes</b>, a Greek rhetorician and poet, flourished + about 230 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Of his various works we have + only the <i>Argonautica</i>, an epic poem of considerable merit, though + perhaps written with too much care and labour. It deals with the story of + the Argonautic expedition.</p> + + <p><b>Apollo´nius of Ty´ana</b>, in Cappadocia, a Pythagorean philosopher + who was born in the beginning of the Christian era, early adopted the + Pythagorean doctrines, abstaining from animal food and maintaining a + rigid silence for five years. He travelled extensively in Asia, professed + to be endowed with miraculous powers, such as prophecy and the raising of + the dead, and was on this account set up by some as a rival to Christ. + His ascetic life, wise discourses, and wonderful deeds obtained for him + almost universal reverence, and temples, altars, and statues were erected + to him. He died at Ephesus about the end of the first century. A + narrative of his strange career, containing many fables, with, perhaps, a + kernel of truth, was written by Philostratus about a century later.</p> + + <p><b>Apollo´nius of Tyre</b>, the hero of a tale which had an immense + popularity in the Middle Ages and which indirectly furnished the plot of + Shakespeare's <i>Pericles, Prince of Tyre</i>. The story, originally in + Greek, first appeared in the third century after Christ.</p> + + <p><b>Apoll´os</b>, a Jew of Alexandria, who learned the doctrines of + Christianity at Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla, became a preacher of + the gospel in Achaia and Corinth, and an assistant of Paul in his + missionary work. Some have regarded him as the author of the <i>Epistle + to the Hebrews</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Apoll´yon</b> ('the Destroyer'), a name used in <i>Rev.</i> ix, 11 + for the angel of the bottomless pit.</p> + + <p><b>Apologetics</b> (-jet´iks), this term, as used in Christian + theology, does not carry with it the idea of excuse or regretful + acknowledgment, but signifies a defensive or vindicatory statement, which + accords with its meaning in the original Greek. In the conventional + division of systematic theology apologetics comes first in order, and is + followed by the disciplines of dogmatics <!-- Page 201 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page201"></a>[201]</span>and ethics, which + expound Christian belief and Christian duty respectively. There is a + tendency, however, in the more recent treatment of systematic theology, + to include the defence or vindication of the various Christian doctrines + within the dogmatic scheme, leaving to apologetics—in so far as it + may be regarded as a separate discipline from dogmatics—the + discussion of such general themes as religion and revelation, authority + and inspiration, and the essence and truth of Christianity. Such + discussions belong essentially to what is now often called philosophy of + religion. The preference of the term philosophy of religion to that of + apologetics is indicative at once of the wider theological outlook of our + time and of the conciliatory, adaptable, and more sympathetic spirit in + which the Christian apologist approaches the new thought and + culture.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: A. B. Bruce, + <i>Apologetics</i>; R. Mackintosh, <i>First Primer of Apologetics</i>; + J. R. Illingworth, <i>Reason and Revelation</i>; A. E. Garvie, <i>A + Handbook of Christian Apologetics</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Apologue</b> (ap´o-log), a story or relation of fictitious events + intended to convey some useful truths. It differs from a parable in that + the latter is drawn from events that take place among mankind, whereas + the apologue may be founded on supposed actions of brutes or inanimate + things. Æsop's fables are good examples of apologues.</p> + + <p><b>Apol´ogy,</b> a term at one time applied to a defence of one who is + accused, or of certain doctrines called in question. Of this nature is + the <i>Apology of Socrates</i> written by Plato; also a work with the + same title sometimes attributed to Xenophon. The name passed over to + Christian authors, who gave the name of apologies to the writings which + were designed to defend Christianity against the attacks and accusations + of its enemies, particularly the pagan philosophers, and to justify its + professors before the emperors. Of this sort were those by Justin Martyr, + Athenagoras, Tertullian, Tatian, and others.</p> + + <p><b>Aponeuro´sis</b>, in anatomy, a name of certain greyish-white + shining membranes, composed of interlacing fibres, sometimes continuous + with the muscular fibre, and differing from tendons merely in having a + flat form. They serve several purposes, sometimes attaching the muscles + to the bones, sometimes surrounding the muscle and preventing its + displacement, &c. See <i>Anatomy</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Apophthegm</b> (ap´o-them), a short pithy sentence or maxim. Julius + Cæsar wrote a collection of them, and we have a collection by Francis + Bacon.</p> + + <p><b>Apoph´yllite</b>, a species of mineral of a foliated structure and + pearly lustre, called also fish-eye stone. It belongs to the Zeolite + family, and is a hydrated silicate of lime and potash, containing also + fluorine.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´oplexy</b>, sudden abolition of consciousness, followed after + recovery of consciousness by persistent disturbance of sensation or + voluntary motion, from suspension of the functions of the cerebrum, + resulting from blocking or rupture of the blood-vessels of the brain. In + a complete apoplexy the person falls suddenly, is unable to move his + limbs or to speak, gives no proof of seeing, hearing, or feeling, and the + breathing is stertorous or snoring, like that of a person in deep sleep. + The premonitory symptoms of this dangerous disease are drowsiness, + giddiness, dulness of hearing, frequent yawning, disordered vision, noise + in the ears, vertigo, &c. It is most frequent between the ages of + fifty and seventy. A large head, short neck, full chest, sanguine and + plethoric constitution, and corpulency are generally considered signs of + predisposition to it; but the state of the heart's action, with a + plethoric condition of the vascular system, has a more marked influence. + Out of sixty-three cases carefully investigated only ten were fat and + plethoric, twenty-three being thin, and the rest of ordinary habit. The + common predisposing causes are disease or senile changes in the + blood-vessels and affections of the valves of the heart; but other + factors may possibly play some part either as exciting or predisposing + causes, such as long and intense thought, continued anxiety, habitual + indulgence of the temper and passions, sedentary and luxurious living, + sexual indulgence, intoxication, &c. More or less complete recovery + from a first and second attack is common, but a third is almost + invariably fatal.—Cf. Grasset, <i>Traité du système + nerveux</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aposiope´sis</b>, in rhetoric, a sudden break or stop in speaking + or writing, usually for mere effect or a pretence of unwillingness to say + anything on a subject; as, 'his character is such—but it is better + I should not speak of <i>that</i>', or Virgil's "Quos ego—sed motos + praestat componere fluctus" (<i>Aen.</i> I, 135).</p> + + <p><b>Apos´tasy</b> (Gr. <i>apostasis</i>, a standing away from), a + renunciation of opinions or practices and the adoption of contrary ones, + usually applied to renunciation of religious opinions. It is always an + expression of reproach. What one party calls <i>apostasy</i> is termed by + the other <i>conversion</i>. Catholics, also, call those persons + <i>apostates</i> who forsake a religious order or renounce their + religious vows without a lawful dispensation.</p> + + <p><b>A posterio´ri.</b> See <i>A priori</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Apos´tles</b> (literally, persons sent out, from the Gr. + <i>apostellein</i>, to send out), the twelve men whom Jesus selected to + attend him during his ministry, and to promulgate his religion. Their + names were as follows: Simon Peter, and Andrew his brother; James, and + John his brother, <!-- Page 202 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page202"></a>[202]</span>sons of Zebedee; Philip; Bartholomew; + Thomas; Matthew; James, the son of Alpheus; Lebbæus his brother, called + <i>Judas</i> or <i>Jude</i>; Simon, the Canaanite; and Judas Iscariot. To + these were subsequently added Matthias (chosen by lot in place of Judas + Iscariot) and Paul. The Bible gives the name of apostle to Barnabas also, + who accompanied Paul on his missions (<i>Acts</i>, xiv, 14). In a wider + sense those preachers who first taught Christianity in heathen countries + are sometimes termed apostles; for example, St. Denis, the apostle of the + Gauls; St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany; St. Augustine, the apostle + of England; Francis Xavier, the apostle of the Indies; Adalbert of + Prague, apostle of Prussia Proper. During the life of the Saviour the + apostles more than once showed a misunderstanding of the object of His + mission, and during His sufferings evinced little courage and firmness of + friendship for their great and benevolent Teacher. After His death they + received the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, that they might be + enabled to fulfil the important duties for which they had been chosen. + According to one interpretation of <i>Matthew</i>, xvi, 18, Christ seems + to appoint St. Peter the first of the apostles; and the Pope claims + supreme authority from the power which Christ thus gave to St. Peter, of + whom all the Popes, according to the Catholic dogma, are successors in an + uninterrupted line.</p> + + <p><b>Apostles' Creed</b>, a well-known formula or declaration of + Christian belief, formerly believed to be the work of the apostles + themselves, but it can only be traced to the fourth century. See + <i>Creed</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Apostol´ic</b>, or <b>Apostol´ical</b>, pertaining or relating to + the apostles.—<i>Apostolic Church</i>, the Church in the time of + the apostles, constituted according to their design. The name is also + given to the four churches of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, + and is claimed by the Roman Catholic Church, and occasionally by the + Episcopalians.—<i>Apostolic Constitutions</i> and <i>Canons</i>, a + collection of regulations attributed to the apostles, but generally + supposed to be spurious. They appeared in the fourth century, are divided + into eight books, and consist of rules and precepts relating to the duty + of Christians, and particularly to the ceremonies and discipline of the + Church.—<i>Apostolic fathers</i>, the Christian writers who during + any part of their lives were contemporary with the apostles. There are + five—Clement, Barnabas, Hermas, Ignatius, + Polycarp.—<i>Apostolic king</i>, a title granted by the Pope to the + kings of Hungary, first conferred on St. Stephen, the founder of the + royal line of Hungary, on account of what he accomplished in the spread + of Christianity.—<i>Apostolic see</i>, the see of the Popes or + Bishops of Rome: so called because the Popes profess themselves the + successors of St. Peter, its founder.—<i>Apostolic succession</i>, + the uninterrupted succession of bishops, and, through them, of priests + and deacons (these three orders of ministers being called the + <i>apostolical orders</i>), in the Church by regular ordination from the + first apostles down to the present day. All Episcopal churches hold + theoretically, and the Roman Catholic Church and many members of the + English Church strictly, that such succession is essential to the + officiating priest, in order that grace may be communicated through his + administrations.</p> + + <p><b>Apostol´ics</b>, <b>Apostolici</b>, or <b>Apostolic Brethren</b>, + the name given to certain sects who professed to imitate the manners and + practice of the apostles. The last and most important of these sects was + founded about 1260 by Gerhard Segarelli of Parma. They went barefooted, + begging, preaching, and singing throughout Italy, Switzerland, and + France; announced the coming of the kingdom of heaven and of purer times; + denounced the papacy, and its corrupt and worldly church; and inculcated + the complete renunciation of all worldly ties, of property, settled + abode, marriage, &c. This society was formally abolished, 1286, by + Honorius IV. In 1300 Segarelli was burned as a heretic, but another chief + apostle appeared—Dolcino, a learned man of Milan. In self-defence + they stationed themselves in fortified places whence they might resist + attacks. After having devastated a large tract of country belonging to + Milan they were subdued, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1307, by the + troops of Bishop Raynerius, in their fortress Zebello, in Vercelli, and + almost all destroyed. Dolcino was burned. The survivors afterwards + appeared in Lombardy and in the south of France as late as 1368.</p> + + <p><b>Apo´strŏphē</b> (Gr., 'a turning away from'), a + rhetorical figure by which the orator changes the course of his speech, + and makes a short impassioned address to one absent as if he were + present, or to things without life and sense as if they had life and + sense. The same term is also applied to a comma when used to contract a + word, or to mark the possessive case, as in 'John's book'.</p> + + <p><b>Apothecaries' weight</b>, the weight used in dispensing drugs, in + which the pound (lb.) is divided into 12 ounces (<a + href="images/ounce.png"><img src="images/ounce.png" class="middle" + style="height:2.5ex" alt="ounce" /></a>), the ounce into 8 drachms (<a + href="images/drachm.png"><img src="images/drachm.png" class="middle" + style="height:2.5ex" alt="drachm" /></a>), the drachm into 3 scruples (<a + href="images/scruple.png"><img src="images/scruple.png" class="middle" + style="height:2.5ex" alt="scruple" /></a>), and the scruple into 20 + grains (grs.), the grain being equivalent to that in avoirdupois + weight.</p> + + <p><b>Apoth´ecary</b>, in a general sense, one who keeps a shop or + laboratory for preparing, compounding, and vending medicines, and for the + making up of medical prescriptions. In England the term was long applied + (as to some little extent still) to a regularly licensed class of medical + practitioners, being such persons as were members of, <!-- Page 203 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page203"></a>[203]</span>or licensed + by, the <i>Apothecaries' Company</i> in London. The apothecaries of + London were at one time ranked with the grocers, with whom they were + incorporated by James I in 1606. In 1617, however, the apothecaries + received a new charter as a distinct company. They were not yet regarded + as having the right to prescribe, but only to dispense, medicines; but in + 1703 the House of Lords conferred that right on them, and they afterwards + became a well-established branch of the medical profession. In 1815 an + Act was passed providing that no person should practise as an apothecary + in any part of England or Wales unless after serving an apprenticeship of + five years with a member of the society, and receiving a certificate from + the society's examiners. As in country places every practitioner must be + to some extent an apothecary, this Act gave the society an undue + influence over the medical profession. Dissatisfaction therefore long + prevailed, but nothing of importance was done till the Medical Act of + 1858, which brought the desired reform. The Apothecaries' Society, + governed by a master, two wardens, and twenty-two assistants, has + prescribed a course of medical instruction and practice which candidates + for the licence of the society must pass through. Since 1874 + apprenticeship has not been necessary.</p> + + <p><b>Apothe´cium</b>, in botany, the receptacle of lichens, consisting + of the spore-cases or asci, and of the paraphyses or barren threads.</p> + + <p><b>Apotheo´sis</b> (deification), a solemnity among the ancients by + which a mortal was raised to the rank of the gods. The custom of placing + mortals, who had rendered their countrymen important services, among the + gods was very ancient among the Greeks. The Romans, for several + centuries, deified none but Romulus, and first imitated the Greeks in the + fashion of frequent apotheosis after the time of Cæsar. From this period + apotheosis was regulated by the decrees of the senate, and accompanied + with great solemnities. Almost all the Roman emperors were deified.</p> + + <p><b>Appalachian Mountains</b> (ap-pa-lā´chi-an), also called + <b>Alleghanies</b>, a vast mountain range in N. America extending for + 1300 miles from Cape Gaspé on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, s.w. to Alabama. + The system has been divided into three great sections: the + <i>northern</i> (including the Adirondacks, the Green Mountains, the + White Mountains, &c.), from Cape Gaspé to New York; the + <i>central</i> (including a large portion of the Blue Ridge, the + Alleghanies proper, and numerous lesser ranges), from New York to the + valley of the New River; and the <i>southern</i> (including the + continuation of the Blue Ridge, the Black Mountains, the Smoky Mountains, + &c.), from the New River southwards. The chain consists of several + ranges generally parallel to each other, the altitude of the individual + mountains increasing on approaching the south. The highest peaks rise + over 6600 feet (not one at all approaching the snow-level), but the mean + height is about 2500 feet. Lake Champlain is the only lake of great + importance in the system, but numerous rivers of considerable size take + their rise here. Magnetite, hematite, and other iron ores occur in great + abundance, and the coal-measures are among the most extensive in the + world. Gold, silver, lead, and copper are also found in small quantities, + while marble, limestone, fire-clay, gypsum, and salt abound. The forests + covering many of the ranges yield large quantities of valuable timber, + such as sugar-maple, white birch, beech, ash, oak, cherry tree, white + poplar, white and yellow pine, &c., while they form the haunts of + large numbers of bears, panthers, wild cats, and wolves.</p> + + <p><b>Appalachicola</b> (-chi-cō´la), a river of the United States, + formed by the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers, which unite near the + northern border of Florida; length, about 100 miles; it flows into the + Gulf of Mexico, and is navigable.</p> + + <p><b>Appam</b>, the name of a British merchant ship of the + Elder-Dempster line captured by the German raiding cruiser <i>Moewe</i> + (Sea-gull) on 16th Jan., 1916. A German prize crew succeeded in bringing + the <i>Appam</i> westward, and was able to pass the British cordon off + Chesapeake Bay and to reach Norfolk, Virginia. The vessel was carrying, + among others, an ex-governor of Sierra Leone and some military officers + from the west coast of Africa, but the passengers were at once released + and allowed to return to England.</p> + + <p><b>Appanage.</b> See <i>Apanage</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Appa´rent</b>, among mathematicians and astronomers, applied to + things as they appear to the eye, in distinction to what they really are. + Thus they speak of apparent motion, magnitude, distance, height, &c. + The <i>apparent magnitude</i> of a heavenly body is the angle subtended + at the spectator's eye by the diameter of that body, and this, of course, + depends on the distance as well as the real magnitude of the body; + <i>apparent motion</i> is the motion a body seems to have in consequence + of our own motion, as the motion of the sun from east to west, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Appari´tion</b>, according to a belief held by some, a disembodied + spirit manifesting itself to mortal sight; according to the common theory + an illusion involuntarily generated, by means of which figures or forms, + not present to the actual sense, are nevertheless depicted with a + vividness and intensity sufficient to create a temporary belief in their + reality. Such illusions are now generally held to result from an + over-excited brain, a strong imagination, or some bodily malady. In + perfect health the mind not only possesses a control over its powers, but + the <!-- Page 204 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page204"></a>[204]</span>impressions of the external objects alone + occupy its attention, and the play of imagination is consequently + checked, except in sleep, when its operations are relatively more feeble + and faint. But in an unhealthy state of the mind, when its attention is + partly withdrawn from the contemplation of external objects, the + impressions of its own creation, or rather reproduction, will either + overpower or combine themselves with the impressions of external objects, + and thus generate illusions which in the one case appear alone, while in + the other they are seen projected among those external objects to which + the eyeball is directed. This theory explains satisfactorily a large + majority of the stories of apparitions; still there are some which it + seems insufficient to account for.—See <i>Crystal Gazing</i>, + <i>Hypnotism</i>, <i>Spiritualism</i>.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography:</span> F. Podmore, <i>Modern Spiritualism</i>; + F. W. H. Myers, <i>Human Personality, and its survival of bodily + Death</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Appeal´</b>, in legal phraseology, the removal of a cause from an + inferior tribunal to a superior, in order that the latter may revise, and + if it seem needful reverse or amend, the decision of the former. The + supreme court of appeal for Great Britain is the House of Lords. Certain + defects in connection with the settlement of appeals by this body were + remedied by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876, while a new court of + appeal was established as a division of the Supreme Court of Judicature. + In Ireland there is also a Court of Appeal similar to that in England; + while in Scotland the highest court is the Court of Session. From the + decisions of the Indian and all colonial courts, and the courts of the + Isle of Man and the Channel Islands, appeal may be made to the Privy + Council. Appeals from the decisions of justices of a borough or county + may be made to the quarter-sessions of either respectively, in cases of + summary jurisdiction, or upon a point of law to divisional courts of the + High Court of Justice, which was established at the same time as the + Court of Appeal; from quarter-sessions, county and other inferior courts, + to the High Court. In Scotland the Court of Session reviews the decisions + of the county courts, there being an appeal from its decisions to the + House of Lords.—In France the court of final appeal in all cases is + the <i>cour de cassation</i>.—In the United States the system of + appeals differs in different States.</p> + + <p><b>Appearance in law</b> is the first formal act incumbent on a + defendant who intends to resist the claim in the writ or action served + upon him. It consists usually in lodging in court a written notice + stating simply that the defendant intends to dispute the claim. Failure + to enter appearance within the prescribed time entails decree passing + against the defendant in absence, but procedure exists in all courts for + enabling such decrees to be recalled within a limited period. Appearance + should be entered under protest if it is desired to dispute the + jurisdiction of the court or the regularity of the writ.</p> + + <p><b>Appendicitis</b>, a disease which has become well known in recent + times through the more accurate methods of diagnosis and the increased + safety of surgical operation. It is caused by inflammation of the + vermiform appendix, a narrow, hollow, worm-like body from 2 to 4 inches + long, opening at one end into the large intestine and forming a + cul-de-sac at the other. In appendicitis the inflammation begins in the + appendix and frequently spreads to the neighbouring parts, causing + inflammation of the cæcum, a condition known as perityphlitis. The most + frequent cause of appendicitis is a hard piece of insufficiently-digested + food becoming lodged in the appendix. Occasionally orange pips, grape + stones, &c., are the cause, though not so often as is popularly + supposed.</p> + + <p>The symptoms are: abdominal pain (especially low down at the right + side), fever, nausea, vomiting, constipation; these varying according to + the intensity of the attack. Three types are recognized:</p> + + <p>1. A mild type, when the symptoms subside in a few days and the + patient soon <i>appears</i> to be in normal health.</p> + + <p>2. A severe type, in which, if left alone, the appendix bursts into + the abdominal cavity and death from general peritonitis results.</p> + + <p>3. Another type, in which the inflammation in the appendix leads to + the formation of a localized abscess, sometimes of great size.</p> + + <p>The treatment for the severe and for the abscess-forming types is + essentially immediate operation; while for the mild type operation may + either be performed at once or after the attack has passed off. Anyone + who has had one attack of appendicitis is liable to have it repeated in a + much severer form, hence the advisability of having the appendix removed + after the first attack, however slight. During an attack, prior to + surgical interference, complete rest in bed is essential. Abdominal pain + should be treated with frequent hot fomentations, and the diet should be + reduced to small quantities of fluid.</p> + + <p><b>Appenzell</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>p'pen-tsel), a Swiss canton, wholly + enclosed by the canton of St. Gall; area, 162 sq. miles. It is divided + into two independent portions or half-cantons, Outer-Rhoden, which is + Protestant, and Inner-Rhoden, which is Catholic. It is an elevated + district, traversed by branches of the Alps; Mount Säntis in the centre + being 8250 feet high. It is watered by the Sitter and by several smaller + affluents of the Rhine. Glaciers occupy the higher valleys. Flax, hemp, + grain, fruit, &c., are produced, but the wealth of Inner-Rhoden lies + in its herds <!-- Page 205 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page205"></a>[205]</span>and flocks—that of Outer-Rhoden in + its manufactures of embroidered muslins, gauzes, cambrics, and other + cotton stuffs; also of silk goods and paper. The town of Appenzell (Ger. + <i>Abtenzelle</i>, abbot's cell) is the capital of Inner-Rhoden, on the + Sitter, with about 4300 inhabitants. Trogen is the capital of + Outer-Rhoden, Herisau the largest town (pop. 11,000). Pop. Outer-Rhoden, + 60,000; Inner-Rhoden, 15,000.</p> + + <p><b>Apperception.</b> See <i>Metaphysics</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´petite</b>, in its widest sense, means the natural desire for + gratification, either of the body or the mind; but is generally applied + to the recurrent and intermittent desire for food. A healthy appetite is + favoured by work, exercise, plain living, and cheerfulness; absence of + this feeling, or defective appetite (<i>anorexia</i>), indicates diseased + action of the stomach, or of the nervous system or circulation, or it may + result from vicious habits. Depraved appetite (<i>pica</i>), or a desire + for unnatural food, as chalk, ashes, dirt, soap, &c., depends often + in the case of children on vicious tastes or habits; in grown-up persons + it may be symptomatic of dyspepsia, pregnancy or chlorosis. Insatiable or + canine appetite or voracity (<i>bulimia</i>) when it occurs in childhood + is generally symptomatic of worms; in adults common causes are pregnancy, + vicious habits, and indigestion caused by stomach complaints or gluttony, + when the gnawing pains of disease are mistaken for hunger.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´pian</b>, a Roman historian of the second century after Christ, + a native of Alexandria, was governor and manager of the imperial revenues + under Hadrian, Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, in Rome. He compiled in Greek + a Roman history, from the earliest times to those of Augustus, in + twenty-four books, of which only eleven have come down to us. Appian's + style is not attractive, but he gives us much valuable information.</p> + + <p><b>Appia´ni</b>, Andrea, a painter, born at Milan in 1754, died in + 1817. As a fresco-painter he excelled every contemporary painter in + Italy. He displayed his skill particularly in the cupola of Santa Maria + di S. Celso at Milan, and in the paintings representing the legend of + Cupid and Psyche prepared for the walls and ceiling of the villa of the + Archduke Ferdinand at Monza (1795). Napoleon appointed him royal court + painter, and portraits of almost the whole of the imperial family were + painted by him.</p> + + <p><b>Appian Way</b>, called <i>Regina Viarum</i>, the Queen of Roads: + the oldest and most renowned Roman road, was constructed during the + censorship of Appius Claudius Cæcus (313-310 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>). It was built with large square stones on a + raised platform, and was made direct from the gates of Rome to Capua, in + Campania. It was afterwards extended through Samnium and Apulia to + Brundusium, the modern Brindisi. It was partially restored by Pius VI, + and between 1850 and 1853 it was excavated by order of Pius IX as far as + the eleventh milestone from Rome.</p> + + <p><b>Appius Claudius</b>, surnamed <i>Cæcus</i>, or the blind, a Roman + patrician, elected censor 312 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, which + office he held four years. While in this position he made every effort to + weaken the power of the Plebs, and constructed the road and aqueduct + named after him. He was subsequently twice consul, and once dictator. In + his old age he became blind, but in 280 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he + made a famous speech in which he induced the senate to reject the terms + of peace fixed by Pyrrhus. He is the earliest Roman writer of prose and + verse whose name we know.</p> + + <p><b>Appius Claudius Crassus</b>, one of the Roman <i>decemvirs</i>, + appointed 451 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> to draw up a new code of + laws. He and his colleagues plotted to retain their power permanently, + and at the expiry of their year of office refused to give up their + authority. The people were incensed against them, and the following + circumstances led to their overthrow. Appius Claudius had conceived an + evil passion for Virginia, the daughter of Lucius Virginius, then absent + with the army in the war with the Æqui and Sabines. At the instigation of + Appius, Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, claimed Virginia as the + daughter of one of his own female slaves, and the <i>decemvir</i>, acting + as judge, decided that in the meantime she should remain in the custody + of the claimant. Virginius, hastily summoned from the army, appeared with + his daughter next day in the forum, and appealed to the people; but + Appius Claudius again adjudged her to Marcus Claudius. Unable to rescue + his daughter, the unhappy father stabbed her to the heart. The + <i>decemvirs</i> were deposed by the indignant people 449 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and Appius Claudius died in prison or was + strangled.</p> + + <p><b>Apple</b> (<i>Pyrus Malus</i>), the fruit of a well-known tree of + the nat. ord. Rosaceæ, or the tree itself. The apple belongs to the + temperate regions of the globe, over which it is almost universally + spread and cultivated. The tree attains a moderate height, with spreading + branches; the leaf is ovate; and the flowers are produced from the wood + of the former year; but more generally from very short shoots or spurs + from wood of two years' growth. The original of all the varieties of the + cultivated apple is the wild crab, which has a small and extremely sour + fruit, and is a native of most of the countries of Europe. Apples have + been used as food and cultivated for upwards of 4000 years, and were + probably introduced into Britain by the Romans. The greater number of the + varieties now grown have, however, been cultivated only within the last + century or so. To the facility of multiplying varieties by grafting is to + be ascribed the amazing extension <!-- Page 206 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page206"></a>[206]</span>of the sorts of apples, + the number of varieties known being over 2000. Many of the more marked + varieties are known by general names, as pippins, codlins, rennets, + &c. The oldest apple in cultivation is a variety called 'the lady', + which originated in Britain early in the seventeenth century. Apples for + the table are characterized by a firm juicy pulp, a sweetish acid + flavour, regular form, and beautiful colouring; those for cooking by the + property of forming by the aid of heat into a pulpy mass of equal + consistency, as also by their large size and keeping properties; apples + for cider must have a considerable degree of astringency, with richness + of juice. The propagation of apple trees is accomplished by seeds, + cuttings, suckers, layers, budding, or grafting, the last being almost + the universal practice. The tree thrives best in an open situation where + it will receive the maximum amount of sunshine and protection from cold + winds. The protection is particularly necessary in districts where cold + winds and frosts prevail during the flowering season. The wood of the + apple tree or the common crab is hard, close-grained, and often richly + coloured, and is suitable for turning and cabinet work. The fermented + juice (<i>verjuice</i>) of the crab is employed in cookery and medicine. + Apples are largely imported into Great Britain from the Continent and the + United States and Canada. The designation apple, with various modifying + words, is applied to a number of fruits having nothing in common with the + apple proper, as alligator-apple, love-apple, &c.—Cf. A. E. + Wilkinson, <i>The Apple</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´pleby</b>, county town of Westmorland, England, on the Eden, 28 + miles <span class="scac">S.S.E.</span> of Carlisle. Disfranchised in + 1832, it gave its name to a parliamentary division of the county until + 1918. It has an old castle, the keep of which, called Cæsar's Tower, is + still fairly well preserved. Pop. (1921), 1786.</p> + + <p><b>Apple of discord</b>, according to the story in Greek mythology, + the golden apple thrown into an assembly of the gods by the goddess of + discord (Eris) bearing the inscription 'for the fairest'. + Aphrodītē (Venus), Hera (Juno), and Athēnē + (Minerva) became competitors for it, and its adjudication to the first by + Paris so inflamed the jealousy and hatred of Hera to all of the Trojan + race (to which Paris belonged) that she did not cease her machinations + till Troy was destroyed.</p> + + <p><b>Apple of Sodom</b>, a fruit described by old writers as externally + of fair appearance, but turning to ashes when plucked; probably the fruit + of <i>Solānum sodomēum</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´pleton</b>, a city of Wisconsin, United States, 100 miles <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> of Milwaukee by rail. It has many flour, paper, + saw, and woollen mills, and other manufactories, and is the seat of a + collegiate institute and of the Lawrence University. Pop. (1920), + 19,561.</p> + + <p><b>Appliqué</b>, in needlework or metal-work, a design or feature + having the appearance of being independently made and attached to the + surface of the object it adorns. When the ornament is sunk into the body + of the object it is called <i>inlay</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Appoggiatura</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>p-poj-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-tö´ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), in music, a small additional note of + embellishment preceding the note to which it is attached, and taking away + from the principal note a portion of its time.</p> + + <p><b>Appoint´ment</b>, a term in English law signifying the exercise of + some power, reserved in a conveyance or settlement, of burdening, + selling, or otherwise disposing of the lands or property conveyed. Such a + reserved power is termed a <i>power of appointment</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Appomatt´ox Court-house</b>, a village in Virginia, United States, + 20 miles <span class="scac">E.</span> of Lynchburg. Here, on 9th April, + 1865, General Lee surrendered to General Grant, and thus virtually + concluded the American Civil War.</p> + + <p><b>Apponyi</b>, Albert, Count, Hungarian statesman, born in 1846. + Leader of the Conservative National party, he joined the Liberal party in + 1899, and in 1901 was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies. He + was Minister of Education in 1906 and 1917, and again in 1918. In 1920 he + was at the head of the delegation which came to Paris to settle the + peace-terms with Hungary.</p> + + <p><b>Apposi´tion</b>, in grammar, the relation in which one or more + nouns or substantive phrases or clauses stand to a noun or pronoun, which + they explain or characterize without being predicated of it, and with + which they agree in case; as Cicero, the <i>orator</i>, lived in the + first century before Christ; the opinion, <i>that a severe winter is + generally followed by a good summer</i>, is a vulgar error.</p> + + <p><b>Apprai´ser</b>, a person employed to value property, and duly + licensed to do so by licence taken out every year. The valuation must be + duly set down in writing, and there is a certain fixed scale of charges + for the appraiser's services.</p> + + <p><b>Apprehen´sion</b>, the seizing of a person as a criminal whether + taken in the act or on suspicion, and with or without a warrant, a + warrant being necessary when the person apprehending is not present at + the commission of the offence. See <i>Arrest</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Appren´tice</b>, one bound by indenture to serve some particular + individual or company of individuals for a specified time, in order to be + instructed in some art, science, or trade. In England a person under the + age of twenty-one cannot bind himself apprentice, and accordingly the + usual way is for a relation or friend to become a contracting party to + the indenture, and engage for the faithful performance of the agreement. + <!-- Page 207 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page207"></a>[207]</span>An infant cannot be bound apprentice by + his friends without his own expressed consent. In Scotland a boy under + fourteen or a girl under twelve years of age cannot become a party to an + indenture without the concurrence of a parent or guardian; above that age + they may enter into an indenture of themselves, and thereby become + personally bound. An indenture is determinable by the consent of the + parties to it, and also by the death, bankruptcy, or retirement from + business of the master. <i>Parish apprentices</i> are bound out by the + guardians of the poor to suitable persons, and in this case the consent + of the apprentice is not necessary. The system of apprenticing by + indenture is now much less common than formerly.—Cf. R. A. Bray, + <i>Boy Labour and Apprenticeship</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Approach´es</b>, in field-engineering, an old-fashioned name for + what are now called 'communication trenches'.</p> + + <p><b>Appropria´tion.</b> See <i>Impropriation</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Appro´ver</b> (ap-prö´vėr), in English law, any accomplice in + a crime who is allowed by the judges of jail-delivery to become king's + evidence, that is, to be examined in evidence against his accomplices, it + being understood that the approver will himself be pardoned upon making a + full and open confession.</p> + + <p><b>Approxima´tion</b>, a term used in mathematics to signify a + continual approach to a quantity required, when no process is known for + arriving at it exactly. Although, by such an approximation, the exact + value of a quantity cannot be discovered, yet, in practice, it may be + found sufficiently correct; thus the diagonal of a square, whose sides + are represented by unity, is √2, the exact value of which quantity + cannot be obtained; but its approximate value may be substituted in the + nicest calculations.</p> + + <p><b>Appuleius.</b> See <i>Apuleius</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´ricot</b> (<i>Prunus Armeniăca</i>), a fruit of the plum + genus which was introduced into Europe from Asia more than three + centuries before Christ, and into England from Italy in 1524. It is a + native of Armenia and other parts of Asia and also of Africa. The apricot + is a low tree, of rather crooked growth, with somewhat heart-shaped + leaves and sessile flowers. The fruit is sweet, more or less juicy, of a + yellowish colour, about the size of a peach, and resembling it in + delicacy of flavour. Some of the best varieties are 'Frogmore Early', + 'Moorpark', 'Royal', &c. The wood is coarsely grained and soft. + Apricot trees are chiefly raised against walls, and are propagated by + budding and grafting.</p> + + <p><b>Apries</b> (ā´pri-ēz), Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, the + eighth king of the twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He succeeded his father + Psammetichus in 590 or 589 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> The Jews under + Zedekiah revolted against their Babylonian oppressors and allied + themselves with Apries, who was, however, unable to raise the siege of + Jerusalem, which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. A still more unfortunate + expedition against Cyrene brought about revolt in his army, in + endeavouring to suppress which Apries was defeated and slain about 570 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>A´pril</b> (Lat. <i>Aprīlis</i>, from <i>aperire</i>, to + open, because the buds open at this time), the fourth month of the year. + The strange custom of making fools on 1st April by sending people upon + errands which end in disappointment, and raise a laugh at the expense of + the person sent, prevails throughout Europe. It has been connected with + the miracle plays of the Middle Ages, in which the Saviour was + represented as having been sent, at this period of the year, from Annas + to Caiaphas and from Pilate to Herod. This explanation, however, is + perhaps itself a piece of April fooling. In France the party fooled is + called <i>un poisson d'avril</i>, 'an April fish'; in Scotland, a 'gowk', + or cuckoo.</p> + + <p><b>A prio´ri</b> ('from what goes before'), a phrase applied to a mode + of reasoning by which we proceed from general principles or notions to + particular cases, as opposed to <i>a posteriori</i> ('from what comes + after') reasoning, by which we proceed from knowledge previously + acquired. Mathematical proofs are of the <i>a priori</i> kind; the + conclusions of experimental science are <i>a posteriori</i>. It is also a + term applied to knowledge independent of all experience.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/image078.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image078.jpg" + alt="Apse" title="Apse" /></a> + Apse—Church of Sta Maria in Trastevere, Rome + </div> + + <p><b>Apse</b>, a portion of any building forming a termination or + projection semicircular or polygonal in plan, and having a roof forming + externally a semi-dome or semi-cone, or having ridges corresponding to + the angles of the polygon; <!-- Page 208 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page208"></a>[208]</span>especially such a semicircular or + polygonal recess projecting from the east end of the choir or chancel of + a church, in which the altar is placed. The apse was developed from the + somewhat similar part of the Roman basilicæ, in which the magistrate + (<i>prætor</i>) sat.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´sheron</b>, a peninsula on the western shore of the Caspian Sea + formed by the eastern extremity of the Caucasus Mountains. It extends for + about 40 miles, and terminates in Cape Apsheron. It yields immense + quantities of petroleum. See <i>Baku</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:15%;"> + <a href="images/image079.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image079.jpg" + alt="Apsides" title="Apsides" /></a> + <i>aa</i>, Apsides + </div> + + <p><b>Apsis</b>, pl. <b>Ap´sides</b> or <b>Apsi´des</b>, in astronomy, + one of the two points of the orbit of a heavenly body situated at the + extremities of the major axis of the ellipse formed by the orbit, one of + the points being that at which the body is at its greatest and the other + that at which it is at its least distance from its primary. In regard to + the earth and the other planets, these two points are called the aphelion + and perihelion; and in regard to the moon they are called the apogee and + perigee. The line of the apsides has a slow forward angular motion in the + plane of the planet's orbit, being retrograde only in the case of Venus. + This in the earth's orbit produces the anomalistic year. See + <i>Anomaly</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Apt</b> (ät; ancient <b>Apta Julia</b>), a town of Southern France, + department Vaucluse, 32 miles east by south of Avignon, with an ancient + Gothic cathedral. Pop. 6336.</p> + + <p><b>Ap´tera</b> (Gr. <i>apteros</i>, wingless), wingless insects, such + as lice and certain others, popularly called <i>Spring-tails</i>, and + composed of two groups, Collembola and Thysanura.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:24%;"> + <a href="images/image080.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image080.jpg" + alt="Apteryx" title="Apteryx" /></a> + Apteryx (<i>Apteryx Mantelli</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Ap´teryx</b>, a nearly extinct genus of cursorial birds, + distinguished from the ostriches by having three toes with a rudimentary + hallux, which forms a spur. They are natives of the South Island of New + Zealand; are totally wingless and tailless, with feathers resembling + hairs; about the size of a small goose; with long curved beak something + like that of a curlew. They are entirely nocturnal, feeding on insects, + worms, and seeds.—<i>A. austrālis</i>, called + <i>Kiwi-kiwi</i> from its cry, is the best-known species.</p> + + <p><b>Apuleius</b>, or <b>Appuleius</b> (ap-ū-lē´us), author + of the celebrated satirical romance in Latin called the <i>Golden + Ass</i>, born at Madaura, in Numidia, about <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 125; the time of his death is unknown. He + studied at Carthage, then at Athens, where he became warmly attached to + the Platonic philosophy, and finally at Rome. Returning to Carthage he + married a rich widow, whose relatives accused him of gaining her consent + by magic, and the speech by which he successfully defended himself is + still extant. Besides his <i>Golden Ass</i> (which is also known as the + <i>Metamorphoses</i>, and which was translated into English by W. + Adlington in 1566), with its fine episode of Cupid and Psyche, he was + also the author of many works on philosophy and rhetoric, some of which + are still extant.</p> + + <p><b>Apu´lia</b>, a department or division in the south-east of Italy, + on the Adriatic, composed of the provinces of Foggia, Bari, and Lecce; + area, 7376 sq. miles. Pop. 2,237,791.</p> + + <p><b>Apure</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-pö´rā), a navigable river of + Venezuela, formed by the junction of several streams which rise in the + Andes of Colombia; it falls into the Orinoco.—<i>Apure</i>, one of + the States of Venezuela, has a pop. of 30,008.</p> + + <p><b>Apurimac</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-pö-rē-ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k´), a river of South America, which + rises in the Andes of Peru, and, being augmented by the Vilcamayu and + other streams, forms the Ucayale, one of the principal head-waters of the + Amazon.—The department of Apurimac in Peru has an area of 8187 sq. + miles, and a pop. of 177,887.</p> + + <p><b>Aq´ua</b> (Lat. for water), a word much used in pharmacy and old + chemistry.—<i>Aqua fortis</i> (= strong water), a weak and impure + nitric acid. It has the power of eating into steel and copper, and hence + is used by engravers, etchers, &c.—<i>Aqua marina</i>, a fine + variety of beryl. See <i>Aquamarine</i>.—<i>Aqua regia</i>, or + <i>aqua regalis</i> (= royal water), a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric + acids, with the power of dissolving gold and other precious + metals.—<i>Aqua Tofana</i>, a poisonous fluid made about the middle + of the seventeenth century by an Italian woman Tofana or Toffania, who is + said to have procured the death of no fewer than 600 individuals by means + of it. It consisted chiefly, it is supposed, of a solution of + crystallized arsenic.—<i>Aqua vitæ</i> (= water of life), or simply + <i>aqua</i>, a name familiarly applied to the <i>whisky</i> of Scotland, + corresponding in meaning with the <i>usquebaugh</i> of Ireland, the + <i>eau de vie</i> (brandy) of the French. <!-- Page 209 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page209"></a>[209]</span></p> + + <p><b>Aq´uamarine</b>, a name given to some of the finest varieties of + beryl of a sea-green or blue colour. Varieties of topaz are also so + called.</p> + + <p><b>Aqua´rium</b>, a vessel or series of vessels constructed wholly or + partly of glass and containing salt or fresh water in which are kept + living specimens of marine or fresh-water animals along with aquatic + plants. In principle the aquarium is based on the interdependence of + animal and vegetable life; animals consuming oxygen and exhaling carbonic + acid, plants reversing the process by absorbing carbonic acid and giving + out oxygen. The aquarium must consequently be stocked both with plants + and animals, and for the welfare of both something like a proper + proportion should exist between them. The simplest form of aquarium is + that of a glass vase; but aquaria on a larger scale consist of a tank or + a number of tanks with plate-glass sides and stone floors, and contain + sand and gravel, rocks, sea-weeds, &c. By improved arrangements light + is admitted from above, passing through the water in the tanks and + illuminating their contents, while the spectator is in comparative + darkness. The most important aquarium is at the zoological station at + Naples. There is also one, on a smaller scale, at Plymouth, maintained by + the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Aquaria on a + large scale have been constructed in connection with public parks or + gardens, and the name is also given to places of public entertainment in + which large aquaria are exhibited.—Cf. G. C. Bateman, + <i>Fresh-water Aquaria</i>; M. J. Newbigin, <i>The Aquarium</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aquarius</b> (Lat., the Water-bearer), a sign of the zodiac which + the sun enters about the 21st of Jan.: it now enters the formerly + coincident constellation Aquarius about a month later.</p> + + <p><b>Aquatint</b>, a method of etching on copper by which a beautiful + effect is produced, resembling a fine drawing in sepia or Indian ink. The + special character of the effect is the result of sprinkling + finely-powdered resin or mastic over the plate, and causing this to + adhere by heat, the design being previously etched, or being now traced + out. The nitric acid (aqua fortis) acts only in the interstices between + the particles of resin or mastic, thus giving a slightly granular + appearance.</p> + + <p><b>Aqua Tofa´na.</b> See <i>Aqua</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aqua vitæ.</b> See <i>Aqua</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aq´ueduct</b> (Lat. <i>aqua</i>, water, <i>duco</i>, to lead), an + artificial channel or conduit for the conveyance of water from one place + to another: more particularly applied to structures for conveying water + from distant sources for the supply of large cities. Aqueducts were + extensively used by the Romans, and many of them still remain in + different places on the Continent of Europe, some being still in use. The + Pont du Gard in the south of France, 14 miles from Nîmes, is still nearly + perfect, and is a grand monument of the Roman occupation of this country. + The ancient aqueducts were constructed of stone or brick, sometimes + tunnelled through hills, and carried over valleys and rivers on arches. + The Pont du Gard spans the River Gard, and was built to convey to Nîmes + the water of springs rising in the neighbourhood of the modern Uzés. It + is built of great blocks of stone; its height is 160 feet; length of the + highest arcade, 882 feet. The aqueduct at Segovia, originally built by + the Romans, has in some parts two tiers of arcades 100 feet high, is 2921 + feet in length, and is one of the most admired works of antiquity. One of + the most remarkable aqueducts of modern times is that constructed by + Louis XIV for conveying the waters of the Eure to Versailles. The + extensive application of metal pipes has rendered the construction of + aqueducts of the old type less necessary; but what may be called aqueduct + bridges are still frequently constructed in connection with canals and + also with water-works for the supply of towns. Where canals exist canal + aqueducts are common, since the water in any section of a canal must be + kept on a perfect level.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image081.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image081.jpg" + alt="Aqueduct" title="Aqueduct" /></a> + Aqueduct at Segovia + </div> + + <p>Many large towns now derive a supply of water from sources at a great + distance, and in <!-- Page 210 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page210"></a>[210]</span>bringing the water to the place where it + is required much tunnelling is often necessary as well as digging and + excavating in the open. A tunnel furnishing a water channel may be driven + through miles of rock strata of various kinds, and in many places it may + have to be lined with concrete or cement wholly or partially, brick-work + also being much employed. Instead of tunnelling, the channel may be + formed on the plan of 'cut and cover', being first cut in the ground and + then covered over, leaving the surface much in the same state as before. + And, of course, iron piping is often used in connection with such + tunnels, the water being conveyed so far in an aqueduct of one kind, and + so far in one of another kind, according as is deemed most suitable. In + the Thirlmere aqueduct, which brings water to Manchester, there are 45 + miles of cast-iron pipes, 37 miles of cut-and-cover work, and 14 miles of + tunnels proper. Pipes are naturally laid where valleys occur, and the + water simply enters the pipes at one end and flows out at the other by + the influence of gravity, there being a suitable chamber constructed at + either end of the pipe line where there is a junction with a section of + tunnel. Aqueduct bridges were first introduced into England in the + eighteenth century, the first being the aqueduct at Barton Bridge + conveying the Bridgewater Canal across the Irwell. In such bridges the + water-channel may be made of cast iron. There are great aqueduct bridges + on some of the Indian canals, such as the Nadrai bridge on the Lower + Ganges Canal. In America water is often carried long distances in + <i>flumes</i> or open wooden channels, supported, where necessary, on + trestles. Great wooden pipes are also common there, built of large staves + and hooped round with iron or steel. These often rest on the surface of + the ground without any covering.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C. Herschel, <i>Frontinus</i>; Wegmann, + <i>Water-supply of City of New York</i>; J. F. Bateman, <i>The Manchester + Waterworks</i>; J. M. Gale, <i>The Glasgow Waterworks</i>; A. Prescott + Folwell, <i>Water Supply Engineering</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aq´ueous humour</b>, the limpid watery fluid which fills the space + between the cornea and the crystalline lens in the eye.</p> + + <p><b>Aqueous rocks</b>, composed of matter deposited by water from + suspension or solution. Called also <i>sedimentary rocks</i>. See + <i>Geology</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aquifolia´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of plants; the holly tribe. The + species consist of trees and shrubs, and the order includes the common + holly (<i>Ilex Aquifolium</i>) and the <i>I. paraguayensis</i>, or + Paraguayan tea tree.</p> + + <p><b>Aquila</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k´wē-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a town in Italy, capital of the + province of Aquila, 55 miles north-east of Rome, the seat of a bishop, an + attractive and interesting town with spacious streets and handsome + palaces. In 1703 and 1706 it suffered severely from earthquakes. Pop. + 22,050.—The province has an area of 2493 sq. miles. Pop. + 422,634.</p> + + <p><b>Aq´uila</b>, a companion of St. Paul (<i>Acts</i>, xviii, 2, 3). + Expelled from Rome, he and his wife, Priscilla, settled in Corinth, where + Paul stayed with them. They were converted to Christianity by the + Apostle.</p> + + <p><b>Aq´uila</b>, a native of Pontus, flourished about <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 130. He became a Jewish proselyte, and made a + close and accurate translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, + extant only in fragments.</p> + + <p><b>Aq´uila</b>, name of a constellation in the northern hemisphere. + See <i>Constellations</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aquila´ria.</b> See <i>Aloes-wood</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aquile´gia.</b> See <i>Columbine</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aquileia</b> (ak-wi-lē´ya), an ancient city near the head of + the Adriatic Sea, in Upper Italy, built by the Romans in 182 or 181 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> Commanding the <span class="scac">N.E.</span> + entrance into Italy, it became important as a commercial centre and a + military post, and was frequently the base of imperial campaigns. In 425 + it was destroyed by Attila. The modern Aquileia or Aglar is a small place + of some 1700 inhabitants, consisting chiefly of fishermen.</p> + + <p><b>Aquinas</b> (a-kwī´nas; i.e. of Aquino), St. Thomas, a + celebrated scholastic divine, born in 1225 or 1227, most probably at the + castle of Rocco Secca, near Aquino. His father was Count of Aquino, in + the kingdom of Naples. He was educated at the Benedictine monastery of + Monte Casino, and at the University of Naples, where he studied for six + years. About the age of seventeen he entered a convent of Dominicans, + much against the wishes of his family. He attended the lectures of + Albertus Magnus at Cologne, in whose company he visited Paris in 1245 or + 1246. Here he became involved in the dispute between the university and + the Begging Friars as to the liberty of teaching, advocating the rights + claimed by the latter with great energy. In 1257 he received the degree + of doctor from the Sorbonne, and began to lecture on theology, rapidly + acquiring the highest reputation. In 1263 he is found at the Chapter of + the Dominicans in London. In 1268 he was in Italy, lecturing in Rome, + Bologna, and elsewhere. In 1271 he was again in Paris lecturing to the + students; in 1272 he was professor at Naples. In 1263 he had been offered + the archbishopric of Naples by Clement IV, but refused the offer. He + died, in 1274, on his way to Lyons to attend a general council for the + purpose of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches. He was called, after the + fashion of the times, the <i>angelic doctor</i>, and was canonized by + John XXII. The most important of his numerous works, which are all + written in Latin, are the <i>Summa Theologica</i>, <!-- Page 211 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page211"></a>[211]</span>which, although only + professing to treat of theology, is in reality a complete and systematic + summary of the knowledge of the time, and the <i>Summa Philosophica</i>. + The work of St. Thomas consisted in an effort to harmonize the new + scientific teachings of the age—derived from Arabian and Byzantine + sources—with the doctrine of the Church, and to refute heresy. His + disciples were known as <i>Thomists</i>. See <i>Thomism</i>.—Cf. P. + Conway, <i>St. Thomas Aquinas</i>; and article in <i>Hastings' + Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aquita´nia</b>, later <b>Aquitaine</b>, a Roman province in Gaul, + which comprehended the countries on the coast from the Garonne to the + Pyrenees, and from the sea to Toulouse. It was brought into connection + with England by the marriage of Henry II with Eleanor, daughter of the + last Duke of Aquitaine. The title to the province was for long disputed + by England and France, but it was finally secured by the latter + (1453).</p> + + <p><b>Arabah´</b>, a deep rocky valley or depression in north-western + Arabia, between the Dead Sea and Gulf of Akabah, a sort of continuation + of the Jordan valley.</p> + + <p><b>Arabesque</b> (ar´a-besk), a species of ornamentation for enriching + flat surfaces, often consisting of fanciful figures, human or animal, + combined with floral forms. There may be said to be three periods and + distinctive varieties of arabesque—(<i>a</i>) the Roman or + Græco-Roman, introduced into Rome from the East when pure art was + declining; (<i>b</i>) the Arabesque of the Moors as seen in the Alhambra, + introduced by them into Europe in the Middle Ages; (<i>c</i>) Modern + Arabesque, which took its rise in Italy in the Renaissance period of art. + The arabesques of the Moors, who are prohibited by their religion from + representing animal forms, consist essentially of complicated ornamental + designs based on the suggestion of plant-growth, combined with extremely + complex geometrical forms.</p> + + <p><b>Arabgir</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>b-gēr´), or <b>Arabkir´</b>, a town + in Asia, 147 miles <span class="scac">W.S.W.</span> of Erzerum, noted for + its manufacture of silk and cotton goods. Pop. between 20,000 and + 30,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ara´bia</b>, a vast peninsula in the S.W. of Asia, bounded on the + <span class="scac">N.</span> by the great Syro-Babylonian plain, <span + class="scac">N.E.</span> by the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, <span + class="scac">S.</span> or <span class="scac">S.E.</span> by the Indian + Ocean, and <span class="scac">S.W.</span> by the Red Sea and Gulf of + Suez. Its length from <span class="scac">N.W.</span> to <span + class="scac">S.E.</span> is about 1800 miles, its mean breadth about 600 + miles, its area approximately 1,200,000 sq. miles, its population + probably less than 5,000,000. Roughly described, it exhibits a central + table-land surrounded by a series of deserts, with numerous scattered + oases, while around this is a line of mountains parallel to and + approaching the coasts, and with a narrow rim of low grounds + (<i>tehāma</i>) between them and the sea. In its general features + Arabia resembles the Sahara, of which it may be considered a + continuation. Like the Sahara, it has its wastes of loose sand, its + stretches of bare rocks and stones, its mountains devoid of vegetation, + its oases with their wells and streams, their palm-groves and cultivated + fields—islands of green amidst the surrounding desolation. Rivers + proper there are none. By the ancients the whole peninsula was broadly + divided into three great sections—Arabia Petræa (containing the + city Petra), Deserta (desert), and Felix (happy). The first and last of + these answer roughly to the modern divisions of the region of Sinai in + the <span class="scac">N.W.</span> and Yemen in the <span + class="scac">S.W.</span>, while the name <i>Deserta</i> was vaguely given + to the rest of the country. (See <i>Explorations, Modern</i>.) The + principal divisions at the present are Madian in the north-west; south of + this, Hejaz, Assir, and Yemen, all on the Red Sea, the last named + occupying the south-western part of the peninsula, and comprising a + <i>tehāma</i> or maritime lowland on the shores of the Red Sea, + with an elevated inland district of considerable breadth; Hadramaut on + the south coast; Oman occupying the south-east angle; El-Hasa and Koveït + on the Persian Gulf; El-Hamad (Desert of Syria), Nefûd, and Jebel Shammar + in the north; Nejd, the Central Highlands, which occupies a great part of + the interior of the country, while south of it is the great unexplored + Dahkna or sandy desert. Between 1902-5 a joint commission of British and + Turkish officers laid down a boundary line defining the limits between + Turkish territory and that of the independent Arab tribes in political + relations with Great Britain. Nearly the whole of Southern Arabia came + within the sphere of British influence. Madian belongs to Egypt; the + Hejaz, Yemen, Bahr-el-Hasa, Koveït, &c., were more or less under the + suzerainty of Turkey until 1914. The rest of the country is ruled by + independent chiefs—sheikhs, emirs, and imâms—while the title + of sultan has been assumed by the chief of the Wahabis in Nejd, the + sovereign of Oman (who has a subsidy from the Indian Government), and + some petty princes in the south of the peninsula. On 9th June, 1916, the + Grand Shereef of Mecca declared himself independent of the Turkish + Government, and an Arab revolt spread rapidly. The Grand Shereef Hussein + then announced to the Moslem world that the Shereefate of Mecca was + henceforth independent, and on 4th Nov., 1916, he had himself formally + proclaimed King, or Sultan, of Arabia. The status of the whole of Arabia + was determined by the Peace Conference. (See <i>Hejaz</i>, + <i>Mesopotamia</i>, <i>Syria</i>, <i>Sykes-Picot Treaty</i>.) The chief + towns are Mecca, the birthplace of Mahomet; Medina, the place to which he + fled from Mecca (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 622), and where he is + buried; Hodeida, a seaport exporting Mocha coffee; <!-- Page 212 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page212"></a>[212]</span>Aden, on the <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> coast, belonging to Britain; Sana, the capital + of Yemen; and Muscat, the capital of Oman. The chief towns of the + interior are Haïl, the residence of the Emir of Jebel Shammar; Oneizah, + under the same ruler; and Rijadh, capital of Nejd and Hasa. The most + flourishing portions of Arabia are in Oman, Hadramaut, and Nejd. In the + two former are localities with numerous towns and villages and settled + industrious populations like that of India or Europe.</p> + + <p>The climate of Arabia in general is marked by extreme heat and + dryness. Aridity and barrenness characterize both high and low grounds, + and the date-palm is often the only representative of vegetable + existence. There are districts which in the course of the year are hardly + refreshed by a single shower of rain. Forests there are few or none. + Grassy pastures have their place supplied by steppe-like tracts, which + are covered for a short season with aromatic herbs, serving as food for + cattle. The date-palm furnishes the staple article of food; the cereals + are wheat, barley, maize, and millet; various sorts of fruit flourish; + coffee and many aromatic plants and substances, such as gum-arabic, + benzoin, mastic, balsam, aloes, myrrh, frankincense, &c., are + produced. There are also cultivated in different parts of the peninsula, + according to the soil and climate, beans, rice, lentils, tobacco, melons, + saffron, colocynth, poppies, olives, &c. Sheep, goats, oxen, the + horse, the camel, ass, and mule supply man's domestic and personal wants. + Among wild animals are gazelles, ostriches, the lion, panther, hyena, + jackal, &c. Among mineral products are saltpetre, mineral pitch, + petroleum, salt, sulphur, and several precious stones, as the carnelian, + agate, and onyx. The people of Arabia, according to their own traditions, + are derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs and the naturalized Arabs or + Mustarab. They are leading either a settled agricultural life or a + nomadic existence. In Southern Arabia the Jews form a large element in + the towns' population. Commerce is largely in the hands of foreigners, + among whom the Jews and Banians (Indian merchants) are the most + numerous.</p> + + <p>The history of Arabia previous to Mahomet is obscure. The earliest + inhabitants are believed to have been of the Semitic race. Jews in great + numbers migrated into Arabia after the destruction of Jerusalem, and, + making numerous proselytes, indirectly favoured the introduction of the + doctrines of Mahomet. With his advent the Arabians revolted and united + for the purpose of extending the new creed; and under the + caliphs—the successors of Mahomet—they attained great power, + and founded large and powerful kingdoms in three continents. (See + <i>Caliphs</i>.) On the fall of the caliphate of Bagdad in 1258 the + decline set in, and on the expulsion of the Moors from Spain the foreign + rule of the Arabs came to an end. In the sixteenth century Turkey subdued + Hejaz and Yemen, and received the nominal submission of the tribes + inhabiting the rest of Arabia. The allegiance of Hejaz was renounced + early in the European War; but Yemen achieved its independence in the + seventeenth century, and maintained it till 1871, when the territory + again fell into the hands of the Turks. In 1839 Aden was occupied by the + British. Oman early became virtually independent of the caliphs, and grew + into a well-organized kingdom. In 1507 its capital, Maskat or Muscat, was + occupied by the Portuguese, who were not driven out till 1659. The + Wahabis appeared towards the end of the eighteenth century, and took an + important part in the political affairs of Arabia, but their progress was + interrupted by Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, and they suffered a complete + defeat by Ibrahim Pasha. He extended his power over most of the country, + but the events of 1840 in Syria compelled him to renounce all claims to + Arabia. The Hejaz thus again became subject to Turkish sway, and until + 1914 Turkey continually extended its rule not only over Yemen, but also + over the district of El-Hasa on the Persian Gulf.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir R. F. Burton, <i>Pilgrimage to Medina + and Mecca</i>; E. Reclus, <i>Les Arabes</i>; C. M. Doughty, <i>Arabia + Deserta</i>, and <i>Wanderings in Arabia</i>; G. W. Bury, <i>Arabia + Infelix</i>; S. M. Zwemer, <i>Arabia, the Cradle of Islam.</i></p> + + <p><i>Arabian Language and Literature.</i>—The Arabic language + belongs to the Semitic dialects, among which it is distinguished for its + richness, softness, and high degree of development. By the spread of + Islam it became the sole written language and the prevailing speech in + all South-Western Asia and Eastern and Northern Africa, and for a time in + Southern Spain, in Malta, and in Sicily; and it is still used as a + learned and sacred language wherever Islam is spread. Almost a third part + of the Persian vocabulary consists of Arabic words, and there is the same + proportion of Arabic in Turkish. The Arabic language is written in an + alphabet of its own, which has also been adopted in writing Persian, + Hindustani, Turkish, &c. As in all Semitic languages (except the + Ethiopic), it is read from right to left. The vowels are usually omitted + in Arabic manuscripts, only the consonants being written.</p> + + <p>Poetry among the Arabs had a very early development, and before the + time of Mahomet poetical contests were held and prizes awarded for the + best pieces. The collection called the <i>Moallakât</i> contains seven + pre-Mahommedan poems by seven authors. Many other poems belonging to the + time before Mahomet, some <!-- Page 213 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page213"></a>[213]</span>of equal age with those of the + <i>Moallakât</i>, are also preserved in collections. Mahomet gave a new + direction to Arab literature. The rules of faith and life which he laid + down were collected by Abu-Bekr, first caliph after his death, and + published by Othman, the third caliph, and constitute the + <i>Koran</i>—the Mahommedan Bible. The progress of the Arabs in + literature, the arts and sciences, may be said to have begun with the + government of the caliphs of the family of the Abbassides, <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 749, at Bagdad, several of whom, as Harun al + Rashid and Al Mamun, were munificent patrons of learning: and their + example was followed by the Ommiades in Spain. In Spain were established + numerous academies and schools, which were visited by students from other + European countries; and important works were written on geography, + history, philosophy, medicine, physics, mathematics, arithmetic, + geometry, and astronomy. Most of the geography in the Middle Ages is the + work of the Arabs, and their historians since the eighth century have + been very numerous. The philosophy of the Arabs was of Greek origin, and + derived principally from that of Aristotle. Numerous translations of the + scientific works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers were made, + principally by Christian scholars who resided as physicians at the Courts + of the caliphs. These were diligently studied in Bagdad, Damascus, and + Cordova, and, being translated into Latin, became known in the west of + Europe. Of their philosophical authors the most celebrated are Alfarabi + (tenth century), Ibn Sina or Avicenna (died <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1037), Alghazzali (died 1111), Ibn Roshd or + Averroes (twelfth century), called by pre-eminence The Commentator, + &c. In medicine they excelled all other nations in the Middle Ages, + and they are commonly regarded as the earliest experimenters in + chemistry. Their mathematics and astronomy were based on the works of + Greek writers, but the former they enriched, simplified, and extended. It + was by them that algebra was introduced to the Western peoples, and the + Arabic numerals were similarly introduced. Astronomy they especially + cultivated, for which famous schools and observatories were erected at + Bagdad and Cordova. The <i>Almagest</i> of Ptolemy in an Arabic + translation was early a textbook among them. Alongside of science poetry + continued to be cultivated, but after the ninth or tenth centuries it + grew more and more artificial. Among poets were Abu Nowas, Asmai, Abu + Temmam, Motenabbi, Abul-Ala, Busiri, Tograi, and Hariri. Tales and + romances in prose and verse were written. The tales of fairies, genii, + enchanters, and sorcerers in particular passed from the Arabians to the + Western nations, as in <i>The Thousand and One Nights.