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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, From Xylographs to Lead Molds; A.D. 1440-A.D.
+1921, by H. C. Forster
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: From Xylographs to Lead Molds; A.D. 1440-A.D. 1921
+
+
+Author: H. C. Forster
+
+
+
+Release Date: August 24, 2010  [eBook #33497]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS;
+A.D. 1440-A.D. 1921***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file
+      which includes the original illustrations and illuminations.
+      See 33497-h.htm or 33497-h.zip:
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+
+
+
+
+
+FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS
+
+AD 1440         AD 1921
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1921
+The Rapid Electrotype Company
+Cincinnati, Ohio
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+Printing has been called "the art preservative of all arts." The
+invention of individual movable cast-metal type, between A. D. 1440
+and 1446, made printing a commercial possibility.
+
+The subsequent rapid spread of the art, in the hands of students and
+craftsmen, may be said to have been the centrifugal force of the
+Renaissance and the Revival of Learning, which age, if it can be
+chronologically delimited, began A. D. 1453.
+
+Printing divulged to the masses the ancient classics which had been
+locked up in monasteries and accessible only to clerics and the
+nobility. The common people began to read. Education became
+popularized.
+
+This brochure is a brief history of the evolution from xylographs to
+the methods used today for duplicating a typographical printing
+surface in a solid piece.
+
+
+
+
+INDIVIDUAL MOVABLE CAST-METAL TYPE
+
+
+The art of writing, and that of printing from wooden blocks, and all
+the subsidiary arts of illuminating, decorating and binding
+manuscripts and books, had long passed out of the exclusive hands of
+the monasteries into the hands of students and artisans, before
+printing with individual movable cast-metal type was invented. This
+epoch making invention came into practical use between A. D. 1440 and
+1446.
+
+When, therefore, Johannes Koelhoff of Lubeck, Germany, printed the
+"Cologne Chronicle" in 1499, he used individual movable cast-metal
+type. Typographic printing had long before superseded Xylographic
+printing, that is, printing from a solid block of wood on which type
+of an entire page were cut individually by hand.
+
+Between the invention of individual movable cast-metal type and the
+perfection by the Earl of Stanhope of his printing-press, (a period of
+about three hundred and sixty years), very few improvements had been
+made in the mechanics of printing. Everything we know today about the
+art has come into use since 1799, and if Koelhoff had come to life in
+1799 and been permitted to resume his occupation of printer, he would
+have found himself practically familiar with the mechanical equipment
+of his craft as used in the establishment of the Stanhope Press in
+that last year of the eighteenth century.
+
+Centuries before 1440 printing is believed to have been attempted in
+China; presumably about the beginning of the Christian era. It is said
+that in the year A. D. 175 the text of the Chinese classics was cut
+into tablets which were erected outside the national university at
+Peking, and that impressions--probably rubbings--were taken of them.
+Some of these fac-simile impressions are still in existence, it is
+asserted.
+
+Xylography was also practiced in China long before Europe knew the
+art. It can be traced as far back as the sixth century, when the
+founder of the Suy dynasty is said to have had the remains of the
+Chinese classics engraved on wood, though it was not until the tenth
+century that printed books became common in China.
+
+The authorities of the British Museum also report that Chinese writers
+give the name of a certain Pi Sheng who, in the eleventh century,
+invented movable type, and the Department of Oriental Printed Books
+and Manuscripts of the same institution possesses a copy of the Wen
+hsien tung Kao, a Chinese encyclopedia printed in Korea from movable
+type in A. D. 1337.
+
+To the Koreans also is attributed the invention of copper type in the
+beginning of the 15th century, and the inspection of books bearing the
+dates of that period seems to show that they used such type, even if
+they did not invent them.
+
+The first authentic European printing produced from individual movable
+type of which we have any recorded impression, bears the date of A. D.
+1454. These documents are two different editions of the same Letters
+of Indulgence issued in that year by Pope Nicholas V. in behalf of the
+Kingdom of Cyprus. We do not know, however, whether they were printed
+from metal or wood type.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+As to the _exact_ date of the invention of printing from individual
+movable type in Europe, we know only that it was some time prior to
+A. D. 1454. Where and by whom the invention came about, a dispute has
+been waged for more than four hundred years; one of the most hotly
+contested questions in history. In short, Koelhoff was in part
+responsible for starting this dispute. He published in his "Cologne
+Chronicle" a statement by Ulrich Zell, a printer of Mainz in Germany
+and a contemporary of Gutenberg, that Gutenberg _had improved_, but
+_not invented_ the art, which he attributes to Coster of Haarlem, in
+the Netherlands, in the year 1440. Gutenberg stole Coster's type,
+according to Zell, and printed from them in 1442. Other unrefutable
+evidence shows that Gutenberg could not have begun printing at Mainz
+before the end of 1450.
+
+In addition to Gutenberg and Coster we also find Waldfoghel of
+Avignon, in France, and Castaldi of Felte, in Italy, mentioned as
+claimants of this invention. The value of their respective pretensions
+has been summed up by one well known authority in the words, "Holland
+has books, but no documents. France has documents, but no books. Italy
+has neither books, nor documents, while Germany has both books and
+documents."
+
+As the case stands at present, after careful and impartial examination
+of all available evidence, no choice is left but to attribute the
+invention of printing with individual movable cast-metal type to
+Lourens Janszoon Coster of Haarlem in the Netherlands between the
+years 1440 and 1446 and not to Gutenberg of Mainz in Germany.
+
+Zell's statement in the "Cologne Chronicle" of 1499 is further
+substantiated by Hadrianus Junius in his "Batavia." Junius stated that
+printing from individual movable type was invented by Coster in
+Haarlem, and that the "Speculum Humanae Salvationes" was one of his
+first productions. These two statements were made independently of
+each other and both are corroborated by books to which they refer.
+
+The "Speculum Humanae Salvationes," attributed to Coster by Junius was
+partly a folio Latin block-book, and partly typographically printed.
+From this and other records it has been clearly established that
+Coster began as a xylographer and ended as a typographical printer,
+and before 1472 he had manufactured and extensively used at least
+seven different styles of primitive looking individual movable
+cast-metal type.
+
+According to tradition, while he was walking in a wood near Haarlem,
+Coster cut some letters in the bark of a beech tree, and with them,
+reversely impressed one by one on paper, he composed one or two lines
+as an example for the children of his son-in-law.
+
+Junius does not say it, but clearly implies that, in this way, Coster
+came to the idea of the movability of the characters, the first step
+in the invention of typography. He perceived the advantage and utility
+of such insulated characters, which hitherto he had been cutting
+together on one block, and so the invention of printing with
+individual movable type was made.
+
+The questions as to whether he continued to print with movable
+"wooden" type, or even printed books with them, cannot be answered,
+because no such books or fragments of them have come down to us.
+Junius' words on this point are ambiguous, and yet, upon the
+examination of the first edition of the Dutch Spiegel (of which two
+copies are preserved at Haarlem) no one would deny that there are
+grounds for this belief. The dancing condition of the lines and
+letters make it almost impossible to think that they are impressions
+from metal type. But for how long and to what extent movable wooden
+type were employed, if at all, cannot be positively stated.
+
+However, this idea of movability, and the accidental way in which it
+was discovered, form together the pith of the Haarlem tradition as
+told by Junius. Nothing seems more natural than that a block-printer
+should cut such separate letters as Coster did on the bark of a tree
+and thereupon perceive that they could be used over and over again for
+a variety of words on different pages, while those which he used to
+cut in a solid block only served him for one page and for one purpose.
+
+It is equally clear from the Haarlem tradition that the art of casting
+metal type was the second stage in the invention, a development or
+outcome of the primary idea of "movable letters," for Junius says that
+Coster "afterwards changed the beechen characters into leaden, and the
+latter again into tin ones."
+
+Theod. Bibliander, in 1548, was the first to speak of movable wooden
+type and to describe them. First they cut their letters, he reports,
+on wood blocks the size of an entire page; but because the labor and
+cost of that way was so great, they devised movable wooden type,
+perforated and joined one to another by a thread.
+
+Bibliander does not say that he had ever seen such type himself, but
+Dan Speckle or Specklin (d. 1589) who ascribed the invention to
+Mentelin, asserts that he saw some of these wooden type at
+Straussburg; and Angelo Roccho asserted in 1591 that he had seen at
+Venice type perforated and joined one to another by a thread, but he
+does not state whether they were of wood or of metal.
