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diff --git a/33497.txt b/33497.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed5f828 --- /dev/null +++ b/33497.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2024 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, From Xylographs to Lead Molds; A.D. 1440-A.D. +1921, by H. C. Forster + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: From Xylographs to Lead Molds; A.D. 1440-A.D. 1921 + + +Author: H. C. Forster + + + +Release Date: August 24, 2010 [eBook #33497] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS; +A.D. 1440-A.D. 1921*** + + +E-text prepared by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, and the Project Gutenberg +Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file + which includes the original illustrations and illuminations. + See 33497-h.htm or 33497-h.zip: + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33497/33497-h/33497-h.htm) + or + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33497/33497-h.zip) + + + + + +FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS + +AD 1440 AD 1921 + + + + + + + +Copyright, 1921 +The Rapid Electrotype Company +Cincinnati, Ohio + + + + +FOREWORD + + +Printing has been called "the art preservative of all arts." The +invention of individual movable cast-metal type, between A. D. 1440 +and 1446, made printing a commercial possibility. + +The subsequent rapid spread of the art, in the hands of students and +craftsmen, may be said to have been the centrifugal force of the +Renaissance and the Revival of Learning, which age, if it can be +chronologically delimited, began A. D. 1453. + +Printing divulged to the masses the ancient classics which had been +locked up in monasteries and accessible only to clerics and the +nobility. The common people began to read. Education became +popularized. + +This brochure is a brief history of the evolution from xylographs to +the methods used today for duplicating a typographical printing +surface in a solid piece. + + + + +INDIVIDUAL MOVABLE CAST-METAL TYPE + + +The art of writing, and that of printing from wooden blocks, and all +the subsidiary arts of illuminating, decorating and binding +manuscripts and books, had long passed out of the exclusive hands of +the monasteries into the hands of students and artisans, before +printing with individual movable cast-metal type was invented. This +epoch making invention came into practical use between A. D. 1440 and +1446. + +When, therefore, Johannes Koelhoff of Lubeck, Germany, printed the +"Cologne Chronicle" in 1499, he used individual movable cast-metal +type. Typographic printing had long before superseded Xylographic +printing, that is, printing from a solid block of wood on which type +of an entire page were cut individually by hand. + +Between the invention of individual movable cast-metal type and the +perfection by the Earl of Stanhope of his printing-press, (a period of +about three hundred and sixty years), very few improvements had been +made in the mechanics of printing. Everything we know today about the +art has come into use since 1799, and if Koelhoff had come to life in +1799 and been permitted to resume his occupation of printer, he would +have found himself practically familiar with the mechanical equipment +of his craft as used in the establishment of the Stanhope Press in +that last year of the eighteenth century. + +Centuries before 1440 printing is believed to have been attempted in +China; presumably about the beginning of the Christian era. It is said +that in the year A. D. 175 the text of the Chinese classics was cut +into tablets which were erected outside the national university at +Peking, and that impressions--probably rubbings--were taken of them. +Some of these fac-simile impressions are still in existence, it is +asserted. + +Xylography was also practiced in China long before Europe knew the +art. It can be traced as far back as the sixth century, when the +founder of the Suy dynasty is said to have had the remains of the +Chinese classics engraved on wood, though it was not until the tenth +century that printed books became common in China. + +The authorities of the British Museum also report that Chinese writers +give the name of a certain Pi Sheng who, in the eleventh century, +invented movable type, and the Department of Oriental Printed Books +and Manuscripts of the same institution possesses a copy of the Wen +hsien tung Kao, a Chinese encyclopedia printed in Korea from movable +type in A. D. 1337. + +To the Koreans also is attributed the invention of copper type in the +beginning of the 15th century, and the inspection of books bearing the +dates of that period seems to show that they used such type, even if +they did not invent them. + +The first authentic European printing produced from individual movable +type of which we have any recorded impression, bears the date of A. D. +1454. These documents are two different editions of the same Letters +of Indulgence issued in that year by Pope Nicholas V. in behalf of the +Kingdom of Cyprus. We do not know, however, whether they were printed +from metal or wood type. + +[Illustration] + +As to the _exact_ date of the invention of printing from individual +movable type in Europe, we know only that it was some time prior to +A. D. 1454. Where and by whom the invention came about, a dispute has +been waged for more than four hundred years; one of the most hotly +contested questions in history. In short, Koelhoff was in part +responsible for starting this dispute. He published in his "Cologne +Chronicle" a statement by Ulrich Zell, a printer of Mainz in Germany +and a contemporary of Gutenberg, that Gutenberg _had improved_, but +_not invented_ the art, which he attributes to Coster of Haarlem, in +the Netherlands, in the year 1440. Gutenberg stole Coster's type, +according to Zell, and printed from them in 1442. Other unrefutable +evidence shows that Gutenberg could not have begun printing at Mainz +before the end of 1450. + +In addition to Gutenberg and Coster we also find Waldfoghel of +Avignon, in France, and Castaldi of Felte, in Italy, mentioned as +claimants of this invention. The value of their respective pretensions +has been summed up by one well known authority in the words, "Holland +has books, but no documents. France has documents, but no books. Italy +has neither books, nor documents, while Germany has both books and +documents." + +As the case stands at present, after careful and impartial examination +of all available evidence, no choice is left but to attribute the +invention of printing with individual movable cast-metal type to +Lourens Janszoon Coster of Haarlem in the Netherlands between the +years 1440 and 1446 and not to Gutenberg of Mainz in Germany. + +Zell's statement in the "Cologne Chronicle" of 1499 is further +substantiated by Hadrianus Junius in his "Batavia." Junius stated that +printing from individual movable type was invented by Coster in +Haarlem, and that the "Speculum Humanae Salvationes" was one of his +first productions. These two statements were made independently of +each other and both are corroborated by books to which they refer. + +The "Speculum Humanae Salvationes," attributed to Coster by Junius was +partly a folio Latin block-book, and partly typographically printed. +From this and other records it has been clearly established that +Coster began as a xylographer and ended as a typographical printer, +and before 1472 he had manufactured and extensively used at least +seven different styles of primitive looking individual movable +cast-metal type. + +According to tradition, while he was walking in a wood near Haarlem, +Coster cut some letters in the bark of a beech tree, and with them, +reversely impressed one by one on paper, he composed one or two lines +as an example for the children of his son-in-law. + +Junius does not say it, but clearly implies that, in this way, Coster +came to the idea of the movability of the characters, the first step +in the invention of typography. He perceived the advantage and utility +of such insulated characters, which hitherto he had been cutting +together on one block, and so the invention of printing with +individual movable type was made. + +The questions as to whether he continued to print with movable +"wooden" type, or even printed books with them, cannot be answered, +because no such books or fragments of them have come down to us. +Junius' words on this point are ambiguous, and yet, upon the +examination of the first edition of the Dutch Spiegel (of which two +copies are preserved at Haarlem) no one would deny that there are +grounds for this belief. The dancing condition of the lines and +letters make it almost impossible to think that they are impressions +from metal type. But for how long and to what extent movable wooden +type were employed, if at all, cannot be positively stated. + +However, this idea of movability, and the accidental way in which it +was discovered, form together the pith of the Haarlem tradition as +told by Junius. Nothing seems more natural than that a block-printer +should cut such separate letters as Coster did on the bark of a tree +and thereupon perceive that they could be used over and over again for +a variety of words on different pages, while those which he used to +cut in a solid block only served him for one page and for one purpose. + +It is equally clear from the Haarlem tradition that the art of casting +metal type was the second stage in the invention, a development or +outcome of the primary idea of "movable letters," for Junius says that +Coster "afterwards changed the beechen characters into leaden, and the +latter again into tin ones." + +Theod. Bibliander, in 1548, was the first to speak of movable wooden +type and to describe them. First they cut their letters, he reports, +on wood blocks the size of an entire page; but because the labor and +cost of that way was so great, they devised movable wooden