</i> Some of the + books most widely read in the Middle Ages, such as <i>The Seven Wise + Masters,</i> the <i>Fables of Pilpay</i> (or Bidpai), and the <i>Romance + of Antar</i> found their way into Europe through the instrumentality of + the Arabs. At the present day Arabic literature is almost confined to the + production of commentaries and scholia, discussions on points of dogma + and jurisprudence, and grammatical works on the classical language. There + are a few newspapers published in Arabic.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C. Huart, <i>History of Arabic + Literature;</i> R. A. Nicholson, <i>Literary History of the + Arabs.</i></p> + + <p><b>Arabian Architecture.</b> See <i>Moorish Architecture</i>, + <i>Saracenic Architecture</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arabian Gulf.</b> See <i>Red Sea</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arabian Nights</b>, or <b>The Thousand and One Nights</b>, (Ar. Alf + Layla wa-Layla), a celebrated collection of Eastern tales, based upon an + old work, called <i>Hazar Afsana</i>, long current in the East, and + supposed to have been derived by the Arabians from India, through the + medium of Persia. They were first introduced into Europe in the beginning + of the eighteenth century by means of the French translation of Antoine + Galland. Of some of them no original MS. is known to exist; they were + taken down by Galland from the oral communication of a Syrian friend. The + story which connects the tales of <i>The Thousand and One Nights</i> is + as follows: The Sultan Shahriyar, exasperated by the faithlessness of his + bride, made a law that every one of his future wives should be put to + death the morning after marriage. At length one of them, Sheherazade, the + generous daughter of the grand-vizier, succeeded in abolishing the cruel + custom. By the charm of her stories the fair narrator induced the sultan + to defer her execution every day till the dawn of another, by breaking + off in the middle of an interesting tale which she had begun to relate. + In the form we possess them these tales belong to a comparatively late + period, though the exact date of their composition is not known. Lane, + who published a translation of a number of the tales, with valuable + notes, is of opinion that they took their present form some time between + 1475 and 1525. Sir Richard Burton's complete English translation was + issued in 16 vols. (1885-8).</p> + + <p><b>Arabian Sea</b>, the part of the Indian Ocean between Arabia and + India.</p> + + <p><b>Arabic Figures</b>, the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0; of + Indian origin, introduced into Europe by the Moors. They did not come + into general use till after the invention of printing.</p> + + <p><b>Ara´bi Pasha</b>, Egyptian soldier and revolutionary leader, born + 1839. In Sept., 1881, he headed a military revolt, and was for a time + virtually dictator of Egypt. Britain interfered, and after a short + campaign, beginning with the bombardment of Alexandria and ending with + the <!-- Page 214 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page214"></a>[214]</span>defeat of Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir, he + surrendered, and was banished to Ceylon, being pardoned in 1900. He died + in obscurity in Cairo in 1911.</p> + + <p><b>Arable Land</b>, land which is fit for ploughing, and capable of + being cultivated, as distinguished from grass-land, wood-land, common + pasture, mountains, forests, morasses, and waste. In Government returns + the term is applied to land that is actually under regular cultivation. + The land capable of being cultivated amounts in England and Wales to + about 25 per cent, and in Ireland to about 13 per cent. In the course of + the last thirty or forty years there has, however, been a considerable + diminution in the area of land actually cultivated, as a result of large + foreign imports of grain and other agricultural products.</p> + + <p><b>Arabs.</b> The Arabs, as a race, are of middle stature, of a + powerful though slender build, and have a skin of a more or less brownish + colour; in towns and the uplands often almost white. Their features are + well cut, the nose straight, the forehead high. They are naturally + active, intelligent, and courteous; and their character is marked by + temperance, bravery, and hospitality. The first religion of the Arabs, + the worship of the stars, was supplanted by the doctrines of + Mahommedanism, which succeeded rapidly in establishing itself throughout + Arabia. Besides the two principal sects of Islam, the Sunnites and the + Shiites, there also exists, in considerable numbers, a third Mahommedan + sect, the Wahabis, which arose in the latter half of the eighteenth + century, and for a time possessed great political importance in the + peninsula. The mode of life of the Arabs is either nomadic or settled. + The nomadic tribes are termed Bedouins (or Bedawins), and among them are + considered to be the Arabs of the purest blood.</p> + + <p><b>Aracacha</b>, or <b>Arracacha</b> (ar-a-kä'cha), a genus of + umbelliferous plants of Southern and Central America. The root of <i>A. + esculenta</i> is divided into several lobes, each of which is about the + size of a large carrot. These are boiled like potatoes and largely eaten + in South America.</p> + + <p><b>Aracan</b> (ar-a-kan'), the most northern division of Lower Burmah, + on the Bay of Bengal; chief town and seaport Akyab. It was ceded to the + English in 1826, as a result of the first Burmese war.</p> + + <p><b>Araçari</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-sä'rē), native name of a genus of + brilliant birds (Pteroglossus) closely allied to the toucans, but + generally smaller; natives of the warm parts of South America.</p> + + <p><b>Aracati</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ka<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-tē'), a Brazilian river-port, + State of Ceará, on the River Jaguaribe, about 10 miles from its mouth. + Exports hides and cotton. Pop. about 10,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ara´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of monocotyledonous plants, mostly + tropical, having the genus Arum as the type. Most of the species have + tuberous roots abounding in starch, which forms a wholesome food after + the acrid juice has been washed out. See <i>Arum</i>, <i>Caladium</i>, + <i>Dumb-cane</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arachis</b> (ar´a-kis), a genus of leguminous plants much + cultivated in warm climates, and esteemed a valuable article of food. The + most remarkable feature of the genus is that when the flower falls the + stalk supporting the small undeveloped fruit lengthens, and bending + towards the ground pushes the fruit into the ground, when it begins to + enlarge and ripen. The pod of <i>A. hypogœa</i> (popularly called + ground, earth, or pea nut) is of a pale-yellow colour, and contains two + seeds the size of a hazel-nut, in flavour sweet as almonds, and yielding + when pressed an excellent oil.</p> + + <p><b>Arachnida</b> (a-rak´ni-da; Gr. <i>arachnē</i>, a spider), a + class of Arthropoda or higher Annulose animals including the Spiders, + Scorpions, Mites, Ticks, &c. They have the body divided into a number + of segments or <i>somites</i>, some of which have always articulated + appendages (limbs, &c.). There is often a pair of nervous ganglia in + each somite, although in some forms (as spiders) the nervous system + becomes modified and concentrated. They are oviparous and somewhat + resemble insects, but they have a united head and thorax, and do not + undergo a metamorphosis similar to insects. They respire by tracheæ, by + pulmonary sacs, or by the skin.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´ack</b>, or <b>Ar´rack</b>, a spirituous liquor manufactured in + the East Indies from a great variety of substances. It is often distilled + from fermented rice, or it may be distilled from the juice of the + coco-nut and other palms. Pure arack is clear and transparent, of a + yellowish or straw colour, and with a peculiar but agreeable taste and + smell; it contains at least 52 to 54 per cent of alcohol.</p> + + <p><b>Arad</b> (o'rod), a town of the former kingdom of Hungary, on the + Maros, 30 miles north of Temeswar, divided by the river into O (Old) Arad + and Uj (New) Arad, connected by a bridge; it has a fortress, and is an + important railway centre, with a large trade and manufactures. The town + is now within the confines of Roumania, Uj Arad being called Arodul Neo. + Population of Old and New Arad together, 63,166.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´adus</b> (now <b>Ruad</b>), an inlet about a mile in + circumference lying 2 miles off the Syrian coast, 35 miles <span + class="scac">N.</span> of Tripolis; the site of the Phœnician + stronghold Arvad, a city second only to Tyre and Sidon; now occupied by + about 3000 people, mainly fishermen.</p> + + <p><b>Arafat´</b>, or <b>Jebel er Rahmeh</b> ('Mountain of Mercy'), a + hill in Arabia, about 200 feet high, with stone steps reaching to the + summit, 15 miles south-east of Mecca; one of the principal objects of + pilgrimage among Mahommedans, who <!-- Page 215 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page215"></a>[215]</span>say that it was the + place where Adam first received his wife Eve after they had been expelled + from Paradise and separated from each other 120 years. A sermon delivered + on the mount constitutes one great ceremony of the <i>Hajj</i>; or + pilgrimage to Mecca, and entitles the hearer to the name and privileges + of a <i>Hajji</i> or pilgrim.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´ago</b>, Dominique François, a French physicist, born in 1786, + died at Paris in 1853. After studying in the Polytechnic School at Paris, + he was appointed a secretary of the Bureau des Longitudes. In 1806 he was + associated with Biot in completing in Spain the measurements of Delambre + and Méchain to obtain an arc of the meridian. Before he got back to + France he had been shipwrecked and narrowly escaped being enslaved at + Algiers. In 1809 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences and appointed + a professor at the Polytechnic School. He distinguished himself by his + researches in the polarization of light, galvanism, magnetism, astronomy, + &c. His discovery of the magnetic properties of substances devoid of + iron, made known to the Academy of Sciences in 1824, procured him the + Copley medal of the Royal Society of London in 1825. A further + consideration of the same subject led to the equally remarkable discovery + of the production of magnetism by electricity. He took part in the + revolution of 1848, and held the office of Minister of War and Marine in + the provisional Government. At the <i>coup d'état</i> of Dec., 1852, he + refused to take the oath to the Government of Louis Napoleon, but the + oath was not pressed. His works, which were posthumously collected and + published, consist, besides his <i>Astronomie Populaire</i>, chiefly of + contributions to learned societies, and biographical notices + (<i>éloges</i>) of deceased members of the Academy of Sciences.</p> + + <p><b>Arago</b>, Emmanuel, son of Dominique François, French advocate and + politician, was born at Paris in 1812; called to the bar 1837; took part + in the revolution of 1848; renounced politics after the <i>coup + d'état</i> of Dec., 1852, but continued to practise at the bar. After the + fall of the Empire he again took a prominent part in public affairs, and + held several important offices. He is author of a volume of poems and + many theatrical pieces. He died in 1896.</p> + + <p><b>Arago</b>, Étienne, brother of Dominique Arago, born 1802, died + 1892. He founded the journals <i>La Réforme</i> and <i>Le Figaro</i>; was + director of the Théâtre du Vaudeville, 1829; took part in the revolution + of 1848; was condemned to transportation, 1849; fled from France, but + returned in 1859; was mayor of Paris during the Franco-Prussian war, and + appointed archivist to the École des Beaux Arts, 1878. He was author of + upwards of 100 dramas, <i>La Vie de Molière,</i> <i>Les Bleus et les + Blancs</i>, and other works.</p> + + <p><b>Aragon´, Kingdom of</b>, a former province or kingdom of Spain, now + divided into three provinces of Teruel, Huesca, and Saragossa; bounded on + the <span class="scac">N.</span> by the Pyrenees, <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> by Navarre, <span class="scac">W.</span> by + Castile, <span class="scac">S.</span> by Valencia, and <span + class="scac">E.</span> by Catalonia; length about 190 miles, average + breadth 90 miles; area, 18,298 sq. miles. It was governed by its own + monarchs until the union with Castile on the marriage of Ferdinand and + Isabella (1469).</p> + + <p><b>Arago´na</b>, a town in Sicily, 8 miles <span + class="scac">N.N.E.</span> of Girgenti. Pop. 16,000. In the neighbourhood + is the mud volcano of Macculuba.</p> + + <p><b>Aragonite</b>, a mineral formed of calcium carbonate crystallized + in the rhombic system; specific gravity 2.94 (compare <i>Calcite</i>). + Aragonite passes into calcite in the course of geological time, but is + important as the mineral precipitated to form the oolitic limestones of + warm seas, and from being the material of most molluscan shells. It was + first found in Aragon.</p> + + <p><b>Araguaya</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-gwī'a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a Brazilian river, principal affluent + of the Tocantins; rises about the 18th degree of <span + class="scac">S.</span> lat.; in its course northwards forms the boundary + between the two States of Matto Grosso and Goyaz, and falls into the + Tocantins near lat. 6° <span class="scac">S.</span>; length, about 1300 + miles, of which over 1000 are navigable.</p> + + <p><b>A´ral</b>, a salt-water lake in Asia, in Russian territory, about + 150 miles <span class="scac">W.</span> of the Caspian Sea, between 43° + 42´ and 46° 44´ <span class="scac">N.</span> lat., and 58° 18´ and 61° + 46´ <span class="scac">E.</span> long.; length 270 miles, breadth 165; + area, 26,650 sq. miles (or not much smaller than Scotland). It stands 240 + feet above the level of the Caspian, and 160 feet above the + Mediterranean. It receives the Amu Darya or Oxus and the Syr Darya or + Jaxartes, and contains a multitude of sturgeon and other fish. It is + encircled by desert sandy tracts, and its shores are without harbours. It + has no outlet. The Aral contains a large number of small islands; + steamers have been placed on it by the Russians.</p> + + <p><b>Ara´lia</b>, a genus of plants with small flowers arranged in + umbels and succulent berries, the type of the nat. ord. Araliaceæ, which + is nearly related to the Umbelliferæ, but the species are of a more + shrubby habit. They are natives chiefly of tropical or sub-tropical + countries, and in Britain are represented by the ivy; ginseng belongs to + the order. From the pith of <i>A. papyrifĕra</i> is obtained the + Chinese rice-paper.</p> + + <p><b>A´ram</b>, Eugene, a self-taught scholar whose unhappy fate has + been made the subject of a ballad by Hood and a romance by Lord Lytton, + was born in Yorkshire, 1704, executed for murder, 1759. In 1734 he set up + a school at Knaresborough. About 1745 a shoemaker of that place, named + Daniel Clarke, was suddenly missing under suspicious circumstances; and + no light was thrown on the matter till full thirteen <!-- Page 216 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page216"></a>[216]</span>years + afterwards, when an expression dropped by one Richard Houseman, + respecting the discovery of a skeleton supposed to be Clarke's, caused + him to be taken into custody. From his confession an order was issued for + the apprehension of Aram, who had long quitted Yorkshire, and was at the + time acting as usher at the grammar-school at Lynn. He was brought to + trial on 3rd Aug., 1759, at York, where, notwithstanding an able and + eloquent defence which he made before the court, he was convicted of the + murder of Clarke, and sentenced to death. He was among the first to + recognize the affinity of the Celtic to the other European languages, and + under favourable circumstances might have done some valuable work in + philological science.—Cf. W. Bristow, <i>The Genuine Account of the + Life and Trial of Eugene Aram</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aramæ´an</b>, or <b>Aramaic</b>. See <i>Semitic Languages</i>, + <i>Syriac</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´an</b>, an island lying off the W. coast of Donegal, Ireland, + has an area of 4335 acres, a lighthouse, and a pop. of 1308, chiefly + engaged in fishing.—Also called <i>North Island of Aran</i>, or + <i>Arranmore</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arane´idæ</b>, the spider family.</p> + + <p><b>Aran Islands</b>, or <b>South Islands of Aran</b>, three islands at + the mouth of Galway Bay, off the W. coast of Ireland. The largest, + Aranmore or Inishmore, comprises 7635 acres, and has a pop. of 2592; the + next, Inishmaan, 2252 acres, pop. 473; and the least, Inishere, 1400 + acres, pop. 456. They are remarkable for a number of architectural + remains of a very early date. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in + agriculture and fishing.</p> + + <p><b>Aranjuez</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n-<i>h</i>u<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>-eth´), a small town and palace in Spain, + 30 miles from Madrid, with splendid gardens laid out by Philip II. The + Court used to reside here from Easter till the close of June, when the + number of people increased from 4000 to 20,000. It has a wireless + station. Pop. 12,000.</p> + + <p><b>Arany</b> (o-ron´y), Janos, Hungarian poet, born 1817, died 1882. + He was for some time a strolling player, but became professor of Latin at + the Normal School of Szalonta, professor of Hungarian literature at Nagy + Körös, and secretary of the Hungarian Academy. Author of <i>The Lost + Constitution</i>, <i>Katalin</i>, and a series of three connected + narrative poems on the fortunes of Toldi.</p> + + <p><b>Arap´ahoes</b>, a tribe of American Indians located near the + head-waters of the Arkansas and Platte Rivers. They number in all about + 2000.</p> + + <p><b>Arapaima</b> (a-ra-pī´ma), a genus of South American + fresh-water fishes, ord. Physostomi, family Osteoglossidæ, one species of + which (<i>A. gigas</i>) grows to the length of 15 or 16 feet, and forms a + valuable article of food in Brazil and Guiana. It is covered with large + bony scales, and has a bare and bony head.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´arat</b>, a celebrated mountain in Armenia, an isolated volcanic + mass showing two separate cones known as the Great and Little Ararat, + resting on a common base and separated by a deep intervening depression. + The elevations are: Great Ararat, 16,916 feet; Little Ararat, 12,840 + feet; the connecting ridge, 8780 feet. Vegetation extends to 14,200 feet, + which marks the snow-line. According to the Bible Mount Ararat was the + resting-place of the Ark when the waters of the Flood abated.</p> + + <p><b>Araro´ba</b>, or <b>Arraroba</b>, the powdered bark of + <i>Andīra ararōba</i>. See <i>Andira</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A´ras</b> (the ancient <b>Araxes</b>), a river of Asia Minor, + rising <span class="scac">S.</span> of Erzerum at the foot of the + Bingol-dagh; it flows for some miles through South Caucasia, turning + eastwards to the Erivan plain <span class="scac">N</span>. of Ararat. It + then sweeps in a semi-circle mostly between Caucasia and Persia round to + its confluence with the Kur, 60 miles from its mouth in the Caspian; + length, 500 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Ara´tus</b>, a Greek poet, born at Soli in Cilicia; lived about 270 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>; was a favourite of Ptolemy Philadelphus. + His poem <i>Phænomena</i> is a version of a prose work on astronomy by + Eudoxus; one verse of it is quoted by St. Paul in his address to the + Athenians (<i>Acts</i>, xvii, 28).</p> + + <p><b>Ara´tus of Sicyon</b>, a statesman of ancient Greece, born 272 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> In 251 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> he + overthrew the tyrant of Sicyon and joined that city to the Achæan League, + which he greatly extended. He accepted the aid of Antigonus Doson, King + of Macedon, against the Spartans, and became in time little more than the + adviser of the Macedonian king, who had now made the League dependent on + himself. He is said to have been poisoned by Philip V of Macedon, 213 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>Arauca´nians</b>, a South American native race in the southern part + of Chile, occupying a territory stretching from about 37° to 40° of <span + class="scac">S.</span> lat. They are warlike and more civilized than many + of the native races of S. America, and maintained almost unceasing war + with the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when their independence was + recognized by Spain, though their territory was much curtailed. Their + early contests with the Spaniards were celebrated in Ercilla's Spanish + poem <i>Araucana</i>. With the Republic of Chile they were long at feud, + and in 1861 had at their head a French adventurer named Antoine de + Tounens, who claimed the title of king. In 1882 they submitted to Chile. + The Chilian province of Arauco receives its name from them.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/image082.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image082.jpg" + alt="Araucaria" title="Araucaria" /></a> + Chile pine (<i>Araucaria imbricāta</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Arauca´ria</b>, a genus of trees of the coniferous or pine order, + indigenous to Australasia and South America. The species are large + evergreen trees with pretty large, stiff, flattened, and <!-- Page 217 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page217"></a>[217]</span>generally + imbricated leaves, verticillate spreading branches, and bearing large + cones, each scale having a single large seed. The species <i>A. + imbricāta</i> (the Chile pine or monkey-puzzle), with hard, sharp, + pointed leaves, was introduced into Britain in 1796. It is a native of + the mountains of Southern Chile, where it forms vast forests and yields a + hard durable wood. Its seeds are eaten when roasted. The Moreton Bay pine + of New South Wales (<i>A. Cunninghamii</i>) supplies a valuable timber + used in house and boat building, in making furniture, and in other + carpenter work. A species, <i>A. excelsa</i>, or Norfolk Island pine, + abounds in several of the South Sea Islands, where it attains a height of + 220 feet with a circumference of 30 feet, and is described as one of the + most beautiful of trees. Its foliage is light and graceful, and quite + unlike that of <i>A. imbricata</i>, having nothing of its stiff + formality. Its timber is of some value, being white, tough, and + close-grained.</p> + + <p><b>Arau´co</b>, a province of Chile, named from the Araucanian + Indians; area, 2189 sq. miles; pop. 73,260; capital, Lebu.</p> + + <p><b>Araval´li Hills</b>, a range of Indian mountains running <span + class="scac">N.E.</span> and <span class="scac">S.W.</span> across the + Rajputána country, which they separate into two natural + divisions—desert plains on the <span class="scac">N.W.</span> and + fertile lands on the <span class="scac">S.E.</span>; highest point, Mount + Abu (5653 feet).</p> + + <p><b>Araxes.</b> See <i>Aras</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´băces</b>, one of the generals of Sardanapälus, King of + Assyria. He revolted and defeated his master, and became the founder of + the Median Empire in 846 <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>Ar´balist.</b> See <i>Cross-bow</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arbe´la</b> (now <b>Erbil</b>), a place in the vilayet of Bagdad, + giving name to the decisive battle fought by Alexander the Great against + Darius, at Gaugamela, about 50 miles distant from it, 1st Oct., 331 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>Arbitrage</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r´bi-tra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>zh), or <b>Arbitration of Exchanges</b>, + an operation or calculation by which the currency of one country is + converted into that of another through the medium of intervening + currencies, for the purpose of ascertaining whether direct or indirect + drafts and remittances are preferable.—<i>Arbitrageur</i> (a<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>r´bi-tra<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>-zheur) is one who makes + calculations of currency exchanges. See <i>Stock Exchange</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arbitra´tion</b>, the hearing and determination of a cause between + parties in controversy, by a person or persons chosen by the parties. + This may be done by one person, but it is common to choose more than one. + Frequently two are nominated, one by each party, with a third, the + <i>umpire</i> (or, in Scotland, sometimes the <i>oversman</i>), who is + called on to decide in case of the primary arbitrators differing. In such + a case the umpire may be agreed upon either by the parties themselves, or + by the arbitrators when they have received authority from the parties to + the dispute to settle this point. The determination of arbitrators is + called an <i>award</i>. By the law of England the authority of an + arbitrator cannot be revoked by any of the parties without the leave of + the court or of a judge.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: + Russell, <i>Arbitration</i>; Redman, <i>Arbitration</i>; Scots Law, see + Bell, <i>On Arbitration</i>; American Law, see Morse, <i>Law of + Arbitration</i>; R. G. Morris, <i>International Arbitration</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´blast.</b> See <i>Cross-bow</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arbo´ga</b>, an old Swedish city, province of Westmannland; once an + important commercial town, now only of historical interest from having + been at one time a residence of the family of Vasa, the scene of Church + assemblies and national diets, and for the antiquities in its + neighbourhood. Pop. 5050.</p> + + <p><b>Arbois</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-bwä), a town of France, department of + Jura; famous for its wines. Pop. 5000.</p> + + <p><b>Arbor Day</b>, a day officially set apart in the United States for + the annual planting of trees by the people, and especially by + school-children. The custom was instituted in 1872.</p> + + <p><b>Arbore´tum</b> (Lat. <i>arbor</i>, a tree), a place in which a + collection of different trees and shrubs is cultivated for scientific or + educational purposes. The largest arboretum in Britain, perhaps the + finest in the whole world, is that of the Royal Gardens, at Kew, + inaugurated in 1762, to which 180 acres are now devoted. Next in + celebrity <!-- Page 218 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page218"></a>[218]</span>are the arboreta at Edinburgh (Inverleith) + and at Dublin (Glasnevin), the Botanical Gardens at Oxford, and the + Botanic Gardens at Glasgow. Other arboreta are that of the Jardin des + Plantes, Paris, and the Arnold Arboretum, at Jamaica Plain, Boston. The + term arboretum has also been applied in a restricted sense, as in the + <i>Arboretum Fruticetum Britannicum</i>, the monumental work by J. C. + Loudon.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´boriculture</b> includes the culture of trees and shrubs, as + well as all that pertains to the preparation of the soil, the sowing of + the seeds, and the treatment of the plants in their young state, the + preparation of the land previous to their final transplantation, their + just adaptation to soil and situation, their relative growth and progress + to maturity, their management during growth, and the proper season and + period for felling them.</p> + + <p><b>Arbor Vitæ</b> (literally, 'tree of life'), the name of several + coniferous trees of the genus Thuja, allied to the cypress, with + flattened branchlets, and small imbricated or scale-like leaves. The name + is derived from valuable medicinal properties having formerly been + ascribed to the aromatic resin they mostly yield. Those generally + cultivated in Britain are: the common Arbor Vitæ (<i>Thuja + occidentālis</i>), a native of North America, where it grows to a + height of 40 or 50 feet, introduced into Britain about 1566; the giant + Arbor Vitæ or Red Cedar (<i>Thuja gigantea</i>), introduced in 1854; and + the Chinese Arbor Vitæ (<i>Thuja orientālis</i>).</p> + + <p><b>Arbroath</b> (ar-brōth´), or <b>Aberbrothock</b>, a royal + municipal and police burgh and seaport in the county of Forfar, Scotland, + at the mouth of the small River Brothock. Its ancient abbey, founded by + William the Lion in 1178, and dedicated to Saints Mary and Thomas à + Becket, is now a picturesque ruin. There are numerous flax and hemp + spinning-mills and factories, and much canvas and linen is made; also + tanning, shoemaking, and fishing, and a small shipping trade, but the + harbour is bad. Pop. 19,499. It unites with Montrose, Forfar, Brechin, + and Inverbervie (the Montrose burghs) in sending a member to + Parliament.</p> + + <p><b>Arbuth´not</b>, John, an eminent physician and distinguished wit, + born at Arbuthnot, Kincardineshire, Scotland, 1667, died 1735. He + received the degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of St. + Andrews, and went to London, where he soon distinguished himself by his + writings and by his skill in his profession. In 1704 he was chosen Fellow + of the Royal Society, and soon after he was appointed physician + extraordinary, and then physician in ordinary to Queen Anne. About this + time he became intimate with Swift, Pope, Gay, and other wits of the day. + His writings, other than professional or scientific, include his + contributions (in conjunction with Swift and Pope) to the <i>Memoirs of + Martinus Scriblerus</i>, <i>History of John Bull</i>, <i>Art of Political + Lying</i>, &c. He was conspicuous not only for learning and wit, but + also for worth and humanity.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´butus</b>, a genus of plants belonging to the Ericaceæ, or heath + order, and comprising a number of small trees and shrubs, natives chiefly + of Europe and N. America. <i>Arbŭtus Unĕdo</i> abounds near + the lakes of Killarney, where its fine foliage adds charms to the + scenery. The bright red or yellow berries, somewhat like the strawberry, + have an unpleasant taste and narcotic properties. The Corsicans make wine + from them. The trailing arbutus or may-flower of N. America, a plant with + fragrant and beautiful blossoms, is <i>Epigæa repens</i>, of the same + nat. ord.</p> + + <p><b>Arc</b>, a portion of a curved line, especially of a circle. It is + by means of circular arcs that all angles are + measured.—<i>Electric</i> or <i>Voltaic arc</i>, the luminous arc + of intense brightness and excessively high temperature which is formed by + an electric current in crossing over the interval of space between the + carbon points of an electric lamp. See <i>Arc-light</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arc</b>, Jeanne d'. See <i>Joan of Arc</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´ca</b>, a genus of bivalve molluscs, family Arcadæ, whose shells + are known as <i>ark-shells</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arcachon</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-ka<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-shōn<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), a town of <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> France, department Gironde, on the almost + landlocked basin of Arcachon, a much-frequented bathing-place, with great + oyster-breeding establishments. It is connected by railway with Bordeaux. + Pop. 10,266.</p> + + <p><b>Arcade</b>, a series of arches supported on piers or pillars, used + generally as a screen and support of a roof, or of the wall of a + building, and having beneath the covered part an ambulatory as round a + cloister, or a footpath with shops or dwellings, as frequently seen in + old Italian towns. Sometimes a porch or other prominent part of an + important building is treated with arcades. At the present day Bologna, + Padua, and Berne have fine examples of mediæval arcaded streets, and + among more modern work various streets in Turin, and the Rue de Rivoli, + Paris, are lined with arcades, with shops underneath. In mediæval + architecture the term arcade is also applied to a series of arches + supported on pillars forming an ornamental dressing or enrichment of a + wall, a mode of treatment of very frequent occurrence in the towers, + apses, and other parts of churches. In modern use the name arcade is + often applied to a passage or narrow street containing shops arched over + and covered with glass, as for example the Burlington Arcade, London, the + Royal Arcade at Newcastle, and the Gallería Vittorio Emmanuele in Milan. + <!-- Page 219 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page219"></a>[219]</span></p> + + <p><b>Arca´dia</b>, the central and most mountainous portion of the + Peloponnesus (Morea), the inhabitants of which in ancient times were + celebrated for simplicity of character and manners. Their occupation was + almost entirely pastoral, and thus the country came to be regarded as + typical of rural simplicity and happiness. At the present day Arcadia + forms a nomarchy of the kingdom of Greece. Area, 2028 sq. miles. Pop. + 162,324.</p> + + <p><b>Arca´dius</b>, born in 377, died 408; son of the Emperor + Theodosius, on whose death in 395 the empire was divided, he obtaining + the East, and his brother Honorius the West. He proved a feeble and + pusillanimous prince.</p> + + <p><b>Arcanum, The Great</b> (meaning secret), a term applied in the + Middle Ages to the highest problems of alchemy and the discovery of the + supposed great secrets of nature, such as the philosopher's stone and the + elixir of life. See <i>Alchemy</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arcature</b>, in architecture, a small arcade built into a wall or + applied against it, decorative rather than structural. Arcatures occur in + Anglo-Norman churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.</p> + + <p><b>Arcesilaus</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-ses-i-lā´us), a Greek + philosopher, the founder of the second or middle academy, was born about + 315 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, died 239 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> He left no writings, and of his opinions so + little is known that it has been doubted whether he was a strict + Platonist or a sceptic.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:26%;"> + <a href="images/image083.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image083.jpg" + alt="Parts of an Arch" title="Parts of an Arch" /></a> + Parts of an Arch + + <p class="poem"><i>a.</i> Abutments. <i>i.</i> Impost. <i>p.</i> Piers. + <i>v.</i> Voussoirs or arch-stones. <i>k.</i> Keystone. <i>s.</i> + Springers. <i>In.</i> Intrados. <i>Ex.</i> Extrados. </p> + </div> + + <p><span class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a + href="images/image084.jpg"><img style="width:100%" + src="images/image084.jpg" alt="Lancet and Horse-shoe arches" + title="Lancet and Horse-shoe arches" /></a></span> <b>Arch</b>, a + structure composed of separate pieces, such as stones or bricks, having + the shape of truncated wedges, arranged on a curved line, so as to retain + their position by mutual pressure. The separate stones which compose the + arch are called <i>voussoirs</i> or <i>arch-stones</i>; the extreme or + lowest voussoirs are termed <i>springers</i>, and the uppermost or + central one is called the <i>keystone</i>. The under or concave side of + the voussoirs is called the <i>intrados</i>, and the upper or convex side + the <i>extrados</i> of the arch. The supports which afford resting and + resisting points to the arch are called <i>piers</i> and + <i>abutments</i>. The upper part <span class="figleft" + style="width:26%;"><a href="images/image085.jpg"><img style="width:100%" + src="images/image085.jpg" alt="Segmental and Semicircular arches" + title="Segmental and Semicircular arches" /></a></span> of the pier or + abutment, where the arch rests—technically where it <i>springs + from</i>—is the <i>impost</i>. The <i>span</i> of an arch is in + circular arches the length of its chord, and generally the width between + the points of its opposite imposts whence it springs. The <i>rise</i> of + an arch is the height of the highest point of its intrados above the line + of the imposts; this point is sometimes called the <i>under side of the + crown</i>, the highest point of the extrados being the <i>crown</i>. + Arches are designated in various ways, as from their shape (circular, + elliptic, &c.), or from the resemblance of the whole contour of the + curve to some familiar <span class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a + href="images/image086.jpg"><img style="width:100%" + src="images/image086.jpg" alt="Ogee and Equilateral arches" title="Ogee and Equilateral arches" + /></a></span> object (lancet arch, horse-shoe arch), or from the method + used in describing the curve, as equilateral, three-centred, + four-centred, ogee, and the like; or from the style of architecture to + which they belong, as Roman, pointed, and Saracenic + arches.—<i>Triumphal arch</i>, originally a simple decorated arch + under which a victorious Roman general and army passed in triumph. At a + later period the triumphal arch was a richly-sculptured, massive, and + permanent structure, having an archway passing through it, with generally + a smaller arch on either side. The name is sometimes given to an arch, + generally of wood decorated with flowers or evergreens, erected on + occasion of some public rejoicing, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Archæan</b> (är-kē´an) <b>Rocks</b> (Gr. <i>archaios</i>, + ancient), the oldest rocks of the earth's crust, <!-- Page 220 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page220"></a>[220]</span>mostly crystalline in + character, and embracing granites, gneisses, mica-schists, &c., all + devoid of fossil remains. These rocks underlie a group of stratified and + igneous masses that are usually distinguished from them as Huronian; the + first beds with a well-marked fauna (lowest Cambrian) lie above the + Huronian, and the Huronian and the Archæan groups are often conveniently + classed together as pre-Cambrian, and are separated from the stratified + and fossiliferous formations, which indeed have chiefly taken origin from + them. The core of the Malvern range, and the rocks of <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> Sutherland, are examples of Archæan masses in + Great Britain.</p> + + <p><b>Archæol´ogy</b> (Gr. <i>archaios</i>, ancient, and <i>logos</i>, a + discourse), the study of antiquity, or the science which takes cognizance + of the history of nations and peoples as evinced by the remains, + architectural, implemental, or otherwise, which belong to the earlier + epoch of their existence. In a more extended sense the term embraces + every branch of knowledge which bears on the origin, religion, laws, + languages, science, arts, and literature of ancient peoples. It is to a + great extent synonymous with <i>prehistoric annals</i>, as a large if not + the principal part of its field of study extends over those periods in + the history of the human race in regard to which we possess almost no + information derivable from written records. Archæology divides the + primeval period of the human race, more especially as exhibited by + remains found in Europe, into the <i>stone</i>, the <i>bronze</i>, and + the <i>iron</i> ages, these names being given in accordance with the + materials employed for weapons, implements, &c., during the + particular period. The <i>stone</i> age has been subdivided into the + <i>palæolithic</i> and <i>neolithic</i>, the former being that older + period, in which the stone implements were not polished as they are in + the latter and more recent period. The <i>bronze</i> age, which admits of + a similar subdivision, is that in which implements were of copper or + bronze. In this age the dead were burned and their ashes deposited in + urns or stone chests, covered with conical mounds of earth or cairns of + stones. Gold and amber ornaments appear in this age. The <i>iron</i> age + is that in which implements, &c., of iron begin to appear, although + stone and bronze implements are found along with them. The word + <i>age</i> in this sense (as explained under <i>Age</i>) simply denotes + the stage at which a people has arrived. The phrase stone age, therefore, + merely marks the period before the use of bronze, the bronze age that + before the employment of iron, among any specific people. See + <i>Excavations</i>; <i>Crete</i>; <i>Egypt</i>; &c—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir J. Evans, <i>Stone Implements of + Great Britain</i>; Boyd-Dawkins, <i>Early Man in Britain</i>; J. Geikie, + <i>Prehistoric Europe</i>; R. Munro, <i>Lake Dwellings of Europe</i>; Sir + W. Ridgeway, <i>Early Age of Greece</i>; H. R. Hall, <i>Ægean + Archæology</i>; W. M. Flinders Petrie, <i>Methods and Aims in + Archæology</i>; A. P. F. Michaelis, <i>A Century of Archæological + Discoveries</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:29%;"> + <a href="images/image087.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image087.jpg" + alt="Archæopteryx" title="Archæopteryx" /></a> + Archæopteryx macrura, a fossil lizard-tailed bird + </div> + + <p><b>Archæopteryx</b> (är-kē-op´te-riks), a fossil bird from the + oolitic limestone of Solenhofen, of the size of a rook, and differing + from all known birds in having two free claws representing the thumb and + forefinger projecting from the wing, and about twenty tail vertebræ free + and prolonged as in mammals.</p> + + <p><b>Archangel</b> (ärk´ān-jel; Gr. prefix, <i>arch-</i>, denoting + chief), an angel of superior or of the highest rank. The only archangel + mentioned by name in Scripture is Michael in the <i>Epistle of + Jude</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Archangel</b> (ärk-ān´jel), a seaport, capital of the Russian + government of same name, on the right bank of the Northern Dvina, about + 20 miles above its mouth in the White Sea. Below the town the river + divides into several branches and forms a number of islands, on one of + which, called Sollenbole, is the harbour. The houses are mostly of wood; + the place has some manufactures and an important trade, exporting + linseed, flax, tow, tallow, train-oil, mats, timber, pitch and tar, + &c. The port is closed for six months by ice. Archangel, founded in + 1584, was long the only port which Russia possessed. Pop. + 43,388.—The province, which before the Russian revolution extended + from the Ural Mountains to Finland, had an area of 326,063 sq. miles. + Pop. 483,500.—For the Archangel Expedition of 1918, see + <i>Murmansk</i>, <i>Russia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Archangel´ica.</b> See <i>Angelica</i>.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<h3>ARCHÆOLOGY: ANTIQUITIES OF THE STONE, BRONZE, AND IRON AGES</h3> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:62%;"> + <a href="images/image088.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image088.jpg" + alt="Archæology" title="Archæology" /></a> + <p class="poem">OLDER STONE AGE: 1, Flint Pick. 2, Carved Mammoth Tusk. + 3, Double Scraper. 4, Barbed Harpoon Heads. LATER STONE AGE: 5, Pick of + Deer Antler. 6, Flint and Pyrites. 7, Stone Celt in Haft. 8, Arrowhead. + 9, Bowl. BRONZE AGE: 10, Celt. 11, Drinking-cup. 12, Ornamental Pin. + 13, Spear-head. 14, Bronze Tweezers. 15, 16, Gold Bracelets. 17, + Engraved Pin. 18, Short Sword. 19, Spectacle Brooch. 20, Razor. EARLY + IRON AGE: 21, Bronze Brooch. 22, Bone Hand-comb for weaving. 23, Bronze + Mirror. 24, Bronze Jug. 25, Bronze Spoon. 26, Iron Currency Bars. 27, + Bronze Brooch.</p> + </div> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + + <p><b>Archbishop</b> (ärch-), a chief bishop, or bishop over other + bishops; a metropolitan prelate. The establishment of this dignity is to + be traced up to an early period of Christianity, when the bishops and + inferior clergy met in the capitals to deliberate on spiritual affairs, + and the bishop of the city where the meeting was held presided. In + England there are two archbishops—those of Canterbury and York; the + former styled <!-- Page 221 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page221"></a>[221]</span><i>Primate of all England</i>, the latter + <i>Primate of England</i>. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the first peer + of the realm, having precedence before all great officers of the Crown + and all dukes not of royal birth. He crowns the sovereign, and when he is + invested with his archbishopric he is said to be enthroned. He can grant + special licences to marry at any time or place, and can confer degrees + otherwise to be obtained only from the universities. He is addressed by + the titles of <i>your grace</i> and <i>most reverend father in God</i>, + and writes himself <i>by divine providence</i>, while the Archbishop of + York and the bishops only write <i>by divine permission</i>. The first + Archbishop of Canterbury was Augustine, appointed <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 598 by Ethelbert. Next in dignity is the + Archbishop of York, between whom and the Archbishop of Canterbury the + Lord High-Chancellor of England has his place in precedency. The first + Archbishop of York was Paulinus, appointed in 622. The incomes of the + sees are £15,000 and £10,000 respectively. An Archbishop of Wales was + first appointed in 1920. Scotland had two archbishops—St. Andrews + and Glasgow. Ireland had four, but the Episcopal Church has but + two—Armagh and Dublin, the former being <i>Primate of all + Ireland</i>, the latter <i>Primate of Ireland</i>. There are four Roman + Catholic archbishops in England and Wales—Westminster, Cardiff, + Birmingham, and Liverpool; two in Scotland—St. Andrews and + Edinburgh, and Glasgow; four in Ireland—Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, and + Tuam.</p> + + <p><b>Archdeacon</b> (ärch-), in England, an ecclesiastical dignitary + next in rank below a bishop, having a certain jurisdiction over a part of + the diocese. From two to four archdeacons are appointed by the bishops, + under whom they perform their duties, and they hold courts which decide + cases subject to an appeal to the bishop.</p> + + <p><b>Archduke</b>, a title peculiar to the royal family of + Austria—the Habsburgs, who ruled until 1918.</p> + + <p><b>Archelaus</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-kē-lā´us), the name of + several personages in ancient history, one of whom was the son of Herod + the Great. He received from Augustus the sovereignty of Judea, Samaria, + and Idumea. The people, tired of his tyrannical and bloody reign, accused + him before Augustus, who banished him to Gaul.</p> + + <p><b>Archer</b>, William, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at + Perth, Scotland, in 1856. Educated at Edinburgh University, he went to + London after some experience of journalism at Edinburgh, and after a + visit to Australia was called to the bar, and was dramatic critic for + <i>The World</i> from 1884 to 1905. Subsequently he has been dramatic + critic for <i>The Tribune</i> and <i>The Nation</i>. He has done much to + introduce Ibsen to the English public, by translating his dramas and + otherwise, and has written <i>English Dramatists of To-day</i>; <i>A Life + of Macready</i>; <i>About the Theatre: Essays and Studies</i>; <i>Masks + or Faces?: a Study on the Psychology of Acting</i>; <i>The Theatrical + World</i> (a collection of his dramatic criticisms) (5 vols.); <i>Study + and Stage</i>; <i>America To-Day</i> (the result of a visit in 1900); + <i>Poets of the Younger Generation</i>; <i>Real Conversations</i> (the + result of a series of interviews with persons of note); <i>Through + Afro-America</i> (1910); <i>The Life, Trial, and Death of Francisco + Ferrer</i> (1911); <i>Play-Making</i> (1912); <i>The Thirteen Days</i> + (1915); <i>India and the Future</i> (1917); <i>War is War</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Archer-fish</b>, a name given to the <i>Toxŏtes + jaculātor</i>, a scaly-finned, acanthopterygian fish, about 6 + inches long, inhabiting the seas around Java, which has the faculty of + shooting drops of water to the distance of 3 or 4 feet at insects, + thereby causing them to fall into the water, when it seizes and devours + them. The soft, and even the spiny portions of their dorsal fins are so + covered with scales as to be scarcely distinguishable from the rest of + the body.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:24%;"> + <a href="images/image089.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image089.jpg" + alt="Assyrian Archer" title="Assyrian Archer" /></a> + Assyrian Archer + </div> + + <p><b>Arch´ery</b>, the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. The use of + these weapons in war and the chase dates from the earliest antiquity. + Ishmael, we learn from <i>Gen</i>. xxi, "became an archer". The + Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, Parthians, excelled in the use of the + bow; and while the Greeks and Romans themselves made little use of it, + they employed foreign archers as mercenaries. Coming to much more recent + times, we find the Swiss famous as archers, but they generally used the + arbalist or cross-bow, and were no match for their English rivals, who + preferred the long-bow. (See <i>Bow</i>.) The English victories of + Cressy, Poietiers, and Agincourt, gained against apparently overwhelming + odds, may be ascribed to the bowmen. Archery disappeared gradually as + firearms came into use, and as an instrument of war or the chase the bow + is now confined to the most savage tribes of both hemispheres. But though + the bow has been long abandoned among <!-- Page 222 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page222"></a>[222]</span>civilized nations as a + military weapon, it is still cherished as an instrument of healthful + recreation, encouraged by archery clubs or societies, which have been + established in many parts of Britain. The oldest, and by far the most + historically important of these societies, is the Royal Company of + Archers, called also the King's Body-guard for Scotland, formed + originally, it is said, by James I, but constituted in its present form + by an Act of the Privy Council of Scotland, in 1676, and having its + head-quarters in Edinburgh, counting among its members many of the + nobility and gentry of the northern kingdom, and holding annual meetings, + where prizes are competed for. In recent years a number of clubs have + been formed in the United States. Archery has the merit of forming a + sport open to women as well as men.—<span + class="scac">BIBLIOGRAPHY:</span> William Garrard, <i>The Arte of + Warre</i>; E. S. Morse, <i>Archery, Ancient and Modern</i>; H. A. Ford, + <i>The Theory and Practice of Archery</i>.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/image090.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image090.jpg" + alt="Egyptian Archer" title="Egyptian Archer" /></a> + Egyptian Archer with arrow-heads and stone-tipped reed arrow + </div> + + <p><b>Arches, Court of,</b> the chief and most ancient consistory court, + belonging to the archbishopric of Canterbury, for the debating of + spiritual causes. It is named from the church in London, St. Mary le Bow, + or Bow Church (so called from a fine <i>arched</i> crypt), where it was + formerly held. The jurisdiction of this court extends over the province + of Canterbury. The office of president or dean is now merged in that of + the judge appointed by the Public Worship Regulation Act (1874). The + court now sits in the library of Lambeth Palace.</p> + + <p><b>Archil,</b> or <b>Orchil</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r´kil, or´kil), a red, violet, or purple + colouring matter obtained from various kinds of lichens, the most + important of which are the <i>Roccella tinctoria</i> and the <i>R. + fuciformis</i>, natives of the rocks of the Canary and Cape Verde + Islands, Mozambique and Zanzibar, South America, &c., and popularly + called dyer's-moss. The dye is used for improving the tints of other + dyes, as from its want of permanence it cannot be employed alone; but the + aniline colours have largely superseded it. Cudbear and litmus are of + similar origin.</p> + + <p><b>Archilochus</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-kil´o-kus) <b>of Paros,</b> one of the + earliest Ionian lyric poets, the first Greek poet who composed iambic + verses according to fixed rules. He flourished about 700 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> His iambic poems were renowned for force of + style, liveliness of metaphor, and a powerful but bitter spirit of + satire. In other lyric poems of a graver character he was also considered + as a model. All his works are lost but a few fragments.</p> + + <p><b>Archiman´drite,</b> in the Greek Church, an abbot or abbot-general, + who has the superintendence of many abbots and convents. The title dates + from the fourth century.</p> + + <p><b>Archime´dean Screw,</b> a machine for raising water, said to have + been invented by Archimedes. It is formed by winding a tube spirally + round a cylinder so as to have the form of a screw, or by hollowing out + the cylinder itself into a double or triple-threaded screw and enclosing + it in a water-tight case. When the screw is placed in an inclined + position and the lower end immersed in water, by causing the screw to + revolve, the water may be raised to a limited extent.</p> + + <p><b>Archimedes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-ki-mē´dēz), a celebrated + ancient Greek physicist and geometrician, born at Syracuse, in Sicily, + about 287 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He devoted himself entirely to + science, and enriched mathematics with discoveries of the highest + importance, upon which the moderns have founded their admeasurements of + curvilinear surfaces and solids. Archimedes is the only one among the + ancients who has left us anything satisfactory on the theory of mechanics + and on hydrostatics. He first taught the hydrostatic principle to which + his name is attached, "that a body immersed in a fluid loses as much in + weight as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid", and determined by + means of it that an artist had fraudulently added too much alloy to a + crown which King Hiero had ordered to be made of pure gold. He discovered + the solution of this problem while bathing; and it is said to have caused + him so much joy that he hastened home from the bath undressed, and crying + out, <i>Eurēka! Eurēka!</i> 'I have found it, I have found + it!' Practical mechanics also received a great deal of attention from + Archimedes, who boasted that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point he could + move the world. He is the inventor of the compound pulley, probably of + the endless screw, the Archimedean screw, &c. During the siege of + Syracuse by the Romans he is said to have constructed many wonderful + machines with which he repelled their attacks, and he is stated to have + set on fire their fleet by burning-glasses. At the moment when the <!-- + Page 223 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page223"></a>[223]</span>Romans gained possession of the city by + assault (212 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), tradition relates that + Archimedes was slain while sitting in the market-place contemplating some + mathematical figures which he had drawn in the sand.</p> + + <p><b>Archipel´ago</b>, a term originally applied to the Ægean, the sea + lying between Greece and Asia Minor, then to the numerous islands + situated therein, and subsequently to any cluster of islands. In the + Grecian Archipelago the islands nearest the European coast lie together + almost in a circle, and for this reason are called the <i>Cyclades</i> + (Gr. <i>kyklos</i>, a circle); those nearest the Asiatic, being farther + from one another, the <i>Sporades</i> ('scattered'). (See these articles, + and <i>Negropont</i>, <i>Scio</i>, <i>Samos</i>, <i>Rhodes</i>, + <i>Cyprus</i>, &c.) The Malay, Indian, or Eastern Archipelago, on the + east of Asia, includes Borneo, Sumatra, and other large islands.</p> + + <p><b>Architec´ture</b>, in a general sense, is the art of designing and + constructing houses, bridges, and other buildings for the purposes of + civil life; or, in a more limited but very common sense, that branch of + the fine arts which has for its object the production of edifices not + only convenient for their special purpose, but characterized by unity, + beauty, and often grandeur.—The first habitations of man were such + as nature afforded, or cost little labour to the occupant—caves, + huts, and tents. But as soon as men rose in civilization and formed + settled societies they began to build more commodious and comfortable + habitations. They bestowed more care on the materials, preparing bricks + of clay or earth, which they at first dried in the air, but afterwards + baked by fire; and subsequently they smoothed stones and joined them at + first without, and at a later period with, mortar or cement. After they + had learned to build houses, they erected temples for their gods on a + larger and more splendid scale than their own dwellings. The Egyptians + are the most ancient nation known to us among whom architecture had + attained the character of a fine art. Other ancient peoples among whom it + had made great progress were the Babylonians, whose most celebrated + buildings were temples, palaces, and hanging gardens; the Assyrians, + whose capital, Nineveh, was rich in splendid buildings; the + Phœnicians, whose cities, Sidon, Tyre, &c., were adorned with + equal magnificence; and the Israelites, whose temple was a wonder of + architecture. But comparatively few architectural monuments of these + nations have remained till our day.</p> + + <p>This is not the case with the architecture of Egypt, however, of which + we possess ample remains in the shape of pyramids, temples, sepulchres, + obelisks, &c. Egyptian chronology is far from certain, but the + greatest of the architectural monuments of the country, the pyramids of + Ghizeh, are at least as old as 2800 or 2700 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> The Egyptian temples had walls of great + thickness and sloping on the outside from bottom to top; the roofs were + flat, and composed of blocks of stone reaching from one wall or column to + another. The columns were numerous, close, and very thick, generally + without bases, and exhibiting great variety in the designs of their + capitals. The principle of the arch, though known, was not employed for + architectural purposes. Statues of enormous size, sphinxes carved in + stone, and on the walls sculptures in outline of deities and animals, + with innumerable hieroglyphics, are the decorative objects which belong + to this style.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image091.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image091.jpg" + alt="Egyptian Architecture" title="Egyptian Architecture" /></a> + Egyptian—Restoration of Temple of Luxor + </div> + + <p>The earliest architectural remains of Greece are of unknown antiquity, + and consist of massive walls built of huge blocks of stone. In historic + times the Greeks developed an architecture of noble simplicity and + dignity. The discoveries in Crete and Argolis have shown that Greek + architecture owes much less than was supposed to Egyptian and Chaldæan + architecture. It is considered to have attained its greatest perfection + in the age of Pericles, or about 460-430 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> + The great masters of this period were Phidias, Ictinus, Callicrates, + &c. All the extant buildings are more or less in ruins. The style is + characterized by beauty, harmony, and simplicity in the highest degree. + Distinctive of it are what are called the <i>orders</i> of architecture, + by which term are understood certain modes of proportioning and + decorating the column and its superimposed entablature. The Greeks had + three orders, called respectively the <i>Doric</i>, <i>Ionic</i>, and + <i>Corinthian</i>. (See articles under these names.) Greek buildings were + abundantly adorned with sculptures, and painting was extensively used, + the details of the structures being enriched by different colours or + tints. Lowness of roofs and the absence of arches were distinctive + features of Greek architecture, in which, as in that of Egypt, + horizontality of line is another characteristic mark. The most remarkable + public edifices of the Greeks were temples, of which the most <!-- Page + 224 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page224"></a>[224]</span>famous is + the Parthenon at Athens. Others exist in various parts of Greece as well + as in Sicily, Southern Italy, Asia Minor, &c., where important Greek + communities were early settled. Their theatres were semicircular on one + side and square on the other, the semicircular part being usually + excavated in the side of some convenient hill. This part, the auditorium, + was filled with concentric seats, and might be capable of containing + 20,000 spectators. A number exist in Greece, Sicily, and Asia Minor, and + elsewhere. By the end of the Peloponnesian War (<i>c.</i> 400 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) the best period of Greek architecture was over; + a noble simplicity had given place to excess of ornament. After the death + of Alexander the Great (323 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) the decline + was still more marked.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image092.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image092.jpg" + alt="Byzantine Architecture" title="Byzantine Architecture" /></a> + Byzantine—Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople + </div> + + <p>Among the Romans there was no original development of architecture as + among the Greeks, though they early took the foremost place in the + construction of such works as aqueducts and sewers, the arch being in + early and extensive use among this people. As a fine art, however, Roman + architecture had its origin in copies of the Greek models, all the + Grecian orders being introduced into Rome, and variously modified. Their + number, moreover, was augmented by the addition of two new + orders—the <i>Tuscan</i> and the <i>Composite</i>. The Romans + became acquainted with the architecture of the Greeks soon after 200 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, but it was not till about two centuries + later that the architecture of Rome attained (under Augustus) its + greatest perfection. Among the great works now erected were temples, + aqueducts, amphitheatres, magnificent villas, triumphal arches, + monumental pillars, &c. The <i>amphitheatre</i> differed from the + theatre in being a completely circular or rather elliptical building, + filled on all sides with ascending seats for spectators and leaving only + the central space, called the <i>arena</i>, for the combatants and public + shows. The Coliseum is a stupendous structure of this kind. The + <i>thermæ</i>, or baths, were vast structures in which multitudes of + people could bathe at once. Magnificent tombs were often built by the + wealthy. Remains of private residences are numerous, and the excavations + at Pompeii in particular have thrown great light on the internal + arrangements of the Roman dwelling-house. Almost all the successors of + Augustus embellished Rome more or less, erected splendid palaces and + temples, and adorned, like Hadrian, even the conquered countries with + them. But after the period of Hadrian (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> + 117-138) Roman architecture is considered to have been on the decline. + The refined and noble style of the Greeks was neglected, and there was an + attempt to embellish the beautiful more and more. This decline was all + the more rapid at a later time owing to the disturbed state of the Empire + and the incursions of the barbarians.</p> + + <p>In Constantinople, after its virtual separation from the Western + Empire, arose a style of art and architecture which was practised by the + Greek Church during the whole of the Middle Ages. This is called the + Byzantine style. The church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, built by + Justinian (reigned 527-565), offers the most typical specimen of the + style, of which the fundamental principle was an application of the Roman + arch, the dome being the most striking feature of the building. In the + most typical examples the dome or cupola rests on four pendentives.</p> + + <p>After the dismemberment of the Roman Empire the beautiful works of + ancient architecture were almost entirely destroyed by the Goths, + Vandals, and other barbarians in Italy, Greece, Asia, Spain, and Africa; + or what was spared by them was ruined by the fanaticism of the + Christians. A new style of architecture now arose, two forms of which, + the Lombard and the Norman Romanesque, form important phases of art. The + Lombard prevailed in North Italy and South Germany from the eighth or + ninth to the thirteenth century (though the Lombard rule came to an end + in 774); the Norman Romanesque flourished, especially in Normandy and + England, from the eleventh to the middle of the thirteenth century. The + semicircular arch is the most characteristic feature of this style. With + the Lombard Romanesque were combined Byzantine features, and buildings in + the pure Byzantine style were also erected in Italy, as the church of St. + Mark at Venice.</p> + +<h3>ARCHITECTURE</h3> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"> + <a href="images/image093.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image093.jpg" + alt="Architecture" title="Architecture" /></a> + </div> + <p>The conquests of the Moors introduced a fresh <!-- Page 225 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page225"></a>[225]</span>style of architecture + into Europe after the eighth century—the Moorish or Saracenic. This + style accompanied the spread of Mahommedanism after its rise in Arabia in + the seventh century. The edifices erected by the Moors and Saracens in + Spain, Egypt, and Turkey are distinguished, among other things, by a + peculiar form of the arch, which forms a curve constituting more than + half a circle or ellipse. A peculiar flowery decoration, called + <i>arabesque</i>, is a common ornament of this style, of which the + building called the Alhambra (q.v.) is perhaps the chief glory.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:25%;"> + <a href="images/image094.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image094.jpg" + alt="Norman Romanesque Architecture" title="Norman Romanesque Architecture" /></a> + Norman Romanesque—Galilee Chapel, Durham Cathedral + </div> + + <p>The Germans were unacquainted with architecture until the time of + Charlemagne. He introduced into Germany the Byzantine and Romanesque + styles. Afterwards the Moorish or Arabian style had some influence upon + that of the Western nations, and thus originated the mixed style which + maintained itself till the middle of the thirteenth century. Then began + the modern Gothic style, which grew up in France, England, and Germany. + Its striking characteristics are its pointed arches, its pinnacles and + spires, its large buttresses, clustered pillars, vaulted roofs, profusion + of ornament, and, on the whole, its lofty, bold character. Its most + distinctive feature, as compared with the Greek or the Egyptian style, is + the predominance in it of perpendicular or rising lines, producing forms + that convey the idea of soaring or mounting upwards. Its greatest + capabilities have been best displayed in ecclesiastical edifices. The + Gothic style is divided into four principal epochs: the Early Pointed, or + general style of the thirteenth century; the Decorated, or style of the + fourteenth century; the Perpendicular, practised during the fifteenth and + early part of the sixteenth centuries; and the Tudor, or general style of + the sixteenth century. This style lasted in England up to the seventeenth + century, being gradually displaced by that branch of the Renaissance or + modified revival of ancient Roman architecture which is known as the + <i>Elizabethan style</i>, and which is perhaps more purely an English + style than any other that can be named.</p> + + <p>The rise of the Renaissance style in Italy is the greatest event in + the history of architecture after the introduction of the Gothic style. + The Gothic style had been introduced into the country and extensively + employed, but had never been thoroughly naturalized. The Renaissance is a + revival of the classic style based on the study of the ancient models; + and having practically commenced in Florence about the beginning of the + fifteenth century, it soon spread with great rapidity over Italy and the + greater part of Europe. The most illustrious architects of this early + period of the style were Brunelleschi, who built at Florence the dome of + the cathedral, the Pitti Palace, &c., besides many edifices at Milan, + Pisa, Pesaro, and Mantua; Alberti, who wrote an important work on + architecture, and erected many beautiful churches; Bramante, who began + the building of St. Peter's, Rome, and Michael Angelo, who erected its + magnificent dome. On St. Peter's were also employed Raphael, Peruzzi, and + San Gallo. The noblest building in this style of architecture in Britain + is St. Paul's, London, the work of Sir Christopher Wren.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image095.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image095.jpg" + alt="Italian Gothic Architecture" title="Italian Gothic Architecture" /></a> + Italian Gothic—Doges' Palace, Venice + </div> + + <p>Since the Renaissance period there has been no architectural + development requiring special note. In buildings erected at the present + day some one of the various styles of architecture is employed according + to taste. Modern <!-- Page 226 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page226"></a>[226]</span>dwelling-houses have necessarily a style + of their own as far as stories and apartments and windows and chimneys + can give them one. In general the Grecian style, as handed down by Rome + and modified by the Italian architects of the Renaissance, from its right + angles and straight entablatures, is more convenient, and fits better + with the distribution of our common buildings, than the pointed and + irregular Gothic. But the occasional introduction of the Gothic outline + and the partial employment of its ornaments has undoubtedly an agreeable + effect both in public and private edifices; and we are indebted to it, + among other things, for the spire, a structure exclusively Gothic, which, + though often misplaced, has become an object of general approbation and a + pleasing landmark to cities and villages. The works most characteristic + of the present day are the large bridges, viaducts, &c., in many of + which iron is the sole or most characteristic portion of the + material.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image096.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image096.jpg" + alt="Renaissance Architecture" title="Renaissance Architecture" /></a> + Renaissance—St. Peter's, Rome + </div> + + <p>A few words may be added on the architecture of India and China. + Although many widely-differing styles are to be found in India, the + oldest and only true native style of Indian ecclesiastical architecture + is the Buddhist, the earliest specimens dating from 250 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> Among the chief objects of Buddhist art are + <i>stupas</i> or <i>topes</i>, built in the form of large towers, and + employed as <i>dágobas</i> to contain relics of Buddha or of some noted + saint. Other works of Buddhist art are temples or monasteries excavated + from the solid rock, and supported by pillars of the natural rock left in + their places. Buddhist architecture is found in Ceylon, Tibet, Java, + &c., as well as in India. The most remarkable Hindu or Brahmanical + temples are in Southern India. They are pyramidal in form, rising in a + series of stories. The Saracenic or Mohammedan architecture afterwards + introduced into India is, of course, of foreign origin. The Chinese have + made the <i>tent</i> the elementary feature of their architecture; and of + their style any one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are + depicted upon common chinaware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper + side, as if made of canvas instead of wood. (For further information see + <i>Greek</i>, <i>Roman</i>, <i>Gothic</i>, <i>English</i>, <i>French</i>, + <i>Russian Architecture</i>; and <i>Building</i>, <i>Fine Arts</i>, + <i>Arch</i>, <i>Column</i>, <i>Aqueduct</i>, <i>Corinthian</i>, + <i>Doric</i>, <i>Ionic</i>, <i>Theatre</i>, &c.)—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J. Ruskin, <i>Seven Lamps of + Architecture</i>; E. A. Freeman, <i>History of Architecture</i>; + Viollet-le-Duc, <i>How to build a House</i>; J. T. Micklethwaite, + <i>Modern Parish Churches</i>; H. H. Statham, <i>Architecture for General + Readers</i> and <i>Critical History of Architecture</i>; J. Fergusson, + <i>History of Architecture in all Countries</i>; F. M. Simpson, <i>A + History of Architectural Development</i>; <i>Cyclopedia of + Architecture</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Architrave</b> (är´ki-träv), in architecture, the part of an + entablature which rests immediately on the heads of the columns, being + the lowest of its three principal divisions, the others being the + <i>frieze</i> and the <i>cornice</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Archives</b> (är´kīvz). See <i>Records</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Archivolt</b> (är´ki-volt), in architecture, the ornamental band of + mouldings on the face of an arch and following its contour.</p> + + <p><b>Archons</b> (är´konz), the chief magistrates of ancient Athens, + chosen to superintend civil and religious concerns. They were nine in + number; the first was properly the <i>archōn</i>, or + <i>archōn epōnўmos</i>, by whose name the year was + distinguished in the public records; the second was called + <i>archōn basileus</i>, or king archon, who exercised the functions + of high priest; the third, <i>polemarchos</i>, or general of the forces. + The other six were called <i>thesmothĕtai</i>, or legislators.