+
+There is a theory also that between block-printing and printing with
+movable cast-metal type there was an intermediate stage of printing
+with "sculpto-fusi" type; that is, a type of which the shank had to be
+cast in a quadrilateral mold and the characters or letters engraved
+afterwards by hand. This theory was suggested by some one who could
+not believe in wooden type and yet wished to account for the marked
+irregularities of the type used to print the earliest books.
+
+Granting that all the earlier works of typography preserved to us are
+impressions of cast-metal type, there are still differences of
+opinion, especially among practical printers and type-founders, as to
+the probable methods employed to cast them. It is considered unlikely,
+although not impossible, that the invention of printing passed all at
+once from xylography to the perfect typography of the punch, matrix,
+and mold.
+
+The types that Coster made and used were supposed to have been
+manufactured in one of three or four probable ways.
+
+Bernard believed that the first movable cast-metal type were molded in
+sand, since that method of casting was known to the silversmiths and
+trinket-makers of the fifteenth century. In substantiation of his
+theory he exhibits a specimen of a word cast as a unit for him by this
+process, roughly similar to a modern linotype slug.
+
+A second suggested mode was that of casting in clay molds, by a method
+very similar to that used in the sand process, and resulting in like
+peculiarities and variations in the type.
+
+Ottley, in his "Invention of Printing," was the chief exponent of this
+theory. He believed that type were made by pouring molten lead into
+molds of clay or plaster, after the ordinary manner used from time
+immemorial in casting statues and other articles of metal.
+
+The imperfections in the type cast by the sand and clay processes--the
+difficulty of uneven heights in the various type--is supposed to have
+been surmounted either by locking up the form with the type-face
+downward on the composing stone, or by perforating the type, either at
+the time of casting or afterwards, and holding them in their places by
+means of a wire or thread through the perforations.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+To this cause has been attributed the numerous misprints in those
+early specimens of the printers' art, to correct which would have
+involved the unthreading of every line in which a typographical error
+occurred.
+
+A striking proof that the lines were put into the form one by one, as
+a piece, instead of type by type, is shown in a blunder in the
+"Speculum" of Coster where the whole of a last reference line is
+"turned." It is as if a modern linotype slug were put in the form
+up-side-down.
+
+A third suggestion as to the method by which the type of those early
+days of printing may have been produced is described as a system that
+the type-founders of about 1800 called Polytypage, which is a cast
+facsimile copy of an engraved block of type matter. Lambinet, who is
+responsible for this suggestion, explains that this method really
+means an early adoption of the stereotyping process.
+
+Lambinet thought that the early printers may have discovered a way of
+molding in cooling metal so as to get a matrix-plate impression of an
+entire page. Upon this matrix they would pour molten lead or tin and
+by the aid of a roller, press the fused metal evenly so as to make it
+penetrate into all the hollows and corners of the letters. This tablet
+of lead or tin, when cooled, being easily detached from the matrix,
+would then reveal the letters of the alphabet reversed and in relief,
+similar to a present day stereotype. The individual letters, of
+course, could easily be cut apart by a sharp tool, and the molding
+operation could be repeated, using the same matrix. The metal type
+faces so produced would be fixed on wooden shanks, type high, and the
+font would be complete.
+
+It is impossible to suppose, however, that the Mainz psalter of 1457,
+which Lambinet points to as a specimen of this mode of execution, is
+the impression, not of type at all, but a collection of "casts"
+mounted on wood.
+
+Yet another theory has been proposed by Dr. Ch. Enschede, head of the
+celebrated type foundry of that name in Haarlem. Enschede concludes
+that the Costerian type were produced from leaden matrices and the
+latter from brass patrices. Their bad, irregular condition was due to
+the tools being imperfect, and Coster in the first practice of his
+invention was inexperienced and therefore bound to produce such
+imperfections as are found in the Speculum. Coster's type were cast in
+one tempo, that is, the character itself and the shank cast at the
+same time in one piece.
+
+Gutenberg's patrices, according to Enschede, were made like
+bookbinders' stamps, of yellow copper, i. e., brass. With such
+patrices only lead matrices could be made, but the latter could be
+produced in two ways. Molten lead could be poured over the patrices or
+the patrices could be pressed into cold lead. The first mode is
+somewhat complex, but the matrix would have a smooth surface and need
+no further adjustment.
+
+The second mode is more simple, but required great force, although
+lead is a soft metal. Moreover the surface of the matrix would have to
+be trimmed, as the impression forces the metal downwards and
+sidewards, which makes the surface uneven, though by this pressure the
+lead becomes firmer and more compact, to the advantage of the
+type-founder.
+
+Enschede thinks that Gutenberg obtained his matrices by the second
+mode. He arrives at this conclusion by reason of the fact that
+Gutenberg's types were sharper in their impressions than Coster's.
+Developing this theory, he believes that Gutenberg had each letter
+engraved on a brass plate 2 mm. thick, therefore a mere letter without
+anything underneath it. This brass letter patrix was pressed, by means
+of a small flat plate, so far into the lead that its back formed an
+unbroken plane with the top surface of the lead, and was then removed.
+
+After the matrix had been made this way, the type were cast, which was
+done, not by pouring metal into the matrix, but by pressing the latter
+into semi-fused metal. In this way a great many letters could be cast
+from one matrix without any injury to it. Gutenberg's method was to
+cast in two tempos, according to Enschede, that is, the character was
+cast first and the shank was cast by another operation joining it to
+the character.
+
+Enschede warns us, however, that his theories are simply those of a
+practical founder and not a bibliographer's. But since no tools used
+by those early printers and type-founders have come to light to prove
+or disprove him, his theory is as valuable as any others advanced as
+to the methods used for casting type in those primitive days of
+printing.
+
+The shape of the type used as early as 1470 does not seem to differ
+materially from those of the present day. This is evident from old
+type which were discovered in 1878 in the bed of the river Saone, near
+Lyons, opposite the site of one of the fifteenth century
+printing-houses of that city.
+
+Also a page in Joh. Neider's "Lepra Moralis" printed by Conrad
+Homburch in Cologne in 1476 shows the accidental impression of a type
+pulled up from its place in the course of printing by the ink-ball,
+and laid at length on the face of the form, leaving its exact profile
+indented upon the page.
+
+This accidental imprint shows a small circle, and it is presumed that
+the type were pierced latterly by a circular hole, which did not
+penetrate the whole thickness of the letter, and served, like the nick
+in modern type, to enable the compositor to tell by touch which way to
+set the letter in his stick.
+
+The fact that a letter was pulled out of the form seems to show that
+the type composing the line could not have been threaded together, as
+set forth by Ottley in his theory of clay molds for casting type. It
+is to be remembered, however, that in the early days of printing,
+every printer was his own type-founder. The method of casting type had
+not been standardized and each printer had his own individual ideas
+both as to the kind of characters and the method used in casting them.
+Some may have threaded their type together in lines and others may
+have simply locked them up in the form face downward in the composing
+stone to overcome any irregularities caused by crude methods of
+casting.
+
+Vinc. Fineschi, of Florence, in Italy, gives an extract from the
+cost-book of the Ripoli press, about 1480, which shows that steel,
+brass, copper, tin, lead and iron were all used in the manufacture of
+type at that period.
+
+Today we have the wizardry of mechanical production in the manufacture
+of type. The linotype and monotype machines, uncanny in their
+operations, have also come into common practice. Without them printing
+would seem almost as primitive, in typography, as it was in its
+infancy.
+
+
+
+
+STEREOTYPING
+
+
+About the beginning of the eighteenth century a certain Van der Meyer,
+of Antwerp, made the next step towards a definite improvement in
+typography, the first that had been attempted since the invention of
+printing from movable, cast-metal type. Van der Meyer prepared the
+composed pages of the Bible by soldering together the bottom of the
+type in the form. This was the first "stereotype," a term derived from
+two Greek words meaning literally "solidtype."
+
+This method met one requirement. It prevented the "pi-ing" of the
+type, but it had the disadvantage of holding in comparative idleness a
+large and costly mass of type useless for any other purpose, and it
+was not generally practiced.
+
+This was followed in 1730, by William Ged, a goldsmith of Edinburgh,
+who is credited with casting printing-plates in plaster-of-paris molds
+for the University of Cambridge Bible. These plates, however, were
+destroyed by jealous printers and thrown aside, resulting in the
+process being abandoned for many years.
+
+In the meantime several other improvements along this line were
+undergoing experiment. Firmin Didot, (1764-1836), a printer of Paris,
+cast type of a hard alloy, and when his book-pages were composed, made
+an impression of them on a sheet of soft lead, thus forming a mold.