type, +perforated and joined one to another by a thread. + +Bibliander does not say that he had ever seen such type himself, but +Dan Speckle or Specklin (d. 1589) who ascribed the invention to +Mentelin, asserts that he saw some of these wooden type at +Straussburg; and Angelo Roccho asserted in 1591 that he had seen at +Venice type perforated and joined one to another by a thread, but he +does not state whether they were of wood or of metal. + +There is a theory also that between block-printing and printing with +movable cast-metal type there was an intermediate stage of printing +with "sculpto-fusi" type; that is, a type of which the shank had to be +cast in a quadrilateral mold and the characters or letters engraved +afterwards by hand. This theory was suggested by some one who could +not believe in wooden type and yet wished to account for the marked +irregularities of the type used to print the earliest books. + +Granting that all the earlier works of typography preserved to us are +impressions of cast-metal type, there are still differences of +opinion, especially among practical printers and type-founders, as to +the probable methods employed to cast them. It is considered unlikely, +although not impossible, that the invention of printing passed all at +once from xylography to the perfect typography of the punch, matrix, +and mold. + +The types that Coster made and used were supposed to have been +manufactured in one of three or four probable ways. + +Bernard believed that the first movable cast-metal type were molded in +sand, since that method of casting was known to the silversmiths and +trinket-makers of the fifteenth century. In substantiation of his +theory he exhibits a specimen of a word cast as a unit for him by this +process, roughly similar to a modern linotype slug. + +A second suggested mode was that of casting in clay molds, by a method +very similar to that used in the sand process, and resulting in like +peculiarities and variations in the type. + +Ottley, in his "Invention of Printing," was the chief exponent of this +theory. He believed that type were made by pouring molten lead into +molds of clay or plaster, after the ordinary manner used from time +immemorial in casting statues and other articles of metal. + +The imperfections in the type cast by the sand and clay processes--the +difficulty of uneven heights in the various type--is supposed to have +been surmounted either by locking up the form with the type-face +downward on the composing stone, or by perforating the type, either at +the time of casting or afterwards, and holding them in their places by +means of a wire or thread through the perforations. + +[Illustration] + +To this cause has been attributed the numerous misprints in those +early specimens of the printers' art, to correct which would have +involved the unthreading of every line in which a typographical error +occurred. + +A striking proof that the lines were put into the form one by one, as +a piece, instead of type by type, is shown in a blunder in the +"Speculum" of Coster where the whole of a last reference line is +"turned." It is as if a modern linotype slug were put in the form +up-side-down. + +A third suggestion as to the method by which the type of those early +days of printing may have been produced is described as a system that +the type-founders of about 1800 called Polytypage, which is a cast +facsimile copy of an engraved block of type matter. Lambinet, who is +responsible for this suggestion, explains that this method really +means an early adoption of the stereotyping process. + +Lambinet thought that the early printers may have discovered a way of +molding in cooling metal so as to get a matrix-plate impression of an +entire page. Upon this matrix they would pour molten lead or tin and +by the aid of a roller, press the fused metal evenly so as to make it +penetrate into all the hollows and corners of the letters. This tablet +of lead or tin, when cooled, being easily detached from the matrix, +would then reveal the letters of the alphabet reversed and in relief, +similar to a present day stereotype. The individual letters, of +course, could easily be cut apart by a sharp tool, and the molding +operation could be repeated, using the same matrix. The metal type +faces so produced would be fixed on wooden shanks, type high, and the +font would be complete. + +It is impossible to suppose, however, that the Mainz psalter of 1457, +which Lambinet points to as a specimen of this mode of execution, is +the impression, not of type at all, but a collection of "casts" +mounted on wood. + +Yet another theory has been proposed by Dr. Ch. Enschede, head of the +celebrated type foundry of that name in Haarlem. Enschede concludes +that the Costerian type were produced from leaden matrices and the +latter from brass patrices. Their bad, irregular condition was due to +the tools being imperfect, and Coster in the first practice of his +invention was inexperienced and therefore bound to produce such +imperfections as are found in the Speculum. Coster's type were cast in +one tempo, that is, the character itself and the shank cast at the +same time in one piece. + +Gutenberg's patrices, according to Enschede, were made like +bookbinders' stamps, of yellow copper, i. e., brass. With such +patrices only lead matrices could be made, but the latter could be +produced in two ways. Molten lead could be poured over the patrices or +the patrices could be pressed into cold lead. The first mode is +somewhat complex, but the matrix would have a smooth surface and need +no further adjustment. + +The second mode is more simple, but required great force, although +lead is a soft metal. Moreover the surface of the matrix would have to +be trimmed, as the impression forces the metal downwards and +sidewards, which makes the surface uneven, though by this pressure the +lead becomes firmer and more compact, to the advantage of the +type-founder. + +Enschede thinks that Gutenberg obtained his matrices by the second +mode. He arrives at this conclusion by reason of the fact that +Gutenberg's types were sharper in their impressions than Coster's. +Developing this theory, he believes that Gutenberg had each letter +engraved on a brass plate 2 mm. thick, therefore a mere letter without +anything underneath it. This brass letter patrix was pressed, by means +of a small flat plate, so far into the lead that its back formed an +unbroken plane with the top surface of the lead, and was then removed. + +After the matrix had been made this way, the type were cast, which was +done, not by pouring metal into the matrix, but by pressing the latter +into semi-fused metal. In this way a great many letters could be cast +from one matrix without any injury to it. Gutenberg's method was to +cast in two tempos, according to Enschede, that is, the character was +cast first and the shank was cast by another operation joining it to +the character. + +Enschede warns us, however, that his theories are simply those of a +practical founder and not a bibliographer's. But since no tools used +by those early printers and type-founders have come to light to prove +or disprove him, his theory is as valuable as any others advanced as +to the methods used for casting type in those primitive days of +printing. + +The shape of the type used as early as 1470 does not seem to differ +materially from those of the present day. This is evident from old +type which were discovered in 1878 in the bed of the river Saone, near +Lyons, opposite the site of one of the fifteenth century +printing-houses of that city. + +Also a page in Joh. Neider's "Lepra Moralis" printed by Conrad +Homburch in Cologne in 1476 shows the accidental impression of a type +pulled up from its place in the course of printing by the ink-ball, +and laid at length on the face of the form, leaving its exact profile +indented upon the page. + +This accidental imprint shows a small circle, and it is presumed that +the type were pierced latterly by a circular hole, which did not +penetrate the whole thickness of the letter, and served, like the nick +in modern type, to enable the compositor to tell by touch which way to +set the letter in his stick. + +The fact that a letter was pulled out of the form seems to show that +the type composing the line could not have been threaded together, as +set forth by Ottley in his theory of clay molds for casting type. It +is to be remembered, however, that in the early days of printing, +every printer was his own type-founder. The method of casting type had +not been standardized and each printer had his own individual ideas +both as to the kind of characters and the method used in casting them. +Some may have threaded their type together in lines and others may +have simply locked them up in the form face downward in the composing +stone to overcome any irregularities caused by crude methods of +casting. + +Vinc. Fineschi, of Florence, in Italy, gives an extract from the +cost-book of the Ripoli press, about 1480, which shows that steel, +brass, copper, tin, lead and iron were all used in the manufacture of +type at that period. + +Today we have the wizardry of mechanical production in the manufacture +of type. The linotype and monotype machines, uncanny in their +operations, have also come into common practice. Without them printing +would seem almost as primitive, in typography, as it was in its +infancy. + + + + +STEREOTYPING + + +About the beginning of the eighteenth century a certain Van der Meyer, +of Antwerp, made the next step towards a definite improvement in +typography, the first that had been attempted since the invention of +printing from movable, cast-metal type. Van der Meyer prepared the +composed pages of the Bible by soldering together the bottom of the +type in the form. This was the first "stereotype," a term derived from +two Greek words meaning literally "solidtype." + +This method met one requirement. It prevented the "pi-ing" of the +type, but it had the disadvantage of holding in comparative idleness a +large and costly mass of type useless for any other purpose, and it +was not generally practiced. + +This was followed in 1730, by William Ged, a goldsmith of Edinburgh, +who is credited with casting printing-plates in plaster-of-paris molds +for the University of Cambridge Bible. These plates, however, were +destroyed by jealous printers and thrown aside, resulting in the +process being abandoned for many years. + +In the meantime several other improvements along this line were +undergoing experiment. Firmin Didot, (1764-1836), a printer of Paris, +cast type of a hard alloy, and when his book-pages were composed, made +an impression of them on a sheet of soft lead, thus forming a mold. +Molten metal was then poured into a shallow tray, and just as this was +on the point of solidifying, but still plastic, the lead-mold of the +book-page was pressed on the soft metal in the tray. This process +called Polytypage, was but partly successful; it could be used only +for small pages, and the plates were too often defective. A process +similar to this is what Lambinet thought the printers of the latter +half of the fifteenth century might have used as one of the probable +methods to cast their metal types. + +These and other experiments, however, were leading to the real +stereotyping process which developed later. + +Early in the nineteenth century, Earl Stanhope, of England, +re-introduced Ged's stereotyping process with many improvements. + +One or more pages of type were locked in a chase, the surface of the +type being oiled to prevent the subsequent mold from sticking. The +mold was made by pouring a semi-fluid composition of plaster-of-paris +mixed with a little fine salt to make the plaster settle solidly. +While the plaster was still soft, it was carefully pressed down and +rolled smooth on top to give a uniform thickness to the mold and to +expel any air there might be in the plaster. When the plaster became +solid, it formed a perfect matrix of the type pages. + +The moisture in those early plaster molds was expelled by baking them +in an oven for three or four hours. A later method for drying was +practiced by suspending the mold directly over the metal-pots or to +float them on the surface of the molten metal. By this means the +drying could be accomplished in a half-hour or so. + +In the process of casting, several of these plaster molds were placed +side by side face downward in a special casting-pan. The pan was one +and three-quarters or two inches deep, and a lid on the pan screwed +down on the back of the molds. By means of a crane the casting pan +with its molds was then lowered into the pot of molten metal which ran +into the pan at the corners and sides. The mold was allowed to remain +ten minutes or so in the metal-pot, or until the face of the inverted +mold was entirely filled with the metal. + +[Illustration] + +A later method of casting from a plaster mold was to place it in a +frame with a smooth, flat plate opposite the face of the mold and to +enclose the open space at one end and on the two sides. The casting +space thus formed was then turned with the open end up and metal was +poured in with a ladle, in a manner similar to the method still +employed for casting job-work stereotypes. The distance between the +flat plate and the mold was adjusted to make a stereotype plate of the +required thickness. + +After the removal and cooling of the casting pan, the plates were +freed from the plaster and the surplus metal cut off. Only one cast +could be made, as the mold was usually destroyed in removing the cast. +The stereotype was then sent to the finishing department, where the +face was cleaned and examined for defective letters, then trimmed on +the sides and planed off uniformly on the back to the desired +thickness, in the same manner as a stereotype is treated today. A +defective letter could be mortised out of the plate and a good type +inserted in its place. In cases where a whole line or other part was +imperfect, another mold was made of as much of the form as was +necessary and the new cast inserted and soldered to the plate. + +There were many and varied experiments made in the earlier development +of this idea of producing a duplicate printing form in a single piece. +That such a process was highly desirable was universally recognized, +and the conviction that some practicable and economical method was +feasible was a continual incentive which gradually led to better +results. + + + + +STEREOTYPING IN AMERICA + + +Although credit is given to John Watts, an Englishman then working in +America, for making the first stereotype plates here, the real +introduction of the process into the United States was by David Bruce. +This was in 1813. Bruce had learned the printer's trade in Edinburgh +and later came to America, where after a few years he was joined by +his brother George in establishing the firm of D. & G. Bruce, +printers. Hearing of the new process of stereotyping in England, he +went over there to learn about it. He could get very little +information about the process there, but came back with some practical +ideas which he proceeded to carry out. Bruce and his brother also +began type-founding about this time, and abandoned the business of +printing. Later they gave up the work of stereotyping. + +[Illustration] + +The first book stereotyped in the United States was the New Testament, +in 1814. Bibles and school books were the first works to be +stereotyped; then came other books which were demanded in many +editions, such as the works of popular authors. + + + + +THE PAPIER MACHE MATRIX + + +The papier-mache (literally, mashed paper) matrix was first +successfully used for casting stereotypes for book pages in France in +1848. Charles Craske, an engraver of New York, introduced the method +into the stereotype trade of the United States in 1850, and in 1854 he +stereotyped a page of the "_New York Herald_" and later made +stereotypes for other New York newspapers. + +The modern wet stereotype "flong," in common use today, consists of +several layers of special paper pasted together to form a thick sheet. +The base is a sheet of special soft stock similar to firm +blotting-paper, such as is used between leaves of small blank books. +Three or four sheets of strong, white tissue are next added, each +sheet except the last being uniformly covered with the paste. The +pasting must be done with great care so as to cover the entire surface +of each sheet and at the same time to press out all air bubbles. The +sheets must then be pressed smoothly but not squeezed so hard as to +force the paste out and must be kept moist until used. In newspaper +syndicate plants, the "flong" is made automatically by a specially +devised machine into which the various kinds of paper used are fed +from rolls, the pasting and cutting into sheets being mechanical. + +In molding a papier-mache matrix, the moist "flong" is laid on the +original molding form to be duplicated, the molding form being in +place on the table of the molding press. The "flong" is covered with +several blankets of thick felt and the table of the molding press is +then automatically moved in under a powerful roller which squeezes the +moist flong down into the form. At the end of its travel the table is +automatically brought back again under the rollers to the position +from which it started. The speed of the roller and the table is +synchronized to obviate any possibility of the mat becoming wrinkled +by sliding. + +The molded matrix and the pattern with the blanket still on it is then +transferred to the drying press, in which under a hot platten it is +again squeezed and allowed to remain for a few minutes until the +moisture is completely expelled from the molded flong. The drying +press is kept at a high temperature, usually by steam heat. + +The matrix thus dried out to a thick, flexible cardboard is then ready +for the casting of the stereotype, which is done by pouring molten +stereotype metal against the face of the matrix placed in a +casting-box designed for this purpose. A successive number of +stereotypes can be cast for the same mat before it is injured by the +hot metal. For job-work stereotyping the casting-box is flat, and the +molten metal is either poured by hand or automatically pumped in the +casting-box. + +After the stereotype is cast it is flattened, rough shaved, smooth +shaved, bevelled or blocked on wood; the wood base trimmed and then +planed type-high for printing press use. + +The large daily papers cast the full-page stereotype from which the +paper is printed in an automatic casting machine which forms a curved +plate, trimmed and bevelled, to fit the cylinder of the press. + +Stereotyping was for many years the chief means of making plates for +books and also for commercial printing. It has several advantages. The +first, obviously, is the advantage which it shares with several other +methods of providing a solid printing plate made by molding from an +original form of type or engraving. Its peculiar advantage, however, +is that it is the quickest method of producing a duplicate plate from +an original. + +In comparison with electrotyping, however, it has two distinct +disadvantages. One is that it is not adapted for reproducing the fine +lines of engravings and type faces. In addition it is comparatively +shallow and does not possess a sharp, clean printing face. The other +disadvantage is that a stereotype is relatively soft and quickly worn. + +Stereotypes have been made more durable, to withstand the wear of +printing, by the deposition of a film of harder metal--copper or +nickel--on the face of the plate after it has been cast. This, +however, is not satisfactory, as it involves not only another +operation, but also makes an already shallow printing plate that much +shallower and increases the probability of it printing "dirty," which +is one of the chief