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+A.D. 1921, by H. C. Forster</title>
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+<body>
+<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, From Xylographs to Lead Molds; A.D. 
+1440-A.D.
+1921, by H. C. Forster</h1>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = 
+"http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Title: From Xylographs to Lead Molds; A.D. 1440-A.D. 1921</p>
+<p>Author: H. C. Forster</p>
+<p>Release Date: August 24, 2010  [eBook #33497]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS; A.D. 
+1440-A.D. 1921***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3 class="pg">E-text prepared by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier,<br />and the 
+Project 
+Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />(http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+	<div id="title_page"><a class="pagenum disguise" id="page3" 
+title="3">&nbsp;</a>
+		<h1>FROM XYLOGRAPHS<br />
+			TO LEAD MOLDS</h1>
+
+		<p id="subtitle"><span id="left_date">AD 1440</span>      <span 
+id="right_date">AD 1921</span></p>
+
+		<div id="device" class="figcenter">
+			<img src="images/device.png" width="138" height="200" 
+alt="Publisher Device" />
+		</div>
+
+		<p id="copyright_statement">Copyright, 1921<br />
+			The Rapid Electrotype Company<br />
+			Cincinnati, Ohio</p>	
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="foreword" class="part"><a class="pagenum disguise" id="page4" 
+title="4">&nbsp;</a>
+		<h2>FOREWORD</h2>
+			<p class="first_paragraph"><span 
+class="first_word">Printing</span> has been called “the art
+			preservative of all arts.” The invention
+			of individual movable cast-metal
+			type, between A.&nbsp;D. 1440 and 1446, made
+			printing a commercial possibility.</p>
+
+			<p>The subsequent rapid spread of the art, in
+			the hands of students and craftsmen, may be
+			said to have been the centrifugal force of the
+			Renaissance and the Revival of Learning,
+			which age, if it can be chronologically delimited,
+			began A.&nbsp;D. 1453.</p>
+
+			<p>Printing divulged to the masses the ancient
+			classics which had been locked up in monasteries
+			and accessible only to clerics and the
+			nobility. The common people began to read.
+			Education became popularized.</p>
+
+			<p>This brochure is a brief history of the
+			evolution from xylographs to the methods
+			used today for duplicating a typographical
+			printing surface in a solid piece.</p>
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="chapter_1" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page5" 
+title="5">&nbsp;</a>
+		<div class="head_style_1">
+				<h2>INDIVIDUAL<br />
+					MOVABLE CAST-METAL
+					TYPE
+				</h2>
+		</div>
+
+		<div>
+			<img class="init" src="images/init-t.png" width="106" 
+height="100" alt="T" />
+			<p class="init"><span class="first_word">The</span> art of 
+writing, and that of printing
+			from wooden blocks, and all the subsidiary
+			arts of illuminating, decorating
+			and binding manuscripts and books,
+			had long passed out of the exclusive
+			hands of the monasteries into the hands
+			of students and artisans, before printing with individual
+			movable cast-metal type was invented. This epoch
+			making invention came into practical use between A. D.
+			1440 and 1446.</p>
+		</div>
+
+		<p>When, therefore, Johannes Koelhoff of Lubeck, Germany,
+		printed the “Cologne Chronicle” in 1499, he
+		used individual movable cast-metal type. Typographic
+		printing had long before superseded Xylographic printing,
+		that is, printing from a solid block of wood on which type
+		of an entire page were cut individually by hand.</p>
+
+		<p>Between the invention of individual movable cast-metal
+		type and the perfection by the Earl of Stanhope of
+		his printing-press, (a period of about three hundred and
+		sixty years), very few improvements had been made in
+		the mechanics of printing. Everything we know today
+		about the art has come into use since 1799, and if Koelhoff
+		had come to life in 1799 and been permitted to
+		resume his occupation of printer, he would have found
+		himself practically familiar with the mechanical equipment
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page6" title="6"> </a>of his craft as used in 
+the establishment of the
+		Stanhope Press in that last year of the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+		<p>Centuries before 1440 printing is believed to have
+		been attempted in China; presumably about the beginning
+		of the Christian era. It is said that in the year
+		A. D. 175 the text of the Chinese classics was cut into
+		tablets which were erected outside the national university
+		at Peking, and that impressions—probably rubbings—were
+		taken of them. Some of these fac-simile impressions
+		are still in existence, it is asserted.</p>
+
+		<p>Xylography was also practiced in China long before
+		Europe knew the art. It can be traced as far back as
+		the sixth century, when the founder of the Suy dynasty
+		is said to have had the remains of the Chinese classics
+		engraved on wood, though it was not until the tenth
+		century that printed books became common in China.</p>
+
+		<p>The authorities of the British Museum also report
+		that Chinese writers give the name of a certain Pi Sheng
+		who, in the eleventh century, invented movable type,
+		and the Department of Oriental Printed Books and
+		Manuscripts of the same institution possesses a copy of
+		the Wen hsien tung Kao, a Chinese encyclopedia printed
+		in Korea from movable type in A. D. 1337.</p>
+
+		<p>To the Koreans also is attributed the invention of
+		copper type in the beginning of the 15th century, and
+		the inspection of books bearing the dates of that period
+		seems to show that they used such type, even if they
+		did not invent them.</p>
+
+		<p>The first authentic European printing produced from
+		individual movable type of which we have any recorded
+		impression, bears the date of A. D. 1454. These documents
+		are two different editions of the same Letters of
+		Indulgence issued in that year by Pope Nicholas V. in
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page7" title="7"> </a>behalf of the Kingdom 
+of Cyprus. We do not know,
+		however, whether they were printed from metal or wood
+		type.</p>
+
+		<p><img class="figleft" src="images/fig1.png" width="242" 
+height="383" alt="A monk at work." />As to the <em>exact</em> date of the 
+invention of printing from
+		individual movable type in Europe, we know only that
+		it was some time prior to A. D.
+		1454. Where and by whom the
+		invention came about, a dispute
+		has been waged for more than
+		four hundred years; one of the
+		most hotly contested questions
+		in history. In short, Koelhoff
+		was in part responsible for starting
+		this dispute. He published
+		in his “Cologne Chronicle” a
+		statement by Ulrich Zell, a
+		printer of Mainz in Germany and
+		a contemporary of Gutenberg,
+		that Gutenberg <em>had improved</em>,
+		but <em>not invented</em> the art, which he attributes to Coster
+		of Haarlem, in the Netherlands, in the year 1440. Gutenberg
+		stole Coster’s type, according to Zell, and printed
+		from them in 1442. Other unrefutable evidence shows
+		that Gutenberg could not have begun printing at Mainz
+		before the end of 1450.</p>
+
+		<p>In addition to Gutenberg and Coster we also find
+		Waldfoghel of Avignon, in France, and Castaldi of Felte,
+		in Italy, mentioned as claimants of this invention. The
+		value of their respective pretensions has been summed up
+		by one well known authority in the words, “Holland has
+		books, but no documents. France has documents, but
+		no books. Italy has neither books, nor documents,
+		while Germany has both books and documents.”
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page8" title="8"> </a>
+		As the case stands at present, after careful and impartial
+		examination of all available evidence, no choice
+		is left but to attribute the invention of printing with
+		individual movable cast-metal type to Lourens Janszoon
+		Coster of Haarlem in the Netherlands between the
+		years 1440 and 1446 and not to Gutenberg of Mainz in
+		Germany.</p>
+
+		<p>Zell’s statement in the “Cologne Chronicle” of 1499 is
+		further substantiated by Hadrianus Junius in his “Batavia.”
+		Junius stated that printing from individual movable
+		type was invented by Coster in Haarlem, and that
+		the “Speculum Humanae Salvationes” was one of his
+		first productions. These two statements were made
+		independently of each other and both are corroborated
+		by books to which they refer.</p>
+
+		<p>The “Speculum Humanae Salvationes,” attributed to
+		Coster by Junius was partly a folio Latin block-book,
+		and partly typographically printed. From this and
+		other records it has been clearly established that Coster
+		began as a xylographer and ended as a typographical
+		printer, and before 1472 he had manufactured and extensively
+		used at least seven different styles of primitive
+		looking individual movable cast-metal type.</p>
+
+		<p>According to tradition, while he was walking in a wood
+		near Haarlem, Coster cut some letters in the bark of a
+		beech tree, and with them, reversely impressed one by
+		one on paper, he composed one or two lines as an example
+		for the children of his son-in-law.</p>
+
+		<p>Junius does not say it, but clearly implies that, in this
+		way, Coster came to the idea of the movability of the
+		characters, the first step in the invention of typography.
+		He perceived the advantage and utility of such insulated
+		characters, which hitherto he had been cutting together
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page9" title="9"> </a>on one block, and so 
+the invention of printing with
+		individual movable type was made.</p>
+
+		<p>The questions as to whether he continued to print
+		with movable “wooden” type, or even printed books
+		with them, cannot be answered, because no such books
+		or fragments of them have come down to us. Junius’
+		words on this point are ambiguous, and yet, upon the
+		examination of the first edition of the Dutch Spiegel (of
+		which two copies are preserved at Haarlem) no one would
+		deny that there are grounds for this belief. The dancing
+		condition of the lines and letters make it almost impossible
+		to think that they are impressions from metal type.
+		But for how long and to what extent movable wooden
+		type were employed, if at all, cannot be positively
+		stated.</p>
+
+		<p>However, this idea of movability, and the accidental
+		way in which it was discovered, form together the pith
+		of the Haarlem tradition as told by Junius. Nothing
+		seems more natural than that a block-printer should cut
+		such separate letters as Coster did on the bark of a tree
+		and thereupon perceive that they could be used over and
+		over again for a variety of words on different pages,
+		while those which he used to cut in a solid block only
+		served him for one page and for one purpose.</p>
+
+		<p>It is equally clear from the Haarlem tradition that the
+		art of casting metal type was the second stage in the
+		invention, a development or outcome of the primary
+		idea of “movable letters,” for Junius says that Coster
+		“afterwards changed the beechen characters into leaden,
+		and the latter again into tin ones.”</p>
+
+		<p>Theod. Bibliander, in 1548, was the first to speak of
+		movable wooden type and to describe them. First they
+		cut their letters, he reports, on wood blocks the size of
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page10" title="10"> </a>an entire page; but 
+because the labor and cost of that
+		way was so great, they devised movable wooden type,
+		perforated and joined one to another by a thread.</p>
+
+		<p>Bibliander does not say that he had ever seen such
+		type himself, but Dan Speckle or Specklin (d. 1589) who
+		ascribed the invention to Mentelin, asserts that he saw
+		some of these wooden type at Straussburg; and Angelo
+		Roccho asserted in 1591 that he had seen at Venice type
+		perforated and joined one to another by a thread, but
+		he does not state whether they were of wood or of metal.</p>
+
+		<p>There is a theory also that between block-printing and
+		printing with movable cast-metal type there was an
+		intermediate stage of printing with “sculpto-fusi”
+		type; that is, a type of which the shank had to be cast
+		in a quadrilateral mold and the characters or letters
+		engraved afterwards by hand. This theory was suggested
+		by some one who could not believe in wooden
+		type and yet wished to account for the marked irregularities
+		of the type used to print the earliest books.</p>
+
+		<p>Granting that all the earlier works of typography preserved
+		to us are impressions of cast-metal type, there are
+		still differences of opinion, especially among practical
+		printers and type-founders, as to the probable methods
+		employed to cast them. It is considered unlikely, although
+		not impossible, that the invention of printing
+		passed all at once from xylography to the perfect typography
+		of the punch, matrix, and mold.</p>
+
+		<p>The types that Coster made and used were supposed
+		to have been manufactured in one of three or four probable
+		ways.</p>
+
+		<p>Bernard believed that the first movable cast-metal
+		type were molded in sand, since that method of casting
+		was known to the silversmiths and trinket-makers of
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page11" title="11"> </a>the fifteenth 
+century. In substantiation of his theory he
+		exhibits a specimen of a word cast as a unit for him by
+		this process, roughly similar to a modern linotype slug.</p>
+
+		<p>A second suggested mode was that of casting in clay
+		molds, by a method very similar to that used in the
+		sand process, and resulting in like peculiarities and
+		variations in the type.</p>
+
+		<p>Ottley, in his “Invention of Printing,” was the chief
+		exponent of this theory. He believed that type were
+		made by pouring molten lead into
+		molds of clay or plaster, after the
+		ordinary manner used from time
+		immemorial in casting statues and
+		other articles of metal.</p>
+
+		<p><img class="figleft" src="images/fig2.png" width="207" 
+height="313" alt="A workman with a brayer" />The imperfections in the type
+		cast by the sand and clay processes—the
+		difficulty of uneven
+		heights in the various type—is
+		supposed to have been surmounted
+		either by locking up the form with
+		the type-face downward on the
+		composing stone, or by perforating the type, either at
+		the time of casting or afterwards, and holding them
+		in their places by means of a wire or thread through
+		the perforations.</p>
+
+		<p>To this cause has been attributed the numerous misprints
+		in those early specimens of the printers’ art, to
+		correct which would have involved the unthreading of
+		every line in which a typographical error occurred.</p>
+
+		<p>A striking proof that the lines were put into the form
+		one by one, as a piece, instead of type by type, is shown
+		in a blunder in the “Speculum” of Coster where the
+		whole of a last reference line is “turned.” It is as if a
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page12" title="12"> </a>modern linotype slug 
+were put in the form up-side-down.</p>
+
+		<p>A third suggestion as to the method by which the type
+		of those early days of printing may have been produced
+		is described as a system that the type-founders of about
+		1800 called Polytypage, which is a cast facsimile copy
+		of an engraved block of type matter. Lambinet, who is
+		responsible for this suggestion, explains that this method
+		really means an early adoption of the stereotyping
+		process.</p>
+
+		<p>Lambinet thought that the early printers may have
+		discovered a way of molding in cooling metal so as to
+		get a matrix-plate impression of an entire page. Upon
+		this matrix they would pour molten lead or tin and by
+		the aid of a roller, press the fused metal evenly so as to
+		make it penetrate into all the hollows and corners of the
+		letters. This tablet of lead or tin, when cooled, being
+		easily detached from the matrix, would then reveal the
+		letters of the alphabet reversed and in relief, similar to
+		a present day stereotype. The individual letters, of
+		course, could easily be cut apart by a sharp tool, and
+		the molding operation could be repeated, using the
+		same matrix. The metal type faces so produced would
+		be fixed on wooden shanks, type high, and the font
+		would be complete.</p>
+
+		<p>It is impossible to suppose, however, that the Mainz
+		psalter of 1457, which Lambinet points to as a specimen
+		of this mode of execution, is the impression, not of type
+		at all, but a collection of “casts” mounted on wood.</p>
+
+		<p>Yet another theory has been proposed by Dr. Ch.
+		Enschede, head of the celebrated type foundry of that
+		name in Haarlem. Enschede concludes that the Costerian
+		type were produced from leaden matrices and the
+		latter from brass patrices. Their bad, irregular condition
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page13" title="13"> </a>was due to the tools 
+being imperfect, and Coster in
+		the first practice of his invention was inexperienced and
+		therefore bound to produce such imperfections as are
+		found in the Speculum. Coster’s type were cast in one
+		tempo, that is, the character itself and the shank cast
+		at the same time in one piece.</p>
+
+		<p>Gutenberg’s patrices, according to Enschede, were
+		made like bookbinders’ stamps, of yellow copper, i. e.,
+		brass. With such patrices only lead matrices could be
+		made, but the latter could be produced in two ways.
+		Molten lead could be poured over the patrices or the
+		patrices could be pressed into cold lead. The first mode
+		is somewhat complex, but the matrix would have a
+		smooth surface and need no further adjustment.</p>
+
+		<p>The second mode is more simple, but required great
+		force, although lead is a soft metal. Moreover the surface
+		of the matrix would have to be trimmed, as the
+		impression forces the metal downwards and sidewards,
+		which makes the surface uneven, though by this pressure
+		the lead becomes firmer and more compact, to the
+		advantage of the type-founder.</p>
+
+		<p>Enschede thinks that Gutenberg obtained his matrices
+		by the second mode. He arrives at this conclusion
+		by reason of the fact that Gutenberg’s types were sharper
+		in their impressions than Coster’s. Developing this
+		theory, he believes that Gutenberg had each letter engraved
+		on a brass plate 2 mm. thick, therefore a mere
+		letter without anything underneath it. This brass letter
+		patrix was pressed, by means of a small flat plate, so
+		far into the lead that its back formed an unbroken plane
+		with the top surface of the lead, and was then removed.</p>
+
+		<p>After the matrix had been made this way, the type
+		were cast, which was done, not by pouring metal into
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page14" title="14"> </a>the matrix, but by 
+pressing the latter into semi-fused
+		metal. In this way a great many letters could be cast
+		from one matrix without any injury to it. Gutenberg’s
+		method was to cast in two tempos, according to Enschede,
+		that is, the character was cast first and the shank was
+		cast by another operation joining it to the character.</p>
+
+		<p>Enschede warns us, however, that his theories are
+		simply those of a practical founder and not a bibliographer’s.
+		But since no tools used by those early
+		printers and type-founders have come to light to prove
+		or disprove him, his theory is as valuable as any others
+		advanced as to the methods used for casting type in
+		those primitive days of printing.</p>
+
+		<p>The shape of the type used as early as 1470 does not
+		seem to differ materially from those of the present day.
+		This is evident from old type which were discovered in
+		1878 in the bed of the river Saone, near Lyons, opposite
+		the site of one of the fifteenth century printing-houses
+		of that city.</p>
+
+		<p>Also a page in Joh. Neider’s “Lepra Moralis” printed
+		by Conrad Homburch in Cologne in 1476 shows the
+		accidental impression of a type pulled up from its
+		place in the course of printing by the ink-ball, and laid
+		at length on the face of the form, leaving its exact profile
+		indented upon the page.</p>
+
+		<p>This accidental imprint shows a small circle, and it is
+		presumed that the type were pierced latterly by a
+		circular hole, which did not penetrate the whole thickness
+		of the letter, and served, like the nick in modern
+		type, to enable the compositor to tell by touch which way
+		to set the letter in his stick.</p>
+
+		<p>The fact that a letter was pulled out of the form seems
+		to show that the type composing the line could not have
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page15" title="15"> </a>been threaded 
+together, as set forth by Ottley in his
+		theory of clay molds for casting type. It is to be
+		remembered, however, that in the early days of printing,
+		every printer was his own type-founder. The method
+		of casting type had not been standardized and each
+		printer had his own individual ideas both as to the kind
+		of characters and the method used in casting them.