+Molten metal was then poured into a shallow tray, and just as this was
+on the point of solidifying, but still plastic, the lead-mold of the
+book-page was pressed on the soft metal in the tray. This process
+called Polytypage, was but partly successful; it could be used only
+for small pages, and the plates were too often defective. A process
+similar to this is what Lambinet thought the printers of the latter
+half of the fifteenth century might have used as one of the probable
+methods to cast their metal types.
+
+These and other experiments, however, were leading to the real
+stereotyping process which developed later.
+
+Early in the nineteenth century, Earl Stanhope, of England,
+re-introduced Ged's stereotyping process with many improvements.
+
+One or more pages of type were locked in a chase, the surface of the
+type being oiled to prevent the subsequent mold from sticking. The
+mold was made by pouring a semi-fluid composition of plaster-of-paris
+mixed with a little fine salt to make the plaster settle solidly.
+While the plaster was still soft, it was carefully pressed down and
+rolled smooth on top to give a uniform thickness to the mold and to
+expel any air there might be in the plaster. When the plaster became
+solid, it formed a perfect matrix of the type pages.
+
+The moisture in those early plaster molds was expelled by baking them
+in an oven for three or four hours. A later method for drying was
+practiced by suspending the mold directly over the metal-pots or to
+float them on the surface of the molten metal. By this means the
+drying could be accomplished in a half-hour or so.
+
+In the process of casting, several of these plaster molds were placed
+side by side face downward in a special casting-pan. The pan was one
+and three-quarters or two inches deep, and a lid on the pan screwed
+down on the back of the molds. By means of a crane the casting pan
+with its molds was then lowered into the pot of molten metal which ran
+into the pan at the corners and sides. The mold was allowed to remain
+ten minutes or so in the metal-pot, or until the face of the inverted
+mold was entirely filled with the metal.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A later method of casting from a plaster mold was to place it in a
+frame with a smooth, flat plate opposite the face of the mold and to
+enclose the open space at one end and on the two sides. The casting
+space thus formed was then turned with the open end up and metal was
+poured in with a ladle, in a manner similar to the method still
+employed for casting job-work stereotypes. The distance between the
+flat plate and the mold was adjusted to make a stereotype plate of the
+required thickness.
+
+After the removal and cooling of the casting pan, the plates were
+freed from the plaster and the surplus metal cut off. Only one cast
+could be made, as the mold was usually destroyed in removing the cast.
+The stereotype was then sent to the finishing department, where the
+face was cleaned and examined for defective letters, then trimmed on
+the sides and planed off uniformly on the back to the desired
+thickness, in the same manner as a stereotype is treated today. A
+defective letter could be mortised out of the plate and a good type
+inserted in its place. In cases where a whole line or other part was
+imperfect, another mold was made of as much of the form as was
+necessary and the new cast inserted and soldered to the plate.
+
+There were many and varied experiments made in the earlier development
+of this idea of producing a duplicate printing form in a single piece.
+That such a process was highly desirable was universally recognized,
+and the conviction that some practicable and economical method was
+feasible was a continual incentive which gradually led to better
+results.
+
+
+
+
+STEREOTYPING IN AMERICA
+
+
+Although credit is given to John Watts, an Englishman then working in
+America, for making the first stereotype plates here, the real
+introduction of the process into the United States was by David Bruce.
+This was in 1813. Bruce had learned the printer's trade in Edinburgh
+and later came to America, where after a few years he was joined by
+his brother George in establishing the firm of D. & G. Bruce,
+printers. Hearing of the new process of stereotyping in England, he
+went over there to learn about it. He could get very little
+information about the process there, but came back with some practical
+ideas which he proceeded to carry out. Bruce and his brother also
+began type-founding about this time, and abandoned the business of
+printing. Later they gave up the work of stereotyping.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The first book stereotyped in the United States was the New Testament,
+in 1814. Bibles and school books were the first works to be
+stereotyped; then came other books which were demanded in many
+editions, such as the works of popular authors.
+
+
+
+
+THE PAPIER MACHE MATRIX
+
+
+The papier-mache (literally, mashed paper) matrix was first
+successfully used for casting stereotypes for book pages in France in
+1848. Charles Craske, an engraver of New York, introduced the method
+into the stereotype trade of the United States in 1850, and in 1854 he
+stereotyped a page of the "_New York Herald_" and later made
+stereotypes for other New York newspapers.
+
+The modern wet stereotype "flong," in common use today, consists of
+several layers of special paper pasted together to form a thick sheet.
+The base is a sheet of special soft stock similar to firm
+blotting-paper, such as is used between leaves of small blank books.
+Three or four sheets of strong, white tissue are next added, each
+sheet except the last being uniformly covered with the paste. The
+pasting must be done with great care so as to cover the entire surface
+of each sheet and at the same time to press out all air bubbles. The
+sheets must then be pressed smoothly but not squeezed so hard as to
+force the paste out and must be kept moist until used. In newspaper
+syndicate plants, the "flong" is made automatically by a specially
+devised machine into which the various kinds of paper used are fed
+from rolls, the pasting and cutting into sheets being mechanical.
+
+In molding a papier-mache matrix, the moist "flong" is laid on the
+original molding form to be duplicated, the molding form being in
+place on the table of the molding press. The "flong" is covered with
+several blankets of thick felt and the table of the molding press is
+then automatically moved in under a powerful roller which squeezes the
+moist flong down into the form. At the end of its travel the table is
+automatically brought back again under the rollers to the position
+from which it started. The speed of the roller and the table is
+synchronized to obviate any possibility of the mat becoming wrinkled
+by sliding.
+
+The molded matrix and the pattern with the blanket still on it is then
+transferred to the drying press, in which under a hot platten it is
+again squeezed and allowed to remain for a few minutes until the
+moisture is completely expelled from the molded flong. The drying
+press is kept at a high temperature, usually by steam heat.
+
+The matrix thus dried out to a thick, flexible cardboard is then ready
+for the casting of the stereotype, which is done by pouring molten
+stereotype metal against the face of the matrix placed in a
+casting-box designed for this purpose. A successive number of
+stereotypes can be cast for the same mat before it is injured by the
+hot metal. For job-work stereotyping the casting-box is flat, and the
+molten metal is either poured by hand or automatically pumped in the
+casting-box.
+
+After the stereotype is cast it is flattened, rough shaved, smooth
+shaved, bevelled or blocked on wood; the wood base trimmed and then
+planed type-high for printing press use.
+
+The large daily papers cast the full-page stereotype from which the
+paper is printed in an automatic casting machine which forms a curved
+plate, trimmed and bevelled, to fit the cylinder of the press.
+
+Stereotyping was for many years the chief means of making plates for
+books and also for commercial printing. It has several advantages. The
+first, obviously, is the advantage which it shares with several other
+methods of providing a solid printing plate made by molding from an
+original form of type or engraving. Its peculiar advantage, however,
+is that it is the quickest method of producing a duplicate plate from
+an original.
+
+In comparison with electrotyping, however, it has two distinct
+disadvantages. One is that it is not adapted for reproducing the fine
+lines of engravings and type faces. In addition it is comparatively
+shallow and does not possess a sharp, clean printing face. The other
+disadvantage is that a stereotype is relatively soft and quickly worn.
+
+Stereotypes have been made more durable, to withstand the wear of
+printing, by the deposition of a film of harder metal--copper or
+nickel--on the face of the plate after it has been cast. This,
+however, is not satisfactory, as it involves not only another
+operation, but also makes an already shallow printing plate that much
+shallower and increases the probability of it printing "dirty," which
+is one of the chief objections to the stereotype in itself. This
+practice is not recommended.
+
+
+
+
+ELECTROTYPING
+
+
+In 1799, Allesandro Volta, of Pavia, in Italy, constructed the first
+electric battery, which came to be called the Voltaic pile.
+Improvements in the form of Volta's battery were made almost
+immediately by William Cruickshank, in England, who discovered in
+experimenting with it that he could by its power electrolyze or
+chemically decompose the salts of certain metals in solution. Both
+copper and silver, he found, could be precipitated from their salt
+solutions and deposited upon a plate immersed in the solution.
+
+This observation was the first step in the process of electroplating,
+which is electrotyping when applied to the art of typography.
+
+In 1837, thirty-eight years after Volta's discovery, Mr. Thomas
+Spencer of Liverpool, England, accidentally stumbled upon the first
+realization of the electrotyping process.