objections to the stereotype in itself. This +practice is not recommended. + + + + +ELECTROTYPING + + +In 1799, Allesandro Volta, of Pavia, in Italy, constructed the first +electric battery, which came to be called the Voltaic pile. +Improvements in the form of Volta's battery were made almost +immediately by William Cruickshank, in England, who discovered in +experimenting with it that he could by its power electrolyze or +chemically decompose the salts of certain metals in solution. Both +copper and silver, he found, could be precipitated from their salt +solutions and deposited upon a plate immersed in the solution. + +This observation was the first step in the process of electroplating, +which is electrotyping when applied to the art of typography. + +In 1837, thirty-eight years after Volta's discovery, Mr. Thomas +Spencer of Liverpool, England, accidentally stumbled upon the first +realization of the electrotyping process. + +While experimenting with a modification of a Daniell battery, he used +an English copper penny as one of the poles instead of a plain piece +of copper. A deposition of copper from the solution in the battery +took place upon the penny, and upon removing the wire which attached +the penny to the zinc plate a portion of the copper deposit was pulled +off the penny also. + +This first copper electrotype shell Spencer found to be an exact +duplicate or mold of part of the head and lettering on the coin. _It +was as smooth and as sharp as the original._ + +It was some time later, however, before this suggested to him any +useful application of the process. Another accident made him +appreciate the full value of his discovery. This time he carelessly +dropped some varnish on a strip of copper which he was going to use in +the same way he did the penny. Upon removing the copper from the +battery he observed that there was no deposition of copper on those +parts of the strip where the varnish had dropped. + +Spencer then conceived the idea of applying this principle to the arts +by coating a piece of copper with varnish or wax and engraving a +design in the coating, thus exposing the copper strip in the engraved +lines. He did this, and then deposited copper in the design so +engraved. Upon removing the coating the design was exposed in relief +on the piece of copper. + +On September 13, 1839, Spencer read a paper before the Polytechnic +Institution of Liverpool, which he accompanied with specimens of both +electrotypes made by this process and of printing from these +electrotypes. The publication of this paper acted like an electric +shock upon society. + +Developing his process, Spencer first used lead as the plastic medium +in which to mold printing surfaces, and it is to be noted in this +connection that in doing so he anticipated Dr. Albert's lead mold by +considerably over three quarters of a century. + +Spencer impressed a form of type on a planed piece of sheet-lead and +subjected both of them to the action of a screw-press. A perfectly +sharp mold of the type form was thus made in the lead. This lead mold +was placed in a battery, and at the end of _eight days_ a copper shell +one eighth of an inch in thickness had been deposited. It was then +removed from the apparatus and the rough edge of the deposited copper +filed off. Being subjected to heat, the copper shell loosened from the +lead-mold. Spencer called this a "copper stereotype." + +[Illustration] + +The next step in developing the electrotyping process, after Spencer +had demonstrated the practical application of the electro-chemical +deposition of a copper shell on a mold, was made by a Mr. Robert +Murray. Mr. Murray was the first to use plumbago, or black-lead, to +give the surface of non-metallic bodies electro-conductive properties. +He discovered that he could coat a mold of bees-wax with black-lead +and deposit thereon a copper shell. This was in 1840. + +In the same year Smee's battery was invented. This was a marked +improvement and was a most important step towards making electrotyping +a commercial possibility. + +Thus in 1840, four hundred years after the probable date of the +invention of printing from individual movable cast-metal type, and +over forty years after the foundation of electrotyping was laid by +Volta, electrotyping, as a practical method of reproducing a +commercial typographical printing surface, came into existence. + +Mr. E. Palmer, in England, using Spencer's method, was the first to +receive a patent for producing a metallic printing plate with the +printing surfaces in relief. This patent is dated 1841. Palmer +followed this in the succeeding year by a further patent for engraving +through a wax-coated matrix-plate to form the printing surfaces in the +_positive_ electrotype taken from it. This process was termed by +Palmer, "Glyphography." + +The "whites" or low spots in Palmer's Glyphographs were "built-up" in +the wax mold through adding wax by hand, assisted by various +ingeniously constructed tools which were heated. After "building-up," +the wax was black-leaded and the copper deposition on the surface of +the wax mold was obtained. This copper deposit, or shell, was then +tinned on the back, backed up with lead, mounted on wood, and trimmed +type-high. These processes are the essentials used today in +electrotyping. + +One of the earliest works illustrated by the Palmer process is "The +History and Antiquities of Brentford, Ealing, and Chiswick," by T. +Faulkner, published in 1845, and the word "Glyphography" occurs at the +foot of many illustrations contained in it. + +In 1839 the first attempt was made at commercial electrotyping in +America. In that year, Joseph A. Adams, a wood-engraver connected with +Harper & Bros. in New York, experimented along lines similar to those +Spencer had pursued, but using a wood-cut from which to mold. His +electrotypes were made by taking an impression from the wood-cut in an +alloy of soft metal of which bismuth was probably the chief +ingredient, and immersing the metal mold in an ordinary Voltaic +battery for the deposition of the copper shell. In making the +impression, however, the wood-cut was destroyed so, that this method +of making an electrotype was not commercially practical. + +[Illustration] + +The year following Adams took advantage of Smee's battery and made an +electrotype which was used in Mape's Magazine in 1841. He also +employed this process for making illustrations for Harper's Family +Bible, issued between 1842 and 1844. + +The first successful commercial electrotyper in America was John W. +Wilcox, of Boston. A wood carver named Chandler, told Mr. Wilcox that +if he could repeat what Adams of New York had done with a wood-cut in +1839 that he, Chandler, would lend him the necessary wood-cuts for +experimental purposes. In less than sixty days in 1846, Mr. Wilcox had +put into practical use every essential principle known for the next +twenty-five years in electrotyping. + +In 1855, Mr. Gay of New York first used tin-foil for the purpose of +soldering the copper shells to the metal backing. + +During the same year, a Mr. Adams of Brooklyn, New York, invented the +dry-brush black-leading machine. + +Steven D. Tucker, of New York, developed and patented in 1866 the type +of dry-brush black-leading machine which is in common use today. + +In 1871, Silas P. Knight, of Harper & Bros., New York, invented the +wet black-leading process, and in 1872 took out another patent for an +improvement on this process. Mr. Knight's method of wet black-leading +was not generally adopted by the electrotypers of that time and +gradually became almost unknown. + +Undoubtedly, the cause of this was that the method of dry +black-leading was good enough for type and woodcut work. The half-tone +had not been invented at that time, and it was only after the +invention of the half-tone that a better method of black-leading +became necessary. + +Thirty-seven years after Mr. Knight had successfully used his process +of wet black-leading a patent was granted to Frank L. Learman, of +Buffalo, New York, for a wet black-leader. Since that time numerous +patents have been taken out on different methods of using the wet +process, which is universally recognized today as the best method of +graphiting the surface of a mold. + +In 1870, Joseph A. Adams patented a process for covering the surface +of the mold after it had been black-leaded with powdered tin. This was +for the purpose of quickening the deposition of the copper shell when +the molds were in the batteries, and from this undoubtedly came the +oxidizing process of coating the surface of the molds with chemical +copper invented by Silas Knight, which has long been and is now in +use. + +Perhaps one of the greatest forward steps in the development of +electrotyping was made when the plating dynamo was invented. The first +adoption of a dynamo in place of Smee's battery took place in 1872. +With the Smee type of battery it required from thirty to forty-eight +hours to deposit a copper shell thick enough for commercial use. With +the invention of the plating dynamo and its improvements, the time of +depositing the shell was reduced so that now two hours is the common +time that a mold is kept in the tubs or batteries. This quickening of +the time required to deposit the shell was one of the most essential +features in the development of commercial electrotyping. + +From the first hand-screw presses, which were successfully used for +molding, to the modern high-power, motor-driven, hydraulic presses, +for working either in wax or lead, is a far cry. + +The invention of the half-tone, together with the invention of the +modern two-revolution cylinder press which has brought printing into +its present state of perfection, made necessary radical improvements +in the machinery for making electrotypes. These improvements have been +steady in their development, but the fundamental points of the process +are practically those which have been in use from the