</p> + + <p><b>Archytas</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-kī´tas), an ancient Greek + mathematician, statesman, and general, who flourished about 400 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and belonged to Tarentum in Southern Italy. The + invention of the analytic method in mathematics is ascribed to him, as + well as the solution of many geometrical and mechanical problems. He + constructed various machines and automata, among the most celebrated of + which was his flying pigeon. He was a Pythagorean in philosophy, and + Plato and Aristotle are said to have been both deeply indebted to him. + Only inconsiderable fragments of his works are extant.</p> + + <p><b>Arcis-sur-Aube</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-sē-su<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-ōb), a small town of France, + department Aube, at which, in 1814, was fought a battle between Napoleon + and the Allies, after which the latter marched to Paris. Pop. 3000.</p> + + <p><b>Arc-light</b>, a certain kind of electric light in which the + illuminating source is the current of electricity passing between two + sticks of carbon <!-- Page 227 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page227"></a>[227]</span>kept a short distance apart, one of them + being in connection with the positive, the other with the negative + terminal of a battery or dynamo.</p> + + <p><b>Arco</b>, a town of Tyrol, near Lake Garda, a favourite winter + resort of invalids. Pop. 3800.</p> + + <p><b>Arcole</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r´ko-la<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a village in North Italy, 15 miles + <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of Verona, celebrated for the battles of + 15th, 16th, and 17th Nov., 1796, fought between the French under + Bonaparte and the Austrians, in which the latter were defeated with great + slaughter.</p> + + <p><b>Arcos´ de la Fronte´ra</b>, a city of Spain, 30 miles <span + class="scac">E.</span> by <span class="scac">N.</span> from Cadiz, on the + Guadalete, here crossed by a stone bridge, on a sandstone rock 570 feet + above the level of the river. On the highest part of the rock stands the + castle of the dukes of Arcos, partly in ruins. The principal manufactures + are leather, hats, and cordage. Pop. 13,980.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´cot</b>, two districts and a town of India, within the + Presidency of Madras.—<i>North Arcot</i> is an inland district with + an area of 7616 sq. miles. The country is partly flat and partly + mountainous, where intersected by the Eastern Gháts. Pop. + 2,200,000.—<i>South Arcot</i> lies on the Bay of Bengal, and has + two seaports, Cuddalor and Porto Novo. Area 5217 sq. miles. Pop. + 2,170,000.—The town <i>Arcot</i> is in North Arcot, on the Palar, + about 70 miles <span class="scac">W.</span> by <span + class="scac">S.</span> of Madras. There is a military cantonment at 3 + miles' distance. The town contains handsome mosques, a nabob's palace in + ruins, and the remains of an extensive fort. Arcot played an important + part in the wars which resulted in the ascendancy of the British in + India. It was taken by Clive, 31st Aug., 1751, and heroically defended by + him against an apparently overwhelming force under Raja Sahib. Pop. + 11,475.</p> + + <p><b>Arctic</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rk´tik), an epithet given to the north + pole from the proximity of the constellation of the Bear, in Greek called + <i>arktos</i>. The <i>Arctic Circle</i> is an imaginary circle on the + globe, parallel to the equator, and 23° 28´ distant from the north pole. + This and its opposite, the <i>Antarctic</i>, are called the two polar + circles.</p> + + <p><b>Arctic Expeditions.</b> See <i>North Polar Expeditions</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arctic Ocean</b>, that part of the water surface of the earth which + surrounds the north pole, and washes the northern shores of Europe, Asia, + and America; its southern boundary roughly coinciding with the Arctic + Circle (lat. 66° 30´ <span class="scac">N.</span>). It encloses many + large islands, and contains large bays and gulfs which deeply indent the + northern shores of the three continents. Its great characteristic is ice, + which is perpetual nearly everywhere.</p> + + <p><b>Arctic Regions</b>, the regions round the north pole, and extending + from the pole on all sides to the Arctic Circle in lat. 66° 30´ <span + class="scac">N.</span> The Arctic or North Polar Circle just touches the + northern headlands of Iceland, cuts off the southern and narrowest + portion of Greenland, crosses Fox's Strait north of Hudson's Bay, whence + it goes over the American continent to Behring's Strait. Thence it runs + to Obdorsk at the mouth of the Obi, then crossing Northern Russia, the + White Sea, and the Scandinavian Peninsula, returns to Iceland. Though + much skill and heroism have been displayed in the exploration of this + portion of the earth, there is still an area round the pole estimated at + 2,500,000 sq. miles, which is a blank to geographers. Many have adopted + the belief in the existence of an open polar sea about the north pole. + But this belief is not supported by any positive evidence. Valuable + minerals, fossils, &c., have been discovered within the Arctic + regions. In the archipelago north of the American continent excellent + coal frequently occurs. The mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland. + Fossil ivory is obtained in islands at the mouth of the Lena. In + Scandinavia, parts of Siberia, and north-west America, the forest region + extends within the Arctic Circle. The most characteristic of the natives + of the Arctic regions are the Esquimaux. The most notable animals are the + white-bear, the musk-ox, the reindeer, and the whalebone whale. + Fur-bearing animals are numerous. The most intense cold ever registered + in those regions was 74° below zero F. The aurora borealis is a brilliant + phenomenon of Arctic nights. See <i>North Polar Expeditions</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arc´tium.</b> See <i>Burdock</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arc´tomys.</b> See <i>Marmot</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arctu´rus</b>, or <b>Alpha Boötis</b>, a fixed star of the first + magnitude in the constellation of Boötes (the Ploughman), is one of the + brightest stars in the northern heavens, yellow in colour. Its light is + believed to be intrinsically at least 140 times as brilliant as the + sun's, and to take over 40 years to reach us. It is notable as having a + comparatively large proper motion.</p> + + <p><b>Ardahan´</b>, a small fortified town about 6400 feet above the sea, + between Kars and Batúm in Armenia. It was captured by the Russians in + 1877, and ceded to them by the Berlin Treaty, 1878. It was handed over to + Turkey by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, but the Turkish troops + evacuated it after the armistice in 1918.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´dea</b>, the genus to which the heron belongs, type of the + family Ardēidæ, which includes also cranes, storks, bitterns, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´debil</b>, or <b>Ardabil</b>, a Persian town, province of + Azerbaijan, near the Karasu, a tributary of the Aras, about 40 miles from + the Caspian, in an elevated and healthy situation; it has mineral springs + and a considerable trade. Pop. 16,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ardèche</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-dāsh), a department in the south + of France (Languedoc), on the west side of the <!-- Page 228 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page228"></a>[228]</span>Rhone, taking its name + from the River Ardèche, which rises within it, and falls into the Rhone + after a course of 46 miles; area, 2144 sq. miles. It is generally of a + mountainous character, and contains the culminating point of the + Cevennes. Silk and wine are produced. Annonay is the principal town, but + Privas is the capital. Pop. (1921), 294,308.</p> + + <p><b>Arden, Forest of</b>, a wood in Warwickshire. Shakespeare is + supposed to have used it as a setting for <i>As You Like It</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ardennes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-den´), an extensive tract of hilly land + stretching over a large portion of the north-east of France and + south-west of Belgium. Anciently the whole tract formed one immense + forest (<i>Arduenna Silva</i> of Cæsar); but large portions are now + occupied by cultivated fields and populous towns.</p> + + <p><b>Ardennes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-den´), a frontier department in the + north-east of France; area, 2027 sq. miles, partly consisting of the + Forest of Ardennes. There are extensive slate-quarries, numerous + ironworks, and important manufactures of cloth, ironware, leather, glass, + earthenware, &c. It was the scene of many battles during the European + War (1914-8). Chief towns, Mézières (the capital), Rocroi, and Sedan. + Pop. 277,791.</p> + + <p><b>Ardnamurchan</b> (-mur´<i>h</i>an) <b>Point</b>, the most westerly + point of the Island of Great Britain, in Argyllshire, having a + lighthouse, 180 feet above sea-level, visible 18 to 20 miles off.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´doch</b>, a parish in south Perthshire, celebrated for its Roman + remains, one, a camp, being the most perfect existing in Scotland.</p> + + <p><b>Ardross´an</b>, a seaport of Scotland, in Ayrshire, on the Firth of + Clyde. It has a large harbour and shipbuilding yards, and is a centre of + steamship services with Arran, Ireland, and Douglas, I.O.M. Pop. (1921), + 7214.</p> + + <p><b>Ards´ley</b>, East and West, an urban district or town of England, + W. Riding of Yorkshire, several miles north-west of Wakefield, with + collieries, iron-mines, ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921), 7058.</p> + + <p><b>Are</b> (är), the unit of the French land measure, equal to 100 sq. + metres, or 1076.44 English sq. feet. A <i>hectare</i> is 100 ares, equal + to 2.47 English acres. The tenth part of an are is called a + <i>déciare</i>, and a hundredth part a <i>centiare</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A´rea</b>, the superficial content of any figure or space, the + quantity of surface it contains in terms of any unit. See + <i>Mensuration</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Are´ca</b>, a genus of lofty palms with pinnated leaves, and a + drupe-like fruit enclosed in a fibrous rind. <i>A. Catĕchu</i> of + the Coromandel and Malabar coasts is the common areca palm which yields + areca or betel-nuts, and also the astringent juice catechu. <i>A. + oleracĕa</i> is the cabbage tree or cabbage palm of the West + Indies. With lime and the leaves of the betel-pepper, the areca-nuts when + green form the celebrated masticatory of the East. They are an important + article in Eastern trade.</p> + + <p><b>Arecibo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-re-thē´bō), a seaport town + on the north coast of the Island of Porto Rico. Pop. 9612.</p> + + <p><b>Areiopagus.</b> See <i>Areopagus</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Are´na</b>, the enclosed space in the central part of the Roman + amphitheatres, in which took place the combats of gladiators or wild + beasts. It was usually covered with sand or saw-dust to prevent the + gladiators from slipping, and to absorb the blood. See + <i>Amphitheatre</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arenaceous Rocks</b> include all sediments in which quartz sand is + the most important constituent. Owing to its resistance to comminution + and to chemical attack, quartz accumulates in sea-beaches while other + mineral matter becomes removed. Hence sands gather near a shore and + ultimately become consolidated by various natural cements into + sandstones, those cemented by silica being styled quartzites. Sand-dunes + in deserts or on coasts are unconsolidated arenaceous rock-masses.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´endal</b> a seaport of Southern Norway, exporting timber, wood + pulp, and iron, and owning numerous ships. It is a well-built place, + having been rebuilt since the great fire of 1868. Wood pulp, paper, and + cotton are manufactured. Pop. 11,000.</p> + + <p><b>Arenenberg Castle</b> (mediæval, <b>Narrenberg</b>), a castle and + estate in the Swiss Canton Thurgau, the possession of Queen Hortense, who + died there in 1837. In 1855 it became the property of the Empress + Eugénie.</p> + + <p><b>Arenga</b>, a term sometimes used as the generic name of the areng + or gomuti palm, which is then botanically designated <i>Arenga + saccharifera</i>. See <i>Gomuti</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arenic´ola.</b> See <i>Lobworm</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Are´olar Tissue</b>, an assemblage of fibres in bundles, pervading + almost every part of the animal structure, and connected with each other + so as to form innumerable small cavities, the whole serving as a means by + which the various organs and parts of organs are connected together. It + is called also <i>Cellular Tissue</i> and <i>Connective Tissue</i>. The + fibres are of two kinds—white fibrous tissue and yellow elastic + fibrous tissue, and interspersed among the bundles or occupying the + cellular cavities are cells and corpuscles of several kinds. It is a + tissue found in large quantities under the skin, covering the muscles, + the blood-vessels, and nerves, and in various parts forming a kind of + protective covering for delicate and important organs. It is because of + its general distribution, and because of its binding various structures + together, that it is called <i>connective</i>.—In botany the term + is sometimes applied to the <i>non</i>-vascular substance, composed + entirely of untransformed cells, which forms the soft substance of + plants. <!-- Page 229 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page229"></a>[229]</span></p> + + <p><b>Areom´eter</b> (from Gr. <i>araios</i>, thin, <i>metron</i>, a + measure), an instrument for measuring the specific gravity of liquids; a + <i>hydrometer</i> (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Areop´agus</b>, the oldest of the Athenian courts of justice, an + assembly having a position more august than an ordinary court, and in its + best days exercising a general supervision over public morals. It + obtained its name from its place of meeting, on the Hill of Ares (Mars), + near the Acropolis or citadel of Athens. Another explanation connects the + word with <i>Aræ</i> (Curses), commonly known as <i>Semnæ</i> (Awful + Goddesses), who were the guardians of the hill. It existed from very + remote times, and the crimes tried before it were wilful murder, + poisoning, robbery, and arson, while it had under its control also + dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the State and in religion. + Its meetings were held in the open air, and its members were selected + from those who had held the office of archon. The tribunal eventually + lost many of its powers, but it continued to exist in name at least as + late as the time of Cicero or later, having had an existence of seven or + eight hundred years.</p> + + <p><b>Arequipa</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rā-kē´pa<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), a city of Peru, + capital of a province of same name, situated in a fertile valley, 7850 + feet above sea-level, at a distance of about 55 miles from the coast and + on the railway which runs from its port Mollendo inland to Puno on Lake + Titicaca. Behind the city rises the volcano of Arequipa, or Peak of Misti + (20,328 feet). The climate is healthy but the locality is liable to + earthquakes, one of which almost completely destroyed the town in 1868, + after which it was rapidly rebuilt. A considerable trade is carried on + through Mollendo, there being a large transit trade with the interior, + and the town carries on various industries, manufacturing cotton and + woollen goods, &c. It was founded in 1540. Pop. 35,000 to + 40,000.—The province has an area of 21,947 sq. miles, and a pop. of + 229,007.</p> + + <p><b>Ares</b> (ā´rēz). See <i>Mars</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arethu´sa</b>, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Nereus and Doris, + a nymph changed by Artĕmis into a fountain in order to free her + from the pursuit of the river-god Alpheus. This fountain was said to + exist in the small Island of Ortygia, near Syracuse, and was fabled to + have a subterranean connection with the River Alpheus in Greece.</p> + + <p><b>Aretino</b> (ä-rā-tē´nö), Guido. See <i>Guido</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aretino</b>, Pietro, Italian poet, born at Arezzo 1492, died at + Venice 1556, the natural son of a nobleman called Luigi Bacci. He early + displayed a talent for satirical poetry, and when still a young man was + banished from Arezzo on account of a sonnet against indulgences. He went + to Perugia, and thence to Rome (1517), where he secured the papal + patronage, but subsequently lost it through writing licentious sonnets. + Through the influence of the Medici family he found an opportunity to + insinuate himself into the favour of Francis I. In 1527 Aretino went to + Venice, where he acquired powerful friends, among them the Bishop of + Vicenza. By his devotional writings he regained the favour of the Roman + Court. He called himself 'the divine', and 'the scourge of princes', but + he was also their abject flatterer, and that solely to obtain money. The + obscenity of some of his writings was such that his name has become + proverbial for licentiousness. Among them are five comedies and a + tragedy.</p> + + <p><b>Arezzo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ret´sō; ancient <b>Arretium</b>), + a city of Central Italy, capital of a province of the same name in + Tuscany, near the confluence of the Chiana with the Arno. It has a noble + cathedral, containing some fine pictures and monuments; remains of an + ancient amphitheatre, &c. It was one of the twelve chief Etruscan + towns, and in later times fought long against the Florentines, to whom it + had finally to succumb. It is the birthplace of Mæcenas, Petrarch, Pietro + Aretino, Redi, and Vasari. Pop. 50,093.—The province of Arezzo + contains 1274 sq. miles, and 292,763 inhabitants (1915).</p> + + <p><b>Ar´gal</b>, <b>Argol</b>, or <b>Tartar</b>, a hard crust formed on + the sides of vessels in which wine has been kept, red or white according + to the colour of the wine. It is an impure bitartrate of potassium.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image097.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image097.jpg" + alt="Argali" title="Argali" /></a> + Argali (<i>Ovis ammon</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Ar´gali</b>, a species of wild sheep (<i>Caprŏvis + Argăli</i> or <i>Ovis ammon</i>) found on the mountains <!-- Page + 230 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page230"></a>[230]</span>of + Siberia, Central Asia, and Kamtchatka. It is 4 feet high at the + shoulders, and proportionately stout in its build, with horns nearly 4 + feet in length measured along the curve, and at their base about 19 + inches in circumference. It lives in small herds. This true argali must + not be confounded with the North-African wild sheep, called the bearded + argali and known as the arni, the Algerian moufflon, and the Barbary + sheep.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´gall</b>, Sir Samuel (1572-1639), one of the early English + adventurers to Virginia. He planned and executed the abduction of + Pocahontas, the daughter of the Indian chief Powhattan, in order to + secure the ransom of English prisoners. He was deputy-governor of + Virginia (1617-9), and was accused of many acts of rapacity and tyranny. + In 1620 he served in an expedition against Algiers, and was knighted by + James I.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´gand Lamp</b>, a lamp named after its inventor, Aimé + <i>Argand</i>, a Swiss chemist and physician (born 1755, died 1803), the + distinctive feature of which is a burner forming a ring or hollow + cylinder covered by a chimney, so that the flame receives a current of + air both on the inside and on the outside.</p> + + <p><b>Argaum</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-ga<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>´u<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>m), a village of India, in Berar, + celebrated for the victory of General Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) over + the Mahrattas under Scindia and the Rajah of Berar, 29th Nov., 1803.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´gelander</b>, Friedrich Wilhelm August, German astronomer, born + in 1799. He added to the knowledge of the progressive motion of the solar + system in space, and published a catalogue of 560 stars having 'proper + motion'. His works include: <i>Atlas des nördlichen gestirnten + Himmels</i> (1857), <i>Neue Uranometrie</i> (1843), &c. He died in + 1875.</p> + + <p><b>Argemone</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-jem´o-nē), a small genus of + ornamental American plants of the poppy order. From the seeds of <i>A. + mexicāna</i> is obtained an oil very useful to painters. The + handsomest species is <i>A. grandiflōra</i>, which has large + flowers of a pure white colour.</p> + + <p><b>Argensola</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-<i>h</i>en-sō´la<span + class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>), Lupercio and + Bartolomé Leonardo de, brothers, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, the former + in 1565, died in 1613; the latter born in 1566, died in 1631. Lupercio + produced tragedies and lyric poems; Bartolomé a number of poems and a + historical work, <i>The Conquest of the Moluccas</i>. Their writings are + singularly alike in character, and are reckoned among the Spanish + classics. The tragedies are of the heavy Senecan type, but the satirical + writings of both brothers are full of pungent wit of a pleasing kind.</p> + + <p><b>Argenson</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-zha<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-sōn<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), Marc Pierre de Voyer, Comte d', + celebrated French statesman, born in 1696, died 1764. After holding a + number of subordinate offices he became minister for foreign affairs, and + succeeded in bringing about the Congress of Breda, which was the prelude + to that of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was present at the battle of Fontenoy, and + was exiled to his estate for some years through the machinations of + Madame Pompadour. His <i>Considérations sur le Gouvernement de la + France</i> was a very advanced study on the possibility of combining with + a monarchic form of government democratic principles and local + self-government. <i>Les Essais, ou Loisirs d'un Ministre d'État</i>, + published in 1785, is a collection of characters and anecdotes in the + style of Montaigne.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´gent</b>, in coats of arms, the heraldic term expressing silver: + represented in engraving by a plain white surface.</p> + + <p><b>Argentan</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-zha<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-tän<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), a French town, department of Orne + (Normandy), with an old castle and some manufactures. Pop. 6300.</p> + + <p><b>Argenteuil</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-zha<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-teu-yė), a town in France, + department Seine-et-Oise, 7 miles below Paris; it has an active trade in + wine, fruit, and vegetables. Pop. 24,282.</p> + + <p><b>Argentie´ra</b>, or <b>Kimōli</b> (ancient, + <b>Cimōlus</b>), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the + Cyclades, about 18 miles in circumference, rocky and sterile. It produces + a detergent chalk called <i>Cimolian earth</i> (q.v.), used in washing + and bleaching. Pop. 1337.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´gentine</b>, a silvery-white slaty variety of calc-spar, + containing a little silica with laminæ usually undulated. It is found in + primitive rocks and frequently in metallic veins.—Argentine is also + the name of a small British fish (<i>Scopĕlus boreālis</i>) + less than 2 inches long and of a silvery colour.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´gentine Republic</b>, formerly called the United Provinces of + <b>La Plata</b>, a vast country of South America, the extreme length of + which is 2300 miles, and the average breadth a little over 500 miles, the + total area 1,153,119 sq. miles. It consists of fourteen provinces, ten + territories, and one federal district. It is bounded on the <span + class="scac">N.</span> by Bolivia; on the <span class="scac">E.</span> by + Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; on the <span + class="scac">S.</span> by the Antarctic Ocean; and on the <span + class="scac">W.</span> by the Andes. It comprises four great natural + divisions: (1) the Andine region, containing the provinces of Mendoza, + San Juan, Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy; (2) the Pampas, + containing the provinces of Santiago, Santa Fé, Cordova, San Luis, and + Buenos Ayres, with the territories Formosa, Pampa, and Chaco; (3) the + Argentine 'mesopotamia', between the Rivers Paraná and Uruguay, + containing the provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and the territory + Misiones; (4) Patagonia, including the eastern half of Tierra del Fuego. + With the exception of the <span class="scac">N.W.</span>, where lateral + branches of the Andes run into the <!-- Page 231 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page231"></a>[231]</span>plain for 150 or 200 + miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which is hilly, the characteristic + feature of the country is the great monotonous and level plains called + 'pampas'. In the north these plains are partly forest-covered, but all + the central and southern parts present vast treeless tracts, which afford + pasture to immense herds of horses, oxen, and sheep, and are varied in + some places by brackish swamps, in others by salt steppes. The great + water-course of the country is the Paraná, having a length of fully 2000 + miles from its source in the mountains of Goyaz, Brazil, to its junction + with the Uruguay, where begins the estuary of La Plata. The Paraná is + formed by the union of the Upper Paraná and Paraguay Rivers, near the + <span class="scac">N.E.</span> corner of the State. Important tributaries + are the Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado. The Paraná, Paraguay, and + Uruguay are valuable for internal navigation. Many of the streams which + tend eastward terminate in marshes and salt lakes, some of which are + rather extensive. Not connected with the La Plata system are the Colorado + and the Rio Negro, the latter formerly the southern boundary of the + State, separating it from Patagonia. The source of the Negro is Lake + Nahuel Huapi, in Patagonia (area, 1200 sq. miles), in the midst of + magnificent scenery. The level portions of the country are mostly of + tertiary formation, and the river and coast regions consist mainly of + alluvial soil of great fertility. In the pampas clay have been found the + fossil remains of extinct mammalia, some of them of colossal size.</p> + + <p>European grains and fruits, including the vine, have been successfully + introduced, and large areas are now under wheat, maize, flax, and other + crops, another source of wealth consisting in the countless herds of + cattle and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the pampas, + and which multiply there very rapidly. Gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, + lead, and iron, besides marble, jasper, precious stones, and bitumen, are + found in the mountainous districts of the <span class="scac">N.W.</span>, + while petroleum wells have been discovered on the Rio Vermejo; but the + development of this mineral wealth has hitherto been greatly retarded by + the want of proper means of transport. As a whole there are not extensive + forests in the State except in the region of the Gran Chaco (which + extends also into Bolivia), where there is known to be 60,000 sq. miles + of timber. Thousands of square miles are covered with thistles, which + grow to a great height in their season. Cacti also forms great thickets. + Peach and apple trees are abundant in some districts. The native fauna + includes the puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the llama, the alpaca, the + vicuña, armadillos, the rhea or nandu, a species of ostrich, &c. The + climate is agreeable and healthy, 97° being about the highest temperature + experienced. The rainfall is very scanty in some districts, and is + nowhere very large.</p> + + <p>As a whole this vast country is very thinly inhabited, some parts of + it as yet being very little known. The native Indians were never very + numerous, and have given little trouble to the European settlers. Tribes + of them yet in the savage state still inhabit the less-known districts, + and live by hunting and fishing. Some of the Gran Chaco tribes are said + to be very fierce, and European travellers have been killed by them. The + European element is strong in the republic, more than half the population + being Europeans or of pure European descent. Large numbers of immigrants + arrive from Southern Europe, the Italians having the preponderance among + those of foreign birth. The typical inhabitants of the pampas are the + <i>Gauchos</i>, a race of half-breed cattle-rearers and horse-breakers; + they are almost continually on horseback, galloping over the plains, + collecting their herds and droves, taming wild horses, or catching and + slaughtering cattle. In such occupations they require a marvellous + dexterity in the use of the lasso and bolas.</p> + + <p>The River La Plata was discovered in 1512 by the Spanish navigator + Juan Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata territory had been brought into the + possession of Spain by the end of the sixteenth century. In 1810 the + territory cast off the Spanish rule, and in 1816 the independence of the + United States of the Rio de la Plata was formerly declared, but it was + long before a settled government was established. The present + constitution dates from 1853, being modified in 1866 and 1898. The + executive power is vested in a president—elected by the + representatives of the fourteen provinces for a term of six years. A + national congress of two chambers—a Senate and a House of + Deputies—wields the legislative authority, and the republic is + making rapid advances in social and political life. The national revenue + for 1918 amounted to about £32,860,306, while the expenditure amounted to + £34,407,074; the public debt was, at the end of 1916, about £120,000,000. + There are about 22,000 miles of railway opened. The external commerce is + important, the chief exports being beef and mutton, wheat, maize, and + linseed, wool, skins and hides, tallow. The imports are chiefly + manufactured goods. The trade is largely with Britain and France, and is + increasing rapidly, the exports having advanced from £9,000,000 in 1876 + and £73,200,000 in 1908 to £201,360,000 in 1920. The imports in 1920 were + £170,820,000. The chief denomination of money is the dollar or + <i>peso</i>, value (in gold) 4<i>s.</i> Buenos Ayres (or Aires) is the + capital. Other towns are Rosario, Cordova, La Plata, Tucuman, Mendoza, + and <!-- Page 232 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page232"></a>[232]</span>Santa-Fé. The population of the republic, + which is rapidly increasing by immigration, was, in 1905, 5,678,197, and + 8,284,266 in 1918; of the capital, 1,637,155 (1918).—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C. E. Akers, <i>History of South America, + 1854 to 1904</i>; W. H. Hudson, <i>The Naturalist in La Plata</i>; Keane + and Markham, <i>Central and South America</i> (in Stanford's + <i>Compendium of Geography and Travel</i>); Martinez and Lewandowski, + <i>Argentine in the Twentieth Century</i>; Sir John Foster Fraser, <i>The + Amazing Argentine</i>; H. Stephens, <i>Illustrated Descriptive + Argentina</i>; <i>The Argentine Year Book</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´gentite</b>, sulphide of silver, a blackish or lead-grey + mineral, a valuable ore of silver found in the crystalline rocks of many + countries.</p> + + <p><b>Argentometer.</b> See <i>Hydrometer</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Argillaceous Rocks</b> are rocks in which clay prevails (including + shales and slates).</p> + + <p><b>Argives</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r´jīvz), or <b>Argivi</b>, the + inhabitants of Argos; used by Homer and other ancient authors as a + generic appellation for all the Greeks.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´go.</b> See <i>Argonauts</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Argol.</b> See <i>Argal</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Argolis.</b> See <i>Argos</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Argon</b>, a gas which is fairly widely distributed in the free + state and is a constant constituent of the atmosphere, of which it forms + about 1 per cent by volume. It was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and + Professor Ramsay in 1894. During their determinations of the density of + nitrogen they noticed that the density of nitrogen derived from the air + differed from the density of nitrogen derived from ammonia and other + compounds of nitrogen, and after a series of very careful experiments + they succeeded in isolating a new gas, which they named Argon. The gas + occurs in sea and river water, in plants, in the blood of animals, and + the gases issuing from volcanoes and mineral springs. It is always in the + free state and never in combination, and is associated with nitrogen. It + is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, and may be liquefied and + solidified. It is heavier than air, and is chemically a very inert + substance. It is usually referred to as one of the <i>rare</i> gases of + the atmosphere. Argon is manufactured in fairly large quantity from air, + making use of the inertness of the substance compared to oxygen and + nitrogen, the chief constituents of the air. Several methods are in use, + e.g. nitrogen may be removed by passing it repeatedly over red-hot + magnesium; thus the nitrogen is absorbed and the argon left. When oxygen + and nitrogen of air are absorbed by a mixture of 90 per cent calcium + carbide and 10 per cent calcium chloride previously heated to redness + <i>in vacuo</i>, a gas becoming richer and richer in argon is obtained. + Another method of preparing argon is by fractionation of liquid air. It + is used for filling electric bulbs.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:29%;"> + <a href="images/image098.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image098.jpg" + alt="Argonaut" title="Argonaut" /></a> + Argonaut—Female + </div> + + <p><b>Ar´gonaut</b>, a molluscous animal of the genus Argonauta, + belonging to the dibranchiate or two-gilled cuttle-fishes, distinguished + by the females possessing a single-chambered external shell, not + organically connected with the body of the animal. The males have no + shell and are of much smaller size than the females. The shell is + fragile, translucent, and boat-like in shape; it serves as the receptacle + of the ova or eggs of the female, which sits in it with the respiratory + tube or 'funnel' turned towards the carina or 'keel'. This famed mollusc + swims only by ejecting water from its funnel, and it can crawl in a + reversed position, carrying its shell over its back like a snail. The + account of its floating on the surface of the sea, with its sail-shaped + arms extended to catch the breeze, and with the six other arms as oars, + is a mere fable. The argonaut, or <i>paper-nautilus</i>, must be + carefully distinguished from the <i>pearly-nautilus</i> or nautilus + proper (<i>Nautilus Pompilius</i>).</p> + + <p><b>Argonauts</b>, in the legendary history of Greece, those heroes who + performed a hazardous voyage to Colchis, a far-distant country at the + eastern extremity of the Euxine (Black Sea), with Jason in the ship + <i>Argo</i>, for the purpose of securing a golden fleece, which was + preserved suspended upon a tree, and under the guardianship of a + sleepless dragon. By the aid of Medea, daughter of the King of Colchis, + Jason was enabled to seize the fleece, and, after many strange + adventures, to reach his home at Iolcos in Thessaly. Among the Argonauts + were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus and Theseus.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: A. R. Hope Moncrieff, <i>Classic Myth and + Legend</i>; Kingsley, <i>The Heroes</i>; N. Hawthorne, <i>The + Wonder-book</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Argo-Navis</b>, the southern constellation of the Ship, is almost + entirely invisible in Britain. It contains Canopus, next to Sirius the + brightest <!-- Page 233 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page233"></a>[233]</span>fixed star. In the great nebula in Argo is + situated the remarkable star Eta Argûs. It is variable, generally faint, + but in 1837 it became temporarily one of the brightest stars in the + sky.</p> + + <p><b>Argonne</b>, a district of France, between the Rivers Meuse, Marne, + and Aisne, celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez against the Prussians + in 1792, and for the military movements and actions which took place + therein previous to the battle of Sedan, in 1870.</p> + + <p><b>Argonne, Battle of.</b> When, in the autumn of 1914, the Allies + retreated towards the Marne, the German Crown Prince's army endeavoured + to invest Verdun. His right wing advanced through the thick and extensive + forest of Argonne, but took precipitate flight after the battle of the + Marne before the army of General Sarrail. In the summer of 1915 the Crown + Prince endeavoured to hack his way through the French Argonne lines, + using much heavy artillery, poison-gas, liquid-fire, and tear-shells. A + final effort to break through was made in September, between Le Four de + Paris and Vienne-le-Château, but, after gaining a footing in the first + line of French trenches, the Germans were hurled back by a dashing + counter-attack. The great salient from the Argonne to St. Mihiel was the + salvation of Verdun.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´gos</b>, a town of Greece, in the north-east of the + Peloponnesus, between the Gulfs of Ægina and Nauplia or Argos. This town + and the surrounding territory of Argolis were famous from the legendary + period of Greek history onwards. Here, besides Argos, was Mycenæ, where + Agamemnon ruled. Modern Argos is a straggling place of 10,000 + inhabitants, with some ancient remains. The territory Argolis forms a + nomarchy of Greece. Pop., Argolis and Corinthia, 153,172. The capital is + Nauplia.</p> + + <p><b>Argos´toli</b>, a city of the Ionian Islands, capital of + Cephalonia, and the residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. 14,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´gosy</b>, a poetical name for a large merchant-vessel; derived + from <i>Ragusa</i>, a port which was formerly more celebrated than now, + and whose vessels did a considerable trade with England. It is popularly + but erroneously connected with the ship <i>Argo</i> in which Jason + sailed. See <i>Argonauts</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Argot</b> (Fr.; a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-gō), the jargon, slang, or + peculiar phraseology of a class or profession; originally the + conventional slang of thieves and vagabonds, invented for the purpose of + disguise and concealment. Some of François Villon's poems are written in + argot.—Cf. W. von Knoblauch, <i>Dictionary of Argot</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arguim</b>, or <b>Arguin</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-gwim´, a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-gwin´), a small island on the west + coast of Africa, not far from Cape Blanco, formerly a centre of trade. + Its possession was violently disputed between the Portuguese, Dutch, + English, and French.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´gument</b>, a term sometimes used as synonymous with the + <i>subject</i> of a discourse, but more frequently appropriated to any + kind of method employed for the purpose of confuting or at least + silencing an opponent. Logicians have reduced arguments to a number of + distinct heads, such as the <i>argumentum ad judicium</i>, which founds + on solid proofs and addresses to the judgment; the <i>argumentum ad + verecundiam</i>, which appeals to the modesty or bashfulness of an + opponent by reminding him of the great names or authorities by whom the + view disputed by him is supported; the <i>argumentum ad ignorantiam</i>, + the employment of some logical fallacy towards persons likely to be + deceived by it; and the <i>argumentum ad hominem</i>, an argument which + presses a man with consequences drawn from his own principles and + concessions, or his own conduct. See <i>Fallacy</i>, <i>Logic</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Argument of the People</b>, the document set forth by the Council + of the Army on 15th Jan., 1649, fifteen days before the execution of King + Charles I. See <i>Levellers</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´gus</b>, in Greek mythology, a fabulous being, said to have had + a hundred eyes, placed by Juno to guard Io. Hence 'argus-eyed', applied + to one who is exceedingly watchful.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image099.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image099.jpg" + alt="Argus-pheasant" title="Argus-pheasant" /></a> + Argus-pheasant (<i>Argus gigantēus</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Argus-pheasant</b> (<i>Argus gigantēus</i>), a large, <!-- + Page 234 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page234"></a>[234]</span>beautiful, and very singular species of + pheasant, found native in the south-east of Asia, more especially in + Sumatra and some of the other islands. The males measure from 5 to 6 feet + from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail, which has two + greatly-elongated central feathers. The plumage is exceedingly beautiful, + the secondary quills of the wings, which are longer than the primary + feathers, being each adorned with a series of ocellated or eye-like spots + (whence the name—see <i>Argus</i>) of brilliant metallic hues. The + general body plumage is brown.</p> + + <p><b>Argyll</b>, or <b>Argyle</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-gīl´), an extensive county in the + south-west of the Highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland + and partly of islands belonging to the Hebrides group, the chief of which + are Islay, Mull, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Luing, Lismore, and Colonsay, with + Iona and Staffa. On the land side the mainland is bounded north by + Inverness; east by Perth and Dumbarton; elsewhere surrounded by the Firth + of Clyde and its connections and the sea; area, 3255 sq. miles (or over + 2,000,000 acres), of which the islands comprise about 1000 sq. miles. It + is greatly indented by arms of the sea, which penetrate far inland, the + most important of these being Loch Sunart, Loch Linnhe (the extremities + of which are Loch Eil and Loch Leven), Loch Etive, Loch Fyne, Loch + Tarbert, Loch Riddon, Loch Striven, and Loch Long. The mainland is + divided into six districts of Northern Argyle, Lorn, Argyle, Cowal, + Knapdale, and Kintyre; the two first being subdivided into the + sub-districts of Lochiel, Ardgour, Sunart, Ardnamurchan, Morven, and + Appin. The county is exceedingly mountainous, the chief summits being + Bidean-nam-Bian (3766 feet), Ben Laoigh (3708 feet), Ben Cruachan (3611 + feet), Benmore, in Mull (3185 feet), the Paps of Jura (2565 feet), and + Ben Arthur or the Cobbler (2891 feet). There are several lakes, the + principal of which is Loch Awe. Cattle and sheep are reared in numbers, + and fishing is largely carried on, as is also the making of whisky. There + is but little arable land. The chief minerals are slate, marble, + limestone, and granite. County town, Inveraray; others, Campbeltown, + Oban, and Dunoon. Pop. (1921), 76,856.</p> + + <p><b>Argyll, Campbells of</b>, a historic Scottish family, raised to the + peerage in the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more + eminent members are: Archibald, 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of + Flodden, 1513.—Archibald, 5th Earl, attached himself to the party + of Mary of Guise, and was the means of averting a collision between the + Reformers and the French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency + after Mary's abdication, but afterwards commanded her troops at the + battle of Langside; died 1575.—Archibald, 8th Earl and 1st + Marquess, born 1598: a zealous partisan of the Covenanters; created a + marquess by Charles I. It was by his persuasion that Charles II visited + Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in 1651. At the Restoration he was + committed to the Tower, and afterwards sent to Scotland, where he was + tried for high treason, and beheaded in 1661.—Archibald, 9th Earl, + son of the preceding, served the king with great bravery at the battle of + Dunbar, and was excluded from the general pardon by Cromwell in 1654. On + the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he refused to take the required oath + except with a reservation. For this he was tried and sentenced to death. + He managed to escape to Holland, from whence he returned with a view of + aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan, however, failed, and he was taken + and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was beheaded in + 1685.—Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding, died + 1703; took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-9, which placed + William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important + appointments and the title of duke.—John, 2nd Duke and Duke of + Greenwich, son of the above, born 1678, died 1743; served under + Marlborough at the battles of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and + assisted at the sieges of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium + in his own country for his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had + the military command in Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an indecisive + battle with the Earl of Mar's army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and + forced the Pretender to quit the kingdom. He was long a supporter of + Walpole, but his political career was full of intrigue. He is the Duke of + Argyll in Scott's <i>Heart of Midlothian</i>.—George Douglas + Campbell, <span class="scac">K.G.</span>, <span class="scac">K.T.</span>, + &c., 8th Duke (of United Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early + took a part in politics, especially in discussions regarding the + Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In 1852 he became Lord Privy Seal under + Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord Palmerston in 1859; + Postmaster-General in 1860; Secretary for India from 1868 to 1874; again + Lord Privy Seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to agree with his + colleagues on their Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wrote <i>The Reign + of Law</i>, <i>Scotland as it Was and as it Is</i>, &c.—John + Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of, son of the 8th Duke and a + daughter of the 2nd Duke of Sutherland, was born in 1845, and succeeded + his father in 1900. He completed his education at Trinity College, + Cambridge, sat in Parliament as member for Argyllshire, 1868-78, was + Governor-General of Canada from 1878 to 1883, and again sat in Parliament + as member for South Manchester from 1895 to 1900, as a Liberal-Unionist. + He married the Princess Louise of Great Britain, fourth daughter of Queen + Victoria, in 1871. <!-- Page 235 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page235"></a>[235]</span>He died in 1914. His works include: <i>The + United States after the War</i>, <i>Imperial Federation</i>, <i>Canadian + Pictures</i>, <i>Memories of Canada and Scotland</i>, <i>Life of Lord + Palmerston</i>, <i>Tales and Poems</i>, <i>The Psalms in English + Verse</i>, <i>Life and Times of Queen Victoria</i>, <i>Yesterday and + To-day in Canada</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders</b> (Princess Louise's), raised + by the 5th Duke of Argyll (1794), received their present title in 1872. + The regiment served under Sir David Baird in Cape Colony, and at + Balaklava made itself immortal as Sir Colin Campbell's 'thin red line'. + It was further distinguished in the European War at Gheluvelt, Le Cateau, + and the second battle of Ypres.</p> + + <p><b>Argyro-Castro</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r´gi-rō-), a town in Albania, 40 + miles north-west of Janina; built on three ridges intersected by deep + ravines, across which are several bridges. It was occupied by the Greeks + in 1916. Pop. about 10,000.</p> + + <p><b>Argyropu´los</b>, Johannes, one of the principal revivers of Greek + learning in the fifteenth century. Born in Constantinople 1415, died at + Rome 1486.</p> + + <p><b>Aria</b>, in music. See <i>Air</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ariadne</b> (a-ri-ad´ne), in Greek mythology, a daughter of Minos, + King of Crete. She gave Theseus a clue of thread to conduct him out of + the labyrinth after his defeat of the Minotaur. Theseus abandoned her on + the Isle of Naxos, where she was found by Dionysus, who married her.</p> + + <p><b>Aria´na</b>, the ancient name of a large district in Asia, forming + a portion of the Persian Empire; bounded on the north by the provinces of + Bactriana, Margiana, and Hyrcania; east by the Indus; south by the Indian + Ocean and the Persian Gulf; west by Media.</p> + + <p><b>Ariano</b> (ä-rē-ä´nō), a town in South Italy, province + of Avellino, 44 miles north-east of Naples, the seat of a bishop, with a + handsome cathedral. Pop. 17,650.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´ians</b>, the adherents of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius, who, + about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 318, promulgated the doctrine that + Christ was a created being inferior to God the Father in nature and + dignity, though the first and noblest of all created beings; and also + that the Holy Spirit is not God, but created by the power of the Son. + Arianism has been defined as an attempt to determine the relations of the + Persons of the Trinity on a basis of distinction and subordination. It + does not seem to have sprung from any strong ethical impulse; its + philosophy was pagan, and the object of the leaders political rather than + religious. The doctrines were condemned by the Council of Nicæa in 325. + Arius died in 336, and after his death his party gained considerable + accessions, including several emperors, and for a time held a strong + position. Since the middle of the seventh century, however, the Arians + have nowhere constituted a distinct sect, although similar opinions have + been advanced by various theologians in modern times. The Arian + controversy was revived in England during the eighteenth century by + William Whiston and Dr. Samuel Clarke.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: H. M. Gwatkin, <i>Studies of + Arianism</i>; J. H. Newman, <i>Arians of the Fourth Century</i>; J. H. + Colligan, <i>Arian Movement in England</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arica</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rē´ka<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a seaport of Chile, 30 miles S. of + Tacna; previous to 1880 it belonged to Peru. It has suffered frequently + from earthquakes, being in 1868 almost entirely destroyed, part of it + being also submerged by an earthquake wave. Pop. about 4000. It has a + wireless station.</p> + + <p><b>Arica</b>. See <i>Tacna-Arica Dispute</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arichat</b> (-shat´), a seaport town and fishing station of Nova + Scotia, on a small bay, south coast of Madame Island. Pop. about + 2500.</p> + + <p><b>Ariège</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rē-āzh), a mountainous + department of France, on the northern slopes of the Pyrenees, comprising + the ancient countship of Foix and parts of Languedoc and Gascony. The + principal rivers are the Ariège, Arize, and Salat, tributaries of the + Garonne. Sheep and cattle are reared; the arable land is small in + quantity. Chief town, Foix. Area, 1892 sq. miles. Pop. (1921), + 172,851.</p> + + <p><b>A´riel</b>, a symbolic name for Jerusalem in the Old Testament; in + the demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's + <i>Tempest</i>, Ariel was the "tricksy spirit" whom Prospero had in his + service.</p> + + <p><b>Aries</b> (ā´ri-ēz; Lat.), the Ram, a northern + constellation. It is the first of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which + the sun enters at the vernal equinox, about the 21st of March. The "First + Point in Aries" is where the equator cuts the ecliptic in the ascending + node, from which point the right ascensions of heavenly bodies are + reckoned on the equator, and their longitudes upon the ecliptic. Owing to + the precession of the equinoxes the sign Aries no longer corresponds with + the constellation Aries, which it did 2000 years ago.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:17%;"> + <a href="images/image100.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image100.jpg" + alt="Aril" title="Aril" /></a> + Aril, Fruit of Nutmeg + </div> + + <p><b>Ar´il</b>, or <b>Aril´lus</b>, in some plants, as in the nutmeg, an + extra covering of the seed, outside of the true seed-coats, proceeding + from the placenta, partially investing the seed, and falling off + spontaneously. It is either succulent or cartilaginous, coloured, + elastic, rough, or knotted. In the nutmeg it is known as <i>mace</i>. + <!-- Page 236 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page236"></a>[236]</span></p> + + <p><b>Arimas´pians</b>, in ancient Greek traditions, a people who lived + in the extreme north-east of the ancient world. They were said to be + one-eyed and to carry on a perpetual war with the gold-guarding griffins, + whose gold they endeavoured to steal. Cf. Milton, <i>Paradise Lost</i>, + II, 943.</p> + + <p><b>Arimathæ´a</b>, a town of Palestine, identified with the modern + <i>Ramleh</i>, 22 miles <span class="scac">W.N.W.</span> of + Jerusalem.</p> + + <p><b>Ari´on</b>, an ancient Greek poet and musician, born at Methymna, + in Lesbos, flourished about 625 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He lived + at the Court of Periander of Corinth, and afterwards visited Sicily and + Italy. Returning from Tarentum to Corinth with rich treasures, the + avaricious sailors resolved to murder him. Apollo, however, having + informed him in a dream of the impending danger, Arion in vain + endeavoured to soften the hearts of the crew by the power of music. He + then threw himself into the sea, when one of a shoal of dolphins, which + had been attracted by his music, received him on his back and bore him to + land. The sailors, having returned to Corinth, were confronted by Arion + and convicted of their crime. The lyre of Arion, and the dolphin which + rescued him, became constellations in the heavens. A fragment of a hymn + to Poseidon, ascribed to Arion, is extant.</p> + + <p><b>Arios´to, Ludovi´co</b>, one of the most celebrated poets of Italy, + was born at Reggio, in Lombardy, 8th Sept., 1474, of a noble family; died + 6th June, 1533. His lyric poems in the Italian and Latin languages, + distinguished for ease and elegance of style, introduced him to the + notice of the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, son of Duke Ercole I of Ferrara. + In 1503 Ippolito employed him in his service and used his counsel in the + most important affairs. In this service he began and finished, in ten or + eleven years, his immortal poem, the <i>Orlando Furioso</i>, which was + published in 1515, and immediately became highly popular. He afterwards + entered the service of Alfonso I, Duke of Ferrara, the cardinal's + brother, a lover of the arts, who put much confidence in him. After + quelling disturbances that had broken out in the wild and mountainous + Garfagnana, he returned to Ferrara, where he employed himself in the + composition of his comedies, and in putting the last touches to his + <i>Orlando</i>. The <i>Orlando Furioso</i> is a continuation of the + <i>Orlando Innamorato</i> of Bojardo, details the chivalrous adventures + of the paladins of the age of Charlemagne, and extends to forty-six + cantos. The best English translation is that of Rose (1823). Cf. E. + Gardner, <i>Ariosto: the Prince of Court Poets</i>; J. S. Nicholson, + <i>Life and Genius of Ariosto</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arish.</b> See <i>El Arish</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aristæus</b>, in Greek mythology, son of Apollo and Cyrene, the + introducer of bee-keeping. Cf. Virgil, <i>Georgics</i>, IV, 315-558.</p> + + <p><b>Aristarchus</b> (a-ris-tär´kus), an ancient Greek grammarian, born + at Samothrace 220 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, died at Cyprus 143 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He edited Homer's poems with the greatest + acuteness and ability, endeavouring to restore the text to its genuine + state, and to clear it of all interpolations and corruptions; hence the + phrase, Aristarchian criticism. His edition of Homer furnished the basis + of all subsequent ones.</p> + + <p><b>Aristarchus</b>, an ancient Greek astronomer belonging to Samos, + flourished about 155 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and first asserted + the revolution of the earth about the sun; also regarded as the inventor + of the sun-dial.</p> + + <p><b>Aris´teas</b>, a personage of ancient Greek legend, represented to + have lived over many centuries, disappearing and reappearing by + turns.</p> + + <p><b>Aristides</b> (a-ris-tī´dēz), a statesman of ancient + Greece, for his strict integrity surnamed the <i>Just</i>. He was one of + the ten generals of the Athenians when they fought with the Persians at + Marathon, 490 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Next year he was eponymous + archon, and in this office enjoyed such popularity that he excited the + jealousy of Themistocles, who succeeded in procuring his banishment by + ostracism (about 483). Three years after, when Xerxes invaded Greece with + a large army, the Athenians hastened to recall him, and Themistocles now + admitted him to his confidence and councils. In the battle of Platæa + (479) he commanded the Athenians, and had a great share in gaining the + victory. To defray the expenses of the Persian war he persuaded the + Greeks to impose a tax, which should be paid into the hands of an officer + appointed by the States collectively, and deposited at Delos. The + confidence which was felt in his integrity appeared in their entrusting + him with the office of apportioning the contribution. He died at an + advanced age about 468 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, so poor that he + was buried at the public expense.</p> + + <p><b>Aristip´pus</b> (c. 425-366 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), a + disciple of Socrates, and founder of a philosophical school among the + Greeks, which was called the <i>Cyrenaic</i>, from his native city + Cyrēnē, in Africa; flourished 380 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> His moral philosophy differed widely from that + of Socrates, and was a science of refined voluptuousness. His fundamental + principles were—that all human sensations may be reduced to two, + pleasure and pain. Pleasure is a gentle, and pain a violent emotion. All + living beings seek the former and avoid the latter. Happiness is nothing + but a continued pleasure, composed of separate gratifications; and as it + is the object of all human exertions, we should abstain from no kind of + pleasure. Still we should always be governed by taste and reason in our + enjoyments. His doctrines were taught only by his daughter + Arĕtē, and by his grandson Aristippus the younger, by whom + they were <!-- Page 237 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page237"></a>[237]</span>systematized. Other Cyrenaics compounded + them into a particular doctrine of pleasure, and are hence called + <i>Hedonici</i>. His writings are lost.</p> + + <p><b>Aristoc´racy</b> (Gr. <i>aristos</i>, best, <i>kratos</i>, rule), a + form of government by which the wealthy and noble, or any small + privileged class, rules over the rest of the citizens. The term has now + become almost entirely social in meaning, and is mostly applied to the + nobility or chief persons in a State.</p> + + <p><b>Aristogeiton</b> (-gī´ton), a citizen of Athens, whose name + is rendered famous by a conspiracy (514 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) + formed in conjunction with his friend Harmodius against the tyrants + Hippias and Hipparchus, the sons of Pisistratus. Both Aristogeiton and + Harmodius lost their lives through their attempts to free the country, + and were reckoned martyrs of liberty.</p> + + <p><b>Aristolochia</b> (-lō´ki-a), a genus of plants, the type of + the ord. Aristolochiaceæ, which consists of dicotyledonous + monochlamydeous plants, with an inferior 3-6-celled fruit, found for the + most part in the hotter parts of the world, and in many cases used + medicinally on account of their tonic and stimulating properties. The + genus has emmenagogic qualities, especially the European species <i>A. + rotunda</i>, <i>A. longa</i>, and <i>A. Clematītis</i>. <i>A. + bracteāta</i> is used in India as an anthelminthic; <i>A. + odoratissima</i>, a West Indian species, is a valuable bitter and + alexipharmic. <i>A. serpentaria</i> is the Virginian snake-root, + popularly regarded as a remedy for snake bites.</p> + + <p><b>Aristophanes</b> (-tof´a-nēz), the greatest comic poet of + ancient Greece, born at Athens probably about the year 455 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, died 375 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Little + is known of his life. He appeared as a poet in 427 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, and having indulged in some sarcasms on the + powerful demagogue Cleon, was ineffectually accused by the latter of + having unlawfully assumed the title of an Athenian citizen. He afterwards + revenged himself on Cleon in his comedy of the <i>Knights</i>, in which + he himself acted the part of Cleon, because no actor had the courage to + do it. Of fifty-four (or forty-four) comedies attributed to him, eleven + only remain; believed to be the flower of the ancient comedy, and + distinguished by wit, humour, and poetry, as also by grossness. In them + there is constant reference to the manners, actions, and public + characters of the day, the freedom of the old Greek comedy allowing an + unbounded degree of personal and political satire. The names of his + extant plays are <i>Acharnians</i>, <i>Knights</i>, <i>Clouds</i>, + <i>Wasps</i>, <i>Peace</i>, <i>Birds</i>, <i>Lysistrata</i>, + <i>Thesmophoriazusæ</i>, <i>Frogs</i>, <i>Ecclesiasuzæ</i>, and + <i>Plutus</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: B. B. Rogers, + <i>Complete Works of Aristophanes, with verse translation</i> (by far the + best translation); Hookham-Frere, <i>Translation</i> (five plays only); + Couat, <i>Aristophane et l'ancienne comédie attique</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´istotle</b> (Gr. <i>Aristot´eles</i>), a distinguished + philosopher and naturalist of ancient Greece, the founder of the + Peripatetic school of philosophy, was born in 384 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> at Stagira, in Macedonia; died at Chalcis, 322 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span> His father, Nicomachus, was physician to + Amyntas II, King of Macedonia, and claimed to be descended from + Æsculapius. Aristotle had lost his parents before he came, at about the + age of seventeen, to Athens to study in the school of Plato. With that + philosopher he remained for twenty years, became pre-eminent among his + pupils, and was known as the 'Intellect of the School'. Upon the death of + Plato, 348 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, he took up his residence at + Atarneus, in Mysia, on the invitation of his former pupil Hermeias, the + ruler of that city, on whose assassination by the Persians, 343 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, he fled to Mitylene with his wife Pythias, a + near relative of Hermeias. During his residence at Mitylene he received + an invitation from Philip of Macedon to superintend the education of his + son Alexander, then in his fourteenth year. This relationship between the + great philosopher and the future conqueror continued for five or six + years, during which the prince was instructed in grammar, rhetoric, + poetry, logic, ethics, and politics, and in those branches of physics + which had even then made some considerable progress. On Alexander + succeeding to the throne Aristotle continued to live with him as his + friend and councillor till he set out on his Asiatic campaign (334 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>). He returned to Athens and established his + school in the Lyceum, a gymnasium attached to the temple of Apollo + Lyceius, which was assigned to him by the State. He delivered his + lectures in the wooded walks of the Lyceum while walking up and down with + his pupils. From the action itself, or more probably from the name of the + walks (<i>peripatoi</i>), his school was called Peripatetic. Pupils + gathered to him from all parts of Greece, and his school became by far + the most popular in Athens. The statement that he had two circles of + pupils, the <i>exoteric</i> and the <i>esoteric</i> has given rise to + much controversy. By some it has been held that Aristotle published + during his lifetime popular discourses with a view to make way for his + doctrines in Athenian society, then impregnated with Platonic theories, + and that these are called exoteric in contradistinction to those in which + are embodied his matured opinions. It was during the time of his teaching + at Athens that Aristotle is believed to have composed the great bulk of + his works. But it is not possible to speak with any certainty about the + chronology of his writings, as the references may be additions of + editors. On the death of Alexander a revolution occurred in Athens + hostile to the Macedonian interests with which Aristotle was identified. + He therefore retired to Chalcis, where he soon after died. Sir <!-- Page + 238 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page238"></a>[238]</span>Charles + Walston, in 1891, opened a tomb near Eretria which he supposed to be that + of Aristotle. According to Strabo he bequeathed all his works to + Theophrastus, who, with other disciples of Aristotle, amended and + continued them. They afterwards passed through various hands, till, about + 50 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, Andronicus of Rhodes put the various + fragments together and classified them according to a systematic + arrangement. Many of the books bearing his name are spurious, others are + of doubtful genuineness. The whole are generally divided into logical, + theoretical, and practical. The logical works are comprehended under the + title <i>Organon</i> (Instrument). The theoretical are divided into + physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The physical works (including + those on natural history) are on the <i>General Principles of Physical + Science</i>, <i>The Heavens</i>, <i>Generation and Destruction</i>, + <i>Meteorology</i>, <i>Natural History of Animals</i>, <i>On the Parts of + Animals</i>, <i>On the Generation of Animals</i>, <i>On the Locomotion of + Animals</i>, <i>On the Soul</i>, <i>On Memory</i>, <i>Sleep and + Waking</i>, <i>Dreams</i>, <i>Divination</i>. In mathematics there are + two treatises, <i>On Indivisible Lines</i> and <i>Mechanical + Problems</i>. <i>The Metaphysics</i> consist of fourteen books; the title + (<i>Ta meta ta Physika</i>, 'the things following the Physics',) is the + invention of an editor. The practical works embrace ethics, politics, + economics, and treatises on art, and comprise the <i>Nicomachæan + Ethics</i> (so called because dedicated to his son, Nicomachus), <i>The + Politics</i>, <i>Œconomics</i>, <i>Poetry</i>, and <i>Rhetoric</i>. + Among the lost works are the dialogues and others termed exoteric. A + treatise <i>On the Constitution of Athens</i> was discovered in 1891. His + style is devoid of grace and elegance. His works were first printed in a + Latin translation, with the commentaries of Averroes, at Venice in 1489; + the first Greek edition was that of Aldus Manutius (5 vols., 1495-8). See + <i>Peripatetic Philosophy</i>.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Blakesley, <i>Life of Aristotle</i>; + S. H. Butcher, <i>Poetics</i> (with translation and excursus); R. Shute, + <i>History of the Aristotelian Writings</i>; J. C. Wilson, + <i>Aristotelian Studies</i>; E. Zeller, <i>Aristotle and the Earlier + Peripatetics</i>; E. Barker, <i>Political Thought of Plato and + Aristotle</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aristox´enus,</b> an ancient Greek musician and philosopher of + Tarentum, born about 324 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He studied music + under his father Mnesias, and philosophy under Aristotle, whose successor + he aspired to be. He endeavoured to apply his musical knowledge to + philosophy, and especially to the science of mind, but it only appears to + have furnished him with far-fetched analogies and led him into a kind of + materialism. We have a work on the <i>Elements of Harmony</i> by him.</p> + + <p><b>Arith´metic</b> (Gr. <i>arithmos</i>, number) is primarily the + science of numbers. As opposed to algebra it is the practical part of the + science. Although the processes of arithmetical operations are often + highly complicated, they all resolve themselves into the repetition of + four primary operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and + division. Of these the two latter are only complex forms of the two + former, and subtraction again is merely a reversal of the process of + addition. Little or nothing is known as to the origin and invention of + arithmetic. Some elementary conception of it is in all probability coeval + with the first dawn of human intelligence. In consequence of their rude + methods of numeration, the science made but small advance among the + ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and it was not until the + introduction of the decimal scale of notation and the Arabic, or rather + Indian, numerals into Europe that any great progress can be traced. In + this scale of notation every number is expressed by means of the ten + digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, by giving each digit a local as + well as its proper or natural value. The value of every digit increases + in a tenfold proportion from the right towards the left; the distance of + any figure from the right indicating the power of 10, and the digit + itself the number of those powers intended to be expressed: thus 3464 = + 3000 + 400 + 60 + 4 = 3 × 10<sup>3</sup> + 4 × 10<sup>2</sup> + 6 × 10 + + 4. The earliest arithmetical signs appear to have been hieroglyphical, + but the Egyptian hieroglyphics were too diffuse to be of any arithmetical + value. The units were successive strokes to the number required, the ten + an open circle, the hundred a curled palm-leaf, the thousand a lotus + flower, ten thousand a bent finger. The letters of the alphabet afforded + a convenient mode of representing figures, and were used accordingly by + the Chaldeans, Hebrews, and Greeks. The first nine letters of the Hebrew + alphabet represented the units, the second nine tens, the remaining four + together with five repeated with additional marks, hundreds; the same + succession of letters with added points was repeated for thousands, tens + of thousands, and hundreds of thousands. The Greeks followed the same + system up to tens of thousands. They wrote the different classes of + numbers in succession as we do, and they transferred operations performed + on units to numbers in higher places; but the use of different signs for + the different ranks clearly shows a want of full perception of the value + of place as such. They adopted the letter M as a sign for 10,000 and by + combining this mark with their other numerals they could note numbers as + high as 100,000,000. The Roman numerals, which are still used in marking + dates or numbering chapters, were almost useless for purposes of + computation. From one to four were represented by vertical strokes <a + href="images/arith1.png"><img src="images/arith1.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="I" /></a>, <a href="images/arith2.png"><img + src="images/arith2.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="II" + /></a>, <a href="images/arith3.png"><img src="images/arith3.png" + class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="III" /></a>, <a + href="images/arith4.png"><img src="images/arith4.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="IIII" /></a>, five by <a + href="images/arith5.png"><img src="images/arith5.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="V" /></a>, ten by <a + href="images/arith6.png"><img src="images/arith6.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="X" /></a>, fifty by <a + href="images/arith7.png"><img src="images/arith7.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="L" /></a>, one hundred by <a + href="images/arith8.png"><img src="images/arith8.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="square C" /></a>, afterwards <a + href="images/arith9.png"><img src="images/arith9.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="C" /></a>, five hundred by <a + href="images/arith10.png"><img src="images/arith10.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="D" /></a>, a thousand <!-- Page 239 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page239"></a>[239]</span>by <a + href="images/arith11.png"><img src="images/arith11.