+
+While experimenting with a modification of a Daniell battery, he used
+an English copper penny as one of the poles instead of a plain piece
+of copper. A deposition of copper from the solution in the battery
+took place upon the penny, and upon removing the wire which attached
+the penny to the zinc plate a portion of the copper deposit was pulled
+off the penny also.
+
+This first copper electrotype shell Spencer found to be an exact
+duplicate or mold of part of the head and lettering on the coin. _It
+was as smooth and as sharp as the original._
+
+It was some time later, however, before this suggested to him any
+useful application of the process. Another accident made him
+appreciate the full value of his discovery. This time he carelessly
+dropped some varnish on a strip of copper which he was going to use in
+the same way he did the penny. Upon removing the copper from the
+battery he observed that there was no deposition of copper on those
+parts of the strip where the varnish had dropped.
+
+Spencer then conceived the idea of applying this principle to the arts
+by coating a piece of copper with varnish or wax and engraving a
+design in the coating, thus exposing the copper strip in the engraved
+lines. He did this, and then deposited copper in the design so
+engraved. Upon removing the coating the design was exposed in relief
+on the piece of copper.
+
+On September 13, 1839, Spencer read a paper before the Polytechnic
+Institution of Liverpool, which he accompanied with specimens of both
+electrotypes made by this process and of printing from these
+electrotypes. The publication of this paper acted like an electric
+shock upon society.
+
+Developing his process, Spencer first used lead as the plastic medium
+in which to mold printing surfaces, and it is to be noted in this
+connection that in doing so he anticipated Dr. Albert's lead mold by
+considerably over three quarters of a century.
+
+Spencer impressed a form of type on a planed piece of sheet-lead and
+subjected both of them to the action of a screw-press. A perfectly
+sharp mold of the type form was thus made in the lead. This lead mold
+was placed in a battery, and at the end of _eight days_ a copper shell
+one eighth of an inch in thickness had been deposited. It was then
+removed from the apparatus and the rough edge of the deposited copper
+filed off. Being subjected to heat, the copper shell loosened from the
+lead-mold. Spencer called this a "copper stereotype."
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The next step in developing the electrotyping process, after Spencer
+had demonstrated the practical application of the electro-chemical
+deposition of a copper shell on a mold, was made by a Mr. Robert
+Murray. Mr. Murray was the first to use plumbago, or black-lead, to
+give the surface of non-metallic bodies electro-conductive properties.
+He discovered that he could coat a mold of bees-wax with black-lead
+and deposit thereon a copper shell. This was in 1840.
+
+In the same year Smee's battery was invented. This was a marked
+improvement and was a most important step towards making electrotyping
+a commercial possibility.
+
+Thus in 1840, four hundred years after the probable date of the
+invention of printing from individual movable cast-metal type, and
+over forty years after the foundation of electrotyping was laid by
+Volta, electrotyping, as a practical method of reproducing a
+commercial typographical printing surface, came into existence.
+
+Mr. E. Palmer, in England, using Spencer's method, was the first to
+receive a patent for producing a metallic printing plate with the
+printing surfaces in relief. This patent is dated 1841. Palmer
+followed this in the succeeding year by a further patent for engraving
+through a wax-coated matrix-plate to form the printing surfaces in the
+_positive_ electrotype taken from it. This process was termed by
+Palmer, "Glyphography."
+
+The "whites" or low spots in Palmer's Glyphographs were "built-up" in
+the wax mold through adding wax by hand, assisted by various
+ingeniously constructed tools which were heated. After "building-up,"
+the wax was black-leaded and the copper deposition on the surface of
+the wax mold was obtained. This copper deposit, or shell, was then
+tinned on the back, backed up with lead, mounted on wood, and trimmed
+type-high. These processes are the essentials used today in
+electrotyping.
+
+One of the earliest works illustrated by the Palmer process is "The
+History and Antiquities of Brentford, Ealing, and Chiswick," by T.
+Faulkner, published in 1845, and the word "Glyphography" occurs at the
+foot of many illustrations contained in it.
+
+In 1839 the first attempt was made at commercial electrotyping in
+America. In that year, Joseph A. Adams, a wood-engraver connected with
+Harper & Bros. in New York, experimented along lines similar to those
+Spencer had pursued, but using a wood-cut from which to mold. His
+electrotypes were made by taking an impression from the wood-cut in an
+alloy of soft metal of which bismuth was probably the chief
+ingredient, and immersing the metal mold in an ordinary Voltaic
+battery for the deposition of the copper shell. In making the
+impression, however, the wood-cut was destroyed so, that this method
+of making an electrotype was not commercially practical.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The year following Adams took advantage of Smee's battery and made an
+electrotype which was used in Mape's Magazine in 1841. He also
+employed this process for making illustrations for Harper's Family
+Bible, issued between 1842 and 1844.
+
+The first successful commercial electrotyper in America was John W.
+Wilcox, of Boston. A wood carver named Chandler, told Mr. Wilcox that
+if he could repeat what Adams of New York had done with a wood-cut in
+1839 that he, Chandler, would lend him the necessary wood-cuts for
+experimental purposes. In less than sixty days in 1846, Mr. Wilcox had
+put into practical use every essential principle known for the next
+twenty-five years in electrotyping.
+
+In 1855, Mr. Gay of New York first used tin-foil for the purpose of
+soldering the copper shells to the metal backing.
+
+During the same year, a Mr. Adams of Brooklyn, New York, invented the
+dry-brush black-leading machine.
+
+Steven D. Tucker, of New York, developed and patented in 1866 the type
+of dry-brush black-leading machine which is in common use today.
+
+In 1871, Silas P. Knight, of Harper & Bros., New York, invented the
+wet black-leading process, and in 1872 took out another patent for an
+improvement on this process. Mr. Knight's method of wet black-leading
+was not generally adopted by the electrotypers of that time and
+gradually became almost unknown.
+
+Undoubtedly, the cause of this was that the method of dry
+black-leading was good enough for type and woodcut work. The half-tone
+had not been invented at that time, and it was only after the
+invention of the half-tone that a better method of black-leading
+became necessary.
+
+Thirty-seven years after Mr. Knight had successfully used his process
+of wet black-leading a patent was granted to Frank L. Learman, of
+Buffalo, New York, for a wet black-leader. Since that time numerous
+patents have been taken out on different methods of using the wet
+process, which is universally recognized today as the best method of
+graphiting the surface of a mold.
+
+In 1870, Joseph A. Adams patented a process for covering the surface
+of the mold after it had been black-leaded with powdered tin. This was
+for the purpose of quickening the deposition of the copper shell when
+the molds were in the batteries, and from this undoubtedly came the
+oxidizing process of coating the surface of the molds with chemical
+copper invented by Silas Knight, which has long been and is now in
+use.
+
+Perhaps one of the greatest forward steps in the development of
+electrotyping was made when the plating dynamo was invented. The first
+adoption of a dynamo in place of Smee's battery took place in 1872.
+With the Smee type of battery it required from thirty to forty-eight
+hours to deposit a copper shell thick enough for commercial use. With
+the invention of the plating dynamo and its improvements, the time of
+depositing the shell was reduced so that now two hours is the common
+time that a mold is kept in the tubs or batteries. This quickening of
+the time required to deposit the shell was one of the most essential
+features in the development of commercial electrotyping.
+
+From the first hand-screw presses, which were successfully used for
+molding, to the modern high-power, motor-driven, hydraulic presses,
+for working either in wax or lead, is a far cry.
+
+The invention of the half-tone, together with the invention of the
+modern two-revolution cylinder press which has brought printing into
+its present state of perfection, made necessary radical improvements
+in the machinery for making electrotypes. These improvements have been
+steady in their development, but the fundamental points of the process
+are practically those which have been in use from the start of
+commercial electrotyping.
+
+
+
+
+ELECTROTYPING BY THE WAX MOLD PROCESS
+
+
+An electrotype is a facsimile printing plate duplicated from an
+original. The original may be either type, a woodcut, a zinc or a
+copper etching such as a line-cut or a half-tone, or it may be a
+combination of type-matter and line-cuts or half-tones.
+
+We commonly think of electrotypes as printing plates made of copper,
+but any metal which can be electrochemically deposited may be used.
+Because of their wearing qualities and economy, however, copper and
+nickel are the two metals commercially used for electrotyping.
+
+Briefly, an electrotype is made by taking an impression of the
+original in a plastic substance, thus forming a mold or matrix;
+depositing copper or nickel on the mold; removing the copper or nickel
+shell from the mold and backing it with a semi-hard metal; trimming
+the metal to printing-plate thickness, and bevelling, or blocking on
+wood, the trimmed plate for printing-press use.