start of +commercial electrotyping. + + + + +ELECTROTYPING BY THE WAX MOLD PROCESS + + +An electrotype is a facsimile printing plate duplicated from an +original. The original may be either type, a woodcut, a zinc or a +copper etching such as a line-cut or a half-tone, or it may be a +combination of type-matter and line-cuts or half-tones. + +We commonly think of electrotypes as printing plates made of copper, +but any metal which can be electrochemically deposited may be used. +Because of their wearing qualities and economy, however, copper and +nickel are the two metals commercially used for electrotyping. + +Briefly, an electrotype is made by taking an impression of the +original in a plastic substance, thus forming a mold or matrix; +depositing copper or nickel on the mold; removing the copper or nickel +shell from the mold and backing it with a semi-hard metal; trimming +the metal to printing-plate thickness, and bevelling, or blocking on +wood, the trimmed plate for printing-press use. + +In modern practice more than twenty-five different operations are +necessary to make a finished electrotype ready for the press. They may +be enumerated, as follows: + +_1. Case-making._ The flowing of a molding compound composed of +"ozokerite," a resinol-mineral wax, onto the case. The case is of +copper. + +_2. Flashing the Case._ Passing a flame over the surface of the melted +ozokerite immediately after flowing the case in order to remove +air-bubbles. + +_3. Case-shaving._ The automatic shaving of the top surface of the +flowed case after the ozokerite has hardened to give it a smooth, even +surface for molding. + +_4. Graphiting._ Brushing surface of case with molding graphite to +prevent the pattern from sticking to the wax mold. + +_5. Molding._ Making an impression from the original zinc line +etching, half-tone or type form in the waxed case. This is done by +means of a hydraulically operated molding press. + +_6. Cutting-down._ The levelling off by hand, using a sharp trowel +shaped tool, of the splurge after the impression has been made. +Flashing is also used here to remove the burr left around the letters +after the cutting down process. + +_7. Building-up._ The adding of wax by hand to the blank spaces in the +molded case so that in the finished electrotype they will be well +below the printing face. + +_8. Black-leading._ Making the face of the molded case electrically +conductive by applying graphite. + +_9. Stopping-out._ Insulating with a thin coating of wax the edges and +back of the copper case to prevent copper being deposited except on +the face of the mold. + +_10. Pumping-out or Oxidizing._ Coating the face of the molded case +with chemical copper to hasten deposition of copper shell in the bath. + +_11. Deposition of Shell._ The molded case is put in the electrolytic +bath for the deposition of shell thereon. + +_12. Releasing Shell from Molds._ Stripping the deposited shell from +the waxed mold by dashing hot water on it. The wax is melted off case +and used again. + +_13. Washing Copper Shell._ Hot lye-water or steam is used to clean +off any wax sticking to it. + +_14. Trimming Copper Shell._ Rough edges of shell outside the guard +line trimmed off. + +_15. Aciding Copper Shell._ An application of fluxing medium to back +of copper shell so that tin will adhere. + +_16. Tinning Copper Shell._ Tin-foil is melted on the back of the +copper shell. This is the solder between the copper shell and the +metal back, without which the metal backing would not adhere to the +shell. + +_17. Backing-up._ The flowing of electrotype metal on the back of the +tinned copper shell for the purpose of making a foundation for +printing (electrotype metal is an alloy of 94 per cent lead; 3 per +cent tin for flowing and 3 per cent antimony for hardness). + +_18. Scrubbing the Cast._ A power operated scrubbing machine using a +hydro-carbon oil as the cleansing medium to clean the printing face of +the electrotypes. + +_19. Cast-sawing._ Sawing off the surplus metal of the cast before +finishing. + +_20. Flattening the Casts._ Hand operation with mallet and flattening +block to take the warp out of the electrotype caused by the +contraction of the metal in cooling. + +_21. Rough-shaving._ Planing off superfluous metal from the back of +the electrotype. + +_22. Finishing._ Putting the printing surface of the electrotype in +perfect condition for press after leaving the foundry department. This +is done by hand and requires a high degree of skill. + +_23. Smooth-shaving._ The finishing shave of metal from back of +electrotype to bring it to the required thickness. + +_24. Routing._ Cutting out the high but non-printing surfaces of the +electrotype by a routing machine. + +_25. Guard-line Sawing._ Cutting the guard lines or bearers off the +electrotype to practically the finished size before blocking or +bevelling. + +_26. Blocking._ Fastening the plate on wood base with brads driven +through the metal. + +_27. Trimming._ Trimming the wood mounted electrotype to its exact +finished size. + +_28. Type-high Machining._ Used for planing the bottom of the wood +base so that the mounted electrotype is of printing press +requirements, i. e., .918" high. + + + + +ELECTROTYPING BY THE LEAD MOLD PROCESS + + +Electrotypes made by the genuine Dr. Albert Lead Mold Process are +always duplicates of fine-screen half-tones or mezzo-tints used for +the highest class of commercial job-work, such as three and four color +process or duo-tone printing on paper with a highly glazed surface. + +The largest press used in lead molding will give a maximum pressure of +two thousand tons per square inch on a thirty inch ram hydraulically +operated. The weight of this press is over thirty thousand pounds. + +[Illustration] + +In the lead mold process the plastic medium used is a soft thin sheet +of what is called "impression lead," .040 inches thick, instead of +wax, and the lead is placed on top of the original to be duplicated, +instead of vice-versa, as in the wax-molding process. No "building-up" +nor "black-leading" is necessary. + +In all other respects the consecutive steps towards the completion of +the lead mold plate are identical to those used in the Wax Mold +Process. + + + + +ALUMINOTYPES + + +The age long progress in the development and perfection of +typographical printing surfaces, from the period of Xylographic blocks +on through the successive inventions of individual movable cast-metal +type, stereotyping and electrotyping, by both the wax and lead-molding +processes, reaches its culmination in _Aluminotypes_. + +Briefly, it is a method of casting printing plates of aluminum alloy +in molds made from a composition of plaster-of-paris. In its essential +points it is a modern adaptation of the process credited to William +Ged of Edinburgh in 1730 and afterwards modified and improved in the +early 19th century by Earl Stanhope of England. + +In practice, the original to be duplicated is placed on a +molding-slab. A molding frame is set upon the slab and enclosing the +original. A special kind of oil is then sprayed on the face of the +original. This is to facilitate the release of the plaster mold so +that it will not "tear" when it is ready to be lifted off the original +after solidifying, and at the same time to retain the sharpness of the +mold. + +The molding medium of plaster composition in a semi-liquefied state is +then poured on to the original in the molding frame. The surplus +plaster is scraped off flush with the top of the molding frame. + +After the plaster matrix in its molding frame has set sufficiently it +is released by means of cams from the working pattern on the +molding-slab. + +The plaster matrix is then placed in a drying oven, through which a +forced draft of hot air is kept circulating at high pressure. The +thorough drying of the mold takes approximately ninety minutes. + +When the plaster mold has become sufficiently dried, a round hole is +cut through the bottom of the matrix in an offset of the molding +frame. This hole is the gate through which the molten aluminum is +forced. The mold is then securely locked upright in a specially +designed casting machine. + +The Aluminotype is cast by pressure and not by pouring as in the case +of stereotypes, which depend entirely upon gravity. Fused aluminum +alloy is poured into a hopper on the casting machine. A piston +operated by the agency of compressed air forces the aluminum evenly +into all parts of the plaster matrix. + +When the cast is completed the molding frame is taken from the casting +machine and the Aluminotype removed from its plaster-of-paris matrix. + + +_AUTHORITIES_: + +"An Outline of the History of Printing," by R. A. Peddie. + +"Typographical Printing Surfaces," by L. A. Legros. + +"Manual of Electro-Metallurgy," by Napier. + +"The Encyclopedia Brittanica." + +"Electrotyping and Stereotyping" Typographical Technical Series, Vol. XV. + +The Rapid Electrotype Company. + + + + +THE MAKING OF THE FOOLPROOF NEWSPAPER DRAWING + +SOME ADVERTISING PICTURES PRINT WELL--OTHERS DO NOT. WHY? IT'S ALL A +MATTER OF GOING ABOUT IT IN A KNOW-HOW WAY + +_By J. LIVINGSTON LARNED_ + + +An advertiser--perhaps one of the largest users of newspaper space in +the country--sprang a surprise recently on his ad-manager. Into the +office he came, one day, grim-visaged, jaw set, fire in his eyes, and +armed with no less than fifty clippings from exchanges. + +And on the amazed ad-manager's desk he placed two conglomerate piles +of advertising matter. One represented the national newspaper campaign +of his own industry; the other a collection of newspaper +advertisements, picked at random. + +"I think I have conclusive proof," said he, in no mild mood, "that you +fellows are not as efficient as you might be. Here are our +advertisements--from papers everywhere. The illustrations print +abominably! Look at them. The matter has been called to my attention +many times--by the newspapers themselves, by our road