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="M" /></a>. These signs were derived from each + other according to particular rules, thus <a + href="images/arith5.png"><img src="images/arith5.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="V" /></a> was the half of <a + href="images/arith6.png"><img src="images/arith6.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="X" /></a>, <a href="images/arith12.png"><img + src="images/arith12.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="inverted + V" /></a> being also used; <a href="images/arith7.png"><img + src="images/arith7.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="L" /></a> + was likewise the half of <a href="images/arith9.png"><img + src="images/arith9.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="C" /></a>. + <a href="images/arith11.png"><img src="images/arith11.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="M" /></a> was artistically written <a + href="images/arith11.png"><img src="images/arith11.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="M" /></a> and <a href="images/arith13.png"><img + src="images/arith13.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="cIc*" + /></a> and <a href="images/arith14.png"><img src="images/arith14.png" + class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="Ic*" /></a>, afterwards <a + href="images/arith10.png"><img src="images/arith10.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="D" /></a>, became five hundred. <a + href="images/arith15.png"><img src="images/arith15.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="ccI" /></a> represented 5000, <a + href="images/arith16.png"><img src="images/arith16.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="ccIc*c*" /></a> 10,000, <a + href="images/arith17.png"><img src="images/arith17.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="Ic*c*c*" /></a> 50,000, <a + href="images/arith18.png"><img src="images/arith18.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="cccIc*c*c*" /></a> 100,000. They were also + compounded by addition and subtraction, thus <a + href="images/arith19.png"><img src="images/arith19.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="IV" /></a> stood for four, <a + href="images/arith20.png"><img src="images/arith20.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="VI" /></a> for six, <a + href="images/arith21.png"><img src="images/arith21.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="XXX" /></a> for thirty, <a + href="images/arith22.png"><img src="images/arith22.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="XL" /></a> for forty, <a + href="images/arith23.png"><img src="images/arith23.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="LX" /></a> for sixty. Arithmetic is divided into + <i>abstract</i> and <i>practical</i>: the former comprehends notation, + numeration, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, measures and + multiples, fractions, powers and roots; the latter treats of the + combinations and practical applications of these and the so-called rules, + such as reduction, compound addition, subtraction, multiplication, and + division, proportion, interest, profit and loss, &c. Another division + is <i>integral</i> and <i>fractional</i> arithmetic, the former treating + of integers, or whole numbers, and the latter of fractions. Decimal + fractions were invented in the sixteenth century, and logarithms, + embodying the last great advance in the science, in the seventeenth + century.</p> + + <p><b>Arithmet´ical</b>, pertaining to arithmetic or its + operations.—<i>Arithmetical mean</i>, the middle term of three + quantities in arithmetical progression, or half the sum of any two + proposed numbers; thus 11 is the arithmetical mean to 8 and + 14.—<i>Arithmetical progression</i>, a series of numbers increasing + or decreasing by a common difference, as 1, 3, 5, 7, + &c.—<i>Arithmetical signs</i>, certain symbols used in + arithmetic, and indicating processes or facts. The common signs used in + arithmetic are the following: <a href="images/sig_plus.png"><img + src="images/sig_plus.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="plus + sign" /></a> signifying that the numbers between which it is placed are + to be added; <a href="images/sig_minus.png"><img + src="images/sig_minus.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="minus + sign" /></a> - that the second is to be subtracted from the first; <a + href="images/sig_times.png"><img src="images/sig_times.png" + class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="times sign" /></a> that the one is + to be multiplied by the other; <a href="images/sig_divide.png"><img + src="images/sig_divide.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="divide + sign" /></a> that the former is to be divided by the latter; <a + href="images/sig_equals.png"><img src="images/sig_equals.png" + class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="equals sign" /></a> signifies that + the one number is equal to the other; <a + href="images/sig_proport.png"><img src="images/sig_proport.png" + class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="proportional signs - colons" + /></a> are the signs placed between the members of a proportional series, + as 4 : 6 :: 8 : 12. A small figure placed on the right hand of another at + the top signifies the corresponding power of the number beside which it + is placed, as 5<sup>2</sup>, 4<sup>3</sup>, meaning the square of 5 and + the cube of 4. <a href="images/sig_sqrt.png"><img + src="images/sig_sqrt.png" class="middle" style="height:2ex" alt="cube + root" /></a> placed before or over a number signifies the square root of + that number; with a figure it signifies the root of a higher power, as <a + href="images/sig_cbrt.png"><img src="images/sig_cbrt.png" class="middle" + style="height:2ex" alt="cube root" /></a>, which means cube root. A + period placed to the left of a series of figures indicates that they are + decimal fractions.</p> + + <p><b>A´rius</b>, the originator of the Arian heresy. See + <i>Arians</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arizo´na</b>, a former territory of the United States, admitted + into the union as a sovereign State on 14th Feb., 1912, is bounded south + by Mexico, west by California and Nevada (the River Colorado forming the + greater part of the boundary), north by Utah, and east by New Mexico; + area, 113,956 sq. miles. The surface is generally mountainous, but many + fertile and well-watered valleys lie between the ridges. Part of the + surface consists of deserts often entirely destitute of vegetation. The + territory belongs to the basin of the Colorado, which passes through a + portion of it, besides forming the boundary; while the Gila and Little + Colorado, tributaries of the Colorado, traverse it from east to west. The + canyons of the Colorado form a wonderful feature, the river flowing for + hundreds of miles in a deep rocky channel with walls rising + perpendicularly to the height of 1500 to 6000 feet. In some parts timber + is plentiful. The rainfall is small, and irrigation has been employed for + agricultural purposes. Large tracts of elevated land have been found + excellently adapted as pastures for sheep and cattle. The territory is + rich in copper, gold, silver, lead, and other minerals, and mining is + largely carried on, with much copper smelting and refining. The capital + is Phœnix. Pop. 29,053. The Southern and the Santa Fé Pacific + Railways traverse it. Pop. (1920), 333,903 (of which 171,468 are white), + exclusive of Apaches and other Indians on reservations (area, 29,017 sq. + miles; pop. (1920), 42,400).</p> + + <p><b>Arjish Dagh</b>, the loftiest peak of the peninsula of Asia Minor, + at the western extremity of the Anti-Taurus Range, 13,150 feet; an + extinct volcano; on the <span class="scac">N.</span> and <span + class="scac">N.E.</span> slopes are extensive glaciers.</p> + + <p><b>Ark</b>, the name applied in our translation of the Bible to the + boat or floating house in which Noah resided during the flood or deluge; + to the floating vessel of bulrushes in which the infant Moses was laid; + and to the chest in which the tables of the law were preserved—the + <i>ark of the covenant</i>. This last was made of shittim-wood, overlaid + within and without with gold, about 3¾ feet long by 2¼ feet high and + broad, and over it were placed the golden covering or mercy-seat and the + two cherubim. It was placed in the sanctuary of the temple of Solomon; + before his time it was kept in the tabernacle, and was moved about as + circumstances dictated. At the captivity it appears to have been either + lost or destroyed.</p> + + <p><b>Arkansas</b> (ar´kan-sa<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span> or ar-kan´sas), one of the United States + of America, bounded north by Missouri; east by the Mississippi, which + separates it from the States of Mississippi and Tennessee; south by + Louisiana and Texas; and west by the Indian Territory and Texas; area, + 53,335 sq. miles. The surface in the east is low, flat, and swampy, + densely wooded, and subject to frequent inundations from the numerous + streams which water it. Towards the centre it becomes more diversified, + presenting many undulating slopes and hills of moderate elevation. In the + west it <!-- Page 240 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page240"></a>[240]</span>rises still higher, being traversed by a + range of hills called the Ozark, which attains a height of 2000 feet, + some peaks rising to 3000. In various parts the prairies are of great + extent; the forests also are extensive, principally of oak, hickory, ash, + cotton, linden, maple, locust, and pine. Coal and other minerals are + worked. The principal rivers, all tributaries of the Mississippi, are the + Arkansas, the Red River, the St. Francis, and the Washita. Near the + centre of the State are warm springs, much resorted to for chronic + rheumatic and paralytic affections. The climate is subject to great + extremes of heat and cold, and in the lower districts is unhealthy to new + settlers. The staple products are cotton and maize; fruit is tolerably + abundant. Many districts are admirably adapted for grazing, and great + numbers of excellent cattle are reared. Arkansas was colonized as early + as 1685 by the French. As part of Louisiana it was purchased by the + United States in 1803. It was made into a separate territory in 1819, and + admitted into the Union in 1836. It was one of the seceding States. The + capital is Little Rock. The enumerated population in 1920 was + 1,750,995.</p> + + <p><b>Arkansas</b>, a river of the United States, which gives its name to + the above State, the largest affluent of the Mississippi after the + Missouri. It rises in the Rocky Mountains, about lat. 39° <span + class="scac">N.</span>, long. 107° <span class="scac">W.</span>, flows in + a general south-easterly direction through Colorado, Kansas, the Indian + Territory, and lastly through the State of Arkansas, and after a course + of 2170 miles enters the Mississippi. During greater part of the year it + is navigable for steamboats for 800 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Arkite.</b> See <i>Explosives</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ark´low</b>, a town in Ireland, County Wicklow, on the right bank + of the Avoca, which falls into the sea about 500 yards below the town; + the scene of a severe fight during the rebellion of 1798. Fishing is the + chief industry. Pop. 5042.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:31%;"> + <a href="images/image101.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image101.jpg" + alt="Arkwright's Water Frame" title="Arkwright's Water Frame" /></a> + Arkwright's Water Frame + </div> + + <p><b>Ark´wright</b>, Sir Richard, famous for his inventions in + cotton-spinning, was born at Preston, in Lancashire, in 1732, died 1792. + The youngest of thirteen children, he was bred to the trade of a barber. + When about thirty-five years of age he gave himself up exclusively to the + subject of inventions for spinning cotton. The thread spun by Hargreaves' + jenny could not be used except as weft, being destitute of the firmness + or hardness required in the longitudinal threads or warp. But Arkwright + supplied this deficiency by the invention of the <i>spinning-frame</i>, + which spins a vast number of threads of any degree of fineness and + hardness, leaving the operator merely to feed the machine with cotton and + to join the threads when they happen to break. His invention introduced + the system of spinning by rollers, the carding, or <i>roving</i> as it is + technically termed (that is, the soft, loose strip of cotton), passing + through one pair of rollers, and being received by a second pair, which + is made to revolve with (as the case may be) three, four, or five times + the velocity of the first pair. By this contrivance the roving is drawn + out into a thread of the desired degree of tenuity and hardness. His + inventions being brought into a pretty advanced state, Arkwright removed + to Nottingham in 1768 in order to avoid the attacks of the same lawless + rabble that had driven Hargreaves out of Lancashire. Here his operations + were at first greatly fettered by a want of capital; but two gentlemen of + means having entered into partnership with him, the necessary funds were + obtained, and Arkwright erected his first mill, which was driven by + horses, at Nottingham, and took out a patent for spinning by rollers in + 1769. As the mode of working the machinery by horse-power was found too + expensive, he built a second factory on a much larger scale at Cromford, + in Derbyshire, in 1771, the machinery of which was turned by a + water-wheel. Having made several additional discoveries and improvements + in the processes of carding, roving, and spinning, he took out a fresh + patent for the whole in 1775, and thus completed a series of the most + ingenious and complicated machinery. Notwithstanding a series of + law-suits in defence of his patent rights, and the destruction of his + property by mobs, he amassed a large fortune. He was knighted by George + III in 1786.</p> + + <p><b>Arlberg</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rl´ber<i>h</i>), a branch of the Rhætian + Alps, in the west of Tyrol, between it and Vorarlberg, pierced by the + fourth longest railway tunnel in the world. It is 6½ miles long, and was + finished in Nov., 1883, and connects the valley of the Inn with that of + the Rhine, and the Austrian railway system with the Swiss railways. <!-- + Page 241 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page241"></a>[241]</span></p> + + <p><b>Ar´lecdon</b>, an urban district of England, in Cumberland, 4 miles + east of Whitehaven, with coal and iron mines. Pop. (1921), 5152.</p> + + <p><b>Arles</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rl; ancient, <b>Arelāte</b>), a + town of Southern France, department Bouches du Rhône, 17 miles south-east + of Nismes. It was an important town at the time of Cæsar's invasion, and + under the later emperors it became one of the most flourishing towns on + the farther side of the Alps. It still possesses numerous ancient + remains, of which the most conspicuous are those of a Roman amphitheatre, + which accommodated 24,000 spectators. It has a considerable trade, + manufactures of silk, &c., and furnishes a market for the surrounding + country. Pop. 16,746.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´lington</b>, Henry Bennet, Earl of, member of the Cabal + ministry, and one of the scheming creatures of Charles II, born 1618, + died 1685. He is supposed to have lived and died a Roman Catholic.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´lon</b>, a Belgian town, capital province of Luxemburg, a + thriving town, with manufactures of ironware, leather, tobacco, &c. + Pop. 12,012.</p> + + <p><b>Arm</b>, the upper limb in man, connected with the thorax or chest + by means of the scapula or shoulder-blade, and the clavicle or + collar-bone. It consists of three bones, the arm-bone + (<i>humĕrus</i>), and the two bones of the fore-arm (<i>radius</i> + and <i>ulna</i>), and it is connected with the bones of the hand by the + <i>carpus</i> or wrist. The head or upper end of the arm-bone fits into + the hollow called the <i>glenoid cavity</i> of the scapula, so as to form + a joint of the ball-and-socket kind, allowing great freedom of movement + to the limb. The lower end of the humerus is broadened out by a + projection on both the outer and inner sides (the outer and inner + <i>condyles</i>), and has a pulley-like surface for articulating with the + fore-arm to form the elbow-joint. This joint somewhat resembles a hinge, + allowing of movement only in one direction. The ulna is the inner of the + two bones of the fore-arm. It is largest at the upper end, where it has + two processes, the <i>coronoid</i> and the <i>olecranon</i>, with a deep + groove between to receive the humerus. The radius—the outer of the + two bones—is small at the upper and expanded at the lower end, + where it forms part of the wrist-joint. The muscles of the upper arm are + either <i>flexors</i> or <i>extensors</i>, the former serving to bend the + arm, the latter to straighten it by means of the elbow-joint. The main + flexor is the <i>biceps</i>, the large muscle which may be seen standing + out in front of the arm when a weight is raised. The chief opposing + muscle of the biceps is the <i>triceps</i>. The muscles of the fore-arm + are, besides flexors and extensors, <i>pronators</i> and + <i>supinators</i>, the former turning the hand palm downwards, the latter + turning it upwards. The same fundamental plan of structure exists in the + limbs of all vertebrate animals.</p> + + <p><b>Arma´da</b>, the Spanish name for any large naval force; usually + applied to the Spanish fleet vaingloriously designated the <i>Invincible + Armada</i>, intended to act against England <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1588. It was under the command of the Duke of + Medina-Sidonia, and consisted of 130 great war vessels, larger and + stronger than any belonging to the English fleet, with 30 smaller ships + of war, and carried 19,295 marines, 8460 sailors, 2088 slaves, and 2630 + cannon. It had scarcely quitted Lisbon on 29th May, 1588, when it was + scattered by a storm, and had to be refitted in Corunna. It was to + co-operate with a land force collected in Flanders under the Prince of + Parma, and to unite with this it proceeded through the English Channel + towards Calais. In its progress it was attacked by the English fleet + under Lord Howard, who, with his lieutenants, Drake, Hawkins, and + Frobisher, endeavoured by dexterous seamanship and the discharge of + well-directed volleys of shot to destroy or capture the vessels of the + enemy. The great lumbering Spanish vessels suffered severely from their + smaller opponents, which most of their shot missed. Arrived at length off + Dunkirk, the armada was becalmed, thrown into confusion by fire-ships, + and many of the Spanish vessels destroyed or taken. The Duke of + Medina-Sidonia, owing to the severe losses, at last resolved to abandon + the enterprise, and conceived the idea of reconveying his fleet to Spain + by a voyage round the north of Great Britain; but storm after storm + assailed his ships, scattering them in all directions, and sinking many. + Some went down on the cliffs of Norway, others in the open sea, others on + the Scottish coast, others on the coast of Ireland. In all, seventy-two + large vessels and over 10,000 men were lost.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J. A. Froude, <i>Spanish Story of the + Armada</i>; Sir J. K. Laughton, <i>State Papers relating to the Defeat of + the Spanish Armada</i>; J. R. Hale, <i>Story of the Great Armada</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Armadale</b>, a town of Scotland, Linlithgowshire, in coal and iron + district. Pop. 4739.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image102.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image102.jpg" + alt="Armadillos" title="Armadillos" /></a> + Armadillos—Left, Hairy Armadillo. Right, Kappler's Armadillo + </div> + + <p><b>Armadi´llo</b> (genus Dasўpus), an edentate mammal peculiar + to South America, consisting <!-- Page 242 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page242"></a>[242]</span>of various species, belonging to a family + intermediate between the sloths and ant-eaters. They are covered with a + hard bony shell, divided into belts, composed of small separate plates + like a coat of mail, flexible everywhere except on the forehead, + shoulders, and haunches, where it is not movable. The belts are connected + by a membrane which enables the animal to roll itself up like a hedgehog. + These animals burrow in the earth, where they lie during the daytime, + seldom going abroad except at night. They are of different sizes: the + largest, <i>Dasypus gigas</i>, being 3 feet in length without the tail, + and the smallest only 10 inches. They subsist chiefly on fruits and + roots, sometimes on insects and flesh. They are inoffensive, and their + flesh is esteemed good food.—There is a genus of isopodous + Crustacea called Armadillo, consisting of animals allied to the + wood-lice, capable of rolling themselves into a ball.</p> + + <p><b>Armageddon</b> (-ged´don), the great battlefield of the Old + Testament, where the chief conflicts took place between the Israelites + and their enemies—the table-land of Esdraelon in Galilee and + Samaria, in the centre of which stood the town of Megiddo, on the site of + the modern Lejjun: used figuratively in the <i>Apocalypse</i> to signify + the place of 'the battle of the great day of God'. It may, however, be + <i>har migdo</i>, his fruitful mountain, 'the mountain land of Israel'. + The phrase 'an Armageddon' expresses any great slaughter or final + conflict, and has been frequently applied to the Great War of 1914-8. + During this war severe fighting took place in Sept., 1918, on the field + of Armageddon, the entrance to the passes of Megiddo. The battle ended in + an overwhelming victory for General Allenby's armies. See + <i>Megiddo</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Armagh</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-mä´), a county of Ireland, in the + province of Ulster; surrounded by Monaghan, Tyrone, Lough Neagh, Down, + and Louth; area, 328,086 acres, of which about a half is under tillage. + The north-west of the county is undulating and fertile. The northern + part, bordering on Lough Neagh, consists principally of extensive bogs. + On the southern border is a range of barren hills. The chief rivers are + the Blackwater, which separates it from Tyrone; the Upper Bann, which + discharges itself into Lough Neagh; and the Callan, which falls into the + Blackwater. There are several small lakes. The manufacture of linen is + carried on very extensively. Armagh, Lurgan, and Portadown are the chief + towns. The county sends three members to Parliament. Pop. + 120,291.—The county town, <i>Armagh</i>, is situated partly on a + hill, about half a mile from the Callan. It has a Protestant cathedral + crowning the hill, a Gothic building dating from the eighth century, + repaired and beautified recently; a new Roman Catholic cathedral in the + pointed Gothic style, and various public buildings. It is the see of an + archbishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church, who is primate of all + Ireland, and is a place of great antiquity. Pop. 7356.</p> + + <p><b>Armagnac</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-nya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>k), an ancient territory of France, in + the province of Gascony, some of the counts of which hold prominent + places in the history of France. Bernard VII, son of John II, surnamed + the Hunchback, succeeded his brother, John III, in 1391, and was called + to Court by Isabella of Bavaria, with the view of heading the Orleans in + opposition to the Burgundian faction, where he no sooner gained the + ascendancy than he compelled the queen to appoint him Constable of + France. He showed himself a merciless tyrant, and became so generally + execrated that the Duke of Burgundy, to whom Isabella had turned for + help, found little difficulty in gaining admission into Paris, and even + seizing the person of Armagnac, who was cast into prison in 1418, when + the exasperated populace burst in and killed him and his followers. John + V, grandson of the above, who succeeded in 1450, made himself notorious + for his crimes. He was assassinated in his castle of Lectoure in 1473 by + an agent of Louis XI, against whom he was holding out.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´mature</b>, a term applied to the piece of soft iron which is + placed across the poles of permanent or electro-magnets for the purpose + of receiving and concentrating the attractive force. In the case of + permanent magnets it is also important for preserving their magnetism + when not in use, and hence it is sometimes termed the <i>keeper</i>. It + produces this effect in virtue of the well-known law of induction, by + which the armature, when placed near or across the poles of the magnet, + is itself converted into a temporary magnet with reversed poles, and + these, reacting upon the permanent magnet, keep its particles in a state + of constant magnetic tension, or, in other words, in that constrained + position which is supposed to constitute magnetism. A horse-shoe magnet + should therefore never be laid aside without its armature; and in the + case of straight bar-magnets two should be placed parallel to each other, + with their poles reversed, and a keeper or armature across them at both + ends. The term is also applied to the core and coil of the + electro-magnet, which revolves before the poles of the permanent magnet + in the magneto-electric machine.</p> + + <p><b>Arme Blanche</b>, a term applied to the rapier and duelling-foil, + and frequently also to all weapons other than fire-arms. The phrase is + particularly applied to the sabres and lances carried by cavalry, but + also to the bayonet.</p> + + <p><b>Arme´nia</b>, a mountainous country of Western Asia, of great + historical interest as the original seat of one of the oldest civilized + peoples in the <!-- Page 243 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page243"></a>[243]</span>world. The name Armenia occurs in the + <i>Vulgate</i>, but the Hebrew name is Ararat. It has an area of about + 120,000 sq. miles, and is intersected by the Euphrates, which divides it + into the ancient divisions, Armenia Major and Armenia Minor. The country + is an elevated plateau, enclosed on several sides by the ranges of Taurus + and Anti-Taurus, and partly occupied by other mountains, the loftiest of + which is Ararat. Several important rivers take their rise in Armenia, + namely, the Kur or Cyrus, and its tributary the Aras or Araxes, flowing + east to the Caspian Sea; the Halys or Kizil-Irmak, flowing north to the + Black Sea; and the Tigris and Euphrates, which flow into the Persian + Gulf. The chief lakes are Van and Urumiyah. The climate is rather severe. + The soil is on the whole productive, though in many places it would be + quite barren were it not for the great care taken to irrigate it. Wheat, + barley, tobacco, hemp, grapes, and cotton are raised; and in some of the + valleys apricots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts are grown. The + inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine Armenian stock, a branch of the + Aryan or Indo-European race; but besides them, in consequence of the + repeated subjugation of the country, various other races have obtained a + footing. The total number of Armenians is estimated at 2,900,000, of whom + one-half are in Armenia. The remainder, like the Jews, are scattered over + various countries, and are generally engaged in commercial pursuits. They + everywhere retain, however, their distinct nationality.</p> + + <p>Little is known of the early history of Armenia, but it was a separate + State as early as the eighth century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, when + it became subject to Assyria, as it also did subsequently to the Medes + and the Persians. It was conquered by Alexander the Great in 325 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, but regained its independence about 190 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> Its king, Tigranes, son-in-law of the celebrated + Mithridātes, was defeated by the Romans under Lucullus and Pompey + between 69-66 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, but was left on the throne. + Since then its fortunes have been various under the Romans, Parthians, + Byzantine emperors, Persians, Saracens, and Turks. Until quite recently + Armenia had no political existence, having been partitioned between + Turkey, Persia, and Russia, the last acquiring considerable portions in + 1829 and 1878. The hope of the Armenians to see their country formed into + an autonomous province administered by Christians was frustrated by the + Treaty of Berlin in 1878. The advanced party amongst the Armenians, + therefore, determined to obtain their object by the production of + disturbances and the spread of a revolutionary movement. The Porte + retaliated by wholesale massacres of the Armenians in 1896, 1904, and + 1908. The Armenian revolutionary and national parties in the meantime + continued their activity and propaganda. Armenia proclaimed its + independence in Aug., 1918. In Jan., 1920, the Supreme Council of the + Allied Governments recognized the Armenian Republic of Erivan. A mandate + for Armenia was also offered to the United States of America, but it was + refused by the American Senate in May, 1920. On 18th March, 1922, Soviet + Russia concluded a treaty with Turkey, giving to the latter most of + Armenia. Batum was attached to Georgia. See <i>Erivan</i>, <i>Russia</i>, + <i>Turkey</i>.</p> + + <p>The Armenians received Christianity at an early date, most probably at + the beginning of the third century, although native historians maintain + that several of the apostles preached in Armenia. The real apostle of + Armenia was Gregory the Illuminator, in the third century. During the + Monophysitic disputes they held with those who rejected the twofold + nature of Christ, and being dissatisfied with the decisions of the + Council of Chalcedon (451) they separated from the Greek Church in 536. + The Popes had at different times attempted to gain them over to the Roman + Catholic faith, but have not been able to unite them permanently and + generally with the Roman Church. There are, however, small numbers here + and there of United Armenians, who acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of + the Pope, agree in their doctrines with the Catholics, but retain their + peculiar ceremonies and discipline. But the far greater part are yet + Monophysites, and have remained faithful to their old religion and + worship. Their doctrine differs from the orthodox chiefly in their + admitting only one nature in Christ, and believing the Holy Spirit to + proceed from the Father alone. Their sacraments are seven in number. They + adore saints and their images, but do not believe in purgatory. Their + hierarchy differs little from that of the Greeks. The <i>Catholicus</i>, + or head of the Church, has his seat at Etchmiadzin, a monastery near + Erivan, the capital of former Russian Armenia, on Mount Ararat.</p> + + <p>The Armenian language belongs to the Indo-European family of + languages, and is most closely connected with the Iranic group. The Old + Armenian or Haikan language, which is still the literary and + ecclesiastical language, is distinguished from the New Armenian, the + ordinary spoken language, which contains a large intermixture of Persian + and Turkish elements. The most flourishing period of Armenian literature + extended from the fourth to the fourteenth century. It then declined, but + a revival began in the seventeenth century, and at the present day + wherever any extensive community of Armenians has settled they have set + up a printing-press. The Armenian Bible, translated from a Syriac + version, and revised by means of <!-- Page 244 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page244"></a>[244]</span>the Septuagint, by + Isaac the Great and St. Mesrop, early in the fifth century, is a model of + the classic style.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E. N. and + H. Buxton, <i>Travel and Politics in Armenia</i>; N. T. Gregor, + <i>History of Armenia</i>; W. L. Williams, <i>Armenia, Past and + Present</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Armentières</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>-tyār), a town in France, + department Nord, 10 miles <span class="scac">W.N.W.</span> of Lille, on + the Lys. The town had extensive manufactures of linen and cotton goods + and an extensive trade. The Germans captured Armentières by massed + assault early in April, 1918, after methodically shelling the town for + about two years and destroying almost every building in it. The enemy's + offensive was intended to achieve greater results. Indeed, its object was + to break through to the Channel ports. It began on 9th April, after + artillery preparation, from La Bassée to Armentières. When, however, the + battle of Armentières died down, the enemy plan to break through to the + coast had been definitely and finally frustrated. German losses were + extremely heavy, their attacks having been made with massed troops. (See + <i>Ypres</i>.) Pop. 28,086.</p> + + <p><b>Arm´felt</b>, Gustav Moritz, Count of, Swedish soldier, born 1757, + died 1814. Though he had been highly favoured and loaded with honours by + Gustavus III, he incurred the enmity of the Duke of Sudermania, guardian + of the young king, Gustavus IV, and was deprived of all his titles and + possessions. He was restored to his fortune and honours in 1799, when + Gustavus IV attained his majority, and held several high military posts. + Ultimately, however, he entered the Russian service, was made count, + chancellor of the University of Abo, president of the department for the + affairs of Finland, member of the Russian Senate, and served in the + campaign against Napoleon in 1812.</p> + + <p><b>Armida</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-mē´da<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a beautiful enchantress in Tasso's + <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i>, who succeeds in bringing the hero Rinaldo, + with whom she had fallen violently in love, to her enchanted gardens. + Here he completely forgets the high task to which he had devoted himself, + until messengers from the Christian host having arrived at the island, + Rinaldo escapes with them by means of a powerful talisman. In the sequel + Armida becomes a Christian.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´millary Sphere</b> (Lat. <i>armilla</i>, a hoop), an + astronomical instrument consisting of an arrangement of rings, all + circles of one sphere, intended to represent the principal circles of the + celestial globe, the rings standing for the meridian of the station, the + ecliptic, the tropics, the arctic and antarctic circles, &c., in + their relative positions. Its main use is to give a representation of the + apparent motions of the celestial bodies.</p> + + <p><b>Armin´ians</b>, a sect or party of Christians, so called from + Jacobus <i>Arminius</i> or Harmensen. (See <i>Arminius</i>.) They were + called also <i>Remonstrants</i>, from their having presented a + <i>remonstrance</i> to the States-general in 1610. The Arminian doctrines + are: (1) Conditional election and reprobation, in opposition to absolute + predestination. (2) Universal redemption, or that the atonement was made + by Christ for all mankind, though none but believers can be partakers of + the benefit. (3) That man, in order to exercise true faith, must be + regenerated and renewed by the operation of the Holy Spirit, which is the + gift of God; but that this grace is not irresistible and may be lost, so + that men may relapse from a state of grace and die in their sins. + Arminianism being a revolt against certain aspects of Calvinism, + especially the absolutism of the eternal decrees, its doctrines were + vehemently attacked by the Calvinists of Holland, and were condemned by + the Synod of Dort in 1619. The Arminians, in consequence, were treated + with great severity; many of them fled to, and spread in, other + countries, and though there is no longer any particular sect to which the + name is exclusively applied, many bodies are classed as Arminians, as + being opposed to the Calvinists on the question of + predestination.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Regenboog, + <i>Historie der Remonstranten</i>; Caspar Brandt, <i>Life of Arminius</i> + (English translation by J. Guthrie); W. B. Pope, <i>Compendium of + Christian Theology</i> (3 vols.).</p> + + <p><b>Armin´ius</b>, an ancient German hero celebrated by his + fellow-countrymen as their deliverer from the Roman yoke, born about + 18-16 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, assassinated <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 19. Having been sent as a hostage to Rome, he + served in the Roman army, and was raised to the rank of <i>eques</i>. + Returning home, he found the Roman governor, Quintilius Varus, making + efforts to Romanize the German tribes near the Rhine. Placing himself at + the head of the discontented tribes he completely annihilated the army of + Varus, consisting of three legions, in a three days' battle fought in the + Teutoburg Forest. For some time he baffled the Roman general Germanicus, + and after many years' resistance to the vast power of the Empire he drew + upon himself the hatred of his countrymen by aiming at the regal + authority, and was assassinated. A national monument to his memory was + inaugurated on the Grotenburg, near Detmold, in 1875.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: see Tacitus, <i>Annals</i> (translated by + Murphy); O. Kemmer, <i>Arminius</i>; F. W. Fischer, <i>Armin und die + Römer</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arminius</b>, Jacobus (properly Jakob Harmensen), founder of the + sect of Arminians or Remonstrants, born in South Holland in 1560, died + 1609. He studied at Utrecht, in the University of Leyden, and at Geneva, + where his chief preceptor in theology was Theodore Beza (1582). On his + return to Holland he was appointed minister of one of the churches in + <!-- Page 245 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page245"></a>[245]</span>Amsterdam, and chosen to undertake the + refutation of a work which strongly controverted Beza's doctrine of + predestination; but he happened to be convinced by the work which he had + undertaken to refute. Elected in 1603 professor of divinity at Leyden, he + openly declared his opinions, and was involved in harassing + controversies, especially with his fellow professor Gomarus. These + contests, with the continual attacks on his reputation, at length + impaired his health and brought on a complicated disease, of which he + died. See <i>Arminians</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´mitage</b>, Edward, English historical painter, born 1817, died + 1896. He studied under Delaroche at the École des Beaux Arts, Paris, was + one of the ablest pupils of that painter, and in 1842 exhibited at the + Salon (in the Louvre) a picture of <i>Prometheus Bound</i>. At the + exhibition of cartoons for historical pictures in Westminster Hall (1843) + he obtained a premium of £300 for his design of <i>Cæsar's First Invasion + of Britain</i>. Other similar premiums were gained by his <i>Spirit of + Religion</i> (1845), and <i>Battle of Meeanee</i> (1847—£500). He + now went to study at Rome, and exhibited at the Academy in 1848 his + <i>Henry VIII and Katherine Parr</i>, and his <i>Trafalgar</i> (<i>Death + of Nelson</i>). He had pictures in most of the subsequent Academy + exhibitions up nearly to the time of his death. In 1867 he was elected an + associate, and in 1872 a full academician. He did much for the + restoration of fresco painting in England. A large number of his pictures + were biblical in subject, such as <i>Ahab and Jezebel</i>, <i>Esther's + Banquet</i>, <i>The Remorse of Judas</i>, <i>Joseph and Mary</i>, + <i>Herod's Birthday Feast</i>, &c. As professor of painting to the + Royal Academy he delivered lectures on painting, which were published in + 1883. In 1898 appeared a volume of his <i>Pictures and Drawings</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Armor´ica</b> (from two Celtic words signifying 'upon the sea'), a + name anciently applied to all north-western Gaul, afterwards limited to + what is now Brittany. Hence <i>Armoric</i> is one name for Breton or the + language of the inhabitants of Brittany, a Celtic dialect closely allied + to Welsh.</p> + + <p><b>Armour.</b> See <i>Arms</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Armoured Car</b>, a self-propelled car completely protected by + bullet-proof armour-plating. Such a car is a stage in the development of + mechanical warfare, i.e. warfare by means of a self-propelled, armed, and + manned machine. The idea is a very ancient one, some form of protected + vehicle having been in use among the Chinese in almost prehistoric times. + The modern armoured car is constructed on a strongly-engined chassis, and + is provided with a bullet-proof armour-plating both for engine and crew. + This armour is continued low down over the wheels. The armament of such a + car consists of two heavy machine-guns, firing through slits in the + armour-plating of the body of the car.</p> + + <p><b>Armour-plates</b>, iron or steel plates with which the sides of + vessels of war are covered with the view of rendering them shot-proof. + See <i>Iron-clad Vessels</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arms, Coat of</b>, or <b>Armorial Bearings</b>, a collective name + for the devices borne on shields, on banners, &c., as marks of + dignity and distinction, and, in the case of family and feudal arms, + descending from father to son. They were first employed by the Crusaders, + and became hereditary in families at the close of the twelfth century. + They took their rise from the knights painting their banners or shields + each with a figure or figures proper to himself, to enable him to be + distinguished in battle when clad in armour. See <i>Heraldry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arms, College of.</b> See <i>Herald</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image103.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image103.jpg" + alt="Armour" title="Armour" /></a> + Armour, from the effigy of Sir Richard Peyton, in Tong Church, + Shropshire + </div> + + <p><b>Arms</b> and <b>Armour</b>. The former term is applied to weapons + of offence, the latter to the various articles of defensive covering used + in war and military exercises, especially before the introduction of + gunpowder. Weapons of offence are divisible into two distinct + sections—firearms, and arms used without gunpowder or other + explosive substance. The first arms of offence would probably be wooden + clubs, then would follow wooden weapons made more deadly by means of + stone or bone, stone axes, <!-- Page 246 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page246"></a>[246]</span>slings, bows and arrows with heads of + flint or bone, and afterwards various weapons of bronze. Subsequently a + variety of arms of iron and steel was introduced, which comprised the + sword, javelin, pike, spear or lance, dagger, axe, mace, chariot scythe, + &c.; with a rude artillery consisting of catapults, ballistæ, and + battering-rams. From the descriptions of Homer we know that almost all + the Grecian armour, defensive and offensive, in his time was of bronze; + though iron was sometimes used. The lance, spear, and javelin were the + principal weapons of this age among the Greeks. The bow is not often + mentioned. Among ancient nations the Egyptians seem to have been most + accustomed to the use of the bow, which was the principal weapon of the + Egyptian infantry. Peculiar to the Egyptians was a defensive weapon + intended to catch and break the sword of the enemy. With the Assyrians + the bow was a favourite weapon; but with them lances, spears, and + javelins were in more common use than with the Egyptians. Most of the + large engines of war—chariots with scythes projecting at each side + from the axle, catapults, and ballistæ—seem to have been of + Assyrian origin. During the historical age of Greece the characteristic + weapon was a heavy spear from 21 to 24 feet in length. The sword used by + the Greeks was short, and was worn on the right side. The Roman sword was + from 22 to 24 inches in length, straight, two-edged, and obtusely + pointed, and as by the Greeks was worn on the right side. It was used + principally as a stabbing weapon. It was originally of bronze. The most + characteristic weapon of the Roman legionary soldier, however, was the + <i>pilum</i>, which was a kind of pike or javelin, some 6 feet or more in + length. The pilum was sometimes used at close quarters, but more commonly + it was thrown. The favourite weapons of the ancient Germanic races were + the battle-axe, the lance or dart, and the sword. The weapons of the + Anglo-Saxons were spears, axes, swords, knives, and maces or clubs. The + Normans had similar weapons, and were well furnished with archers and + cavalry. The cross-bow was a comparatively late invention introduced by + the Normans. Gunpowder was not used in Europe to discharge projectiles + till the beginning of the fourteenth century. Cannon are first mentioned + in England in 1338, and there seems to be no doubt that they were used by + the English at the siege of Cambrai in 1339. The projectiles first used + for cannon were of stone. Hand fire-arms date from the fifteenth century. + At first they required two men to serve them, and it was necessary to + rest the muzzle on a stand in aiming and firing. The first improvement + was the invention of the match-lock, about 1476; this was followed by the + wheel-lock, and about the middle of the seventeenth century by the + flint-lock, which was in universal use until it was superseded by the + percussion-lock, the invention of a Scottish clergyman early in the + nineteenth century. The needle-gun dates from 1838. The only important + weapon not a fire-arm that has been invented since the introduction of + gunpowder is the bayonet, which is believed to have been invented about + 1650. See <i>Cannon</i>, <i>Musket</i>, <i>Rifle</i>, &c.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:24%;"> + <a href="images/image107.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image107.jpg" + alt="Horse-armour" title="Horse-armour" /></a> + Horse-armour of Maximilian I of Germany <i>a</i>, Chamfron. <i>b</i>, + Manefaire. <i>c</i>, Poitrinal, poitrel, or breastplate. <i>d</i>, + Croupiere or buttock-piece. + </div> + + <div class="figright" style="width:11%;"> + <a href="images/image106.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image106.jpg" + alt="Chain Armour" title="Chain Armour" /></a> + Chain Armour + </div> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/image105.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image105.jpg" + alt="Roman Armour" title="Roman Armour" /></a> + Roman Armour—Soldiers wearing Cuirass + </div> + + <div class="figright" style="width:24%;"> + <a href="images/image104.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image104.jpg" + alt="Greek Armour" title="Greek Armour" /></a> + Greek Armour + </div> + +<div style="clear: both"></div> + <div class="figright" style="width:15%;"> + <a href="images/image108.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image108.jpg" + alt="Light Plate Armour" title="Light Plate Armour" /></a> + Allecret (Light Plate) Armour, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1540 + </div> + + <p>Some kind of defensive covering was probably of almost as early + invention as weapons of offence. The principal pieces of defensive armour + used by the ancients were shields, helmets, cuirasses, and greaves. In + the earliest ages of Greece the shield is described as of immense size, + but in the time of the Peloponnesian War (about 420 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) it was much smaller. The Romans had two sorts + of shields: the <i>scutum</i>, a large oblong rectangular <!-- Page 247 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page247"></a>[247]</span>highly-convex + shield, carried by the legionaries; and the <i>parma</i>, a small round + or oval flat shield, carried by the light-armed troops and the cavalry. + In the declining days of Rome the shields became larger and more varied + in form. The helmet was a characteristic piece of armour among the + Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. Like all other body armour it + was usually made of bronze. The helmet of the historical age of Greece + was distinguished by its lofty crest. The Roman helmet in the time of the + early emperors fitted close to the head, and had a neck-guard and hinged + cheek-pieces fastened under the chin, and a small bar across the face for + a visor. Both Greeks and Romans wore cuirasses, at one time of bronze, + but afterwards of flexible materials. Greaves for the legs were worn by + both, but among the Romans usually on one leg. The ancient Germans had + large shields of plaited osier covered with leather; afterwards their + shields were small, bound with iron, and studded with bosses. The + Anglo-Saxons had round or oval shields of wood, covered with leather, and + having a boss in the centre; and they had also corselets, or coats of + mail, strengthened with iron rings. The Normans were well protected by + mail; their shields were somewhat triangular in shape, their helmets + conical. In Europe generally metal armour was used from the tenth to the + eighteenth century, and at first consisted of a tunic made of iron rings + firmly sewn flat upon strong cloth or leather. The rings were afterwards + interlinked one with another so as to form a garment of themselves, + called <i>chain-mail</i>. Another variety of this flexible armour was + known as <i>banded-mail</i>. This consisted of rings sewn upon a fabric + foundation, the whole being covered with leather. In addition to this, + 'scale armour', which had been in use from the very earliest periods of + history, was still in common fashion in the thirteenth century. By + degrees the suit of mail was reinforced by the addition of pieces of + plate on the breast, knees, elbows, and arms, and by the end of the + fourteenth century the full suit of plate had been evolved, the mail + being only worn as a skirt round the waist or as a coif attached to the + helmet. The golden age of plate armour is the middle of the fifteenth + century, when the design was light and graceful, and at the same time + fully protective. In the sixteenth century, when 'shock tactics' of + cavalry were the order of the day, the 'war harness' became heavier. This + was particularly noticeable in the armour for the joust or tournament, in + which sport the aim of the contestants was to score points and not to + inflict injury. Many of these jousting armours weigh over 80 lb. The + weapons in use through the whole of the plate-armour period were the + lance, the sword, the axe or war-hammer, the long-bow, and the cross-bow. + The introduction of fire-arms in the fourteenth century was one of the + causes which led to the increase of weight in armour, for the armourer + was continually improving and strengthening his products to make them + proof against musket and pistol, and he generally succeeded, but by doing + so increased the weight till it became insupportable. In the seventeenth + century leg armour was abandoned, and by the end of the civil war the + popular defence was the steel cap and breastplate. In the eighteenth + century armour entirely disappeared, except for ceremonial, and was + thought to be entirely obsolete till it was revived in the recent war in + the form of the steel shrapnel-helmet, which was favoured by all the + Allies and also by the enemy. The German troops occasionally used heavy + body armour. Daggers and clubs, weapons likewise thought <!-- Page 248 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page248"></a>[248]</span>to be + obsolete, were frequently used by all combatants, especially on + raids.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: A. Hutton, <i>The + Sword of the Centuries</i>; H. S. Cowper, <i>The Art of Attack</i>; C. + ffoulkes, <i>Armour and Weapons</i>; C. H. Ashdown, <i>British and + Foreign Arms and Armour</i>; C. Hall, <i>Modern Weapons of War by + Land</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Armstrong</b>, John, Scottish poet and physician, born about 1709, + died 1779. After studying medicine in Edinburgh he settled in London. In + 1744 he published his chief work, the <i>Art of Preserving Health</i>, a + didactic poem. This work raised his reputation to a height which his + subsequent efforts scarcely sustained. In 1746 he became physician to a + hospital for soldiers, and in 1760 he was appointed physician to the + forces which went to Germany. After his return to London he published a + collection of his <i>Miscellanies</i>, which contained, however, nothing + valuable. He afterwards visited France and Italy, and published an + account of his tour under the name of Lancelot Temple. His last + production was a volume of <i>Medical Essays</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Armstrong</b>, William George, Lord, engineer and mechanical + inventor, born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 10th Nov., 1810. He was trained as a + solicitor, and practised as such for some time. Among his early + inventions were the hydro-electric machine, a powerful apparatus for + producing frictional electricity, and the hydraulic crane. In 1847 the + Elswick works, near Newcastle, were established for the manufacture of + his cranes and other heavy iron machinery, and these works are now among + the most extensive of their kind. Here the first rifled ordnance gun + which bears his name was made in 1854. His improvements in the + manufacture of guns and shells led to his being appointed engineer of + rifled ordnance under Government, and he was knighted in 1858. This + appointment came to an end in 1863, since which time his ordnance has + taken a prominent place in the armaments of different countries. He was + made a peer, as Baron Armstrong, in 1887. He died 27th Dec., 1900.</p> + + <p><b>Armstrong Gun</b>, a kind of cannon, so called from its inventor. + It has an inner tube or core of steel, rifled with numerous shallow + grooves, the tube being surrounded by a jacket of spirally-coiled bars of + wrought iron, so disposed as to bring the metal into the most favourable + position for the strain to which it is to be exposed. His first guns were + small, but larger ones were soon made, and afterwards those of the very + highest calibre. The breech-loading principle was also adopted in them, + and special provision to effect this satisfactorily was invented by him. + The improved shells introduced by him were of the elongated and pointed + type now so well known, the charge being inserted in a special chamber + behind the bore.</p> + + <p><b>Army</b>, a collection of bodies of men armed, disciplined, and + organized for war. The essence of a modern army is that it shall be + composed of organized units each under its own commander, grouped in + formations of ever-increasing size, and owing allegiance through these + commanders to one supreme head. Discipline and organization are + essential, or such a force becomes merely a collection of armed men.</p> + + <p>In the early days of our history every able-bodied man was, to a + greater or lesser extent, a possible fighting man, and all had arms of + one kind or another. Consequently, when an army was required, landowners + and county authorities were ordered to provide the troops necessary. + Every free landowner between the ages of sixteen and sixty was liable to + service, which was limited to two months in a year. This was the Saxon + 'fyrd' system. Later it was improved on by the institution of 'Thane's + Service', which made it incumbent on the more considerable landowners to + appear fully armed and mounted, and to serve for the whole campaign. The + horse, however, was only used as a means of locomotion: for fighting + purposes their riders dismounted, as did the dragoons of the seventeenth + century and the mounted infantry of still more modern times. The fyrd was + an unorganized and undisciplined force and entirely ephemeral in its + nature, so that we find the Danish kings of England casting about for + some more permanent force, which came into existence under the title of + the 'House Carles', or Royal Guard. With the Norman Conquest the fyrd was + largely supplanted by the feudal system of knight's service, according to + which the country was divided into knight's fees, each of which had to + provide its quotum of men. The gradual appearance of the custom of + avoiding service by payments of money—in time regulated under the + name of scutage—led to the employment of paid mercenaries, who for + some two centuries were almost invariably foreigners. In the twelfth + century it was found that sufficient troops could not be provided under + these two systems, so the fyrd was re-established as a National Militia + by the Assize of Arms, and in the next century further steps were taken + to protect it under the Statute of Winchester. In the fourteenth century + the archer, with his longbow, became a very important part of the + fighting forces of England, and an army of those days consisted of the + heavily-armed and armoured knights and men-at-arms for shock action, and + the unarmoured archers for 'volley action', to use a later term. With the + gradual disappearance of the foreign mercenaries, it became the custom + for the king to issue indents to certain influential subjects for the + raising of paid troops. <!-- Page 249 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page249"></a>[249]</span>From this custom arose the free companies, + which, in time, became nothing more or less than commercial undertakings. + The indents were accepted, and the men enlisted primarily for what could + be got out of the business of fighting, either in the shape of ransom or + the sack of towns. Some attempt was also made at tactical organization, + and an army of the period was divided into vanguard, battle, and + rearguard. Artillery also was beginning to be developed in Germany for + siege purposes. The sixteenth century saw the first formation of + companies into regiments, though as yet of no fixed strength. Arms were + also modernized, and by the end of the century muskets, 18-feet pikes, + and swords, were the arms of infantry instead of the varied assortment of + halberds, pikes, muskets, harquebuses, and longbows common at the + beginning. Elizabeth introduced the press-gang as an aid to recruiting, + and abolished the white coat of the soldier in favour of a long red or + blue cassock. In the next century Cromwell's new model army became the + first standing army of England, and, though it was disbanded by Act of + Parliament at the Restoration, one of its + regiments—Monk's—remained, and is now the Coldstream Guards. + After this regiments were raised from time to time on one pretext or + another, and the nucleus of a standing army became a <i>fait + accompli</i>, though it was for a long time considered more as an + appanage of the king than as a national institution. With the standing + army came the first beginnings of civilian control, a Secretary-at-War + being appointed in 1660. He had, however, no responsibility, and was + subordinate to the commander-in-chief, and it was not till 1710 that he + assumed his present responsibility to Parliament. During the eighteenth + century the strength of the army rose or fell according to the state of + the military barometer and the success or otherwise of the various + recruiting expedients, among which was the first attempt at a + short-service system in 1703. In 1871-2 the old numbering in regiments + was abolished and a territorial designation substituted. According to + this scheme, the first twenty-five regiments, all of which had already + two battalions, were grouped together, the rest being joined arbitrarily + to form new regiments under county designations. With these regiments + were affiliated the militia and volunteer battalions, which have now been + amalgamated into the Special Reserve and the Territorial Force.</p> + + <p>For the requirements of the war of 1914-8 the Empire, as a whole, + including India, raised and maintained a total of 8,654,467 men, of which + the contribution of the United Kingdom was over 6,000,000. Casualties for + the whole Empire were 3,060,616, of which the United Kingdom has for her + share nearly 2,500,000, including 666,083 killed, 1,644,786 wounded, and + 140,312 missing.</p> + + <p>During 1918 the combatant strength of all arms of the British army in + France fluctuated between 1,293,000 in March and 1,164,790 in November, + while the rifle or infantry strength was from 616,000 to 416,748 during + the same periods. From the date of the armistice to 31st Dec., 1919, the + following number of demobilizations and discharges were + effected:—</p> + + <p>Demobilized.—Officers, 144,144; other ranks, 3,332,882.</p> + + <p>Discharged as medically unfit.—Officers, 23,476; other ranks, + 207,500.</p> + + <p>Discharged from reserves.—Other ranks, 143,603.</p> + + <p>The modern British army is governed by the Army Council (instituted + 1904), presided over by the Secretary of State for War. This Council, + which consists of five military and five civilian members, including the + president, works through the War Office, of which the principal + departments are in charge of one or other of the members of the Council. + On the military side these departments are those of the Chief of the + Imperial General Staff, the Adjutant-General to the Forces, the + Quartermaster-General to the Forces, and the Master-General of the + Ordnance. For administrative and training purposes the United Kingdom is + divided into seven Commands and the London District. When necessary, + Commands are further subdivided into Districts. The army, generally + speaking, consists of (1) the Regular Army, (2) the Territorial Force, + and (3) the Reserves. The service battalions, which formed such a large + and important part of the army in the war, do not, properly speaking, + form part of the permanent military forces, though the organization of + the army as a whole is such that it is capable of expansion to any extent + by the process of raising new battalions and affiliating them to existing + regular or territorial units. The regular army comprises the Household + Cavalry, Cavalry of the Line, the Royal Regiment of Artillery, the Corps + of Royal Engineers, the Brigade of Guards, and Infantry of the Line. In + addition there are administrative troops and services such as the Royal + Army Service Corps, the Royal Army Medical Corps, with its allied service + Queen Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service, the Royal Army + Ordnance Corps, and others. Other corps brought into existence during the + war, such as the Tank and Machine-gun Corps, have at present no permanent + status. In the future, however, machine-gun companies will form an + integral portion of each battalion of the regular army.</p> + + <p>Under the conditions of the war the old national method of voluntary + recruitment was <!-- Page 250 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page250"></a>[250]</span>found to be insufficient, and recourse was + had to the principle of universal military service. Under the Military + Service Acts the age limit was gradually raised till it finally included + all men up to the age of fifty. Exceptions were made in the case of + munition-workers, or those employed on work of national importance. Since + the signature of the Treaty of Peace the army so raised was gradually + demobilized till, by 31st March, 1920, it had decreased to 400,000, + including 100,000 Indians paid by the Imperial Government. Concurrently + with demobilization, voluntary enlistment was reintroduced, and the + post-war army is once more a voluntary one, in which men serve under very + much improved conditions as to pay and prospects. The period of service + under this system is twelve years, of which seven normally are with the + colours and five in the reserve: in certain cases modifications of these + periods are allowed, and, in addition, a soldier may be allowed to extend + his colour service to the full twelve years, or, in exceptional cases, to + complete twenty-one years for pension. Discharge or transfer to the + reserve is ordinarily granted on completion of the agreed period of + service. Pay of all ranks was very materially improved in 1919. Whereas + formerly a private soldier on enlistment received 1<i>s.</i> a day, he + now receives 2<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i>, and after two years' service + 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> To this last amount is added, under very reasonable + conditions, a further daily sum of 6<i>d.</i> proficiency pay. A sergeant + now gets 7<i>s.</i> a day instead of from 2<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i> to + 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>, and a regimental sergeant-major 14<i>s.</i> + instead of 5<i>s.</i> or 6<i>s.</i> Add to these rates of pay free + rations, free housing, free medical attendance, and, in the future, + doubtless free education, and it must be admitted that the present-day + soldier is not badly paid. The rate of pay is a flat rate for all arms, + special allowances being given where necessary.</p> + + <p>The Household Cavalry comprises the 1st and 2nd Life Guards and the + Horse Guards (Blues). In peace-time they serve only in London and + Windsor. They alone retain the old cavalry rank of corporal of horse + instead of sergeant. Cavalry of the line consists of dragoon guards, + dragoons, hussars, and lancers. The dragoon guards are numbered + separately from 1 to 7, while dragoons, hussars, and lancers run + consecutively from 1 to 21. A regiment of cavalry is commanded by a + lieutenant-colonel and consists of 25 officers and 497 other ranks. Each + regiment is organized in three squadrons commanded by majors, while a + squadron is divided into four troops, each under a subaltern officer, + troops being further subdivided into sections under non-commissioned + officers. Cavalry regiments, except hussars, carry guidons or standards + for ceremonial purposes. These differ from the colours of infantry in + that they are not consecrated and are carried by non-commissioned + officers instead of by officers. Hussars carry no standards. There are + six cavalry depots for recruiting and preliminary-training purposes, i.e. + for lancers at Woolwich, hussars at Scarborough, Bristol, and Dublin, and + dragoons at Newport (Mon.) and Dunbar. The Cavalry Special Reserve + consists of the Irish Horse and King Edward's Horse, and during the war + reserve cavalry regiments were maintained.</p> + + <p>The Royal Regiment of Artillery comprises batteries of horse artillery + designated by letters of the alphabet, and batteries of field, siege, + heavy, and mountain by numbers. A battery, with some exceptions in the + case of the heaviest type, consists of six guns or howitzers, horse + artillery having 13-pounder guns, and field artillery 18-pounder guns or + 4.5-inch howitzers. Horse artillery is intended to act with cavalry, and + is therefore provided with a rather lighter gun. It can go anywhere that + cavalry can go, and all the gun detachments are mounted. Field artillery + works with infantry, and the gun detachments either walk or are carried + on the limbers, only the officers, certain non-commissioned officers, and + specialists such as scouts, range-finders, and trumpeters being + mounted.</p> + + <p>A battery is commanded by a major, with a captain as + second-in-command, and is organized in three sections of two guns each + under a subaltern. These sections are again subdivided into subsections + of one gun each under a sergeant. Each gun is drawn by six horses, the + driver of the leading pair being responsible for direction and pace. A + corporal in the Royal Artillery is known as a bombardier, and the rank + and file as gunners or drivers, according to their special duties, though + drivers are also trained to some extent as gunners.</p> + + <p>Heavy and siege artillery have come into their own in the late war, + and consist roughly of all armament heavier than that of field artillery. + Sixty-pounders and 4.7-inch howitzers form heavy batteries, while guns of + 6 inch and upwards drawn by mechanical transport or mounted on railway + trucks are known as siege batteries. Mountain artillery, of which most of + the batteries are in India, is armed with 2.95-inch screw guns capable of + being dismantled and carried piecemeal on mules. Another form is found on + the west coast of Africa, where carriers take the place of mules. These + guns are brought into action very quickly, but their shell-power is + small.</p> + + <p>The corps of Royal Engineers is responsible for the construction and + maintenance of barracks, fortifications, and other military works, and + for the personnel required for search-lights and electrical + communications of the coast and anti-aircraft defences. With few + exceptions the personnel of the corps is recruited entirely from <!-- + Page 251 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page251"></a>[251]</span>skilled tradesmen and artisans. For + service in the field, Royal Engineer units known as field squadrons and + field companies accompany the fighting troops, and carry a certain amount + of bridging material and tools. More highly specialized units carry out + such services as mining, heavy bridging, railway, survey, and + sound-ranging work. An important feature of Royal Engineer work in war is + the supply of materials and stores, for which purpose an elaborate + organization is provided in addition to the units already noted.</p> + + <p>The Brigade of Guards—the infantry of the household + troops—comprises the five regiments of foot-guards. These are the + Grenadier, the Coldstream, the Scots, the Irish, and the Welsh Guards of + from one to three battalions each. Being household troops these regiments + are subject to certain special regulations and have certain privileges. + As a general rule they serve only in London, Windsor, or Aldershot, and + only leave England for active service, though individual battalions have + served in the past both in Cairo and Gibraltar.</p> + + <p>The infantry, of which there are sixty-eight regiments of from two to + four battalions each, provides the bulk of the army. Infantry is formed + into regiments for recruiting and territorial distribution purposes, but + the battalion is the actual unit both for fighting and administration. In + many cases the Army List gives the name of an officer holding the + appointment of colonel of the regiment: this is in all cases a purely + honorary appointment and entails no duties or responsibilities. An + infantry battalion is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel and consists of + 32 officers and 1000 other ranks. Both in peace and war a battalion is + divided into head-quarters and four companies, each of the latter having + six officers, including the company commander, who is a major or senior + captain. Subalterns command platoons. For recruiting purposes for + infantry of the line the country is divided into Regimental Districts, in + which are located the depots of the regiment concerned: these depots are + commanded by a senior officer of one of the battalions of the regiment + with the necessary staff for training purposes. Recruits are usually + first trained at the depot and later transferred to the battalion + requiring them. The Regimental Districts are again combined into larger + districts in which are situated the Record Offices dealing with the + regiments of the district. The denomination of the district dealing with + any particular regiment is shown in the Army List in brackets. The + principles of interior organization are the same throughout the army, and + as they can be best illustrated with the example of an infantry battalion + a short description of this organization follows. Owing to the continual + growth of military science, the improvement in arms and means of + destruction generally, and the confusion and noise inseparable from a + modern battle, the size of the personally-controlled unit has gradually + decreased till, in the present day, in the British army, it is accepted + as an axiom that no larger number of men than six can be conveniently + controlled in battle by one man. In former days companies, battalions, + and even larger formations were both controlled and received their + executive orders direct from their commanders—and to such an extent + was this carried that Fortescue, in his <i>History of the British + Army</i>, notes that Marlborough was in the habit of putting his whole + army through the platoon exercise by means of flags and bugle-calls. + This, of course, was not actually in face of the enemy, but the principle + is the same. The stress of modern war now makes individual control of + large bodies impossible, and the British army is therefore organized both + for peace and war in a series of units of ever-increasing size, each + under its own commander, who is responsible to his immediate superior for + the well-being, training, and leading of his command. Taking the infantry + organization as an example, we find that in the lowest stage, that of the + 'section', the command is both personal and direct, in that the corporal + controls and commands the six men composing his fighting unit personally + and directly by word of mouth. In peace-time, and for administrative and + training purposes, the section may reach to ten men, who live, work, and + play together. In the next stage—that of the 'platoon', consisting + of four sections—we find the control is rather less personal and + direct, in that the platoon commander, a subaltern, controls his command + largely through his subordinates, the section commanders. A further stage + is that of the 'company', which consists of four platoons and company + head-quarters. A company is commanded by a major or senior captain, has a + captain as second-in-command, and a company sergeant-major and + quartermaster-sergeant to assist in running it. Here again the control is + less direct though still personal. The next stage is the amalgamation of + companies into a battalion, consisting of a head-quarters and four + companies. Battalion head-quarters consist of a lieutenant-colonel + commanding, a major second-in-command, an adjutant, and a quartermaster. + Certain other officers, when required, and the regimental sergeant-major + and quartermaster-sergeant, and various other ranks make up the total of + some 130. The commanding officer of a battalion is directly responsible + for the well-being of his command, for its training, discipline, + equipment, and general efficiency. In carrying on his duties he works + through his company <!