+
+In modern practice more than twenty-five different operations are
+necessary to make a finished electrotype ready for the press. They may
+be enumerated, as follows:
+
+_1. Case-making._ The flowing of a molding compound composed of
+"ozokerite," a resinol-mineral wax, onto the case. The case is of
+copper.
+
+_2. Flashing the Case._ Passing a flame over the surface of the melted
+ozokerite immediately after flowing the case in order to remove
+air-bubbles.
+
+_3. Case-shaving._ The automatic shaving of the top surface of the
+flowed case after the ozokerite has hardened to give it a smooth, even
+surface for molding.
+
+_4. Graphiting._ Brushing surface of case with molding graphite to
+prevent the pattern from sticking to the wax mold.
+
+_5. Molding._ Making an impression from the original zinc line
+etching, half-tone or type form in the waxed case. This is done by
+means of a hydraulically operated molding press.
+
+_6. Cutting-down._ The levelling off by hand, using a sharp trowel
+shaped tool, of the splurge after the impression has been made.
+Flashing is also used here to remove the burr left around the letters
+after the cutting down process.
+
+_7. Building-up._ The adding of wax by hand to the blank spaces in the
+molded case so that in the finished electrotype they will be well
+below the printing face.
+
+_8. Black-leading._ Making the face of the molded case electrically
+conductive by applying graphite.
+
+_9. Stopping-out._ Insulating with a thin coating of wax the edges and
+back of the copper case to prevent copper being deposited except on
+the face of the mold.
+
+_10. Pumping-out or Oxidizing._ Coating the face of the molded case
+with chemical copper to hasten deposition of copper shell in the bath.
+
+_11. Deposition of Shell._ The molded case is put in the electrolytic
+bath for the deposition of shell thereon.
+
+_12. Releasing Shell from Molds._ Stripping the deposited shell from
+the waxed mold by dashing hot water on it. The wax is melted off case
+and used again.
+
+_13. Washing Copper Shell._ Hot lye-water or steam is used to clean
+off any wax sticking to it.
+
+_14. Trimming Copper Shell._ Rough edges of shell outside the guard
+line trimmed off.
+
+_15. Aciding Copper Shell._ An application of fluxing medium to back
+of copper shell so that tin will adhere.
+
+_16. Tinning Copper Shell._ Tin-foil is melted on the back of the
+copper shell. This is the solder between the copper shell and the
+metal back, without which the metal backing would not adhere to the
+shell.
+
+_17. Backing-up._ The flowing of electrotype metal on the back of the
+tinned copper shell for the purpose of making a foundation for
+printing (electrotype metal is an alloy of 94 per cent lead; 3 per
+cent tin for flowing and 3 per cent antimony for hardness).
+
+_18. Scrubbing the Cast._ A power operated scrubbing machine using a
+hydro-carbon oil as the cleansing medium to clean the printing face of
+the electrotypes.
+
+_19. Cast-sawing._ Sawing off the surplus metal of the cast before
+finishing.
+
+_20. Flattening the Casts._ Hand operation with mallet and flattening
+block to take the warp out of the electrotype caused by the
+contraction of the metal in cooling.
+
+_21. Rough-shaving._ Planing off superfluous metal from the back of
+the electrotype.
+
+_22. Finishing._ Putting the printing surface of the electrotype in
+perfect condition for press after leaving the foundry department. This
+is done by hand and requires a high degree of skill.
+
+_23. Smooth-shaving._ The finishing shave of metal from back of
+electrotype to bring it to the required thickness.
+
+_24. Routing._ Cutting out the high but non-printing surfaces of the
+electrotype by a routing machine.
+
+_25. Guard-line Sawing._ Cutting the guard lines or bearers off the
+electrotype to practically the finished size before blocking or
+bevelling.
+
+_26. Blocking._ Fastening the plate on wood base with brads driven
+through the metal.
+
+_27. Trimming._ Trimming the wood mounted electrotype to its exact
+finished size.
+
+_28. Type-high Machining._ Used for planing the bottom of the wood
+base so that the mounted electrotype is of printing press
+requirements, i. e., .918" high.
+
+
+
+
+ELECTROTYPING BY THE LEAD MOLD PROCESS
+
+
+Electrotypes made by the genuine Dr. Albert Lead Mold Process are
+always duplicates of fine-screen half-tones or mezzo-tints used for
+the highest class of commercial job-work, such as three and four color
+process or duo-tone printing on paper with a highly glazed surface.
+
+The largest press used in lead molding will give a maximum pressure of
+two thousand tons per square inch on a thirty inch ram hydraulically
+operated. The weight of this press is over thirty thousand pounds.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In the lead mold process the plastic medium used is a soft thin sheet
+of what is called "impression lead," .040 inches thick, instead of
+wax, and the lead is placed on top of the original to be duplicated,
+instead of vice-versa, as in the wax-molding process. No "building-up"
+nor "black-leading" is necessary.
+
+In all other respects the consecutive steps towards the completion of
+the lead mold plate are identical to those used in the Wax Mold
+Process.
+
+
+
+
+ALUMINOTYPES
+
+
+The age long progress in the development and perfection of
+typographical printing surfaces, from the period of Xylographic blocks
+on through the successive inventions of individual movable cast-metal
+type, stereotyping and electrotyping, by both the wax and lead-molding
+processes, reaches its culmination in _Aluminotypes_.
+
+Briefly, it is a method of casting printing plates of aluminum alloy
+in molds made from a composition of plaster-of-paris. In its essential
+points it is a modern adaptation of the process credited to William
+Ged of Edinburgh in 1730 and afterwards modified and improved in the
+early 19th century by Earl Stanhope of England.
+
+In practice, the original to be duplicated is placed on a
+molding-slab. A molding frame is set upon the slab and enclosing the
+original. A special kind of oil is then sprayed on the face of the
+original. This is to facilitate the release of the plaster mold so
+that it will not "tear" when it is ready to be lifted off the original
+after solidifying, and at the same time to retain the sharpness of the
+mold.
+
+The molding medium of plaster composition in a semi-liquefied state is
+then poured on to the original in the molding frame. The surplus
+plaster is scraped off flush with the top of the molding frame.
+
+After the plaster matrix in its molding frame has set sufficiently it
+is released by means of cams from the working pattern on the
+molding-slab.
+
+The plaster matrix is then placed in a drying oven, through which a
+forced draft of hot air is kept circulating at high pressure. The
+thorough drying of the mold takes approximately ninety minutes.
+
+When the plaster mold has become sufficiently dried, a round hole is
+cut through the bottom of the matrix in an offset of the molding
+frame. This hole is the gate through which the molten aluminum is
+forced. The mold is then securely locked upright in a specially
+designed casting machine.
+
+The Aluminotype is cast by pressure and not by pouring as in the case
+of stereotypes, which depend entirely upon gravity. Fused aluminum
+alloy is poured into a hopper on the casting machine. A piston
+operated by the agency of compressed air forces the aluminum evenly
+into all parts of the plaster matrix.
+
+When the cast is completed the molding frame is taken from the casting
+machine and the Aluminotype removed from its plaster-of-paris matrix.
+
+
+_AUTHORITIES_:
+
+"An Outline of the History of Printing," by R. A. Peddie.
+
+"Typographical Printing Surfaces," by L. A. Legros.
+
+"Manual of Electro-Metallurgy," by Napier.
+
+"The Encyclopedia Brittanica."
+
+"Electrotyping and Stereotyping" Typographical Technical Series, Vol. XV.
+
+The Rapid Electrotype Company.
+
+
+
+
+THE MAKING OF THE FOOLPROOF NEWSPAPER DRAWING
+
+SOME ADVERTISING PICTURES PRINT WELL--OTHERS DO NOT. WHY? IT'S ALL A
+MATTER OF GOING ABOUT IT IN A KNOW-HOW WAY
+
+_By J. LIVINGSTON LARNED_
+
+
+An advertiser--perhaps one of the largest users of newspaper space in
+the country--sprang a surprise recently on his ad-manager. Into the
+office he came, one day, grim-visaged, jaw set, fire in his eyes, and
+armed with no less than fifty clippings from exchanges.
+
+And on the amazed ad-manager's desk he placed two conglomerate piles
+of advertising matter. One represented the national newspaper campaign
+of his own industry; the other a collection of newspaper
+advertisements, picked at random.