representatives +and by local dealers. They say our electro service and our straight +national campaigns are all muddied up with pictures that nobody can +decipher. Here's conclusive proof of it. Not a clean-looking cut in +the series and you can't blame it on paper and press work and all +that--they're _all_ bad!" + +The advertising manager glanced casually at the exhibits. The +criticism was valid. Here was a daily newspaper campaign, running into +space valued at approximately sixty thousand dollars, and the +displays, three-fourths illustration, were mussy, involved, smeared +up, and unsatisfactory from a reproductive standpoint. Solid black +backgrounds were a sickly, washed-out gray and in other places +intricate pen work had "run-together." + +It was equally true that clippings of competitive advertising and +advertising in general, selected at random, were strangely clean-cut. +The comparison was startling. + +"Mr. X," finally observed the ad-manager, "I see what you mean; all of +us in this department have known of it, kept track of it; and the +remarkable part of the entire situation is that these results can be +traced back to you and your personal insistence on a certain type of +pen and ink design, executed in a specific technique. These matters +came up for your supervision and O. K. You did not care for the bold, +simple outline drawings first submitted. You preferred too many, and a +glut of detail. All of which is not compatible with newspaper +printing, even in large space. We were afraid of this and said so at +the time. Our objection was overruled. It's one thing to prefer a +pleasing, perhaps highly artistic pen technique and quite another to +apply it to fast presses, poor ink and hurried make-ready. A great +many things can happen, and _do_ happen, to a newspaper design before +it is printed and in the readers' hands." + + +DISREGARDING FUNDAMENTALS + +Sometimes it is better to come out with the frank, brutal truth. In a +great many instances, poor newspaper reproduction is the direct result +of some executive's marked preference for a certain artist or a +certain technique, regardless of whether the man is qualified to draw +for this field, or whether the technique is fitted for the purpose. + +On the other hand, there is, unquestionably, a strange, well nigh +inexcusable disregard of certain fundamentals of the business. There +is too much swivel-chair composure; too much beatific reassurance, +when proofs are submitted on good paper, from a flat-bed +engraver-house press. A newspaper series is very apt to look 100 per +cent when presented on the final electro sheet, or bound into a neat +booklet for the dealer and printed on coated stock. These are ostrich +methods! + +In certain advertising agencies there is a standing rule in the matter +of newspaper plates that all proofs must be pulled on newspaper +stock--and a very inferior grade. A newspaper press is used, an entire +series coming off at once. There is no make-ready to speak of. + +By this process no one is deceived. You see exactly what will happen, +or nearly so, when the series fares forth to newspapers all over the +country. + +The executive mentioned above had collected newspapers, big and +little, from the four points of the compass. And he had collected a +liberal number of perfectly satisfactory newspaper advertisements of +the illustrated variety. Blacks were clean black, Ben Day tints held +their own, there was no congestion, no smudging, no mishap of any +sort. + +If certain rules are followed, any newspaper advertising illustration +can be made "fool-proof." You can be absolutely certain of a printable +result, despite all exigencies, all drawbacks, all hazards. + +Failure usually follows a desire to attempt something beyond that +which has been tried and is wholly practical. For the present, at +least, users of newspaper space _must_ bow to the inevitable. They +_must_ realize that there is a well-defined limit to what can be done +mechanically. They must _not_ defiantly experiment, although the +desire to "do something new" and to be original is entirely +praiseworthy. + + +THINGS YOU CAN'T DO + +If you use half-tones, have them made very coarse screen--nothing +finer than 60 line. Stop out whites and eliminate backgrounds. The +high-light half-tone is a modern development with many virtues. If a +portrait is used, take out all background. + +There is a way of retouching photographs that will minimize the danger +of poor printing. The artist strengthens weak contrasts, not with a +brush and paint, but with a pen and waterproof black ink. He also uses +areas of pure white. Successful reproduction is dependent upon +_sharp_, clear, vigorous _contrasts_. + +Stippling is one of the best substitutes for the half-tone. This +simply means dotting-in a subject. It is a time-consuming, laborious +process, but it means line plates and the elimination of middle +tones--which are disastrous. + +There was a time when certain clever inventions of the paper +manufacturer could be employed for half-tone effects in line. For +example, a Ross Board is manufactured with an assortment of patterned +surfaces. When brush or crayon or pencil is drawn over them, they give +effects that may not be duplicated in straight pen and ink on plain +white drawing board. Some of these papers have a chalk surface. Some +have imitation half-tone patterns, straight-line designs, etc. It is +possible to scratch away certain portions with a sharp knife. _Do not +use them_ as matters now stand in newspaper printing. They will not +"stand reduction" and only very coarse tints reproduce satisfactorily. + +_Special Caution_--Do not allow artists to make original drawings for +newspaper use much larger than twice the size. Here is one of the +greatest evils of the day. The artist seems possessed to make his +original on a full sheet of paper, when he knows that the plate is for +two or three newspaper columns. What happens? An illustration which +makes a handsome showing in the original will inevitably fill-in when +reduced to "actual size." Figure it out yourself--look at it through a +reducing glass. Lines that seem wide apart almost touch in the +congestion that follows great reduction. The really wise and shrewd +artist makes his newspaper drawing _actual_ size. + +Not more than a dozen Ben Day patterns can be used safely--now--in +newspapers. Do you know the meaning of "Ben Day?" It is a mechanical +tint, printed mechanically either on the plate, by the engraver, or on +the original drawing, from an inked gelatine surface and rubbed on +with a stilus. Magazine reproduction accepts it in all its forms. +Newspaper stock muddies it up when it is too fine. In any event, when +selecting a pattern, see that it is an open one and have it put on the +engraving--not the design. If on the design it means a reduction. If +on the plate it means no reduction, but precisely as shown in the Ben +Day book of patterns. + +Avoid complex line treatments and techniques, such as cross-hatching +and the laying in of many very fine 290 pen lines close together. They +look well in the original--they seldom print well on newspaper stock. +They reduce abominably. + +Any newspaper illustration should have plenty of white margin to +"relieve it." When a drawing is cramped, packed in, suffocated by side +rules, borders and text, it suffers. + +Clear outline drawings, with an occasional dash of black, prove most +efficient for newspaper reproduction. They _can't_ fill in, they +_can't_ smudge, they _can't_ become contaminated by clots of printing +ink or defects in the newspaper stock. Not even fast press work can +damage their printability. But remember, not all outline drawings are +alike--great originality of technique can be secured. + + +CAREFUL OF BLACK AREAS + +Large areas of solid black are not advisable. Think it over. Ink flows +irregularly on newspaper presses. One copy may show up exactly as in +the original; the next may develop a white halo, a gray tendency, a +smeary, half-baked look. No two impressions will be quite the same. +And it is logical to see that this is apt to be so. Any imperfection +or irregularity in the ink roller will cause it, or the collection of +foreign matter on cut or roller. Any black area larger than two inches +square is a hazard. + +Advertisers often think that masses of solid black will make an +advertisement "stand out." They would if they printed a smooth, even +black--which they seldom do. But liberal white margins are far more +potent in attracting attention and in segregating an advertisement +from mixed company than solid blacks. + +The _appearance_ of large areas of black may be secured via +subterfuge. One method is to form the background of heavy black lines, +quite close together. The white spaces between save the printing. Look +at straight type through a magnifying glass. Not even type is printed +clear black. Then what chance would an even surface of large +proportion have? + +Newspaper cuts should be "routed deep." Routing is merely the +deepening or entire cutting away of extraneous matter on the +engraving--that is, where there is no printing surface. The smudges of +hideous design often seen are really an impression of a metal surface +that has not been routed out properly. Every engraving should be +examined critically for such defects. + +Avoid placing a shaded area against a black area. As we have +intimated, the heart and soul of the successful newspaper drawing is +_contrast_. + +The beginning of every advertisement or series of advertisements is +represented in terms of a first visualization. It is in pencil. These +should be made same size--that is, the actual size they are to +eventually appear. Then no one, the artist least of all, is fooled by +disparity of proportions. + + +KEEP IT SIMPLE + +The visualizer should keep one cardinal point in mind. Keep newspaper +advertisements simple. The less there is in them the better. +Thirty-two of the ads