-- Page 252 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page252"></a>[252]</span>commanders, and with the assistance of the + regimental staff mentioned above, so that we have a direct chain of + command and responsibility from the corporal commanding a section of six + to ten men through platoons and companies to the lieutenant-colonel + commanding a battalion of some thousand men. A detail of armament made + possible by the enormous increase of machine-guns necessitated during the + war is interesting. Thirty-two Lewis-guns are now provided for each + infantry battalion, and are distributed to alternate sections in a + platoon. Thus in each platoon two sections are known as rifle sections + and two as Lewis-gun sections, and these arms are normally used by the + respective sections; but men of all sections are trained in the use of + both rifle and Lewis-gun.</p> + + <p>When we come to formations larger than a battalion, we find the system + of control and command becoming less and less personal and direct, as in + all such formations the commander works to a less or greater extent + through his staff. Roughly speaking, the staff is of two divisions, the + one consisting of the general staff branch and the other of the branch of + the adjutant and quartermaster-general. Again speaking very generally, + the general staff is charged with duties bearing directly on military + operations, while officers of the adjutant and quartermaster-general's + branch deal more with administrative questions. Officers of the general + staff are known as general staff officers, while those of the other + branch are called, for example, assistant or deputy-assistant adjutant or + quartermaster-general, according to their several duties.</p> + + <p>The formation in which distinct and separate units are first collected + under one superior commander is known as a brigade. This, according to + present establishment, consists of three battalions and a trench-mortar + battery, the whole under a general officer called a brigadier-general, + assisted by a staff of two officers—a brigade-major and a + staff-captain. Since March, 1920, however, the title of brigadier-general + has been altered to 'colonel-commandant'. The strength of a brigade is + something over 3000 of all ranks. In a division, which is the next + highest formation, and which is commanded by a major-general with a staff + of three general staff officers and three officers belonging to the A.G. + and Q.M.G. branch, we find the first appearance of a mixed force. It is + not a force of 'all arms', as cavalry is not included, but, in addition + to infantry (three brigades), it has a considerable strength in + artillery, besides engineers and the necessary administrative troops. Two + or more divisions, together with a cavalry regiment and certain other + troops, form an 'army corps', and two or more corps go to make up an + 'army'. These are not at present peace-time formations of the British + army.</p> + + <p>Of the administrative troops and services already mentioned, the Royal + Army Service Corps provides for the material wants of the army both in + the way of food and transport. It is organized in companies designated by + numerals.</p> + + <p>The Royal Army Medical Corps provides the personnel and organization + for the medical and sanitary services of the army. In peace-time this + service is organized on a garrison basis, hospitals being established + where required for the use of all troops in that particular garrison. For + war purposes medical officers are still attached to regiments, and in + addition the corps provides the personnel and organization necessary for + field ambulances, casualty clearing-stations, hospital trains and ships, + and various classes of fixed hospitals. The corps is organized in + numbered companies, and the rank and file are trained in first aid and + ambulance duties generally. It is administered by a director-general of + Army Medical Services with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is an + officer of the adjutant-general's department.</p> + + <p>The other departments and administrative services of the army consist + of the Royal Army Ordnance Corps, dealing generally with munitions of + war; the Army Pay Department; the Royal Army Chaplains' Department; and + the Royal Army Veterinary Corps, of which the functions are sufficiently + designated by their title. In addition, there are manufacturing + establishments at Woolwich Arsenal and elsewhere.</p> + + <p>The Army Reserve consists of men who have completed their term of + colour service, or service with a unit, and have thus passed into civil + life, though still remaining liable for a period of years to be recalled + to the colours if mobilization is ordered.</p> + + <p>The Special Reserve was formed under the Territorial and Reserve + Forces Act of 1907 out of the old militia. It consists generally of one + battalion to each regiment of infantry, and is numbered consecutively + with regular battalions of the regiment. It will, in the future, probably + be again known as the Militia.</p> + + <p>The Royal Marines—artillery and infantry, or the 'blue' and the + 'red' marines, Kipling's "soldier and sailor too"—are not part of + the army proper, as they are administered entirely by the Admiralty. They + are, however, amenable to the Army Act when serving ashore. The term of + service is for twelve years, which may be extended to make up twenty-one. + Men may be transferred to or from the army at their own request.</p> + + <p>The Territorial Force, or, as it is to be called in future, the + Territorial Army, is raised entirely <!-- Page 253 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page253"></a>[253]</span>on a county or + territorial basis. It was originally created by the Territorial and + Reserve Forces Act of 1907 out of a nucleus of the old yeomanry and + volunteers. It is raised and administered by County Associations in each + county and principal city. These associations consist of a president, + chairman, military representative, and co-opted members. The + administration of the Territorial Army is carried out by the County + Associations in accordance with schemes provided by the Army Council, + while all questions of training are reserved to the War Office. The + Territorial Army consists of all arms, including machine-gun corps and + the necessary administrative services: its full war establishment is + fixed at approximately 345,000 of all ranks, though, for the present, + only some 60 per cent of them are to be enlisted. The rejuvenated + Territorial Army is to be in all respects a true second line of imperial + defence, self-contained and self-supporting, while the regular army and + its special reserve of militia battalions form the first line. Defence + entails a certain amount of offence to bring it to a successful issue: it + has therefore been decided that the new Territorial Army will not be + relegated merely to the duty of guarding the country from invasion, but + will, in a national emergency, be entitled to take its place under its + own organization in the fighting line in any part of the world where its + services may be required. This will entail enlistment for general + service, but the interest of the force and of individuals composing it + are safeguarded by the proviso that before the Territorial Army can be + ordered out of the country an Act authorizing the movement be passed by + Parliament. It is further provided that the Territorial Army will on no + account be called on to supply drafts for regular regiments, and that in + case fresh regiments have to be raised on the lines of the New Army, the + machinery of the Territorial Army will be used to organize them. + Enlistment will be for three or four years, according to whether a man + has served during the European War (1914-8) or not; age limits are + normally between 18 and 38. The army is to be organized in one cavalry + (yeomanry) division of 12 regiments, and 14 infantry divisions each under + a selected general officer, either regular or territorial. Pay and + allowances during training periods will be as in the regular army, and in + addition certain bounties will be obtainable. Training periods will be + fifteen days in camp annually, besides a minimum number of drills and a + musketry course. On completion of colour service a man will pass to the + Territorial Reserve.</p> + + <p>The New Army, consisting of the 'service battalions' of existing + regiments, is a product of the war. When, on the outbreak of war, many + new regiments were rapidly raised, they were affiliated to regular + regiments with consecutive numbers after the territorial battalions, and + this organization was continued and extended to cope with the personnel + obtained under the Military Service Acts.</p> + + <p>Educational establishments connected with the army include the Staff + College, the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, and the Royal Military + Academy at Woolwich. At the Staff College officers obtain a course of + instruction and study to fit them for service on the staff of the army. + At Sandhurst, where the course of instruction is two years, some 700 + gentlemen cadets are trained for commissions in the guards, cavalry, and + infantry of the line, and the Indian army. At Woolwich gentlemen cadets + desirous of entering the Royal Artillery or the Royal Engineers receive + their training. In addition to these there are schools of gunnery and + engineering, the Small Arms School at Hythe, the School of Physical + Training at Aldershot, and many others: while, for sons and orphans of + soldiers, there are the Duke of York's Royal Military School and the + Royal Hibernian School. The Royal Hospital, Chelsea, and the Royal + Hospital, Kilmainham, Dublin, are institutions for the care of old and + distressed soldiers. In every garrison there are garrison schools for + soldiers under fully qualified army schoolmasters, while in the future + there is likely to be a very great increase in educational facilities of + all kinds for the rank and file of the army. The training of the British + army for war now embraces a variety of subjects, and at the Royal + Military College and Academy the gentlemen cadets are not only taught the + principles and practice of their future profession, but are also + instructed in the methods of imparting their knowledge to others. For + example, the course of training at the Royal Military College embraces + drill and weapon training—under which head is included musketry + (both theory and practice) and bayonet work—physical training, and + riding. As part of the physical-training course they receive instruction + as to the best methods of organizing regimental assaults-at-arms and + sports. Among the more academic subjects are military history and + tactics, field sketching and topography, field engineering, military law + and administration, and elementary hygiene. A great deal of practical + work is done, and the course of two years is designed to fit a young + officer, on joining his regiment, to undertake the entire charge and + training of his troop or platoon. At the Royal Military Academy extra + subjects, such as artillery work and more advanced engineering, are also + taught.</p> + + <p>As to the soldier's training generally, drill is insisted on as an aid + to discipline, which it <!-- Page 254 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page254"></a>[254]</span>undoubtedly is, and exact performance of + the various movements ordered is expected. In other branches of training + more individuality is allowed, and the days when the bayonet-exercise was + performed by a battalion to the music of the regimental band having + passed, considerable latitude as to positions and execution is permitted + in this particular branch, attention being principally concentrated on + inculcating the 'offensive spirit'. The modern soldier also learns how to + use a Lewis-gun, to throw or fire a grenade, what to do in case of a gas + attack, the rudiments of field engineering, and how to keep himself + healthy.</p> + + <p>In addition to the more generally-known units of the army there are + certain corps which, though raised in the colonies, still form part of + the army, and which are administered by the imperial authorities. Under + this head are the Royal Malta Artillery (local service); the West India + Regiment (two battalions) and the West African Regiment, both for general + service and both administered by the War Office. Among other colonial + corps maintained by the imperial Government, though not forming part of + the regular army, are the West African Frontier Force (Nigeria) and the + King's African Rifles (East Africa). Both these are administered by the + Colonial Office.</p> + + <p><i>Dominions.</i>—The military forces of the self-governing + dominions are raised and organized under the laws of such dominions.</p> + + <p>Those of the Commonwealth of Australia are organized on a system of + compulsory military training for all males between the ages of twelve and + twenty-six. In the earlier stages boys are trained in cadet corps, from + which they pass to the Citizen Army, and from there, having attained the + age of twenty-six, to recognized rifle clubs. The annual period of + training in the Citizen Army is sixteen days. When the scheme is in full + working order this force will consist of twenty-three 4-battalion + brigades of infantry, twenty-three regiments of light horse, fifty-six + 4-gun batteries, and the necessary complement of engineers and + administrative troops. During the war this organization was in abeyance, + and regiments were raised as required for overseas service, and, though + proposals for conscription were negatived, the commonwealth still managed + to send some 330,000 men to the various theatres of war out of 417,000 + raised. The casualties, killed, wounded, and missing, were 210,724.</p> + + <p>The Commonwealth also maintains a small permanent force of trained + professional soldiers.</p> + + <p>The New Zealand forces are also organized on the principle of + universal training for all males. The details differ somewhat from those + in favour in Australia, but the principle is the same, i.e. that every + male should be trained for home defence. Boys of from twelve to eighteen + years of age are trained in cadet corps, from which they pass to + regiments of the Territorial Force, and from twenty-five to thirty belong + to the reserve. Cadets do annually a specified number of drills, while + the territorial training extends to seven clear days, a musketry course, + and certain drills every year. For the purposes of the war, conscription + was introduced in 1916, and 220,000 men were raised between 1914 and + 1918, out of which the casualties were nearly 57,000.</p> + + <p>Canada, unlike Australia and New Zealand, has no system of graduated + military training. The military forces of the dominion are organized as a + militia under a Minister of Militia and Defence working with a Council. + This militia is recruited by voluntary enlistment, and, on the outbreak + of war, consisted of a permanent force of 3000 and some 60,000 men who + had received militia training. This made possible the rapid dispatch to + France of a division which, by 1916, had increased to a corps of four + divisions and a cavalry brigade. Like the Mother Country and New Zealand, + Canada introduced conscription in 1917, and during the war raised nearly + 641,000 men and suffered 206,149 casualties, of which 56,110 were killed, + 149,733 wounded, and 306 missing.</p> + + <p>The Union of South Africa divides its military forces into the + permanent force and the citizen force. There is also a coast-defence + force. The permanent force consists of the five regiments of the South + African Mounted Rifles. South Africa's greatest military effort during + the war was directed towards German South-West and East Africa, but some + 27,000 men were enlisted for and sent to Europe out of a total number of + 136,000 raised. This total does not include coloured troops. The + casualties were 18,000.</p> + + <p>In other self-governing portions of the Empire troops were raised as + required, and in the West and East African colonies the existing + formations of native troops were considerably increased for service in + suitable portions of the various theatres of war. The official statement + of troops raised shows under the heading of 'other colonies' 134,837, + including coloured troops from South Africa and the West Indies. The + casualties among them amounted to 7519.</p> + + <p><i>The Army in India.</i>—The military forces in India consist + of those units of British cavalry, artillery, and infantry temporarily + serving in the country, and the Indian army proper, consisting of + regiments recruited from among the native inhabitants and normally + serving there. Enlistment is voluntary and for general service, one of + the promises made by a man on enrolment being "to go wherever ordered by + land and sea and not to allow caste usages to interfere with his duties + as a soldier". The Indian army, as a disciplined and organized force, + dates from the <!-- Page 255 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page255"></a>[255]</span>years between 1748 and 1758. In 1748 Major + Stringer Lawrence arrived in Madras with a commission from the Company as + commander-in-chief. His first act was to form the existing European + independent companies into regiments; his second to raise certain native + independent companies. In 1758 he formed these companies in their turn + into battalions, which he designated 'coast sepoys', and which still + exist under their present names of the 61st Pioneers and following + numbers. His system was extended to the other presidencies, and at the + period of the mutiny, in 1857, the native army in India consisted of some + 230,000 regular troops, besides irregulars. When the post-mutiny + reconstruction took place, the army was reorganized on an irregular basis + instead of as regular regiments on the British model. According to this + new system, the number of British officers in a regiment was considerably + reduced; native officers were given command of troops and companies, + while the British officer's command became the squadron, or wing. Native + artillery, with the exception of certain mountain batteries, was + abolished, and cavalry was reconstituted on the Silladar system, whereby, + in consideration of a larger monthly pay than was given to the infantry + sepoy, the trooper, or sowar, provided his own horse and sword. The + system thus introduced virtually remains to the present day, though it + has been modified and improved to suit later conditions. The infantry + officer's command has decreased from the wing of four companies to the + double company of two, and it is now known as a company and is organized + in four platoons on the British service model, platoons being commanded + by Indian officers. Of late years the number of British officers with an + Indian regiment has been increased to twelve, and at the present time a + committee is sitting in India to deliberate on the future construction of + the army. It is therefore impossible to give details of its future + strength. This, just before the war, was some 160,000, organized in 38 + regiments of cavalry, the corps of guides, 3 regiments of sappers and + miners, 118 regiments of infantry of 1 battalion each, and 10 regiments + of Gurkhas of 2 battalions each. There were also 13 mountain batteries. + The 'Imperial Service Troops', of which many contingents took part in the + war, are raised, paid, and maintained by princes and chiefs as a + contribution to the defence of the country, while their training is + supervised by British inspecting officers. The 'Indian Defence Force', + which has lately replaced the volunteers, and in which service is + compulsory for Europeans, is available for home defence only. During the + war India, by voluntary enlistment, provided 1,401,350 men. Of these many + new regiments were formed, and second, third, and fourth battalions added + to existing regiments. Casualties were very nearly 114,000, including + some 48,000 killed. Native Indian officers of cavalry are known as + ressaldars, ressaiders, and jemadars, while those of the infantry are + called subadars and jemadars. In each regiment the senior Indian officer + is called ressaldar or subadar-major.</p> + + <p>The army in India, by which is meant all military forces in India, is + administered by a commander-in-chief, who is a member of council. The + head-quarter staff includes a military secretary, the chief of the + general staff, an adjutant and a quartermaster-general, director-general + of ordnance and military works, and a director of medical + services.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Hon. J. W. + Fortescue, <i>History of the British Army</i>; C. W. C. Oman, <i>A + History of the Art of War: Middle Ages</i>; C. H. Firth, <i>Cromwell's + Army</i>; C. Walton, <i>History of the British Standing Army, + 1660-1700</i>; War Office, <i>Army Book for the British Empire</i>; F. N. + Maude, <i>Evolution of Modern Strategy</i>; G. F. R. Henderson, <i>The + Science of War</i>; C. Romagny, <i>Histoire générale de l'armée + nationale</i>; Heimann, <i>L'Armée allemande</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Army Act.</b> See <i>Military Law</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:22%;"> + <a href="images/image109.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image109.jpg" + alt="Army Worm" title="Army Worm" /></a> + Army Worm + </div> + + <p><b>Army Worm</b>, the very destructive larva of the moth + <i>Heliophĭla</i> or <i>Leucania unipuncta</i>, so called from its + habit of marching in compact bodies of enormous number, devouring almost + every green thing it meets. It is about 1½ inches long, greenish in + colour, with black stripes, and is found in various parts of the world, + but is particularly destructive in North America. The larva of + <i>Sciăra militaris</i>, a European two-winged fly, is also called + army worm.</p> + + <p><b>Arnat´to</b>, or <b>Annotta</b>. See <i>Annatto</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arnauld</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-nō), the name of a French family, + several members of which greatly distinguished themselves.—Antoine, + an eminent French advocate, was born 1560, died 1619. Distinguished as a + zealous defender of the cause of Henry IV, and for his powerful and + successful defence of the University of Paris against the Jesuits in + 1594. His family formed the nucleus of the sect of the Jansenists (see + <i>Jansenius</i>) in France.—His son Antoine, called the <i>Great + Arnauld</i>, was born 6th Feb., 1612, at Paris, died 9th Aug., 1694, at + Brussels. He devoted himself to theology, and was received in 1641 among + the doctors of the Sorbonne. He engaged in all the quarrels of the French + Jansenists with the Jesuits, the clergy, and the Government, was the + chief Jansenist writer, and was considered their head. Excluded from <!-- + Page 256 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page256"></a>[256]</span>the + Sorbonne, he retired to Port Royal, where he wrote, in conjunction with + his friend Nicole, a celebrated system of logic (hence called the <i>Port + Royal Logic</i>). On account of persecution he fled, in 1679, to the + Netherlands. His works, which are mainly controversies with the Jesuits + or the Calvinists, are very voluminous.—His brother Robert, born + 1588, died 1674, retired to Port Royal, where he wrote a translation of + Josephus, and other works.—Robert's daughter Angélique, born 1624, + died 1684, was eminent in the religious world, and was subjected to + persecution on account of her unflinching adherence to Jansenism.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´nauts.</b> See <i>Albania</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arndt</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rnt), Ernst Moritz, German patriot and + poet, was born 1769, died 1860. He was appointed professor of history at + Greifswald in 1806, and stirred up the national feeling against Napoleon + in his work <i>Geist der Zeit</i> (<i>Spirit of the Time)</i>. In 1812-3 + he zealously promoted the war of independence by a number of pamphlets, + poems, and spirited songs, among which it is sufficient to refer to his + <i>Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland?</i>, <i>Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen + liess</i>, and <i>Was blasen die Trompeten? Husaren, heraus!</i>, which + were caught up and sung from one end of Germany to the other. In 1817 he + married a sister of the theologian Schleiermacher, and settled at Bonn in + order to undertake the duties of professor of history. He was, however, + suspended till 1840 on account of his liberal opinions, when he was + restored to his chair on the accession of Frederick William IV.</p> + + <p><b>Arndt</b>, Johann, celebrated German mystic theologian, born 1555, + died 1621. His principal work, <i>Wahres Christenthum</i> (True + Christianity), is still popular in Germany, and has been translated into + almost all European languages. Another of his publications is + <i>Paradiesgaertlein</i>, translated into English (The Garden of + Paradise).</p> + + <p><b>Arne</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rn), Thomas Augustine, English composer, + born at London 1710, died 1778. His first opera, <i>Fair Rosamond</i>, + was performed in 1733 at Lincoln's-Inn Fields, and was received with + great applause. Then followed a version of Fielding's <i>Tom Thumb</i>, + altered into <i>The Opera of Operas</i>, a musical burlesque. His style + in the <i>Comus</i> (1738) is still more original and cultivated. To him + we owe the national air <i>Rule, Britannia</i>, originally given in a + popular piece called the <i>Masque of Alfred</i>. After having composed + two oratorios and several operas he received the degree of Doctor of + Music at Oxford. He composed, also, music for several of the songs in + Shakespeare's dramas, and various pieces of instrumental music.</p> + + <p><b>Arnee´</b>, one of the numerous Indian varieties of the buffalo + <i>(Bubălus arni)</i>, remarkable as being the largest animal of + the ox kind known. It measures about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and + from 9 to 10½ feet long from the muzzle to the root of the tail. It is + found chiefly in the forests at the base of the Himalayas.</p> + + <p><b>Arn´hem</b>, or <b>Arnheim</b>, a town in Holland, province of + Gelderland, 18 miles south-west of Zutphen, on the right bank of the + Rhine. Pleasantly situated, it is a favourite residential resort, and it + contains many interesting public buildings; manufactures cabinet wares, + mirrors, carriages, mathematical instruments, &c.; has paper-mills, + and its trade is important. In 1795 it was stormed by the French, who + were driven from it by the Prussians in 1813. Pop. 70,664 (1917).</p> + + <p><b>Arnhem Land</b>, a portion of the northern territory of S. + Australia, lying west of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and forming a sort of + peninsula.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´ni</b>, a town of Madras, on the Cheyair River, 16 miles south + of Arcot; formerly a large military station; stormed by Clive in 1751, + and scene of defeat of Hyder Ali by Sir Eyre Coote in 1782. Pop. + 5050.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´nica</b>, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositæ, containing + eighteen species, one of which is found in Central Europe, <i>A. + montāna</i> (leopard's bane or mountain tobacco), but is not a + native of Britain. It has a perennial root, a stem about 2 feet high, + bearing on the summit flowers of a dark golden yellow. In every part of + the plant there is an acrid resin and a volatile oil, and in the flowers + an acrid bitter principle called <i>arnicin</i>. The root contains also a + considerable quantity of tannin. A tincture of it is employed as an + external application to wounds and bruises. It was introduced into + English gardens about the middle of the eighteenth century.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´nim</b>, Elisabeth von, a German writer, also known as Bettina, + wife of Louis Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet Clemens Brentano; + born at Frankfort in 1785, died at Berlin 1859. Even in her childhood she + manifested an inclination towards eccentricities and poetical + peculiarities of many kinds. She entered into correspondence with Goethe, + for whom she entertained a violent passion, although he was then in his + sixtieth year. In 1835 she published Goethe's <i>Briefwechsel mit einem + Kinde</i> (Goethe's Correspondence with a Child), containing, among + others, the letters that she alleged to have passed between her and + Goethe. Her later writings dealt with subjects like the emancipation of + the Jews, and the abolition of capital punishment. Her husband, Ludwig + Achim von Arnim, born at Berlin in 1781, died 1831, distinguished himself + as a writer of novels. In concert with her brother, Clemens Brentano, he + published a collection of popular German songs and ballads entitled + <i>Des Knaben Wunderhorn</i>.—Her daughter, <!-- Page 257 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page257"></a>[257]</span>Gisela von Arnim, is + known in literature by her <i>Dramatische Werke</i> (3 vols., + 1857-63).</p> + + <p><b>Ar´no</b> (ancient <b>Arnus</b>), a river of Italy which rises in + the Etruscan Apennines, makes a sweep to the south and then flows + westwards, divides Florence into two parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4 + miles below it, into the Tuscan Sea, after a course of 130 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Arno´bius</b>, an early Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric + at Sicca Veneria, in Numidia, and in 303 became a Christian; he died + about 326. He wrote seven books of <i>Disputationes adversus Gentes</i> + (or <i>Adversus Nationes</i>), in which he refuted the objections of the + heathens against Christianity. This work betrays a defective knowledge of + Christianity, but is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and + Roman mythology.</p> + + <p><b>Arnold</b>, an urban district or town of England, Nottinghamshire, + 3 miles north-east of Nottingham, with lace and hosiery manufactures, + &c. It has a church built in the twelfth century, and a tower dating + from the fifteenth century and restored in 1868 and 1877. Pop. + 11,800.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´nold</b>, Benedict, a general in the American army during the + War of Independence, born in 1741. He rendered his name infamous by his + attempt to betray the strong fortress of West Point, with all the arms + and immense stores which were there deposited, into the hands of the + British. The project failed through the capture of Major André, when + Arnold made his escape to the British lines. He received a commission as + brigadier-general in the British army, and took part in several marauding + expeditions. He subsequently settled in the West Indies, and ultimately + came to London, where he died in 1801.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´nold</b>, Sir Edwin, <span class="scac">K.C.I.E.</span>, poet, + Sanskrit scholar, and journalist, born 1832. Educated at Oxford, where he + took the Newdigate prize for a poem entitled the <i>Feast of + Belshazzar</i> in 1852, he was successively second master in King Edward + VI's College at Birmingham, and principal of the Sanskrit College at + Poonah in Bombay. In 1861 he joined the editorial staff of the <i>Daily + Telegraph</i>, with which he was henceforth connected. He died in 1904. + He was author of <i>Poems, Narrative and Lyrical</i>; translations from + the Greek and Sanskrit; <i>The Light of Asia</i>, a poem on the life and + teaching of Buddha; <i>The Light of the World</i>; <i>Pearls of the + Faith</i>; <i>Lotus and Jewel</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´nold</b>, Matthew, English critic, essayist, and poet, was born + at Laleham, near Staines, 1822, being a son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He + was educated at Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford, and became a Fellow of + Oriel College. He was private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, 1847-51; + appointed inspector of schools, 1851; professor of poetry at Oxford, + 1858; published <i>A Strayed Reveller and other poems</i>, 1848; + <i>Empedocles on Etna</i>, 1853; <i>Merope</i>, 1858; <i>Essays in + Criticism</i>, 1865; <i>On the Study of Celtic Literature</i>, 1867; + <i>Schools and Universities on the Continent</i>, 1868; <i>St. Paul and + Protestantism</i>, 1870; <i>Literature and Dogma</i>, 1873; <i>Last + Essays on Church and Religion</i>, 1877; <i>God and the Bible</i>, 1878; + <i>Discourses on America</i>, 1885, &c. He received the degree of + <span class="scac">LL.D.</span> from Edinburgh, and that of <span + class="scac">D.C.L.</span> from Oxford, and lectured in Britain and in + America. He died in 1888. A complete edition of his works in 15 vols. + appeared in 1905.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: H. W. Paul, + <i>Matthew Arnold</i> (English Men of Letters Series); G. Saintsbury, + <i>Matthew Arnold</i> (Modern English Writers Series); G. W. E. Russell, + <i>Matthew Arnold</i> (Literary Lives Series); F. Bickley, <i>Matthew + Arnold and his Poetry</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´nold</b>, Thomas, headmaster of Rugby School, and professor of + modern history in the University of Oxford, born at Cowes, in the Isle of + Wight, in 1795, died 1842. He entered Oxford in his sixteenth year, and + in 1815 he was elected Fellow of Oriel College, and both in that year and + 1817 he obtained the chancellor's prize for Latin and English essays. + After taking deacon's orders he settled at Laleham, near Staines, where + he employed himself in preparing young men for the universities. In 1828 + he was appointed headmaster of Rugby School, and devoted himself to his + new duties with the greatest ardour. While giving due prominence to the + classics, he deprived them of their exclusiveness by introducing various + other branches into his course, and he was particularly careful that the + education which he furnished should be in the highest sense moral and + Christian. His success was remarkable. Not only did Rugby School become + crowded beyond any former precedent, but the superiority of Dr. Arnold's + system became so generally recognized that it may be justly said to have + done much for the general improvement of the public schools of England. + In 1841 he was appointed professor of modern history at Oxford, and + delivered his introductory course of lectures with great success. His + chief works are his edition of Thucydides, his <i>History of Rome</i> + (unhappily left unfinished), and his <i>Sermons</i>. There is an + admirable memoir of him by A. P. Stanley, Dean of Westminster (London, 2 + vols., 1845).—Cf Lytton Strachey, <i>Eminent Victorians</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´nold of Brescia</b>, an Italian religious and political reformer + and martyr of the twelfth century. He was one of the disciples of + Abélard, and attracted a considerable following by preaching against the + corruption of the clergy. Excommunicated by Innocent II, he withdrew to + Zürich, but soon reappeared in Rome, where he was taken and burned + (1155).</p> + + <p><b>Arnold-Forster</b>, Hugh Oakeley, grandson of <!-- Page 258 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page258"></a>[258]</span>Dr. Arnold of + Rugby, and adopted son of the late W. E. Forster, <span + class="scac">M.P.</span>, whose wife was his aunt, was born in 1855, died + in 1909. He was educated at Rugby and University College, Oxford. He sat + as member of Parliament for West Belfast from 1892, for Croydon from + 1906, as a Liberal Unionist, was Parliamentary Secretary to the Admiralty + from 1900 to 1903, then Secretary of State for War, a position which he + held till Dec., 1905, having put forward sweeping proposals for the + improvement of our army. He wrote on various subjects, especially books + for popular instruction, including <i>How to Solve the Irish Land + Question</i>, <i>The Citizen Reader</i>, <i>This World of Ours</i>, + <i>Things New and Old</i>, <i>In a Conning Tower</i>, <i>A History of + England</i>, <i>English Socialism of To-day</i>, <i>Military Needs and + Military Policy</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´non</b>, a river in Palestine, the boundary between the country + of the Moabites and that of the Amorites, afterwards of the Israelites, a + tributary of the Dead Sea. It is now called Wady-el-Mojib.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´not</b>, or <b>Ar´nut</b>, a name of the agreeably flavoured + farinaceous tubers of the earth-nut or pig-nut (<i>Bunium + flexuōsum</i> and <i>B. Bulbocastănum</i>). See + <i>Earth-nut</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´nott</b>, Dr. Neil, an eminent physician and physicist, was born + at Arbroath, 1788, died 1874. Having graduated as <span + class="scac">M.A.</span> at Aberdeen, he then studied medicine, and was + appointed a surgeon in the East India Company's naval service. In 1811 he + commenced practice in London. In 1837 he was appointed extraordinary + physician to the queen. In 1827 he published <i>Elements of Physics</i>, + and in 1838 a treatise on <i>Warming and Ventilation</i>, &c. He is + widely known as the inventor of a stove which is regarded as one of the + most economical arrangements for burning fuel, a ventilating + chimney-valve, and his water-bed for the protection of the sick against + bed-sores. In 1869 he gave £1000 to each of the four Scottish + universities and £2000 to London University for the promotion of the + study of physics. He was a strong advocate of a scientific as opposed to + a purely classical education.</p> + + <p><b>Arnprior</b>, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 35 miles west of + Ottawa, on the right bank of the River Ottawa, where it is joined by the + Madawaska, and with important railway connections. Pop. 4405.</p> + + <p><b>Arnsberg</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rnz´ber<i>h</i>), a town in Prussia, + province Westphalia, capital of the district of same name, on the Ruhr. + Pop. 10,256.—The district of Arnsberg has an area of 2972 sq. + miles, and a population of 2,400,000.</p> + + <p><b>Arnstadt</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rn´sta<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>t), a town of Germany, in + Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 11 miles south by west of Erfurt, upon the + Gera, which divides it into two parts. It has manufactures in leather, + &c., and a good trade in grain and timber. Pop. 17,907.</p> + + <p><b>Arnswalde</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rnz´va<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>l-de), a town of Prussia, province + Brandenburg, 39 miles south-east of Stettin. Pop. 8730.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´nulf</b>, great-grandson of Charlemagne, elected King of Germany + in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 887; invaded Italy, captured Rome, and + was crowned emperor by the Pope (896); died <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 898.</p> + + <p><b>Aroi´deæ.</b> See <i>Araceæ</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´olsen</b>, a German town, capital of Waldeck. Pop. 2793.</p> + + <p><b>Aromat´ics</b>, drugs, or other substances which yield a fragrant + smell, and often a warm pungent taste, as calamus (<i>Acōrus + Calămus</i>), ginger, cinnamon, cassia, lavender, rosemary, laurel, + nutmegs, cardamoms, pepper, pimento, cloves, vanilla, saffron. Some of + them are used medicinally as tonics, stimulants, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aromatic Vinegar</b>, a very volatile and powerful perfume made by + adding the essential oils of lavender, cloves, &c., and often + camphor, to crystallizable acetic acid. It is a powerful excitant in + fainting, languor, and headache.</p> + + <p><b>Aro´na</b>, an ancient Italian town near the south extremity of + Lago Maggiore. Pop. 4474. In the vicinity is the colossal statue of San + Carlo Borromeo, 70 feet in height, exclusive of pedestal 42 feet + high.</p> + + <p><b>Aroos´took</b>, a river of the north-eastern United States and New + Brunswick, a tributary of the St. John, length 120 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Arou´ra</b>, or <b>Aru´ra</b>, an ancient Egyptian measure of + surface, according to Herodotus the square of 100 cubits, containing, + 21,904 sq. feet.</p> + + <p><b>Arpad</b>, founder of the Magyar monarchy, born about 870, died + 907. See <i>Hungary</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arpeggio</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-pej´ō), the distinct sound of the + notes of an instrumental chord; the striking the notes of a chord in + rapid succession, as in the manner of touching the harp instead of + playing them simultaneously.</p> + + <p><b>Arpent</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-pän<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">˙</span></span>), formerly a French measure of land, + equal to five-sixths of an English acre; but it varied in different parts + of France; the Parisian arpent contained 32,400 sq. feet, the common + arpent 40,000 sq. feet.</p> + + <p><b>Arpino</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-pē´nō; ancient + <b>Arpinum</b>), a town of Southern Italy, province of Caserta, + celebrated as the birthplace of Gaius Marius and Cicero. It manufactures + woollens, linen, paper, &c. Pop. 10,309.</p> + + <p><b>Arqua</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r´kwa<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a village of Northern Italy, about 13 + miles south-west of Padua, where the poet Petrarch died, 18th July, 1374. + A monument has been erected over his grave. Pop. 1700.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´quebus</b>, a hand-gun; a species of fire-arm of the sixteenth + century, resembling a musket. It was fired from a forked rest, and + sometimes <!-- Page 259 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page259"></a>[259]</span>cocked by a wheel, and carried a ball that + weighed nearly 2 ounces. A larger kind used in fortresses carried a + heavier shot.</p> + + <p><b>Arraca´cha.</b> See <i>Aracacha</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arracan´.</b> See <i>Aracan</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´rack.</b> See <i>Arack</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´ragon.</b> See <i>Aragon</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´rah</b>, a town of British India, in Shahabad district, Bengal, + rendered famous during the mutiny of 1857 by the heroic resistance of a + body of twenty civilians and fifty Sikhs, cooped up within a detached + house, to a force of 3000 sepoys, who were ultimately routed and + overthrown by the arrival of a small European reinforcement. Pop. + 46,170.</p> + + <p><b>Arraignment</b> (ar-rān´-), the act of calling or setting a + prisoner at the bar of a court to plead guilty or not guilty to the + matter charged in an indictment or information. In Scots law the term is + <i>calling the diet</i>.—The <i>Clerk of Arraigns</i> is an officer + attached to assize courts and to the Old Bailey, who assists in the + arraignment of prisoners, and puts formal questions to the jury.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´ran</b>, an island of Scotland, in the Firth of Clyde, part of + Bute county; length, north to south, 20 miles; breadth, about 10 miles; + area, 165 sq. miles, or 105,814 acres, of which about 15,000 are under + cultivation. It is of a wild and romantic appearance, particularly the + northern half, where the island attains its loftiest summit in Goatfell, + 2866 feet high. The coast presents several indentations, of which that of + Lamlash, forming a capacious bay, completely sheltered by Holy Island, is + one of the best natural harbours in the west of Scotland. On the small + island of Pladda, about a mile from the south shore, a lighthouse has + been erected. The geology of Arran has attracted much attention, as + furnishing within a comparatively narrow space distinct sections of the + great geological formations; while the botany possesses almost equal + interest, both in the variety and the rarity of many of its plants. Among + objects of interest are relics of Danish forts, standing stones, cairns, + &c. Lamlash and Brodick are villages. The island is a favourite + resort of summer visitors, and is reached by steamer from Ardrossan. Pop. + 8294.</p> + + <p><b>Arran, Earls of.</b> See <i>Hamilton, Family of</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arrangement</b>, in music, the adaptation of a composition to + voices or instruments for which it was not originally written; also, a + piece so adapted.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´ran Islands.</b> See <i>Aran</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arraro´ba.</b> See <i>Araroba</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arras</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rä), a town of France, capital of the + department Pas-de-Calais, well built, with several handsome squares and a + citadel, cathedral, public library, botanic garden, museum, and numerous + flourishing industries. In the Middle Ages it was famous for the + manufacture of tapestry, to which the English applied the name of the + town itself (arrazo). The battle of Arras was fought and Vimy Ridge taken + by the Allies on 9th April, 1917. Pop. 24,200.</p> + + <p><b>Arrest´</b> is the apprehending or restraining of one's person, + which, in civil cases, can take place legally only by process in + execution of the command of some court or officers of justice; but in + criminal cases any man may arrest without warrant or precept, and every + person is liable to arrest without distinction, but no man is to be + arrested unless charged with such a crime as will at least justify + holding him to bail when taken. <i>Magna Charta</i> and the <i>Habeas + Corpus Act</i> are the two great statutes for securing the liberty of the + subject against unlawful arrests and suits.</p> + + <p><b>Arrest´ment</b>, in Scots law, a process by which a creditor may + attach money or movable property which a third party holds for behoof of + his debtor. In 1870 an Act was passed for Scotland which provides that + only that part of the weekly wages of labourers, and of workpeople + generally, which is in excess of 20<i>s</i>. is liable to arrestment for + debt.</p> + + <p><b>Arrest of Judgment</b>, in law, the staying or stopping of a + judgment after verdict, for causes assigned. Courts have power to arrest + judgment for intrinsic causes appearing upon the face of the record; as + when the declaration varies from the original writ; when the verdict + differs materially from the pleadings; or when the case laid in the + declaration is not sufficient in point of law to found an action + upon.</p> + + <p><b>Arre´tium.</b> See <i>Arezzo</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arrhenath´erum</b>, a genus of oat-like grasses, of which <i>A. + elatius</i>, sometimes called French rye-grass, is a valuable fodder + plant.</p> + + <p><b>Arrhenius</b>, Svante August, famous Swedish physicist and chemist, + born 19th Feb., 1859, at Wyk, near Upsala. He was educated at the + Universities of Upsala (1876-81) and Stockholm (1881-4), spent two years + in travelling, and after doing much original research was appointed + professor of physics at the University of Stockholm. To him is due the + establishment of the theory of electrolytic dissociation, supplying a + reasonable explanation of many chemical phenomena otherwise insoluble. He + subsequently extended the application of the electrolytic theory to the + phenomena of atmospheric electricity. His dissertation <i>Sur la + conductibilité galvanique des électrolytes</i> appeared in 1884. Among + his other works is <i>Worlds in the Making</i> (English translation, + 1908).</p> + + <p><b>Ar´ria</b>, the heroic wife of a Roman named Cæcīna Pætus. + Pætus was condemned to death in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 42 for his + share in a conspiracy against the emperor Claudius, and was encouraged to + suicide by his wife, who stabbed herself and then <!-- Page 260 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page260"></a>[260]</span>handed the dagger to + her husband with the words, 'It does not hurt, Pætus!'</p> + + <p><b>Ar´rian</b>, or <b>Flavius Arrianus</b>, a Greek historian, native + of Nicomedia, flourished in the second century, under the emperor Hadrian + and the Antonines. He was first a priest of Ceres; but at Rome he became + a disciple of Epictetus, was honoured with the citizenship of Rome, and + was advanced to the senatorial and even consular dignities. His extant + works are: <i>The Expedition of Alexander</i>, in seven books; a book + <i>On the Affairs of India</i>; an <i>Epistle to Hadrian</i>; a + <i>Treatise on Tactics</i>; a <i>Periplus of the Euxine Sea</i>; a + <i>Periplus of the Red Sea</i>; and his <i>Enchiridion</i>, a moral + treatise, containing the discourses of Epictetus.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´ris</b>, in architecture, the line in which the two straight or + curved surfaces of a body, forming an exterior angle, meet each + other.</p> + + <p><b>Arro´ba</b> (Spanish), a weight formerly used in Spain, and still + used in the greater part of Central and South America. In the States of + Spanish origin its weight is generally equal to 25.35 lb. avoirdupois; in + Brazil it equals 32.38 lb.—Also a measure for wine, spirits, and + oil, ranging from 2¾ gallons to about 10 gallons.</p> + + <p><b>Arröe</b>, Danish island. See <i>Aeröe</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arrondissement.</b> See <i>France</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arrow.</b> See <i>Archery, Bow</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arrowhead</b> (Sagittaria), a genus of aquatic plants found in all + parts of the world within the torrid and temperate zones, nat. ord. + Alismaceæ, distinguished by possessing barren and fertile flowers, with a + three-leaved calyx and three coloured petals. The common arrowhead (<i>S. + sagittifolia</i>), the only native species in Britain, is known by its + arrow-shaped leaves with lanceolate straight lobes.</p> + + <p><b>Arrowheaded Characters.</b> See <i>Cuneiform Writing</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arrow Lake</b>, an expansion of the Columbia River, in British + Columbia, Canada; about 95 miles long from <span class="scac">N.</span> + to <span class="scac">S.</span>; often regarded as forming two + lakes—Upper and Lower Arrow Lake.</p> + + <p><b>Arrowrock Dam.</b> See <i>Dams</i> and <i>Reservoirs</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image110.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image110.jpg" + alt="Arrow-root" title="Arrow-root" /></a> + Arrow-root (<i>Maranta arundinācĕa</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Arrow-root</b>, a starch largely used for food and for other + purposes. Arrow-root proper is obtained from the rhizomes or rootstocks + of several species of plants of the genus Maranta (nat. ord. Marantaceæ), + and perhaps owes its name to the scales which cover the rhizome, which + have some resemblance to the point of an arrow. Some, however, suppose + that the name is due to the fact of the fresh roots being used as an + application against wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows, and others say + that <i>arrow</i> is a corruption of <i>ara</i>, the Indian name of the + plant. The species from which arrow-root is most commonly obtained is + <i>M. arundinācĕa</i>, hence called the <i>arrow-root + plant</i>. Brazilian arrow-root, or tapioca meal, is got from the large + fleshy root of <i>Manihot utilissima</i>, after the poisonous juice has + been got rid of; East Indian arrow-root, from the large rootstocks of + <i>Curcŭma angustifolia</i>; Chinese arrow-root, from the creeping + rhizomes of <i>Nelumbium speciōsum</i>; English arrow-root, from + the potato; Portland arrow-root, from the corms of <i>Arum + maculātum</i>; and Oswego arrow-root, from Indian corn. Analyses + made in 1902 and 1906 show that the idea generally held of the nourishing + qualities of arrow-root is a delusion, and that the proteids, which are + true muscle-builders, are present in an extremely small extent. + Arrow-root, however, mixed with eggs, milk, and flavourings, is largely + used in the dietary of invalids.</p> + + <p><b>Arrowsmith</b>, Aaron, a distinguished English chartographer, born + 1750, died 1823; he raised the execution of maps to a perfection it had + never before attained.—His nephew, John, born 1790, died 1873, was + no less distinguished in the same field; his <i>London Atlas of Universal + Geography</i> may be specially mentioned.</p> + + <p><b>Arroyo</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-rō´yo), the name of two towns of + Spain, in Estremadura, the one, called Arroyo del Puerco (pop. 5727), + about 10 miles west of Caceres; the other, called Arroyo Molinos de + Montanches, about 27 miles south-east of Caceres, memorable from the + victory gained by Lord Hill over a French force under General Gerard, + 28th Oct., 1811. <!-- Page 261 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page261"></a>[261]</span></p> + + <p><b>Ar´ru</b> (or <b>Aroo</b>) <b>Islands,</b> a group belonging to the + Dutch, south of western New Guinea, and extending from north to south + about 127 miles. They are composed of coralline limestone, nowhere + exceeding 200 feet above the sea, and are well wooded and tolerably + fertile. The natives belong to the Papuan race, and some of them are + Christians. The chief exports are trepang, tortoise-shell, pearls, + mother-of-pearl, and edible birds'-nests. Pop. of group about 20,000.</p> + + <p><b>Arsa´ces,</b> the founder of a dynasty of Parthian kings (256 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), who, taking their name from him, are called + Arsacidæ. There were thirty-one in all. See <i>Parthia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´samas</b>, a manufacturing town in the Russian government of + Nijni-Novgorod, on the Tesha, 250 miles east of Moscow, with a cathedral + and large convent. Pop. 12,000.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´senal</b>, a royal or public magazine or place appointed for the + making, repairing, keeping, and issuing of military stores. An arsenal of + the first class should include factories for guns and gun-carriages, + small-arms, small-arms ammunition, harness, saddlery, tents, and powder; + a laboratory and large store-houses. In arsenals of the second class + workshops take the place of the factories. The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, + which manufactures warlike implements and stores for the army and navy, + was formed about 1720, and comprises factories, laboratories, &c., + for the manufacture and final fitting up of almost every kind of arms and + ammunition. Great quantities of military and naval stores are kept at the + dockyards of Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Pembroke. In France there + are various arsenals or depots of war-material, which is manufactured at + Mézières, Toulouse, Besançon, &c.; the great naval arsenals are Brest + and Toulon. Until 1919 the chief German arsenals were at Spandau, + Strassburg, and Dantzig. The chief Austrian arsenal was the immense + establishment at Vienna, which included gun-factory, laboratory, + small-arms and carriage factories, &c. Russia had her principal + arsenal at Petrograd, with supplementary factories of arms and ammunition + at Briansk, Kiev, and elsewhere. In Italy Turin is the centre of the + military factories. There are a number of arsenals in the United States, + but individually they are of little importance.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´senic</b> (symbol <b>As</b>, atomic weight 75), a common element + usually found combined with metals as arsenides, the commonest of which + is arsenical pyrites, FeAsS. It has a steel colour and high metallic + lustre, and tarnishes on exposure to the air, first changing to yellow, + and finally to black. In hardness it equals copper; it is extremely + brittle, and very volatile, beginning to sublime before it melts. It + burns with a blue flame, and emits a smell of garlic. Its specific + gravity is 5.76. It forms compounds with most of the metals. Combined + with sulphur it forms orpiment and realgar, which are the yellow and red + sulphides of arsenic. Orpiment is the true <i>arsenicum</i> of the + ancients. With oxygen arsenic forms two compounds, the more important of + which is arsenious oxides or arsenic trioxide + (As<sub>4</sub>O<sub>6</sub>), which is the <i>white arsenic</i>, or + simply <i>arsenic</i> of the shops. It is usually seen in white, glassy, + translucent masses, and is obtained by sublimation from several ores + containing arsenic in combination with metals, particularly from + arsenical pyrites. Of all substances arsenic is that which has most + frequently occasioned death by poisoning, both by accident and design. + The best remedies against the effects of arsenic on the stomach are + ferric hydroxide or magnesic hydroxide, or a mixture of both, with + copious draughts of bland liquids of a mucilaginous consistence, which + serve to procure its complete ejection from the stomach. Oils and fats + generally, milk, albumen, wheat-flour, oatmeal, sugar or syrup, have all + proved useful in counteracting its effect. Like many other virulent + poisons it is a safe and useful medicine, especially in skin diseases, + when judiciously employed. It is used as a flux for glass, and also for + forming pigments. The arsenite of copper (Scheele's green) and a double + arsenite and acetate of copper (emerald green) were formerly largely used + to colour paper-hangings for rooms; but as poisonous gases are liable to + be given off, the practice has been to a great extent abandoned. Arsenic + compounds have been used for colouring confectionery, and other articles, + bright green, but their chief industrial use is in the preparation of + insecticides. Arsenic is found in crude oil of vitriol, and occasionally + in products such as grape-sugar, beer, &c., in the manufacture of + which oil of vitriol is employed. Plants die when placed in a solution of + arsenic, but corn is often steeped in such a solution, previous to + planting, for preventing smut, and the growth of the future plant is not + injured thereby.</p> + + <p><b>Arshin</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-shēn´), a Russian measure of + length equal to 28 inches.</p> + + <p><b>Arsin´oë</b>, a city of ancient Egypt on Lake Mœris, said to + have been founded about 2300 B. C., but renamed after Arsinoë, wife and + sister of Ptolemy II of Egypt, and called also <i>Crocodilopolis</i>, + from the sacred crocodiles kept at it.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´sis</b>, a term applied in prosody to that syllable in a measure + where the emphasis is put; in elocution, the elevation of the voice, in + distinction from <i>thesis</i>, or its depression. <i>Arsis</i> and + <i>thesis</i>, in music, are the strong position and weak position of the + bar, indicated by the down-beat and up-beat in marking time.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´son</b>, in English law, the malicious burning of a + dwelling-house or outhouse of another man, which by the common law is + felony, and which, if <!-- Page 262 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page262"></a>[262]</span>any person is therein, is capital. Also, + the wilful setting fire to any church, chapel, warehouse, mill, barn, + agricultural produce, ship, coal-mine, and the like. In Scotland it is + called <i>wilful fire-raising</i>, and in both England and Scotland it is + a considerable aggravation of the crime if the burning is to defraud + insurers.</p> + + <p><b>Art</b>, in its most extended sense, as distinguished from nature + on the one hand and from science on the other, has been defined as every + regulated operation or dexterity by which organized beings pursue ends + which they know beforehand, together with the rules and the result of + every such operation or dexterity. Science consists in <i>knowing</i>, + art in <i>doing</i>. In this wide sense it embraces what are usually + called the useful arts. In a narrower and purely æsthetic sense it + designates what are more specifically termed the fine arts, as + architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and poetry. The useful arts + have their origin in positive practical needs, and restrict themselves to + satisfying them. The fine arts minister to the sentiment of taste through + the medium of the beautiful in form, colour, rhythm, or harmony. See + <i>Fine Arts</i>, <i>Painting</i>, <i>Sculpture</i>, &c.—In the + Middle Ages it was common to give certain branches of study the name of + arts.—Cf. A. C. R. Carter, <i>History of Art<i>, </i>The Year's + Art</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Art Collections.</b> See <i>Collections, Artistic</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Art</b>, Teaching of. With the advent of the present industrial age + the teaching of art has undergone a profound change. The fine and the + industrial arts have been equally affected. In mediæval times, and in the + earlier classic ages, the system of apprenticeship prevailed, and all + teaching of the arts and of the artistic crafts was given by masters of + the various arts or trades to the apprentices who worked under their + guidance as assistants. Standards of excellence were maintained by trade + guilds, who enforced rules as to workmanship as well as rules for the + economic conditions of each trade or craft. The painter of pictures, or + of mural decorations, was trained in the same way as any other craftsman, + working as an apprentice under a master.</p> + + <p>When, in the last century, machinery driven by steam-power took the + place of hand labour in industry, the small independent workshops + gradually disappeared, as the industrial centres increased in those + localities where coal or raw material was most easily obtained; and, as + the processes of each trade or craft became more and more subdivided and + specialized, the old system of apprenticeship, which had become + unnecessary, broke down. The teaching and tradition of the small + independent craft workshops had no counterpart in the new centralized + industrial systems. Even the painters of pictures needed no longer to + prepare their own materials, for special industries arose, and mechanical + processes were developed, for the work which formerly had been done in + the artists' workshops by apprentices. The fine arts in this way suffered + the loss of their old systems of teaching and instruction.</p> + + <p>To meet the need for a revival of art teaching in the crafts and other + industries, there arose a movement towards the centralization of teaching + in schools of art during the latter half of the nineteenth century. + Following the impulse given to that movement by the great exhibition in + 1850, the British Government founded the schools of science and art in + London and in most of the important provincial towns. Earlier in the + century bodies of artists had founded national academies for the teaching + of art; and the teaching of drawing was gradually adopted as a part of + ordinary school education. Step by step training in schools of art or + technical schools took the place of the teaching formerly given during + apprenticeship in every craft workshop. The ancient guilds were replaced + by the new trades unions, but these took no part in the maintenance of + artistic standards nor of quality in workmanship.</p> + + <p>At the present time the teaching of art begins with the early school + lessons in drawing, and is carried on in special technical classes or + schools of art, where teachers of the 'fine arts' and of the artistic + crafts give instruction to students preparing for professional work. In a + few of the artistic trades the system of apprenticeship still survives, + but the teaching given by that means is usually supplemented by + attendance at a school of art or technical school. Under the Education + Act of 1918 attendance at technical classes in the daytime became + compulsory for apprentices in all industrial trades.</p> + + <p>The subject of art teaching was formerly disregarded by the + universities, but has become definitely within their province since the + founding of the Slade professorships at Oxford, Cambridge, and London + Universities, and of the professorship of fine art at the University of + Edinburgh.</p> + + <p>The chief schools of art in Great Britain are the schools of the Royal + Academy in London, the Slade School at University College, London, and + the Royal College of Art at South Kensington, also the Central School of + Arts and Crafts, and the other large metropolitan schools of the London + County Council.</p> + + <p>In most of the English provincial towns are municipal or other schools + of art under the control of the Board of Education.</p> + + <p>In Scotland the chief schools are the four central + institutions—the Edinburgh College of Art, and the schools of art + of Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Dundee. In each of these a diploma is given on + the satisfactory completion of a prescribed course of study. <!-- Page + 263 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page263"></a>[263]</span></p> + + <p>In Ireland the chief schools are those of the Royal Hibernian Academy + in Dublin, and the provincial schools of art under the Department of + Agriculture and Technology.</p> + + <p>On the Continent the chief centre of artistic training has for many + years been in Paris. Advanced students from most European and American + art schools spend some of the later period of their study in the schools + of Paris, in painting, in sculpture, or in architecture. There is, + naturally, a valuable incentive and stimulation due to this gathering + together of advanced students from all countries, as well as to the high + academic tradition and sense of style of the French.</p> + + <p>The 'atelier' system, which is followed in the French schools, is + simple and personal. The expenses of an 'atelier', or studio, are borne + by a group of students by the consent and under the guidance of an artist + of reputation, who visits the 'atelier' at stated intervals, but is not + concerned in its administration. In this way the relations between the + professor and his pupils are extremely direct and personal. Most of the + distinguished artists of Paris are attached to some 'atelier' to which + chosen pupils are admitted.</p> + + <p>There are also in Paris excellent schools for training in the applied + arts, schools for furniture-making, printing, jewellery, and other + artistic trades. These are on private foundations, but also receive State + aid.</p> + + <p>The teaching of art that is given at the present day as a part of + ordinary general education attempts little more than a training in the + elements of drawing, with some practice in the use of colour. The purpose + of the drawing lesson is the attainment of skill in the representation of + objects rather than the training of the æsthetic sense, or of artistic + judgment or taste.</p> + + <p>In the schools of art opportunities are provided for training in + drawing and painting, sculpture, and architecture, and in the general + principles of design in these arts, and in many of the artistic crafts + and industrial processes. In some localities, where particular industries + or artistic trades are concentrated, special schools for artistic and + technical training are provided. The present tendency is towards the + development of special schools for particular artistic trades or + professions.</p> + + <p>A complete system of training in any art must of necessity include: + (1) actual technical practice; (2) teaching of the canons of workmanship + of the art; (3) acquaintance with its historical development, especially + with the notable examples and the highest achievements of past masters in + the art.</p> + + <p><b>Arta</b> (ancient <b>Ambracia</b>), a gulf, town, and river of + north-western Greece. The town was transferred by Turkey to Greece in + 1881 (pop. 8000). It stands on the River Arta, which for a considerable + distance above its mouth formed a part of the boundary between Greece and + Turkey.—The province of Arta has an area of 395 sq. miles, and a + pop. of 52,400.</p> + + <p><b>Artaxerx´es</b> (Old Pers. <i>Artakhsathra</i>, 'the mighty'), the + name of several Persian kings:—1. <b>Artaxerxes</b>, surnamed + Longimănus, succeeded his father Xerxes I, 465 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> He subdued the rebellious Egyptians, terminated + the war with Athens, governed his subjects in peace, and died 425 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>—2. <b>Artaxerxes</b>, surnamed Mnemon, + succeeded his father Darius II in the year 405 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> After having vanquished his brother Cyrus he + made war on the Spartans, who had assisted his enemy, and forced them to + abandon the Greek cities and islands of Asia to the Persians. On his + death, 359 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, his son Ochus ascended the + throne under the name of—3. <b>Artaxerxes Ochus</b> (359 to 339 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>). After having overcome the + Phœnicians and Egyptians, and displayed great cruelty in both + countries, he was poisoned by his general Bagoas.</p> + + <p><b>Arte´di</b>, Peter, a Swedish naturalist, born 1705, drowned at + Amsterdam 1735. He studied at Upsala, turned his attention to medicine + and natural history, and was a friend of Linnæus. His <i>Bibliotheca + Ichthyologica</i> and <i>Philosophia Ichthyologica</i>, together with a + life of the author, were published at Leyden in 1738.</p> + + <p><b>Artel</b>, a name for co-operative associations in Russia. These + associations were known in ancient Russia as <i>drushina</i> or + <i>wataga</i>. The artels originally consisted of bodies of men + associating for the purpose of jointly undertaking a piece of work and + dividing the profits. Artels were formed in the thirteenth and fourteenth + centuries for the co-operation of their members in hunting and fishing. + Inspired and stimulated by the Schulze-Delitzsch associations established + in Germany, the Russian artels have extended their activity to various + branches of industrial life. There are now consum artels, credit artels, + and insurance artels, but the most important are the artisan and + industrial artels. Some of the artels, however, are little more than + trade guilds with mutual responsibility.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´tĕmis</b>, an ancient Greek divinity, identified with the + Roman Diana. She was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto or Latona, + and was the twin sister of Apollo, born in the Island of Delos. She is + variously represented as a huntress, with bow and arrows; as a goddess of + the nymphs, in a chariot drawn by four stags; and as the moon-goddess, + with the crescent of the moon above her forehead. She was a maiden + divinity, never conquered by love, except when Endymion made her feel its + power. She demanded the strictest chastity from her worshippers, and she + is represented as having changed <!-- Page 264 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page264"></a>[264]</span>Actæon into a stag, and + caused him to be torn in pieces by his own dogs, because he had secretly + watched her as she was bathing. The Artemisia was a festival celebrated + in her honour at Delphi. The famous temple of Artemis at Ephesus was + considered one of the wonders of the world, but the goddess worshipped + there was very different from the huntress goddess of Greece, being of + Eastern origin, and regarded as the symbol of fruitful nature.</p> + + <p><b>Artemi´sia</b>, Queen of Caria, in Asia Minor, about 352-350 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, sister and wife of Mausōlus, to whom she + erected in her capital, Halicarnassus, a monument, called the + Mausolēum, which was reckoned among the seven wonders of the + world.</p> + + <p><b>Artemi´sia</b>, a genus of plants of numerous species, nat. ord. + Compositæ, comprising mugwort, southernwood, and wormwood. Certain alpine + species are the flavouring ingredient in absinthe. See + <i>Wormwood</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Artemi´sium</b>, a promontory in Eubœa, an island of the + Ægean, near which several naval battles between the Greeks and Persians + were fought, 480 <span class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>Ar´temus Ward</b>. See <i>Browne, Charles Farrar</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´teries</b>, the system of cylindrical vessels or tubes, + membranous, elastic, and pulsatile, which convey the blood from the heart + to all parts of the body, by ramifications which, as they proceed, + diminish in size and increase in number, and terminate in minute + capillaries uniting the ends of the arteries with the beginnings of the + veins. There are two principal arteries or arterial trunks: the + <i>aorta</i>, which rises from the left ventricle of the heart and + ramifies through the whole body, sending off great branches to the head, + neck, and upper limbs, and downwards to the lower limbs, &c.; and the + <i>pulmonary artery</i>, which conveys venous blood from the right + ventricle to the lungs, to be purified in the process of respiration.</p> + + <p><b>Arteriot´omy</b>, the opening or cutting of an artery for the + purpose of blood-letting, as, for instance, to relieve pressure of the + brain in apoplexy.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image111.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image111.jpg" + alt="Artesian Well" title="Artesian Well" /></a> + Artesian Well. <span class="scac">A. A.