+
+"I think I have conclusive proof," said he, in no mild mood, "that you
+fellows are not as efficient as you might be. Here are our
+advertisements--from papers everywhere. The illustrations print
+abominably! Look at them. The matter has been called to my attention
+many times--by the newspapers themselves, by our road representatives
+and by local dealers. They say our electro service and our straight
+national campaigns are all muddied up with pictures that nobody can
+decipher. Here's conclusive proof of it. Not a clean-looking cut in
+the series and you can't blame it on paper and press work and all
+that--they're _all_ bad!"
+
+The advertising manager glanced casually at the exhibits. The
+criticism was valid. Here was a daily newspaper campaign, running into
+space valued at approximately sixty thousand dollars, and the
+displays, three-fourths illustration, were mussy, involved, smeared
+up, and unsatisfactory from a reproductive standpoint. Solid black
+backgrounds were a sickly, washed-out gray and in other places
+intricate pen work had "run-together."
+
+It was equally true that clippings of competitive advertising and
+advertising in general, selected at random, were strangely clean-cut.
+The comparison was startling.
+
+"Mr. X," finally observed the ad-manager, "I see what you mean; all of
+us in this department have known of it, kept track of it; and the
+remarkable part of the entire situation is that these results can be
+traced back to you and your personal insistence on a certain type of
+pen and ink design, executed in a specific technique. These matters
+came up for your supervision and O. K. You did not care for the bold,
+simple outline drawings first submitted. You preferred too many, and a
+glut of detail. All of which is not compatible with newspaper
+printing, even in large space. We were afraid of this and said so at
+the time. Our objection was overruled. It's one thing to prefer a
+pleasing, perhaps highly artistic pen technique and quite another to
+apply it to fast presses, poor ink and hurried make-ready. A great
+many things can happen, and _do_ happen, to a newspaper design before
+it is printed and in the readers' hands."
+
+
+DISREGARDING FUNDAMENTALS
+
+Sometimes it is better to come out with the frank, brutal truth. In a
+great many instances, poor newspaper reproduction is the direct result
+of some executive's marked preference for a certain artist or a
+certain technique, regardless of whether the man is qualified to draw
+for this field, or whether the technique is fitted for the purpose.
+
+On the other hand, there is, unquestionably, a strange, well nigh
+inexcusable disregard of certain fundamentals of the business. There
+is too much swivel-chair composure; too much beatific reassurance,
+when proofs are submitted on good paper, from a flat-bed
+engraver-house press. A newspaper series is very apt to look 100 per
+cent when presented on the final electro sheet, or bound into a neat
+booklet for the dealer and printed on coated stock. These are ostrich
+methods!
+
+In certain advertising agencies there is a standing rule in the matter
+of newspaper plates that all proofs must be pulled on newspaper
+stock--and a very inferior grade. A newspaper press is used, an entire
+series coming off at once. There is no make-ready to speak of.
+
+By this process no one is deceived. You see exactly what will happen,
+or nearly so, when the series fares forth to newspapers all over the
+country.
+
+The executive mentioned above had collected newspapers, big and
+little, from the four points of the compass. And he had collected a
+liberal number of perfectly satisfactory newspaper advertisements of
+the illustrated variety. Blacks were clean black, Ben Day tints held
+their own, there was no congestion, no smudging, no mishap of any
+sort.
+
+If certain rules are followed, any newspaper advertising illustration
+can be made "fool-proof." You can be absolutely certain of a printable
+result, despite all exigencies, all drawbacks, all hazards.
+
+Failure usually follows a desire to attempt something beyond that
+which has been tried and is wholly practical. For the present, at
+least, users of newspaper space _must_ bow to the inevitable. They
+_must_ realize that there is a well-defined limit to what can be done
+mechanically. They must _not_ defiantly experiment, although the
+desire to "do something new" and to be original is entirely
+praiseworthy.
+
+
+THINGS YOU CAN'T DO
+
+If you use half-tones, have them made very coarse screen--nothing
+finer than 60 line. Stop out whites and eliminate backgrounds. The
+high-light half-tone is a modern development with many virtues. If a
+portrait is used, take out all background.
+
+There is a way of retouching photographs that will minimize the danger
+of poor printing. The artist strengthens weak contrasts, not with a
+brush and paint, but with a pen and waterproof black ink. He also uses
+areas of pure white. Successful reproduction is dependent upon
+_sharp_, clear, vigorous _contrasts_.
+
+Stippling is one of the best substitutes for the half-tone. This
+simply means dotting-in a subject. It is a time-consuming, laborious
+process, but it means line plates and the elimination of middle
+tones--which are disastrous.
+
+There was a time when certain clever inventions of the paper
+manufacturer could be employed for half-tone effects in line. For
+example, a Ross Board is manufactured with an assortment of patterned
+surfaces. When brush or crayon or pencil is drawn over them, they give
+effects that may not be duplicated in straight pen and ink on plain
+white drawing board. Some of these papers have a chalk surface. Some
+have imitation half-tone patterns, straight-line designs, etc. It is
+possible to scratch away certain portions with a sharp knife. _Do not
+use them_ as matters now stand in newspaper printing. They will not
+"stand reduction" and only very coarse tints reproduce satisfactorily.
+
+_Special Caution_--Do not allow artists to make original drawings for
+newspaper use much larger than twice the size. Here is one of the
+greatest evils of the day. The artist seems possessed to make his
+original on a full sheet of paper, when he knows that the plate is for
+two or three newspaper columns. What happens? An illustration which
+makes a handsome showing in the original will inevitably fill-in when
+reduced to "actual size." Figure it out yourself--look at it through a
+reducing glass. Lines that seem wide apart almost touch in the
+congestion that follows great reduction. The really wise and shrewd
+artist makes his newspaper drawing _actual_ size.
+
+Not more than a dozen Ben Day patterns can be used safely--now--in
+newspapers. Do you know the meaning of "Ben Day?" It is a mechanical
+tint, printed mechanically either on the plate, by the engraver, or on
+the original drawing, from an inked gelatine surface and rubbed on
+with a stilus. Magazine reproduction accepts it in all its forms.
+Newspaper stock muddies it up when it is too fine. In any event, when
+selecting a pattern, see that it is an open one and have it put on the
+engraving--not the design. If on the design it means a reduction. If
+on the plate it means no reduction, but precisely as shown in the Ben
+Day book of patterns.
+
+Avoid complex line treatments and techniques, such as cross-hatching
+and the laying in of many very fine 290 pen lines close together. They
+look well in the original--they seldom print well on newspaper stock.
+They reduce abominably.
+
+Any newspaper illustration should have plenty of white margin to
+"relieve it." When a drawing is cramped, packed in, suffocated by side
+rules, borders and text, it suffers.
+
+Clear outline drawings, with an occasional dash of black, prove most
+efficient for newspaper reproduction. They _can't_ fill in, they
+_can't_ smudge, they _can't_ become contaminated by clots of printing
+ink or defects in the newspaper stock. Not even fast press work can
+damage their printability. But remember, not all outline drawings are
+alike--great originality of technique can be secured.
+
+
+CAREFUL OF BLACK AREAS
+
+Large areas of solid black are not advisable. Think it over. Ink flows
+irregularly on newspaper presses. One copy may show up exactly as in
+the original; the next may develop a white halo, a gray tendency, a
+smeary, half-baked look. No two impressions will be quite the same.
+And it is logical to see that this is apt to be so. Any imperfection
+or irregularity in the ink roller will cause it, or the collection of
+foreign matter on cut or roller. Any black area larger than two inches
+square is a hazard.
+
+Advertisers often think that masses of solid black will make an
+advertisement "stand out." They would if they printed a smooth, even
+black--which they seldom do. But liberal white margins are far more
+potent in attracting attention and in segregating an advertisement
+from mixed company than solid blacks.
+
+The _appearance_ of large areas of black may be secured via
+subterfuge. One method is to form the background of heavy black lines,
+quite close together. The white spaces between save the printing. Look
+at straight type through a magnifying glass. Not even type is printed
+clear black. Then what chance would an even surface of large
+proportion have?
+
+Newspaper cuts should be "routed deep." Routing is merely the
+deepening or entire cutting away of extraneous matter on the
+engraving--that is, where there is no printing surface. The smudges of
+hideous design often seen are really an impression of a metal surface
+that has not been routed out properly. Every engraving should be
+examined critically for such defects.
+
+Avoid placing a shaded area against a black area. As we have
+intimated, the heart and soul of the successful newspaper drawing is
+_contrast_.
+
+The beginning of every advertisement or series of advertisements is
+represented in terms of a first visualization. It is in pencil. These
+should be made same size--that is, the actual size they are to
+eventually appear. Then no one, the artist least of all, is fooled by
+disparity of proportions.