+		Some may have threaded their type together in lines
+		and others may have simply locked them up in the form
+		face downward in the composing stone to overcome any
+		irregularities caused by crude methods of casting.</p>
+
+		<p>Vinc. Fineschi, of Florence, in Italy, gives an extract
+		from the cost-book of the Ripoli press, about 1480, which
+		shows that steel, brass, copper, tin, lead and iron were
+		all used in the manufacture of type at that period.</p>
+
+		<p>Today we have the wizardry of mechanical production
+		in the manufacture of type. The linotype and
+		monotype machines, uncanny in their operations, have
+		also come into common practice. Without them printing
+		would seem almost as primitive, in typography, as
+		it was in its infancy.</p>
+		
+		<!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page16" title="16">&nbsp;</a>[Blank 
+Page] -->
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="chapter_2" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page17" 
+title="17">&nbsp;</a> 
+		<div class="head_style_1">
+			<h2>STEREOTYPING</h2>
+		</div>
+		
+		<div>
+			<img class="init" src="images/init-a.png" width="96" 
+height="100" alt="A" />
+			<p class="init"><span class="first_word">About</span> the 
+beginning of the eighteenth
+			century a certain Van der Meyer, of
+			Antwerp, made the next step towards a
+			definite improvement in typography, the
+			first that had been attempted since the
+			invention of printing from movable,
+			cast-metal type. Van der Meyer prepared the composed
+			pages of the Bible by soldering together the bottom of
+			the type in the form. This was the first “stereotype,”
+			a term derived from two Greek words meaning literally
+			“solidtype.”</p>
+		</div>
+		
+		<p>This method met one requirement. It prevented the
+		“pi-ing” of the type, but it had the disadvantage of
+		holding in comparative idleness a large and costly mass
+		of type useless for any other purpose, and it was not
+		generally practiced.</p>
+
+		<p>This was followed in 1730, by William Ged, a goldsmith
+		of Edinburgh, who is credited with casting printing-plates
+		in plaster-of-paris molds for the University
+		of Cambridge Bible. These plates, however, were destroyed
+		by jealous printers and thrown aside, resulting
+		in the process being abandoned for many years.</p>
+
+		<p>In the meantime several other improvements along
+		this line were undergoing experiment. Firmin Didot,
+		(1764-1836), a printer of Paris, cast type of a hard
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page18" title="18"> </a>alloy, and when his 
+book-pages were composed, made an
+		impression of them on a sheet of soft lead, thus forming
+		a mold. Molten metal was then poured into a shallow
+		tray, and just as this was on the point of solidifying, but
+		still plastic, the lead-mold of the book-page was pressed
+		on the soft metal in the tray. This process called Polytypage,
+		was but partly successful; it could be used only
+		for small pages, and the plates were too often defective.
+		A process similar to this is what Lambinet thought the
+		printers of the latter half of the fifteenth century might
+		have used as one of the probable methods to cast their
+		metal types.</p>
+
+		<p>These and other experiments, however, were leading
+		to the real stereotyping process which developed later.</p>
+
+		<p>Early in the nineteenth century, Earl Stanhope, of
+		England, re-introduced Ged’s stereotyping process with
+		many improvements.</p>
+
+		<p>One or more pages of type were locked in a chase, the
+		surface of the type being oiled to prevent the subsequent
+		mold from sticking. The mold was made by pouring
+		a semi-fluid composition of plaster-of-paris mixed with
+		a little fine salt to make the plaster settle solidly. While
+		the plaster was still soft, it was carefully pressed down
+		and rolled smooth on top to give a uniform thickness to
+		the mold and to expel any air there might be in the
+		plaster. When the plaster became solid, it formed a
+		perfect matrix of the type pages.</p>
+
+		<p>The moisture in those early plaster molds was expelled
+		by baking them in an oven for three or four
+		hours. A later method for drying was practiced by
+		suspending the mold directly over the metal-pots or to
+		float them on the surface of the molten metal. By this
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page19" title="19"> </a>means the drying 
+could be accomplished in a half-hour
+		or so.</p>
+
+		<p>In the process of casting, several of these plaster
+		molds were placed side by side face downward in a
+		special casting-pan. The pan was one and three-quarters
+		or two inches deep, and a lid on the pan screwed down on
+		the back of the molds. By means of a crane the casting
+		pan with its molds was then lowered into the pot of
+		molten metal which ran into the
+		pan at the corners and sides.
+		The mold was allowed to remain
+		ten minutes or so in the
+		metal-pot, or until the face of
+		the inverted mold was entirely
+		filled with the metal.</p>
+		
+		<p><img class="figleft" src="images/fig3.png" width="228" 
+height="310" alt="A man pours from a ladle." />A later method of casting from
+		a plaster mold was to place it in
+		a frame with a smooth, flat plate
+		opposite the face of the mold and
+		to enclose the open space at one
+		end and on the two sides. The casting space thus formed
+		was then turned with the open end up and metal was
+		poured in with a ladle, in a manner similar to the method
+		still employed for casting job-work stereotypes. The
+		distance between the flat plate and the mold was
+		adjusted to make a stereotype plate of the required
+		thickness.</p>
+		
+		<p>After the removal and cooling of the casting pan, the
+		plates were freed from the plaster and the surplus metal
+		cut off. Only one cast could be made, as the mold was
+		usually destroyed in removing the cast. The stereotype
+		was then sent to the finishing department, where the
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page20" title="20"> </a>face was cleaned and 
+examined for defective letters, then
+		trimmed on the sides and planed off uniformly on the
+		back to the desired thickness, in the same manner as a
+		stereotype is treated today. A defective letter could be
+		mortised out of the plate and a good type inserted in its
+		place. In cases where a whole line or other part was
+		imperfect, another mold was made of as much of the
+		form as was necessary and the new cast inserted and
+		soldered to the plate.</p>
+
+		<p>There were many and varied experiments made in the
+		earlier development of this idea of producing a duplicate
+		printing form in a single piece. That such a process was
+		highly desirable was universally recognized, and the
+		conviction that some practicable and economical method
+		was feasible was a continual incentive which gradually
+		led to better results.</p>
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="chapter_3" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page21" 
+title="21">&nbsp;</a>
+		<div class="head_style_2">
+			<h2>STEREOTYPING<br />
+			IN AMERICA</h2>
+		</div>
+		<div>
+			<img class="init" src="images/init-a.png" width="96" 
+height="100" alt="A" />
+			<p class="init"><span class="first_word">Although</span> 
+credit is given to John Watts,
+			an Englishman then working in America,
+			for making the first stereotype plates
+			here, the real introduction of the process
+			into the United States was by David
+			Bruce. <img class="figright" src="images/fig4.png" width="209" 
+height="222" alt="A man brushes ink" />This was in 1813. Bruce had
+			learned the printer’s trade in Edinburgh and later came
+			to America, where after a few years he was joined by his
+			brother George in establishing the firm of D. &amp; G.
+			Bruce, printers. Hearing of the new process of stereotyping
+			in England, he went over there to learn about it.
+			He could get very little information
+			about the process
+			there, but came back
+			with some practical ideas
+			which he proceeded to carry
+			out. Bruce and his brother
+			also began type-founding
+			about this time, and abandoned
+			the business of printing.
+			Later they gave up
+			the work of stereotyping.</p>
+		</div>
+
+		<p>The first book stereotyped
+		in the United States
+		was the New Testament, in 1814. Bibles and school
+		books were the first works to be stereotyped; then came
+		other books which were demanded in many editions,
+		such as the works of popular authors.</p>
+
+		<!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page22" title="22">&nbsp;</a>[Blank 
+Page] -->
+
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="chapter_4" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page23" 
+title="23">&nbsp;</a>
+		<div class="head_style_2">
+			<h2>THE<br />
+			PAPIER MACHE MATRIX</h2>
+		</div>
+		<div>
+			<img class="init" src="images/init-t.png" width="106" 
+height="100" alt="T" />
+			<p class="init"><span class="first_word">The</span> papier-
+mache (literally, mashed paper)
+			matrix was first successfully used
+			for casting stereotypes for book pages
+			in France in 1848. Charles Craske, an
+			engraver of New York, introduced the
+			method into the stereotype trade of the
+			United States in 1850, and in 1854 he stereotyped a page
+			of the “<cite>New York Herald</cite>” and later made 
+stereotypes
+			for other New York newspapers.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>The modern wet stereotype “flong,” in common use
+		today, consists of several layers of special paper pasted
+		together to form a thick sheet. The base is a sheet of
+		special soft stock similar to firm blotting-paper, such as
+		is used between leaves of small blank books. Three or
+		four sheets of strong, white tissue are next added, each
+		sheet except the last being uniformly covered with the
+		paste. The pasting must be done with great care so as
+		to cover the entire surface of each sheet and at the same
+		time to press out all air bubbles. The sheets must then
+		be pressed smoothly but not squeezed so hard as to force
+		the paste out and must be kept moist until used. In
+		newspaper syndicate plants, the “flong” is made automatically
+		by a specially devised machine into which the
+		various kinds of paper used are fed from rolls, the
+		pasting and cutting into sheets being mechanical.</p>
+
+		<p>In molding a papier-mache matrix, the moist “flong”
+		is laid on the original molding form to be duplicated,
+		the molding form being in place on the table of the
+		molding press. The “flong” is covered with several
+		blankets of thick felt and the table of the molding press
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page24" title="24"> </a>is then automatically 
+moved in under a powerful roller
+		which squeezes the moist flong down into the form. At
+		the end of its travel the table is automatically brought
+		back again under the rollers to the position from which
+		it started. The speed of the roller and the table is
+		synchronized to obviate any possibility of the mat
+		becoming wrinkled by sliding.</p>
+
+		<p>The molded matrix and the pattern with the blanket
+		still on it is then transferred to the drying press, in which
+		under a hot platten it is again squeezed and allowed to
+		remain for a few minutes until the moisture is completely
+		expelled from the molded flong. The drying press is
+		kept at a high temperature, usually by steam heat.</p>
+
+		<p>The matrix thus dried out to a thick, flexible cardboard
+		is then ready for the casting of the stereotype,
+		which is done by pouring molten stereotype metal against
+		the face of the matrix placed in a casting-box designed
+		for this purpose. A successive number of stereotypes
+		can be cast for the same mat before it is injured by the
+		hot metal. For job-work stereotyping the casting-box
+		is flat, and the molten metal is either poured by hand or
+		automatically pumped in the casting-box.</p>
+
+		<p>After the stereotype is cast it is flattened, rough
+		shaved, smooth shaved, bevelled or blocked on wood;
+		the wood base trimmed and then planed type-high for
+		printing press use.</p>
+
+		<p>The large daily papers cast the full-page stereotype
+		from which the paper is printed in an automatic casting
+		machine which forms a curved plate, trimmed and
+		bevelled, to fit the cylinder of the press.</p>
+
+		<p>Stereotyping was for many years the chief means of
+		making plates for books and also for commercial printing.
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page25" title="25"> </a>It has several 
+advantages. The first, obviously, is the
+		advantage which it shares with several other methods of
+		providing a solid printing plate made by molding from
+		an original form of type or engraving. Its peculiar
+		advantage, however, is that it is the quickest method of
+		producing a duplicate plate from an original.</p>
+
+		<p>In comparison with electrotyping, however, it has
+		two distinct disadvantages. One is that it is not adapted
+		for reproducing the fine lines of engravings and type
+		faces. In addition it is comparatively shallow and does
+		not possess a sharp, clean printing face. The other disadvantage
+		is that a stereotype is relatively soft and
+		quickly worn.</p>
+
+		<p>Stereotypes have been made more durable, to withstand
+		the wear of printing, by the deposition of a film of
+		harder metal—copper or nickel—on the face of the
+		plate after it has been cast. This, however, is not
+		satisfactory, as it involves not only another operation,
+		but also makes an already shallow printing plate that
+		much shallower and increases the probability of it printing
+		“dirty,” which is one of the chief objections to the
+		stereotype in itself. This practice is not recommended.</p>
+
+		<!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page26" title="26">&nbsp;</a>[Blank 
+Page] -->
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="chapter_5" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page27" 
+title="27">&nbsp;</a>
+		<div class="head_style_1">
+			<h2>ELECTROTYPING</h2>
+		</div>
+
+		<div>
+			<img class="init" src="images/init-i.png" width="98" 
+height="100" alt="I" />
+			<p class="init"><span class="first_word">In</span> 1799, 
+Allesandro Volta, of Pavia, in
+				Italy, constructed the first electric battery,
+				which came to be called the Voltaic
+				pile. Improvements in the form of
+				Volta’s battery were made almost immediately
+				by William Cruickshank, in England,
+				who discovered in experimenting with it that he
+				could by its power electrolyze or chemically decompose
+				the salts of certain metals in solution. Both copper and
+				silver, he found, could be precipitated from their salt
+				solutions and deposited upon a plate immersed in the
+				solution.</p>
+		</div>
+		
+		<p>This observation was the first step in the process of
+		electroplating, which is electrotyping when applied to the
+		art of typography.</p>
+
+		<p>In 1837, thirty-eight years after Volta’s discovery, Mr.
+		Thomas Spencer of Liverpool, England, accidentally
+		stumbled upon the first realization of the electrotyping
+		process.</p>
+
+		<p>While experimenting with a modification of a Daniell
+		battery, he used an English copper penny as one of the
+		poles instead of a plain piece of copper. A deposition of
+		copper from the solution in the battery took place upon
+		the penny, and upon removing the wire which attached
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page28" title="28"> </a>the penny to the zinc 
+plate a portion of the copper
+		deposit was pulled off the penny also.</p>
+
+		<p>This first copper electrotype shell Spencer found to be
+		an exact duplicate or mold of part of the head and
+		lettering on the coin. <em>It was as smooth and as sharp
+		as the original.</em></p>
+
+		<p>It was some time later, however, before this suggested
+		to him any useful application of the process. Another
+		accident made him appreciate the full value of his
+		discovery. This time he carelessly dropped some varnish
+		on a strip of copper which he was going to use in the same
+		way he did the penny. Upon removing the copper from
+		the battery he observed that there was no deposition of
+		copper on those parts of the strip where the varnish had
+		dropped.</p>
+
+		<p>Spencer then conceived the idea of applying this
+		principle to the arts by coating a piece of copper with
+		varnish or wax and engraving a design in the coating,
+		thus exposing the copper strip in the engraved lines.
+		He did this, and then deposited copper in the design so
+		engraved. Upon removing the coating the design was
+		exposed in relief on the piece of copper.</p>
+
+		<p>On September 13, 1839, Spencer read a paper before
+		the Polytechnic Institution of Liverpool, which he accompanied
+		with specimens of both electrotypes made by this
+		process and of printing from these electrotypes. The
+		publication of this paper acted like an electric shock upon
+		society.</p>
+
+		<p>Developing his process, Spencer first used lead as the
+		plastic medium in which to mold printing surfaces, and
+		it is to be noted in this connection that in doing so he
+		anticipated Dr. Albert’s lead mold by considerably
+		over three quarters of a century.
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page29" title="29"> </a>
+		Spencer impressed a form of type on a planed piece of
+		sheet-lead and subjected both of them to the action of
+		a screw-press. A perfectly sharp mold of the type
+		form was thus made in the lead. This lead mold was
+		placed in a battery, and at the end of <em>eight days</em> a
+		copper shell one eighth of an inch in thickness had been
+		deposited. <img class="figleft" src="images/fig5.png" width="248" 
+height="358" alt="A man holds a beaker of liquid." />It was then removed
+		from the apparatus and the
+		rough edge of the deposited
+		copper filed off. Being subjected
+		to heat, the copper shell
+		loosened from the lead-mold.
+		Spencer called this a “copper
+		stereotype.”</p>
+
+		<p>The next step in developing
+		the electrotyping process, after
+		Spencer had demonstrated the
+		practical application of the
+		electro-chemical deposition of
+		a copper shell on a mold, was
+		made by a Mr. Robert Murray. Mr. Murray was
+		the first to use plumbago, or black-lead, to give the
+		surface of non-metallic bodies electro-conductive
+		properties. He discovered that he could coat a mold of
+		bees-wax with black-lead and deposit thereon a copper
+		shell. This was in 1840.</p>
+
+		<p>In the same year Smee’s battery was invented. This
+		was a marked improvement and was a most important
+		step towards making electrotyping a commercial possibility.</p>
+
+		<p>Thus in 1840, four hundred years after the probable
+		date of the invention of printing from individual
+		movable cast-metal type, and over forty years after
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page30" title="30"> </a>the foundation of 
+electrotyping was laid by Volta,
+		electrotyping, as a practical method of reproducing a
+		commercial typographical printing surface, came into
+		existence.</p>
+
+		<p>Mr. E. Palmer, in England, using Spencer’s method,
+		was the first to receive a patent for producing a metallic
+		printing plate with the printing surfaces in relief. This
+		patent is dated 1841. Palmer followed this in the
+		succeeding year by a further patent for engraving through
+		a wax-coated matrix-plate to form the printing surfaces
+		in the <em>positive</em> electrotype taken from it. This process
+		was termed by Palmer, “Glyphography.”</p>
+
+		<p>The “whites” or low spots in Palmer’s Glyphographs
+		were “built-up” in the wax mold through adding wax
+		by hand, assisted by various ingeniously constructed
+		tools which were heated. After “building-up,” the wax
+		was black-leaded and the copper deposition on the
+		surface of the wax mold was obtained. This copper
+		deposit, or shell, was then tinned on the back, backed up
+		with lead, mounted on wood, and trimmed type-high.
+		These processes are the essentials used today in electrotyping.</p>
+
+		<p>One of the earliest works illustrated by the Palmer
+		process is “The History and Antiquities of Brentford,
+		Ealing, and Chiswick,” by T. Faulkner, published in
+		1845, and the word “Glyphography” occurs at the foot
+		of many illustrations contained in it.</p>
+
+		<p>In 1839 the first attempt was made at commercial
+		electrotyping in America. In that year, Joseph A.
+		Adams, a wood-engraver connected with Harper &amp; Bros.