</span> Outcrops of pervious + stratum (<span class="scac">C</span>) acting as collecting areas. <span + class="scac">B</span> and <span class="scac">D</span>. Impervious + stratum. + </div> + + <p><b>Arte´sian Wells</b>, so called from the French province of Artois, + where they appear to have been first used on an extensive scale, are + perpendicular borings into the ground through which water rises to the + surface of the soil, producing a constant flow or stream, the ultimate + sources of supply being higher than the mouth of the boring, and the + water thus rising by the well-known law. They are generally sunk in + valley plains and districts where the lower pervious strata are bent into + basin-shaped curves. The rain falling on the outcrops of these saturates + the whole porous bed, so that when the bore reaches it the water by + hydraulic pressure rushes up towards the level of the highest portion of + the strata. The supply is sometimes so abundant as to be used extensively + as a moving power, and in arid regions for fertilizing the ground, to + which purpose artesian springs have been applied from a very remote + period. Thus many artesian wells have been sunk in the Algerian Sahara, + which have proved an immense boon to the district. The water of most of + these is potable, but a few are a little saline, though not to such an + extent as to influence vegetation. The hollows in which London and Paris + lie are both perforated in many places by borings of this nature. At + London they were first sunk only to the sand, but afterwards into the + chalk. One of the most celebrated artesian wells is that of Grenelle, + near Paris, 1798 feet deep, completed in 1841, after eight years' work. + Artesian wells are now common in many countries, and have been sunk to + the depth of a mile or more. As the temperature of water from great + depths is invariably higher than that at the surface, artesian wells have + been made to supply warm water for heating manufactories, greenhouses, + hospitals, fish-ponds, &c. They have also been made in the United + States and Australia for the purpose of irrigation. Petroleum wells are + generally of the same technical description. Artesian wells are now made + with larger diameters than formerly, and altogether their construction + has been rendered much more easy in modern times. See <i>Boring</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arteveld</b>, or <b>Artevelde</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r´te-velt, a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r´te-vel-de), the name of two men + distinguished in the history of the Low Countries.—1. Jacob van, a + brewer of Ghent, born about 1300, was selected by his fellow-townsmen to + lead them in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. In 1338 he + was appointed captain of the forces of Ghent, and for several years + exercised a sort of sovereign power. A proposal to make the Black Prince, + son of Edward III of England, Governor of Flanders led to an insurrection + in which Arteveld lost his life (1345).—2. Philip, son of the + former, at the head of the forces of Ghent gained a great victory over + the Count of Flanders, Louis II, and for a time assumed the state of a + sovereign prince. His reign proved short-lived. The Count <!-- Page 265 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page265"></a>[265]</span>of Flanders + returned with a large French force, fully disciplined and skilfully + commanded. Arteveld was rash enough to meet them in the open field at + Roosebeke, between Courtrai and Ghent, in 1382, and fell with 25,000 + Flemings.</p> + + <p><b>Arthri´tis</b> (Gr. <i>arthron</i>, a joint), any inflammatory + distemper that affects the joints, particularly chronic rheumatism or + gout.</p> + + <p><b>Arthro´dia</b>, a species of articulation, in which the head of one + bone is received into a shallow socket in another; a ball-and-socket + joint.</p> + + <p><b>Arthrop´oda</b>, one of the two primary divisions (Anarthropoda + being the other) into which modern naturalists have divided the + sub-kingdom Annulosa, having the body composed of a series of segments, + some always being provided with articulated appendages. The division + comprises Crustaceans, Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Insects.</p> + + <p><b>Arthrozo´a</b>, a name sometimes given to all articulated animals, + including the arthropoda and worms.</p> + + <p><b>Arthur</b>, Chester Alan, twenty-first President of the United + States, born 1830, died 1886, was the son of Scottish parents, his father + being pastor of Baptist churches in Vermont and New York. He chose law as + a profession, and practised in New York. As a politician he became a + leader in the Republican party. During the civil war he was energetic as + quarter-master-general of New York in getting troops raised and equipped. + He was afterwards collector of customs for the port of New York. In 1880 + he was elected Vice-President, succeeding as President on the death of + Garfield in 1881.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´thur, King</b>, an ancient British hero of the sixth century, + son of Uther Pendragon and the Princess Igerna, wife of Gorlois, Duke of + Cornwall. He married Guinevere, or Ginevra; established the famous order + of the Round Table; and reigned, surrounded by a splendid Court, twelve + years in peace. After this, as the poets relate, he conquered Denmark, + Norway, and France, slew the giants of Spain, and went to Rome. From + thence he is said to have hastened home on account of the faithlessness + of his wife, and Modred, his nephew, who had stirred up his subjects to + rebellion. He subdued the rebels, but died in consequence of his wounds, + on the Island of Avalon. The story of Arthur is supposed to have some + foundation in fact, and has ever been a favourite subject with our + romanticists and our poets. It is generally believed that Arthur was one + of the last great Celtic chiefs who led his countrymen from the west of + England to resist the settlement of the Saxons in the country. But many + authorities regard him as a leader of the Cymry of Cumbria and + Strath-Clyde against the Saxon invaders of the east coast and the Picts + and Scots north of the Forth and the Clyde. See <i>Grail</i>, + <i>Merlin</i>, <i>Round Table</i>.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J. Rhys, <i>Studies in the Arthurian + Legend</i>; W. Lewis Jones, <i>King Arthur in History and Legend</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arthur's Seat</b>, a picturesque hill within the King's Park in the + immediate vicinity of Edinburgh; has an altitude of 822 feet; descends + rollingly to the <span class="scac">N.</span> and <span + class="scac">E.</span> over a base each way of about five furlongs; + presents an abrupt shoulder to the <span class="scac">S.</span>, and + breaks down precipitously to the <span class="scac">W.</span> It is + composed of a diversity of eruptive rocks, with some interposed and + up-tilted sedimentary ones; and derives its name somehow from the + legendary King Arthur.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´tiad</b> (Gr. <i>artios</i>, even-numbered), in chemistry, a + name given to an element of even equivalency, as a dyad, tetrad, &c.: + opposed to a perissad, an element of uneven equivalency, such as a monad, + triad, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Artichoke</b> (<i>Cynăra Scolўmus</i>), sometimes + called 'the Globe Artichoke', a well-known plant of the nat. ord. + Compositæ, somewhat resembling a thistle, with large divided prickly + leaves. The erect flower-stem terminates in a large round head of + numerous imbricated oval spiny scales which surround the flowers. The + fleshy bases of the scales with the large receptacle are the parts that + are eaten. Artichokes were introduced into England early in the sixteenth + century. The Jerusalem artichoke (a corruption of the It. + <i>girasole</i>, a sunflower), or <i>Helianthus tuberōsus</i>, is a + species of sunflower, whose roots are used like potatoes; it was + introduced into England in the early part of the seventeenth century.</p> + + <p><b>Article</b>, in grammar, a part of speech used before nouns to + limit or define their application. In English <i>a</i> or <i>an</i> is + usually called the indefinite article (the latter form being used before + a vowel sound), and <i>the</i>, the definite article, but they are also + described as adjectives. <i>An</i> was originally the same as <i>one</i>, + and <i>the</i> as <i>that</i>. In Latin there were no articles, and Greek + has only the definite article.</p> + + <p><b>Articles, Lords of the</b>, in Scottish history, a committee chosen + equally from each estate or division of Parliament to prepare the various + measures, which, when completed, were laid before the Parliament for + adoption or rejection. They were first appointed in 1369, and gradually + became a recognized part of the Scottish legislative machinery. Abolished + 1690.</p> + + <p><b>Articles, The Six</b>, in English ecclesiastical history, articles + imposed by a statute (often called the Bloody Statute) passed in 1541, + the thirty-third year of the reign of Henry VIII. They decreed the + acknowledgment of transubstantiation, the sufficiency of communion in one + kind, the obligation of vows of chastity, the propriety of private + masses, celibacy of the clergy, <!-- Page 266 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page266"></a>[266]</span>and auricular confession. Acceptance of + these doctrines was made obligatory on all persons under the severest + penalties; the Act, however, was relaxed in 1544, and repealed in + 1549.</p> + + <p><b>Articles, The Thirty-nine</b>, of the Church of England, a + statement of the particular points of doctrine, thirty-nine in number, + maintained by the English Church; first promulgated by a convocation held + in London in 1562-3, and confirmed by royal authority; founded on and + superseding an older code issued in the reign of Edward VI. The first + five articles contain a profession of faith in the Trinity; the + incarnation of Jesus Christ, His descent to hell, and His resurrection; + the divinity of the Holy Ghost. The three following relate to the canon + of the Scripture. The eighth article declares a belief in the Apostles', + Nicene, and Athanasian creeds. The ninth and following articles contain + the doctrine of original sin, of justification by faith alone, of + predestination, &c. The nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first + declare the Church to be the assembly of the faithful; that it can decide + nothing except by the Scriptures. The twenty-second rejects the doctrine + of purgatory, indulgences, the adoration of images, and the invocation of + saints. The twenty-third decides that only those lawfully called shall + preach or administer the sacraments. The twenty-fourth requires the + liturgy to be in English. The twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth declare the + sacraments effectual signs of grace (though administered by evil men), by + which God excites and confirms our faith. They are two: baptism and the + Lord's supper. Baptism, according to the twenty-seventh article, is a + sign of regeneration, the seal of our adoption, by which faith is + confirmed and grace increased. In the Lord's supper, according to article + twenty-eight, the bread is the communion of the body of Christ, the wine + the communion of his blood, but only through faith (article + twenty-ninth); and the communion must be administered in both kinds + (article thirty). The twenty-eighth article condemns the doctrine of + transubstantiation, and the elevation and adoration of the host; the + thirty-first rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous; the + thirty-second permits the marriage of the clergy; the thirty-third + maintains the efficacy of excommunication. The remaining articles relate + to the supremacy of the king, the condemnation of Anabaptists, &c. + They were ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. All candidates for ordination + must subscribe these articles, but they are not binding upon laymen, + except judges and certain university officials. This formulary is now + accepted by the Episcopalian Churches of Scotland, Ireland, and + America.</p> + + <p><b>Articles of Association</b> are the rules framed by a company for + the administration of its affairs. Public companies usually have separate + articles of their own, but this is not essential. When a registered + company has no articles, its business procedure is regulated by the + statutory form, found in Schedule 1 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act, + 1908, and known as Table A. When separate articles are used they must be + printed, signed, stamped, and filed along with the memorandum of + association. Unlike the memorandum, the articles may be altered at any + time, by special resolution, provided the alteration is within the powers + given by the memorandum. Thus, where preferred shares are created by the + memorandum, their privileges are more secure than if merely issued under + the articles. The articles are intended merely for internal + administration, and, while binding in questions between the company and + its members as such, they do not affect third parties, unless the company + has acted <i>ultra vires</i> and this was discoverable from the articles, + which the public can inspect at a nominal fee.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir F. B. Palmer, <i>Company Law</i>; A. + Coles, <i>Guide for the Company Secretary</i>; A. F. Topham, + <i>Principles of Company Law</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Articles of War.</b> See <i>Military Law</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Articula´ta</b>, the third great section of the animal kingdom + according to the arrangement of Cuvier, applied to invertebrates such as + insects and worms, in which the body displays a jointed structure. The + name is now obsolete. See <i>Arthropoda</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Articula´tion</b>, in anatomy a joint; the joining or juncture of + the bones. This is of three kinds: (1) <i>Diarthrōsis</i>, or a + movable connection, such as the ball-and-socket joint; (2) + <i>Synarthrōsis</i>, immovable connection, as by suture, or + junction by serrated margins; (3) <i>Symphysis</i>, or union by means of + another substance, by a cartilage, tendon, or ligament.</p> + + <p><b>Artificial Limbs.</b> Artificial limbs of a primitive kind have + been in use from very early times; but, as the material of which they + were made was perishable, few specimens have been preserved. In the + museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London there is a good + specimen of a Roman artificial leg which is believed to date back to the + third century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> This leg is made of wood, + covered with thin bronze; it has an iron sole-plate, and was fastened on + by means of a waist-belt.</p> + + <p>In Irish legend we are told of Nuada, who led the tribe of the Dananns + back to Ireland, having an artificial hand made of silver; from this he + received the name of Argetlam or Silver-handed. In mediæval times Goetz + von Berlichingen, who lost his right hand at the siege of Landshut + (1505), had a hand made of iron to supply its place.</p> + + <p>Great improvements have been made in the manufacture of artificial + limbs during the last <!-- Page 267 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page267"></a>[267]</span>fifty years. After the Franco-Prussian war + the French Government adopted an artificial arm and hand known as the + 'Beaufort' and issued it to the soldiers who required it. This hand had a + movable thumb controlled by a cord passing up the arm and fastened to a + loop band over the opposite shoulder. An Englishman named Heather Bigg + invented a hand with a movable thumb which was worked by a piston and + controlled by a rubber ball fastened under the arm-pit. These designs + have been improved upon from time to time, and an artificial hand can now + be made which is capable of opening and closing at will, and of lifting + and holding light articles.</p> + + <p>Artificial legs vary in design, from the simple pin leg to ingenious + contrivances such as the 'Anglesey' leg, which is made of seasoned willow + wood with steel ankles and knee-joints. This 'Anglesey' leg is the + standard best-quality limb in Great Britain. The German artificial-limb + makers use leather instead of wood. These leather legs fit comfortably, + but are too heavy, as they have to be supported by steel bands.</p> + + <p><b>Artillery</b>, all ordnance such as guns and howitzers as opposed + to small arms and machine-guns. The term is also used for the troops who + serve these arms.</p> + + <p>Generally speaking, artillery is divided into field, heavy, and siege + artillery. For details of organization see <i>Army</i>. The earliest form + of artillery was a metal tube which was placed in a convenient position + on the ground. The charge of gunpowder was ignited by placing a match to + a hole bored at the closed end, and the resulting explosion forced the + projectile—a stone—more or less in the required direction. + Later on this primitive weapon was provided with wheels. In another form + one man fired it while a second man supported it on his shoulder. In the + later Middle Ages guns of various calibres were known by the names of + birds of prey or reptiles; among such were falcons and falconets, + culverins and demi-culverins. The fourteenth century saw the development + of artillery for siege purposes—chiefly by the Germans—and in + the next century it began to be employed in open warfare; while in 1537 + the present Honourable Artillery Company was formed in London to + encourage the use of all 'weapons of volley'. These weapons of volley + were not even confined to fire-arms, but included bows and cross-bows. + The earliest English troops raised as artillery personel were called the + Regiment of Firelocks. Of late years artillery science has made almost + inconceivable progress, thanks to which, <i>inter alia</i>, it is no + longer necessary for the target to be visible from the gun-position. This + fact, combined with the use of smokeless powder, makes the locating of + hostile batteries exceedingly difficult. All field artillery, by which is + meant guns and howitzers, which accompany mobile troops are designed on + the quick-firing principle, by which the inevitable recoil at the moment + of firing is absorbed by an arrangement known as the recoil-carriage, + thus preventing any movement of the gun-carriage proper, and avoiding + unnecessary labour for the gun-detachments, while at the same time + allowing the men composing it to remain under cover of the shield with + which the guns are provided. With the quick-firing gun, propellent and + projectile are combined in one cartridge similar to that in use with + small arms; with the howitzer they are separated. This difference is due + to the fact that whereas guns are designed for a flat trajectory with a + deep zone of fire-effect, howitzers are intended for high-angle fire with + an almost vertical fall of shrapnel-bullets. This effect is produced by + varying the charge for different ranges. A field battery consists of 6 + guns or howitzers and 12 ammunition-wagons. Both guns and wagons are of + the limbered type, i.e. in two detachable parts, and the weight behind + the team of an English gun is approximately 2 tons.</p> + + <p>As to tactical principles, it is recognized that the function of + artillery is to assist the other arms, that it cannot by itself win a + battle, and that its true <i>métier</i> is to prepare the way for and + assist the infantry. During 1914-18 some 700,000 officers and men served + with the Royal Regiment.</p> + + <p><b>Artillery Company, The Honourable</b>, the oldest existing body of + volunteers in Great Britain, instituted in 1537, revived in 1610. It + comprises six companies of infantry, besides artillery, and furnishes a + guard of honour to the sovereign when visiting the city of London. + Previous to 1842 the Company elected their own officers, but since that + date they have been appointed by the Crown.</p> + + <p><b>Artillery Schools</b>, institutions established for the purpose of + giving a special training to the officers, and in some cases the men, + belonging to the artillery service. In Great Britain the artillery + schools are at Woolwich and Shoeburyness. The Department of Artillery + studies at Woolwich give artillery officers the means of continuing their + studies after they have completed the usual course at the Royal Military + College, and of qualifying for appointments requiring exceptional + scientific attainments. The School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness gives + instruction in gunnery to officers and men, and conducts all experiments + connected with artillery and stores. The sands at the mouth of the Thames + afford ample opportunity for artillery practice and firing at long + ranges. The Royal Artillery Institution at Woolwich contains a museum, + lecture-room, and printing-press, from which professional and scientific + papers are periodically issued. <!-- Page 268 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page268"></a>[268]</span></p> + + <p><b>Artiodac´tyla</b> (Gr. <i>artios</i>, even numbered, + <i>daktўlos</i>, a finger or toe), a section of the Ungulata or + hoofed mammals, comprising all those in which the number of the toes is + even (two or four), including the ruminants, such as the ox, sheep, deer, + &c., and also a number of non-ruminating animals, as the hippopotamus + and the pig.</p> + + <p><b>Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Act</b>, an English Act of + Parliament passed in 1868 to empower town councils and other local + authorities to demolish or improve dwellings unfit for human habitation, + and to build and maintain better dwellings in lieu thereof. Other Acts + for the same object were passed in 1875, 1879, and 1882. See + <i>Housing</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Artocarpa´ceæ</b>, a nat. ord. of plants, the bread-fruit order, by + some botanists ranked as a sub-order of the Urticaceæ or nettles. They + are trees or shrubs, with a milky juice, which in some species hardens + into caoutchouc, and in the cow-tree (<i>Brosĭmum + Galactodendron</i>) is a milk as good as that obtained from the cow. Many + of the plants produce an edible fruit, of which the best known is the + bread-fruit (Artocarpus).</p> + + <p><b>Artois</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>r-twä), a former province of France, + anciently one of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, now almost + completely included in the department of Pas-de-Calais.</p> + + <p><b>Artois, The Battle of.</b> See <i>European War</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Arts</b>, the name given to certain branches of study in the Middle + Ages, originally called the 'liberal arts' to distinguish them from the + 'servile arts' or mechanical occupations. These arts were usually given + as grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, and + astronomy. Hence originated the terms 'art classes', 'degrees in arts', + 'Master of Arts', &c., still in common use in universities, the + faculty of arts being distinguished from those of divinity, law, + medicine, or science. See <i>University</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Artsybashev</b>, Mikhail, Russian author, born in 1878. After a + number of short stories he wrote, at the age of twenty-five, a novel + entitled <i>Sanin</i>, published in 1907, which placed him at once among + the most famous contemporary Russian authors. Whatever opinion literary + critics may hold of this novel, his wonderful realism, simplicity of + style, and psychological analysis cannot be disputed.</p> + + <p><b>Art Unions</b>, associations for encouraging art, an object which + they mainly pursue by disposing of pictures, sculptures, &c., by + lottery among subscribers. They seem to have originated in France during + the time of Napoleon I. They soon afterwards took root in Germany, where + they have been very successful. The first art union established in + Britain was that at Edinburgh in 1834. Art unions were legalized by the + Art Unions Act, 1846 See <i>Lottery</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Artvin</b>, a town in the Republic of Georgia, in the Caucasus, + about 35 miles inland from Batum. Pop. 6720.</p> + + <p><b>Aruba</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-rö´ba<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), an island off the north coast of + Venezuela, belonging to Holland (a dependency of Curaçoa), about 30 miles + long and 7 broad; surface generally rock, quartz being abundant, and + containing considerable quantities of gold; a phosphate which is exported + for manure is also abundant. The climate is healthy. Pop. 9481 + (1916).</p> + + <p><b>Aru Islands.</b> See <i>Arru Islands</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <a href="images/image112.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image112.jpg" + alt="Arum" title="Arum" /></a> + Cuckoo Pint or Wake Robin (<i>Arum maculātum</i>). + + 1, Spadix. 2, Stamen. 3, Female flower. 4, Fruit. + </div> + + <p><b>A´rum</b>, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Araceæ. <i>A. + maculātum</i> (the common wake-robin, lords-and-ladies, or cuckoo + pint) is abundant in woods and hedges in England and Ireland, but is rare + in Scotland. It has acrid properties, but its corm yields a starch which + is known by the name of Portland sago or arrowroot. At one time this was + prepared to a considerable extent in Portland Island. All the species of + this genus develop much heat during flowering.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´undel</b>, a town in Sussex, England, on the River Arun, 4 miles + from its mouth, the river being navigable to the town for vessels of 250 + tons. The castle of Arundel, the chief residence of the dukes of Norfolk, + stands on a knoll on the north-east side of the town. Pop. (1921), + 2741.</p> + + <p><b>Ar´undel</b>, Thomas, third son of Richard <!-- Page 269 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page269"></a>[269]</span>FitzAlan, Earl of + Arundel, born 1352, died 1413. He was Chancellor of England and + Archbishop of Canterbury. He concerted with Bolingbroke to deliver the + nation from the oppression of Richard II, and was a bitter persecutor of + the Lollards and followers of Wycliffe.</p> + + <p><b>Arundelian Marbles</b>, a series of ancient sculptured marbles + discovered by William Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece at the + expense of and for Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who lived in the time + of James I and Charles I, and was a liberal patron of scholarship and + art. After the Restoration they were presented by the grandson of the + collector to the University of Oxford. Among them is the <i>Parian + Chronicle</i>, a chronological account of the principal events in + Grecian, and particularly in Athenian, history, during a period of 1186 + years, from the reign of Cecrops (1450 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) to + the archonship of Diognetus (264 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>).</p> + + <p><b>Arun´do.</b> See <i>Phragmites</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aruspices</b> (a-rus´pi-sēz), or <b>Haruspices</b>, a class + of priests in ancient Rome, of Etrurian origin, whose business was to + inspect the entrails of victims killed in sacrifice, and by them to + foretell future events.</p> + + <p><b>Aruwimi</b>, a large river of equatorial Africa, a tributary of the + Congo, on the north bank.</p> + + <p><b>Arval Brothers</b> (<i>Fratres Arvāles</i>), a college or + company of twelve members elected for life from the highest ranks in + ancient Rome, so called from offering annually public sacrifices for the + fertility of the fields (Lat. <i>arvum</i>, a field).</p> + + <p><b>Arve</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>rv), a river rising in the Savoyan Alps, + passes through the valley of Chamonix, and falls into the Rhone near + Geneva, after a course of about 50 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Arvic´ola</b>, a genus of rodent animals, sub-ord. Muridæ or Mice. + There are three British species. <i>A. amphibia</i> is the water-vole (or + water-rat), and <i>A. agrestis</i> is the field-vole or short-tailed + field-mouse. They are prolific animals, having three or four litters in + the year, each consisting of from four to ten young.</p> + + <p><b>A´ryan</b>, or <b>Indo-European Family of Languages</b>. See + <i>Indo-European Family</i>.</p> + + <p><b>As</b>, a Roman weight of 12 ounces, answering to the libra or + pound, and equal to 237.5 grains avoirdupois, or 327.1873 grammes French + measure. In the most ancient times of Rome the copper or bronze coin + which was called <i>as</i> actually weighed an <i>as</i>, or a pound, but + in 264 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> it was reduced to 2 ounces, in 217 + to 1 ounce, and in 191 to ½ ounce.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:15%;"> + <a href="images/image113.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image113.jpg" + alt="As" title="As" /></a> + As (half real size)—Specimen in British Museum + </div> + + <p><b>A´sa</b>, great grandson of Solomon and third King of Judah; he + ascended the throne at an early age, and distinguished himself by his + zeal in rooting out idolatry with its attendant immoralities. He died + after a prosperous reign of forty-one years.</p> + + <p><b>Asafe´tida</b>, or <b>Asafœtida</b>, a fetid inspissated sap + from Central Asia, the solidified juice of the <i>Narthex Asafetida</i>, + a large umbelliferous plant. It is used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic, + and in cases of flatulency, in hysteric paroxysms, and other nervous + affections. Notwithstanding its very disagreeable odour it is used as a + seasoning in the East, and sometimes in Europe. An inferior sort is the + product of certain species of Ferula.</p> + + <p><b>Asagræ´a.</b> See <i>Sabadilla</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asa´ma</b>, an active volcano of Japan, about 50 miles north-west + of Tokio, 8260 feet high.</p> + + <p><b>A´saph</b>, a Levite and psalmist appointed by David as leading + chorister in the divine services. His office became hereditary in his + family, or he founded a school of poets and musicians, which were called, + after him, "the sons of Asaph". See <i>Psalms</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asaph, St.</b>, a small cathedral city and bishop's see in Wales, + 15 miles north-west of Flint; founded about 550 by St. Kentigern or St. + Mungo, bishop of Glasgow, and named after his disciple St. Asaph, from + whom both the diocese and town took their name. The cathedral was built + about the close of the fifteenth century; it consists of a choir, a nave, + two aisles, and a transept. Pop. 1833.</p> + + <p><b>Asarabac´ca</b>, a small hardy European plant, nat. ord. + Aristolochiaceæ (<i>Asărum europœum</i>). Its leaves are + acrid, bitter, and nauseous, and its root is extremely acrid. Both the + leaves and root were formerly used as an emetic. It entered into the + composition of medicated snuffs recommended in cases of headache.</p> + + <p><b>As´arum.</b> See <i>Asarabacca</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asben</b>, <b>Air</b>, or <b>Ahir</b>, a kingdom of Africa, in the + Sahara. It consists of a succession of mountain groups and valleys, with + a generally western slope, and attains in its highest summits a height of + over 5000 feet. The valleys are very fertile, and often of picturesque + appearance. The inhabitants are Tuaregs or Berbers, with an admixture of + negro blood. They live partly in villages, partly as nomads. The country + is nominally ruled over by a sultan, who resides in the capital, Agades. + Pop. about 60,000.</p> + + <p><b>Asbes´tos</b>, or <b>Asbestus</b>, a remarkable and highly-useful + mineral, a fibrous variety of several members of the hornblende family, + composed of separable filaments, with a silky lustre. The fibres are + sometimes delicate, flexible, and elastic; at other times stiff and + brittle. It is incombustible, and anciently was wrought into a <!-- Page + 270 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page270"></a>[270]</span>soft, + flexible cloth, which was used as a shroud for dead bodies. In modern + times it has been manufactured into incombustible cloth, gloves, felt, + paper, &c.; is employed in gas-stoves; is much used as a covering to + steam boilers and pipes; is mixed with metallic pigments, and used as a + paint on wooden structures, roofs, partitions, &c., to render them + fire-proof, and is employed in various other ways, the manufacture having + recently greatly developed. Some varieties are compact, and take a fine + polish, others are loose, like flax or silky wool. <i>Ligniform + asbestos</i>, or <i>mountain-wood</i>, is a variety presenting an + irregular filamentous structure, like wood. <i>Rock-cork</i>, + <i>mountain-leather</i>, <i>fossil-paper</i>, and <i>fossil-flax</i> are + varieties. Asbestos is found in many parts of the world, but is chiefly + supplied by Italy, Canada, and Australia. Mineralogically it is distinct + from chrysotile, which is used for similar purposes.</p> + + <p><b>Asbjörnsen</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s´byeurn-sen), Peter Kristen, born 1812, + died 1885, a distinguished Norwegian naturalist and collector of the + popular tales and legends, fairy stories, &c., of his native + country.</p> + + <p><b>Asbury Park</b>, a small town on the coast of New Jersey, United + States, a great summer resort. Its population increases during the summer + months from 10,000 to 100,000.</p> + + <p><b>As´calon</b>, or <b>Ash´kelon</b>, a ruined town of Palestine, on + the sea-coast, 40 miles <span class="scac">W.S.W.</span> of Jerusalem. It + was occupied by the Crusaders under Richard I after a great battle with + Saladin (1192) and by General Allenby's troops in Nov., 1917.</p> + + <p><b>Asca´nius</b>, the son of Æneas and Creusa, and the companion of + his father's wanderings from Troy to Italy.</p> + + <p><b>As´caris.</b> See <i>Nematoda</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ascen´sion</b> (discovered on Ascension Day), an island of volcanic + origin belonging to Britain, near the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean, + about lat. 7° 55' <span class="scac">S.</span>; long. 14° 25' <span + class="scac">W.</span>; 700 miles north-west of St. Helena; area, about + 34 sq. miles. Pop. 196 (1914). It is retained by Britain as a naval + sanatorium, coaling and victualling station, and store depot. It has a + steam factory, naval and victualling yards, hospitals, and a coal depot. + It is celebrated for its turtle, which are the finest in the world. Wild + goats are plentiful, and oxen, sheep, pheasants, guinea-fowl, and rabbits + have been introduced, and thrive well. The village of Georgetown, the + seat of government, stands on the west side of the island, which is + governed under the admiralty by a naval officer.</p> + + <p><b>Ascension, Right</b>, of a star or other heavenly body, in + astronomy, the arc of the equator intercepted between the first point of + Aries and that point of the equator which comes to the meridian at the + same instant with the star.</p> + + <p><b>Ascension Day</b>, the day on which the ascension of the Saviour is + commemorated, often called <i>Holy Thursday</i>: a movable feast, always + falling on the Thursday but one before Whitsuntide.</p> + + <p><b>Ascet´icism</b> and <b>Ascet´ics</b> (from the Gr. + <i>askēsis</i>, meaning practice, bodily exercise, or athletic + training). The early Christians, who devoted themselves to severe + exercises of piety and strove to distinguish themselves from the world by + abstinence from sensual enjoyments and by voluntary penances, adopted the + name to signify the practice of spiritual things. Ascetics and asceticism + have played an important part in the Christian Church, but the principle + of striving after a higher and more spiritual life by subduing the animal + appetites and passions has no necessary connection with Christianity. + Thus there were ascetics among the Jews previous to Christ, and + asceticism was inculcated by the Stoics, while in its most extreme form + it may still be seen among the Brahmans and Buddhists. Monasticism was + but one phase of asceticism. It must also be borne in mind that in the + history of asceticism, pagan, Christian, Jewish, and Mohammedan, we are + often dealing not only with religious but distinctly abnormal + temperaments. See <i>Monasticism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asch</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>sh), a town of Czecho-Slovakia, in the + extreme north-western corner of former Bohemia, with manufactures of + cotton, woollen, and silk goods, bleachfields, dyeworks, &c. Pop. + 21,583.</p> + + <p><b>Aschaffenburg</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-sha<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>f´en-bör<i>h</i>), a town of Bavaria, on + the Main and Aschaff, 26 miles <span class="scac">E.S.E.</span> of + Frankfort. The chief edifice is the castle of Johannisberg, built between + 1605 and 1614, and for centuries the summer residence of the Elector. + There are manufactures of coloured paper, tobacco, liqueurs, &c. Pop. + 29,891.</p> + + <p><b>Ascham</b> (as´kam), Roger, a learned Englishman, born in 1515 of a + respectable family in Yorkshire, died 1568. He was entered at St. John's + College, Cambridge, 1530, and was elected fellow in 1534 and tutor in + 1537. He was Latin secretary to Edward VI and also to Mary. He was tutor + to Princess Elizabeth during her girlhood, and he became her secretary + after she ascended the throne. In 1544 he wrote his <i>Toxophilus, or + Schole of Shooting</i>, in praise of his favourite amusement and + exercise—archery. Between 1563 and 1568 he wrote his + <i>Scholemaster</i>, a treatise on the best method of teaching children + Latin. Some of his writings, including many letters, were in Latin. He + wrote the best English style of his time. His life was written by Dr. + Johnson to accompany an edition of his works published in 1769.</p> + + <p><b>Aschersleben</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>sh´ėrz-lā-ben), a town of + Prussian Saxony, in the district of Magdeburg, <!-- Page 271 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page271"></a>[271]</span>near the junction of + the Eine with the Wipper. Industries: woollens, machinery and metal + goods, sugar, paper, &c. Pop. 28,968.</p> + + <p><b>Ascid´ia</b> (Gr. <i>askos</i>, a wine-skin), the name given to the + 'Sea-squirts' or main section of the Tunicata, a class of animals of low + grade, resembling a double-necked bottle, of a leathery or gristly + nature, found at low-water mark on the sea-beach, and dredged from deep + water attached to stones, shells, and fixed objects. One of the prominent + openings admits the food and the water required in respiration, the other + is the excretory aperture. A single <i>ganglion</i> represents the + nervous system, placed between the two apertures. Male and female + reproductive organs exist in each ascidian. They pass through peculiar + phases of development, the young ascidian appearing like a tadpole-body. + They may be <i>single</i> or <i>simple</i>, <i>social</i> or + <i>compound</i>. In <i>social ascidians</i> the peduncles of a number of + individuals are united into a common tubular stem, with a partial common + circulation of blood. In these animals evolutionists see a link between + the Mollusca and the Vertebrata.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:24%;"> + <a href="images/image114.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image114.jpg" + alt="Ascidians" title="Ascidians" /></a> + Ascidians + + <p class="poem">1, Perophora: <i>a</i>, mouth; <i>b</i>, vent; + <i>c</i>, intestinal canal; <i>d</i>, stomach; <i>e</i>, common tubular + stem. 2, Ascidia echinata. 3, Ascidia virginea. 4, Cynthia + quadrangularis. 5, Botryllus violaceus.</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Asclepliada´ceæ,</b> an order of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, the + distinguishing characteristic of which is that the anthers adhere to the + five stigmatic processes, the whole sexual apparatus forming a single + mass. The pollination arrangements are peculiar, recalling those of + orchids. The members of this order are shrubs, or sometimes herbaceous + plants, occasionally climbing, almost always with a milky juice. Many of + them are employed as purgatives, diaphoretics, tonics, and febrifuges, + and others as articles of food. Asclepias is the typical genus. See + <i>Asclepias</i>, <i>Calotropis</i>, <i>Stapelia</i>, + <i>Stephanotis</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ascle´piades</b> (-dēz), the name of a number of ancient + Greek writers—poets, grammarians, &c—of whom little is + known, and also of several ancient physicians, the most celebrated of + whom was <i>Asclepiades</i>, of Bithynia, who acquired considerable + repute at Rome about the beginning of the first century <span + class="scac">B.C.</span></p> + + <p><b>Ascle´pias</b>, or <b>Swallow-wort</b>, a genus of plants, the type + and the largest genus of the nat. ord. Asclepiadaceæ. Most of the species + are North American herbs, having opposite, alternate, or verticillate + leaves. Many of them possess powerful medicinal qualities. <i>A. + decumbens</i> is diaphoretic and sudorific, and has the singular property + of exciting general perspiration without increasing in any sensible + degree the heat of the body; <i>A. curassavica</i> is emetic, and its + roots are frequently sent to England as ipecacuanha; the roots of <i>A. + tuberōsa</i> are famed for diaphoretic properties. Many other + species are also used as medicines, and several are cultivated for the + beauty of their flowers.</p> + + <p><b>Asclepios.</b> See <i>Æsculapius</i>.</p> + + <p><b>As´coli</b>, or <b>Ascoli Piceno</b> (ancient, + <b>Ascŭlum</b>), a province in Central Italy.—The capital of + the province, also called <i>Ascoli Piceno</i>, episcopal see of the + Marches (the ancient Ascŭlum), is situated 90 miles north-east of + Rome and contains, among several handsome new buildings, the remains of + temples, an ancient theatre, &c. It has also many fine + pre-Renaissance buildings, such as the Gothic Church S. Francesco and the + Palazzo del Commune. At Castel Trosino, near Ascoli, a necropolis of the + seventh century was discovered in 1895. Population of the town, 28,882; + of the province, 261,835 (1915).</p> + + <p><b>As´coli Satriano</b> (ancient, <b>Ascŭlum Apŭlum</b>), + a town of S. Italy, province Foggia. Pop. 9700.</p> + + <p><b>Ascomyce´tes</b> (-tēz), one of the main subdivisions of the + Eumycetes or Higher Fungi, distinguished by their principal spores being + produced in organs called <i>asci</i>. Typically, an <i>ascus</i> is a + cylindrical or club-shaped structure containing at maturity eight + <i>ascospores</i>, which are usually liberated explosively and thereafter + dispersed by the wind. As a rule numerous asci are massed together in a + layer or <i>ascus-hymenium</i>, which is variously disposed on a more or + less massive fruit-body, according to the form and structure of which the + group is further subdivided into a number of sections and families, the + chief being Erysiphales, Plectascineæ, Pyrenomycetes, Discomycetes + (q.v.).</p> + + <p><b>Asco´nius</b> (Quintus A. Pedianus), a Roman writer of the first + century <span class="scac">A.D.</span>, who wrote a life of Sallust, a + reply to the detractors of Virgil, and commentaries on Cicero's orations, + some of which are extant.</p> + + <p><b>As´cot,</b> an English race-course adjacent to the <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> extremity of the great park of Windsor. The + races, which take place in the second week in June, constitute, for value + of stakes and quality <!-- Page 272 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page272"></a>[272]</span>of horses, the best meeting of the year, + as it is the most fashionable.</p> + + <p><b>As´gard</b> (literally, gods' yard, or the abode of the gods), in + Scandinavian mythology the home of the gods or <i>Æsir</i>, rising, like + the Greek Olympus, from <i>midgard</i>, or the middle world, that is, the + earth. It was here that Odin and the rest of the gods, the twelve Æsir, + dwelt—the gods in the mansion called Gladsheim, the goddesses + dwelling in Vingulf. Walhalla, in which heroes slain in battle dwelt, was + also here. Below the boughs of the ash tree Yggdrasill the gods assembled + every day in council.</p> + + <p><b>Asgill</b> (as´gil), John, an eccentric English writer, a lawyer by + profession, born 1659, died 1738. In 1699 he published a pamphlet to + prove that Christians were not necessarily liable to death, death being + the penalty imposed for Adam's sin and Christ having satisfied the law. + Having crossed over to Ireland, he was beginning to get into a good + practice, and was elected to the Irish House of Commons, when his + pamphlet was ordered to be burned by the public hangman, and he himself + was expelled the House. His whole subsequent life was passed in pecuniary + and other troubles, mostly in the Fleet or within the rules of the King's + Bench.</p> + + <p><b>Ash</b> (<i>Fraxĭnus</i>), a genus of deciduous trees + belonging to the nat. ord. Oleaceæ, having imperfect flowers and a + seed-vessel prolonged into a thin wing at the apex (called a + <i>samara</i>). There are a good many species, chiefly indigenous to + North America. The common ash (<i>F. excelsior</i>), the only species + indigenous to Central and Northern Europe, has a smooth bark, and grows + tall and rather slender. The branches are flattened; the leaves have five + pairs of pinnæ, terminated by an odd one, dark-green in colour; + lanceolate, with serrated edges. The flowers are produced in loose spikes + from the sides of the branches, and are succeeded by flat seeds which + ripen in autumn. It is one of the most useful of British trees on account + of the excellence of its hard tough wood and the rapidity of its growth, + but often suffers greatly from a canker caused by the fungus <i>Nectria + ditissima</i>. There are many varieties of it, as the weeping-ash, the + curled-leaved ash, the entire-leaved ash, &c. The flowering or manna + ash (<i>F. Ornus</i>), by some placed in a distinct genus (Ornus), is a + native of the south of Europe and Palestine. It yields the substance + called manna, which is obtained by making incisions in the bark, when the + juice exudes and hardens. Among American species are the white ash (<i>F. + americana</i>), with lighter bark and leaves; the red or black ash (<i>F. + pubescens</i>), with a brown bark; the black ash (<i>F. + sambucifolia</i>), the blue ash, the green ash, &c. They are all + valuable trees. The mountain-ash or rowan belongs to a different + order.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/image115.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image115.jpg" + alt="Ash" title="Ash" /></a> + Common Ash (<i>Fraxĭnus excelsior</i>) + + <p class="poem">1, Hermaphrodite flower. 2, Anthers of male flower.</p> + </div> + + <p><b>Ash</b>, or <b>Ashes</b>, the incombustible residue of organic + bodies (animal or vegetable) remaining after combustion; in common usage, + any incombustible residue of bodies used as fuel; as a commercial term, + the word generally means the ashes of vegetable substances, from which + are extracted the alkaline matters called potash, pearl-ash, kelp, + barilla, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Ashan´go</b>, a region in the interior of Southern Africa between + lat. 1° and 2° <span class="scac">S.</span>, and between the Ogowe and + the Lower Congo, a mountainous country in the French territory. The + inhabitants belong to the Bantu stock, and among them are a dwarfish + people, the Obongo, said to be about 4½ feet high at most.</p> + + <p><b>Ashanti´</b>, a British territory in West Africa belonging to the + Gold Coast Colony, of which it forms a large inland portion, under a + chief commissioner; area about 20,000 sq. miles. It is in great part + hilly, well-watered, and covered with dense tropical vegetation, and rich + forests with excellent timber trees. The country round the towns, + however, is carefully cultivated. The crops are chiefly rice, maize, + millet, sugar-cane, <!-- Page 273 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page273"></a>[273]</span>cocoa, and yams, the last forming the + staple vegetable food of the natives. Rubber is also a product. The + domestic animals are cows, horses of small size, goats, and a species of + hairy sheep. The wild animals include the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, + lion, hippopotamus, &c. Birds are numerous, and crocodiles and other + reptiles abound. Gold is abundant, and mining concessions are now + successfully worked. The Ashantis make excellent cotton and silk cloths, + articles in gold and other metals, earthenware, leather, &c. Ashanti + used to form a kingdom ruled despotically, human sacrifices being very + common. It is now under British administration, and attention is given to + education, sanitation, agriculture, means of communication, &c. There + are Government schools at Coomassie and Sunyani and a number of + missionary schools. The chief town is Coomassie (or Kumassi), now reached + by a railway from the coast (length 168 miles); its population is 24,000. + The British first came in contact with the Ashantis in 1807, and + hostilities continued off and on till 1826, when they were driven from + the sea-coast. Immediately after the transfer of the Dutch settlements on + the Gold Coast to Britain in 1872—when the entire coast remained in + British hands—the Ashantis reclaimed the sovereignty of the tribes + round the settlement of Elmina. This brought on a war, leading to a + British expedition in 1874, in which Coomassie was captured. In 1896 the + country became a British protectorate. In 1901 a rebellion had to be put + down, and next year Ashanti was fully annexed. Pop. 287,814 + (1911).—Cf. R. A. Freeman, <i>Travels and Life in Ashantee and + Jaman</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ash´bourne</b>, a town of England, in Derbyshire, 12 miles <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> of Derby, with manufactures of cottons and lace. + Pop. 4039.</p> + + <p><b>Ash´burton</b>, a town in Devonshire, England, 16 miles <span + class="scac">S.W.</span> of Exeter, a parliamentary borough till 1868, + and till 1918 giving name to a parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), + 2362.</p> + + <p><b>Ash´burton</b>, Alexander Baring, Lord, a British statesman and + financier, born 1774, died 1848. A younger son of Sir Francis Baring, he + was bred to commercial pursuits, which for some years kept him in the + United States and Canada, and in 1810 he became head of the great firm of + Baring Brothers & Co. He sat in Parliament from 1806 to 1835, when he + was raised to the peerage, after being a member of Peel's Government + (1834-5).</p> + + <p><b>Ash´burton Treaty</b>, a treaty concluded at Washington, 1842, by + Alexander Baring, Lord Ashburton, and the President of the United States; + it defined the boundaries between the States and Canada, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Ashby-de-la-Zouch</b> (ash´bi-del-a-zöch´), a town in + Leicestershire, England, on the borders of Derbyshire, with manufactures + of hosiery, leather, &c. Pop. (1921), 4983.</p> + + <p><b>Ash´dod</b>, a place on the coast of Palestine, formerly one of the + chief cities of the Philistines, now an insignificant village.</p> + + <p><b>A´sher</b>, one of Jacob's sons, and founder of the tribe called + after him, who occupied a fertile territory in Palestine along the coast + between Carmel and Lebanon.</p> + + <p><b>Ashe´ra</b>, an ancient Semitic goddess whose symbol was the + phallus. In the Revised Version of the Old Testament this word is used to + translate what in the Authorized Version is translated "grove", as + connected with the idolatrous practices into which the Jews were prone to + fall.</p> + + <p><b>Ash´ford</b>, a thriving town of England, in Kent, situated near + the confluence of the upper branches of the River Stour, with large + locomotive and railway-carriage works. It gives name to a parliamentary + division of the county. Pop. (1921), 14,355.</p> + + <p><b>Ashington</b>, an urban district or town of England, + Northumberland, north-east of Morpeth, and about 2 miles from the sea, in + a district of collieries. Pop. (1921), 29,406.</p> + + <p><b>Ashi´ra</b>, a native race or people of Western Equatorial Africa, + to the south of the Ogowe River, in the French Congo Territory.</p> + + <p><b>Ash´land</b>, a city of the United States, in Wisconsin. Pop. + (1920), 11,334.—Also a city of Kentucky. Pop. (1920), 14,729.</p> + + <p><b>Ash´lar</b>, masonry consisting of stones squared and smoothed in + front and built in regular courses.</p> + + <p><b>Ashley, Lord.</b> See <i>Shaftesbury, First Earl of</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ashmead-Bartlett</b>, Sir Ellis, English politician, born in 1849. + He entered Parliament in 1880, and was Civil Lord of the Admiralty from + 1885 to 1892. He served in the Græco-Turkish and South African wars, and + was knighted in 1892. He died in 1902.</p> + + <p><b>Ash´mole</b>, Elias, English antiquary, born 1617, died 1692. He + became a chancery solicitor in London, but afterwards studied at Oxford, + taking up mathematics, physics, chemistry, and particularly astrology. He + published <i>Theatrum Chymicum</i> in 1652. On the Restoration he + received the post of Windsor Herald, and other appointments both + honourable and lucrative. In 1672 appeared his <i>History of the Order of + the Garter</i>. He presented to the University of Oxford his collection + of rarities, to which he afterwards added his books and MSS., thereby + commencing the Ashmolean Museum.</p> + + <p><b>Ash´taroth.</b> See <i>Astarte</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ashton-in-Makerfield</b>, a town of Lancashire, England, 4 miles + from Wigan, with collieries, cotton-mills, &c. Pop. (1921), + 22,489.</p> + + <p><b>Ashton-under-Lyne</b>, a municipal and parliamentary borough of + Lancashire, England, 6 miles <!-- Page 274 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page274"></a>[274]</span>east of Manchester, on the north bank of + the River Tame, a well-built place, with handsome streets and public + buildings. The chief employment is the cotton manufacture, but there are + also collieries and ironworks, which employ a great many persons. Pop. + 51,080; (municipal borough) (1921), 43,333.</p> + + <p><b>Ashton-upon-Mersey</b>, a town or urban district of England, + Cheshire, on the south side of the Mersey, several miles south-west of + Manchester. Pop. (1921), 7780.</p> + + <p><b>Ashura´da</b>, a small island in the <span class="scac">S.E.</span> + corner of the Caspian, formed by Russia into a trading station.</p> + + <p><b>Ash-Wednesday</b>, the first day of Lent, so called from a custom + in the Western Church of sprinkling ashes that day on the heads of + penitents, then admitted to penance. The period at which the fast of + Ash-Wednesday was instituted is uncertain; but it probably dates from the + eighth century at least. In the Roman Catholic Church the ashes are now + strewn on the heads of all the clergy and people present. In the Anglican + Church Ash-Wednesday is regarded as an important fast day.</p> + + <p><b>Asia</b>, the largest of the great divisions of the earth; length, + from the extreme south-western point of Arabia, at the Strait of + Bab-el-Mandeb, to the extreme north-eastern point of Siberia—East + Cape, or Cape Vostochni, in Behring's Strait—6900 miles; breadth, + from Cape Chelyuskin, in Northern Siberia, to Cape Romania, the southern + extremity of the Malay Peninsula, 5300 miles; area estimated at + 17,250,000 sq. miles, about a third of all the land of the earth's + surface. On three sides, <span class="scac">N.</span>, <span + class="scac">E.</span>, and <span class="scac">S.</span>, the ocean forms + its natural boundary, while in the <span class="scac">W.</span> the + frontier is marked mainly by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, Caspian + Sea, the Caucasus, the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal, and + the Red Sea. There is no proper separation between Asia and Europe, the + latter being really a great peninsula of the former. Asia, though not so + irregular in shape as Europe, is broken in the <span + class="scac">S.</span> by three great peninsulas, Arabia, Hindustan, and + Farther India, while the east coast presents peninsular projections and + islands, forming a series of sheltered seas and bays, the principal + peninsulas being Kamtshatka and Corea. The principal islands are those + forming the Malay or Asiatic Archipelago, which stretch round in a wide + curve on the <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of the continent. Besides the + larger islands—Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Mindanao, and Luzon + (in the Philippine group)—there are countless smaller islands + grouped round these. Other islands are Ceylon, in the <span + class="scac">S.</span> of India; the Japanese Islands and Sakhalin on the + <span class="scac">E.</span> of the continent; Formosa, <span + class="scac">S.E.</span> of China; Cyprus, <span class="scac">S.</span> + of Asia Minor; and New Siberia and Wrangell, in the Arctic Ocean.</p> + + <p>The mountain systems of Asia are of great extent, and their + culminating points are the highest in the world. The greatest of all is + the Himálaya system, which lies mainly between long. 70° and 100° <span + class="scac">E.</span> and lat. 28° and 37° <span class="scac">N.</span> + It extends, roughly speaking, from north-west to south-east, its total + length being about 1500 miles, forming the northern barrier of Hindustan. + The loftiest summits are Mount Everest, 29,002 feet high, Godwin-Austen, + 28,265, and Kanchinjinga, 28,156. The principal passes, which rise to the + height of 18,000 to 20,000 feet, are the highest in the world. A second + great mountain system of Central Asia, connected with the north-western + extremity of the Himálaya system by the elevated region of Pamir (about + long. 70°-75° <span class="scac">E.</span>, lat. 37°-40° <span + class="scac">N.</span>), is the Thian-Shan system, which runs + north-eastward for a distance of 1200 miles. In this direction the Altai, + Sayan, and other ranges continue the line of elevations to the + north-eastern coast. A north-western continuation of the Himálaya is the + Hindu Kush, and farther westward a connection may be traced between the + Himálaya mass and the Elburz range (18,460) feet, south of the Caspian, + and thence to the mountains of Kurdistan, Armenia, and Asia Minor.</p> + + <p>There are vast plateaux and elevated valley regions connected with the + great central mountain systems, but large portions of the continent are + low and flat. Tibet forms the most elevated table-land in Asia, its mean + height being estimated at 15,000 feet. On its south is the Himálayan + range, while the Kuen-Lun range forms its northern barrier. Another great + but much lower plateau is that which comprises Afghanistan, Baluchistan, + and Persia, and which to the north-west joins into the plateau of Asia + Minor. The principal plain of Asia is that of Siberia, which extends + along the north of the continent and forms an immense alluvial tract + sloping to the Arctic Ocean. Vast swamps or peat-mosses called + <i>tundras</i> cover large portions of this region. South-west of + Siberia, and stretching eastward from the Caspian, is a low-lying tract + consisting to a great extent of steppes and deserts, and including in its + area the Sea of Aral. In the east of China there is an alluvial plain of + some 200,000 sq. miles in extent; in Hindustan are plains extending for + 2000 miles along the south slope of the Himálaya; and between Arabia and + Persia, watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, is the plain of Mesopotamia + or Assyria, one of the richest in the world. Of the deserts of Asia the + largest is that of Gobi (long. 90°-120° <span class="scac">E.</span>, + lat. 40°-48° <span class="scac">N.</span>), large portions of which are + covered with nothing but sand or display a surface of bare rock. An + almost continuous desert region may also be traced from the desert of + North Africa through Arabia (which is largely occupied by bare <!-- Page + 275 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page275"></a>[275]</span>deserts), + Persia, and Baluchistan to the Indus.</p> + +<h3>POLITICAL MAP OF ASIA</h3> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"> + <a href="images/image116.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image116.jpg" + alt="Asia" title="Asia" /></a> + </div> + <p>Some of the largest rivers of Asia flow northward to the Arctic + Ocean—the Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena. The Hoang-Ho and + Yang-tse, and the Amoor, are the chief of those which flow into the + Pacific. The Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irawadi, and Indus flow into the Indian + Ocean. The Persian Gulf receives the united waters of the Euphrates and + the Tigris. There are several systems of inland drainage, large rivers + falling into lakes which have no outlet.</p> + + <p>The largest lake of Asia (partly also European) is the Caspian Sea, + which receives the Kur from the Caucasus (with its tributary the Aras + from Armenia), and the Sefid Rud and other streams from Persia (besides + the Volga from European Russia, and the Ural, which is partly European, + partly Asiatic). The Caspian lies in the centre of a great depression, + being 83 feet below the level of the Sea of Azov. East from the Caspian + is the Sea of Aral, which, like the Caspian, has no outlet, and is fed by + the Rivers Amu-Darya (Oxus) and Syr-Darya. Still farther east, to the + north of the Thian-Shan Mountains, and fed by the Ili and other streams, + is Lake Balkhash, also without an outlet and very salt. Other lakes + having no communication with the ocean are Lob Nor, in the desert of + Gobi, receiving the River Tarim, and the Dead Sea, far below the level of + the Mediterranean, and fed by the Jordan. The chief fresh-water lake is + Lake Baikal, in the south of Siberia, between long. 104° and 110° E., a + mountain lake from which the Yenisei draws a portion of its waters.</p> + + <p>Geologically speaking, large areas of Asia are of comparatively recent + date, the lowlands of Siberia, for instance, being submerged during the + tertiary period, if not more recently. Many geologists believe that + subsequently to the glacial period there was a great sea in Western Asia, + of which the Caspian and Aral Seas are the remains. The desiccation of + Central Asia is still going on, as is also probably the upheaval of a + great part of the continent. The great mountain chains and elevated + plateaux are of ancient origin, however, and in them granite and other + crystalline rocks are largely represented. Active volcanoes are only met + with in the extreme east (Kamtchatka) and in the Eastern Archipelago. + From the remotest times Asia has been celebrated for its mineral wealth. + In the Altai and Ural Mountains gold, iron, lead, and platinum are found; + in India and other parts rubies, diamonds, and other gems are, or have + been, procured; salt in Central Asia; coal in China, India, Central Asia, + &c.; petroleum in the districts about the Caspian and in Burmah; + bitumen in Syria; while silver, copper, sulphur, &c., are found in + various parts.</p> + + <p>Every variety of climate may be experienced in Asia, but as a whole it + is marked by extremes of heat and cold and by great dryness, this in + particular being the case with vast regions in the centre of the + continent and distant from the sea. The great lowland region of Siberia + has a short but very hot summer, and a long but intensely cold winter, + the rivers and their estuaries being fast bound with ice, and at a + certain depth the soil is hard frozen all the year round. The northern + part of China to the east of Central Asia has a temperate climate with a + warm summer, and in the extreme north a severe winter. The districts + lying to the south of the central region, comprising the Indian and + Indo-Chinese Peninsulas, Southern China, and the adjacent islands, + present the characteristic climate and vegetation of the southern + temperate and tropical regions modified by the effects of altitude. Some + localities in Southern Asia have the heaviest rainfall anywhere known. As + the equator is approached the extremes of temperature diminish till at + the southern extremity of the continent they are such as may be + experienced in any tropical country. Among climatic features are the + monsoons of the Indian Ocean and the eastern seas, and the cyclones or + typhoons, which are often very destructive.</p> + + <p>The plants and animals of Northern and Western Asia generally resemble + those of similar latitudes in Europe (which is really a prolongation of + the Asiatic continent), differing more in species than in genera. The + principal mountain trees are the pine, larch, and birch; the willow, + alder, and poplar are found in lower grounds. In the central region + European species reach as far as the Western and Central Himálaya, but + are rare in the Eastern. They are here met by Chinese and Japanese forms. + The lower slopes of the Himálaya are clothed almost exclusively with + tropical forms. Higher up, between 4000 and 10,000 feet, are found all + the types of trees and plants that belong to the temperate zone, there + being extensive forests of conifers. Here is the native home of the + deodar cedar. The south-eastern region, including India, the Eastern + Peninsula, and China, with the islands, contains a vast variety of plants + useful to man and having here their original habitat, such as the + sugar-cane, rice, cotton, and indigo, pepper, cinnamon, cassia, clove, + nutmeg, and cardamoms, banana, coco-nut, areca, and sago palms; the mango + and many other fruits, with plants producing a vast number of drugs, + caoutchouc, and gutta-percha. The forests of India and the Malay + Peninsula contain oak, teak, sâl, and other timber woods, besides + bamboos, palms, sandal-wood, &c. The palmyra palm is characteristic + of Southern India; while the talipot palm flourishes on the western coast + of Hindustan, Ceylon, and the Malay <!-- Page 276 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page276"></a>[276]</span>Peninsula. The + cultivated plants of India and China include wheat, barley, rice, maize, + millet, sugar-cane, tea, coffee, indigo, cotton, jute, opium, tobacco, + &c. In North China and the Japanese Islands large numbers of + deciduous trees occur, such as oaks, maples, limes, walnuts, poplars, and + willows, the genera being European but the individual species Asiatic. + Among cultivated plants are wheat, and in favourable situations rice, + cotton, the vine, &c. Coffee, rice, sugar, &c., are extensively + grown in some of the islands of the Asiatic Archipelago. In Arabia and + the warmer valleys of Persia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan aromatic + shrubs are abundant. Over large parts of these regions the date palm + flourishes and affords a valuable article of food. Gum-producing acacias + are, with the date palm, the commonest trees in Arabia. African forms are + found extending from the Sahara along the desert region of Asia.</p> + + <p>Nearly all the mammals of Europe are found in Northern Asia, with + numerous additions to the species. Central Asia is the native land of the + horse, the ass, the ox, the sheep, and the goat. Both varieties of the + camel, the single and the double humped, are Asiatic. To the inhabitants + of Tibet and the higher plateaux of the Himálaya the yak is what the + reindeer is to the tribes of the Siberian plain, almost their sole wealth + and support. The elephant, of a different species from that of Africa, is + a native of tropical Asia. The Asiatic lion, which inhabits Arabia and + Persia, and still exists in the north-west of India, is smaller than the + African species. Bears are found in all parts, the white bear in the far + north, and other species in the more temperate and tropical parts. The + tiger is the most characteristic of the larger Asiatic Carnivora. It is + found in Armenia and throughout the entire continent, being absent, + however, from the greater portion of Siberia and from the high table-land + of Tibet; it is found also in Sumatra, Java, and Bali. In South-Eastern + Asia and the islands we find the rhinoceros, buffalo, ox, deer, + squirrels, porcupines, &c. In birds nearly every order is + represented. Among the most interesting forms are the hornbills, the + peacock, the Impey pheasant, the tragopan or horned pheasant, and other + gallinaceous birds, the pheasant family being very characteristic of + South-Eastern Asia. It was from Asia that the common domestic fowl was + introduced into Europe. The tropical parts of Asia abound in monkeys, of + which the species are numerous. Some are tailed, others, such as the + orang, are tailless, but none have prehensile tails like the American + monkeys. In the Malay Archipelago marsupial animals, so characteristic of + Australia, first occur in the Moluccas and Celebes, while various mammals + common in the western part of the Archipelago are absent. A similar + transition towards the Australian type takes place in the species of + birds. (See <i>Wallace's Line</i>.) Of marine mammals the dugong is + peculiar to the Indian Ocean; in the Ganges is found a peculiar species + of dolphin. At the head of the reptiles stands the Gangetic crocodile, + frequenting the Ganges and other large rivers. Among the serpents are the + cobra de capello, one of the most deadly snakes in existence; there are + also large boas and pythons, besides sea and fresh-water snakes. The seas + and rivers produce a great variety of fish. The Salmonidæ are found in + the rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean. Two rather remarkable fishes + are the climbing perch and the archer-fish. The well-known goldfish is a + native of China.</p> + + <p>Asia is mainly peopled by races belonging to two great ethnographic + types, the Caucasic or fair type, and the Mongolic or yellow. To the + former belong the Aryan, or Indo-European, and the Semitic races, both of + which mainly inhabit the south-west of the continent; to the latter + belong the Malays and Indo-Chinese in the <span class="scac">S.E.</span>, + as well as the Mongolians proper (Chinese, &c.), occupying nearly all + the rest of the continent. To these may be added certain races of + doubtful affinities, as the Dravidians of Southern India, the Cingalese + of Ceylon, the Ainos of Yesso, and some negro-like tribes called + Negritos, which inhabit Malacca and the interior of several of the + islands of the Eastern Archipelago. The total population is estimated at + 823,000,000, or more than half that of the whole world, of which + 330,000,000 inhabit Chinese territory, 302,000,000 British, and + 25,000,000 Russian. Portions of Asia are under the control of European + Powers (Russia, Great Britain, Holland, France), of the United States of + America, China, and Japan. The chief States are China, Japan, Corea, + Siam, Afghanistan, Persia, and Arabia. The chief religions are the + Brahmanism of India, the Buddhism of Burmah, China, &c., the creeds + of Confucius and Lao-tse in China, and the various forms of Mahommedanism + in Arabia, Persia, India, &c. More than a half of the whole + population profess some form of Buddhism. Several native Christian sects + are found in India, Armenia, Kurdistan, and Syria.</p> + + <p>Asia is generally regarded as the cradle of the human race. It + possesses the oldest historical documents, and, next to the immediately + contiguous kingdom of Egypt, the oldest historical monuments in the + world. The Old Testament contains the oldest historical records which we + have of any nation in the form of distinct narrative. The period at which + Moses wrote was probably 1500 or 1600 years before the Christian era. His + and the later Jewish writings confine themselves almost exclusively to + the history of the Hebrews; but in Babylonia, as in Egypt, <!-- Page 277 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page277"></a>[277]</span>civilization + had made great advances long before this time. The earliest seat of the + Aryan race some assign to the banks of the Oxus. Hence, perhaps from the + pressure of the Mongolian tribes to the north, they spread themselves to + the south-east and south-west, finally occupying Northern India, Persia, + and other parts of Western Asia, and spreading into Europe, perhaps about + 2000-1500 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> In China authentic history + extends back probably to about 1000 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, with + a long preceding period of which the names of dynasties are preserved + without chronological arrangement. The kingdoms of Assyria, Babylonia, + Media, and Persia predominated by turns in South-Western Asia. In regard + to the history of these monarchies, much light has been obtained from the + decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions. The arms of the Pharaohs + extended into Asia, but their conquests there were short-lived. From + Cyrus (559 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), who extended the empire of + Persia from the Indus to the Mediterranean, while his son, Cambyses, + added Egypt and Libya to it, to the conquest of Alexander (330 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) Persia was the dominant Power in Western Asia. + Alexander's great empire became broken up into separate kingdoms, which + were finally absorbed in the Roman Empire, and this ultimately extended + to the Tigris. Soon after the most civilized portions of the three + continents had been reduced under one empire, the great event took place + which forms the dividing-line of history, the birth of Christ and the + spread of Christianity. In <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 226 a + protracted struggle began between the newer Persian Empire and the + Romans, which lasted till the advent of Mahomet, and the conquests of the + Arabians. Persia was the first great conquest of Mahomet's followers. + Syria and Egypt soon fell before their arms, and within forty years of + the celebrated flight of Mahomet from Mecca (the <i>Hejra</i>), the sixth + of the caliphs, or successors of the Prophet, was the most powerful + sovereign of Asia. The Mongols next became the dominant race. In 999 + Mahmud, whose father, born a Turkish slave, became Governor of Ghazni, + conquered India, and established his rule. The dynasty of the Seljuk + Tartars was established in Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium, and Kharism, and + was distinguished for its struggles with the Crusaders. Othman, an emir + of the Seljuk sultan of Iconium, established the Ottoman Empire in 1300. + About 1220 Genghis Khan, an independent Mongol chief, made himself master + of Central Asia, conquered Northern China, overran Turkestan, + Afghanistan, and Persia; his successors took Bagdad and abolished the + caliphate. In Asia Minor they overthrew the Seljuk dynasty. One of them, + Timur or Tamerlane, carried fire and sword over Northern India and + Western Asia, defeated and took prisoner Bajazet, the descendant of + Othman (1402), and received tribute from the Greek emperor. The Ottoman + Empire soon recovered from the blow inflicted by Timur, and + Constantinople was taken and the Eastern Empire finally overthrown by the + Sultan Mohammed II in 1453. China recovered its independence about 1368 + and was again subjected by the Manchu Tartars (1618-45), soon after which + it began to extend its empire over Central Asia. Siberia was conquered by + the Cossacks on behalf of Russia (1580-4). The same country effected a + settlement in the Caucasus about 1786, and has since continued to make + steady advances into Central Asia. The discovery by the Portuguese of the + passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope led to their establishment on + the coast of the peninsula (1498). They were speedily followed by the + Spanish, Dutch, French, and British. The struggle between the two last + Powers for the supremacy of India was completed by the destruction of the + French settlements (1760-5). At present the forms of government in Asia + range from the primitive rule of the nomad sheik to the constitutional + monarchy of Japan.