+
+
+KEEP IT SIMPLE
+
+The visualizer should keep one cardinal point in mind. Keep newspaper
+advertisements simple. The less there is in them the better.
+Thirty-two of the ads selected by our advertising friend, mentioned
+earlier in the story, were good because they were simple. Type was
+held to blocks, and with as little change in style, size and character
+of type as possible.
+
+All of them were characterized by liberal white margins. It is the
+best known way of fighting back the opposition of the surrounding
+appeals on the same page.
+
+There's a good test possible. Make a photographic print of your
+advertisement, the size it is to appear, and paste it on a newspaper
+page--not a New York or Chicago paper, but a page in the "Bingville
+Banner."
+
+Before plates are made or even before pen and ink drawings are fully
+completed, you can change, rearrange, eliminate, or add to, as the
+case may be.
+
+The wise advertiser is the one who in preparing an elaborate and
+extensive newspaper campaign keys it in its printing qualities, not to
+the best papers on the list, but to the ones that are worst printed.
+This may mean the undreamed of thing of 100 per cent perfect!
+
+No advertiser can hope to secure full efficiency from a campaign if it
+presents a smudged and confused appearance. Newspapers are trig things
+in their own right. Their column rules and their precision of type
+make this an arbitrary condition. There is really nothing finer and
+cleaner and more pleasing to the human eye than a well-composed
+newspaper, hot from the press. Ugly advertisements can make an ugly
+newspaper. They can even spoil the set-up and typography in general of
+the reading sections.
+
+A newspaper is held responsible if returns from a single advertisement
+or a campaign are not satisfactory. It is looked upon as a "poor
+medium." Yet how many times the true fault can be traced to the
+message itself. Full efficiency in advertising is the result of full
+efficiency in the copy....
+
+    (Reprinted by the kind permission of The Bureau of
+    Advertising, the American Newspapers Publishers Association,
+    Mr. William A. Thompson, Director.)
+
+
+
+
+NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING PLATES
+
+
+Mechanical production of any kind is an unsympathetic and inexorable
+thing, and the modern large daily newspaper, in its mechanical
+production, is unsympathetic and inexorable to the highest degree. It
+reproduces exactly and impartially from all the different material
+supplied to it.
+
+Your ad-plate is locked into the form with the other matter composing
+the page. A hurried lock-up, and the form is molded into a mat and
+stereotyped. Fast presses and cheap ink do the rest.
+
+If your ad does not show up well in the first few impressions run off,
+the press grinds on just the same, with little or no make-ready. Once
+they start, it is too late to stop to allow the press-room foreman to
+investigate why a certain ad does not print up well. The "Daily Bugle"
+must get on the streets, if possible, before its competitors with the
+important scoop that the Beghum of Swat has just died. If you have
+supplied the best material for the newspapers to work with, the
+clean-cut reproduction of your advertisement is insured. If you have
+been penny-wise and pound-foolish in saving a few cents on your
+ad-plate, all the dollars you spent on art, typography and white space
+for your ad are on the knees of the gods and liable to be spilled off
+the said knees, and your ad is messy looking when it appears. The
+advertiser invariably blames the newspaper and the newspaper passes
+the buck on to the plate-maker. The printed appearance of the ad is
+largely determined by the kind of plate furnished to the newspaper.
+
+The large daily newspapers are entirely dependent upon the
+stereotyping process for the necessary speed required in production.
+They do not print directly from type or cuts. The big advantage of
+stereotyping in this connection lies in the fact that it is the
+quickest method of producing a solid, duplicate printing plate from an
+original molding form. After locking up a page form, it can be molded,
+the matrix dried and the plate cast and ready for the press in about
+ten minutes.
+
+Therefore, only unmounted plates should be sent to the large daily
+papers and not wood mounted, as it takes too long for the heat to pass
+through the wood base in drying the mat.
+
+The unmounted plate is placed on a metal base, (because heat passes
+through metal quickly in drying the mat) and then locked in the form
+with the type and other matter composing the entire page. A mat is
+then molded from the complete form and a curved stereotype is cast
+from this page mat. It is from this curved full page stereotype that
+the large daily newspaper is actually printed.
+
+Since they must duplicate the plates sent to them by the stereotyping
+process, your expensively prepared advertisement, if it is to appear
+sharp and clean in the valuable space it uses, should be electrotyped
+by your plate-maker. A stereotype duplicated from an electrotype will
+print cleaner than a stereotype duplicated from a stereotype by reason
+of the fact that mats molded by the newspaper from electrotypes are
+sharper and deeper than when they are molded from stereotypes.
+
+Electrotypes have a distinctly sharper and harder face and are deeper
+than stereotypes. The very nature of the process and materials used in
+their manufacture makes this superiority inevitable. Wax is used as
+the plastic medium in which to mold electrotypes, whereas for
+stereotypes paper is used. Sharpness and depth cannot be molded into
+paper as it can into wax.
+
+Neither will stereotype metal poured by gravity against a paper matrix
+mold be as sharp and deep as copper deposited electrolytically on a
+wax mold.
+
+It follows, therefore, that when an unmounted electrotype is supplied
+to the "Chicago Tribune" or the "New York Journal" or the "San
+Francisco Call" they are stereotyping your ad in the page form from a
+plate molded in wax directly from the original.
+
+On the other hand, when you supply a stereotype of your ad to the
+large dailies this stereotype is already one step removed from the
+original master plate and means that two paper mats intervene between
+the original supplied to the plate-maker and the final stereotype of
+the page containing your advertisement. In short, they are duplicating
+a stereotype from a stereotype and each duplication means a loss in
+sharpness and depth; therefore they should be supplied with a sharp
+electrotype from which to make their final page mat.
+
+Obviously when a stereotype is supplied to the large dailies they are
+working from a plate that is neither sharp nor deep to start with, as
+would be the case if you sent them an electrotype from which to work.
+An electrotype is economy in the end and will save you grief, when the
+cost of space is considered.
+
+Should you desire economy, order your plate-maker to send mats--copy
+considered--to the large dailies. A mat is less expensive than a
+stereotype and will reproduce your advertisement equally as well.
+
+When you send them a mat instead of an electro there is one more
+duplication for the newspapers to make in producing the final
+stereotype from which they print, but the mat which your plate-maker
+furnishes them is at least molded directly from the original plate, so
+that it is sharper and deeper than the mat the newspapers have to make
+when you furnish them a stereotype from which to work. When you
+furnish the large dailies with the mat they cast a flat stereotype
+first, which is locked up in the form with the other matter composing
+the page. This entire form is then molded into a mat and stereotyped.
+
+The small dailies and country newspapers print directly from type and
+cuts. They use a flat-bed press. For this reason it is necessary that
+the advertising-plate or dealers cut which you furnish to them should
+be mounted type-high.
+
+The best plate you can furnish them is none too good; their make-ready
+and the general handling of their material is not of the highest order
+in efficiency as compared to the large dailies, and it is entirely
+probable that even with a good sharp electrotype, your advertisement
+may not show to advantage. With a stereotype, the liability of smudgy
+printing is greatly enhanced.
+
+The Rapid Electrotype Company knows the mechanical equipment of the
+different newspapers throughout the United States. It sends mounted
+plates to those papers that print directly from type and cuts, and
+unmounted plates to those that stereotype their forms. This detail is
+left entirely to their discretion. The names of the towns to which
+your advertisement or dealers-cut is to be shipped is all the
+information they require in order to determine whether or not to ship
+mounted or unmounted plates.
+
+
+
+
+THE RAPID ELECTROTYPE COMPANY
+
+
+The Rapid Electrotype Company of Cincinnati was organized in July,
+1899, and incorporated under the laws of Ohio in May, 1902. It has
+been in service over a fifth of a century.
+
+Prior to the organization of The Rapid Electrotype Company,
+electrotyping was, on the whole, a localized business. The Rapid
+Electrotype Company pioneered in the service of making and
+distributing newspaper advertising plates--electrotypes, aluminotypes,
+stereotypes, and mats--direct from its factory in Cincinnati to
+newspapers and dealers throughout the United States.
+
+The originality of this service, intelligently rendered to advertising
+agencies and advertisers, was one of the reasons for the increase of
+their capacity from only five thousand square inches of plate matter
+daily in 1899 to one million square inches per day in 1921, and from
+an organization of only nine men to one of over two hundred and fifty,
+working in day and night shifts.