+		in New York, experimented along lines similar to those
+		Spencer had pursued, but using a wood-cut from which to
+		mold. His electrotypes were made by taking an impression
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page31" title="31"> </a>from the wood-cut in 
+an alloy of soft metal of
+		which bismuth was probably the chief ingredient, and
+		immersing the metal mold in an ordinary Voltaic
+		battery for the deposition of the copper shell. In making
+		the impression, however, the wood-cut was destroyed so,
+		that this method of making an electrotype was not
+		commercially practical.</p>
+
+		<p><img class="figright" src="images/fig6.png" width="237" 
+height="367" alt="A man operates a screw press" />The year following Adams
+		took advantage of Smee’s battery
+		and made an electrotype
+		which was used in Mape’s Magazine
+		in 1841. He also employed
+		this process for making
+		illustrations for Harper’s Family
+		Bible, issued between 1842 and
+		1844.</p>
+
+		<p>The first successful commercial
+		electrotyper in America was
+		John W. Wilcox, of Boston. A
+		wood carver named Chandler,
+		told Mr. Wilcox that if he could repeat what Adams
+		of New York had done with a wood-cut in 1839 that
+		he, Chandler, would lend him the necessary wood-cuts
+		for experimental purposes. In less than sixty days
+		in 1846, Mr. Wilcox had put into practical use every
+		essential principle known for the next twenty-five years
+		in electrotyping.</p>
+
+		<p>In 1855, Mr. Gay of New York first used tin-foil for
+		the purpose of soldering the copper shells to the metal
+		backing.</p>
+
+		<p>During the same year, a Mr. Adams of Brooklyn,
+		New York, invented the dry-brush black-leading machine.</p>
+
+		<p>Steven D. Tucker, of New York, developed and
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page32" title="32"> </a>patented in 1866 the 
+type of dry-brush black-leading
+		machine which is in common use today.</p>
+
+		<p>In 1871, Silas P. Knight, of Harper &amp; Bros., New York,
+		invented the wet black-leading process, and in 1872 took
+		out another patent for an improvement on this process.
+		Mr. Knight’s method of wet black-leading was not
+		generally adopted by the electrotypers of that time and
+		gradually became almost unknown.</p>
+
+		<p>Undoubtedly, the cause of this was that the method of
+		dry black-leading was good enough for type and woodcut
+		work. The half-tone had not been invented at that
+		time, and it was only after the invention of the half-tone
+		that a better method of black-leading became necessary.</p>
+
+		<p>Thirty-seven years after Mr. Knight had successfully
+		used his process of wet black-leading a patent was
+		granted to Frank L. Learman, of Buffalo, New York, for
+		a wet black-leader. Since that time numerous patents
+		have been taken out on different methods of using the
+		wet process, which is universally recognized today as the
+		best method of graphiting the surface of a mold.</p>
+
+		<p>In 1870, Joseph A. Adams patented a process for covering
+		the surface of the mold after it had been black-leaded
+		with powdered tin. This was for the purpose of
+		quickening the deposition of the copper shell when the
+		molds were in the batteries, and from this undoubtedly
+		came the oxidizing process of coating the surface of the
+		molds with chemical copper invented by Silas Knight,
+		which has long been and is now in use.</p>
+
+		<p>Perhaps one of the greatest forward steps in the
+		development of electrotyping was made when the plating
+		dynamo was invented. The first adoption of a dynamo
+		in place of Smee’s battery took place in 1872. With the
+		Smee type of battery it required from thirty to forty-eight
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page33" title="33"> </a>hours to deposit a 
+copper shell thick enough for
+		commercial use. With the invention of the plating
+		dynamo and its improvements, the time of depositing the
+		shell was reduced so that now two hours is the common
+		time that a mold is kept in the tubs or batteries. This
+		quickening of the time required to deposit the shell was
+		one of the most essential features in the development of
+		commercial electrotyping.</p>
+
+		<p>From the first hand-screw presses, which were successfully
+		used for molding, to the modern high-power,
+		motor-driven, hydraulic presses, for working either in
+		wax or lead, is a far cry.</p>
+
+		<p>The invention of the half-tone, together with the
+		invention of the modern two-revolution cylinder press
+		which has brought printing into its present state of
+		perfection, made necessary radical improvements in the
+		machinery for making electrotypes. These improvements
+		have been steady in their development, but the
+		fundamental points of the process are practically those
+		which have been in use from the start of commercial
+		electrotyping.</p>
+		
+		<!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page34" title="34">&nbsp;</a>[Blank 
+Page] -->
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="chapter_6" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page35" 
+title="35">&nbsp;</a>
+		<div class="head_style_2">
+			<h2>ELECTROTYPING BY<br />
+			THE WAX MOLD PROCESS
+			</h2>
+		</div>
+		<div>
+			<img class="init" src="images/init-a.png" width="96" 
+height="100" alt="A" />
+			<p class="init"><span class="first_word">An electrotype</span> 
+is a facsimile printing
+			plate duplicated from an original.
+			The original may be either type, a woodcut,
+			a zinc or a copper etching such as
+			a line-cut or a half-tone, or it may be
+			a combination of type-matter and line-cuts
+			or half-tones.</p>
+		</div>
+
+		<p>We commonly think of electrotypes as printing plates
+		made of copper, but any metal which can be electrochemically
+		deposited may be used. Because of their
+		wearing qualities and economy, however, copper and
+		nickel are the two metals commercially used for electrotyping.</p>
+
+		<p>Briefly, an electrotype is made by taking an impression
+		of the original in a plastic substance, thus forming a
+		mold or matrix; depositing copper or nickel on the mold;
+		removing the copper or nickel shell from the mold
+		and backing it with a semi-hard metal; trimming
+		the metal to printing-plate thickness, and bevelling, or
+		blocking on wood, the trimmed plate for printing-press
+		use.</p>
+
+		<p>In modern practice more than twenty-five different
+		operations are necessary to make a finished electrotype
+		ready for the press. They may be enumerated, as
+		follows:</p>
+		<ol>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Case-making.</span> The flowing of 
+a molding compound composed of &#8220;ozokerite,&#8221; a resinol-mineral wax, 
+onto the case. The case is of copper.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Flashing the Case.</span> Passing a 
+flame over the <a class="pagenum" id="page36" title="36">&nbsp;</a>surface of 
+the melted ozokerite immediately after flowing the case in order to remove air-
+bubbles.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Case-shaving.</span> The automatic 
+shaving of the top surface of the flowed case after the ozokerite has hardened 
+to give it a smooth, even surface for molding.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Graphiting.</span> Brushing surface 
+of case with molding graphite to prevent the pattern from sticking to the wax 
+mold.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Molding.</span> Making an 
+impression from the original zinc line etching, half-tone or type form in the 
+waxed case. This is done by means of a hydraulically operated molding 
+press.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Cutting-down.</span> The levelling 
+off by hand, using a sharp trowel shaped tool, of the splurge after the 
+impression has been made. Flashing is also used here to remove the burr left 
+around the letters after the cutting down process.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Building-up.</span> The adding of 
+wax by hand to the blank spaces in the molded case so that in the finished 
+electrotype they will be well below the printing face.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Black-leading.</span> Making the 
+face of the molded case electrically conductive by applying graphite.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Stopping-out.</span> Insulating 
+with a thin coating of wax the edges and back of the copper case to prevent 
+copper being deposited except on the face of the mold.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Pumping-out or Oxidizing.</span> 
+Coating the face of the molded case with chemical copper to hasten deposition of 
+copper shell in the bath.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Deposition of Shell.</span> The 
+molded case is put in the electrolytic bath for the deposition of shell 
+thereon.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Releasing Shell from Molds.</span> 
+Stripping the deposited shell from the waxed mold by dashing hot <a 
+class="pagenum" id="page37" title="37">&nbsp;</a>water on it. The wax is melted 
+off case and used again.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Washing Copper Shell.</span> Hot 
+lye-water or steam is used to clean off any wax sticking to it.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Trimming Copper Shell.</span> Rough 
+edges of shell outside the guard line trimmed off.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Aciding Copper Shell.</span> An 
+application of fluxing medium to back of copper shell so that tin will 
+adhere.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Tinning Copper Shell.</span> Tin-
+foil is melted on the back of the copper shell. This is the solder between the 
+copper shell and the metal back, without which the metal backing would not 
+adhere to the shell.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Backing-up.</span> The flowing of 
+electrotype metal on the back of the tinned copper shell for the purpose of 
+making a foundation for printing (electrotype metal is an alloy of 94 per cent 
+lead; 3 per cent tin for flowing and 3 per cent antimony for hardness).</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Scrubbing the Cast.</span> A power 
+operated scrubbing machine using a hydro-carbon oil as the cleansing medium to 
+clean the printing face of the electrotypes.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Cast-sawing.</span> Sawing off the 
+surplus metal of the cast before finishing.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Flattening the Casts.</span> Hand 
+operation with mallet and flattening block to take the warp out of the 
+electrotype caused by the contraction of the metal in cooling.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Rough-shaving.</span> Planing off 
+superfluous metal from the back of the electrotype.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Finishing.</span> Putting the 
+printing surface of the electrotype in perfect condition for press after leaving 
+the foundry department. This is done by hand and requires a high degree of 
+skill.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title"><a class="pagenum" id="page38" 
+title="38">&nbsp;</a>Smooth-shaving.</span> The finishing shave of metal from 
+back of electrotype to bring it to the required thickness.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Routing.</span> Cutting out the 
+high but non-printing surfaces of the electrotype by a routing machine.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Guard-line Sawing.</span> Cutting 
+the guard lines or bearers off the electrotype to practically the finished size 
+before blocking or bevelling.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Blocking.</span> Fastening the 
+plate on wood base with brads driven through the metal.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Trimming.</span> Trimming the wood 
+mounted electrotype to its exact finished size.</li>
+			<li><span class="li_title">Type-high Machining.</span> Used 
+for planing the bottom of the wood base so that the mounted electrotype is of 
+printing press requirements, i. e., .918″ high.</li>
+		</ol>
+		
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="chapter_7" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page39" 
+title="39">&nbsp;</a>
+		<div class="head_style_2">
+			<h2>ELECTROTYPING BY<br />
+			THE LEAD MOLD PROCESS
+			</h2>
+		</div>
+		<div>
+			<img class="init" src="images/init-e.png" width="97" 
+height="100" alt="E" />
+			<p class="init"><span class="first_word">Electrotypes</span> 
+made by the genuine
+			Dr. Albert Lead Mold Process are
+			always duplicates of fine-screen half-tones
+			or mezzo-tints used for the highest
+			class of commercial job-work, such as
+			three and four color process or duo-tone
+			printing on paper with a highly glazed surface.</p>
+		</div>
+
+		<p><img class="figright" src="images/fig7.png" width="194" 
+height="240" alt="A hydraulic press" />The largest press used in lead molding 
+will give a
+		maximum pressure of two thousand tons per square
+		inch on a thirty inch ram hydraulically operated. The
+		weight of this press is over thirty thousand pounds.</p>
+
+		<p>In the lead mold process
+		the plastic medium
+		used is a soft thin sheet of
+		what is called “impression
+		lead,” .040 inches thick,
+		instead of wax, and the lead
+		is placed on top of the
+		original to be duplicated,
+		instead of vice-versa, as
+		in the wax-molding process.
+		No “building-up”
+		nor “black-leading” is
+		necessary.</p>
+
+		<p>In all other respects the
+		consecutive steps towards the completion of the lead
+		mold plate are identical to those used in the Wax Mold
+		Process.</p>
+
+		<!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page40" title="40">&nbsp;</a>[Blank 
+Page] -->
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="chapter_8" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page41" 
+title="41">&nbsp;</a>
+		<div class="head_style_1">
+			<h2>ALUMINOTYPES</h2>
+		</div>
+
+		<div>
+			<img class="init" src="images/init-t.png" width="106" 
+height="100" alt="T" />
+			<p class="init"><span class="first_word">The</span> age long 
+progress in the development
+			and perfection of typographical printing
+			surfaces, from the period of Xylographic
+			blocks on through the successive inventions
+			of individual movable cast-metal
+			type, stereotyping and electrotyping, by
+			both the wax and lead-molding processes, reaches its
+			culmination in <em>Aluminotypes</em>.</p>
+		</div>
+		
+		<p>Briefly, it is a method of casting printing plates of
+		aluminum alloy in molds made from a composition of
+		plaster-of-paris. In its essential points it is a modern
+		adaptation of the process credited to William Ged of
+		Edinburgh in 1730 and afterwards modified and improved
+		in the early 19th century by Earl Stanhope of England.</p>
+
+		<p>In practice, the original to be duplicated is placed on
+		a molding-slab. A molding frame is set upon the slab
+		and enclosing the original. A special kind of oil is
+		then sprayed on the face of the original. This is to
+		facilitate the release of the plaster mold so that it will
+		not “tear” when it is ready to be lifted off the original
+		after solidifying, and at the same time to retain the
+		sharpness of the mold.</p>
+
+		<p>The molding medium of plaster composition in a
+		semi-liquefied state is then poured on to the original in
+		the molding frame. The surplus plaster is scraped off
+		flush with the top of the molding frame.
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page42" title="42"> </a>
+		After the plaster matrix in its molding frame has set
+		sufficiently it is released by means of cams from the
+		working pattern on the molding-slab.</p>
+
+		<p>The plaster matrix is then placed in a drying oven,
+		through which a forced draft of hot air is kept circulating
+		at high pressure. The thorough drying of the mold
+		takes approximately ninety minutes.</p>
+
+		<p>When the plaster mold has become sufficiently dried,
+		a round hole is cut through the bottom of the matrix in
+		an offset of the molding frame. This hole is the gate
+		through which the molten aluminum is forced. The
+		mold is then securely locked upright in a specially
+		designed casting machine.</p>
+
+		<p>The Aluminotype is cast by pressure and not by
+		pouring as in the case of stereotypes, which depend
+		entirely upon gravity. Fused aluminum alloy is poured
+		into a hopper on the casting machine. A piston operated
+		by the agency of compressed air forces the aluminum
+		evenly into all parts of the plaster matrix.</p>
+
+		<p>When the cast is completed the molding frame is
+		taken from the casting machine and the Aluminotype
+		removed from its plaster-of-paris matrix.</p>
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="authorities">
+		<p>AUTHORITIES:</p>
+		<ul>
+			<li>“An Outline of the History of Printing,” by R. A. 
+Peddie.</li>
+			<li>“Typographical Printing Surfaces,” by L. A. Legros.</li>
+			<li>“Manual of Electro-Metallurgy,” by Napier.</li>
+			<li>“The Encyclopedia Brittanica.”</li>
+			<li>“Electrotyping and Stereotyping” Typographical Technical 
+Series, Vol. XV.</li>
+			<li>The Rapid Electrotype Company.</li>
+		</ul>
+		
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="drawing" class="part"><a class="pagenum" id="page43" 
+title="43">&nbsp;</a>
+		<div class="head_style_1">
+			<h2>THE MAKING<br />
+			OF THE FOOLPROOF<br />
+			NEWSPAPER DRAWING</h2>
+		</div>
+		<p class="subhead">SOME ADVERTISING PICTURES PRINT WELL—OTHERS
+		DO NOT. WHY? IT’S ALL A MATTER
+		OF GOING ABOUT IT IN A KNOW-HOW WAY</p>
+		
+		<p class="byline">By J. LIVINGSTON LARNED</p>
+		
+		<div>
+			<img class="init" src="images/init-a.png" width="96" 
+height="100" alt="A" />
+			<p class="init"><span class="first_word">An</span> advertiser—
+perhaps one of the largest
+			users of newspaper space in the country—sprang
+			a surprise recently on his ad-manager.
+			Into the office he came, one
+			day, grim-visaged, jaw set, fire in his
+			eyes, and armed with no less than fifty
+			clippings from exchanges.</p>
+		</div>
+		
+		<p>And on the amazed ad-manager’s desk he placed two
+		conglomerate piles of advertising matter. One represented
+		the national newspaper campaign of his own
+		industry; the other a collection of newspaper advertisements,
+		picked at random.</p>
+
+		<p>“I think I have conclusive proof,” said he, in no mild
+		mood, “that you fellows are not as efficient as you might
+		be. Here are our advertisements—from papers everywhere.
+		The illustrations print abominably! Look at
+		them. The matter has been called to my attention
+		many times—by the newspapers themselves, by our
+		road representatives and by local dealers. They say
+		our electro service and our straight national campaigns
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page44" title="44"> </a>are all muddied up 
+with pictures that nobody can
+		decipher. Here’s conclusive proof of it. Not a clean-looking
+		cut in the series and you can’t blame it on paper
+		and press work and all that—they’re <em>all</em> bad!”</p>
+
+		<p>The advertising manager glanced casually at the
+		exhibits. The criticism was valid. Here was a daily
+		newspaper campaign, running into space valued at
+		approximately sixty thousand dollars, and the displays,
+		three-fourths illustration, were mussy, involved, smeared
+		up, and unsatisfactory from a reproductive standpoint.
+		Solid black backgrounds were a sickly, washed-out gray
+		and in other places intricate pen work had “run-together.”</p>
+
+		<p>It was equally true that clippings of competitive
+		advertising and advertising in general, selected at random,
+		were strangely clean-cut. The comparison was
+		startling.</p>
+
+		<p>“Mr. X,” finally observed the ad-manager, “I see what
+		you mean; all of us in this department have known of it,
+		kept track of it; and the remarkable part of the entire
+		situation is that these results can be traced back to you
+		and your personal insistence on a certain type of pen
+		and ink design, executed in a specific technique. These
+		matters came up for your supervision and O. K. You
+		did not care for the bold, simple outline drawings first
+		submitted. You preferred too many, and a glut of
+		detail. All of which is not compatible with newspaper
+		printing, even in large space. We were afraid of this
+		and said so at the time. Our objection was overruled.
+		It’s one thing to prefer a pleasing, perhaps highly
+		artistic pen technique and quite another to apply it to
+		fast presses, poor ink and hurried make-ready. A great
+		many things can happen, and <em>do</em> happen, to a newspaper
+		design before it is printed and in the readers’ hands.”</p>
+
+		<h3><a class="pagenum" id="page45" title="45"> </a>DISREGARDING 
+FUNDAMENTALS</h3>
+
+		<p>Sometimes it is better to come out with the frank,
+		brutal truth. In a great many instances, poor newspaper
+		reproduction is the direct result of some executive’s
+		marked preference for a certain artist or a certain
+		technique, regardless of whether the man is qualified to
+		draw for this field, or whether the technique is fitted for
+		the purpose.</p>
+
+		<p>On the other hand, there is, unquestionably, a strange,
+		well nigh inexcusable disregard of certain fundamentals
+		of the business. There is too much swivel-chair composure;
+		too much beatific reassurance, when proofs are
+		submitted on good paper, from a flat-bed engraver-house
+		press. A newspaper series is very apt to look
+		100 per cent when presented on the final electro sheet, or
+		bound into a neat booklet for the dealer and printed on
+		coated stock. These are ostrich methods!</p>
+
+		<p>In certain advertising agencies there is a standing
+		rule in the matter of newspaper plates that all proofs
+		must be pulled on newspaper stock—and a very inferior
+		grade. A newspaper press is used, an entire series coming
+		off at once. There is no make-ready to speak of.</p>
+
+		<p>By this process no one is deceived. You see exactly
+		what will happen, or nearly so, when the series fares
+		forth to newspapers all over the country.</p>
+
+		<p>The executive mentioned above had collected newspapers,
+		big and little, from the four points of the compass.