—<span class="sc">Bibliography:</span> Sven + Hedin, <i>Through Asia</i>; H. F. Blanford, <i>Elementary Geography of + India, Burma, and Ceylon</i>; Max. Müller, <i>The Sacred Books of the + East</i>; A. Little, <i>The Far East</i>; R. Cobbold, <i>Innermost + Asia</i>; Colonel A. Durand, <i>The Making of a Frontier</i>; J. G. C. + Chamberlain, <i>Continents and their Peoples</i>; E. Huntington, <i>The + Pulse of Asia</i>; E. C. Hannah, <i>Eastern Asia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asia, Central,</b> a designation loosely given to the regions in + the centre of Asia east of the Caspian, also called Turkestan, and + formerly Tartary. The eastern portion belongs to China, the western to + Russia. Russian Central Asia comprises the Kirghiz Steppe (Uralsk, + Turgai, Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, &c.), and what was the + government-general of Turkestan till 1918, besides the territory of the + Turkomans, or Transcaspia and Merv. See <i>Turkestan, Republic + of</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asia Minor</b>, the most westerly portion of Asia, being the + peninsula lying west of the Upper Euphrates, and forming part of Asiatic + Turkey. It forms an extensive plateau, with lofty mountains rising above + it, the most extensive ranges being the Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which + border it on the south and south-east, and rise to over 10,000 feet. + There are numerous salt- and freshwater lakes. The chief rivers are the + Kizil-Irmak (Halys), Sakaria (Sangarius), entering the Black Sea; and the + Sarabat (Hermus) and Menderes (Mæander), entering the Ægean. The coast + regions are generally fertile, and have a genial climate; the interior is + largely arid and dreary. Valuable forests and fruit-trees abound. Smyrna + is the chief town. <i>Anatolia</i> is an equivalent name. See <i>European + War</i>; <i>Turkey</i>. <!-- Page 278 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page278"></a>[278]</span></p> + + <p><b>Asiago</b>, a town in Italy in the province of Vicenza, capital of + the Seven Communes (Sette Communi). In the great European War several + battles were fought on the Asiago Plateau. The town was evacuated by the + Italians on 28th May, 1916, but retaken on 25th June, 1916. See + <i>European War</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asiatic Societies</b>, learned bodies instituted for the purpose of + collecting information respecting the different countries of Asia, such + as the Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded in 1784 by Sir William Jones; + and the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, established + by Colebrooke, and opened in 1823. There are similar societies on the + European Continent and in America, such as the Société Asiatique at + Paris, founded in 1822; the Oriental Society of Germany (Deutsche + Morgenländische Gesellschaft), founded in 1845; and the Oriental Society + at Boston, founded in 1842.</p> + + <p><b>Asiphona´ta</b>, or <b>Asiphon´ida</b>, an order of + lamellibranchiate, bivalve molluscs, destitute of the siphon or tube + through which, in the Siphonata, the water that enters the gills is + passed outwards. It includes the oysters, the scallop-shells, the + pearl-oyster, the mussels, and in general the most useful and valuable + molluscs.</p> + + <p><b>Asir.</b> See <i>Hejaz</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Askabad´</b>, the administrative centre of the Russian province of + Transcaspia, situated in the Akhal Tekke oasis, and occupied by Skobelev + in Jan., 1881, after the sack of Geok Tepé. Its distance from Merv is 232 + miles, from Herat 388 miles. Pop. 54,000.</p> + + <p><b>As´kew</b>, Anne, a victim of religious persecution, born 1521, + martyred 1546. She was a daughter of Sir William Askew of Lincolnshire, + and was married to a wealthy neighbour named Kyme, who, irritated by her + Protestantism, drove her from his house. In London, whither she went + probably to procure a divorce, she spoke against the dogmas of the old + faith, and, being tried, was condemned to death as a heretic. Being put + to the rack to extort a confession concerning those with whom she + corresponded, she continued firm, and was then taken to Smithfield, + chained to a stake, and burned.</p> + + <p><b>Askja</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>sk´ya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a volcano near the centre of Iceland, + first brought into notice by an eruption in 1875. Its crater is 17 miles + in circumference, surrounded by a mountain-ring from 500 to 1000 feet + high, the height of the mountain itself being between 4000 and 5000 + feet.</p> + + <p><b>As´mannshausen</b> (-hou-zn), a Prussian village on the Rhine, in + the district of Wiesbaden, celebrated for its wine. Many judges prefer + the red wine of Asmannshausen to the best Burgundy, but it retains its + merits for three or four years only.</p> + + <p><b>Asmo´dai</b>, or <b>Asmo´deus</b>, an evil spirit, who, as related + in the book of Tobit, slew seven husbands of Sara, daughter of Raguel, + but was driven away into the uttermost parts of Egypt by the young Tobias + under the direction of the angel Raphael. Asmodai signifies a desolater, + a destroying angel, identical with the demon Aēshma of the + Zend-Avesta. He is represented in the Talmud as the prince of demons who + drove King Solomon from his kingdom.</p> + + <p><b>Asmonæ´ans</b>, a family of high priests and princes who ruled over + the Jews for about 130 years, from 153 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, + when Jonathan, son of Mattathias, the great-grandson of Chasmon or + Asmonæus, was nominated to the high-priesthood.</p> + + <p><b>Asnières</b> (än-yār), a town on the Seine, a <span + class="scac">N.W.</span> suburb of Paris, a favourite boating resort of + the Parisians. Pop. 42,583.</p> + + <p><b>Aso´ka</b>, an Indian sovereign who reigned from 264 to 228 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> over the whole of Northern India, grandson of + Chandragupta or Sandracottus. He embraced Buddhism, and forced his + subjects also to become converts. Many temples and <i>stupas</i>, or + brick cupolas, still remaining are attributed to him.</p> + + <p><b>Aso´ka</b> (<i>Jonesia asōca</i>), an Indian tree, nat. ord. + Leguminosæ, having a lovely flower, showing orange, scarlet, and + bright-yellow tints; sacred to the god Siva, and often mentioned in + Indian literature.</p> + + <p><b>Aso´pus</b>, the name of several rivers in Greece, of which the + most celebrated is in Bœotia.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:29%;"> + <a href="images/image117.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image117.jpg" + alt="Asp" title="Asp" /></a> + Asp (<i>Naja haje</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>Asp</b>, or <b>Aspic</b> (<i>Naja</i>, or <i>Vipĕra + haje</i>), a species of viper found in Egypt, resembling the cobra de + capello or spectacle-serpent of the East Indies, and having a very + venomous bite. When <!-- Page 279 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page279"></a>[279]</span>approached or disturbed it elevates its + head and body, swells out its neck, and appears to stand erect to attack + the aggressor. Hence the ancient Egyptians believed that the asps were + guardians of the spots they inhabited, and the figure of this reptile was + adopted as an emblem of the protecting genius of the world. The balancing + motions made by it in the endeavour to maintain the erect attitude have + led to the employment of the asp as a dancing serpent by the African + jugglers. The "deaf adder that stoppeth her ear" of <i>Psalm</i> lviii, + 4, 5 is translated asp in the margin, and seems to have been this + species. Cleopatra is said to have committed suicide by means of an asp's + bite, but the incident is generally associated with the Cerastes or + horned viper, not with the haje. The name asp is also given to a viper + (<i>Vipera aspis</i>) common on the continent of Europe.</p> + + <p><b>Asparagine</b>, or <b>Aminosuccinamic Acid</b>, + CH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub>, CH(NH<sub>2</sub>)COOH, is a white + crystalline substance of unpleasant acid taste found in the shoots of + asparagus, in potato and dahlia tribes, and in many other plants, from + which it may be extracted by means of water.</p> + + <p><b>Aspar´agus</b> (<i>Asparăgus officinālis</i>), a plant + of the order Liliaceæ, the young shoots of which, cut as they are + emerging from the ground, are a favourite culinary vegetable. In Greece, + and especially in the southern steppes of Russia and Poland, it is found + in profusion; and its edible qualities were esteemed by the ancients. + Pliny states that asparagus was in his time cultivated in gardens, + particularly at Ravenna. The best asparagus is grown in gardens near the + sea, and hundreds of acres are devoted to its cultivation in Holland and + Belgium. It grows wild in Essex and Lincolnshire, but does not attain + nearly to the size of the cultivated plant. It is usually raised from + seed; and the plants should remain three years in the ground before they + are cut; after which, for several years, they will continue to afford a + regular annual supply. The beds are protected by straw or litter in + winter. Its diuretic properties are ascribed to the presence of a + crystalline substance found also in the potato, lettuce, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aspa´sia</b>, a celebrated woman of ancient Greece, was born at + Miletus, in Ionia, but passed a great part of her life at Athens, where + her house was the general resort of the most distinguished men in Greece. + She won the affection of Pericles, who united himself to Aspasia as + closely as was permitted by the Athenian law, which declared marriage + with a foreign woman illegal. Her power in the State has often been + exaggerated, but it is beyond question that her genius left its mark upon + the administration of Pericles. In 432-431 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> + she was accused of impiety, and was only saved from condemnation by the + eloquence and tears of Pericles. After his death (429 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) Aspasia is said to have attached herself to a + wealthy but obscure cattle-dealer of the name of Lysicles, whom she + raised to a position of influence in Athens. Nothing more is known of her + life. She had a son by Pericles, who was legitimated (430 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) by a special decree of the people. There is a + bust bearing her name in the Pio Clementino Museum in the Vatican.</p> + + <p><b>Aspatria</b>, a town (urban district) of England, Cumberland, 8 + miles north-east of Maryport, with an agricultural college. Pop. + 3340.</p> + + <p><b>As´pe</b>, a town of Southern Spain, province of Alicante. Pop. + (1921), 3525.</p> + + <p><b>As´pect</b>, in astrology, denotes the situation of the planets + with respect to each other. There are five different major aspects: the + sextile, when the planets are 60° distant; quartile, when they are 90° + distant; trine, when 120° distant; opposition, when 180° distant; and + conjunction, when both are in the same longitude. The aspects were + classed by astrologers as <i>benign</i>, <i>malignant</i>, or + <i>indifferent</i>, according to their fancied influences upon human + affairs.</p> + + <p><b>Aspect of Land.</b> See <i>Exposure</i>.</p> + + <p><b>As´pen</b>, or trembling poplar (<i>Pōpŭlus + tremŭla</i>), a species of poplar indigenous to Britain and to most + mountainous regions throughout Europe and Asia. It is a beautiful tree of + rapid growth and extremely hardy, with nearly circular toothed leaves, + smooth on both sides, and attached to footstalks so long and slender as + to be shaken by the slightest wind; wood light, porous, soft, and of a + white colour, useful for various purposes.</p> + + <p><b>Asper</b>, or <b>Aspre</b>, a small Turkish coin, of which there + are 120 in the piastre, value <sup>1</sup>/<sub>54</sub><i>d</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aspergill´us</b>, the brush used in Roman Catholic churches for + sprinkling holy water on the people. It is said to have been originally + made of hyssop.</p> + + <p><b>As´pern</b> and <b>Esslingen</b> (or <b>Essling</b>) (es´ling-en), + two villages east of Vienna, and on the opposite bank of the Danube; + celebrated as the chief contested positions in the bloody but indecisive + battle fought between the Archduke Charles and Napoleon I, 21st and 22nd + May, 1809, when it was estimated that the Austrians lost a third of their + army, and the French no less than half.</p> + + <p><b>Asper´ula</b>, the woodruff genus of plants.</p> + + <p><b>Asphalt</b>, or <b>Asphal´tum</b>, the most common variety of + bitumen; also called mineral pitch. Asphalt is a compact, glossy, + brittle, black or brown mineral, which breaks with a polished fracture, + melts easily with a strong pitchy odour when heated, and when pure burns + without leaving any ashes. It is found in the earth in many parts of + Asia, Europe, and America, and in a soft or liquid state on the surface + of the <!-- Page 280 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page280"></a>[280]</span>Dead Sea, which, from this circumstance, + was called <i>Asphaltītes</i>. It is of organic origin, the asphalt + of the great Pitch Lake of Trinidad being derived from bituminous shales, + containing vegetable remains in the process of transformation. Asphalt is + produced artificially in making coal-gas. During the process much tarry + matter is evolved and collected in retorts. If this be distilled, naphtha + and other volatile matters escape, and asphalt is left behind. It is + sometimes called <i>Jew's Pitch</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asphalte</b> (or <b>Asphalt</b>) <b>Rock</b>, a limestone + impregnated with bitumen, found in large quantities in various localities + in Europe, as in the Val de Travers, Neufchâtel, Switzerland; in the + department of Ain in France; in Alsace, Hanover, Holstein, Sicily, + &c. These rocks contain a variable quantity of bitumen (from 7 or 8 + to 20 or 30 per cent) naturally diffused through them. The Val de Travers + asphalt was discovered in 1710. In 1837 an English patent was taken out + for its application to roads, pavements, terraces, areas, roofs, &c. + Since then other asphalte-rocks, as well as artificial preparations made + by mixing bitumen, gas-tar, pitch, or other materials with sand, chalk, + &c., have been brought into competition with it.</p> + + <p><b>As´phodel</b> (<i>Asphodĕlus</i>), a genus of plants, ord. + Liliaceæ, consisting of perennials, with fasciculated fleshy roots, + flowers arranged in racemes, six stamens inserted at the base of the + perianth, a sessile almost spherical ovary with two cells, each + containing two ovules; fruit a capsule with three cells, in each of which + there are, as a rule, two seeds. Two species are cultivated in Britain as + garden flowers, the yellow asphodel (<i>Asphodelus lutĕus</i>) and + the white asphodel (<i>Asphodelus albus</i>). The English word 'daffodil' + is a perversion of asphodel. The <i>Asphodelus ramōsus</i>, which + attains a height of 5 feet, is cultivated in Algeria and elsewhere, its + tubercles yielding a very pure alcohol, and the residue, together with + the stalks and leaves, being used in making pasteboard and paper. The + asphodel was a favourite plant among the ancients, who were in the habit + of planting it round their tombs. In Greek religion it is associated with + Persephone, the dead, and the underworld.</p> + + <p><b>Asphyx´ia</b>, literally, the state of a living animal in which no + pulsation can be perceived, but the term is more particularly applied to + a suspension of the vital functions from causes hindering respiration. + The normal accompaniments of death from asphyxia are dark fluid blood, a + congested brain and exceedingly congested lungs, the general engorgement + of the viscera, and an absence of blood from the left cavities of the + heart while the right cavities and pulmonary artery are gorged. The + restoration of asphyxiated persons has been successfully accomplished at + long periods after apparent death. The attempt should be made to maintain + the heat of the body and to secure the inflation of the lungs as in the + case of the apparently drowned. See <i>Respiratory System</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asphyxiating Gas.</b> See <i>Poison Gas</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aspic</b>, a dish consisting of a clear savoury meat jelly, + containing fowl, game, fish, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Aspidistra</b>, a genus of plants of the lily family, comprising + three or four species, natives of China and Japan, being plants with + large smooth oblong lanceolate leaves, rising from an underground + rhizome, and with campanulate flowers of a dull purplish or brownish + colour. They are now very common in Britain, being especially cultivated + as indoor plants.</p> + + <p><b>Aspid´ium</b>, a genus of ferns, nat. ord. Polypodiaceæ, comprising + the shield-fern and male-fern.</p> + + <p><b>As´pinwall.</b> See <i>Colon</i>.</p> + + <p><b>As´pirate</b>, a name given to any sound like our <i>h</i>, to the + letter <i>h</i> itself, or to any mark of aspiration, as the Greek rough + breathing (<span title="h" class="grk">῾</span>). Such characters + or sounds as the Sanskrit <i>kh</i>, <i>gh</i>, <i>bh</i>, and the Greek + <i>ch</i>, <i>th</i>, <i>ph</i>, are called <i>aspirates</i>.</p> + + <p><b>As´pirator</b>, an instrument used to promote the flow of a gas + from one vessel into another by means of a liquid. The simplest form of + aspirator is a cylindrical vessel containing water, with a pipe at the + upper end which communicates with the vessel containing the gas, and a + pipe at the lower end also, with a stopcock and with its extremity bent + up. By allowing a portion of the water to run off by the pipe at the + lower part of the aspirator a measured quantity of air or other gas is + sucked into the upper part.</p> + + <p><b>Asple´nium</b>, a genus of ferns, of the nat. ord. Polypodiaceæ. + Nine species are found in Britain, among them the well-known + Wall-rue.</p> + + <p><b>Aspromon´te</b>, a mountain of Italy in the south-west of Calabria, + where Garibaldi was wounded and taken prisoner with the greater part of + his army, in Aug., 1862.</p> + + <p><b>Aspropot´amo.</b> See <i>Achelous</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aspull</b>, a town (urban district) of England, Lancashire, 2 or 3 + miles north-east of Wigan, with large collieries and other works. Pop. + 7851.</p> + + <p><b>Asquith</b>, Herbert Henry, prominent politician of the Liberal + party, born in 1852, educated at City of London School and Balliol + College, Oxford, where he graduated with high distinction. Called to the + Bar in 1876, he became Q.C. in 1890; in 1886 was elected member of + Parliament for East Fife, and held his seat for this constituency + uninterruptedly until Dec., 1918, when he was defeated. From 1892 to 1895 + he was Home Secretary, being also made a Privy Councillor in the former + year. Both in regard to the South African War and various other + questions, when out of office, he spoke more <!-- Page 281 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page281"></a>[281]</span>in harmony with the + views of Lord Rosebery than with those of Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman, but + under the latter he accepted the post of Chancellor of the Exchequer in + the ministry formed in Dec., 1905. On the retirement of Sir Henry in 1908 + he succeeded him as Prime Minister. He at once hastened to draw up the + Liberal reform programme, the list of measures including the Lloyd George + Budget (1909), the Parliament Act (1911), the Insurance Act, and the + Irish Home Rule Bill. In May, 1915, a cabinet crisis having resulted from + disagreements, Asquith formed a Coalition Government, eight Unionists + being admitted. Towards the end of 1916 there was a feeling in the + country not only that the Coalition cabinet of twenty-three ministers was + unwieldy, but that Mr. Asquith's Government was not sufficiently + energetic and showed too much hesitation in dealing with the vital + problems of the war. Mr. Asquith therefore resigned on 5th Dec., 1916, + and Mr. Lloyd George formed a new ministry. Unseated in the General + Election of 1918, Mr. Asquith accepted the invitation to stand for + Paisley in 1920. He was returned by a majority of 2834.</p> + + <p><b>As´rael</b>, the Mahommedan angel of death, who takes the soul from + the body.</p> + + <p><b>Ass</b> (<i>Equus asĭnus</i>), a species of the horse genus, + supposed by Darwin to have sprung from the wild variety (<i>Asinus + tœniŏpus</i>) found in Abyssinia; by some writers to be a + descendant of the <i>onăger</i> or wild ass, inhabiting the + mountainous deserts of Tartary, &c.; and by others to have descended + from the kiang or djiggetai (<i>A. hemiŏnus</i>) of South-Western + Asia. The ass was used in Egypt long before the horse, and it played an + important part in Homeric Greece. According to Aristotle, however, it was + unknown in his time in Pontus, Scythia, and in the land of the Celts. The + ass seems to have been introduced into England in the days of Ethelred, + but did not become common before the end of the seventeenth century. Both + in colour and size the ass is exceedingly variable, ranging from dark + grey and reddish brown to white, and from the size of a Newfoundland dog + in North India to that of a good-sized horse. In the south-western + countries of Asia and in Egypt, in some districts of Southern Europe, as + in Spain, and in Kentucky and Peru, great attention has been paid to + selection and interbreeding, with a result no less remarkable than in the + case of the horse. Thus in Syria there appear to be four distinct breeds: + a light and graceful animal used by ladies, an Arab breed reserved for + the saddle, an ass of heavier build in use for ploughing and draft + purposes, and the large Damascus breed. The efforts made to raise the + deteriorated British breed have only been partially successful. The male + ass is mature at two years of age, the female still earlier. The she-ass + carries her young eleven months. The teeth of the young ass follow the + same order of appearance and renewal as those of the horse. The life of + the ass does not usually exceed thirty years. It is in general much + healthier than the horse, and is maintained in this condition by a + smaller quantity and coarser quality of food; it is superior to the horse + in its ability to carry heavy burdens over the most precipitous roads, + and is in no respect its inferior in intelligence, despite the reputation + for stupidity which it has borne from very ancient times. The skin is + used as parchment to cover drums, &c., and in the East is made into + shagreen. The hybrid offspring of the horse and the female ass is the + hinny, that of the ass and the mare is the mule; but the latter is by far + the larger and more useful animal. Asses' milk, long celebrated for its + sanative qualities, more closely resembles that of a woman than any + other. It is very similar in taste, and throws up an equally fluid cream, + which is not convertible into butter.</p> + + <p><b>Assa.</b> See <i>Piave, Battles of the</i>; <i>European + War</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Assab´</b>, a bay of Africa on the south-west coast of the Red Sea, + belonging to the Italian territory of Eritrea, which has been acquired + since Italy established here a colony and free port in 1881.</p> + + <p><b>Assafœtida.</b> See <i>Asafetida</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Assai-palm</b> (as-ī; <i>Euterpe oleracĕa</i>), a + native of tropical S. America, only about 4 inches in diameter and 60 or + 80 feet high, with a crown of leaves, beneath which a small fruit grows + on branched horizontal spadices. The pulp of the fruit mixed with water + is used as a beverage.</p> + + <p><b>Assal´</b>, a salt lake in North-Eastern Africa, in Adal.</p> + + <p><b>Assam´</b>, one of the fifteen provinces of British India, + separated from Eastern Bengal and reconstituted in 1912; area, 53,015 sq. + miles. It forms a series of fertile valleys watered by the Brahmaputra + and its tributaries, the valley of the Brahmaputra, which is the main + one, consisting of rich alluvial plains, either but little elevated above + the river, or so low that large extents of them are flooded for three or + four days once or twice in the year, while the course of the river often + changes. The climate is marked by great humidity, and malarious diseases + are common in the low grounds; otherwise it is not unhealthy. The whole + province, except the cultivated area, may be designated as forest, the + trees including teak, sâl, sissoo, the date and sago palm, the areca palm + (the betel-nut tree), the Indian fig tree, &c. The article of most + commercial importance is tea, which was first exported in 1838, and the + yield of which is now over 100,000,000 pounds annually. Other crops + raised are rice, Indian corn, pulse, oil-seeds, <!-- Page 282 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page282"></a>[282]</span>sugar-cane, hemp, jute, + potatoes, &c. In the jungles and forests roam herds of elephants, the + rhinoceros, tiger, buffalo, leopard, bear, wild hog, jackal, fox, goat, + and various kinds of deer. Among serpents are the python and the cobra. + Pheasants, partridges, snipe, wild peacock, and many kinds of water-fowl + abound. Coal, petroleum, and limestone are found in abundance; iron is + smelted to a small extent; gold-dust is met with; lime is exported to + Bengal. There is no single Assamese nationality, and the Assamese + language is merely a modern dialect of Bengali. Pop. 6,713,635, 3,637,828 + of whom are Hindus, 1,886,528 Mahommedans, 66,430 Christians, 10,506 + Buddhists, the rest being chiefly hill tribes of aboriginal faiths. The + labourers in the tea-gardens are mostly drawn from Bengal. In 1826 Assam + became a possession of Britain, being taken from the Burmese, who had + made themselves masters of it about the end of the eighteenth century. + The largest town is Sylhet (pop. 14,000).—Cf. E. A. Gait, + <i>History of Assam</i>.</p> + + <p><b>As´sapan</b> (<i>Sciuroptĕrus volucella</i>), the + flying-squirrel of N. America, a little animal with folds of skin along + its sides which enable it to take leaps of 40 or 50 yards.</p> + + <p><b>Assass´ins</b> (from <i>hashshāshīn</i>, drinkers of + <i>hashish</i>), an Asiatic order or society having the practice of + assassination as its most distinctive feature, founded by Hassan Ben + Sabbah, the Himyarite, a <i>dai</i> or missionary of the heterodox + Mahommedan sect the Ismailites. The society grew rapidly in numbers, and + in 1090 the Persian fortress of Alamut fell into their hands. Other + territories were added, and the order became a recognized military power. + Its organization comprised seven ranks, at its head being the + Sheikh-al-Jebala or 'Old man of the mountains'. Upon a select band fell + the work of assassination, to which they were stimulated by the + intoxicating influence of <i>hashish</i>. For nearly two centuries they + maintained their power under nine sheikhs. Hassan, after a long and + prosperous reign, died in 1124. Most of his successors died violent + deaths at the hands of relatives or dependents. After proving themselves + strong enough to withstand the powerful sultans Noureddin and Saladin, + and making themselves feared by the Crusaders, the <i>Assassins</i> were + overcome by the Tartar leader Hulaku. The last chief, Rokneddin, was + killed for an act of treachery subsequent to his capture, and his death + was followed by a general massacre of the assassins, in which 12,000 + perished. Dispersed bands led a roving life in the Syrian mountains, and + it is alleged that in the Druses and other small existing tribes their + descendants are still to be found. See <i>Crusades</i>; <i>Khoja</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Assault´</b>, in law, an attempt or offer, with force and violence, + to do a corporal hurt to another, as by striking at him with or without a + weapon. If a person lift up or stretch forth his arm and offer to strike + another, or menace anyone with any staff or weapon, it is an assault in + law. Assault, therefore, does not necessarily imply a hitting or blow, + because in trespass for assault and battery a man may be found guilty of + the assault and acquitted of the battery. But every battery includes an + assault.</p> + + <p><b>Assaye</b>, or <b>Assye</b> (as-sī´), a village in Southern + India, in Hyderabad, where Wellington (then Major-General Wellesley) + gained a famous victory in 1803. With only 4500 troops at his disposal he + completely routed the Mahratta force of 50,000 men and 100 guns. The + victory, however, cost him more than a third of his men.</p> + + <p><b>Assaying</b>, the estimation of the amount of pure metal present in + an ore or an alloy. The term was originally applied to testing of gold + and silver only. It is now usually applied to the determination of the + quantity of valuable metal in an ore or alloy, and is also sometimes + applied to the estimation of any element which may affect the value of + the ore.</p> + + <p>Assaying, therefore, means the estimation of one or more metals in an + ore or alloy. Before an assay can be made, an average sample of the + material must be obtained. If an ore, pieces of material are taken from + different parts of the vein or, if already mined, from different parts of + the dump. The pieces are crushed up finely and divided into four equal + parts. Two of these parts are then mixed and divided into four again, and + so on until an average sample has been obtained. In the case of metals in + ingots or bars, samples are obtained by drilling and chipping corners or + edges. Coins, which are never homogeneous, may be rolled out into a thin + sheet and cut into small pieces. A preliminary examination is made to + determine the constituents. Finally an assay of the substance is made. + The methods used are determined by the metals and the proportions of + these present in the ore or alloy. Originally the term assaying was + applied to dry methods, i.e. the substance was heated in a special + crucible with a suitable flux, and a bead of metal was obtained which was + weighed. An assay now may be carried out in various ways, for example, by + fusing with a reducing agent and obtaining a bead of metal, or by + dissolving the substance to be assayed in suitable solvent and + precipitating the metal as an insoluble salt, or volumetric methods may + be used. Dry assaying is still used for gold. The assay depends on first + heating the gold ore or alloy with lead in a porous crucible, that is, + <i>cupelling</i> it. Lead oxidizes on heating in a furnace; part + volatilizes, and part of the oxide is absorbed by the cupel and carries + with it oxides of other metals with the exception <!-- Page 283 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page283"></a>[283]</span>of gold and silver. The + proportion of lead must be regulated, depending on the metals alloyed + with gold. A bead is obtained containing gold and silver. This is beaten + out into a thin plate, and then rolled out until it is thin enough to be + rolled up by hand. The gold alloy is rolled up in the fingers into a + cornette and treated with nitric acid. This dissolves silver, leaving a + brittle cornette of gold, which is thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed. + All gold alloys and silver alloys must be assayed, and their fineness + stamped on them. The Goldsmith's Company of London is the statutory + assay-master of England.—<span class="sc">Bibliography:</span> C. + and J. J. Beringer, <i>A Text-book of Assaying</i>; E. A. Wraight, + <i>Assaying in Theory and Practice</i>; J. Park, <i>A Text-book of + Practical Assaying</i>.</p> + + <p><b>As´segai</b> (from Ar. <i>as-zahayah</i>), a spear used as a weapon + among the Kaffirs of S. Africa, made of hard wood tipped with iron, and + used for throwing or thrusting.</p> + + <p><b>Assembly, General</b>, the supreme ecclesiastical court of the + Established Church of Scotland, consisting of delegates from every + presbytery, university, and royal burgh in Scotland. It has the + countenance of a representative of the king, styled the Lord High + Commissioner, who is always a nobleman. It holds its meetings annually + and (according to the present practice) in the month of May, usually + sitting for ten or twelve days. In its judicial capacity as a court of + review, and as the court of last resort, the General Assembly has a right + to determine finally every question brought from the inferior courts, by + reference, complaint, or appeal. It possesses, besides, a general + superintendence of the discipline of the Church, of the management of the + inferior courts, of the conduct of the clergy, and of the morals of the + people. In its legislative capacity it has the power of enacting statutes + with regard to every subject of ecclesiastical cognizance, which are + binding on the Assembly itself, on the inferior courts, and on the + individual members of the Church. But by an Act of Assembly in 1697, from + its substance and design named the Barrier Act, every proposition for a + new law must first be considered in the form of an overture; and though + it should be approved of by the Assembly it cannot be enacted as a + statute till it has been first transmitted to the several presbyteries of + the Church for their consideration, and has received the sanction of at + least a majority of the presbyteries. The United Free Church of Scotland + has also a General Assembly similar in its constitution and functions to + that of the Established Church, and the same is the case with the + Presbyterian Churches of Ireland and America.</p> + + <p><b>Assembly, National</b> (France), a body set up in France on the eve + of the Revolution. Upon the convocation of the States-General by Louis + XVI the privileged nobles and clergy refused to deliberate in the same + chamber with the commons or <i>tiers-état</i> (third estate). The latter, + therefore, on the proposition of the Abbé Siéyès, constituted themselves + an <i>assemblée nationale</i>, with legislative powers (17th June, 1789). + They bound themselves by oath not to separate until they had furnished + France with a constitution, and the Court was compelled to give its + assent. In the 3250 decrees passed by the Assembly were laid the + foundations of a new epoch, and, having accomplished this task, it + dissolved itself, 30th Sept., 1791.</p> + + <p><b>Assembly of Divines.</b> See <i>Westminster Assembly</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Assembly, The Right of</b>, is an essential principle of popular + government, as understood by the British and American constitutions. The + right of British citizens to assemble peaceably for any purpose which is + not strictly prohibited by law is implied in the right of petition, as + affirmed in the Bill of Rights (q.v.). Unlawful assembly, which is a + criminal offence, is distinguished from the offence of riot. Whilst the + latter is an actual attempt to carry an unlawful purpose into effect, the + former is defined as "an assembly with intent to carry out a common + purpose which may lead to a breach of the peace".</p> + + <p><b>As´sen</b>, chief town of the province of Drenthe, Holland. Pop. + 13,000.</p> + + <p><b>Assent´, The Royal</b>, is the approbation given by the sovereign + in Parliament to a Bill which has passed both Houses, after which it + becomes a law. It may either be done in person, when the sovereign comes + to the House of Peers and the assent (in Norman French) is declared by + the Clerk of Parliament; or it may be done by letters-patent under the + great seal, signed by the sovereign.</p> + + <p><b>As´ser, John</b>, a learned British ecclesiastic, originally a monk + of St. David's, distinguished as the instructor, companion, and + biographer of Alfred the Great, who appointed him abbot of two or three + different monasteries, and finally Bishop of Sherborne, where he died in + 908 or 910. His life of Alfred, written in Latin in 893 (<i>Annales Rerum + Gestarum Ælfredi Magni</i>), is of very great value, though its + authenticity has been questioned. There are several English translations + of it.</p> + + <p><b>Assessed Taxes</b>, taxes charged upon persons by means of a + schedule or paper sent to each, and strictly including such taxes as the + income-tax, the house-tax, local rates, &c. In Britain the so-called + assessed taxes include those upon servants, carriages, dogs, armorial + bearings, &c., though these are really excise licence duties.</p> + + <p><b>Asses´sor</b>, a person appointed to ascertain and fix the amount + of taxes, rates, &c.; or a <!-- Page 284 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page284"></a>[284]</span>person who sits along with the judges in + certain courts, and assists them with his professional knowledge.</p> + + <p><b>As´sets</b> (Fr. <i>assez</i>, enough), property or goods available + for the payment of a bankrupt or deceased person's obligations. Assets + are personal or real, the former comprising all goods, chattels, &c., + devolving upon the executor as saleable to discharge debts and legacies. + In commerce and bankruptcy the term is often used as the antithesis of + 'liabilities', to designate the stock in trade and entire property of an + individual or an association.—<i>Intangible</i> (or fictitious) + assets are those not represented by any existing value, e.g. goodwill; + <i>liquid</i> assets are cash, investments, or other immediately + available funds.</p> + + <p><b>Asside´ans</b>, <b>Haside´ans</b>, or <b>Hasidim</b> ('the pious'), + one of the two great sects into which, after the Babylonish captivity, + the Jews were divided with regard to the observance of the law—the + Hasidim accepting it in its later developments, the Zadikim professing + adherence only to the law as given by Moses. See <i>Pharisees</i>, + <i>Talmudists</i>, <i>Rabbinists</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Assien´to</b>, the permission of the Spanish Government to a + foreign nation to import negro slaves from Africa into the Spanish + colonies in America, for a limited time, on payment of certain duties. It + was accorded to the Netherlands about 1552, to the Genoese in 1580, and + to the French Guinea Company (afterwards the Assiento Company) in 1702. + In 1713 the celebrated <i>Assiento Treaty</i> with Britain for thirty + years was concluded at Utrecht. By this contract the British obtained the + right to send yearly a ship of 500 tons, with all sorts of merchandise, + to the Spanish colonies. This led to frequent abuses and contraband + trade; acts of violence followed, and in 1739 a war broke out between the + two Powers. At the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, four years more + were granted to the British; but by the Treaty of Madrid, two years + later, £100,000 sterling were promised for the relinquishment of the two + remaining years, and the contract was annulled.</p> + + <p><b>Assignats</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s-ē-nya<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), the name of the national paper + currency in the time of the French Revolution. Assignats to the value of + 400,000,000 francs were first struck off by the Constituent Assembly, + with the approbation of the king, 19th April, 1790, to be redeemed with + the proceeds of the sale of the confiscated goods of the Church. On the + 27th Aug. of the same year Mirabeau urged the issuing of 2,000,000,000 + francs of new assignats, which caused a dispute in the Assembly. Vergasse + and Dupont, who saw that the plan was an invention of Clavière for his + own enrichment, particularly distinguished themselves as the opponents of + the scheme. Mirabeau's exertions, however, were seconded by Péthion, and + 800,000,000 francs more were issued. They were increased by degrees to + 45,578,000,000, and their value rapidly declined. In the winter of 1792-3 + they lost 30 per cent, and, in spite of the law to compel their + acceptance at their nominal value, they continued to fall, till in the + spring of 1796 they had sunk to one three hundred and forty-fourth their + nominal value. This depreciation was due partly to the want of confidence + in the stability of the Government, partly to the fact that the + coarsely-executed and easily-counterfeited assignats were forged in great + numbers. They were withdrawn by the Directory from the currency, and at + length redeemed by mandats at one-thirtieth of their nominal value.</p> + + <p><b>Assignee´</b>, a person appointed by another to transact some + business, or exercise some particular privilege or power. Formerly the + persons appointed under a commission of bankruptcy, to manage the estate + of the bankrupt on behalf of the creditors, were so called, but now they + are called <i>trustees</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Assign´ment</b> is a transfer by deed of any property, or right, + title, or interest in property, real or personal. Assignments are usually + given for leases, mortgages, and funded property.</p> + + <p><b>Assiniboi´a</b>, the smallest of the four districts into which that + portion of the north-western territories of Canada now forming the + provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta was divided in 1882. It lay on the + west of Manitoba, with Saskatchewan on the north and Alberta on the west, + the United States on the south. The name is now given to an electoral + district of the province of Saskatchewan. The region contains much good + wheat land. Regina was the capital, as it now is of the new province.</p> + + <p><b>Assiniboine</b>, a river of Canada, which flows through Manitoba + and joins the Red River at Winnipeg, about 40 miles above the entrance of + the latter into Lake Winnipeg, after a somewhat circuitous course of + about 500 miles from the west and north-west. Steamers ply on it for over + 300 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Assiout.</b> See <i>Siout</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Assisi</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s-sē'sē), a small town in + Italy, in the province of Umbria, 20 miles north of Spoleto, the see of a + bishop, and famous as the birthplace of St. Francis d'Assisi. The + splendid church built over the chapel where the saint received his first + impulse to devotion is one of the finest remains of mediæval Gothic + architecture.</p> + + <p><b>Assi´zes</b>, a term chiefly used in England to signify the + sessions of the courts held at Westminster prior to Magna Charta, but + thereafter appointed by successive enactments to be held annually in + every county. Twelve judges, who are members of the highest courts in + England, twice in every year perform a <i>circuit</i> into all the + counties into which the kingdom is divided (the <!-- Page 285 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page285"></a>[285]</span>counties being grouped + into seven circuits), to hold these assizes, at which both civil and + criminal cases are decided. Occasionally this circuit is performed a + third time for the purpose of jail-delivery. In London and Middlesex, + instead of circuits, courts of <i>nisi prius</i> are held. At the assizes + all the justices of the peace of the county are bound to attend. Special + commissions of assize are granted for inquest into certain causes. In + Scotland the term <i>assize</i> is still applicable to the jury in + criminal cases.</p> + + <p>Among the more important historic uses of the term <i>assize</i> are + its application to any sitting or deliberative council, and its + transference thence to their ordinances, decrees, or assessments. In the + latter sense we have the Assizes of Jerusalem, a code of feudal laws + formulated in 1099 under Godfrey of Bouillon; the Assizes of Clarendon + (1166), of Northampton (1176), and of Woodstock (1184); also the + <i>assisæ venalium</i> (1203), for regulating the prices of articles of + common consumption; the Assize of Arms (1181), an ordinance for + organizing the national militia, &c.</p> + + <p><b>Assmanshausen.</b> See <i>Asmannshausen</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Associated Counties</b>, a term applied to Essex, Cambridge, + Norfolk, Suffolk, and Hertford, with, subsequently, Huntingdon and + Lincoln. The association was formed in 1642 to raise an army for the + Parliament and keep the war out of their own districts. The successive + leaders were Lord Grey of Wark, the Earl of Manchester, and Cromwell.</p> + + <p><b>Association of Ideas</b>, a doctrine of both psychological and + philosophical import. In psychology the term is used to comprise the + conditions under which one idea is able to recall another to + consciousness. It is, therefore, the doctrine which deals with the + reproduction of past experience by a present object of consciousness. The + phrase 'association of ideas' was first introduced by Locke, and dealt + with by Berkeley and Hartley, who became the founder of the so-called + <i>Associationist School</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ass´onance</b>, in poetry, a term used when the terminating words + of lines have the same vowel sound but make no proper rhyme. Such verses, + having what we should consider false rhymes, are regularly employed in + Spanish poetry; but cases are not wanting in leading British poets. Mrs. + Browning not only used them frequently, but justified the use of + them.</p> + + <p><b>Assouan</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s-sō-a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n´), or <b>Aswan</b> + (<i>Syēnē</i>), a town of Upper Egypt, on the east bank of + the Nile, below the first cataract, opposite the Island of Elephantine. + The granite quarries of the Pharaohs are here. Pop. 15,000.</p> + + <p><b>Assouan Dam</b>, a great dam constructed across the Nile in Upper + Egypt, near Assouan, at the foot of the first cataract. It is about a + mile and a quarter long, and is provided with a large number of sluices + in two tiers. It was originally built to a height of about 96 feet + between 1898 and 1902, and raised to a height of 112 feet above bed-rock + between 1907 and 1911. It is intended to regulate the supply of water for + irrigation purposes to the country lower down, the water being stored up + at the time when the river is high, and allowed to escape when it is + required for the crops. When the reservoir is full it forms a lake about + 130 miles long. The dam was planned by Sir William Willcocks, and the + work carried out under Sir William Garstin and Sir Benjamin Baker, at a + cost of £5,000,000 (Egyptian).</p> + + <p><b>Assump´sit</b>, in English law, an action to recover compensation + for the non-performance of a <i>parole</i> promise; that is, a promise + not contained in a deed under seal. Assumpsits are of two kinds, + <i>express</i> and <i>implied</i>. The former are where the contracts are + actually made in word or writing; the latter are such as the law implies + from the justice of the case; e.g. employment to do work implies a + promise to pay.</p> + + <p><b>Assumption.</b> See <i>Asuncion</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Assumption, Feast of</b>, the ecclesiastical festival celebrating + the miraculous ascent into Heaven of the Virgin Mary's body as well as + her soul, kept on the 15th of August. The legend first appeared in the + third or fourth century, and the festival was instituted some three + centuries later.</p> + + <p><b>Assurance.</b> See <i>Insurance</i>.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:33%;"> + <a href="images/image118.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image118.jpg" + alt="Assyrian bas-relief" title="Assyrian bas-relief" /></a> + Assyrian bas-relief from the Palace of Nimrûd showing Lion-hunting + about 884 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> + </div> + + <p><b>Assyr´ia</b> (the <b>Asshur</b> of the Hebrews, <b>Athurâ</b> of + the ancient Persians), an ancient monarchy in Asia, intersected by the + upper course of the Tigris, and having the Armenian Mountains on the + north and Babylonia on the south; area, about 50,000 sq. miles; surface + partly mountainous, hilly, or undulating, partly a portion of the fertile + Mesopotamian plain. The numerous remains of ancient habitations show how + thickly this vast flat must have once been <!-- Page 286 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page286"></a>[286]</span>peopled; now, for the + most part, it is a mere wilderness. Geographically and historically, + however, Assyria and Babylonia are interdependent, and the Assyrians and + Babylonians are ethnographically and linguistically the same race. + Whereas, however, the classical authors speak of Assyria to the exclusion + of Babylonia, the decipherment of the inscriptions has proved that + Babylonia was the mother-country, and that Assyria, except during a + period of eight centuries, was a dependency of the former. This discovery + coincides with the contents of the tenth chapter of <i>Genesis</i>. See + <i>Babylonia</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ast</b>, Georg Anton Friedrich, German philosopher, 1776-1841. He + wrote on æsthetics and the history of philosophy, but is best known as an + editor of Plato, whose works he published with a Latin translation and + commentary.</p> + + <p><b>As´tacus.</b> See <i>Crayfish</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Astar´te</b>, a Syrian goddess, probably corresponding to the + <i>Ashtaroth</i> of the Hebrews, and representing the productive power of + nature. She was a moon-goddess. Some regard her as corresponding to + <i>Hera</i> (<i>Juno</i>), and others identify her with + <i>Aphroditē</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Astatic needle</b>, a magnetic needle having another needle of the + same intensity fixed parallel to it, the poles being reversed, so that + the needles neutralize one another, and are unaffected by the earth's + magnetism; used in the <i>astatic galvanometer</i>.</p> + + <p><b>As´ter</b>, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositæ, comprehending + several hundred species, scattered over Europe and Asia, but mostly + natives of North America. Many are cultivated as ornamental plants. One, + <i>A. Tripolium</i>, is native in Britain, and is found in salt marshes, + having a pretty purple flower. Asters generally flower late in the + season, and some are hence called Michaelmas or Christmas Daisies. The + China Aster, not an aster proper (<i>Aster</i> or <i>Callistĕphus + chinensis</i>), is a very showy annual, of which there are many + varieties.</p> + + <p><b>Asterabad´.</b> See <i>Astrabad</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aste´ria</b>, a name applied to a variety of corundum, which + displays an opalescent star of six rays of light when cut with certain + precautions; and also to the <i>cat's-eye</i>, which consists of quartz, + and is found especially in Ceylon.</p> + + <p><b>Aster´idæ.</b> See <i>Asteroidea</i>.</p> + + <p><b>As´terisk</b>, the figure of a star, thus *, used in printing and + writing, as a reference to a passage or note in the margin, or to fill + the space when a name, or the like, is omitted.</p> + + <p><b>Asteroi´dea</b>, the ord. of the Echinodermata to which the + star-fishes belong. See <i>Star-fishes</i>.</p> + + <p><b>As´teroids</b>, <b>Planetoids</b>, or <b>Minor Planets</b>, a + numerous group of very small planets revolving round the sun, in the + great majority of cases at mean distances, intermediate between those of + Mars and Jupiter, in orbits of large eccentricity at considerable + inclination to the ecliptic. The diameter of the largest is not supposed + to exceed 450 miles, while most of the others are very much smaller. Over + one thousand are known, and new members are being constantly discovered. + The first to be discovered was Ceres, on 1st Jan., 1801, and within seven + years more Pallas, Juno, and Vesta were seen. The diminutive size of + these four bodies, and resemblances in their orbits, gave rise to the + opinion that they were but the fragments of a planet that had formerly + existed and had been brought to an end by some catastrophe. For nearly + forty years investigations were carried on, but no more planets were + discovered till 8th Dec., 1845, when a fifth planet in the same region of + the solar system was discovered. The rapid succession of discoveries that + followed was for a time taken as a corroboration of the disruption + theory, but the breadth of the zone occupied makes the hypothesis of a + shattered planet more than doubtful. In recent years a few have been + discovered which are at times considerably within the orbit of Mars, the + nearest perihelia being less than 15 million miles beyond the earth's + orbit. Another group, known as the 'Trojan Planets', has been found, + whose mean distances are practically identical with that of Jupiter. The + total mass of the asteroids cannot exceed one-fourth that of the earth, + and is probably much less. See <i>Planets</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asterol´epis</b>, a genus of primitive ganoid fishes, found only in + a fossil state in the Old Red Sandstone. They were about 1 foot long, and + the head and body were enclosed in armour of strong bony plates.</p> + + <p><b>Asthma</b> (ast´ma), difficulty of respiration, returning at + intervals, with a sense of stricture across the chest and in the lungs, a + wheezing, hard cough at first, but more free towards the close of each + paroxysm, with a discharge of mucus, followed by a remission. Asthma is + essentially a spasm of the muscular tissue which is contained in the + smaller bronchial tubes. It generally attacks persons advanced in years, + and seems, in some instances, to be hereditary. The exciting causes are + various—accumulation of blood or viscid mucus in the lungs, noxious + vapours, a cold and foggy atmosphere, or a close, hot air, flatulence, + accumulated fæces, violent passions, organic diseases in the thoracic + viscera, &c. In recent years a treatment first used by Dr. Alexander + Francis has come into prominence. By far the most important part of the + treatment consists in obviating or removing the several exciting causes. + It seldom proves fatal except as inducing dropsy, consumption, + &c.</p> + + <p><b>Asti</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s´tē), a town of Northern Italy, + province of Alessandria, 28 miles <span class="scac">E.S.E.</span> of + Turin, the see of <!-- Page 287 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page287"></a>[287]</span>a bishop, with an old cathedral. In the + Middle Ages it was one of the most powerful republics of Northern Italy. + It was the birthplace of Alfieri, the poet, whose statue adorns the + principal square. There is also an equestrian statue of King Humbert. The + industries comprise silk, matches, gold, mosaic wares, &c. A + favourite wine is produced in the neighbourhood. Asti, anciently + <i>Asta</i>, was a place of some importance under the Roman emperors, and + in the Middle Ages was an independent republic. Pop. 41,252.</p> + + <p><b>Astig´matism</b> (Gr. <i>a</i>, not, <i>stigma</i>, spot, mark), a + malformation or imperfection, congenital or accidental, of the globe of + the eye, in consequence of which the individual does not see objects + clear and distinct, but with a blurred outline. It is due to the cornea + or transparent outer coat of the eye not being regularly spherical, but + having different degrees of curvature in different directions. Usually + the degree of convexity is not the same horizontally as it is vertically, + so that the rays from an object, instead of converging into one focus, + meet in more than one. If a person with this defect is looking at + vertical lines crossed by horizontal ones he will see the one set more + distinctly than the other, though a slight movement will enable him to + see the other distinctly also, but not at the same time. Almost all eyes + are more or less astigmatic, but persons only become aware of it when it + is excessive. Special lenses are required to correct it—usually + lenses plane in one direction and concave or convex in the other. Short + sight or long sight is often associated with astigmatism, so that + suitable spectacles cannot be very easily provided.</p> + + <p><b>Astle</b>, Thomas, English antiquary, born 1735, died 1803. He was + a trustee of the British Museum and keeper of the public records in the + Tower. His chief work, <i>The Origin and Progress of Writing</i>, + appeared in 1784, and the portion dealing with mediæval handwriting is + still of value. He formed a famous collection of MSS., the most valuable + portion of which is now in the British Museum.</p> + + <p><b>Astom´ata</b>, one of the two groups into which the Protozoa are + divided with regard to the presence or absence of a mouth, of which organ + the Astomata are destitute. The group comprises two classes, Gregarinida + and Rhizopoda. See <i>Stomatoda</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Aston Manor</b>, formerly a municipal and parliamentary borough of + Warwickshire, England, situated about 1½ miles <span + class="scac">E.N.E.</span> of Birmingham, and engaged in similar branches + of industry. It was incorporated with Birmingham in 1911 and gives its + name to one of its parliamentary divisions. Pop. 75,029.</p> + + <p><b>Astor</b>, John Jacob, born near Heidelberg, Germany, 1703, died at + New York, 1848. In 1783 he emigrated to the United States, settled at New + York, and became extensively engaged in the fur trade. In 1811 the + settlement of Astoria, founded by him, near the mouth of the Columbia + River, was formed to serve as a central depot for the fur trade between + the lakes and the Pacific. He subsequently engaged in various + speculations, and died worth £4,000,000, leaving £80,000 to found the + Astor Library in New York. This institution is contained in a splendid + building, enlarged in 1859 at the cost of his son, and comprises about + 260,000 volumes. Since 1895 it has formed part of the New York public + library.—His great-grandson, William Waldorf Astor, born in 1848, + died in 1919, naturalized in England in 1899, was made a baron in 1916 + and a viscount in 1917.</p> + + <p><b>Astor, Lady.</b> Nancy Witcher, Viscountess Astor, married the + second Viscount Astor in 1906. She is a daughter of the late Colonel + Chiswell Dabney Langhorne, of Virginia, United States. In Nov., 1919, she + was elected member of Parliament for the Sutton division of Plymouth, and + was the first woman to take a seat in the House of Commons.</p> + + <p><b>Astor´ga</b>, a city of Spain, province of Leon; the <i>Asturica + Augusta</i> of the Romans. It figured prominently during the Peninsular + War; it was taken by the French after an obstinate defence, 1810, and + retaken by the Spaniards, 1812. Pop. 5682.</p> + + <p><b>Asto´ria</b>, a town of Oregon, United States, on the Columbia + River, with numerous salmon-canning establishments. Pop. 10,595. See + <i>Astor</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Astrabad´</b>, a town of Persia, province of same name, about 24 + miles <span class="scac">E.</span> of the Caspian. It was formerly the + residence of the Kajar princes, the ancestors of the present Persian + dynasty. It is very unhealthy, but is still the centre of a considerable + trade. Pop. estimated at from 10,000 to 30,000. The province of Astrabad + has an area of 5800 sq. miles, and a pop. of 150,000.</p> + + <p><b>Astræ´a</b>, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Zeus and Themis, + the goddess of justice. During the golden age she dwelt on earth, but on + that age passing away she withdrew from the society of men and was placed + among the stars, where she forms the constellation Virgo. The name was + given to one of the asteroids, discovered in 1845. It revolves round the + sun in 1511.10 solar days, and is about 2½ times the distance of the + earth from the sun.</p> + + <p><b>As´tragal</b>, in architecture, a small semicircular moulding, with + a fillet beneath it, which surrounds a column in the form of a ring, + separating the shaft from the capital.</p> + + <p><b>Astrag´alus</b>, a genus of papilionaceous plants, herbaceous or + shrubby, and often spiny. <i>A. gummifer</i> yields gum tragacanth.</p> + + <p><b>Astrag´alus</b>, the upper bone of the foot <!-- Page 288 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page288"></a>[288]</span>supporting the tibia; + the buckle, ankle, or sling bone. It is a strong irregularly-shaped bone, + and is connected with the others by powerful ligaments.</p> + + <p><b>Astrakhan</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>s-tra<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-<i>h</i>a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>n'), a Russian city, capital of + government of same name, on an elevated island in the Volga, about 30 + miles above its mouth in the Caspian, communicating with the opposite + banks of the river by numerous bridges. It is the seat of a Greek + archbishop and has a large cathedral, as well as places of worship for + Mahommedans, Armenians, &c. The manufactures are large and + increasing, and the fisheries (sturgeon, &c.) very important. It is + the chief port of the Caspian, and has regular steam communication with + the principal towns on its shores. In 1919 the town was made a naval base + by the Bolshevist Government of Moscow. Pop. 163,800, composed of various + races.—The government (or province) has an area of 91,042 sq. + miles. It consists almost entirely of two vast steppes, separated from + each other by the Volga, and forming for the most part arid sterile + deserts. In 1918 the district of Astrakhan proclaimed its autonomy and + independence of Moscow. Pop. 1,427,500.</p> + + <p><b>Astrakhan</b>, a name given to sheepskins with a curled woolly + surface obtained from a variety of sheep found in Búkhara, Persia, and + Syria; also a rough fabric with a pile in imitation of this.</p> + + <p><b>Astralite.</b> See <i>Explosives</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Astral Spirits</b>, spirits formerly believed to people the + heavenly bodies or the aerial regions. In the Middle Ages they were + variously conceived as fallen angels, souls of departed men, or spirits + originating in fire, and belonging neither to heaven, earth, nor hell. + Paracelsus regarded them as demoniacal in character.</p> + + <p><b>Astrin´gent</b>, a medicine which contracts the organic textures + and canals of the body, thereby checking or diminishing excessive + discharges. The chief astringents are the mineral acids, alum, + lime-water, chalk, salts of copper, zinc, iron, lead, silver; and among + vegetables catechu, kino, oak-bark, and galls.</p> + + <p><b>Astroca´ryum</b>, a genus of tropical American palms, species of + which yield oil and valuable fibre. Tucum oil and tucum thread are + obtained from <i>A. vulgāre</i>.</p> + + <p><b>As´trolabe</b>, an instrument formerly used for taking the altitude + of the sun or stars, now superseded by the quadrant and sextant. The name + was also formerly given to an armillary sphere.—Cf. Chaucer, + <i>Treatise on the Astrolabe</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Astrolabe Bay</b>, an inlet on the <span class="scac">N.E.</span> + coast of Australian New Guinea.</p> + + <p><b>Astrol´ogy</b>, literally, the science or doctrine of the stars. + The name was formerly used as equivalent to astronomy, but is now + restricted in meaning to the pseudo-science which pretends to enable men + to judge of the effects and influences of the heavenly bodies on human + and other mundane affairs, and to foretell future events by their + situations and conjunctions. As usually practised, the whole heavens, + visible and invisible, were divided by great circles into twelve equal + parts, called <i>houses</i>. As the circles were supposed to remain + immovable, every heavenly body passed through each of the twelve houses + every twenty-four hours. The portion of the zodiac contained in each + house was the part to which chief attention was paid, and the position of + any planet was settled by its distance from the boundary circle of the + house, measured on the ecliptic. The houses had different names and + different powers, the first being called the house of life, the second + the house of riches, the third of brethren, the sixth of marriage, the + eighth of death, and so on. The part of the heavens about to rise was + called the <i>ascendant</i>, the planet within the house of the ascendant + being <i>lord of the ascendant</i>. The different <i>aspects</i> of the + planets were of great importance. To <i>cast a person's nativity</i> (or + <i>draw his horoscope</i>) was to find the position of the heavens at the + instant of his birth, which being done, the astrologer, who knew the + various powers and influences possessed by the sun, the moon, and the + planets, could predict what the course and termination of that person's + life would be. The temperament of the individual was ascribed to the + planet under which he was born, as <i>saturnine</i> from <i>Saturn</i>, + <i>jovial</i> from <i>Jupiter</i>, <i>mercurial</i> from <i>Mercury</i>, + <i>&c.</i>, words which are now used with little thought of their + original meaning. The virtues of herbs, gems, and medicines were supposed + to be due to their ruling planets. The history of astrology, which was + the foster-sister of astronomy, goes back to the early days of the human + race. Egyptians and Hindus, as well as the nations on the Euphrates and + Tigris, were zealous astrologers. The Christian Church strongly opposed + the teachings of astrology, but its study spread among Jews and Arabs + during the Middle Ages. Francis Bacon abused the astrologers of his day, + and Swift wrote against them his famous <i>Prediction for the Year 1708, + by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq.</i>—<span + class="scac">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span>: E. H. Bennet, <i>Astrology</i>; G. + Wilde, <i>Chaldean Astrology Up-to-date</i>; A. Maury, <i>La Magie et + l'astrologie à l'antiquité et au moyen âge</i>; A. J. Pearce, <i>Textbook + of Astrology</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Astron´omy</b> (from Gr. <i>astron</i>, a heavenly body, and + <i>nemein</i>, to classify or arrange) is that science which investigates + the motions, distances, magnitudes, and various phenomena of the heavenly + bodies. The science may be divided into several branches. <i>Descriptive + astronomy</i> denotes merely a presentation of astronomical facts in a + systematic but popular form; <i>practical astronomy</i> treats of the + instruments used in observing the celestial bodies, the methods <!-- Page + 289 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page289"></a>[289]</span>of their + employment, and the manner of deducing results from the observations; + investigation of the causes of the motions of these bodies was formerly + termed <i>physical astronomy</i>, but now generally <i>dynamical</i> or + <i>gravitational astronomy</i>; <i>physical astronomy</i> or + <i>astro-physics</i> is the comparatively modern branch which deals with + their physical conditions, radiation, temperature, and chemical + constitution. Recent years have added two new fields of investigation + which are full of promise for the advancement of astronomical science. + The first of these—<i>celestial photography</i>—has furnished + us with invaluable light-pictures of the sun, moon, and other bodies, and + has recorded the existence of myriads of stars invisible even to the best + telescopes; while the second, <i>spectrum analysis</i>, now employed by + many scientists, reveals to us a knowledge of the physical constituents + of the universe, telling us for instance that in the sun (or his + atmosphere) there exist many of the elements familiar to us on the earth. + It is also applied to the determination of the velocities with which + stars are approaching, or receding from, our system; and to the + measurement of movements taking place within the solar atmospheric + envelopes. From analysis of some of the unresolved nebulæ the inference + is drawn that they are not star-swarms but simply incandescent gas; + whence a second inference results favourable to the hypothesis of the + gradual condensation of nebulæ, and the successive evolutions of suns and + systems.</p> + + <p>The most remote period to which we can go back in tracing the history + of astronomy refers us to a time about 2500 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, when the Chinese are said to have recorded the + simultaneous conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, and the moon. + This remarkable phenomenon is found, by calculating backward, to have + taken place 2460 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Astronomy has also an + undoubtedly high antiquity in India. The mean annual motion of Jupiter + and Saturn was observed as early as 3062 years <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>; tables of the sun, moon, and planets were + formed, and eclipses calculated. In the time of Alexander the Great, the + Chaldeans or Babylonians had carried on astronomical observations for + 1900 years. They regarded comets as bodies travelling in extended orbits, + and predicted their return; and there is reason to believe that they had + correct ideas regarding the solar system. The priests of Egypt gave + astronomy a religious character; but their knowledge of the science is + testified to only by their ancient zodiacs and the position of their + pyramids with relation to the cardinal points. It was among the Greeks + that astronomy took a more scientific form. Thales of Miletus (born 639 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) predicted a solar eclipse, and his + successors held opinions which are in many respects wonderfully in + accordance with modern ideas. Pythagoras (500 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>) and his followers formed theories of the + planetary system. They taught the sphericity and revolution of the earth, + but placed an imaginary 'Central Fire', not the sun itself, at the centre + of the system. Great progress was made in astronomy under the Ptolemies, + and we find Timochares and Aristyllus employed about 300 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span> in making useful planetary observations. But + Aristarchus of Samos (born 267 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) is said, + on the authority of Archimedes, to have far surpassed them, by teaching + the double motion of the earth around its axis and around the sun. A + hundred years later Hipparchus determined more exactly the length of the + solar year, and the eccentricity of the ecliptic, discovered the + precession of the equinoxes, and even undertook a catalogue of the stars. + It was in the second century after Christ that Claudius Ptolemy, a famous + mathematician of Pelusium in Egypt, propounded the system that bears his + name, viz., that the earth was the centre of the universe, and that the + sun, moon, and planets revolved around it in the following order: nearest + to the earth was the sphere of the moon; then followed the spheres of + Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; then came the sphere + of the fixed stars; these were succeeded by two <i>crystalline</i> + spheres and an outer sphere named the <i>primum mobile</i> or first + movable, which last was again circumscribed by the <i>cœlum + empyreum</i>, of a cubic shape, wherein happy souls found their abode. + The Arabs began to make scientific astronomical observations about the + middle of the eighth century, and for 400 years they prosecuted the + science with assiduity. Ibn-Yunis (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1000) + made important observations of the perturbations and eccentricities of + Jupiter and Saturn. In the sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus, born in + 1473, introduced the system that bears his name, and which recognized the + sun's central place in the solar system, and that all the other bodies, + the earth included, revolve around it. This arrangement of the universe + (see <i>Copernicus</i>) came at length to be generally received on + account of the simplicity it substituted for the complexities and + difficulties of the theory of Ptolemy. The observations and calculations + of Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer, born in 1546, continued over many + years, were of the highest value, and secured for him the title of + regenerator of practical astronomy. His assistant and pupil, Kepler, born + in 1571, was enabled, principally from the data provided by his master's + labours, to arrive at those laws which have made his name famous: 1. That + the planets move, not in circular, but in elliptical orbits, of which the + sun occupies a focus. 2. That the radius vector, or imaginary straight + line joining the sun and any planet, moves over equal <!-- Page 290 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page290"></a>[290]</span>spaces in + equal times. 