+
+Their new factory is unquestionably the largest of its kind in the
+world, especially designed and equipped for the making and
+distribution of newspaper ad plates of all kinds. Over forty-five
+thousand square feet of floor space is devoted to this service, and
+with their highly developed co-operative facilities they occupy a
+unique place in the advertising plans of many large national
+advertisers and advertising agencies.
+
+
+FACTORY PRACTICE
+
+Developing and serving an ever increasing volume of business has
+brought about a specialization in the factory practice of The Rapid
+Electrotype Company. It has kept pace with the demands upon its
+production and has made improvements in manufacturing methods designed
+to cut-corners in cost of manufacture, to be shared with its
+customers, and to make its service truly Rapid for all emergencies,
+without sacrificing quality.
+
+Its commercial job-plate department is a separate and distinct unit
+from the newspaper advertising-plate department.
+
+The character of the respective requirements of commercial job-plates
+and newspaper advertising plates make this departmental production
+advisable.
+
+A lead-molding press, built by The F. Wesel Mfg. Co., weighing over
+thirty-thousand pounds, and developing two thousand tons pressure per
+square inch on a thirty inch hydraulically operated ram is used in the
+job-plate department. On this press are duplicated, from the finest
+screen half-tones, the highest quality electrotypes and nickeltypes to
+be used in three and four color process printing.
+
+The preponderating volume of its business, however, is the production
+of newspaper electrotypes, and it is in this department that The Rapid
+Electrotype Company has made distinct improvements in manufacturing
+practice by methods and machinery designed and constructed by its own
+engineers in its own machine shop.
+
+
+BLACK LEADING
+
+The Rapid Electrotype Company has built a new type of machine for use
+in this important phase of the electrotyping art. It is a combination
+Dry-Wet Machine, designed by its own engineering staff.
+
+Those familiar with electrotypes well know the superiority of the wet
+black leading process, especially for half-tones, stipple, Ben Day or
+fine type, where much of the detail and sharpness is lost in dry black
+leading, because of the crushing effect the brushes have on the wax
+mold. In this new type of black leading machine this fault is entirely
+eliminated, as the brushes never come in contact with the printing
+face of the mold; they merely polish the high built-up spots, thereby
+insuring better electrical conductivity to the wax, and a more uniform
+deposition of the copper shell.
+
+Two of these especially designed machines are in constant operation in
+the ad department, which means the highest grade of advertising
+plates.
+
+
+DEPOSITING THE SHELL
+
+Those who are not technically familiar with electrochemistry are prone
+to think that the length of time a mold is kept in the electrolytic
+bath, i. e., the copper bath, determines the thickness of the shell
+deposited thereon. As a matter of fact, one electrotyper may keep his
+molds in the copper bath for three hours and get only as thick a shell
+as another who keeps his in but two hours. The element of time does
+not determine the thickness nor quality of the shell deposited.
+
+The determining factors in this phase of electrotyping are the
+composition of the electrolytic bath, its temperature, and the current
+density applied. In addition, the purity of the materials, the
+cleanliness of the batteries, the perfection of the electrical
+connections as well as the distance between the anode and the cathode
+are all matters of importance. These factors are all variables and
+must be confined between narrow limits.
+
+This important phase of manufacture in The Rapid Electrotype Company
+is under the supervision of an electro-chemical engineer.
+
+Plus this fact is the accuracy of mechanical operation in handling wax
+molds from the time they are put into the batteries until they are
+taken out with the shell deposited thereon and ready for tinning and
+backing-up.
+
+The molded cases are suspended at regular intervals of twenty inches
+from an endless chain-conveyor operating directly over the batteries.
+This conveyor carries the cases edge-wise through the electrolytic
+bath between two rows of anodes which are four inches apart. At the
+end of each battery the conveyor automatically lifts the cases out and
+over into the next battery in the series, of which there are seven.
+The eighth tub contains pure running water for washing the case after
+the complete deposition of the shell.
+
+The speed of this conveyor is regulated so that when the molded case
+has reached the end of its journey through the series of seven
+batteries, the other factors also being regulated, a shell of uniform
+thickness and texture throughout is deposited thereon.
+
+This automatic handling of the cases in the batteries eliminates the
+necessity of the battery-man pulling the case out of the bath by hand
+from time to time in order to peel back a corner of the shell to see
+if it is thick enough, which is the common practice. In other words,
+the element of human guess-work is eliminated, and in addition, the
+items of time and handling are greatly reduced.
+
+
+BACKING UP THE SHELL
+
+Backing-up the shells with the metal base, i. e., casting, is done
+automatically by The Rapid Electrotype Company.
+
+A rotary casting-table with a capacity of ten pans revolves around its
+axis on a plane that brings each pan immediately below a spout through
+which the required metal is automatically flowed from the bottom of
+the metal pot on the tinned shell placed therein. When the required
+metal backing has been flowed, the table turns to bring the next pan
+with its shell under the metal-spout. The amount of metal flowed is
+exactly regulated. As the casting table completes a circuit, the first
+shell backed up has cooled so that it can be removed to the scrubbing
+machine.
+
+This method, of course, eliminates the hand-ladling of hot metal from
+the metal-pot to the casting-table, as is the ordinary practice, and
+obviates any possibility of the oxidized metal or dross on the surface
+getting into the casts, besides effecting a marked economy in time and
+handling. In addition, it casts the plates flat, thereby eliminating
+about 75 per cent of the finishing, which, of course, means a better
+printing plate. Three of these machines are used.
+
+The Rapid Electrotype Company developed and built these
+casting-machines in its own machine shop and owns the patents covering
+them.
+
+
+THE ALUMINOTYPE PROCESS
+
+The development, perfection and introduction of the Aluminotype
+Process for duplicating a printing surface in a solid piece is one of
+the outstanding accomplishments of The Rapid Electrotype Company, and
+marks a distinct step in advance of the other and older methods used
+in the graphic arts, for certain classes of printing.
+
+Aluminotypes are much harder than an electrotype or stereotype and
+have as sharp and deep a printing face as an electrotype. The
+Aluminotype process will reproduce as sharp and clear as the
+electrotyping process an eighty line screen half-tone, which is really
+too fine a screen for newspaper printing.
+
+A distinct advantage Aluminotypes have is in the item of weight. An
+Aluminotype, unmounted, weighs only one quarter as much as an
+unmounted electrotype or stereotype of the same size. When mounted on
+a wood base an Aluminotype weighs just one half as much as an
+electrotype or stereotype of the same size mounted on wood. In a
+national advertising campaign where a general list of newspapers is
+used Aluminotypes, by reason of their light weight, effect a marked
+saving in parcel-post or express charges. This saving in postage is
+especially noticeable in the case of foreign country newspaper
+campaigns.
+
+In addition, because of their toughness, a saving can be made in
+packing Aluminotypes, inasmuch as they do not require the expensive
+precautions in packing to avoid injury in transportation that
+electrotypes or stereotypes do. They will not bend; their printing
+face cannot be injured by the ordinary mishaps attendant upon handling
+in transportation. For all practical purposes it can be said that
+Aluminotypes are indestructible.
+
+
+MATRICES
+
+The ordinary practice followed in making mats is to use an electrotype
+or stereotype pattern plate made from the original form. Sometimes the
+original itself is used.
+
+The first mat molded from an electrotype pattern plate will be sharp.
+The next one molded will be a little less sharp than the first. The
+third one molded will be slightly less sharp than the second one. In
+other words, with every succeeding mold, the electrotype or stereotype
+pattern plate is mashed a little by the pressure of the matrix press
+until it has to be discarded and a new one used.
+
+The five-thousandth mat made by the Rapid Electrotype Company from the
+same pattern plate is as sharp as the first one molded. This is
+because an _aluminotype_ pattern is used from which to mold.
+_Aluminotypes_ will not mash under the pressure of the matrix press,
+as they are much harder than electrotypes.
+
+
+THE SHIPPING DEPARTMENT
+
+The shipping department of The Rapid Electrotype Company is one of the
+most important and highly systematized in the entire organization, and
+in the manner of handling orders for distribution to newspapers in
+large campaigns or in making bulk shipment direct to the advertisers
+is unique.
+
+It is in this department that the packing and routing of advertising
+plates to newspapers or dealers is done. A system of triple checking
+each item of all orders precludes, as far as is humanly possible, any
+error in filling accurately all specifications.
+
+
+
+
+    _This brochure was compiled by H. C. Forster of
+     The Rapid Electrotype Co._
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS; A.D.
+1440-A.D. 1921***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 33497.txt or 33497.zip *******
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