+		And he had collected a liberal number of perfectly satisfactory
+		newspaper advertisements of the illustrated
+		variety. Blacks were clean black, Ben Day tints held
+		their own, there was no congestion, no smudging, no
+		mishap of any sort.</p>
+
+		<p>If certain rules are followed, any newspaper advertising
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page46" title="46"> </a>illustration can be 
+made “fool-proof.” You can be
+		absolutely certain of a printable result, despite all
+		exigencies, all drawbacks, all hazards.</p>
+
+		<p>Failure usually follows a desire to attempt something
+		beyond that which has been tried and is wholly practical.
+		For the present, at least, users of newspaper space <em>must</em>
+		bow to the inevitable. They <em>must</em> realize that there
+		is a well-defined limit to what can be done mechanically.
+		They must <em>not</em> defiantly experiment, although the desire
+		to “do something new” and to be original is entirely
+		praiseworthy.</p>
+
+		<h3>THINGS YOU CAN’T DO</h3>
+
+		<p>If you use half-tones, have them made very coarse
+		screen—nothing finer than 60 line. Stop out whites and
+		eliminate backgrounds. The high-light half-tone is a
+		modern development with many virtues. If a portrait
+		is used, take out all background.</p>
+
+		<p>There is a way of retouching photographs that will
+		minimize the danger of poor printing. The artist
+		strengthens weak contrasts, not with a brush and paint,
+		but with a pen and waterproof black ink. He also uses
+		areas of pure white. Successful reproduction is dependent
+		upon <em>sharp</em>, clear, vigorous <em>contrasts</em>.</p>
+
+		<p>Stippling is one of the best substitutes for the half-tone.
+		This simply means dotting-in a subject. It is a time-consuming,
+		laborious process, but it means line plates
+		and the elimination of middle tones—which are disastrous.</p>
+
+		<p>There was a time when certain clever inventions of the
+		paper manufacturer could be employed for half-tone
+		effects in line. For example, a Ross Board is manufactured
+		with an assortment of patterned surfaces.
+		When brush or crayon or pencil is drawn over them,
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page47" title="47"> </a>they give effects 
+that may not be duplicated in straight
+		pen and ink on plain white drawing board. Some of
+		these papers have a chalk surface. Some have imitation
+		half-tone patterns, straight-line designs, etc. It is possible
+		to scratch away certain portions with a sharp knife.
+		<em>Do not use them</em> as matters now stand in newspaper
+		printing. They will not “stand reduction” and only
+		very coarse tints reproduce satisfactorily.</p>
+
+		<p><em>Special Caution</em>—Do not allow artists to make
+		original drawings for newspaper use much larger than
+		twice the size. Here is one of the greatest evils of the
+		day. The artist seems possessed to make his original
+		on a full sheet of paper, when he knows that the plate is
+		for two or three newspaper columns. What happens?
+		An illustration which makes a handsome showing in the
+		original will inevitably fill-in when reduced to “actual
+		size.” Figure it out yourself—look at it through a
+		reducing glass. Lines that seem wide apart almost
+		touch in the congestion that follows great reduction.
+		The really wise and shrewd artist makes his newspaper
+		drawing <em>actual</em> size.</p>
+
+		<p>Not more than a dozen Ben Day patterns can be used
+		safely—now—in newspapers. Do you know the meaning
+		of “Ben Day?” It is a mechanical tint, printed
+		mechanically either on the plate, by the engraver, or on
+		the original drawing, from an inked gelatine surface and
+		rubbed on with a stilus. Magazine reproduction accepts
+		it in all its forms. Newspaper stock muddies it up when
+		it is too fine. In any event, when selecting a pattern,
+		see that it is an open one and have it put on the engraving—not
+		the design. If on the design it means a reduction.
+		If on the plate it means no reduction, but precisely as
+		shown in the Ben Day book of patterns.
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page48" title="48"> </a>
+		Avoid complex line treatments and techniques, such
+		as cross-hatching and the laying in of many very fine
+		290 pen lines close together. They look well in the
+		original—they seldom print well on newspaper stock.
+		They reduce abominably.</p>
+
+		<p>Any newspaper illustration should have plenty of
+		white margin to “relieve it.” When a drawing is
+		cramped, packed in, suffocated by side rules, borders and
+		text, it suffers.</p>
+
+		<p>Clear outline drawings, with an occasional dash of
+		black, prove most efficient for newspaper reproduction.
+		They <em>can’t</em> fill in, they <em>can’t</em> smudge, they 
+<em>can’t</em> become
+		contaminated by clots of printing ink or defects in the
+		newspaper stock. Not even fast press work can damage
+		their printability. But remember, not all outline drawings
+		are alike—great originality of technique can be
+		secured.</p>
+
+		<h3>CAREFUL OF BLACK AREAS</h3>
+
+		<p>Large areas of solid black are not advisable. Think
+		it over. Ink flows irregularly on newspaper presses.
+		One copy may show up exactly as in the original; the
+		next may develop a white halo, a gray tendency, a
+		smeary, half-baked look. No two impressions will be
+		quite the same. And it is logical to see that this is apt
+		to be so. Any imperfection or irregularity in the ink
+		roller will cause it, or the collection of foreign matter on
+		cut or roller. Any black area larger than two inches
+		square is a hazard.</p>
+
+		<p>Advertisers often think that masses of solid black will
+		make an advertisement “stand out.” They would if
+		they printed a smooth, even black—which they seldom
+		do. But liberal white margins are far more potent in
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page49" title="49"> </a>attracting attention 
+and in segregating an advertisement
+		from mixed company than solid blacks.</p>
+
+		<p>The <em>appearance</em> of large areas of black may be
+		secured via subterfuge. One method is to form the
+		background of heavy black lines, quite close together.
+		The white spaces between save the printing. Look at
+		straight type through a magnifying glass. Not even
+		type is printed clear black. Then what chance would an
+		even surface of large proportion have?</p>
+
+		<p>Newspaper cuts should be “routed deep.” Routing is
+		merely the deepening or entire cutting away of extraneous
+		matter on the engraving—that is, where there
+		is no printing surface. The smudges of hideous design
+		often seen are really an impression of a metal surface
+		that has not been routed out properly. Every engraving
+		should be examined critically for such defects.</p>
+
+		<p>Avoid placing a shaded area against a black area. As
+		we have intimated, the heart and soul of the successful
+		newspaper drawing is <em>contrast</em>.</p>
+
+		<p>The beginning of every advertisement or series of
+		advertisements is represented in terms of a first visualization.
+		It is in pencil. These should be made same
+		size—that is, the actual size they are to eventually
+		appear. Then no one, the artist least of all, is fooled by
+		disparity of proportions.</p>
+
+		<h3>KEEP IT SIMPLE</h3>
+
+		<p>The visualizer should keep one cardinal point in mind.
+		Keep newspaper advertisements simple. The less there
+		is in them the better. Thirty-two of the ads selected by
+		our advertising friend, mentioned earlier in the story,
+		were good because they were simple. Type was held to
+		blocks, and with as little change in style, size and
+		character of type as possible.
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page50" title="50"> </a>
+		All of them were characterized by liberal white margins.
+		It is the best known way of fighting back the opposition
+		of the surrounding appeals on the same page.</p>
+
+		<p>There’s a good test possible. Make a photographic
+		print of your advertisement, the size it is to appear, and
+		paste it on a newspaper page—not a New York or
+		Chicago paper, but a page in the “Bingville Banner.”</p>
+
+		<p>Before plates are made or even before pen and ink
+		drawings are fully completed, you can change, rearrange,
+		eliminate, or add to, as the case may be.</p>
+
+		<p>The wise advertiser is the one who in preparing an
+		elaborate and extensive newspaper campaign keys it in
+		its printing qualities, not to the best papers on the list,
+		but to the ones that are worst printed. This may mean
+		the undreamed of thing of 100 per cent perfect!</p>
+
+		<p>No advertiser can hope to secure full efficiency from
+		a campaign if it presents a smudged and confused
+		appearance. Newspapers are trig things in their own
+		right. Their column rules and their precision of type
+		make this an arbitrary condition. There is really nothing
+		finer and cleaner and more pleasing to the human
+		eye than a well-composed newspaper, hot from the press.
+		Ugly advertisements can make an ugly newspaper. They
+		can even spoil the set-up and typography in general of
+		the reading sections.</p>
+
+		<p>A newspaper is held responsible if returns from a
+		single advertisement or a campaign are not satisfactory.
+		It is looked upon as a “poor medium.” Yet how many
+		times the true fault can be traced to the message itself.
+		Full efficiency in advertising is the result of full efficiency
+		in the copy *&nbsp;*&nbsp;*.</p>
+		
+		<p class="reprint_statement">(Reprinted by the kind permission of 
+The Bureau of Advertising,
+		the American Newspapers Publishers Association, Mr. William A.
+		Thompson, Director.)</p>
+		
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="plates" class="part"><a class="pagenum" id="page51" 
+title="51">&nbsp;</a>
+		<div class="head_style_1">
+			<h2>NEWSPAPER<br />
+			ADVERTISING PLATES</h2>
+		</div>
+		
+		<div>
+			<img class="init" src="images/init-m.png" width="97" 
+height="100" alt="M" />
+			<p class="init"><span class="first_word">Mechanical</span> 
+production of any kind is
+			an unsympathetic and inexorable thing,
+			and the modern large daily newspaper,
+			in its mechanical production, is unsympathetic
+			and inexorable to the highest
+			degree. It reproduces exactly and impartially
+			from all the different material supplied to it.</p>
+		</div>
+		<p>Your ad-plate is locked into the form with the other
+		matter composing the page. A hurried lock-up, and the
+		form is molded into a mat and stereotyped. Fast
+		presses and cheap ink do the rest.</p>
+
+		<p>If your ad does not show up well in the first few
+		impressions run off, the press grinds on just the same,
+		with little or no make-ready. Once they start, it is
+		too late to stop to allow the press-room foreman to
+		investigate why a certain ad does not print up well.
+		The “Daily Bugle” must get on the streets, if possible,
+		before its competitors with the important scoop that the
+		Beghum of Swat has just died. If you have supplied the
+		best material for the newspapers to work with, the clean-cut
+		reproduction of your advertisement is insured. If
+		you have been penny-wise and pound-foolish in saving
+		a few cents on your ad-plate, all the dollars you spent on
+		art, typography and white space for your ad are on the
+		knees of the gods and liable to be spilled off the said
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page52" title="52"> </a>knees, and your ad is 
+messy looking when it appears.
+		The advertiser invariably blames the newspaper and
+		the newspaper passes the buck on to the plate-maker.
+		The printed appearance of the ad is largely determined
+		by the kind of plate furnished to the newspaper.</p>
+
+		<p>The large daily newspapers are entirely dependent
+		upon the stereotyping process for the necessary speed
+		required in production. They do not print directly from
+		type or cuts. The big advantage of stereotyping in this
+		connection lies in the fact that it is the quickest method
+		of producing a solid, duplicate printing plate from an
+		original molding form. After locking up a page form,
+		it can be molded, the matrix dried and the plate cast
+		and ready for the press in about ten minutes.</p>
+
+		<p>Therefore, only unmounted plates should be sent to
+		the large daily papers and not wood mounted, as it takes
+		too long for the heat to pass through the wood base in
+		drying the mat.</p>
+
+		<p>The unmounted plate is placed on a metal base,
+		(because heat passes through metal quickly in drying
+		the mat) and then locked in the form with the type and
+		other matter composing the entire page. A mat is then
+		molded from the complete form and a curved stereotype
+		is cast from this page mat. It is from this curved full
+		page stereotype that the large daily newspaper is actually
+		printed.</p>
+
+		<p>Since they must duplicate the plates sent to them by
+		the stereotyping process, your expensively prepared
+		advertisement, if it is to appear sharp and clean in the
+		valuable space it uses, should be electrotyped by your
+		plate-maker. A stereotype duplicated from an electrotype
+		will print cleaner than a stereotype duplicated from
+		a stereotype by reason of the fact that mats molded by
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page53" title="53"> </a>the newspaper from 
+electrotypes are sharper and deeper
+		than when they are molded from stereotypes.</p>
+
+		<p>Electrotypes have a distinctly sharper and harder face
+		and are deeper than stereotypes. The very nature of
+		the process and materials used in their manufacture
+		makes this superiority inevitable. Wax is used as the
+		plastic medium in which to mold electrotypes, whereas
+		for stereotypes paper is used. Sharpness and depth
+		cannot be molded into paper as it can into wax.</p>
+
+		<p>Neither will stereotype metal poured by gravity against
+		a paper matrix mold be as sharp and deep as copper
+		deposited electrolytically on a wax mold.</p>
+
+		<p>It follows, therefore, that when an unmounted electrotype
+		is supplied to the “Chicago Tribune” or the
+		“New York Journal” or the “San Francisco Call”
+		they are stereotyping your ad in the page form from a
+		plate molded in wax directly from the original.</p>
+
+		<p>On the other hand, when you supply a stereotype of
+		your ad to the large dailies this stereotype is already
+		one step removed from the original master plate and
+		means that two paper mats intervene between the
+		original supplied to the plate-maker and the final stereotype
+		of the page containing your advertisement. In
+		short, they are duplicating a stereotype from a stereotype
+		and each duplication means a loss in sharpness and
+		depth; therefore they should be supplied with a sharp
+		electrotype from which to make their final page mat.</p>
+
+		<p>Obviously when a stereotype is supplied to the large
+		dailies they are working from a plate that is neither
+		sharp nor deep to start with, as would be the case if you
+		sent them an electrotype from which to work. An
+		electrotype is economy in the end and will save you
+		grief, when the cost of space is considered.
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page54" title="54"> </a>
+		Should you desire economy, order your plate-maker
+		to send mats—copy considered—to the large dailies. A
+		mat is less expensive than a stereotype and will reproduce
+		your advertisement equally as well.</p>
+
+		<p>When you send them a mat instead of an electro there
+		is one more duplication for the newspapers to make in
+		producing the final stereotype from which they print,
+		but the mat which your plate-maker furnishes them is
+		at least molded directly from the original plate, so that
+		it is sharper and deeper than the mat the newspapers
+		have to make when you furnish them a stereotype from
+		which to work. When you furnish the large dailies with
+		the mat they cast a flat stereotype first, which is locked
+		up in the form with the other matter composing the
+		page. This entire form is then molded into a mat and
+		stereotyped.</p>
+
+		<p>The small dailies and country newspapers print directly
+		from type and cuts. They use a flat-bed press. For this
+		reason it is necessary that the advertising-plate or
+		dealers cut which you furnish to them should be mounted
+		type-high.</p>
+
+		<p>The best plate you can furnish them is none too good;
+		their make-ready and the general handling of their
+		material is not of the highest order in efficiency as compared
+		to the large dailies, and it is entirely probable
+		that even with a good sharp electrotype, your advertisement
+		may not show to advantage. With a stereotype,
+		the liability of smudgy printing is greatly enhanced.</p>
+
+		<p>The Rapid Electrotype Company knows the mechanical
+		equipment of the different newspapers throughout
+		the United States. It sends mounted plates to those
+		papers that print directly from type and cuts, and
+		unmounted plates to those that stereotype their forms.
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page55" title="55"> </a>This detail is left 
+entirely to their discretion. The names
+		of the towns to which your advertisement or dealers-cut
+		is to be shipped is all the information they require in
+		order to determine whether or not to ship mounted or
+		unmounted plates.</p>
+		
+		<!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page56" title="56">&nbsp;</a>[Blank 
+Page] -->
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="rect" class="part"><a class="pagenum" id="page57" 
+title="57">&nbsp;</a>
+		<div class="head_style_1">
+			<h2>THE<br />
+			RAPID ELECTROTYPE<br />
+			COMPANY</h2>
+		</div>
+		
+		<div>
+			<img class="init" src="images/init-t.png" width="106" 
+height="100" alt="T" />
+			<p class="init"><span class="first_word">The Rapid Electrotype 
+Company</span>
+			of Cincinnati was organized in
+			July, 1899, and incorporated under the
+			laws of Ohio in May, 1902. It has been
+			in service over a fifth of a century.</p>
+		</div>
+
+		<p>Prior to the organization of The Rapid
+		Electrotype Company, electrotyping was, on the whole,
+		a localized business. The Rapid Electrotype Company
+		pioneered in the service of making and distributing newspaper
+		advertising plates—electrotypes, aluminotypes,
+		stereotypes, and mats—direct from its factory in Cincinnati
+		to newspapers and dealers throughout the United
+		States.</p>
+
+		<p>The originality of this service, intelligently rendered to
+		advertising agencies and advertisers, was one of the
+		reasons for the increase of their capacity from only
+		five thousand square inches of plate matter daily in 1899
+		to one million square inches per day in 1921, and from an
+		organization of only nine men to one of over two hundred
+		and fifty, working in day and night shifts.</p>
+
+		<p>Their new factory is unquestionably the largest of its
+		kind in the world, especially designed and equipped for
+		the making and distribution of newspaper ad plates of
+		all kinds. Over forty-five thousand square feet of floor
+		space is devoted to this service, and with their highly
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page58" title="58"> </a>developed co-
+operative facilities they occupy a unique
+		place in the advertising plans of many large national
+		advertisers and advertising agencies.</p>
+
+		<h3>FACTORY PRACTICE</h3>
+
+		<p>Developing and serving an ever increasing volume of
+		business has brought about a specialization in the factory
+		practice of The Rapid Electrotype Company. It has
+		kept pace with the demands upon its production and
+		has made improvements in manufacturing methods
+		designed to cut-corners in cost of manufacture, to be
+		shared with its customers, and to make its service truly
+		Rapid for all emergencies, without sacrificing quality.</p>
+
+		<p>Its commercial job-plate department is a separate
+		and distinct unit from the newspaper advertising-plate
+		department.</p>
+
+		<p>The character of the respective requirements of
+		commercial job-plates and newspaper advertising plates
+		make this departmental production advisable.</p>
+
+		<p>A lead-molding press, built by The F. Wesel Mfg.