3. That the squares of the times of the revolutions of the + planets are as the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. Galileo, + who died in 1642, advanced the science by his observations and by the new + revelations he made through his telescopes, which established the truth + of the Copernican theory. Newton, born in 1642, carried physical + astronomy suddenly to comparative perfection. Accepting Kepler's laws as + a statement of the facts of planetary motion, he deduced from them his + theory of gravitation. The science was enriched towards the close of the + eighteenth century by the discovery by Herschel of the planet Uranus and + its satellites, the resolution of the Milky Way into myriads of stars, + and the investigation of nebulæ and of double and triple stars. The + splendid analytical researches of Lalande, Lagrange, Delambre, and + Laplace mark the same period. The nineteenth century opened with the + discovery of the first four minor planets; and the existence of another + planet (Neptune), more distant from the sun than Uranus, was, in 1845, + independently predicted by Leverrier and Adams. Of late years the sun has + attracted a number of observers, the spectroscope and photography having + been especially fruitful in this field of investigation. By various + methods the sun's mean distance has been ascertained within very small + limits of error, and found to be nearly 93,000,000 miles. Many additions + have been made to the known secondary planets or satellites, including + some with retrograde motions. A vast number of asteroids has been + discovered, and the width of the zone occupied by them found to be much + more extensive. Much success has been achieved in ascertaining the + parallax of fixed stars.</p> + + <p>The objects with which astronomy has chiefly to deal are the earth, + the sun, the moon, the planets, the fixed stars, comets, nebulæ, and + meteors. The stellar universe is composed of an unknown host of stars, + many millions in number. Those visible to the naked eye were in ancient + times grouped into the constellations still recognized. The nebulæ are + cloud-like patches of light scattered all over the heavens. Some of them + have been resolved into star-clusters, but many of them are masses of + incandescent gas. Of the so-called fixed stars, many form binary or + multiple systems, the members revolving in orbits under each other's + attractions, while other more scattered groups are moving clusters, + travelling in parallel paths through space like flocks of birds. Variable + stars and extinct or dark stars are also known. The fixed stars preserve, + at least to unaided vision, an unalterable relation to each other, + because of their vast distance from the earth. Their apparent movement + from east to west is the result of the earth's revolution on its axis in + twenty-four hours from west to east. The planets have not only an + apparent, but also a real and proper motion, since, like our earth, they + revolve around the sun in their several orbits and periods. The nearest + of these bodies to the sun is <i>Mercury</i>. <i>Venus</i>, the second + planet from the sun, is to us the brightest and most beautiful of all the + planets. The <i>Earth</i> is the first planet accompanied by a satellite + or moon. <i>Mars</i>, the next planet, has two satellites, discovered in + 1877. Its surface has a variegated character, and the existence of land, + water, snow, and ice has been inferred. The <i>Asteroids</i>, of which + over 1000 are known, form a broad zone of small bodies, at distances from + a little beyond the earth's to that of Jupiter. <i>Jupiter</i>, the + largest planet, has at least nine satellites, of which the two outermost + have retrograde motion. Its surface is diversified by spots, markings, + and bands parallel to its equator. <i>Saturn</i>, with its nine or more + satellites and broad thin rings in its equatorial plane, is, perhaps, the + most striking telescopic object in the heavens. + <i>Urănus</i>—discovered by Herschel in 1781—is + accompanied by four satellites. <i>Neptune</i>, the farthest removed from + the sun, has one satellite, the motion of which is retrograde. Besides + the planets, quite a number of comets are known to be members of the + solar system. The physical constitution of these bodies is still one of + the enigmas of astronomy. The observation of meteors has recently + attracted much attention. They are seen in largest numbers in the autumn + months. Meteor streams are supposed to represent the results of the + disintegration of comets. Among the more modern astronomers we may + mention: Gustav Kirchhoff, G. B. Donati, Christian Doppler, H. C. Vogel, + Sir William Huggins, Simon Newcomb, and Sir David Gill. See <i>Earth</i>, + <i>Sun</i>, <i>Moon</i>, <i>Planet</i>, <i>Comet</i>, <i>Stars</i>, + <i>Asteroids</i>, <i>Celestial Photography</i>, <i>Spectrography</i>, + &c.—<span class="scac">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span>: Sir J. N. Lockyer, + <i>Dawn of Astronomy</i>; Sir G. C. Lewis, <i>Historical Survey of the + Astronomy of the Ancients</i>; Sir. F. W. Dyson, <i>Astronomy</i>; Sir R. + Ball, <i>Atlas, and Popular Guide to the Heavens</i>; G. P. Serviss, + <i>Astronomy with an Opera-glass</i>; <i>The Pleasures of the + Telescope</i>; A. M. Clerke, <i>History of Astronomy during the 19th + Century</i>, H. Macpherson, <i>Romance of Modern Astronomy</i>; C. A. + Young, <i>General Astronomy</i>; G. F. Chambers, <i>Handbook of + Astronomy</i> (3 vols.); E. W. Maunder, <i>Astronomy of the Bible</i>; + A. C. D. Crommelin, <i>The Star World</i>; Agnes Giberne, <i>Sun, Moon, + and Stars</i> (popular).</p> + + <p><b>Astropalia</b>, an island in the Ægean Sea. It was occupied during + the Balkan war of 1912 by the Italians under Admiral Presbitero and + General d'Ameglio.</p> + + <p><b>Astrophysics.</b> See <i>Spectroscopy</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Astur.</b> See <i>Goshawk</i>. <!-- Page 291 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page291"></a>[291]</span></p> + + <p><b>Astu´ria</b>, or <b>The Asturias</b>, a Spanish principality, now + forming the province of Oviedo, on the north coast of Spain; an alpine + region, with steep and jagged mountain ridges, valuable minerals, + luxuriant grazing lands, and fertile well-watered valleys. The heir + apparent of Spain has borne since 1388 the title of Prince of the + Asturias. See <i>Spain</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asty´ages</b> (-jēz), last king of the Medes, 593-558 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>, deposed by Cyrus, an event which transferred + the supremacy from the Medes to the Persians.</p> + + <p><b>Asuncion</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-su<span class="x1"><span + class="x3">¨</span></span>n-thē-on´), or <b>Nuestra Señora de + la Asuncion</b> (Eng. <i>Assumption</i>), the chief city of Paraguay, on + the River Paraguay, picturesquely situated and with good public + buildings. It was founded in 1537 on the feast of the Assumption. Its + trade is mostly in the yerba tea, hides, tobacco, oranges, &c. It was + taken and plundered by the Brazilians in 1869. A railway runs for a short + distance into the interior. Pop. (1920), 99,836.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <a href="images/image119.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image119.jpg" + alt="Aswail" title="Aswail" /></a> + Aswail (<i>Ursus labiātus</i>) + </div> + + <p><b>As´wail</b>, the native name for the sloth-bear (<i>Ursus + labiātus</i>) of the mountains of India, an uncouth, unwieldy + animal, with very long black hair, inoffensive when not attacked. Its + usual diet consists of roots, bees'-nests, grubs, snails, ants, &c. + Its flesh is in much favour as an article of food. When captured young it + is easily tamed.</p> + + <p><b>Asy´lum</b>, a sanctuary or place of refuge, where criminals and + debtors sheltered themselves from justice, and from which they could not + be taken without sacrilege. Temples were anciently asylums, as were + Christian churches in later times. (See <i>Sanctuary</i>.) The term is + now usually applied to an institution for receiving, maintaining, and, so + far as possible, ameliorating the condition of persons labouring under + certain bodily defects or mental maladies; sometimes also a refuge for + the unfortunate.</p> + + <p><b>Asylum, Right of.</b> See <i>Extradition</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asymptote</b> (as'im-tōt), in geometry, a line which is + continually approaching a curve, but never meets it, however far either + of them may be prolonged. This may be conceived as a tangent to a curve + at an infinite distance. See <i>Conic Sections</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Asyn´deton</b>, a figure of speech by which connecting words are + omitted; as 'I came, I saw, I conquered', or Cicero's 'Abiit, excessit, + evasit, erupit'.</p> + + <p><b>Atacama</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-ta<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-kä'ma<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>), a desert region on the west coast of + S. America belonging to Chile, partly in the province of Atacama, partly + in the territory of Antofagasta. It mainly consists of a plateau + extending from Copiapó northward to the River Loa, and lies between the + Andes and the sea. It forms the chief nitrate district of Chile, there + being also rich silver-mines, while gold is also found, as well as + argentiferous lead, copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron; with guano on the + coast. The northern portion belonged to Bolivia until 1904. The Chilian + province of Atacama has an area of 30,711 sq. miles, and a pop. of + 63,893.</p> + + <p><b>Ataca´mite</b>, a combination of the hydroxide and chloride of + copper, occurring abundantly in some parts of South America, as at + Atacama, whence it has its name. It is worked as an ore in South America, + and is exported to England.</p> + + <p><b>Atahual´pa</b>, the last of the Incas, succeeded his father in 1529 + on the throne of Quito, whilst his brother Huascar obtained the kingdom + of Peru. They soon made war against each other, when the latter was + defeated, and his kingdom fell into the hands of Atahualpa. The + Spaniards, taking advantage of these internal disturbances, with Pizarro + at their head invaded Peru, and advanced to Atahualpa's camp. Here, while + Pizarro's priest was telling the Inca how the Pope had given Peru to the + Spaniards, fire was opened on the unsuspecting Peruvians, Atahualpa was + captured, and, despite the payment of a vast ransom in gold, was executed + (1533).</p> + + <p><b>Atalan´ta</b>, in Greek mythology, a famous huntress of Arcadia. + She was to be obtained in marriage only by him who could outstrip her in + a race, the consequence of failure being death. One of her suitors + obtained from Aphrodītē (Venus) three golden apples, which he + threw behind him, one after another, as he ran. Atalanta stopped to pick + them up, and was not unwillingly defeated. There was another Atalanta + belonging to Bœotia, who cannot very well be distinguished, the + same stories being told about both.</p> + + <p><b>Ataman.</b> See <i>Hetman</i>.</p> + + <p><b>At´avism</b> (Lat. <i>atăvus</i>, an ancestor), in biology, + the tendency to reproduce the ancestral type in animals or plants which + have become considerably modified by breeding or cultivation; the + reversion of a descendant to some peculiarity of a more or less remote + ancestor. See <i>Mendelism</i>, <i>Natural Selection</i>, + <i>Evolution</i>, <i>Heredity</i>. The term <i>atavism</i> is also + frequently used in <!-- Page 292 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page292"></a>[292]</span>sociological literature, in the sense of + reversion to more primitive types, as explanation of criminal instincts + and pathological phenomena.</p> + + <p><b>Ataxy</b>, or <b>Ataxia</b>, in medicine, irregularity in the + animal functions, or in the symptoms of a disease. See <i>Locomotor + Ataxy</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atba´ra</b>, the most northerly tributary of the Nile. It rises in + the Abyssinian highlands, receives several large tributaries, and enters + the Nile about 18° <span class="scac">N.</span> The town of Atbara is + situated about 380 miles <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of Wadi Halfa. + The battle of Atbara, between the British under Earl Kitchener (then Sir + Herbert), and the followers of the Mahdi, was fought on 8th April, + 1898.</p> + + <p><b>Atchafalay´a</b> ('Lost Water'), a river of the United States, an + outlet of the Red River which strikes off before the junction of that + river with the Mississippi, flows southward, and enters the Gulf of + Mexico by Atchafalaya Bay. Its length is about 225 miles.</p> + + <p><b>Atcheen´.</b> See <i>Acheen</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atch´ison</b>, a city of Kansas, United States, on the Missouri, + about 30 miles from Leavenworth, an important railway centre with an + increasing trade. Pop. (1920), 12,630.</p> + + <p><b>A´tē</b>, among the Greeks, the goddess of hate, injustice, + crime, and retribution, daughter of Zeus according to Homer, but of + Ĕris (Strife) according to Hesiod.</p> + + <p><b>At´eles</b>, a genus of American monkeys. See + <i>Spider-monkey</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ateliers Nationaux</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-tl-yā na<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-syo-nō), or national workshops, + were established by the French Provisional Government in 1848. They + interfered much with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw + themselves on the Government for work. The breaking up of the system led + to disorders, but it was abolished in July, 1848.</p> + + <p><b>Atella´næ Fab´ulæ</b> (called also <b>Oscan plays</b>), a kind of + light interlude, in ancient Rome, performed not by the regular actors, + but by freeborn young Romans; it originated from the ancient + <i>Atella</i>, a city of the Oscans. They were the origin of the Italian + <i>commedie dell'arte</i>. Cf. Munk, <i>De Fabulis Atellanis</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atesh´ga</b> (the place of fire), a sacred place of the Guebres or + Persian fire-worshippers, on the Peninsula of Apsheron, on the W. coast + of the Caspian, visited by large numbers of pilgrims, who bow before the + sacred flames which issue from the bituminous soil.</p> + + <p><b>Ath</b> (ät), a fortified town of Belgium, in the province of + Hainaut, on the Dender; it carries on weaving, dyeing, and printing + cottons. It was the scene of fighting in Nov., 1918. Pop. 11,108.</p> + + <p><b>Athabas´ca</b>, a river and lake of Canada. The river rises on the + eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains not far from Mount Hooker, in the + province of Alberta, flows <span class="scac">N.E.</span> and <span + class="scac">N.</span>, and falls into Lake Athabasca after a course of + about 600 miles.—<i>Lake Athabasca</i>, or Lake of the Hills, is + about 190 miles <span class="scac">S.S.E.</span> of the Great Slave Lake, + to which its waters are carried by means of the Slave River. It is about + 200 miles in length from east to west, and 35 miles wide where widest, + but narrows to a point at either extremity.—The former district of + <i>Athabasca</i>, in 1905 divided between the two new provinces of + Alberta and Saskatchewan, had British Columbia on the west, Keewatin on + the east, Alberta and Saskatchewan districts on the south, the parallel + of 60° on the north, being crossed by the Athabasca and the Peace Rivers. + Lake Athabasca is partly in Alberta, partly in Saskatchewan.</p> + + <p><b>Athali´ah</b>, daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, and wife of Joram, + King of Judah. After the death of her son Ahaziah, she opened her way to + the throne by the murder of forty-two princes of the royal blood. She + reigned six years; in the seventh the high-priest Jehoiada placed Joash, + the young son of Ahaziah, who had been secretly preserved, on the throne + of his father, and Athaliah was slain. Cf. 2 <i>Kings</i>, xi. The story + of Athaliah supplied Racine with the plot of one of his most famous + tragedies.</p> + + <p><b>Athana´sian Creed</b>, a creed or exposition of Christian faith, + supposed formerly to have been drawn up by St. Athanasius, though this + opinion is now generally rejected, and the composition often ascribed to + Hilary, Bishop of Arles (about 430). It is an explicit avowal of the + doctrines of the Trinity (as opposed to Arianism, of which Athanasius was + a great opponent) and of the incarnation, and contains what are known as + the 'damnatory clauses', in which it declares that damnation must be the + lot of those who do not believe the true and catholic faith. It is + contained in the <i>Book of Common Prayer</i>, to be read on certain + occasions.—<span class="scac">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span>: F. J. A. Hort, + <i>Two Dissertations</i>; G. D. W. Ommanney, <i>Critical Dissertation on + the Athanasian Creed</i>; J. A. Robinson, <i>The Athanasian Creed</i>; + E. C. S. Gibson, <i>The Three Creeds</i>; R. O. P. Taylor, <i>Athanasian + Creed in the Twentieth Century</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Athana´sius, St.</b>, Archbishop of Alexandria, a renowned father + of the Church, born in that city about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> + 296, died 373. While yet a young man he attended the Council at Nice + (325), where he gained the highest esteem of the fathers by the talents + which he displayed in the Arian controversy. He had a great share in the + decrees passed here, and thereby drew on himself the hatred of the + Arians. Shortly afterwards he was appointed Archbishop of Alexandria. The + complaints and accusations of his enemies at length induced the Emperor + Constantine to summon him in 334 before the Councils of Tyre and + Jerusalem, when he was suspended, and <!-- Page 293 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page293"></a>[293]</span>afterwards banished to + Trèves. The death of Constantine put an end to this banishment, and + Constantius recalled the holy patriarch. His return to Alexandria + resembled a triumph. Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 342. + Again in 355 he was sentenced to be banished, when he retired into those + parts of the desert which were entirely uninhabited. He was followed by a + faithful servant, who, at the risk of his life, supplied him with the + means of subsistence. Here Athanasius composed many writings, full of + eloquence, to strengthen the faith of the believers, or expose the + falsehood of his enemies. When Julian the Apostate ascended the throne, + toleration was proclaimed to all religions, and Athanasius returned to + his former position at Alexandria. His next controversy was with the + heathen subjects of Julian, who excited the emperor against him, and he + was obliged to flee in order to save his life. The death of the emperor + and the accession of Jovian (363) again brought him back; but Valens + becoming emperor, and the Arians recovering the superiority, he was once + more compelled to flee. He concealed himself in the tomb of his father, + where he remained four months, until Valens allowed him to return. From + this period he remained undisturbed in his office till he died. Of the + forty-six years of his official life he spent twenty in banishment, and + the greater part of the remainder in defending the Nicene Creed. + Athanasius was not so much a speculative theologian as a great Christian + pastor (cf. L. Duchesne, <i>Histoire ancienne. de l'Église</i>, 1907). + His writings, which are in Greek, are on polemical, historical, and moral + subjects. The polemical treat chiefly of the doctrines of the Trinity, + the incarnation of Christ, and the divinity of the Holy Spirit. The + historical ones are of the greatest importance for the history of the + Church. See <i>Athanasian Creed</i>.</p> + + <p><b>A´theism</b> (Gr. <i>a</i>, priv., and <i>Theos</i>, God), the + disbelief of the existence of a God or supreme intelligent being; the + doctrine opposed to <i>theism</i> or <i>deism</i>. The term has been + often loosely used as equivalent with <i>infidelity</i> generally, with + deism, with pantheism, and with the denial of immortality. The most + famous exponents of atheism were La Mettrie, Holbach, Feuerbach, and Carl + Vogt; whilst Comte and Haeckel have put forward systems of thought + essentially atheistic.—<span class="scac">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span>: R. + Flint, <i>Anti-theistic Theories</i>; J. S. Blackie, <i>Natural History + of Atheism</i>; F. A. Lange, <i>History of Materialism</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ath´eling</b>, a title of honour among the Anglo-Saxons, meaning + one who is of noble blood. The title was gradually confined to the + princes of the blood royal, and in the ninth and tenth centuries was used + exclusively for the sons or brothers of the reigning king.</p> + + <p><b>Atheling</b>, Edgar. See <i>Edgar Atheling</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Ath´elney</b>, formerly an island in the midst of fens and marshes, + now drained and cultivated in Somersetshire, England, about 7 miles + southeast of Bridgwater. Alfred the Great took refuge in it during a + Danish invasion, and afterwards founded an abbey there.</p> + + <p><b>Ath´elstan</b>, King of England, born 895, died 941, succeeded his + father, Edward the Elder, in 925. He was victorious in his wars with the + Danes of Northumberland, and the Scots, by whom they were assisted. After + a signal overthrow of his enemies at Brunanburgh he governed in peace and + with great ability.</p> + + <p><b>Athē´na</b>, or <b>Athēnē</b>, a Greek goddess, + identified by the Romans with Minerva, the representative of the + intellectual powers; the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Mētis (that + is, wisdom or cleverness). According to the legend, before her birth Zeus + swallowed her mother, and Athena afterwards sprang from the head of Zeus + with a mighty war shout and in complete armour. In her character of a + wise and prudent warrior she was contrasted with the fierce Ares (Mars). + In the wars of the giants she slew Pallas and Enceladus. In the wars of + the mortals she aided and protected heroes. She is also represented as + the patroness of the arts of peace. The sculptor, the architect, and the + painter, as well as the philosopher, the orator, and the poet, considered + her their tutelar deity. She is also represented among the healing gods. + In all these representations she is the symbol of the thinking faculty, + the goddess of wisdom, science, and art; the latter, however, only in so + far as invention and thought are comprehended. In the images of the + goddess a manly gravity and an air of reflection are united with female + beauty in her features. As a warrior she is represented completely armed, + her head covered with a gold helmet. As the goddess of peaceful art she + appears in the dress of a Grecian matron. To her insignia belong the + Ægis, the Gorgon's head, the round Argive buckler; and the owl, the cock, + the serpent, an olive branch, and a lance were sacred to her. All Attica, + but particularly Athens, was sacred to her, and she had numerous temples + there. Her most brilliant festival at Athens was the Panathenæa.</p> + + <p><b>Athenæ´um</b>, the temple of Athena or Minerva, at Athens, + frequented by poets, learned men, and orators. The same name was given at + Rome to the school which Hadrian established on the Capitoline Mount for + the promotion of literary and scientific studies. In modern times the + same name is given to literary clubs and establishments connected with + the sciences. It is also the title of several literary periodicals.</p> + + <p><b>Athenæ´us</b>, a Greek rhetorician and grammarian, who lived at the + end of the second and <!-- Page 294 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page294"></a>[294]</span>beginning of the third century after + Christ, author of an encyclopædic work, in the form of conversation, + called <i>The Professors at the Dinner-table</i> (<i>Deipnosophistæ</i>), + which is a rich but ill-arranged treasure of historical, antiquarian, + philosophical, grammatical, &c., knowledge.</p> + + <p><b>Athenag´oras</b>, a Platonic philosopher of Athens, a convert to + Christianity, who wrote a Greek <i>Apology for the Christians</i>, + addressed to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, in 177, one of the earliest + that appeared.</p> + + <p><b>Ath´ens</b> (Gr. <i>Athēnai</i>, Lat. <i>Athēnæ</i>), + anciently the capital of Attica and centre of Greek culture, now the + capital of the kingdom of Greece. It is situated in the central plain of + Attica, about 4 miles from the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Ægina, an arm of + the Ægean Sea running in between the mainland and the Peloponnesus. It is + said to have been founded about 1550 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> by + Cecrops, the mythical Pelasgian hero, and to have borne the name Cecropia + until under Erechtheus it received the name of Athens in honour of + Athēnē. The Acropolis, an irregular oval crag 150 feet high, + with a level summit 1000 feet long by 500 in breadth, was the original + nucleus of the city, which, according to tradition, was extended by + Theseus when Athens became the head of the confederate Attic States. The + three chief eminences near the Acropolis—the Areopagus to the + north-west, the Pnyx to the south-west, and the Museum to the south of + the Pnyx—were thus included within the city boundary as the sites + of its chief public buildings, the city itself, however, afterwards + taking a northerly direction. On the east ran the Ilissus and on the west + the Cephissus, while to the south-west lay three harbours—Phalerum, + the oldest and nearest; the Piræus, the most important; and Munychia, the + Piræan Acropolis. At the height of its prosperity the city was connected + with its harbours by three massive walls (the 'long walls'). The + architectural development of Athens may be dated from the rule of the + Pisistratids (560-510 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), who are credited + with the foundation of the huge temple of the Olympian Zeus, completed by + Hadrian seven centuries later, the erection of the Pythium or temple of + the Pythian Apollo, and of the Lyceum or temple of Apollo + Lyceus—all near the Ilissus; and to whom were due the enclosure of + the Academy, a gymnasium and gardens to the north of the city, and the + building of the Agora with its Portico or Stoa, Bouleuterium or + Senate-house, Tholus, and Prytaneum. With the foundation of Athenian + democracy under Clisthenes, the Pnyx or place of public assembly, with + its semicircular area and cyclopean wall, first became of importance, and + a commencement was made of the Dionysiac theatre (theatre of Dionysus or + Bacchus) on the south side of the Acropolis. After the destruction + wrought by the Persians in 480 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, + Themistocles reconstructed the city upon practical lines and with a + larger area, enclosing the city in new walls 7½ miles in circumference, + erecting the north wall of the Acropolis, and developing the maritime + resources of the Piræus; while Cimon added to the southern fortifications + of the Acropolis, placed on it the temple of Wingless Victory, planted + the Agora with trees, laid out the Academy, and built the Theseum on an + eminence north of the Areopagus; his brother-in-law, Peisianax, erected + the famous Stoa Poecilē, a hall with walls covered with paintings + (whence the <i>Stoics</i> got their name). Under Pericles the highest + point of artistic development was reached. An Odeum was erected on the + east of the Dionysiac theatre for the recitations of rhapsodists and + musicians; and with the aid of the architects Ictīnus, Callicrates, + and Mnesicles, and of the sculptor Phidias, the Acropolis was perfected. + Covering the whole of the western end rose the Propylæa, the splendid + structure through which the Acropolis was entered, constructed of + Pentelic marble and consisting of a central gateway portico with two + wings in the form of Doric temples. Just outside the Propylæa was the + small temple of Wingless Victory. A short distance within the entrance + stood the bronze statue of Athena Promachus, a colossal work of Phidias, + 66 feet high, showing the goddess in complete armour and leaning on a + lance. Beyond it to the left was the Erechtheum, the shrine of Athena + Polias, guardian of the city, containing a very ancient and sacred statue + of Athena in olive-wood; while to the right, on the highest part of the + Acropolis, was the marble Parthenon or temple of Athena, the crowning + glory of the whole. This renowned structure, still glorious in its ruins, + was built under the auspices of Pericles, Phidias being the sculptor and + artistic adviser, and Ictīnus and Callicrates the architects. It is + in the Doric style, and among its numerous sculptures were fifty + life-size statues, while in the interior was a chryselephantine (gold and + ivory) figure of the goddess, 39 feet high. (See <i>Parthenon</i>.) Minor + statues and shrines occupied the rest of the area of the Acropolis, which + was for the time wholly appropriated to the worship of the guardian + deities of the city. The Acropolis museum, a building of recent date, + contains an interesting and valuable collection of works of art found + here. In the interval between the close of the Peloponnesian War and the + battle of Chæronea few additions were made to the city. But the long + walls and Piræus, destroyed by Lysander, were restored by Conon, and + under the orator Lycurgus the Dionysiac temple was completed, the + Panathenaic stadium commenced, and the choragic monuments of Lysicrates + and Thrasyllus <!-- Page 295 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page295"></a>[295]</span>erected. Later on Ptolemy Philadelphus + gave Athens the Ptolemæum near the Theseum, Attalus I the stoa north-east + of the Agora, Eumenes II that near the great theatre, and Antiochus + Epiphanes carried on the Olympieum. Under the Romans it continued a + flourishing city, Hadrian in the second century adorning it with many new + buildings, and constructing an aqueduct, finished by his son Antoninus + Pius. At this time also a wealthy citizen, Herodes Atticus, did much to + beautify the city, and in particular constructed an Odeum, the ruins of + which are still conspicuous. Indeed Athens was at no time more splendid + than under the Antonines, when Pausanias visited and described it. But + after a time Christian zeal, the attacks of barbarians, and robberies of + collectors made sad inroads among the monuments. About <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 420 paganism was totally annihilated at Athens, + and when Justinian closed even the schools of the philosophers, the + reverence for buildings associated with the names of the ancient deities + and heroes was lost. The Parthenon was turned into a church of the Virgin + Mary, and St. George stepped into the place of Theseus. Finally, in 1456, + the place fell into the hands of the Turks. The Parthenon became a + mosque, and in 1687 was greatly damaged by an explosion at the siege of + Athens by the Venetians. Enough, however, remains of it and of the + neighbouring structures to attest the splendour of the Acropolis; while + of the other buildings of the city, the Theseum, or temple of Theseus, + and the Horologium, or temple of the Winds, are admirably preserved, as + are also structures belonging to the Pnyx, Panathenaic stadium (restored + and again used for games), &c. The Theseum, indeed, is said to be the + best preserved building of all ancient Greece, and is hardly less + imposing than the Parthenon. Of more than a hundred columns that belonged + to the Olympieum or temple of the Olympian Zeus, completed by Hadrian, + only fifteen are still standing. Soon after the commencement of the war + of liberation in 1821 the Turks surrendered Athens, but captured it again + in 1826-7. The Great Powers now intervened to bring about the + independence of Greece. The Turks evacuated Athens in 1833, and the + troops of King Otho then entered the city. In 1835 it became the royal + residence, and it soon began to make rapid progress, though its natural + position is by no means advantageous. The modern city mostly lies north, + north-east, and north-west of the Acropolis, and consists mainly of + straight and well-built streets. Among the principal buildings are the + royal palace, a stately building with a façade of Pentelic marble + (completed 1843), the university, the academy of science, national museum + of archaeology, public library, exhibition building, polytechnic + institute, theatre, and observatory. There are two universities, the + National University, opened in 1836, and the Capodistrian University with + 3250 students. There are valuable museums, in particular the National + Museum and that in the Polytechnic School, which contains the Schliemann + collection, &c. These are constantly being added to by excavations. + There are four foreign archæological schools or institutes, the French, + German, American, and British. The Zappeion or exhibition building is a + handsome structure, erected at the expense of the brothers Zappas to + exhibit Greek industries. Tramways have been made in the principal + streets, and the city is connected by tramway and railway (6 miles) with + its port, the Piræus. Athens has also railway connection with the north + and west of the kingdom as well as with the Peloponnesus. The Piræus is + the chief Greek centre of trade and industry. Water is brought from Mount + Pentelicus on the north-east, the aqueduct begun by Hadrian being + utilized in supplying the city. Pop. 167,479, and including the Piræus + 241,058.—<span class="scac">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span>: E. A. Gardner, + <i>Ancient Athens</i>; J. E. Harrison, <i>Mythology and Monuments of + Ancient Athens</i>; W. Warde Fowler, <i>The City-State</i>, chapter vi; + W. M. Leake, <i>Topography of Athens and the Demi</i>; C. H. Weller, + <i>Athens and its Monuments</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Athens</b>, the name of many places in the United States, the chief + being in Georgia, and containing the Georgia University and the State + college of agriculture. It carries on the cotton manufacture, has + manufactures of agricultural implements, &c., and is a centre of + trade. It was founded in 1801. Pop. 14,913.</p> + + <p><b>Ath´erine</b> (<i>Atherīna</i>), the name of a genus of small + fishes abundant in the Mediterranean and caught in British waters, + especially on the coasts of the south of England, some of them being + highly esteemed as food. They are also known as <i>Sand-smelts</i>. There + are two British species.</p> + + <p><b>Athero´ma</b>, in pathology, a term applied to a change that may + take place in the inner coat of an artery, consisting in a kind of fatty + degeneration, leading to an aneurism or bursting. Also an encysted tumour + containing matter of a curdy appearance.</p> + + <p><b>Ath´erstone</b>, a town in Warwickshire, England, 8 miles <span + class="scac">S.E.</span> of Tamworth, and equidistant (100 miles) from + London, Liverpool, and Lincoln. It has manufactures of hats, and is the + reputed birthplace of the poet Drayton. Pop. (1921), 20,849 (rural + district).</p> + + <p><b>Ath´erton</b>, town of England, Lancashire, 13 miles north-west of + Manchester; cotton-factories, collieries, and ironworks give chief + employment to the inhabitants. Pop. (1921), 19,863.</p> + + <p><b>Athletes</b> (ath´lēts; Gr. <i>athlētai</i>, from + <i>athlos</i>, a contest, <i>athlon</i>, a prize), originally, in ancient + <!-- Page 296 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page296"></a>[296]</span>Greece, combatants who took part and + contended for a prize (<i>athlon</i>) in the public games. The profession + was an honourable one; tests of birth, position, and character were + imposed, and crowns, statues, special privileges, and pensions were among + the rewards of success. (See <i>Games</i>.) The word is used in a similar + sense at the present day, but is more especially applied to persons who + can exhibit feats of strength. Games and athletic competitions, if they + do not hold such an honourable position to-day as they did in antiquity, + are still practised with great enthusiasm and excite the keenest interest + in their patrons.</p> + + <p><b>Athletic Sports</b>, a general name for certain physical exercises + demanding a special natural ability, and embodying a variety of events + which conventionally include not only running and jumping but such feats + of strength as putting the weight and throwing the hammer. The selection + of these events at any athletic meeting is a somewhat arbitrary one, and + the inclusion of those which require strength and skill rather than speed + and agility rests more on a traditional than a logical basis. A + particular feature which distinguishes these exercises as athletic sports + is the presence of the idea of competition; thus running and walking, as + isolated exercises, can be called 'sports' only when men compete against + one another, although the factor of competition may be only indirectly + present, as when an athlete endeavours to beat a record.</p> + + <p>In this country athletic sports have long been a national + characteristic, and records, more or less authentic, have been handed + down for the last hundred years or more. Until comparatively recently, + such sports have been the prerogative of the British Isles; but during + the last thirty years the United States have adopted them with enormous + enthusiasm and success, and more recently still the vogue has extended + throughout the Continent, and good results have been obtained by + representatives from France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Sweden, and + Finland, as well as from all the Colonies. In this country no school, no + matter how small or how humble its pretensions, fails to hold its + athletic meeting annually. The same applies to all colleges of the + leading universities, Oxford and Cambridge, the best representatives of + which compete against one another, whilst the smaller universities hold + similar competitions. In addition, a large number of clubs are in + existence throughout the country for the promotion and encouragement of + sports, the whole system of athletics being under the Amateur Athletic + Association (founded in 1880), whose rules and regulations for the + correct maintenance of athletics in the best interests of amateurism are + regarded as a standard throughout the world. Under its auspices an annual + meeting—the Amateur Championships—is held. This meeting is + open to the whole world, and many of the championships have been held at + one time or another by distinguished visitors from America, the Colonies, + and the Continent. At the time of writing, the association is considering + the project of holding two distinct annual meetings, one of which shall, + as hitherto, be unrestricted, the other confined to residents in the + British Isles. This, which is the most important meeting of the year, has + taken place uninterruptedly since its origin in 1866 with the exception + of the military interval, 1915-8, and has been successfully resumed in + 1919. For the past fourteen or fifteen years the meeting has been held in + London on the first Saturday in July, and this practice will probably be + a permanent one, although hitherto the venue was, in rotation, London, + the Midlands, and the North. The university and inter-university meetings + are held before Easter, the former at the respective university towns, + the latter at Queen's Club, London. Among other important representative + contests may be mentioned the Public Schools' Championships (usually in + April), the United Hospitals' Championships, the Irish, the Scottish, the + Welsh, the Midland and the Northern Counties' Championships. During the + war, athletics were practically restricted to the services, and the Army + Athletic Championships, held in Aug., 1919, was a successful reunion of + soldier athletes from the various theatres of war, and included, for the + first time in history, coloured troops.</p> + + <p>The standard inter-university meeting comprises ten events, namely, + flat races—100 yards, ¼ mile, ½ mile, 1 mile, and 3 miles; + 120-yards hurdle race; the high jump and long jump; putting the weight + and throwing the hammer. These events appear in the programme of the + Amateur Championship meeting, with the substitution of a 4-miles race for + the 3 miles, and the addition of a 220-yards race, a 2-miles walking + race, a 2-miles steeplechase (representing a miniature cross-country + event), and the pole jump. A relay race, in which four representatives + from each club run half a mile, a quarter of a mile, 220 yards, and 220 + yards respectively, is also included as a standard event; whilst at the + 1919 meeting a race of 440 yards over hurdles appeared for the first + time, and will probably occupy a permanent place in the programme. Two + additional Amateur Championship events, 7-miles walk and 10-miles flat + race, are usually held at a separate meeting in the spring.</p> + + <p>In addition to the preceding British meetings, a great International + contest, the Olympic Games, is held every four years in a country + selected by the Olympic committee. This meeting is truly international, + the last before 1914 <!-- Page 297 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page297"></a>[297]</span>having taken place at Stockholm in 1912, + when representatives from the most distant parts of the world competed + with representatives from every country in Europe in a remarkably + elaborate programme, which included, in addition to the preceding, such + feats as throwing the javelin and the discus, and the classic 'Marathon + race' over the traditional distance of 26¼ miles. The 1920 Olympic + meeting was arranged to take place at Antwerp.</p> + + <p>Although many excellently arranged athletic sports are held + successfully upon a grass course, at any important meeting the races are + contested upon a properly-constructed cinder-path, a quarter or a third + of a mile in length, and in shape an oval flattened on two sides so as to + include as much straight as possible. The width of the running path is + variable, but 18 to 24 feet may be regarded as an average. The centre is + of grass, and spaces are prepared for the hurdle race, for the jumps, and + the other events which are described as the <i>field</i>, as opposed to + <i>track</i>, events.</p> + + <p>Flat races are classified as 'sprint races', 'middle distance' and + 'long distance' races, although the distinction between these is somewhat + arbitrary. Whether or no a man is actually capable of running the whole + distance in question at full speed, the term 'sprint' is applied to those + distances in which an attempt is made to put forth a continuous maximum + effort. The limit is, by general consent, fixed at 300 yards. At any good + meeting the 100-yards race will be run in 10 seconds; at the very best + meeting this time will be beaten; and many runners have been credited + with 9<sup>4</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds, a few, under exceptional + conditions, with 9<sup>3</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds. The record for 220 + yards is 21<sup>1</sup>/<sub>5</sub> seconds. Middle-distance running + includes races from a quarter mile to a mile, and races are held at 440 + yards, 600 yards, 880 yards, 1000 yards, 1 mile, and very occasionally at + ¾ mile. With modern specialization, however, it is rare to find any one + runner capable of supremacy at more than one of these distances. The ¼ + mile is the common ground for the sprinter and the middle-distance + runner, and 48 seconds has been beaten on several occasions, although it + may be said that anything inside 50 seconds is a first-class performance. + The record for 600 yards is 1 minute 11 seconds. The ½-mile race has + demonstrated latterly, perhaps, the greatest advance of all; and whilst + anything under 2 minutes may still be regarded as a good performance, a + championship event will most always be won in 3 or 4 seconds faster time; + whilst at an Olympic meeting the wonderful record of 1 minute 52½ seconds + has been made. The mile, which was originally regarded as a long-distance + event, is now legitimately considered as within the capacity of a + middle-distance runner. At any first-class meeting 4 minutes 20 seconds + will be accomplished, and any diminution of this time may be regarded as + of superlative merit. The record, which has stood since 1886, is 4 + minutes 12¾ seconds, although a recent performance in America, which is a + tiny fraction of a second faster, has yet to be passed. Over 1 mile, + long-distance running begins, and, as considerable staying-power is + required, it is not unusual to find one man prove champion at 4 miles and + 10 miles, and even the 1-mile race in the same year. No runner has yet + achieved the capacity of running 12 miles within the hour, although two + or three have been within a few hundred yards of this distance. About ten + years ago the fashion became a craze of contesting 'Marathon races' in + which all sorts of distances, quite independent of the classic 26¼ miles, + were employed. At rare intervals very long-distance running, such as 50 + miles, is indulged in. For any distance over 20 miles a special form of + endurance is called for, rather than orthodox running in good style. As a + competition 'walking' is an unsatisfactory exercise, because of the + extreme difficulty in deciding when the athlete is still fulfilling the + orthodox regulation as to what constitutes fair 'heel and toe', inasmuch + as the style of a man who is ostensibly walking, yet actually progressing + at a rate faster than 9 miles an hour (faster than the average untrained + person can run), is exceedingly difficult to analyse. About fifteen years + ago long-distance walking became exceedingly popular, and hundreds of + competitors attempted the classic walk to Brighton and back.</p> + + <p>The usual hurdle race is over 120 yards, with ten flights of hurdles + 10 yards apart, so that a distance of 15 yards separates the start from + the first flight, and the same distance the last flight from the finish. + The hurdles are 3½ feet high, with perfectly-level top rails. In correct + 'hurdling' the 'three-stride method' is essential, that is to say, three + strides are taken on the flat between the hurdles, and the athlete rises + 6 feet from the obstacle, taking it in his stride, so that retardation of + speed is reduced to a minimum. The skill and accuracy of an accomplished + hurdler is remarkable, and the race is frequently run inside 16 seconds; + a record of 15 seconds, and even a trifle less, has been + accomplished.</p> + + <p>In this country, running long jump and high jump (and to a less extent + the pole jump) alone are practised to any extent, although as occasional + events the standing high and long jumps are contested, and, still less + frequently, the old-fashioned hop, step, and jump. In the long jump the + athlete employs all the impetus he can acquire by a sprint of about 30 + yards. The ideal aimed at is to run at the fastest speed which is <!-- + Page 298 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page298"></a>[298]</span>consistent with reaching the taking-off + board with accuracy, and then to leap as high as possible. A fraction of + an inch under 25 feet has been cleared on two occasions, although it may + be said that anything over 24 feet is exceptional, and that any jumper + capable of 23 feet consistently has a good chance to win an Amateur + Championship. The high jump requires skill of a very peculiar character. + Whilst the novice regards this feat as dependent on momentum, and takes a + correspondingly long run to acquire speed, the crack performer employs + his capacity of manipulating his body and limbs so as to cross the bar in + a horizontal position. In this way the prodigious height of 6 feet 7 + inches has been cleared. In general it may be said that first-class + jumping begins at 6 feet.</p> + + <p>Pole jumping, a particularly pretty event to watch, has never been + practised to any great extent in this country, and, in fact, does not + even appear to be so popular here as twenty years ago. The pole employed + is of light but strong bamboo about 14 feet long, with a sharp ferrule at + one end, which is stuck firmly into the ground. By the help of the pole, + which is firmly grasped near the other end, the jumper elevates himself + to the bar, over which he throws his legs and his body, finally + relinquishing his hold of the pole, to fall on the opposite side. Recent + years have witnessed the development of great skill in this event, + particularly by the Americans, Canadians, and Swedes, and 13 feet has + been cleared.</p> + + <p>The weight or shot is an iron ball weighing 16 lb., which must be put + with one hand only from the shoulder within a circle of 7 feet diameter. + Although great strength is essential, skill in utilizing the whole of the + body plays a very important part. Over 50 feet has been put on several + occasions.</p> + + <p>The 'hammer' is a ball of lead or iron attached by a wire to a handle. + The total length must not exceed four feet; the weight of the whole must + be at least 16 lb. The performer grasps the handle with one or both + hands, and, standing within a 7-foot circle, swings the ball round and + round to acquire impetus, which is then increased by rapid rotatory + movements of his body. Once again skill and co-ordination must be wedded + to strength. A crack performer has thrown over 175 feet.</p> + + <p>Throwing the javelin and discus are classical rather than popular + events, and their cultivation is fashionable only when an Olympic contest + is imminent. Among other 'strong-men' contests, which have long been + favourite sports in Scotland, are tossing the <i>caber</i> and putting + the stone. The latter is usually a very heavy implement weighing about 56 + lb.; the 'caber' is the trunk of a fir or other tree, freed from + branches, which is held upright close to the chest by the smaller end, + and thrown so as to alight on the heavier end.—<span + class="sc">Bibliography:</span> <i>Encyclopædia of Sports and Games</i>; + <i>Annual Sporting and Athletic Register</i>; F. A. M. Webster, <i>The + Evolution of the Olympic Games, 1829</i> <span + class="scac">B.C.-A.D.</span> <i>1914</i>; G. Le Roy, <i>Athlétisme</i>; + E. W. Hjertberg, <i>Athletics in Theory and Practice</i>; P. Withington, + <i>The Book of Athletics</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Athlone´</b>, a town of Ireland, divided by the Shannon into two + parts, one in Westmeath, the other in Roscommon; about 76 miles west of + Dublin. Its position has made it one of the chief military depots, and a + centre of trade by river, canal, and railway. It manufactures woollen + goods, linens, &c. Up to 1885 it sent one member to Parliament. Pop. + 7500.</p> + + <p><b>Ath´oll</b>, or <b>Athole</b>, a mountainous and romantic district + in the north of Perthshire, Scotland, giving the title to a duke of the + Murray family who owns a large area there.</p> + + <p><b>Athor</b>, <b>Hathor</b>, or <b>Het-her</b>, an Egyptian goddess, + identified with Aphrodītē or Venus. Her symbol was the cow + bearing on its head the solar disc and hawk-feather plumes. Her chief + temple was at Denderah. From her the third month of the Egyptian year + derived its name.</p> + + <p><b>A´thos</b> (now <b>Hagion Oros</b> or <b>Monte Santo</b>, that is, + Holy Mountain), a mountain 6700 feet high, terminating the most eastern + of the three peninsulas of Macedonia that jut in parallel directions into + the Archipelago. The name, however, is frequently applied to the whole + peninsula, which is about 30 miles long by 5 broad. It is covered with + forests, and plantations of olive, vine, and other fruit-trees. Both the + surface and coast-line are irregular. The Persian fleet under Mardonius + was wrecked here in 493 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and to avoid a + similar calamity Xerxes caused a canal, of which traces may yet be seen, + to be cut through the isthmus that joins the peninsula to the mainland. + On the peninsula there are situated about twenty monasteries and a + multitude of hermitages, which contain from 6000 to 8000 monks and + hermits of the order of St. Basil. The libraries of the monasteries are + rich in literary treasures and manuscripts. Every nation belonging to the + Greek Church has here one or more monasteries of its own, which are + annually visited by pilgrims. After having passed in the fifteenth + century from the sovereignty of the Greek Emperors of Byzantium to that + of the Sultans, it fell again into the hands of the Greeks, who occupied + it in Nov., 1912. Each of the twenty monasteries is a little republic in + itself, and until 1912 they used to pay an annual tribute of nearly £4000 + to the Turks, and were governed by a synod of twenty monastic deputies + and four presidents meeting weekly. They are now ruled either by abbots + chosen for life, or by a board of overseers elected for a certain number + of years. The revenue of the community is derived from <!-- Page 299 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page299"></a>[299]</span>pilgrims, and + from a considerable trade in amulets, rosaries, crucifixes, images, and + wooden furniture.</p> + + <p><b>Athy´</b>, a town in Ireland, county of Kildare, 37 miles + south-west of Dublin, on the Barrow, which is here joined by the Grand + Canal. Its chief trade is in corn. Pop. 3535.</p> + + <p><b>Atit´lan</b>, a lake and mountain of Central America in Guatemala. + The lake is about 24 miles long and 10 broad; the mountain is an active + volcano 12,160 feet high.</p> + + <p><b>Atlan´ta</b>, a city in the United States, capital of Georgia, on + an elevated ridge, 7 miles south-east of the Chattahoochee River. It is + an important railway centre; carries on a large trade in grain, paper, + cotton, flour, and especially tobacco, and possesses flour-mills, + paper-mills, ironworks, &c. Here are Atlanta University for negro men + and women, a theological college, a medical college, &c. Atlanta + suffered severely during the Civil War, and a battle was fought there on + 22nd July, 1864. A fire which broke out on 21st May, 1917, caused damage + estimated at more than £1,000,000. Pop. (1920), 200,600.</p> + + <p><b>Atlan´tes</b>, or <b>Telamōnes</b>, in architecture, male + figures used in place of columns or pilasters for the support of an + entablature or cornice. Female figures so employed are termed + <i>caryatides</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atlantic City</b>, a fashionable watering-place of the United + States, on the coast of New Jersey. It is an important air port, and has + an aerodrome covering about 160 acres. Pop. 50,682.</p> + + <p><b>Atlantic Ocean</b>, the vast expanse of sea lying between the west + coasts of Europe and Africa and the east coasts of North and South + America, and extending from the Arctic to the Antarctic Ocean; greatest + breadth, between the west coast of Northern Africa and the east coast of + Florida, 4150 miles; least breadth, between Norway and Greenland, 930 + miles. The total area of the North Atlantic (including the inland seas) + is 13,262,000 sq. miles; the area of the South Atlantic is 12,627,000 sq. + miles. The principal inlets and bays are Baffin's and Hudson's Bays, the + Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, the North Sea, the Bay of Biscay, and + the Gulf of Guinea. The principal islands north of the equator are + Iceland, the Faroe and British Islands, the Azores, Canaries, and Cape + Verde Islands, Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the West India Islands; and + south of the equator, Ascension, St. Helena, and Tristan da Cunha.</p> + + <p>The great currents of the Atlantic are the Equatorial Current + (divisible into the Main, Northern, and Southern Equatorial Currents), + the Gulf Stream, the North African and Guinea Current, the Southern + Connecting Current, the Southern Atlantic Current, the Cape Horn Current, + Rennel's Current, and the Arctic Current. The current system is primarily + set in motion by the trade-winds which drive the water of the + intertropical region from Africa towards the American coasts. The Main + Equatorial Current, passing across the Atlantic, is turned by the S. + American coast, along which it runs at a rate of 30 to 50 miles a day, + till, having received part of the North Equatorial Current, it enters the + Gulf of Mexico. Issuing thence between Florida and Cuba under the name of + the Gulf Stream, it flows with a gradually-expanding channel nearly + parallel to the coast of the United States. It then turns north-eastward + into the mid-Atlantic, the larger proportion of it passing southward to + the east of the Azores to swell the North African and Guinea Current + created by the northerly winds off the Portuguese coast. The Guinea + Current, which takes a southerly course, is divided into two on arriving + at the region of the north-east trades, part of it flowing east to the + Bight of Biafra and joining the South African feeder of the Main + Equatorial, but the larger portion being carried westward into the North + Equatorial drift. Rennel's Current, which is possibly a continuation of + the Gulf Stream, enters the Bay of Biscay from the west, curves round its + coast, and then turns north-west towards Cape Clear. The Arctic Current + runs along the east coast of Greenland (being here called the Greenland + Current), doubles Cape Farewell, and flows up towards Davis' Strait; it + then turns to the south along the coasts of Labrador and the United + States, from which it separates the Gulf Stream by a cold band of water. + Immense masses of ice are borne south by this current from the Polar + seas. In the interior of the North Atlantic there is a large area + comparatively free from currents, called the Sargasso Sea, from the large + quantity of sea-weed (of the genus Sargassum) which drifts into it. A + similar area exists in the South Atlantic. In the South Atlantic the + portion of the Equatorial Current which strikes the American coast below + Cape St. Roque flows southward at the rate of from 12 to 20 miles a day + along the Brazil coast under the name of the Brazil Current. It then + turns eastward and forms the South Connecting Current, which, on reaching + the South African coast, turns northward into the Main and Southern + Equatorial Currents. Besides the surface currents, an under current of + cold water flows from the poles to the equator, and an upper current of + warm water from the equator towards the poles.</p> + + <p>The greatest depth as yet discovered is north of Porto Rico, in the + West Indies, namely 27,360 feet. Cross-sections of the North Atlantic + between Europe and America show that its bed consists of two great + valleys lying in a north-and-south direction, and separated by a ridge, + on which there is an average depth of 1800 fathoms. <!-- Page 300 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page300"></a>[300]</span>The mean depth + of the North Atlantic is 2047 fathoms, that of the South Atlantic 2067 + fathoms. A ridge, called the <i>Wyville-Thomson Ridge</i>, with a depth + of little more than 200 fathoms above it, runs from near the Butt of + Lewis to Iceland, cutting off the colder water of the Arctic Ocean from + the warmer water of the Atlantic. The South Atlantic, of which the + greatest depth yet found is over 3000 fathoms, resembles the North + Atlantic in having an elevated plateau or ridge in the centre with a deep + trough on either side. The saltness and specific gravity of the Atlantic + gradually diminish from the tropics to the poles, and also from within a + short distance of the tropics to the equator. In the neighbourhood of the + British Isles the salt has been stated at one thirty-eighth of the weight + of the water. The North Atlantic is the greatest highway of ocean traffic + in the world. It is also a great area of submarine communication, by + means of the telegraphic cables that are laid across its bed. See + <i>Oceanography</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atlantic Telegraph.</b> See <i>Telegraph</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atlan´tides</b> (-dēz), a name given to the Pleiades, which + were fabled to be the seven daughters of Atlas or of his brother + Hesperus.</p> + + <p><b>Atlan´tis</b>, an island which, according to Plato, existed in the + Atlantic over against the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), was + the home of a great nation, and was finally swallowed up by the sea. The + legend has been accepted by some as fundamentally true; but others have + regarded it as the outgrowth of some early discovery of the New + World.</p> + + <p><b>Atlan´tosaurus</b>, a gigantic fossil reptile, ord. Dinosauria, + obtained in the upper Jurassic strata of the Rocky Mountains, attaining a + length of 110 feet or more.</p> + + <p><b>Atlas</b>, an extensive mountain system in North Africa, starting + near Cape Nun on the Atlantic Ocean, traversing Morocco, Algiers, and + Tunis, and terminating on the coast of the Mediterranean; divided + generally into two parallel ranges, running <span class="scac">W.</span> + to <span class="scac">E.</span>, the Greater Atlas lying towards the + Sahara and the Lesser Atlas towards the Mediterranean. The principal + chain is about 1500 miles long, and the principal peaks rise above or + approach the line of perpetual congelation, Miltsin in Morocco being + 11,400 feet high, and Tizi Likumpt being 13,150. The highest elevation is + perhaps Tizi Tamyurt, estimated at fully 15,000 feet. Silver, antimony, + lead, copper, iron, &c., are among the minerals. The vegetation is + chiefly European in character, except on the low grounds and next the + desert.</p> + + <p><b>Atlas</b>, in Greek mythology, the name of a Titan whom Zeus + condemned to bear the vault of heaven.—The same name is given to a + collection of maps and charts, and was first used by Gerard Mercator in + the sixteenth century, the figure of Atlas bearing the globe being given + on the title-pages of such works.</p> + + <p><b>Atlas</b>, in anatomy, is the name of the first vertebra of the + neck, which supports the head. It is connected with the occipital bone in + such a way as to permit of the nodding movement of the head, and rests on + the second vertebra or <i>axis</i>, their union allowing the head to turn + from side to side.</p> + + <p><b>At´las</b>, a kind of silk or silk-satin fabric of Eastern + manufacture.</p> + + <p><b>Atmidom´eter</b>, an instrument for measuring the evaporation from + water, ice, or snow. It somewhat resembles Nicholson's hydrometer, being + constructed so as to float in water and having an upright graduated stem, + on the top of which is a metal pan. Water, ice, or snow is put into the + pan, so as to sink the zero of the stem to a level with the cover of the + vessel, and as evaporation goes on the stem rises, showing the amount of + evaporation in grains.</p> + + <p><b>Atmom´eter</b>, an instrument for measuring the amount of + evaporation from a moist surface in a given time. It is often a thin + hollow ball of porous earthenware in which is inserted a graduated glass + tube. The cavity of the ball and tube being filled with water and the top + of the tube closed, the instrument is exposed to the free action of the + air; the relative rapidity with which the water transuding through the + porous substance is evaporated is marked by the scale on the tube as the + water sinks.</p> + + <p><b>At´mosphere</b>, primarily the gaseous envelope which surrounds the + earth; but the term is applied to that of any orb. Twilight effects show + that the atmosphere is sufficiently dense up to a height of 40 miles to + scatter or reflect to an appreciable degree the sun's rays, while the + phenomena of meteors, which are rendered luminous through friction, show + that it extends, though in extremely attenuated form, to 100 or even 200 + or more miles. It exerts on every part of the earth's surface a pressure + of about 15 (14.73) lb. per sq. inch. The existence of this atmospheric + pressure was first proved by Torricelli, who thus accounted for the rush + of a liquid to fill a vacuum, and who, working out the idea, produced the + first barometer. The average height of the mercurial column + counterbalancing the atmospheric weight at the sea-level is a little less + than 30 inches; but the pressure varies from hour to hour, and, roughly + speaking, diminishes in geometrical progression with arithmetical + increase in altitude. Of periodic variations there are two maxima of + daily pressure, occurring when the temperature is about the mean of the + day, and two minima, when it is at its highest and lowest respectively; + but the problems of diurnal and seasonal oscillations have yet to be + fully solved. The pressure <!-- Page 301 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page301"></a>[301]</span>upon the human body of average size is no + less than 14 tons, but as it is exerted equally in all directions no + inconvenience is caused by it. It is sometimes convenient to take the + atmospheric pressure as a standard for measuring other fluid pressures; + thus the steam pressure of 30 lb. per sq. inch on a boiler is spoken of + as a pressure of two atmospheres.</p> + + <p>The atmosphere, first subjected to analysis by Priestley and Scheele + in the latter part of the eighteenth century, consists practically of + oxygen and nitrogen in the almost constant proportion of 20.81 volumes of + oxygen to 79.19 volumes of nitrogen, or, by weight, 23.01 parts of oxygen + to 76.99 of nitrogen. The gases are associated together, not as a + chemical compound, but as a mechanical mixture. Upon the oxygen present + depends the power of the atmosphere to support combustion and + respiration, the nitrogen acting as a diluent to prevent its too + energetic action. It had long been known that atmospheric nitrogen + appeared to have a very slightly greater density than nitrogen obtained + from other sources. Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay found that the + fact was due to a still more inert gas which forms nearly 1 per cent of + the air, and which had not previously been separated from nitrogen. This + has been named <i>argon</i>. Besides these gases, the atmosphere also + contains aqueous vapour in variable quantity, ozone, carbonic acid gas, + traces of ammonia, nitric acid, and, in towns, sulphuretted hydrogen and + sulphurous acid gas. In addition to its gaseous constituents the + atmosphere is charged with dust, bacteria, &c. For other gases which + are present in traces, see <i>Neon</i>. See <i>Climate</i>; + <i>Meteorology</i>.—<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C. + Flammarion, <i>L'Atmosphère</i>; Sir Napier Shaw, <i>The Weather + Map</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atmospheric Engine</b>, name given by early inventors to engines in + which the piston is restored to the bottom of its stroke by atmospheric + pressure.</p> + + <p><b>Atmospheric Railway</b>, so called in consequence of the motive + power being derived from the pressure of the atmosphere, or from + compressed air. The idea of thus obtaining motion was first suggested by + the French engineer Papin, about 200 years ago. In 1810, and again in + 1827, Medhurst published a scheme for 'propelling carriages through a + close-fitting air-tight tunnel by forcing in air behind them'; and in + 1825 a similar project was patented by Vallance of Brighton. About 1835 + H. Pinkus, an American residing in England, patented a pneumatic railway. + The carriages were to travel on an open line of rails, along which a + cast-iron tube of between 3 and 4 feet diameter was to be laid, having a + longitudinal slit from 1 to 2 inches wide and closed by a flexible valve + along its upper side, through which a connection could be formed between + the leading carriage and a piston working within the tube. This method + was improved by Messrs. Clegg & Samuda, who in 1840 tried some + experiments on a portion of the West London Railway with sufficient + success to induce the Government to advance a loan to the Dublin and + Kingstown Railway Company, for the construction of a pneumatic line from + Kingstown to Dalkey. It was opened for passenger traffic at the end of + 1843, and was worked for many months. The London and Croydon Company + subsequently obtained powers for laying down an atmospheric railway by + the side of their other line from London to Croydon, and in experimental + trips in 1845 a speed of 30 miles an hour was obtained with sixteen + carriages, and of 70 miles with six carriages. But during the intense + heat of the summer of 1846 the iron tube frequently became so hot as to + melt the composition which sealed the valve, and the line had to be + worked by locomotives. The mechanical difficulty of commanding a + sufficient amount of rarefaction led to the abandonment of the system for + railway purposes. It has been revived, however, for the conveyance of + letters and parcels in towns by means of tubes of moderate diameter laid + beneath the streets. See <i>Pneumatic Dispatch</i>.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:63%;"> + <a href="images/image120.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image120.jpg" + alt="Atoll" title="Atoll" /></a> + Atoll + </div> + + <p><b>Atoll´</b>, the Polynesian name for coral islands of the ringed + type enclosing a lagoon in the centre. They are found chiefly in the + Pacific in archipelagos, and occasionally are of large size. Suadiva + Atoll is 44 miles by 34; Rimsky 54 by 20. See <i>Coral</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atomic Theory</b>, a theory as to the existence and properties of + atoms (see <i>Atoms</i>); especially, in chemistry, the theory accounting + for the fact that in compound bodies the elements combine in certain + constant proportions, by assuming that all bodies are composed of + ultimate atoms, the weight of which is different in different kinds of + matter. It is associated with the name of Dalton, who systematized and + extended the imperfect results of his predecessors. On its practical side + the atomic theory asserts three <i>Laws of Combining Proportions</i>: (1) + The Law of Constant or Definite Proportions, teaching that in every + chemical compound the nature and relative weights of the constituent + elements are definite and invariable; thus water invariably consists of 8 + parts by weight of oxygen to 1 part by weight of hydrogen; (2) The Law of + Multiple Proportions, according to which the several proportions in which + one element unites with a given weight of another invariably bear towards + each other a simple relation; thus 1 part by weight of hydrogen unites + with 8 parts by weight of oxygen to form water, and with 16 (i.e. 8×2) + parts of oxygen to form peroxide of hydrogen; (3) The Law of Combination + <!-- Page 302 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page302"></a>[302]</span>in Reciprocal Proportions, that the + proportions in which two elements combine with a third also represent the + proportions in which, or in some simple multiple of which, they will + themselves combine; thus in olefiant gas hydrogen is present with carbon + in the proportion of 1 to 6, and in carbonic oxide, oxygen is present + with carbon in the proportion of 8 to 6, 1 to 8 being also the + proportions in which hydrogen and oxygen combine with each other. The + theory that these <i>proportional numbers</i> are, in fact, nothing else + but the relative weights of atoms so far accounts for the phenomena that + the existence of these laws might have been predicted by the aid of the + atomic hypothesis long before they were actually discovered by analysis. + In themselves, however, the laws do not prove the theory of the existence + of ultimate particles of matter of a certain relative weight; and + although many chemists, even without expressly adopting the atomic theory + itself, have followed Dalton in the use of the terms <i>atom</i> and + <i>atomic weight</i>, in preference to <i>proportion</i>, <i>combining + weight</i>, <i>equivalent</i>, and the like, yet in using the word + <i>atom</i> it should be held in mind that it merely denotes the + combining weights of the elements. These will remain the same whether the + atomic hypothesis which suggested the employment of the term be true or + false. Dalton supposed that the atoms are spherical, and invented certain + symbols to represent the mode in which he conceived they might combine. + The latest atomic hypothesis is one which assigns an electrical structure + to the atom. See <i>Chemistry</i>; <i>Electricity</i>; <i>Matter</i>. Cf. + H. E. Roscoe and A. Harden, <i>New View of Dalton's Atomic Theory</i>; + Sir J. J. Thomson, <i>Atomic Theory</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atomic Weights.</b> See <i>Chemistry</i>; <i>Molecular + Weights</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atomists.</b> See <i>Atoms</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atoms</b>, for many years regarded as the ultimate indivisible + particles of the chemical elements. The idea originated with some of the + ancient philosophers (the atomists), more especially Democritus (450 + <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), Epicurus, and Lucretius (99-55 <span + class="scac">B.C.</span>), and was developed into a definite theory by + Dalton (1804). According to Dalton the atoms of any one element are alike + in all their properties, but differ from the atoms of other elements, and + when chemical combination occurs it takes place between the atoms of the + combining elements (see <i>Chemistry</i>). Various views have been held + with regard to the nature of atoms. Newton regarded them as hard, + ponderable particles, perfectly unalterable, and concluded that the + difference between substances was due to different kinds of atoms. Lord + Kelvin propounded the view that the properties of atoms might be + explained by those of vortices or vortex rings in a homogeneous + frictionless fluid. As a result of the researches of British and French + physicists on radium, the latest view is that matter and electricity are + closely connected, that atoms are not indivisible, but complex aggregates + containing positive and negative electrons, the differences between the + atoms depending mainly on the numbers of these electrons and their + velocity. See <i>Radium</i>.</p> + + <p><b>Atonement</b>, in Christian theology, the special work of Christ + effected by His life, sufferings, and death. The first explicit + exposition of the evangelical doctrine of the atonement is ascribed to + Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1093.</p> + + <p><b>Atrato</b> (a<span class="x1"><span + class="x2">˙</span></span>-trä´tō), a river of S. America, in + the north-west of Colombia, emptying itself by nine mouths into the Gulf + of Darien; it is navigable by steamers of some size for 250 miles, and + has long been the subject of schemes for establishing water-communication + between the Atlantic and Pacific.</p> + + <p><b>Atrauli</b>, a town of India, United Provinces, Aligarh district, + clean, well built, and with a good trade. Pop. 16,560.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 +Part 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. 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