selected by our advertising friend, mentioned +earlier in the story, were good because they were simple. Type was +held to blocks, and with as little change in style, size and character +of type as possible. + +All of them were characterized by liberal white margins. It is the +best known way of fighting back the opposition of the surrounding +appeals on the same page. + +There's a good test possible. Make a photographic print of your +advertisement, the size it is to appear, and paste it on a newspaper +page--not a New York or Chicago paper, but a page in the "Bingville +Banner." + +Before plates are made or even before pen and ink drawings are fully +completed, you can change, rearrange, eliminate, or add to, as the +case may be. + +The wise advertiser is the one who in preparing an elaborate and +extensive newspaper campaign keys it in its printing qualities, not to +the best papers on the list, but to the ones that are worst printed. +This may mean the undreamed of thing of 100 per cent perfect! + +No advertiser can hope to secure full efficiency from a campaign if it +presents a smudged and confused appearance. Newspapers are trig things +in their own right. Their column rules and their precision of type +make this an arbitrary condition. There is really nothing finer and +cleaner and more pleasing to the human eye than a well-composed +newspaper, hot from the press. Ugly advertisements can make an ugly +newspaper. They can even spoil the set-up and typography in general of +the reading sections. + +A newspaper is held responsible if returns from a single advertisement +or a campaign are not satisfactory. It is looked upon as a "poor +medium." Yet how many times the true fault can be traced to the +message itself. Full efficiency in advertising is the result of full +efficiency in the copy.... + + (Reprinted by the kind permission of The Bureau of + Advertising, the American Newspapers Publishers Association, + Mr. William A. Thompson, Director.) + + + + +NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING PLATES + + +Mechanical production of any kind is an unsympathetic and inexorable +thing, and the modern large daily newspaper, in its mechanical +production, is unsympathetic and inexorable to the highest degree. It +reproduces exactly and impartially from all the different material +supplied to it. + +Your ad-plate is locked into the form with the other matter composing +the page. A hurried lock-up, and the form is molded into a mat and +stereotyped. Fast presses and cheap ink do the rest. + +If your ad does not show up well in the first few impressions run off, +the press grinds on just the same, with little or no make-ready. Once +they start, it is too late to stop to allow the press-room foreman to +investigate why a certain ad does not print up well. The "Daily Bugle" +must get on the streets, if possible, before its competitors with the +important scoop that the Beghum of Swat has just died. If you have +supplied the best material for the newspapers to work with, the +clean-cut reproduction of your advertisement is insured. If you have +been penny-wise and pound-foolish in saving a few cents on your +ad-plate, all the dollars you spent on art, typography and white space +for your ad are on the knees of the gods and liable to be spilled off +the said knees, and your ad is messy looking when it appears. The +advertiser invariably blames the newspaper and the newspaper passes +the buck on to the plate-maker. The printed appearance of the ad is +largely determined by the kind of plate furnished to the newspaper. + +The large daily newspapers are entirely dependent upon the +stereotyping process for the necessary speed required in production. +They do not print directly from type or cuts. The big advantage of +stereotyping in this connection lies in the fact that it is the +quickest method of producing a solid, duplicate printing plate from an +original molding form. After locking up a page form, it can be molded, +the matrix dried and the plate cast and ready for the press in about +ten minutes. + +Therefore, only unmounted plates should be sent to the large daily +papers and not wood mounted, as it takes too long for the heat to pass +through the wood base in drying the mat. + +The unmounted plate is placed on a metal base, (because heat passes +through metal quickly in drying the mat) and then locked in the form +with the type and other matter composing the entire page. A mat is +then molded from the complete form and a curved stereotype is cast +from this page mat. It is from this curved full page stereotype that +the large daily newspaper is actually printed. + +Since they must duplicate the plates sent to them by the stereotyping +process, your expensively prepared advertisement, if it is to appear +sharp and clean in the valuable space it uses, should be electrotyped +by your plate-maker. A stereotype duplicated from an electrotype will +print cleaner than a stereotype duplicated from a stereotype by reason +of the fact that mats molded by the newspaper from electrotypes are +sharper and deeper than when they are molded from stereotypes. + +Electrotypes have a distinctly sharper and harder face and are deeper +than stereotypes. The very nature of the process and materials used in +their manufacture makes this superiority inevitable. Wax is used as +the plastic medium in which to mold electrotypes, whereas for +stereotypes paper is used. Sharpness and depth cannot be molded into +paper as it can into wax. + +Neither will stereotype metal poured by gravity against a paper matrix +mold be as sharp and deep as copper deposited electrolytically on a +wax mold. + +It follows, therefore, that when an unmounted electrotype is supplied +to the "Chicago Tribune" or the "New York Journal" or the "San +Francisco Call" they are stereotyping your ad in the page form from a +plate molded in wax directly from the original. + +On the other hand, when you supply a stereotype of your ad to the +large dailies this stereotype is already one step removed from the +original master plate and means that two paper mats intervene between +the original supplied to the plate-maker and the final stereotype of +the page containing your advertisement. In short, they are duplicating +a stereotype from a stereotype and each duplication means a loss in +sharpness and depth; therefore they should be supplied with a sharp +electrotype from which to make their final page mat. + +Obviously when a stereotype is supplied to the large dailies they are +working from a plate that is neither sharp nor deep to start with, as +would be the case if you sent them an electrotype from which to work. +An electrotype is economy in the end and will save you grief, when the +cost of space is considered. + +Should you desire economy, order your plate-maker to send mats--copy +considered--to the large dailies. A mat is less expensive than a +stereotype and will reproduce your advertisement equally as well. + +When you send them a mat instead of an electro there is one more +duplication for the newspapers to make in producing the final +stereotype from which they print, but the mat which your plate-maker +furnishes them is at least molded directly from the original plate, so +that it is sharper and deeper than the mat the newspapers have to make +when you furnish them a stereotype from which to work. When you +furnish the large dailies with the mat they cast a flat stereotype +first, which is locked up in the form with the other matter composing +the page. This entire form is then molded into a mat and stereotyped. + +The small dailies and country newspapers print directly from type and +cuts. They use a flat-bed press. For this reason it is necessary that +the advertising-plate or dealers cut which you furnish to them should +be mounted type-high. + +The best plate you can furnish them is none too good; their make-ready +and the general handling of their material is not of the highest order +in efficiency as compared to the large dailies, and it is entirely +probable that even with a good sharp electrotype, your advertisement +may not show to advantage. With a stereotype, the liability of smudgy +printing is greatly enhanced. + +The Rapid Electrotype Company knows the mechanical equipment of the +different newspapers throughout the United States. It sends mounted +plates to those papers that print directly from type and cuts, and +unmounted plates to those that stereotype their forms. This detail is +left entirely to their discretion. The names of the towns to which +your advertisement or dealers-cut is to be shipped is all the +information they require in order to determine whether or not to ship +mounted or unmounted plates. + + + + +THE RAPID ELECTROTYPE COMPANY + + +The Rapid Electrotype Company of Cincinnati was organized in July, +1899, and incorporated under the laws of Ohio in May, 1902. It has +been in service over a fifth of a century. + +Prior to the organization of The Rapid Electrotype Company, +electrotyping was, on the whole, a localized business. The Rapid +Electrotype Company pioneered in the service of making and +distributing newspaper advertising plates--electrotypes, aluminotypes, +stereotypes, and mats--direct from its factory in Cincinnati to +newspapers and dealers throughout the United States. + +The originality of this service, intelligently rendered to advertising +agencies and advertisers, was one of the reasons for the increase of +their capacity from only five thousand square inches of plate matter +daily in 1899 to one million square inches per day in 1921, and from +an organization of only nine men to one of over two hundred and fifty, +working in day and night shifts. + +Their new factory is unquestionably the largest of its kind in the +world, especially designed and equipped for the making and +distribution of newspaper ad plates of all kinds. Over forty-five +thousand square feet of floor space is devoted to this service, and +with their highly developed