+		Co., weighing over thirty-thousand pounds, and developing
+		two thousand tons pressure per square inch on a
+		thirty inch hydraulically operated ram is used in the
+		job-plate department. On this press are duplicated, from
+		the finest screen half-tones, the highest quality electrotypes
+		and nickeltypes to be used in three and four color
+		process printing.</p>
+
+		<p>The preponderating volume of its business, however,
+		is the production of newspaper electrotypes, and it is in
+		this department that The Rapid Electrotype Company
+		has made distinct improvements in manufacturing practice
+		by methods and machinery designed and constructed
+		by its own engineers in its own machine shop.</p>
+
+		<h3><a class="pagenum" id="page59" title="59"> </a>BLACK 
+LEADING</h3>
+
+		<p>The Rapid Electrotype Company has built a new
+		type of machine for use in this important phase of the
+		electrotyping art. It is a combination Dry-Wet Machine,
+		designed by its own engineering staff.</p>
+
+		<p>Those familiar with electrotypes well know the superiority
+		of the wet black leading process, especially for
+		half-tones, stipple, Ben Day or fine type, where much of
+		the detail and sharpness is lost in dry black leading,
+		because of the crushing effect the brushes have on the
+		wax mold. In this new type of black leading machine
+		this fault is entirely eliminated, as the brushes never
+		come in contact with the printing face of the mold;
+		they merely polish the high built-up spots, thereby insuring
+		better electrical conductivity to the wax, and
+		a more uniform deposition of the copper shell.</p>
+
+		<p>Two of these especially designed machines are in
+		constant operation in the ad department, which means
+		the highest grade of advertising plates.</p>
+
+		<h3>DEPOSITING THE SHELL</h3>
+
+		<p>Those who are not technically familiar with electrochemistry
+		are prone to think that the length of time a
+		mold is kept in the electrolytic bath, i. e., the copper
+		bath, determines the thickness of the shell deposited
+		thereon. As a matter of fact, one electrotyper may keep
+		his molds in the copper bath for three hours and get
+		only as thick a shell as another who keeps his in but two
+		hours. The element of time does not determine the
+		thickness nor quality of the shell deposited.</p>
+
+		<p>The determining factors in this phase of electrotyping
+		are the composition of the electrolytic bath, its temperature,
+		and the current density applied. In addition,
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page60" title="60"> </a>the purity of the 
+materials, the cleanliness of the batteries,
+		the perfection of the electrical connections as well as
+		the distance between the anode and the cathode are all
+		matters of importance. These factors are all variables
+		and must be confined between narrow limits.</p>
+
+		<p>This important phase of manufacture in The Rapid
+		Electrotype Company is under the supervision of an
+		electro-chemical engineer.</p>
+
+		<p>Plus this fact is the accuracy of mechanical operation
+		in handling wax molds from the time they are put into
+		the batteries until they are taken out with the shell
+		deposited thereon and ready for tinning and backing-up.</p>
+
+		<p>The molded cases are suspended at regular intervals
+		of twenty inches from an endless chain-conveyor operating
+		directly over the batteries. This conveyor carries the
+		cases edge-wise through the electrolytic bath between two
+		rows of anodes which are four inches apart. At the end
+		of each battery the conveyor automatically lifts the
+		cases out and over into the next battery in the series, of
+		which there are seven. The eighth tub contains pure
+		running water for washing the case after the complete
+		deposition of the shell.</p>
+
+		<p>The speed of this conveyor is regulated so that when
+		the molded case has reached the end of its journey
+		through the series of seven batteries, the other factors
+		also being regulated, a shell of uniform thickness and
+		texture throughout is deposited thereon.</p>
+
+		<p>This automatic handling of the cases in the batteries
+		eliminates the necessity of the battery-man pulling the
+		case out of the bath by hand from time to time in order
+		to peel back a corner of the shell to see if it is thick
+		enough, which is the common practice. In other words,
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page61" title="61"> </a>the element of human 
+guess-work is eliminated, and in
+		addition, the items of time and handling are greatly
+		reduced.</p>
+
+		<h3>BACKING UP THE SHELL</h3>
+
+		<p>Backing-up the shells with the metal base, i. e., casting,
+		is done automatically by The Rapid Electrotype Company.</p>
+
+		<p>A rotary casting-table with a capacity of ten pans
+		revolves around its axis on a plane that brings each pan
+		immediately below a spout through which the required
+		metal is automatically flowed from the bottom of the
+		metal pot on the tinned shell placed therein. When the
+		required metal backing has been flowed, the table turns
+		to bring the next pan with its shell under the metal-spout.
+		The amount of metal flowed is exactly regulated.
+		As the casting table completes a circuit, the first shell
+		backed up has cooled so that it can be removed to the
+		scrubbing machine.</p>
+
+		<p>This method, of course, eliminates the hand-ladling of
+		hot metal from the metal-pot to the casting-table, as is
+		the ordinary practice, and obviates any possibility of the
+		oxidized metal or dross on the surface getting into the
+		casts, besides effecting a marked economy in time and
+		handling. In addition, it casts the plates flat, thereby
+		eliminating about 75 per cent of the finishing, which, of
+		course, means a better printing plate. Three of these
+		machines are used.</p>
+
+		<p>The Rapid Electrotype Company developed and built
+		these casting-machines in its own machine shop and owns
+		the patents covering them.</p>
+
+		<h3>THE ALUMINOTYPE PROCESS</h3>
+
+		<p>The development, perfection and introduction of the
+		Aluminotype Process for duplicating a printing surface
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page62" title="62"> </a>in a solid piece is 
+one of the outstanding accomplishments
+		of The Rapid Electrotype Company, and marks a distinct
+		step in advance of the other and older methods used in
+		the graphic arts, for certain classes of printing.</p>
+
+		<p>Aluminotypes are much harder than an electrotype or
+		stereotype and have as sharp and deep a printing face as
+		an electrotype. The Aluminotype process will reproduce
+		as sharp and clear as the electrotyping process an eighty
+		line screen half-tone, which is really too fine a screen for
+		newspaper printing.</p>
+
+		<p>A distinct advantage Aluminotypes have is in the
+		item of weight. An Aluminotype, unmounted, weighs
+		only one quarter as much as an unmounted electrotype
+		or stereotype of the same size. When mounted on a
+		wood base an Aluminotype weighs just one half as much
+		as an electrotype or stereotype of the same size mounted
+		on wood. In a national advertising campaign where a
+		general list of newspapers is used Aluminotypes, by
+		reason of their light weight, effect a marked saving in
+		parcel-post or express charges. This saving in postage
+		is especially noticeable in the case of foreign country
+		newspaper campaigns.</p>
+
+		<p>In addition, because of their toughness, a saving can
+		be made in packing Aluminotypes, inasmuch as they do
+		not require the expensive precautions in packing to avoid
+		injury in transportation that electrotypes or stereotypes
+		do. They will not bend; their printing face cannot be
+		injured by the ordinary mishaps attendant upon handling
+		in transportation. For all practical purposes it can be
+		said that Aluminotypes are indestructible.</p>
+
+		<h3>MATRICES</h3>
+
+		<p>The ordinary practice followed in making mats is to
+		use an electrotype or stereotype pattern plate made
+		<a class="pagenum" id="page63" title="63"> </a>from the original 
+form. Sometimes the original itself
+		is used.</p>
+
+		<p>The first mat molded from an electrotype pattern
+		plate will be sharp. The next one molded will be a
+		little less sharp than the first. The third one molded
+		will be slightly less sharp than the second one. In other
+		words, with every succeeding mold, the electrotype or
+		stereotype pattern plate is mashed a little by the pressure
+		of the matrix press until it has to be discarded and a new
+		one used.</p>
+
+		<p>The five-thousandth mat made by the Rapid Electrotype
+		Company from the same pattern plate is as sharp
+		as the first one molded. This is because an <em>aluminotype</em>
+		pattern is used from which to mold. <em>Aluminotypes</em>
+		will not mash under the pressure of the matrix
+		press, as they are much harder than electrotypes.</p>
+
+		<h3>THE SHIPPING DEPARTMENT</h3>
+
+		<p>The shipping department of The Rapid Electrotype
+		Company is one of the most important and highly
+		systematized in the entire organization, and in the
+		manner of handling orders for distribution to newspapers
+		in large campaigns or in making bulk shipment direct to
+		the advertisers is unique.</p>
+
+		<p>It is in this department that the packing and routing
+		of advertising plates to newspapers or dealers is done.
+		A system of triple checking each item of all orders
+		precludes, as far as is humanly possible, any error in
+		filling accurately all specifications.</p>
+
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="the_end"><a class="pagenum" id="page64" title="64">&nbsp;</a>
+		<p>This brochure was compiled
+		by H. C. Forster of The
+		Rapid Electrotype Co.</p>
+	</div>
+
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS; A.D. 
+1440-A.D. 1921***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 33497-h.txt or 33497-h.zip *******</p>
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+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,2024 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, From Xylographs to Lead Molds; A.D. 1440-A.D.
+1921, by H. C. Forster
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: From Xylographs to Lead Molds; A.D. 1440-A.D. 1921
+
+
+Author: H. C. Forster
+
+
+
+Release Date: August 24, 2010  [eBook #33497]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS;
+A.D. 1440-A.D. 1921***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, and the Project Gutenberg
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file
+      which includes the original illustrations and illuminations.
+      See 33497-h.htm or 33497-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33497/33497-h/33497-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33497/33497-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS
+
+AD 1440         AD 1921
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1921
+The Rapid Electrotype Company
+Cincinnati, Ohio
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+Printing has been called "the art preservative of all arts." The
+invention of individual movable cast-metal type, between A. D. 1440
+and 1446, made printing a commercial possibility.
+
+The subsequent rapid spread of the art, in the hands of students and
+craftsmen, may be said to have been the centrifugal force of the
+Renaissance and the Revival of Learning, which age, if it can be
+chronologically delimited, began A. D. 1453.
+
+Printing divulged to the masses the ancient classics which had been
+locked up in monasteries and accessible only to clerics and the
+nobility. The common people began to read. Education became
+popularized.
+
+This brochure is a brief history of the evolution from xylographs to
+the methods used today for duplicating a typographical printing
+surface in a solid piece.
+
+
+
+
+INDIVIDUAL MOVABLE CAST-METAL TYPE
+
+
+The art of writing, and that of printing from wooden blocks, and all
+the subsidiary arts of illuminating, decorating and binding
+manuscripts and books, had long passed out of the exclusive hands of
+the monasteries into the hands of students and artisans, before
+printing with individual movable cast-metal type was invented. This
+epoch making invention came into practical use between A. D. 1440 and
+1446.
+
+When, therefore, Johannes Koelhoff of Lubeck, Germany, printed the
+"Cologne Chronicle" in 1499, he used individual movable cast-metal
+type. Typographic printing had long before superseded Xylographic
+printing, that is, printing from a solid block of wood on which type
+of an entire page were cut individually by hand.
+
+Between the invention of individual movable cast-metal type and the
+perfection by the Earl of Stanhope of his printing-press, (a period of
+about three hundred and sixty years), very few improvements had been
+made in the mechanics of printing. Everything we know today about the
+art has come into use since 1799, and if Koelhoff had come to life in
+1799 and been permitted to resume his occupation of printer, he would
+have found himself practically familiar with the mechanical equipment
+of his craft as used in the establishment of the Stanhope Press in
+that last year of the eighteenth century.
+
+Centuries before 1440 printing is believed to have been attempted in
+China; presumably about the beginning of the Christian era. It is said
+that in the year A. D. 175 the text of the Chinese classics was cut
+into tablets which were erected outside the national university at
+Peking, and that impressions--probably rubbings--were taken of them.
+Some of these fac-simile impressions are still in existence, it is
+asserted.
+
+Xylography was also practiced in China long before Europe knew the
+art. It can be traced as far back as the sixth century, when the
+founder of the Suy dynasty is said to have had the remains of the
+Chinese classics engraved on wood, though it was not until the tenth
+century that printed books became common in China.
+
+The authorities of the British Museum also report that Chinese writers
+give the name of a certain Pi Sheng who, in the eleventh century,
+invented movable type, and the Department of Oriental Printed Books
+and Manuscripts of the same institution possesses a copy of the Wen
+hsien tung Kao, a Chinese encyclopedia printed in Korea from movable
+type in A. D. 1337.
+
+To the Koreans also is attributed the invention of copper type in the
+beginning of the 15th century, and the inspection of books bearing the
+dates of that period seems to show that they used such type, even if
+they did not invent them.
+
+The first authentic European printing produced from individual movable
+type of which we have any recorded impression, bears the date of A. D.
+1454. These documents are two different editions of the same Letters
+of Indulgence issued in that year by Pope Nicholas V. in behalf of the
+Kingdom of Cyprus. We do not know, however, whether they were printed
+from metal or wood type.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+As to the _exact_ date of the invention of printing from individual
+movable type in Europe, we know only that it was some time prior to
+A. D. 1454. Where and by whom the invention came about, a dispute has
+been waged for more than four hundred years; one of the most hotly
+contested questions in history. In short, Koelhoff was in part
+responsible for starting this dispute. He published in his "Cologne
+Chronicle" a statement by Ulrich Zell, a printer of Mainz in Germany
+and a contemporary of Gutenberg, that Gutenberg _had improved_, but
+_not invented_ the art, which he attributes to Coster of Haarlem, in
+the Netherlands, in the year 1440. Gutenberg stole Coster's type,
+according to Zell, and printed from them in 1442. Other unrefutable
+evidence shows that Gutenberg could not have begun printing at Mainz
+before the end of 1450.
+
+In addition to Gutenberg and Coster we also find Waldfoghel of
+Avignon, in France, and Castaldi of Felte, in Italy, mentioned as
+claimants of this invention. The value of their respective pretensions
+has been summed up by one well known authority in the words, "Holland
+has books, but no documents. France has documents, but no books. Italy
+has neither books, nor documents, while Germany has both books and
+documents."
+
+As the case stands at present, after careful and impartial examination
+of all available evidence, no choice is left but to attribute the
+invention of printing with individual movable cast-metal type to
+Lourens Janszoon Coster of Haarlem in the Netherlands between the
+years 1440 and 1446 and not to Gutenberg of Mainz in Germany.
+
+Zell's statement in the "Cologne Chronicle" of 1499 is further
+substantiated by Hadrianus Junius in his "Batavia." Junius stated that
+printing from individual movable type was invented by Coster in
+Haarlem, and that the "Speculum Humanae Salvationes" was one of his
+first productions. These two statements were made independently of
+each other and both are corroborated by books to which they refer.
+
+The "Speculum Humanae Salvationes," attributed to Coster by Junius was
+partly a folio Latin block-book, and partly typographically printed.
+From this and other records it has been clearly established that
+Coster began as a xylographer and ended as a typographical printer,
+and before 1472 he had manufactured and extensively used at least
+seven different styles of primitive looking individual movable
+cast-metal type.
+
+According to tradition, while he was walking in a wood near Haarlem,
+Coster cut some letters in the bark of a beech tree, and with them,
+reversely impressed one by one on paper, he composed one or two lines
+as an example for the children of his son-in-law.
+
+Junius does not say it, but clearly implies that, in this way, Coster
+came to the idea of the movability of the characters, the first step
+in the invention of typography. He perceived the advantage and utility
+of such insulated characters, which hitherto he had been cutting
+together on one block, and so the invention of printing with
+individual movable type was made.
+
+The questions as to whether he continued to print with movable
+"wooden" type, or even printed books with them, cannot be answered,
+because no such books or fragments of them have come down to us.
+Junius' words on this point are ambiguous, and yet, upon the
+examination of the first edition of the Dutch Spiegel (of which two
+copies are preserved at Haarlem) no one would deny that there are
+grounds for this belief. The dancing condition of the lines and
+letters make it almost impossible to think that they are impressions
+from metal type. But for how long and to what extent movable wooden
+type were employed, if at all, cannot be positively stated.
+
+However, this idea of movability, and the accidental way in which it
+was discovered, form together the pith of the Haarlem tradition as
+told by Junius. Nothing seems more natural than that a block-printer
+should cut such separate letters as Coster did on the bark of a tree
+and thereupon perceive that they could be used over and over again for
+a variety of words on different pages, while those which he used to
+cut in a solid block only served him for one page and for one purpose.
+
+It is equally clear from the Haarlem tradition that the art of casting
+metal type was the second stage in the invention, a development or
+outcome of the primary idea of "movable letters," for Junius says that
+Coster "afterwards changed the beechen characters into leaden, and the
+latter again into tin ones."
+
+Theod. Bibliander, in 1548, was the first to speak of movable wooden
+type and to describe them. First they cut their letters, he reports,
+on wood blocks the size of an entire page; but because the labor and
+cost of that way was so great, they devised movable wooden type,
+perforated and joined one to another by a thread.
+
+Bibliander does not say that he had ever seen such type himself, but
+Dan Speckle or Specklin (d. 1589) who ascribed the invention to
+Mentelin, asserts that he saw some of these wooden type at
+Straussburg; and Angelo Roccho asserted in 1591 that he had seen at
+Venice type perforated and joined one to another by a thread, but he
+does not state whether they were of wood or of metal.
+
+There is a theory also that between block-printing and printing with
+movable cast-metal type there was an intermediate stage of printing
+with "sculpto-fusi" type; that is, a type of which the shank had to be
+cast in a quadrilateral mold and the characters or letters engraved
+afterwards by hand. This theory was suggested by some one who could
+not believe in wooden type and yet wished to account for the marked
+irregularities of the type used to print the earliest books.
+
+Granting that all the earlier works of typography preserved to us are
+impressions of cast-metal type, there are still differences of
+opinion, especially among practical printers and type-founders, as to
+the probable methods employed to cast them. It is considered unlikely,
+although not impossible, that the invention of printing passed all at
+once from xylography to the perfect typography of the punch, matrix,
+and mold.
+
+The types that Coster made and used were supposed to have been
+manufactured in one of three or four probable ways.
+
+Bernard believed that the first movable cast-metal type were molded in
+sand, since that method of casting was known to the silversmiths and
+trinket-makers of the fifteenth century. In substantiation of his
+theory he exhibits a specimen of a word cast as a unit for him by this
+process, roughly similar to a modern linotype slug.
+
+A second suggested mode was that of casting in clay molds, by a method
+very similar to that used in the sand process, and resulting in like
+peculiarities and variations in the type.
+
+Ottley, in his "Invention of Printing," was the chief exponent of this
+theory. He believed that type were made by pouring molten lead into
+molds of clay or plaster, after the ordinary manner used from time
+immemorial in casting statues and other articles of metal.
+
+The imperfections in the type cast by the sand and clay processes--the
+difficulty of uneven heights in the various type--is supposed to have
+been surmounted either by locking up the form with the type-face
+downward on the composing stone, or by perforating the type, either at
+the time of casting or afterwards, and holding them in their places by
+means of a wire or thread through the perforations.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+To this cause has been attributed the numerous misprints in those
+early specimens of the printers' art, to correct which would have
+involved the unthreading of every line in which a typographical error
+occurred.
+
+A striking proof that the lines were put into the form one by one, as
+a piece, instead of type by type, is shown in a blunder in the
+"Speculum" of Coster where the whole of a last reference line is
+"turned." It is as if a modern linotype slug were put in the form
+up-side-down.
+
+A third suggestion as to the method by which the type of those early
+days of printing may have been produced is described as a system that
+the type-founders of about 1800 called Polytypage, which is a cast
+facsimile copy of an engraved block of type matter. Lambinet, who is
+responsible for this suggestion, explains that this method really
+means an early adoption of the stereotyping process.
+
+Lambinet thought that the early printers may have discovered a way of
+molding in cooling metal so as to get a matrix-plate impression of an
+entire page. Upon this matrix they would pour molten lead or tin and
+by the aid of a roller, press the fused metal evenly so as to make it
+penetrate into all the hollows and corners of the letters. This tablet
+of lead or tin, when cooled, being easily detached from the matrix,
+would then reveal the letters of the alphabet reversed and in relief,
+similar to a present day stereotype. The individual letters, of
+course, could easily be cut apart by a sharp tool, and the molding
+operation could be repeated, using the same matrix. The metal type
+faces so produced would be fixed on wooden shanks, type high, and the
+font would be complete.
+
+It is impossible to suppose, however, that the Mainz psalter of 1457,
+which Lambinet points to as a specimen of this mode of execution, is
+the impression, not of type at all, but a collection of "casts"
+mounted on wood.
+
+Yet another theory has been proposed by Dr. Ch. Enschede, head of the
+celebrated type foundry of that name in Haarlem. Enschede concludes
+that the Costerian type were produced from leaden matrices and the
+latter from brass patrices. Their bad, irregular condition was due to
+the tools being imperfect, and Coster in the first practice of his
+invention was inexperienced and therefore bound to produce such
+imperfections as are found in the Speculum. Coster's type were cast in
+one tempo, that is, the character itself and the shank cast at the
+same time in one piece.
+
+Gutenberg's patrices, according to Enschede, were made like
+bookbinders' stamps, of yellow copper, i. e., brass. With such
+patrices only lead matrices could be made, but the latter could be
+produced in two ways. Molten lead could be poured over the patrices or
+the patrices could be pressed into cold lead. The first mode is
+somewhat complex, but the matrix would have a smooth surface and need
+no further adjustment.
+
+The second mode is more simple, but required great force, although
+lead is a soft metal. Moreover the surface of the matrix would have to
+be trimmed, as the impression forces the metal downwards and
+sidewards, which makes the surface uneven, though by this pressure the
+lead becomes firmer and more compact, to the advantage of the
+type-founder.
+
+Enschede thinks that Gutenberg obtained his matrices by the second
+mode. He arrives at this conclusion by reason of the fact that
+Gutenberg's types were sharper in their impressions than Coster's.
+Developing this theory, he believes that Gutenberg had each letter
+engraved on a brass plate 2 mm. thick, therefore a mere letter without
+anything underneath it. This brass letter patrix was pressed, by means
+of a small flat plate, so far into the lead that its back formed an
+unbroken plane with the top surface of the lead, and was then removed.
+
+After the matrix had been made this way, the type were cast, which was
+done, not by pouring metal into the matrix, but by pressing the latter
+into semi-fused metal. In this way a great many letters could be cast
+from one matrix without any injury to it. Gutenberg's method was to
+cast in two tempos, according to Enschede, that is, the character was
+cast first and the shank was cast by another operation joining it to
+the character.
+
+Enschede warns us, however, that his theories are simply those of a
+practical founder and not a bibliographer's. But since no tools used
+by those early printers and type-founders have come to light to prove
+or disprove him, his theory is as valuable as any others advanced as
+to the methods used for casting type in those primitive days of
+printing.
+
+The shape of the type used as early as 1470 does not seem to differ
+materially from those of the present day. This is evident from old
+type which were discovered in 1878 in the bed of the river Saone, near
+Lyons, opposite the site of one of the fifteenth century
+printing-houses of that city.
+
+Also a page in Joh. Neider's "Lepra Moralis" printed by Conrad
+Homburch in Cologne in 1476 shows the accidental impression of a type
+pulled up from its place in the course of printing by the ink-ball,
+and laid at length on the face of the form, leaving its exact profile
+indented upon the page.
+
+This accidental imprint shows a small circle, and it is presumed that
+the type were pierced latterly by a circular hole, which did not
+penetrate the whole thickness of the letter, and served, like the nick
+in modern type, to enable the compositor to tell by touch which way to
+set the letter in his stick.
+
+The fact that a letter was pulled out of the form seems to show that
+the type composing the line could not have been threaded together, as
+set forth by Ottley in his theory of clay molds for casting type. It
+is to be remembered, however, that in the early days of printing,
+every printer was his own type-founder. The method of casting type had
+not been standardized and each printer had his own individual ideas
+both as to the kind of characters and the method used in casting them.
+Some may have threaded their type together in lines and others may
+have simply locked them up in the form face downward in the composing
+stone to overcome any irregularities caused by crude methods of
+casting.
+
+Vinc. Fineschi, of Florence, in Italy, gives an extract from the
+cost-book of the Ripoli press, about 1480, which shows that steel,
+brass, copper, tin, lead and iron were all used in the manufacture of
+type at that period.
+
+Today we have the wizardry of mechanical production in the manufacture
+of type. The linotype and monotype machines, uncanny in their
+operations, have also come into common practice. Without them printing
+would seem almost as primitive, in typography, as it was in its
+infancy.
+
+
+
+
+STEREOTYPING
+
+
+About the beginning of the eighteenth century a certain Van der Meyer,
+of Antwerp, made the next step towards a definite improvement in
+typography, the first that had been attempted since the invention of
+printing from movable, cast-metal type. Van der Meyer prepared the
+composed pages of the Bible by soldering together the bottom of the
+type in the form. This was the first "stereotype," a term derived from
+two Greek words meaning literally "solidtype."
+
+This method met one requirement. It prevented the "pi-ing" of the
+type, but it had the disadvantage of holding in comparative idleness a
+large and costly mass of type useless for any other purpose, and it
+was not generally practiced.
+
+This was followed in 1730, by William Ged, a goldsmith of Edinburgh,
+who is credited with casting printing-plates in plaster-of-paris molds
+for the University of Cambridge Bible. These plates, however, were
+destroyed by jealous printers and thrown aside, resulting in the
+process being abandoned for many years.
+
+In the meantime several other improvements along this line were
+undergoing experiment. Firmin Didot, (1764-1836), a printer of Paris,
+cast type of a hard alloy, and when his book-pages were composed, made
+an impression of them on a sheet of soft lead, thus forming a mold.
+Molten metal was then poured into a shallow tray, and just as this was
+on the point of solidifying, but still plastic, the lead-mold of the
+book-page was pressed on the soft metal in the tray. This process
+called Polytypage, was but partly successful; it could be used only
+for small pages, and the plates were too often defective. A process
+similar to this is what Lambinet thought the printers of the latter
+half of the fifteenth century might have used as one of the probable
+methods to cast their metal types.
+
+These and other experiments, however, were leading to the real
+stereotyping process which developed later.
+
+Early in the nineteenth century, Earl Stanhope, of England,
+re-introduced Ged's stereotyping process with many improvements.
+
+One or more pages of type were locked in a chase, the surface of the
+type being oiled to prevent the subsequent mold from sticking. The
+mold was made by pouring a semi-fluid composition of plaster-of-paris
+mixed with a little fine salt to make the plaster settle solidly.
+While the plaster was still soft, it was carefully pressed down and
+rolled smooth on top to give a uniform thickness to the mold and to
+expel any air there might be in the plaster. When the plaster became
+solid, it formed a perfect matrix of the type pages.
+
+The moisture in those early plaster molds was expelled by baking them
+in an oven for three or four hours. A later method for drying was
+practiced by suspending the mold directly over the metal-pots or to
+float them on the surface of the molten metal. By this means the
+drying could be accomplished in a half-hour or so.
+
+In the process of casting, several of these plaster molds were placed
+side by side face downward in a special casting-pan. The pan was one
+and three-quarters or two inches deep, and a lid on the pan screwed
+down on the back of the molds. By means of a crane the casting pan
+with its molds was then lowered into the pot of molten metal which ran
+into the pan at the corners and sides. The mold was allowed to remain
+ten minutes or so in the metal-pot, or until the face of the inverted
+mold was entirely filled with the metal.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A later method of casting from a plaster mold was to place it in a
+frame with a smooth, flat plate opposite the face of the mold and to
+enclose the open space at one end and on the two sides. The casting
+space thus formed was then turned with the open end up and metal was
+poured in with a ladle, in a manner similar to the method still
+employed for casting job-work stereotypes. The distance between the
+flat plate and the mold was adjusted to make a stereotype plate of the
+required thickness.
+
+After the removal and cooling of the casting pan, the plates were
+freed from the plaster and the surplus metal cut off. Only one cast
+could be made, as the mold was usually destroyed in removing the cast.
+The stereotype was then sent to the finishing department, where the
+face was cleaned and examined for defective letters, then trimmed on
+the sides and planed off uniformly on the back to the desired
+thickness, in the same manner as a stereotype is treated today. A
+defective letter could be mortised out of the plate and a good type
+inserted in its place. In cases where a whole line or other part was
+imperfect, another mold was made of as much of the form as was
+necessary and the new cast inserted and soldered to the plate.
+
+There were many and varied experiments made in the earlier development
+of this idea of producing a duplicate printing form in a single piece.
+That such a process was highly desirable was universally recognized,
+and the conviction that some practicable and economical method was
+feasible was a continual incentive which gradually led to better
+results.
+
+
+
+
+STEREOTYPING IN AMERICA
+
+
+Although credit is given to John Watts, an Englishman then working in
+America, for making the first stereotype plates here, the real
+introduction of the process into the United States was by David Bruce.
+This was in 1813. Bruce had learned the printer's trade in Edinburgh
+and later came to America, where after a few years he was joined by
+his brother George in establishing the firm of D. & G. Bruce,
+printers. Hearing of the new process of stereotyping in England, he
+went over there to learn about it. He could get very little
+information about the process there, but came back with some practical
+ideas which he proceeded to carry out. Bruce and his brother also
+began type-founding about this time, and abandoned the business of
+printing. Later they gave up the work of stereotyping.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The first book stereotyped in the United States was the New Testament,
+in 1814. Bibles and school books were the first works to be
+stereotyped; then came other books which were demanded in many
+editions, such as the works of popular authors.
+
+
+
+
+THE PAPIER MACHE MATRIX
+
+
+The papier-mache (literally, mashed paper) matrix was first
+successfully used for casting stereotypes for book pages in France in
+1848. Charles Craske, an engraver of New York, introduced the method
+into the stereotype trade of the United States in 1850, and in 1854 he
+stereotyped a page of the "_New York Herald_" and later made
+stereotypes for other New York newspapers.
+
+The modern wet stereotype "flong," in common use today, consists of
+several layers of special paper pasted together to form a thick sheet.
+The base is a sheet of special soft stock similar to firm
+blotting-paper, such as is used between leaves of small blank books.
+Three or four sheets of strong, white tissue are next added, each
+sheet except the last being uniformly covered with the paste. The
+pasting must be done with great care so as to cover the entire surface
+of each sheet and at the same time to press out all air bubbles. The
+sheets must then be pressed smoothly but not squeezed so hard as to
+force the paste out and must be kept moist until used. In newspaper
+syndicate plants, the "flong" is made automatically by a specially
+devised machine into which the various kinds of paper used are fed
+from rolls, the pasting and cutting into sheets being mechanical.
+
+In molding a papier-mache matrix, the moist "flong" is laid on the
+original molding form to be duplicated, the molding form being in
+place on the table of the molding press. The "flong" is covered with
+several blankets of thick felt and the table of the molding press is
+then automatically moved in under a powerful roller which squeezes the
+moist flong down into the form. At the end of its travel the table is
+automatically brought back again under the rollers to the position
+from which it started. The speed of the roller and the table is
+synchronized to obviate any possibility of the mat becoming wrinkled
+by sliding.
+
+The molded matrix and the pattern with the blanket still on it is then
+transferred to the drying press, in which under a hot platten it is
+again squeezed and allowed to remain for a few minutes until the
+moisture is completely expelled from the molded flong. The drying
+press is kept at a high temperature, usually by steam heat.
+
+The matrix thus dried out to a thick, flexible cardboard is then ready
+for the casting of the stereotype, which is done by pouring molten
+stereotype metal against the face of the matrix placed in a
+casting-box designed for this purpose. A successive number of
+stereotypes can be cast for the same mat before it is injured by the
+hot metal. For job-work stereotyping the casting-box is flat, and the
+molten metal is either poured by hand or automatically pumped in the
+casting-box.
+
+After the stereotype is cast it is flattened, rough shaved, smooth
+shaved, bevelled or blocked on wood; the wood base trimmed and then
+planed type-high for printing press use.
+
+The large daily papers cast the full-page stereotype from which the
+paper is printed in an automatic casting machine which forms a curved
+plate, trimmed and bevelled, to fit the cylinder of the press.
+
+Stereotyping was for many years the chief means of making plates for
+books and also for commercial printing. It has several advantages. The
+first, obviously, is the advantage which it shares with several other
+methods of providing a solid printing plate made by molding from an
+original form of type or engraving. Its peculiar advantage, however,
+is that it is the quickest method of producing a duplicate plate from
+an original.
+
+In comparison with electrotyping, however, it has two distinct
+disadvantages. One is that it is not adapted for reproducing the fine
+lines of engravings and type faces. In addition it is comparatively
+shallow and does not possess a sharp, clean printing face. The other
+disadvantage is that a stereotype is relatively soft and quickly worn.
+
+Stereotypes have been made more durable, to withstand the wear of
+printing, by the deposition of a film of harder metal--copper or
+nickel--on the face of the plate after it has been cast. This,
+however, is not satisfactory, as it involves not only another
+operation, but also makes an already shallow printing plate that much
+shallower and increases the probability of it printing "dirty," which
+is one of the chief objections to the stereotype in itself. This
+practice is not recommended.
+
+
+
+
+ELECTROTYPING
+
+
+In 1799, Allesandro Volta, of Pavia, in Italy, constructed the first
+electric battery, which came to be called the Voltaic pile.
+Improvements in the form of Volta's battery were made almost
+immediately by William Cruickshank, in England, who discovered in
+experimenting with it that he could by its power electrolyze or
+chemically decompose the salts of certain metals in solution. Both
+copper and silver, he found, could be precipitated from their salt
+solutions and deposited upon a plate immersed in the solution.
+
+This observation was the first step in the process of electroplating,
+which is electrotyping when applied to the art of typography.
+
+In 1837, thirty-eight years after Volta's discovery, Mr. Thomas
+Spencer of Liverpool, England, accidentally stumbled upon the first
+realization of the electrotyping process.
+
+While experimenting with a modification of a Daniell battery, he used
+an English copper penny as one of the poles instead of a plain piece
+of copper. A deposition of copper from the solution in the battery
+took place upon the penny, and upon removing the wire which attached
+the penny to the zinc plate a portion of the copper deposit was pulled
+off the penny also.
+
+This first copper electrotype shell Spencer found to be an exact
+duplicate or mold of part of the head and lettering on the coin. _It
+was as smooth and as sharp as the original._
+
+It was some time later, however, before this suggested to him any
+useful application of the process. Another accident made him
+appreciate the full value of his discovery. This time he carelessly
+dropped some varnish on a strip of copper which he was going to use in
+the same way he did the penny. Upon removing the copper from the
+battery he observed that there was no deposition of copper on those
+parts of the strip where the varnish had dropped.
+
+Spencer then conceived the idea of applying this principle to the arts
+by coating a piece of copper with varnish or wax and engraving a
+design in the coating, thus exposing the copper strip in the engraved
+lines. He did this, and then deposited copper in the design so
+engraved. Upon removing the coating the design was exposed in relief
+on the piece of copper.
+
+On September 13, 1839, Spencer read a paper before the Polytechnic
+Institution of Liverpool, which he accompanied with specimens of both
+electrotypes made by this process and of printing from these
+electrotypes. The publication of this paper acted like an electric
+shock upon society.
+
+Developing his process, Spencer first used lead as the plastic medium
+in which to mold printing surfaces, and it is to be noted in this
+connection that in doing so he anticipated Dr. Albert's lead mold by
+considerably over three quarters of a century.
+
+Spencer impressed a form of type on a planed piece of sheet-lead and
+subjected both of them to the action of a screw-press. A perfectly
+sharp mold of the type form was thus made in the lead. This lead mold
+was placed in a battery, and at the end of _eight days_ a copper shell
+one eighth of an inch in thickness had been deposited. It was then
+removed from the apparatus and the rough edge of the deposited copper
+filed off. Being subjected to heat, the copper shell loosened from the
+lead-mold. Spencer called this a "copper stereotype."
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The next step in developing the electrotyping process, after Spencer
+had demonstrated the practical application of the electro-chemical
+deposition of a copper shell on a mold, was made by a Mr. Robert
+Murray. Mr. Murray was the first to use plumbago, or black-lead, to
+give the surface of non-metallic bodies electro-conductive properties.
+He discovered that he could coat a mold of bees-wax with black-lead
+and deposit thereon a copper shell. This was in 1840.
+
+In the same year Smee's battery was invented. This was a marked
+improvement and was a most important step towards making electrotyping
+a commercial possibility.
+
+Thus in 1840, four hundred years after the probable date of the
+invention of printing from individual movable cast-metal type, and
+over forty years after the foundation of electrotyping was laid by
+Volta, electrotyping, as a practical method of reproducing a
+commercial typographical printing surface, came into existence.
+
+Mr. E. Palmer, in England, using Spencer's method, was the first to
+receive a patent for producing a metallic printing plate with the
+printing surfaces in relief. This patent is dated 1841. Palmer
+followed this in the succeeding year by a further patent for engraving
+through a wax-coated matrix-plate to form the printing surfaces in the
+_positive_ electrotype taken from it. This process was termed by
+Palmer, "Glyphography."
+
+The "whites" or low spots in Palmer's Glyphographs were "built-up" in
+the wax mold through adding wax by hand, assisted by various
+ingeniously constructed tools which were heated. After "building-up,"
+the wax was black-leaded and the copper deposition on the surface of
+the wax mold was obtained. This copper deposit, or shell, was then
+tinned on the back, backed up with lead, mounted on wood, and trimmed
+type-high. These processes are the essentials used today in
+electrotyping.
+
+One of the earliest works illustrated by the Palmer process is "The
+History and Antiquities of Brentford, Ealing, and Chiswick," by T.
+Faulkner, published in 1845, and the word "Glyphography" occurs at the
+foot of many illustrations contained in it.
+
+In 1839 the first attempt was made at commercial electrotyping in
+America. In that year, Joseph A. Adams, a wood-engraver connected with
+Harper & Bros. in New York, experimented along lines similar to those
+Spencer had pursued, but using a wood-cut from which to mold. His
+electrotypes were made by taking an impression from the wood-cut in an
+alloy of soft metal of which bismuth was probably the chief
+ingredient, and immersing the metal mold in an ordinary Voltaic
+battery for the deposition of the copper shell. In making the
+impression, however, the wood-cut was destroyed so, that this method
+of making an electrotype was not commercially practical.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The year following Adams took advantage of Smee's battery and made an
+electrotype which was used in Mape's Magazine in 1841. He also
+employed this process for making illustrations for Harper's Family
+Bible, issued between 1842 and 1844.