co-operative facilities they occupy a +unique place in the advertising plans of many large national +advertisers and advertising agencies. + + +FACTORY PRACTICE + +Developing and serving an ever increasing volume of business has +brought about a specialization in the factory practice of The Rapid +Electrotype Company. It has kept pace with the demands upon its +production and has made improvements in manufacturing methods designed +to cut-corners in cost of manufacture, to be shared with its +customers, and to make its service truly Rapid for all emergencies, +without sacrificing quality. + +Its commercial job-plate department is a separate and distinct unit +from the newspaper advertising-plate department. + +The character of the respective requirements of commercial job-plates +and newspaper advertising plates make this departmental production +advisable. + +A lead-molding press, built by The F. Wesel Mfg. Co., weighing over +thirty-thousand pounds, and developing two thousand tons pressure per +square inch on a thirty inch hydraulically operated ram is used in the +job-plate department. On this press are duplicated, from the finest +screen half-tones, the highest quality electrotypes and nickeltypes to +be used in three and four color process printing. + +The preponderating volume of its business, however, is the production +of newspaper electrotypes, and it is in this department that The Rapid +Electrotype Company has made distinct improvements in manufacturing +practice by methods and machinery designed and constructed by its own +engineers in its own machine shop. + + +BLACK LEADING + +The Rapid Electrotype Company has built a new type of machine for use +in this important phase of the electrotyping art. It is a combination +Dry-Wet Machine, designed by its own engineering staff. + +Those familiar with electrotypes well know the superiority of the wet +black leading process, especially for half-tones, stipple, Ben Day or +fine type, where much of the detail and sharpness is lost in dry black +leading, because of the crushing effect the brushes have on the wax +mold. In this new type of black leading machine this fault is entirely +eliminated, as the brushes never come in contact with the printing +face of the mold; they merely polish the high built-up spots, thereby +insuring better electrical conductivity to the wax, and a more uniform +deposition of the copper shell. + +Two of these especially designed machines are in constant operation in +the ad department, which means the highest grade of advertising +plates. + + +DEPOSITING THE SHELL + +Those who are not technically familiar with electrochemistry are prone +to think that the length of time a mold is kept in the electrolytic +bath, i. e., the copper bath, determines the thickness of the shell +deposited thereon. As a matter of fact, one electrotyper may keep his +molds in the copper bath for three hours and get only as thick a shell +as another who keeps his in but two hours. The element of time does +not determine the thickness nor quality of the shell deposited. + +The determining factors in this phase of electrotyping are the +composition of the electrolytic bath, its temperature, and the current +density applied. In addition, the purity of the materials, the +cleanliness of the batteries, the perfection of the electrical +connections as well as the distance between the anode and the cathode +are all matters of importance. These factors are all variables and +must be confined between narrow limits. + +This important phase of manufacture in The Rapid Electrotype Company +is under the supervision of an electro-chemical engineer. + +Plus this fact is the accuracy of mechanical operation in handling wax +molds from the time they are put into the batteries until they are +taken out with the shell deposited thereon and ready for tinning and +backing-up. + +The molded cases are suspended at regular intervals of twenty inches +from an endless chain-conveyor operating directly over the batteries. +This conveyor carries the cases edge-wise through the electrolytic +bath between two rows of anodes which are four inches apart. At the +end of each battery the conveyor automatically lifts the cases out and +over into the next battery in the series, of which there are seven. +The eighth tub contains pure running water for washing the case after +the complete deposition of the shell. + +The speed of this conveyor is regulated so that when the molded case +has reached the end of its journey through the series of seven +batteries, the other factors also being regulated, a shell of uniform +thickness and texture throughout is deposited thereon. + +This automatic handling of the cases in the batteries eliminates the +necessity of the battery-man pulling the case out of the bath by hand +from time to time in order to peel back a corner of the shell to see +if it is thick enough, which is the common practice. In other words, +the element of human guess-work is eliminated, and in addition, the +items of time and handling are greatly reduced. + + +BACKING UP THE SHELL + +Backing-up the shells with the metal base, i. e., casting, is done +automatically by The Rapid Electrotype Company. + +A rotary casting-table with a capacity of ten pans revolves around its +axis on a plane that brings each pan immediately below a spout through +which the required metal is automatically flowed from the bottom of +the metal pot on the tinned shell placed therein. When the required +metal backing has been flowed, the table turns to bring the next pan +with its shell under the metal-spout. The amount of metal flowed is +exactly regulated. As the casting table completes a circuit, the first +shell backed up has cooled so that it can be removed to the scrubbing +machine. + +This method, of course, eliminates the hand-ladling of hot metal from +the metal-pot to the casting-table, as is the ordinary practice, and +obviates any possibility of the oxidized metal or dross on the surface +getting into the casts, besides effecting a marked economy in time and +handling. In addition, it casts the plates flat, thereby eliminating +about 75 per cent of the finishing, which, of course, means a better +printing plate. Three of these machines are used. + +The Rapid Electrotype Company developed and built these +casting-machines in its own machine shop and owns the patents covering +them. + + +THE ALUMINOTYPE PROCESS + +The development, perfection and introduction of the Aluminotype +Process for duplicating a printing surface in a solid piece is one of +the outstanding accomplishments of The Rapid Electrotype Company, and +marks a distinct step in advance of the other and older methods used +in the graphic arts, for certain classes of printing. + +Aluminotypes are much harder than an electrotype or stereotype and +have as sharp and deep a printing face as an electrotype. The +Aluminotype process will reproduce as sharp and clear as the +electrotyping process an eighty line screen half-tone, which is really +too fine a screen for newspaper printing. + +A distinct advantage Aluminotypes have is in the item of weight. An +Aluminotype, unmounted, weighs only one quarter as much as an +unmounted electrotype or stereotype of the same size. When mounted on +a wood base an Aluminotype weighs just one half as much as an +electrotype or stereotype of the same size mounted on wood. In a +national advertising campaign where a general list of newspapers is +used Aluminotypes, by reason of their light weight, effect a marked +saving in parcel-post or express charges. This saving in postage is +especially noticeable in the case of foreign country newspaper +campaigns. + +In addition, because of their toughness, a saving can be made in +packing Aluminotypes, inasmuch as they do not require the expensive +precautions in packing to avoid injury in transportation that +electrotypes or stereotypes do. They will not bend; their printing +face cannot be injured by the ordinary mishaps attendant upon handling +in transportation. For all practical purposes it can be said that +Aluminotypes are indestructible. + + +MATRICES + +The ordinary practice followed in making mats is to use an electrotype +or stereotype pattern plate made from the original form. Sometimes the +original itself is used. + +The first mat molded from an electrotype pattern plate will be sharp. +The next one molded will be a little less sharp than the first. The +third one molded will be slightly less sharp than the second one. In +other words, with every succeeding mold, the electrotype or stereotype +pattern plate is mashed a little by the pressure of the matrix press +until it has to be discarded and a new one used. + +The five-thousandth mat made by the Rapid Electrotype Company from the +same pattern plate is as sharp as the first one molded. This is +because an _aluminotype_ pattern is used from which to mold. +_Aluminotypes_ will not mash under the pressure of the matrix press, +as they are much harder than electrotypes. + + +THE SHIPPING DEPARTMENT + +The shipping department of The Rapid Electrotype Company is one of the +most important and highly systematized in the entire organization, and +in the manner of handling orders for distribution to newspapers in +large campaigns or in making bulk shipment direct to the advertisers +is unique. + +It is in this department that the packing and routing of advertising +plates to newspapers or dealers is done. A system of triple checking +each item of all orders precludes, as far as is humanly possible, any +error in filling accurately all specifications. + + + + + _This brochure was compiled by H. C. Forster of + The Rapid Electrotype Co._ + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS; A.D. +1440-A.D. 1921*** + + +******* This file should be named 33497.txt or 33497.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/3/4/9/33497 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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