+
+The first successful commercial electrotyper in America was John W.
+Wilcox, of Boston. A wood carver named Chandler, told Mr. Wilcox that
+if he could repeat what Adams of New York had done with a wood-cut in
+1839 that he, Chandler, would lend him the necessary wood-cuts for
+experimental purposes. In less than sixty days in 1846, Mr. Wilcox had
+put into practical use every essential principle known for the next
+twenty-five years in electrotyping.
+
+In 1855, Mr. Gay of New York first used tin-foil for the purpose of
+soldering the copper shells to the metal backing.
+
+During the same year, a Mr. Adams of Brooklyn, New York, invented the
+dry-brush black-leading machine.
+
+Steven D. Tucker, of New York, developed and patented in 1866 the type
+of dry-brush black-leading machine which is in common use today.
+
+In 1871, Silas P. Knight, of Harper & Bros., New York, invented the
+wet black-leading process, and in 1872 took out another patent for an
+improvement on this process. Mr. Knight's method of wet black-leading
+was not generally adopted by the electrotypers of that time and
+gradually became almost unknown.
+
+Undoubtedly, the cause of this was that the method of dry
+black-leading was good enough for type and woodcut work. The half-tone
+had not been invented at that time, and it was only after the
+invention of the half-tone that a better method of black-leading
+became necessary.
+
+Thirty-seven years after Mr. Knight had successfully used his process
+of wet black-leading a patent was granted to Frank L. Learman, of
+Buffalo, New York, for a wet black-leader. Since that time numerous
+patents have been taken out on different methods of using the wet
+process, which is universally recognized today as the best method of
+graphiting the surface of a mold.
+
+In 1870, Joseph A. Adams patented a process for covering the surface
+of the mold after it had been black-leaded with powdered tin. This was
+for the purpose of quickening the deposition of the copper shell when
+the molds were in the batteries, and from this undoubtedly came the
+oxidizing process of coating the surface of the molds with chemical
+copper invented by Silas Knight, which has long been and is now in
+use.
+
+Perhaps one of the greatest forward steps in the development of
+electrotyping was made when the plating dynamo was invented. The first
+adoption of a dynamo in place of Smee's battery took place in 1872.
+With the Smee type of battery it required from thirty to forty-eight
+hours to deposit a copper shell thick enough for commercial use. With
+the invention of the plating dynamo and its improvements, the time of
+depositing the shell was reduced so that now two hours is the common
+time that a mold is kept in the tubs or batteries. This quickening of
+the time required to deposit the shell was one of the most essential
+features in the development of commercial electrotyping.
+
+From the first hand-screw presses, which were successfully used for
+molding, to the modern high-power, motor-driven, hydraulic presses,
+for working either in wax or lead, is a far cry.
+
+The invention of the half-tone, together with the invention of the
+modern two-revolution cylinder press which has brought printing into
+its present state of perfection, made necessary radical improvements
+in the machinery for making electrotypes. These improvements have been
+steady in their development, but the fundamental points of the process
+are practically those which have been in use from the start of
+commercial electrotyping.
+
+
+
+
+ELECTROTYPING BY THE WAX MOLD PROCESS
+
+
+An electrotype is a facsimile printing plate duplicated from an
+original. The original may be either type, a woodcut, a zinc or a
+copper etching such as a line-cut or a half-tone, or it may be a
+combination of type-matter and line-cuts or half-tones.
+
+We commonly think of electrotypes as printing plates made of copper,
+but any metal which can be electrochemically deposited may be used.
+Because of their wearing qualities and economy, however, copper and
+nickel are the two metals commercially used for electrotyping.
+
+Briefly, an electrotype is made by taking an impression of the
+original in a plastic substance, thus forming a mold or matrix;
+depositing copper or nickel on the mold; removing the copper or nickel
+shell from the mold and backing it with a semi-hard metal; trimming
+the metal to printing-plate thickness, and bevelling, or blocking on
+wood, the trimmed plate for printing-press use.
+
+In modern practice more than twenty-five different operations are
+necessary to make a finished electrotype ready for the press. They may
+be enumerated, as follows:
+
+_1. Case-making._ The flowing of a molding compound composed of
+"ozokerite," a resinol-mineral wax, onto the case. The case is of
+copper.
+
+_2. Flashing the Case._ Passing a flame over the surface of the melted
+ozokerite immediately after flowing the case in order to remove
+air-bubbles.
+
+_3. Case-shaving._ The automatic shaving of the top surface of the
+flowed case after the ozokerite has hardened to give it a smooth, even
+surface for molding.
+
+_4. Graphiting._ Brushing surface of case with molding graphite to
+prevent the pattern from sticking to the wax mold.
+
+_5. Molding._ Making an impression from the original zinc line
+etching, half-tone or type form in the waxed case. This is done by
+means of a hydraulically operated molding press.
+
+_6. Cutting-down._ The levelling off by hand, using a sharp trowel
+shaped tool, of the splurge after the impression has been made.
+Flashing is also used here to remove the burr left around the letters
+after the cutting down process.
+
+_7. Building-up._ The adding of wax by hand to the blank spaces in the
+molded case so that in the finished electrotype they will be well
+below the printing face.
+
+_8. Black-leading._ Making the face of the molded case electrically
+conductive by applying graphite.
+
+_9. Stopping-out._ Insulating with a thin coating of wax the edges and
+back of the copper case to prevent copper being deposited except on
+the face of the mold.
+
+_10. Pumping-out or Oxidizing._ Coating the face of the molded case
+with chemical copper to hasten deposition of copper shell in the bath.
+
+_11. Deposition of Shell._ The molded case is put in the electrolytic
+bath for the deposition of shell thereon.
+
+_12. Releasing Shell from Molds._ Stripping the deposited shell from
+the waxed mold by dashing hot water on it. The wax is melted off case
+and used again.
+
+_13. Washing Copper Shell._ Hot lye-water or steam is used to clean
+off any wax sticking to it.
+
+_14. Trimming Copper Shell._ Rough edges of shell outside the guard
+line trimmed off.
+
+_15. Aciding Copper Shell._ An application of fluxing medium to back
+of copper shell so that tin will adhere.
+
+_16. Tinning Copper Shell._ Tin-foil is melted on the back of the
+copper shell. This is the solder between the copper shell and the
+metal back, without which the metal backing would not adhere to the
+shell.
+
+_17. Backing-up._ The flowing of electrotype metal on the back of the
+tinned copper shell for the purpose of making a foundation for
+printing (electrotype metal is an alloy of 94 per cent lead; 3 per
+cent tin for flowing and 3 per cent antimony for hardness).
+
+_18. Scrubbing the Cast._ A power operated scrubbing machine using a
+hydro-carbon oil as the cleansing medium to clean the printing face of
+the electrotypes.
+
+_19. Cast-sawing._ Sawing off the surplus metal of the cast before
+finishing.
+
+_20. Flattening the Casts._ Hand operation with mallet and flattening
+block to take the warp out of the electrotype caused by the
+contraction of the metal in cooling.
+
+_21. Rough-shaving._ Planing off superfluous metal from the back of
+the electrotype.
+
+_22. Finishing._ Putting the printing surface of the electrotype in
+perfect condition for press after leaving the foundry department. This
+is done by hand and requires a high degree of skill.
+
+_23. Smooth-shaving._ The finishing shave of metal from back of
+electrotype to bring it to the required thickness.
+
+_24. Routing._ Cutting out the high but non-printing surfaces of the
+electrotype by a routing machine.
+
+_25. Guard-line Sawing._ Cutting the guard lines or bearers off the
+electrotype to practically the finished size before blocking or
+bevelling.
+
+_26. Blocking._ Fastening the plate on wood base with brads driven
+through the metal.
+
+_27. Trimming._ Trimming the wood mounted electrotype to its exact
+finished size.
+
+_28. Type-high Machining._ Used for planing the bottom of the wood
+base so that the mounted electrotype is of printing press
+requirements, i. e., .918" high.
+
+
+
+
+ELECTROTYPING BY THE LEAD MOLD PROCESS
+
+
+Electrotypes made by the genuine Dr. Albert Lead Mold Process are
+always duplicates of fine-screen half-tones or mezzo-tints used for
+the highest class of commercial job-work, such as three and four color
+process or duo-tone printing on paper with a highly glazed surface.
+
+The largest press used in lead molding will give a maximum pressure of
+two thousand tons per square inch on a thirty inch ram hydraulically
+operated. The weight of this press is over thirty thousand pounds.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In the lead mold process the plastic medium used is a soft thin sheet
+of what is called "impression lead," .040 inches thick, instead of
+wax, and the lead is placed on top of the original to be duplicated,
+instead of vice-versa, as in the wax-molding process. No "building-up"
+nor "black-leading" is necessary.
+
+In all other respects the consecutive steps towards the completion of
+the lead mold plate are identical to those used in the Wax Mold
+Process.
+
+
+
+
+ALUMINOTYPES
+
+
+The age long progress in the development and perfection of
+typographical printing surfaces, from the period of Xylographic blocks
+on through the successive inventions of individual movable cast-metal
+type, stereotyping and electrotyping, by both the wax and lead-molding
+processes, reaches its culmination in _Aluminotypes_.
+
+Briefly, it is a method of casting printing plates of aluminum alloy
+in molds made from a composition of plaster-of-paris. In its essential
+points it is a modern adaptation of the process credited to William
+Ged of Edinburgh in 1730 and afterwards modified and improved in the
+early 19th century by Earl Stanhope of England.
+
+In practice, the original to be duplicated is placed on a
+molding-slab. A molding frame is set upon the slab and enclosing the
+original. A special kind of oil is then sprayed on the face of the
+original. This is to facilitate the release of the plaster mold so
+that it will not "tear" when it is ready to be lifted off the original
+after solidifying, and at the same time to retain the sharpness of the
+mold.
+
+The molding medium of plaster composition in a semi-liquefied state is
+then poured on to the original in the molding frame. The surplus
+plaster is scraped off flush with the top of the molding frame.
+
+After the plaster matrix in its molding frame has set sufficiently it
+is released by means of cams from the working pattern on the
+molding-slab.
+
+The plaster matrix is then placed in a drying oven, through which a
+forced draft of hot air is kept circulating at high pressure. The
+thorough drying of the mold takes approximately ninety minutes.
+
+When the plaster mold has become sufficiently dried, a round hole is
+cut through the bottom of the matrix in an offset of the molding
+frame. This hole is the gate through which the molten aluminum is
+forced. The mold is then securely locked upright in a specially
+designed casting machine.
+
+The Aluminotype is cast by pressure and not by pouring as in the case
+of stereotypes, which depend entirely upon gravity. Fused aluminum
+alloy is poured into a hopper on the casting machine. A piston
+operated by the agency of compressed air forces the aluminum evenly
+into all parts of the plaster matrix.
+
+When the cast is completed the molding frame is taken from the casting
+machine and the Aluminotype removed from its plaster-of-paris matrix.
+
+
+_AUTHORITIES_:
+
+"An Outline of the History of Printing," by R. A. Peddie.
+
+"Typographical Printing Surfaces," by L. A. Legros.
+
+"Manual of Electro-Metallurgy," by Napier.
+
+"The Encyclopedia Brittanica."
+
+"Electrotyping and Stereotyping" Typographical Technical Series, Vol. XV.
+
+The Rapid Electrotype Company.
+
+
+
+
+THE MAKING OF THE FOOLPROOF NEWSPAPER DRAWING
+
+SOME ADVERTISING PICTURES PRINT WELL--OTHERS DO NOT. WHY? IT'S ALL A
+MATTER OF GOING ABOUT IT IN A KNOW-HOW WAY
+
+_By J. LIVINGSTON LARNED_
+
+
+An advertiser--perhaps one of the largest users of newspaper space in
+the country--sprang a surprise recently on his ad-manager. Into the
+office he came, one day, grim-visaged, jaw set, fire in his eyes, and
+armed with no less than fifty clippings from exchanges.
+
+And on the amazed ad-manager's desk he placed two conglomerate piles
+of advertising matter. One represented the national newspaper campaign
+of his own industry; the other a collection of newspaper
+advertisements, picked at random.
+
+"I think I have conclusive proof," said he, in no mild mood, "that you
+fellows are not as efficient as you might be. Here are our
+advertisements--from papers everywhere. The illustrations print
+abominably! Look at them. The matter has been called to my attention
+many times--by the newspapers themselves, by our road representatives
+and by local dealers. They say our electro service and our straight
+national campaigns are all muddied up with pictures that nobody can
+decipher. Here's conclusive proof of it. Not a clean-looking cut in
+the series and you can't blame it on paper and press work and all
+that--they're _all_ bad!"
+
+The advertising manager glanced casually at the exhibits. The
+criticism was valid. Here was a daily newspaper campaign, running into
+space valued at approximately sixty thousand dollars, and the
+displays, three-fourths illustration, were mussy, involved, smeared
+up, and unsatisfactory from a reproductive standpoint. Solid black
+backgrounds were a sickly, washed-out gray and in other places
+intricate pen work had "run-together."
+
+It was equally true that clippings of competitive advertising and
+advertising in general, selected at random, were strangely clean-cut.
+The comparison was startling.
+
+"Mr. X," finally observed the ad-manager, "I see what you mean; all of
+us in this department have known of it, kept track of it; and the
+remarkable part of the entire situation is that these results can be
+traced back to you and your personal insistence on a certain type of
+pen and ink design, executed in a specific technique. These matters
+came up for your supervision and O. K. You did not care for the bold,
+simple outline drawings first submitted. You preferred too many, and a
+glut of detail. All of which is not compatible with newspaper
+printing, even in large space. We were afraid of this and said so at
+the time. Our objection was overruled. It's one thing to prefer a
+pleasing, perhaps highly artistic pen technique and quite another to
+apply it to fast presses, poor ink and hurried make-ready. A great
+many things can happen, and _do_ happen, to a newspaper design before
+it is printed and in the readers' hands."
+
+
+DISREGARDING FUNDAMENTALS
+
+Sometimes it is better to come out with the frank, brutal truth. In a
+great many instances, poor newspaper reproduction is the direct result
+of some executive's marked preference for a certain artist or a
+certain technique, regardless of whether the man is qualified to draw
+for this field, or whether the technique is fitted for the purpose.
+
+On the other hand, there is, unquestionably, a strange, well nigh
+inexcusable disregard of certain fundamentals of the business. There
+is too much swivel-chair composure; too much beatific reassurance,
+when proofs are submitted on good paper, from a flat-bed
+engraver-house press. A newspaper series is very apt to look 100 per
+cent when presented on the final electro sheet, or bound into a neat
+booklet for the dealer and printed on coated stock. These are ostrich
+methods!
+
+In certain advertising agencies there is a standing rule in the matter
+of newspaper plates that all proofs must be pulled on newspaper
+stock--and a very inferior grade. A newspaper press is used, an entire
+series coming off at once. There is no make-ready to speak of.
+
+By this process no one is deceived. You see exactly what will happen,
+or nearly so, when the series fares forth to newspapers all over the
+country.
+
+The executive mentioned above had collected newspapers, big and
+little, from the four points of the compass. And he had collected a
+liberal number of perfectly satisfactory newspaper advertisements of
+the illustrated variety. Blacks were clean black, Ben Day tints held
+their own, there was no congestion, no smudging, no mishap of any
+sort.
+
+If certain rules are followed, any newspaper advertising illustration
+can be made "fool-proof." You can be absolutely certain of a printable
+result, despite all exigencies, all drawbacks, all hazards.
+
+Failure usually follows a desire to attempt something beyond that
+which has been tried and is wholly practical. For the present, at
+least, users of newspaper space _must_ bow to the inevitable. They
+_must_ realize that there is a well-defined limit to what can be done
+mechanically. They must _not_ defiantly experiment, although the
+desire to "do something new" and to be original is entirely
+praiseworthy.
+
+
+THINGS YOU CAN'T DO
+
+If you use half-tones, have them made very coarse screen--nothing
+finer than 60 line. Stop out whites and eliminate backgrounds. The
+high-light half-tone is a modern development with many virtues. If a
+portrait is used, take out all background.
+
+There is a way of retouching photographs that will minimize the danger
+of poor printing. The artist strengthens weak contrasts, not with a
+brush and paint, but with a pen and waterproof black ink. He also uses
+areas of pure white. Successful reproduction is dependent upon
+_sharp_, clear, vigorous _contrasts_.
+
+Stippling is one of the best substitutes for the half-tone. This
+simply means dotting-in a subject. It is a time-consuming, laborious
+process, but it means line plates and the elimination of middle
+tones--which are disastrous.
+
+There was a time when certain clever inventions of the paper
+manufacturer could be employed for half-tone effects in line. For
+example, a Ross Board is manufactured with an assortment of patterned
+surfaces. When brush or crayon or pencil is drawn over them, they give
+effects that may not be duplicated in straight pen and ink on plain
+white drawing board. Some of these papers have a chalk surface. Some
+have imitation half-tone patterns, straight-line designs, etc. It is
+possible to scratch away certain portions with a sharp knife. _Do not
+use them_ as matters now stand in newspaper printing. They will not
+"stand reduction" and only very coarse tints reproduce satisfactorily.
+
+_Special Caution_--Do not allow artists to make original drawings for
+newspaper use much larger than twice the size. Here is one of the
+greatest evils of the day. The artist seems possessed to make his
+original on a full sheet of paper, when he knows that the plate is for
+two or three newspaper columns. What happens? An illustration which
+makes a handsome showing in the original will inevitably fill-in when
+reduced to "actual size." Figure it out yourself--look at it through a
+reducing glass. Lines that seem wide apart almost touch in the
+congestion that follows great reduction. The really wise and shrewd
+artist makes his newspaper drawing _actual_ size.
+
+Not more than a dozen Ben Day patterns can be used safely--now--in
+newspapers. Do you know the meaning of "Ben Day?" It is a mechanical
+tint, printed mechanically either on the plate, by the engraver, or on
+the original drawing, from an inked gelatine surface and rubbed on
+with a stilus. Magazine reproduction accepts it in all its forms.
+Newspaper stock muddies it up when it is too fine. In any event, when
+selecting a pattern, see that it is an open one and have it put on the
+engraving--not the design. If on the design it means a reduction. If
+on the plate it means no reduction, but precisely as shown in the Ben
+Day book of patterns.
+
+Avoid complex line treatments and techniques, such as cross-hatching
+and the laying in of many very fine 290 pen lines close together. They
+look well in the original--they seldom print well on newspaper stock.
+They reduce abominably.
+
+Any newspaper illustration should have plenty of white margin to
+"relieve it." When a drawing is cramped, packed in, suffocated by side
+rules, borders and text, it suffers.
+
+Clear outline drawings, with an occasional dash of black, prove most
+efficient for newspaper reproduction. They _can't_ fill in, they
+_can't_ smudge, they _can't_ become contaminated by clots of printing
+ink or defects in the newspaper stock. Not even fast press work can
+damage their printability. But remember, not all outline drawings are
+alike--great originality of technique can be secured.
+
+
+CAREFUL OF BLACK AREAS
+
+Large areas of solid black are not advisable. Think it over. Ink flows
+irregularly on newspaper presses. One copy may show up exactly as in
+the original; the next may develop a white halo, a gray tendency, a
+smeary, half-baked look. No two impressions will be quite the same.
+And it is logical to see that this is apt to be so. Any imperfection
+or irregularity in the ink roller will cause it, or the collection of
+foreign matter on cut or roller. Any black area larger than two inches
+square is a hazard.
+
+Advertisers often think that masses of solid black will make an
+advertisement "stand out." They would if they printed a smooth, even
+black--which they seldom do. But liberal white margins are far more
+potent in attracting attention and in segregating an advertisement
+from mixed company than solid blacks.
+
+The _appearance_ of large areas of black may be secured via
+subterfuge. One method is to form the background of heavy black lines,
+quite close together. The white spaces between save the printing. Look
+at straight type through a magnifying glass. Not even type is printed
+clear black. Then what chance would an even surface of large
+proportion have?
+
+Newspaper cuts should be "routed deep." Routing is merely the
+deepening or entire cutting away of extraneous matter on the
+engraving--that is, where there is no printing surface. The smudges of
+hideous design often seen are really an impression of a metal surface
+that has not been routed out properly. Every engraving should be
+examined critically for such defects.
+
+Avoid placing a shaded area against a black area. As we have
+intimated, the heart and soul of the successful newspaper drawing is
+_contrast_.
+
+The beginning of every advertisement or series of advertisements is
+represented in terms of a first visualization. It is in pencil. These
+should be made same size--that is, the actual size they are to
+eventually appear. Then no one, the artist least of all, is fooled by
+disparity of proportions.
+
+
+KEEP IT SIMPLE
+
+The visualizer should keep one cardinal point in mind. Keep newspaper
+advertisements simple. The less there is in them the better.
+Thirty-two of the ads selected by our advertising friend, mentioned
+earlier in the story, were good because they were simple. Type was
+held to blocks, and with as little change in style, size and character
+of type as possible.
+
+All of them were characterized by liberal white margins. It is the
+best known way of fighting back the opposition of the surrounding
+appeals on the same page.
+
+There's a good test possible. Make a photographic print of your
+advertisement, the size it is to appear, and paste it on a newspaper
+page--not a New York or Chicago paper, but a page in the "Bingville
+Banner."
+
+Before plates are made or even before pen and ink drawings are fully
+completed, you can change, rearrange, eliminate, or add to, as the
+case may be.
+
+The wise advertiser is the one who in preparing an elaborate and
+extensive newspaper campaign keys it in its printing qualities, not to
+the best papers on the list, but to the ones that are worst printed.
+This may mean the undreamed of thing of 100 per cent perfect!
+
+No advertiser can hope to secure full efficiency from a campaign if it
+presents a smudged and confused appearance. Newspapers are trig things
+in their own right. Their column rules and their precision of type
+make this an arbitrary condition. There is really nothing finer and
+cleaner and more pleasing to the human eye than a well-composed
+newspaper, hot from the press. Ugly advertisements can make an ugly
+newspaper. They can even spoil the set-up and typography in general of
+the reading sections.
+
+A newspaper is held responsible if returns from a single advertisement
+or a campaign are not satisfactory. It is looked upon as a "poor
+medium." Yet how many times the true fault can be traced to the
+message itself. Full efficiency in advertising is the result of full
+efficiency in the copy....
+
+    (Reprinted by the kind permission of The Bureau of
+    Advertising, the American Newspapers Publishers Association,
+    Mr. William A. Thompson, Director.)
+
+
+
+
+NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING PLATES
+
+
+Mechanical production of any kind is an unsympathetic and inexorable
+thing, and the modern large daily newspaper, in its mechanical
+production, is unsympathetic and inexorable to the highest degree. It
+reproduces exactly and impartially from all the different material
+supplied to it.
+
+Your ad-plate is locked into the form with the other matter composing
+the page. A hurried lock-up, and the form is molded into a mat and
+stereotyped. Fast presses and cheap ink do the rest.
+
+If your ad does not show up well in the first few impressions run off,
+the press grinds on just the same, with little or no make-ready. Once
+they start, it is too late to stop to allow the press-room foreman to
+investigate why a certain ad does not print up well. The "Daily Bugle"
+must get on the streets, if possible, before its competitors with the
+important scoop that the Beghum of Swat has just died. If you have
+supplied the best material for the newspapers to work with, the
+clean-cut reproduction of your advertisement is insured. If you have
+been penny-wise and pound-foolish in saving a few cents on your
+ad-plate, all the dollars you spent on art, typography and white space
+for your ad are on the knees of the gods and liable to be spilled off
+the said knees, and your ad is messy looking when it appears. The
+advertiser invariably blames the newspaper and the newspaper passes
+the buck on to the plate-maker. The printed appearance of the ad is
+largely determined by the kind of plate furnished to the newspaper.
+
+The large daily newspapers are entirely dependent upon the
+stereotyping process for the necessary speed required in production.
+They do not print directly from type or cuts. The big advantage of
+stereotyping in this connection lies in the fact that it is the
+quickest method of producing a solid, duplicate printing plate from an
+original molding form. After locking up a page form, it can be molded,
+the matrix dried and the plate cast and ready for the press in about
+ten minutes.
+
+Therefore, only unmounted plates should be sent to the large daily
+papers and not wood mounted, as it takes too long for the heat to pass
+through the wood base in drying the mat.
+
+The unmounted plate is placed on a metal base, (because heat passes
+through metal quickly in drying the mat) and then locked in the form
+with the type and other matter composing the entire page. A mat is
+then molded from the complete form and a curved stereotype is cast
+from this page mat. It is from this curved full page stereotype that
+the large daily newspaper is actually printed.
+
+Since they must duplicate the plates sent to them by the stereotyping
+process, your expensively prepared advertisement, if it is to appear
+sharp and clean in the valuable space it uses, should be electrotyped
+by your plate-maker. A stereotype duplicated from an electrotype will
+print cleaner than a stereotype duplicated from a stereotype by reason
+of the fact that mats molded by the newspaper from electrotypes are
+sharper and deeper than when they are molded from stereotypes.
+
+Electrotypes have a distinctly sharper and harder face and are deeper
+than stereotypes. The very nature of the process and materials used in
+their manufacture makes this superiority inevitable. Wax is used as
+the plastic medium in which to mold electrotypes, whereas for
+stereotypes paper is used. Sharpness and depth cannot be molded into
+paper as it can into wax.
+
+Neither will stereotype metal poured by gravity against a paper matrix
+mold be as sharp and deep as copper deposited electrolytically on a
+wax mold.
+
+It follows, therefore, that when an unmounted electrotype is supplied
+to the "Chicago Tribune" or the "New York Journal" or the "San
+Francisco Call" they are stereotyping your ad in the page form from a
+plate molded in wax directly from the original.
+
+On the other hand, when you supply a stereotype of your ad to the
+large dailies this stereotype is already one step removed from the
+original master plate and means that two paper mats intervene between
+the original supplied to the plate-maker and the final stereotype of
+the page containing your advertisement. In short, they are duplicating
+a stereotype from a stereotype and each duplication means a loss in
+sharpness and depth; therefore they should be supplied with a sharp
+electrotype from which to make their final page mat.
+
+Obviously when a stereotype is supplied to the large dailies they are
+working from a plate that is neither sharp nor deep to start with, as
+would be the case if you sent them an electrotype from which to work.
+An electrotype is economy in the end and will save you grief, when the
+cost of space is considered.
+
+Should you desire economy, order your plate-maker to send mats--copy
+considered--to the large dailies. A mat is less expensive than a
+stereotype and will reproduce your advertisement equally as well.
+
+When you send them a mat instead of an electro there is one more
+duplication for the newspapers to make in producing the final
+stereotype from which they print, but the mat which your plate-maker
+furnishes them is at least molded directly from the original plate, so
+that it is sharper and deeper than the mat the newspapers have to make
+when you furnish them a stereotype from which to work. When you
+furnish the large dailies with the mat they cast a flat stereotype
+first, which is locked up in the form with the other matter composing
+the page. This entire form is then molded into a mat and stereotyped.
+
+The small dailies and country newspapers print directly from type and
+cuts. They use a flat-bed press. For this reason it is necessary that
+the advertising-plate or dealers cut which you furnish to them should
+be mounted type-high.
+
+The best plate you can furnish them is none too good; their make-ready
+and the general handling of their material is not of the highest order
+in efficiency as compared to the large dailies, and it is entirely
+probable that even with a good sharp electrotype, your advertisement
+may not show to advantage. With a stereotype, the liability of smudgy
+printing is greatly enhanced.
+
+The Rapid Electrotype Company knows the mechanical equipment of the
+different newspapers throughout the United States. It sends mounted
+plates to those papers that print directly from type and cuts, and
+unmounted plates to those that stereotype their forms. This detail is
+left entirely to their discretion. The names of the towns to which
+your advertisement or dealers-cut is to be shipped is all the
+information they require in order to determine whether or not to ship
+mounted or unmounted plates.
+
+
+
+
+THE RAPID ELECTROTYPE COMPANY
+
+
+The Rapid Electrotype Company of Cincinnati was organized in July,
+1899, and incorporated under the laws of Ohio in May, 1902. It has
+been in service over a fifth of a century.
+
+Prior to the organization of The Rapid Electrotype Company,
+electrotyping was, on the whole, a localized business. The Rapid
+Electrotype Company pioneered in the service of making and
+distributing newspaper advertising plates--electrotypes, aluminotypes,
+stereotypes, and mats--direct from its factory in Cincinnati to
+newspapers and dealers throughout the United States.
+
+The originality of this service, intelligently rendered to advertising
+agencies and advertisers, was one of the reasons for the increase of
+their capacity from only five thousand square inches of plate matter
+daily in 1899 to one million square inches per day in 1921, and from
+an organization of only nine men to one of over two hundred and fifty,
+working in day and night shifts.
+
+Their new factory is unquestionably the largest of its kind in the
+world, especially designed and equipped for the making and
+distribution of newspaper ad plates of all kinds. Over forty-five
+thousand square feet of floor space is devoted to this service, and
+with their highly developed co-operative facilities they occupy a
+unique place in the advertising plans of many large national
+advertisers and advertising agencies.
+
+
+FACTORY PRACTICE
+
+Developing and serving an ever increasing volume of business has
+brought about a specialization in the factory practice of The Rapid
+Electrotype Company. It has kept pace with the demands upon its
+production and has made improvements in manufacturing methods designed
+to cut-corners in cost of manufacture, to be shared with its
+customers, and to make its service truly Rapid for all emergencies,
+without sacrificing quality.
+
+Its commercial job-plate department is a separate and distinct unit
+from the newspaper advertising-plate department.
+
+The character of the respective requirements of commercial job-plates
+and newspaper advertising plates make this departmental production
+advisable.
+
+A lead-molding press, built by The F. Wesel Mfg. Co., weighing over
+thirty-thousand pounds, and developing two thousand tons pressure per
+square inch on a thirty inch hydraulically operated ram is used in the
+job-plate department. On this press are duplicated, from the finest
+screen half-tones, the highest quality electrotypes and nickeltypes to
+be used in three and four color process printing.
+
+The preponderating volume of its business, however, is the production
+of newspaper electrotypes, and it is in this department that The Rapid
+Electrotype Company has made distinct improvements in manufacturing
+practice by methods and machinery designed and constructed by its own
+engineers in its own machine shop.
+
+
+BLACK LEADING
+
+The Rapid Electrotype Company has built a new type of machine for use
+in this important phase of the electrotyping art. It is a combination
+Dry-Wet Machine, designed by its own engineering staff.
+
+Those familiar with electrotypes well know the superiority of the wet
+black leading process, especially for half-tones, stipple, Ben Day or
+fine type, where much of the detail and sharpness is lost in dry black
+leading, because of the crushing effect the brushes have on the wax
+mold. In this new type of black leading machine this fault is entirely
+eliminated, as the brushes never come in contact with the printing
+face of the mold; they merely polish the high built-up spots, thereby
+insuring better electrical conductivity to the wax, and a more uniform
+deposition of the copper shell.
+
+Two of these especially designed machines are in constant operation in
+the ad department, which means the highest grade of advertising
+plates.
+
+
+DEPOSITING THE SHELL
+
+Those who are not technically familiar with electrochemistry are prone
+to think that the length of time a mold is kept in the electrolytic
+bath, i. e., the copper bath, determines the thickness of the shell
+deposited thereon. As a matter of fact, one electrotyper may keep his
+molds in the copper bath for three hours and get only as thick a shell
+as another who keeps his in but two hours. The element of time does
+not determine the thickness nor quality of the shell deposited.
+
+The determining factors in this phase of electrotyping are the
+composition of the electrolytic bath, its temperature, and the current
+density applied. In addition, the purity of the materials, the
+cleanliness of the batteries, the perfection of the electrical
+connections as well as the distance between the anode and the cathode
+are all matters of importance. These factors are all variables and
+must be confined between narrow limits.
+
+This important phase of manufacture in The Rapid Electrotype Company
+is under the supervision of an electro-chemical engineer.
+
+Plus this fact is the accuracy of mechanical operation in handling wax
+molds from the time they are put into the batteries until they are
+taken out with the shell deposited thereon and ready for tinning and
+backing-up.
+
+The molded cases are suspended at regular intervals of twenty inches
+from an endless chain-conveyor operating directly over the batteries.
+This conveyor carries the cases edge-wise through the electrolytic
+bath between two rows of anodes which are four inches apart. At the
+end of each battery the conveyor automatically lifts the cases out and
+over into the next battery in the series, of which there are seven.
+The eighth tub contains pure running water for washing the case after
+the complete deposition of the shell.
+
+The speed of this conveyor is regulated so that when the molded case
+has reached the end of its journey through the series of seven
+batteries, the other factors also being regulated, a shell of uniform
+thickness and texture throughout is deposited thereon.
+
+This automatic handling of the cases in the batteries eliminates the
+necessity of the battery-man pulling the case out of the bath by hand
+from time to time in order to peel back a corner of the shell to see
+if it is thick enough, which is the common practice. In other words,
+the element of human guess-work is eliminated, and in addition, the
+items of time and handling are greatly reduced.
+
+
+BACKING UP THE SHELL
+
+Backing-up the shells with the metal base, i. e., casting, is done
+automatically by The Rapid Electrotype Company.
+
+A rotary casting-table with a capacity of ten pans revolves around its
+axis on a plane that brings each pan immediately below a spout through
+which the required metal is automatically flowed from the bottom of
+the metal pot on the tinned shell placed therein. When the required
+metal backing has been flowed, the table turns to bring the next pan
+with its shell under the metal-spout. The amount of metal flowed is
+exactly regulated. As the casting table completes a circuit, the first
+shell backed up has cooled so that it can be removed to the scrubbing
+machine.
+
+This method, of course, eliminates the hand-ladling of hot metal from
+the metal-pot to the casting-table, as is the ordinary practice, and
+obviates any possibility of the oxidized metal or dross on the surface
+getting into the casts, besides effecting a marked economy in time and
+handling. In addition, it casts the plates flat, thereby eliminating
+about 75 per cent of the finishing, which, of course, means a better
+printing plate. Three of these machines are used.
+
+The Rapid Electrotype Company developed and built these
+casting-machines in its own machine shop and owns the patents covering
+them.
+
+
+THE ALUMINOTYPE PROCESS
+
+The development, perfection and introduction of the Aluminotype
+Process for duplicating a printing surface in a solid piece is one of
+the outstanding accomplishments of The Rapid Electrotype Company, and
+marks a distinct step in advance of the other and older methods used
+in the graphic arts, for certain classes of printing.
+
+Aluminotypes are much harder than an electrotype or stereotype and
+have as sharp and deep a printing face as an electrotype. The
+Aluminotype process will reproduce as sharp and clear as the
+electrotyping process an eighty line screen half-tone, which is really
+too fine a screen for newspaper printing.
+
+A distinct advantage Aluminotypes have is in the item of weight. An
+Aluminotype, unmounted, weighs only one quarter as much as an
+unmounted electrotype or stereotype of the same size. When mounted on
+a wood base an Aluminotype weighs just one half as much as an
+electrotype or stereotype of the same size mounted on wood. In a
+national advertising campaign where a general list of newspapers is
+used Aluminotypes, by reason of their light weight, effect a marked
+saving in parcel-post or express charges. This saving in postage is
+especially noticeable in the case of foreign country newspaper
+campaigns.
+
+In addition, because of their toughness, a saving can be made in
+packing Aluminotypes, inasmuch as they do not require the expensive
+precautions in packing to avoid injury in transportation that
+electrotypes or stereotypes do. They will not bend; their printing
+face cannot be injured by the ordinary mishaps attendant upon handling
+in transportation. For all practical purposes it can be said that
+Aluminotypes are indestructible.
+
+
+MATRICES
+
+The ordinary practice followed in making mats is to use an electrotype
+or stereotype pattern plate made from the original form. Sometimes the
+original itself is used.
+
+The first mat molded from an electrotype pattern plate will be sharp.
+The next one molded will be a little less sharp than the first. The
+third one molded will be slightly less sharp than the second one. In
+other words, with every succeeding mold, the electrotype or stereotype
+pattern plate is mashed a little by the pressure of the matrix press
+until it has to be discarded and a new one used.
+
+The five-thousandth mat made by the Rapid Electrotype Company from the
+same pattern plate is as sharp as the first one molded. This is
+because an _aluminotype_ pattern is used from which to mold.
+_Aluminotypes_ will not mash under the pressure of the matrix press,
+as they are much harder than electrotypes.
+
+
+THE SHIPPING DEPARTMENT
+
+The shipping department of The Rapid Electrotype Company is one of the
+most important and highly systematized in the entire organization, and
+in the manner of handling orders for distribution to newspapers in
+large campaigns or in making bulk shipment direct to the advertisers
+is unique.
+
+It is in this department that the packing and routing of advertising
+plates to newspapers or dealers is done. A system of triple checking
+each item of all orders precludes, as far as is humanly possible, any
+error in filling accurately all specifications.
+
+
+
+
+    _This brochure was compiled by H. C. Forster of
+     The Rapid Electrotype Co._
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS; A.D.
+1440-A.D. 1921***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 33497.txt or 33497.zip *******
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 19:59:39 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 19:59:39 -0700
commit	2195aa084a195f1d5096670a3bc5af447bf80c8d (patch)
tree	3f132134fa3d2437896540716d77b3e7f9b114b1